View of the "Venetian port" of Chania.
|• Mayor||Panagiotis Simandirakis|
|• Municipality||351.3 km2 (135.6 sq mi)|
|Elevation||20 m (70 ft)|
|• Municipality density||310/km2 (800/sq mi)|
|Time zone||UTC+2 (EET)|
|• Summer (DST)||UTC+3 (EEST)|
Chania (Greek : Χανιά [xaˈɲa] ( listen ); Venetian : La Canea) is a city in Greece and the capital of the Chania regional unit. It lies along the north west coast of the island Crete, about 70 km (43 mi) west of Rethymno and 145 km (90 mi) west of Heraklion.
The municipality has 108,642 inhabitants (2011). This consists of the city of Chania and several nearby areas, including Kounoupidiana (pop. 8,620), Mournies (pop. 7,614), Souda (pop. 6,418), Nerokouros (pop. 5,531), Daratsos (pop. 4,732), Perivolia (pop. 3,986), Galatas (pop. 3,166) and Aroni (pop. 3,003).
Chania is the site of the Minoan settlement the Greeks called Kydonia, the source of the word quince. It appears on Linear B as ku-do-ni-ja. [ citation needed ]Some notable archaeological evidence for the existence of this Minoan city below some parts of today's Chania was found by excavations in the district of Kasteli in the Old Town. This area appears to have been inhabited since the Neolithic era. The city reemerged after the end of the Minoan period as an important city-state in Classical Greece, one whose domain extended from Chania Bay to the feet of the White Mountains. The first major wave of settlers from mainland Greece was by the Dorian Greeks who came around 1100 BC. Kydonia was constantly at war with other Cretan city-states such as Aptera, Phalasarna and Polyrrinia and was important enough for the Kydonians to be mentioned in Homer's Odyssey (xix.200). In 69 BC, the Roman consul Caecilius Metellus defeated the Cretans and conquered Kydonia to which he granted the privileges of an independent city-state. Kydonia reserved the right to mint its own coins until the 3rd century AD.
The early Christian period under Byzantine rule (First Byzantine Period, 395–824 AD) and the rule of the Arabs, who called the settlement Al Hanim ("the Inn"), are not well documented. Under the Arabs, the Christian population was persecuted and moved to the mountains. The Byzantine Empire retook the city in 961 AD (Second Byzantine Period, until 1204 AD). In this period the Arabic name of the city was changed into Greek Chania. Byzantines began to strongly fortify the city in order to prevent another Arab invasion, using materials from the ancient buildings of the area. By this time Chania was the seat of a bishopric, which would be known under Venetian rule as Roman Catholic Diocese of La Canea and later become the Latin titular see of Cydonia.
After the Fourth Crusade (1204) and the fall of Byzantium in the Hellenic area, Crete was given to Bonifacio, Marquess of Montferrat. He in turn chose to sell it to the Venetians for 100 silver marks. In 1252 the Venetians managed to subdue the Cretans but in 1263, their rivals of Genoa, with local support, seized the city under the leadership of Enrico Pescatore, count of Malta, and held it until 1285, when the Venetians returned. Chania was chosen as the seat of the Rector (Administrator General) of the region and flourished as a significant commercial centre of a fertile agricultural region.
The Venetian rule was initially strict and oppressive but slowly the relations between the two parts improved. Contact with Venice led to close intertwining of Cretan and Venetian cultures, without, however, the Cretans losing their Greek Orthodox nature. The city's name became La Canea and its fortifications were strengthened, giving Chania the form that it still has today. On the other hand, after the fall of Constantinople in 1453, many priests, monks and artists took refuge in Crete and reinforced the Byzantine religion and culture on the island. The city of Chania during the period that followed was a blend of Byzantine, Venetian, and Classical Greek cultural elements. Many of the important buildings of the town were built during this era and the intellectual activities (written word, music, education) were also promoted.
During the opening months of the Cretan War (1645–1669) the city's walls did not prevent an Ottoman army from capturing it from the Venetians after a two-month siege. Many Cretans fled to escape persecution, many others were slaughtered or converted to Islam, while numerous Turkish Muslim settlers arrived changing the ethnic mix of the city.
Muslims resided mainly in the eastern quarters, Kastelli and Splantzia, where they converted the Dominican church of St Nicholas into the central Sovereign's Mosque (Turkish: Hünkar Camısı).They also built new mosques such as the Küçük Hasan Pasha Mosque or Yali Mosque on the harbour. Public baths (hamam), and fountains were a feature of the Ottoman city. The pasha of Crete resided in Chania.
The city remained under Ottoman control despite fighting during the Greek War of Independence (1821-29), the Cretan Revolt (1866–1869) and the Cretan Revolt (1878). Due to the island's mixture of Muslim and Christian residents, Crete was the subject of international debate between the European great powers, most notably at the Treaty of Berlin (1878) which resulted in the Pact of Halepa. During the 19th and early 20th century inter-ethnic violence on Crete eventually led to the mass migration of the island's local Muslim population to other Mediterranean islands or coastal cities. Mass conversions also occurred. The population exchange between Greece and Turkey in 1922 resulted in the deportation of the island's last Muslim residents.
In 1898, during the final moves towards independence and enosis —union with Greece—the Great Powers made Chania the capital of the semi-autonomous Cretan State ("Kritiki Politeia"), with Prince George of Greece, the High Commissioner of Crete living here. During these years Crete issued its own stamps and money. This was a very important transitional period when, no longer an isolated vilayet of the Ottoman Empire, the city became more cosmopolitan and flourishing, regaining its role as the crossroad of civilizations, influenced by Europe as well as by the East. Many important buildings were built during this era, intellectual and artistic societies were created and a new class of local aristocracy brought a different atmosphere to the everyday life of the town. The district of Halepa has many fine neoclassical embassies and consulates dating from this period.
However the main goal was enosis with Greece, which came after Eleftherios Venizelos's constant opposition to Prince George's rule over Crete. The series of conflicts includes the Therisos revolt in 1905, which overthrew Prince George and brought Alexandros Zaimis to rule Crete. Finally, in 1908, Venizelos managed to establish a revolutionary government, recognized by the Great Powers. His later election as the prime minister of Greece (1910) eventually led to Crete's union with Greece on 1 December 1913, following the Balkan Wars. The Greek flag was raised for the first time at Fort Firka in the Old Harbour in the presence of Venizelos and King Constantine.
Due to the popularity of Venizelos, Chania as with most of Crete remained staunchly pro-Venizelist, pro-Liberal and later pro Republican in the National Schism and the interwar period. The only attempt to overthrow the monarchist Metaxas Regime occurred in the city with the failed 28 July 1938 uprising.
Another important period for the city of Chania was the invasion and occupation by German forces during World War II. The British force that faced the German paratroopers during the Battle Of Crete in 1941, had artillery elements over the hill of Dexameni in the south of the city. These elements bombarded the German forces in the Maleme airfield undetected, until they ran out of ammunition. George II of Greece stayed in a villa near the village of Perivolia outside Chania before escaping to Egypt. Part of the city was bombed and a significant proportion of the area's population was either executed or imprisoned due to participation in the resistance against the German rule. The Jewish community of Chania was also eliminated during the German occupation. Most of them were transported off the island by the Nazi occupiers in 1944. Tragically, a British torpedo sank the ship Tanais, which was carrying most of the Jewish prisoners.
The city of Chania slowly regained its normal pace of development during the 1950s, trying to overcome the difficulties that the war had left in its aftermath. During the 1970s, Crete became a major tourist destination for Greek and international tourists, something that gave a significant boost to the city's economy and affected the everyday life and the overall culture of the locals. The capital of Crete was moved to Heraklion in 1971.
Since the 1990s the city of Chania has entered a new era, mainly due to construction and infrastructure such as a new airport, port and educational facilities, and it is considered a prominent tourist resort in the Mediterranean Sea.
The city of Chania lies around 40 km (25 mi) from the west end of Crete. By road, the distance is approximately 52 km (32 mi).
The city of Chania can be divided into two parts: the old town and the modern city which is the larger one. The old town is situated next to the old harbour and is the matrix around which the whole urban area was developed. It used to be surrounded by the old Venetian fortifications that started to be built in 1538. [ citation needed ] Of them, only the eastern and western parts have survived. From the south, the old town is continuous with the new, and from the north the physical border is the sea. The centre of the modern city is the area extending next to the old town and especially towards the south.
The borders of the Old Town are the partly destroyed old Venetian wall (and bulwarks) and this has been the cradle of all the civilizations which were developed in the area. The central part of the old town is named Kasteli and has been inhabited since Neolithic times (ancient Kydonia). It is located on a small hill right next to the seafront and has always been the ideal place for a settlement due to its secure position, its location next to the harbour and its proximity to the fertile valley in the south. Nowadays it is a bit more quiet than the neighbouring areas of the west part of the district. The Splantzia quarter (next to the east part of Kasteli) is also largely untouched.
The main square of the Old Town (next to the west end of Kasteli) is Eleftherios Venizelos Square, also known as Syntrivani (from Turkish şadırvan 'fountain'). It is the heart of the touristic activities in the area. Next to this (on the west side) lies the Topanas district, which was the Christian quarter during the Ottoman period. Its name comes from the Venetian ammunition warehouse (Turkish tophane), which was located there. The Jewish quarter (Evraiki or Ovraiki) was located at the north-west of the Old Town, behind the harbour and within the borders of Topanas. The Topanas area has many narrow alleys and old buildings, some of which have been restored as hotels, restaurants, shops and bars. This makes it a popular place especially during the warm period (April–October). In the winter, it still remains a centre of activities (especially for nightlife).
Finally, a very distinctive area of the Old Town is the harbour itself and generally the seafront. Akti Tompazi, Akti Kountouriotou and Akti Enoseos (marina) all feature several historical buildings and nightlife. The main street that combines the modern town with the old town is Halidon Street.
The modern part of Chania is where most locals live and work. It is less traditional than the old town, but there are still areas of some historical interest.
The oldest district (early 18th century) of the modern city is Nea Hora (meaning "New Town") which is located beyond the west end of the old town. It is a developing area with narrow old lanes leading to a small fishing harbour.
The district of Koum Kapi (the Venetians had first named it "Sabbionara", which means "the Gate of the Sand", the same as "Koum Kapi") situated beyond the walls at the eastern part of the old town, was also one of the first places to be inhabited outside the fortification walls. Initially, it was home for the "Halikoutes", a group of Bedouins from North Africa who had settled there in the last years of Ottoman rule.Nowadays it is a developing area with many cafes, bars and restaurants on its beach.
In the same era the district of Halepa began to grow to the east of the city and used to be home for the local aristocracy. Some of the historical buildings of the area (including old embassies of foreign countries) had been destroyed or abandoned during the later decades of the 20th century, and it was only recently when some interest was shown for the restoration of the remaining ones.
Other historical buildings in the area include Eleftherios Venizelos’s House (built 1876-1880), the old French school (now property of the Technical University of Crete, housing the Department of Architecture), the Church of Agia Magdalini (built 1901-1903), The “Palace” (built 1882, house of Prince George during the period of the Cretan independence) and The Church of Evangelistria (built 1908–1923). Part of the marine area of Halepa is called Tabakaria, where a unique architectural complex of old leather processing houses is situated.
Apart from the previously mentioned older districts of the modern part of the town, several new residential areas have been developed during the 20th century, like Agios Ioannis, Koumbes, Lentariana, Pachiana and Pasakaki. Sections of the city centre are dominated by colourless medium-height block buildings, typical of the urbanization period of Greece (1950–1970). However, there are still some neoclassical houses, especially in the eastern part of Chania. There are some parks and several sports grounds, the most important being the Venizeleio Stadium of Chania and the Swimming Pool at Nea Hora. The 1913 indoor market ("Agora"), is on the edge of the old town and is popular with tourists and locals alike. Some other important sites of the newer urban area are The Court House ("Dikastiria", built late in the 19th century), the Public Gardens ("Kipos", created in 1870), the Garden Clock-Tower ("Roloi", built in 1924–1927), the Episcopal Residence (Bishop's residence, "Despotiko", built in the early 19th century) and the House of Manousos Koundouros (built in 1909), the Cultural Centre ("Pnevmatiko Kentro"). The central largest squares in Chania are the Market Square ("Agora"), the Court House Square ("Dikastiria") and the "1866 Square".
Since the 1990s there has been a profound movement of Chania residents towards the suburbs, as well as towards areas around the city which used to be rural, mainly around Kounoupidiana in the Akrotiri Peninsula.
|Climate chart (explanation)|
The city has a subtropical Mediterranean climate (Köppen: Csa), with sunny dry summers and very mild rainy winters. During the period between April and October, clear-sky weather is almost an everyday feature. The atmosphere is always warm, but fierce heat waves (temperatures above 38 °C) are not very common, since the prevailing Etesian winds ("Meltemia") blow from northern directions and pleasantly moderate the conditions. Intervals of sunny days are frequent during the windy and rainy winter as well. Snow and frost are rare near the coast, with very few exceptions, like the snowstorm on 13 February 2004, when 25–75 cm (9.8–29.5 in) of snow accumulated in the urban area, causing general chaos. The last significant snowstorm happened on 8 January 2017 when the whole city and the old harbour was blanketed by snow. However, such cold days can be followed by much warmer and sunny weather. Minor early heat waves can occur in March or April, during a Saharan dust event, whose main feature is the strong and hot katabatic wind from the south, which is a type of Sirokos (σιρόκος) and is called "Livas" (i.e. the wind from Libya) by the Greeks.
The adjacent chart is based on data recorded during 1958–1997. The absolute maximum temperature recorded during this period was 42.5 °C (109 °F), while the absolute minimum recorded was 0 °C (32 °F).
However, the record minimum was broken on 13 February 2004 when the temperature dropped to −1 °C (30 °F) and the record maximum was broken on 1 July 2021 when the temperature passed 44 °C (112 °F).
The climate in Chania is further complemented due to the terrain and can vary throughout its regions and elevations and according to its topography. At the south lies the mountain range of Lefka Ori. Furthermore, prevailing winds, such as those of the West side and South of Crete, in addition to the North side—all interact to form its climate.
|Climate data for Chania Airport 1977–2002|
|Average high °C (°F)||14.0|
|Daily mean °C (°F)||10.8|
|Average low °C (°F)||8.1|
|Average rainfall mm (inches)||126.4|
|Average rainy days (≥ 0.1 mm)||17.0||14.7||12.0||7.8||3.9||1.4||0.2||0.6||2.6||9.8||10.8||15.8||96.6|
|Mean monthly sunshine hours||118.1||135.6||188.0||240.9||303.0||355.4||376.7||355.7||281.9||208.7||138.0||111.7||2,813.7|
|Source: Climate Atlas-Hellenic National Meteorological Service.|
The municipality of Chania was formed in the 2011 local government reform by the merger of the following seven former municipalities, that became municipal units:
The municipality has an area of 351.306 km2 (135.640 sq mi), the municipal unit 12.564 km2 (4.851 sq mi). The municipality forms the eastern shore of Chania Bay (Kolpos Chanion Κόλπος Χανίων) and is bordered by Platanias (6) to the west, Sfakia (7) to the south and Apokoronas (2) to the east.
There are several museums, art galleries, theatre and music groups, educational and research institutions within the city.
The most important museums in Chania are:
Several theatre groups are active in Chania with the most important being the Municipal and Regional Theatre of Crete (DI.PE.THE.K).The repertoire includes old and contemporary plays from Greek and foreign writers. The Venizelian Conservatory of Music ("Odeion", established 1931) is also one of the most important cultural societies in Crete. A recent attempt from the municipality to create a chamber music group named "Sinfonietta" has been successful and its performances throughout the year have enriched the cultural event calendar of the city. There is also a significant community of people who focus on alternative/indie music as well as jazz and bands performing modern musical styles. A number of traditional [Cretan] musicians are also active in town.
There are five cinemas (two of them open-air), concentrating both in commercial and independent movies and occasionally organizing small festivals.
There are numerous cafes, restaurants and bars throughout the Old Town and especially around the old Venetian harbour, at Enetiki Tafros (Venetian moat) and at Splantzia square, but also along the waterfront of the Koum Kapi and Nea Hora neighbourhoods. In summer, the bars and restaurants at Platanias and Agia Marina are also busy.
During the summer period a variety of cultural events take place on a daily basis. Theatrical plays, concerts and several exhibitions from Greek and foreign artists are organized either by the municipality or by individuals. A venue which hosts many of these events is a theater located in the east bulwark of the Old Town ("Anatoliki Tafros"). Also, several festivals, conferences and sport events take place in Chania, especially between May and September. The Venizeleia athletics competition is one of the most noteworthy events of the year. [ citation needed ]
A major role in the city's cultural life is played by the Municipal Cultural Corporation of Chania (DI.P.E.X.)which organizes a significant part of the events taking place throughout the year.
There is a French, a German, an Italian and a Swedish consulate in Chania.
Water sports are very popular in Chania. The local water polo team, Nautical Club of Chania, N.O.X. [ who? ] have also played extensively for the Greek national team, which has achieved major international successes.has managed to be a protagonist in the primary league of the Greek national championship for years. Several athletes of this team
Football and basketball are also very popular in the town, however not as successful. The main football teams are PAE Chania (whose home ground is the Perivolia Municipal Stadium), and "Ionia". Platanias FC (based in the nearby town of Platanias) gained 36 points in the football championship in the 2013 Super League.
The main clubs for athletics are "Eleftherios Venizelos" and "Kydon". The "Antisfairisi" club is specialized in tennis, table tennis and also has a significant tradition in chess. Many of the above sports are being practiced in the Stadium of Chania, built in 1935 with the financial support of Elena Venizelou, then wife of Eleftherios Venizelos. [ citation needed ]
There is also an open swimming pool for water sports in Nea Chora. A new indoor one which has been built on the nearby Akrotiri Peninsula in 2006, but has not opened to the public yet because of the estimated operational costs. [ citation needed ] A modern indoor stadium for basketball, volleyball and more, called Chania Kladissos Indoor Hall, has also been built between 2002 and 2005 near Nea Chora (Kladisos area).
There is a very active climbing and hiking club (Greek Mountaineering Club of Chania, E.O.S. Chanion) organizing weekly excursions of varying difficulty on the mountains of Crete and several other longer term missions in mainland Greece and abroad.
Educational institutions located at the greater area of the city are:
Other research and intellectual institutes and societies in Chania are:
Primary and secondary schools are mainly public in Chania (as in all cities in Greece). However, there has been a slow development of some private high schools recently. Among the "Eniaia Lykeia" (Unified Upper Secondary Schools) of the town there is an autonomous Ecclesiastical Lyceum in Agios Mattheos.
Two main sources of wealth in Chania are agriculture and tourism. A big portion of the city's residents (not necessarily farmers) own from few to many decares of agricultural land where several plants are being cultivated, the most common ones being olive trees and citrus. Other important products include wine, avocados, dairy etc. Apart from the traditional ways of cultivation, some of the producers have concentrated on practicing new methods in order to promote organic food. [ citation needed ] The organization of the Agricultural August has been a recent attempt to promote local quality products including a series of activities organised by the Prefecture of Chania since 1999 has proved very successful.
On the other hand, starting from the early 1970s, tourism has developed rapidly. Nowadays the tertiary sector is becoming more and more important for the locals, since an increasing number of them are participating in the business. Agrotourism and ecotourism are forms of tourism which are significantly developing lately. [ citation needed ]
There is also some secondary industry with focus on the processing-packaging of agricultural products (some of them export oriented) or manufacture products that support the agricultural production. [ citation needed ]
An important centre of the economic activities in the town is the Chania Chamber of Commerce and Industry (E.B.E.X.).
The main hospital in the city is the General Hospital "Agios Georgios". Other health institutions include the Crete Naval Hospital, the branch of the National Centre for Emergency Medical Care (E.K.A.B.) and the Clinic of Chronic Disease. The Chania branch of the Organisation Against Drugs (Ο.ΚΑ.ΝΑ.) opened in 2003.
There is also a number of private clinics (e.g. Iasis and Central Clinic of Chania) as well as medical centres specialising in various areas within the city.
The city is served by Chania International Airport (IATA code: CHQ) 14 km from Chania on the Akrotiri Peninsula. The airport is named after Daskalogiannis, a Sfakiot hero who was skinned by the Ottomans in the 18th century.
There are several flights a day from Athens to Chania, with Aegean Airlines and Olympic Airlines. From April to early November, there are many direct charter flights to Chania from the United Kingdom, Germany, Scandinavia, the Netherlands and other European countries.
Souda, some 7 km (4.3 mi) from Chania, is the city's port, with daily ferries to Piraeus and a hosting a major Greek and NATO naval base.
Chania is twinned with:
Crete is the largest and most populous of the Greek islands, the 88th largest island in the world and the fifth largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, after Sicily, Sardinia, Cyprus, and Corsica. Crete rests approximately 160 km (99 mi) south of the Greek mainland. It has an area of 8,336 km2 (3,219 sq mi) and a coastline of 1,046 km (650 mi). It bounds the southern border of the Aegean Sea, with the Sea of Crete to the north and the Libyan Sea to the south.
Heraklion or Iraklion is the largest city and the administrative capital of the island of Crete and capital of Heraklion regional unit. It is the fourth largest city in Greece with a population of 211,370 according to the 2011 census. The population of the municipality was 173,993.
The history of Crete goes back to the 7th millennium BC, preceding the ancient Minoan civilization by more than four millennia. The palace based Minoan civilization was the first civilization in Europe.
Konstantinos Mitsotakis was a Greek politician who was Prime Minister of Greece from 1990 to 1993. He graduated in law and economics from the University of Athens. His son, Kyriakos Mitsotakis, was elected as the Prime Minister of Greece following the 2019 Greek legislative election.
Akrotiri is a peninsula and former municipality in the Chania regional unit, Crete, Greece. Since the 2011 local government reform it is part of the municipality Chania, of which it is a municipal unit. The municipal unit has an area of 112.644 km2 (43.492 sq mi). Its ancient name was Kiamon while the Byzantines called it Charaka. The largest town in the peninsula is Kounoupidiana. The beach at Stavros became famous because of the film Zorba the Greek.
Chania is one of the four regional units of Crete; it covers the westernmost quarter of the island. Its capital is the city of Chania. Chania borders only one other regional unit: that of Rethymno to the east. The western part of Crete is bounded to the north by the Cretan Sea, and to the west and south by the Mediterranean Sea. The regional unit also includes the southernmost island of Europe, Gavdos.
The Sfakians are the inhabitants of the region of Sfakia located in western Crete. The Sfakians hold themselves to be the direct descendants of the Dorians who came down to Crete around 1100 BC.
Kydonia or Cydonia was an ancient city-state on the northwest coast of the island of Crete. It is at the site of the modern-day Greek city of Chania. In legend Cydonia was founded by King Cydon (Κύδων), a son of Hermes or Apollo and of Akakallis, the daughter of King Minos. According to Pausanias he was son of king Tegeates.
Souda Bay is a bay and natural harbour near the town of Souda on the northwest coast of the Greek island of Crete. The bay is about 15 km long and only two to four km wide, and a deep natural harbour. It is formed between the Akrotiri peninsula and Cape Drapano, and runs west to east. The bay is overlooked on both sides by hills, with a relatively low and narrow isthmus in the west near Chania.
Nea Kydonia is a former municipality in the Chania regional unit, Crete, Greece. Since the 2011 local government reform it is part of the municipality Chania, of which it is a municipal unit. The municipal unit has an area of 21.457 km2 (8.285 sq mi). It is situated on the western outskirts of Chania. It saw fierce fighting during the Battle of Crete during World War II and there the main prisoner of war camp for Allied soldiers in Western Crete was in Galatas.
The Gulf of Chania is an embayment of the Sea of Crete in the northwestern region of the island of Crete in present-day Greece. One headland forming the Gulf of Chania is the promontory known as the Akrotiri Peninsula.
Elyrus or Elyros was a town of ancient Crete, which the Periplus of Pseudo-Scylax places between Cydonia and Lissus. It had a harbour, Syia (Συΐα), situated on the south coast of the island, 60 stadia west of Poecilassus. Pausanias states that the city existed in his time in the mountains of Crete. He adds that he had seen at Delphi the bronze goat which the Elyrians had dedicated, and which was represented in the act of giving suckle to Phylacis and Phylander, children of Apollo and the nymph Acacallis, whose love had been won by the youthful god at the house of Casmanor at Tarrha. It was the birthplace of Thaletas, who was considered as the inventor of the Cretic rhythm, the national paeans and songs, with many of the institutions of his country. Elyrus appears in Hierocles' list of Cretan cities, then reduced in number to twenty-one. The coins of this city have the type of a bee upon them.
The Cretan State was established in 1898, following the intervention by the Great Powers on the island of Crete. In 1897, the Cretan Revolt led the Ottoman Empire to declare war on Greece, which led United Kingdom, France, Italy and Russia to intervene on the grounds that the Ottoman Empire could no longer maintain control. It was the prelude to the island's final annexation to the Kingdom of Greece, which occurred de facto in 1908 and de jure in 1913 after the First Balkan War.
The Archaeological Museum of Chania is a museum that was located in the former Venetian Monastery of Saint Francis at Chalidon Street, Chania, Crete, Greece. It was established in 1962. In 2020 this location closed and the museum will be relocated to a new building in Halepa with reopening scheduled for June 2021.
The Fortezza is the citadel of the city of Rethymno in Crete, Greece. It was built by the Venetians in the 16th century, and was captured by the Ottomans in 1646. By the early 20th century, many houses were built within the citadel. These were demolished after World War II, leaving only a few historic buildings within the Fortezza. Today, the citadel is in good condition and is open to the public.
The Realm or Kingdom of Candia or Duchy of Candia was the official name of Crete during the island's period as an overseas colony of the Republic of Venice, from the initial Venetian conquest in 1205–1212 to its fall to the Ottoman Empire during the Cretan War (1645–1669). The island was at the time and up to the early modern era commonly known as Candia after its capital, Candia or Chandax. In modern Greek historiography, the period is known as the Venetocracy.
Rethymno is a city in Greece on the island of Crete. It is the capital of Rethymno regional unit, and has a population of more than 30,000. It is a former Latin Catholic bishopric as Retimo(–Ario) and former Latin titular see.
The fortifications of Chania are a series of defensive walls and other fortifications which surround the city of Chania in Crete, Greece. The inner city walls were first built in antiquity, and were rebuilt by the Byzantine Empire. The outer walls were built in the 16th century by the Republic of Venice. Some of the fortifications were demolished in the 20th century, but parts of both the Byzantine and Venetian walls remain intact.
The Cretan revolt of 1878 was an insurrection of the Cretan people against the Ottoman occupation of the island. This insurrection is part of a larger movement for independence from the Ottoman Empire, which Crete was part of since the middle of the 17th century.
ABEA is a company that produces olive oil in their factories in Crete, Greece. It was founded in 1889 and today is the oldest olive oil processing plant in Greece. Their headquarters are based in the city of Chania. In the 2017 Cretan Olive Oil Competition, ABEA finished 5th in the "Honorable Mentions" list for the "Organic Olive Oil" award. Their shop, headquarters, and factories are all based within the Chania regional unit.
Cydonia is one of the five great cities of Minoan Crete, although exact location of the ancient city was not even resolved until the latter half of the 20th century. The most powerful centre of western Crete, Cydonia produced Bronze Age pottery and Linear B writings circa 1700 to 1500 BC, and was one of the first cities of Europe to mint coinage. A temple of Britomartis was erected on Mount Tityros near the city. HISTORY Cydonia was likely established as a Neolithic settlement in the fourth millennium BC. Archaeological excavations in the old town of present day Chania have revealed the remains of Middle Minoan Period Cydonia. These explorations are difficult, since the entire Venetian city of Chania was developed over Cydonia, with virtually no recorded medieval or modern mention of the ancient city specifics until the first finds in 1965. (Andreadaki,) Ancient mention of the civilization in Cydonia is also made by Polybius, Strabo, Scylax and by Hanno in the Periplus. (Smith, 1878) Pashley was able to work out rather accurately the location of ancient Cydonia without any archaeological data; he deduced the location near the port and Old Town from passages in the classical literature. (Pashley, 1837)
|Wikimedia Commons has media related to Chania .|
|Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Chania .|
|Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Canea .|


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This pack includes SIX versions of the popular game, all focusing on each of the five different phonics skills that are taught in the first grade Treasures reading program, plus a BONUS unit 4 sight word game. Each of the phonics games sells individually for $1, so by buying the pack, you're saving $2! (And the sight word game isn't even available for sale, so you're really buying three, getting three free!)
Included in this pack are games that focus on:
-Long o words (o_e)
-Long u words (u_e)
-Long a words (ai, ay)
-Long e words (ee, ea, -e)
-Long e words (-y)
-Unit 4 sight words
Each game includes 24 cards.
Distribute cards to students. Some students may have more than one card.
Have the student who has the "I have the first card!" card begin by reading their card, "I have the first card! Who has __ ?" (Alternatively, the teacher can read the first card.) Students will have to determine the word that is listed on the top of their card. Whichever student has the corresponding card will read theirs, 'I have ___ , who has ___?" The student who has the answer then responds 'I have ___, who has ___?' The game continues until the last student reads their card, "I have the last card!"
This is a fun game that keeps everyone engaged! Just print the game on cardstock, laminate for durability, cut the cards apart, and play!
If you were able to use this product, I'd LOVE to get some feedback! Thanks so much!
Questions or comments? Shoot me an email!


This report details the results of a community monitoring study aimed at investigating the use and impacts of pesticides in affected communities in Asia, and observance of the International Code of Conduct on the Distribution and Use of Pesticides (the Code of Conduct). The monitoring took place in the context of increasing use of pesticides and associated impacts on farmers, agricultural workers and their communities in the Asian region. The approach used in this initiative was based on Community Pesticide Action Monitoring (CPAM) a participatory method that involves community members who undertake the research, and encourages organizing and action.
February 22, 2010
Download Here (PDF | 2,196Kb)


Behold: ribbons of shocked interstellar gas at the outer edge of an expanding stellar explosion that would have been clearly visible to our ancestors during the late Stone Age 20,000 years ago. To wit:
The featured image was recorded by the Hubble Space Telescope and is a closeup of the outer edge of a supernova remnant known as the Cygnus Loop or Veil Nebula. The filamentary shock front is moving toward the top of the frame at about 170 kilometres per second, while glowing in light emitted by atoms of excited hydrogen gas. The distances to stars thought to be interacting with the Cygnus Loop have recently been found by the Gaia mission to be about 2,400 light years distant. The whole Cygnus Loop spans six full Moons across the sky, corresponding to about 130 light years, and parts can be seen with a small telescope toward the constellation of the Swan (Cygnus).


Kids learn most effectively through play, so toys and games are essential for helping 7 year olds learn and develop life-long skills. Making time to play is vital for all young kids, as lessons learned at school are consolidated through play. Kids should also need playtime, so they get a chance to relax and unwind after a busy day. Then they will be ready to restart their learning and enjoy their next lesson.
Many different games and toys have an educational theme, providing parents with a variety of options when picking the perfect toy for their kid. Many popular toys have a general educational theme that can help kids develop critical daily skills, such as active thinking or learning problem-solving skills. However, there is also a vast range of toys that help kids learn about specific topics that are perfect for kids that need help understanding particular lessons. For example, many different counting games are ideal for developing math skills or language games that can help kids understand essential writing skills or improve their reading ability. These games are all fun to play, so help kids develop a love for each subject and a desire to learn. These educational games and toys are vital for encouraging kids to be motivated at school and strive to achieve good grades.
Importantly, playing with toys is essential for developing your kids’ interests and can be vital in helping kids discover what subjects they enjoy. These toys and games can help kids develop their knowledge in particular subject areas, and they can also help kids find their future careers, so they are an important part of every kid’s development. Many wonderful toys cover a range of subject areas including, space, science, and the natural world, and these fantastic toys will introduce kids to new subjects that they might not come across during school lessons.
There is a wide range of toys for kids that all have an educational theme, and we will take you through the best toys for all kids aged 7. This information will enable you to choose the perfect toy for your kid that you will be confident they will enjoy.
Considerations when Choosing Educational Toys for 7 Year Olds
Here are some FAQs which can help guide your search towards the perfect learning toy for your child.
Where to buy educational toys?
Educational games and toys are available from many different stores and online sites. However, online websites, such as Amazon, will often have a greater range of toys to choose from when compared to toy stores. If you are searching for a specific toy or game, then you may have more success looking at online sites.
How do educational toys help children?
All children benefit from playing with educational games and toys, as children learn best through play. Toys can are perfect for complimenting lessons that are taught at school. They also essential for encouraging the development of critical thinking skills, problem-solving skills, and even helping children focus their attention and develop their interests.
Are educational toys suitable for both boys and girls?
Yes, all toys are suitable for both boys and girls to enjoy. The toys that your child is interested in may be influenced by the subjects that they enjoy, so parents need to consider this when choosing toys for their children to play.
The Top 20 Educational Toys For 7 Year Olds
We will now present our picks of 20 of the best toys which can help kids aged 7 learn something new. You are sure to find something they will love here!
1. Think Fun Math Dice Junior
One of the top math games for 7 year olds is this great Think Fun Math Dice Junior game. The rules are simple to learn, so kids will be able to learn how to play this fun game quickly. Simply roll the 12 sided dice to find out the target number, then add and subtract the numbers on the five 6 sided dice to make the target number. The number of dice that is used to form the math equation is the number of steps that can be moved forward. The winner is the first player to reach the finish. Suitable for two or more players, this is one of the best children’s educational toys that are perfect for improving math skills.
2. IQ BUILDER Construction Toy
This IQ BUILDER Construction Toy is the perfect kit for kids to use to improve their science, technology, engineering, and mathematics skills. Kids will also find this fun building toy stimulating and exciting. There are 164 pieces included with this toy, with each piece have a bright color to give an attractive appeal to this toy kit. There are many wheels, connecting balls, connectors, and other shapes included in the kit, which are used to build these fantastic creations. Kids will love building various models from the three e-book instruction manuals included with this toy. This construction toy makes one of the best learning toys for boys and girls that is ideal for stimulating their interest in engineering.
3. Skillmatics Brain Games
Skillmatics Brain Games make the perfect activity for keeping kids occupied, and it is compact, so it is ideal for traveling. This toy consists of 12 exercises that can be wiped clean and reused, again and again, for long-lasting fun. Each activity will get kids thinking and using reasoning skills while they also improve their concentration. Kids will enjoy completing these fun tasks. There is even a lovely certificate included that can be award to kids once they have finished the activities. For more fun, there are other educational activities for kids in the Skillmatics range so that the collection can be expanded to for more educational fun. These Skillmatics Brain Games make popular learning games for 7 year olds.
4. Zingo Sight Words
There are many different learning toys for kids available to choose from, so when looking for the best reading game, Zingo Sight Words is the game for you. This fast-paced, fun matching game is suitable for two to six players, so it is ideal for sharing with friends. Kids will enjoy learning essential words while having plenty of fun-filled excitement. Who will be the first to match all of their words on their bingo-style card? The game comes with six double-sided cards, 72-word tiles, and a zinger, everything needed to be able to play this game straight away. This game is simple to play, and it is one of the best toys for 7 year old boys that are perfect for improving reading and language skills.
5. Little Kids First Big Book Of Why
This Little Kids First Big Book Of Why is a fun and informative book by Natural Geographic that is suitable for all curious young kids. The brightly colored book is appealing to all kids with its attractive pictures and easy to read pages that are full of fun facts. This excellent book will also help parents answer their kid’s many questions about the world, making this the perfect book to share as a family. Kids will be fascinated by the vast information that this book reveals, and they will be eager to collect the other books that are in this great Natural Geographic series. This book is a top choice when choosing popular toys for 7 year old girls and boys.
6. Solar System Planetarium
This Solar System Planetarium toy is perfect for all kids who have an interest in space, planets, and the solar system. While completing this activity, kids will learn interesting facts about the solar system, allowing them to develop an interest in science. This planetarium toy is the perfect toy for encouraging kids to learn while also having fun. Kids can build and assemble their solar system, and also enjoy painting each planet. There is even glow paint included, so their beautiful creations will glow at night. Full instructions are included, along with an exciting quiz for kids to complete. This toy is one of the best childrens educational toys that will inspire kids to develop their interest in science.
7. Electronics Exploration Kit
Inspire young scientists with this brilliant Electronics Exploration Kit, which is one of the most exciting toys for 7 year old boys. There are over 60 electronic components included in this kit, and they each snap together for easy use. There is no welding or fixing together of pieces required for this kit, making it suitable for young kids to enjoy. Kids will love that there are 305 exciting projects included with the kit, starting with simple circuits to design, and progressing through to more complex projects. Build a lie detector, AM radio, and much more with this fantastic electronics kit, all while learning important scientific facts. This electronics toy is the perfect kit for developing a kid’s interest in electronics making this one of the top childrens learning toys.
8. Sentence Building
Sentence building is one of the most exciting educational toys for 7 year olds that will help all kids develop their reading, grammar, and language skills. Kids will love using the sturdy word cards, pictures, and punctuation cards to make new sentences, as they begin to learn how to write sentences. There are 86 cards included in this excellent set, so there are endless sentences that can be formed from playing with this magnificent toy. Building sentences is a great way to encourage the development of essential writing skills, and by providing a supportive environment, kids are sure to reach their maximum potential. This Sentence Building game is the perfect toy to support all kids’ school work and teaching.
Kanoodle is one of the most exciting gifts for 7 year olds but even adults will love playing this challenging game. There are over 200 puzzles to complete, and with some levels being more straightforward than others, this is sure to be a game that will occupy all young kids for hours. The game comes with 12 puzzle pieces and a 48-page puzzle book, and is ready to be played as soon as the box is opened. This puzzle game is the perfect toy for encouraging problem-solving and critical thinking skills, making this the ultimate brain twister toy. Kanoodle is the ideal solo player game and makes one of the best learning toys for kids that is ideal for playing anywhere.
10. VIAHART Brain Flakes
VIAHART Brain Flakes is an excellent creative building toy that is full of color and fun. Kids will love building bright, colorful projects with these beautiful discs that slot together for simple building fun, meaning that no glue or mess is required. There are over 500 flake discs included in the set, so there is no limit to any kid’s imagination or creativity when playing with this fantastic toy. There is a simple to follow instruction manual that includes many inspirational projects for kids to complete; otherwise, kids can design their own fun builds. This Brain Flakes toy is one of the best learning toys for girls who love being creative, so it is ideal for inspiring young engineers.
11. Drawing Stencils Set
This fabulous Drawing Stencils Set comes with everything a kid could need to create beautiful works of art. There are over 300 stencil shapes to choose from, along with 10 colored pencils and 25 sheets of paper included in this brilliant set. Stencils are the perfect way for kids to gain their confidence when drawing, so it will inspire them to love art. There are 16 different themed stencils, including Christmas, domestic animals, dinosaurs, and much more. Kids will be able to create endless fun draws using this fantastic set. This Stencils Set makes one of the most exciting creative gifts for a 7 year old girl.
12. Lego Boost
Lego can always be relied on to produce inspiring learning toys for 7 year olds, and this Lego Boost robot building set is no exception. From this fabulous 847 piece set, kids can build five different exciting robots, while also learning about coding. Kids will love creating each incredible robot, including a guitar, cat, auto builder, and much more. This excellent Lego set introduces essential learning skills making this the perfect learning toy for all kids. Inspire kids to love coding, building, and programming, all through playing with this great Lego Boost set.
13. Manve Magnetic Tiles
All kids love building and creating toy models, so they are sure to enjoy playing with these fantastic Manve Magnetic Tiles. There are 40 brightly colored magnetic tiles included in this lovely set, with there being 20 squares and 20 triangles ready for kids to start building. Each piece has rounded edges, making them safe for small hands to use. Kids will enjoy creating different patterns and models with these great tiles. There is even an idea booklet included with the set to help kids get started with their building. These tiles make lovely toys for seven year old boys, as they will enjoy learning valuable skills while creating fantastic models.
14. Betheaces Magic Drawing Mat
This Betheaces Magic Drawing Mat is the perfect toy for all kids to use to practice their drawing and writing skills. This large space themed mat is ideal for sharing with friends and siblings, so it is the perfect toy for play dates. There are even cool stencils, and pattern markers included that will provide the ultimate drawing fun. This magic drawing mat is mess-free as kids use water to draw their pictures, and this also means that the drawing mat is reusable for long-lasting use. The pictures and writing will fade over 3 to 10 minutes, and then the drawing mat can be enjoyed all over again. This drawing mat is one of the best children’s learning toys.
15. Osmo Genius Starter Kit
There are several educational games for 7 year olds that will enhance their learning, but few have as wide a range of learning opportunities as this Osmo Genius Starter Kit. In addition to this fabulous set, a tablet is required to get started, but otherwise, the Osmo base, Tangram pieces, and word and number tiles are all included. Kids will love playing the hands-on, interactive games and will also enjoy the varied levels of play, from beginner through to expert. There are word and number games, creative drawing skills, problem-solving games, and design tasks to be completed. Kids will love the variety of learning that this interesting game offers.
16. Junie B. Jones Box Set
This Junie B. Jones Box Set of four books makes the perfect educational gifts for 7 year old girls and boys. This lovely collection of books is ideal for kids who are learning to read and want to develop their language skills. Every Junie. B story is captivating for young kids with an exciting storyline, making them a popular choice for the whole family to enjoy together. Kids will not want to put these lovely books down until they have finished them. These funny books make the ideal gift idea for all young kids that is certain to get kids interested in reading.
17. Shifu Interactive Globe
Kids can travel around the globe while sitting safely at home with this fantastic Shifu Interactive Globe. This globe is one of the most exciting toys for 7 year old girls and boys as it allows kids to be curious about the world and investigate faraway lands. To get maximum enjoyment from this interactive globe, then a tablet is required. Simply scan an area of interest to discover the wonders of the world and interesting facts about your chosen area. Discover about animals, monuments, cultures, and much more with over 400 wonders and over 1000 exciting facts. This toy uses augmented reality to enable kids to explore their love of traveling and Geography while being able to stay at home.
18. Paw Patrol Electronic Reader
This Paw Patrol Electronic Reader is one of the best gifts for 7 year old boys and girls that will encourage kids to love books and help them learn to read. This lovely reader comes with eight exciting Paw Patrol books that all fans will enjoy. Kids can choose their favorite title and read their chosen book along with the reader, which also has fun sound effects to accompany each story. Each book features popular Paw Patrol characters, so kids will want to read these books over and over again. This book reader is the perfect storybook set for every young paw patrol fan.
19. Coogam Tetris Puzzle
This Coogram Tetris Puzzle is a fun wooden brain game for kids that will encourage the development of problem-solving skills. The 40 brightly colored geometric pieces that can all fit together on the board or kids can create brightly colored pictures such as pyramids, robots, or flowers. This Tetris Puzzle is a lovely creative game that will allow kids time to relax and unwind after a busy day, and even adults will enjoy playing this game. This game is one of the most popular wooden educational toys for 7 year old boy and girls that will be loved by the whole family.
20. Learning Resources Money Bags
Learning about money and developing counting skills are essential life skills that all kids need to experience. This Learning Resources Money Bags game is perfect for teaching kids these skills while they play this fun and exciting game. Players travel across the board and count out the sum of money on each square that they reach. The winner is the player with the most money at the end of the game. However, to make the game more exciting, the spinner will state which coins players should not use when counting out the next amount of money. This Money Bags game is a fantastic game for helping kids improve their math skills and learn to count money. Kids will love playing this game as it is one of the most exciting toys for seven year old girls and boys.
Best Overall Buy
The Osmo Genius Start Kit is our best overall buy, as it is an excellent collection of games that covers a wide range of educational topics. The only additional equipment needed to enjoy this game is access to a tablet, as the base, tangram pieces, and word and number tiles are all included. While playing this brilliant game, kids can complete word and number activities, problem-solving tasks, and enjoy creative drawing and design activities, which all encourage the use of critical thinking skills. The activities range in their difficulty from beginner levels through to expert, ensuring long-lasting use of this game.
Best Budget Buy
Our best budget buy is the Sentence Building game, as it is the ideal game to play to encourage the development of essential language and reading skills. While playing this game, kids will learn how to put sentences together using the high-quality word cards, pictures, and punctuation cards included. There are 86 fabulous cards included with this fantastic game, so there are endless sentences for kids to enjoy creating.
More Toys and Gifts for 7 Year Olds


There are several sources of scrap metals and you might even have some at home. By understanding the value of these metals, it will be easier for them to be recycled. You can sell them and earn a lot of money.
Instead of throwing away your broken electronic devices, why don’t you remove the essential metallic components? They can still be reused. As long as the process is handled correctly, recycling and processing electronic scrap means the metal can be used again.
There are also a lot of useful parts present in automobiles. You can remove these parts and still maximise the true value of the vehicle. There are some companies that are willing to buy an entire car even if it is no longer working just because they want to recycle the parts. They will save more money if they recycle the parts instead of buying them. As long as these cars were manufactured not earlier than the 90s, they are still good for recycling.
There are a lot of other metals lying around your home that can be recycled. This includes aluminum, aluminum cans, copper, insulated wire, and brass, among others. You just need to find out which of them are more valuable so that recycling centres will be willing to pay a certain amount when sold to them. Other items like paint cans, sealed containers, vacuum cleaners and fuel tanks can also be used for recycling.
Collect them now
Scrap metals are sold by the ton. You will get money depending on how heavy the metals you are selling are. However, not all of them can be sold. The company will still check the value of the different metals before putting a final price tag on them.
The good thing is that there are online sites that are willing to buy scrap metals like Scrap Yard Dudley. The process is very easy. You just have to register, provide information about the scrap metals you are willing to sell, send them to the company and get paid. You don’t have to look for a local recycling centre just to dispose of these metals you are no longer using.
If everyone takes some time to look for valuable metals at home that can be sold, it will benefit them financially. On a bigger scale, recycling scrap metals will help save the environment. Creating new metals requires ore drilling and metal processing. This causes pollution and makes things even worse for the environment. Therefore, recycling scrap metals is not just about earning money. It is about helping make the environment better and the world a more comfortable place to live.


Coronary artery disease involves blockages in the blood vessels of the heart that result in low blood flow to the heart muscle. Low blood flow can lead to a type of chest pain called angina or, if severe enough, to heart attack. Treatment for coronary artery disease includes medicines and more invasive treatments, such as bypass surgery or percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI). With PCI, doctors insert small balloons or tunnels (stents) attached to flexible tubes (catheters) into the large blood vessels in the patient's groin and thread them up into the heart. The stent and catheter are passed through the blocked vessels, a process that opens up the vessels. Information from high-quality studies shows that compared with medications, PCI reduces angina symptoms, but it does not reduce a person's chances of having or dying of a heart attack. However, some patients and doctors mistakenly believe that PCI does more than just reduce symptoms.


SUBJECT: Estimate of Critical Mass
A new estimate of the critical and operating mass of the
based on the more recent version of the
In summary: It is recommended that the reactor core be made with inside
diameter 10 3/4", inside height 11" (1.08" clearance at top), to accommodate
900 grams of U-235 at a hydrogen ratio of 400 (anhydrous uranyl sulfate l0% by
weight) solution density [~=] 1.1 g/cm³.
The main differences between SUPO and our reactor are as follows:
|Spherical shape||Cylindrical shape|
|Cooling Coil length 60 ft.||Cooling Coil length 27 ft.|
|Nitrate solution||Sulfate solution (tentative)|
The number and dimensions of exposure tubes, control rod sheaths, etc., are
enough alike so that it is unprofitable to estimate differences due to them.
An analysis of the effects of changes listed above is given.
Shape. The critical volume (and mass) of a bare cylindrical reactor of given
hydrogen ratio is theoretically 1.14 times that of a bare spherical reactor. The
effect of a reflector is to reduce this discrepancy somewhat, so that this can be
considered as an upper limit.
Cooling Coil. In the conversion at
made of the worth of cooling coils that turned out to be quite accurate. The
addition of 157" (13.1') of cooling coil made an 80 gram increase in U-235
cooling lengths is 33 ft., giving a predicted 200 gram charge. This value may be
high because a linear extrapolation may be incorrect.
Solution. The critical mass for a nitrate solution is quoted to be 70 grams
higher than that for a sulfate solution at 14.7% U-235 concentration.
Estimate of Mass. Starting with the experimental critical mass of SUPO of 870
grams of U-235, the change to sulfate would bring it down to 800 grams. A change
in shape brings it to 1.14(800) = 915 grams, but the cooling coil difference
cuts it back to 215 - 200 = 715 grams for the critical mass. Adding 60 grams a for
the temperature coefficient and 15 grams for excess reactivity, gives a final
value of 790 grams for the operating mass.
In the design of the core provisions should be made for the possibility that
the effect of cooling length reduction is not as high as linear extrapolation
would predict, that the extra void at the top and the void between the bottom of the
solution and the graphite introduces loss of reactivity, and that nitrate may be
used instead of sulfate.
Since it is preferable to err in the direction or too large a container size,
requiring that the actual solution used be of lower concentration, it is
Estimate of Reactor Size. The volume of container will be the sum of the necessary
tubing voids and the solution itself.
By the applicable chemical relations, the solution volume is
|Cooling coils 27.1' of 5/16" O.D. pipe||408 cm³|
|Control rods 2 x 9.7" of 13/16" O.D. pipe||165 cm³|
|Reentrant tube 8" of 1 1/8" O.D. pipe||130 cm³|
|Thermocouple 6.1" of 3/16" O.D. pipe||3 cm³|
For a bare cylindrical reactor, the optimum height is 1.8475 times the radius,
so that the volume is
A space of approximately 1" between the solution and the inside of the top
of the container is proposed.
The recommended fixed dimensions of the core are--Inside Diameter 10 3/4",
Inside Height 11".
Volume of top space
|weight of steel in walls.||A=2([pi]R²) + 2[pi]RH|
|=2[[pi](5.375)²] + 2[pi](5.375)(5)|
|=2[[pi]][28.8 + 26.8]|
|=(6.28)(45.6) = 286 in²|
|V=(286)(1/16)=17.9 in³ = (17.9)(16.387) = 282 cm³|
|M=V[rho]=(28.2)(8.0)(assumed) = 2340 g = 2.34 kg|


Written by: David Buschart
According to Baptist historians there are, generally speaking, three views of the origins of the Baptist tradition.An older and marginal perspective, often referred to as the "successionist" view, claims that it is possible to trace an unbroken lineage of Baptist Christianity back to earliest Christianity, namely Jesus Christ himself, his apostles, and John the Baptist.A modified version of this view distinguishes between the Baptist tradition as an organized church-based phenomenon, originating in the 17th century, and Baptist beliefs or viewpoints, dating from the time of the New Testament apostles.A second perspective locates the origins of the Baptist tradition in its links to Anabaptist movements of the 16th century.
A third view, more recently proposed and widely held, emphasizes English Puritanism and Separatism as the primary contexts from which the Baptist tradition emerged.("Separatists," also known as "Dissenters," were Christians who chose to withdraw from and create alternative ecclesiastical structures to the state-authorized church, the Church of England.)This England-based view of the origins of the Baptist tradition is also informed by a recognition of the influence of 16th-century Protestant reform movements on the European Continent, both Magisterial (that is, Lutheran and Reformed) and Radical/Anabaptist (predominantly Mennonite).It is this Puritan-Separatist approach that is, with variations, most widely held today, and that informs the narrative of Baptist history presented here.
Beyond the matter of origins, questions related to the interpretation of the Baptist tradition tend to reflect various sub-traditions within the larger tradition, and thus tend to touch on matters of Baptist identity.Two examples of this are on-going discussions on the respective roles of two distinct theological traditions--Arminian and Calvinist--within the Baptist tradition, and the precise nature and function of extra-biblical resources for theology (including "denominations," confessional/doctrinal statements, and culture) in relationship to the supreme Baptist authority, the Bible.
1. What does the “successionist” view of the Baptist tradition center upon?
2. What does the Separatist view of Baptist history offer?
3. Why are questions of Baptist identity larger than lineage?


As the human toll rises, the pig industry is being quick to respond to the global impact of the swine flu originating in Mexico, in order to deter any lasting impact on the industry.
The National Pork Board is assuring consumers pork is, and will remain, safe to eat. "Swine influenza viruses are not spread by food. You cannot get swine influenza from eating pork or pork products. Eating properly-handled and cooked-pork products is safe," the Centers for Disease Control & Prevention states on its web site.
No contact with pigs
Although the virus is contagious, it spreads from humans to humans. CDC has found no evidence indicating any of the US illnesses resulted from contact with pigs — and no pigs have been found to be infected or sick with this particular virus in the US Meanwhile the World Animal Health body stated on Monday that the flu virus spreading around the world should not be called "swine flu" as it also contains avian and human components and no pig was found ill with the disease so far.
As a precaution the NPB is urging producers to enhance biosecurity plans on their farms. Swine influenza, or "swine flu", is a highly contagious acute respiratory disease of pigs, caused by one of several swine influenza A viruses, according to the World Health Organization.
Swine influenza subtypes
Swine influenza viruses are most commonly of the H1N1 subtype, but other subtypes are also circulating in pigs (e.g., H1N2, H3N1, H3N2). Although swine influenza viruses are normally species specific and only infect pigs, they do sometimes cross the species barrier to cause disease in humans, WHO relays. At present, it is unknown if this new strain causes any type of illness in swine.
Since it is unique, NPB said following good biosecurity practices would help producers to prevent introducing the new strain of swine influenza virus type H1N1 into US operations.
Report pig illness
Anyone witnessing or hearing employees report respiratory illness in pigs should immediately contact a swine veterinarian. If deemed necessary, a veterinarian may require samples be taken from animals to send to veterinary diagnostic laboratories. If animals present fever or go off feed, the veterinarian may take lung tissue samples and nasal swabs to send to a veterinary diagnostic laboratory.
Smithfield Foods has stated that it has found no clinical signs or symptoms of the presence of swine influenza in the company's swine herd or its employees at its joint ventures in Mexico. The company also noted that its joint ventures in Mexico routinely administer influenza virus vaccination to their swine herds and conduct monthly tests for the presence of swine influenza.
China bans pig imports
Outbreaks of the H1N1 virus which has killed 149 people in Mexico and spread to the United States, Canada and Spain, have prompted several countries to impose bans on pig meat imports.
China said on Monday it had banned imports of live pigs and pork products from Mexico and three U.S. states, following Russia's move on Sunday to place curbs on meat imports from North and Latin America.
"It is important to reaffirm that pork consumption is not blamed at all in the transmission of this disease," the head of the Paris-based OIE Bernard Vallat told Reuters in an interview.
Click here for Swine Flu Q&A's
• National Pork Board
• World animal health
• Centres for disease and control
• World Health organisation
• Smithfield Foods
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As a Muslim and the current custodian of the keys to the Church of the Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem, Adeeb Joudeh Al-Husseini considers the church his second home. He cherishes many pleasant childhood memories of experiences in this shrine as he was escorted by his father. Here, he also learned the true meaning of Muslim-Christian coexistence, which is deeply rooted in Palestinian history and culture.
The Church of the Holy Sepulcher was built in 333 AD by the Roman Emperor Constantine, seven years after his mother, Queen Helena, had marked the location of Golgotha during a visit to the Holy Land. The church is considered the oldest and holiest in Christianity. Tradition also has it that it was built on the rock where Jesus was crucified.
Even though he spent years struggling and fighting with the Crusaders, Muslim leader Saladin Al-Ayoubi believed in Christian-Muslim coexistence. He did not wish to make the Holy Land off-limits to Christian pilgrims, and in a display of tolerance he offered free passage to all genuine pilgrims. The wise leader also sought to follow the steps of Caliph Umar Ibn Al-Khattab in granting Christians protection for their churches so that they could live in peace. He ordered that the keys to the church be retained by the Joudeh Al-Husseini Al-Ghodayya family, the descendants of Prophet Muhammad (PBUH). At the time, this family was part of the Holy Land nobility, and its members commanded top positions in the city and its shrines, mainly Al-Aqsa Mosque. The idea behind handing the keys to Joudeh Al-Husseini was to protect the church from harm by reminding any successor who might think of destroying the church of the fact that the nobles of Jerusalem, highly influential Muslims, hold its keys.
Adeeb Joudeh Al-Husseini, the current custodian, is assiduous in opening the church daily at 4 a.m. and closing it at 8 p.m. In addition to being the custodian of the keys to this holy shrine, Adeeb Joudeh Al-Husseini is also the Seal Holder of the Holy Tomb. The family puts its seal on the Holy Wax before the Holy Fire emerges on Holy Saturday, which marks the beginning of the celebration of Easter. There are 165 Royal Decrees currently in the custody of the Joudeh Al-Husseini family, and they act as proof that the custody of the keys has been in this family for more than 800 years.


Alexander The Great And Aristotle
Alexander the Great was Aristotle’s disciple. They both shared a unique teacher and disciple relationship. Aristotle was from Stagira, and the school that Alexander studied in was at Mieza of Greece.
Alexander studied several things in that school, but he learnt about politics and morals from Aristotle. Even today, when you visit these places in Greece, you can see the place where Aristotle sat and taught Alexander. Much of the politics and facts about warfare were taught here.However, Aristotle did not teach Alexander how to fight. He gave him a lot of lessons in negotiating and he taught him several theories of politics and also people management. This clearly explains that even the greatest kings needed to know how to negotiate, handle an army and run the business of a country.
Using the morals received from Aristotle, Alexander conducted several of his daily routines. Alexander also learnt several rules of oral communication from the great master. While in that school, several of Aristotle’s disciples also taught him, but he mainly learnt the secrets from the great master himself.
Alexander, after returning to his kingdom, practiced the teachings of Aristotle within his family and on his family members. He always saw his father’s indifference towards him. Alexander’s mother played a very important role in shaping his career, and she always advised him to be the greatest. Even today, he is known as Alexander the Great, which is his title. He was considered great and invincible by several Greek soldiers for years to come.
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The gym at Pender Islands School was packed last Wednesday afternoon, as students, teachers, and community members checked out the latest innovations and offerings from a batch of young scientists.
Thirty-two judges from the community and 16 student judges evaluated the Pender Island Science Fair projects, which ranged from a papier-mâché volcano to a look at how to remove excess oil from soil using different kinds of fungus.
“Some of the students have been working on these projects since last summer, and some started yesterday,” said Pender science teacher Steve Dunsmuir. “We added a high school class this year, so they’re featured. And then the primary kids wanted to get involved too. It’s fun for the kids and the judges.”
Fifteen of the students will be attending the regional science fair in Victoria, and Dunsmuir hopes some would have the potential to reach the national stage. Last year, the school won 18 awards at regionals and was able to send Grade 8 student Lauren Ohnona to the national finals. This year, Dunsmuir would like to see a couple of students attend the national competition.
“These are the ones who are going to hopefully change things in the future.”
Science fair projects included a look at microplastics in earthworms, a study of how different kinds of mud can transmit electricity, and what kinds of recycled materials make the best disc golf discs.
“There’s one on carbon pollution where they’re trying to seed the ocean with carbon that has been captured from the atmosphere. They’re lowering the carbon in the atmosphere, but they’re also bringing up the carbon in the ocean so the coral reef won’t get eaten away. I think that’s pretty cool,” he said. “There’s another one on micro-remediation where they’re using fungus to remove oil from the soil. There’s a lot of them.”
This year, Dunsmuir wanted to get more of the community involved. The school invited 50 per cent more community judges this year than in the past. Projects were judged over three rounds by the designated judges. A fourth round of judging was held by the general public to help break ties.
The top three winning scientists from five divisions will advance to the regional finals in Victoria. Students were divided into age groups: primary, elementary, intermediate, junior and senior.
The regional finals will be held at the University of Victoria on April 7 and 8.


Serous bursitis of the elbow joint: diagnosis and treatment of disease
Elbow bursitis is an inflammatory process in the synovial pouch of the elbow joint. Serous bursitis of the elbow joint refers to a less dangerous type of the disease because of subcutaneous fluid synovial Bursa is not infected. But if the time does not begin to treat the disease, with the rapid development of pathological bacteria serous bursitis over time develops into a purulent type of manifestation.
The types of bursitis of the elbow joint
There are several types of classification of diseases groups of bursitis, depending on the characteristics that underlie the division.
Current patterns bursitis are:
- acute — characterized by sudden occurrence of severe pain;
- subacute — symptoms are less pronounced;
- chronic, which usually, accompanied by pain of lesser intensity but greater duration;
- recurrent bursitis differ periodic appearance of painful sensations that may occur, for example, before the weather changes.
The nature of the liquid that accumulates in the affected joint, disease share so:
- serous bursitis (fluid resembles serum);
- haemorrhagic (accompanied by signs of bleeding);
- purulent bursitis of the elbow joint (appear suppuration in the Bursa).
You can often see the symptoms of such a disease as post-traumatic bursitis of the elbow joint. This disease usually affects professional athletes, appearing most often after a serious injury. Due to damage to the synovium over time becomes infected with pathogenic bacteria.
In this case we are talking about the appearance of this type of disease, as expressed by infection of the elbow joint. For accurate and correct treatment it is obligatory to establish the names of the pathogen. Traumatic injury of the elbow joint, in which there is the appearance of characteristic damage to the skin, can over time develop into purulent form of development.
With proper therapy the pain should disappear sooner than 3 weeks, but healing of the injured area may be delayed up to 6 weeks.
Causes, diagnosis and possible complications
The inflammatory process in the synovial cavity of the elbow can be triggered by numerous factors of a negative nature, for example:
Sometimes, the bursitis of the elbow occurs without some apparent prerequisites.
Basically a specialist will diagnose bursitis of the elbow joint, based on clinical signs, patient questioning and palpation of the inflamed areas. For a more complete picture, your doctor may recommend a lumbar puncture to clarify the nature of the synovial fluid bags. To determine the causative agent of the disease is prescribed the cultures of the material and the elucidation of antibiotic resistance. For more in-depth diagnosis using x-ray examination, which helps to distinguish bursitis from arthritis, because these diseases have similar symptoms.
If to diagnose and begin treatment of bursitis, the prognosis is quite favorable. Bursitis of the elbow can be cured completely. But if you run the disease, the inevitable complications:
The symptoms of acute and chronic types of the disease
Acute serous or serous-hemorrhagic bursitis of the elbow is characterized by symptoms such as:
At the transition of the acute form of the disease in the chronic stage of its development there is a gradual abatement of the pain. They become less pronounced, however, the inflammatory process is much longer. With the growth of tissue around the joint, there is a permanent restriction of his motor functions.
Chronic bursitis of the elbow joint may develop without an antecedent acute stage of its development. When elbow injuries suppuration of the synovial Bursa can occur without the prior occurrence of symptoms and signs of a particular type of bursitis. In some cases, the appearance of such symptoms of intoxication, such as:
- high temperature.
Treatment: methods and ways of therapy
Bursitis of the elbow joint requires comprehensive treatment, including the ingestion of drugs and the application methods of local therapy of the affected areas. The treatment of the patient, usually on an outpatient basis. Purpose the treatment of aseptic disease gives the surgeon.
Acute serous bursitis requires fixation of an inflamed joint. Making a pressure bandage, you can prevent the symptoms of swelling tissue. Externally the joint can be treated with ointment Vishnevsky, betonolom or to apply a compress. Ointments and compresses significantly accelerate the regeneration of damaged tissues, relieve pain and inflammation of the joint. The main thing in this situation is to take timely measures to avoid serious complications.
Chronic bursitis of the elbow start to heal from the puncture of the synovial cavity, to withdraw accumulated in the joint fluid. The procedure consists of washing the bags antiseptic and antibacterial agents. Traumatic bursitis requires the introduction in the synovial cavity, in addition to antibiotics, hydrocortisone solution to prevent further infection of the tissues.
For the treatment of chronic serous inflammation is not enough puncture to remove fluid, because after removing the liquid generally fills the Bursa again. A more effective method is surgical removal of the synovial bags, using local anesthesia. However, it should be noted that the operation prescribed in extreme cases when the disease threatens the patient’s life.
Timely treatment of acute serous inflammation helps to avoid complications, preventing the conduct of complex operations.
Physical therapy and traditional medicine vs bursitis
Include in the complex therapy of the inflammatory process physiotherapy methods, can significantly accelerate the healing process of the patient. To date, inflammation of the elbow the most effective are the following physiotherapy treatments :
- dry heating;
- radiation therapy;
As a rehabilitation patient’s is used:
- a light relaxing massage;
- procedures of balneotherapy.
To slow down the development of inflammation in the elbow is possible with the help of traditional methods. However, this is only an additional measure of treatment. They in any case should not replace conventional therapy. The most effective are the following homemade recipes:
Uncomplicated bursitis of the elbow joint methods of folk medicine can be eliminated in two weeks. However, with the progression of inflammation should not self-medicate. In such situations, it is recommended to immediately consult a specialist.


Noctilucent Clouds Over Swindon
September 01, 2006
The photo above showing a fascinating display of noctilucent clouds was captured over Swindon, UK on July 14, 2006. These rapidly moving "nighttime" clouds are observed in twilight, typically at latitudes poleward of about 50 degrees. They form at altitudes of approximately 80 km (50 mi) above the Earth's surface, and they're believed to consist of ice covered particles, possibly meteoritic dust.
Photo details:1 second exposure at f/3.2, Canon Powershot, time of image was 10:41 p.m. (local time).


Welcome to Kindergarten with The Learning Partnership
In the year before starting school, parents/caregivers and their children are invited to attend a Welcome to Kindergarten family orientation at their neighbourhood school. At the orientation, families participate in activities, meet teachers and school staff and are given resources to prepare children for school and learning. Families are encouraged to continue to use the resources and activities in the months before their children start kindergarten and during the first few months in school.
Community and Faith Walks
Toronto is among the most diverse cities in the world and is home to people of every culture, language group and religion. To help our school-based staff understand their community better and be responsive and relevant in their teaching, we support community and faith walks. These walks provide our educators with tools and first-hand experiences in creating curriculum and learning environments that are culturally responsive and locally relevant.
Family Adventure Passport
This coupon book provides opportunities for students and their families to experience mainstream cultural and recreational activities throughout the city at a discounted rate.
Guide to Community Resources
We have put together a list of organizations and agencies to support students, families and communities. You will be able to find health and wellness, housing, education, financial and newcomer resources.
Parents Reaching Out Grants
Model Schools for Inner Cities collaborates with schools to identify potential project opportunities and to submit a proposal.
Parent Academy Committees and Parent Academy
Parents are important partners in education and the Academies are designed by parents for parents to provide support to the school community. Parents and schools both want to help our students succeed and by working together, we can be a powerful force for positive change. By being a part of your local Parent Academy, you can help determine which programs are best for your school community.


The idea of globalization has different meanings to different people. However, many people believe the idea rests on the integration of economic, political, and cultural systems across the globe. The process that drives globalization is based on a combination of economic, technological, sociocultural and political forces. This purpose of this article is to discuss the impact of globalization on language translation services and how it has gained increasing important and has created several critically important focuses that include medical translation, legal translation and standard professional translation.
By definition, globalization concerns the development of a single society but that is probably a huge exaggeration. Further, the pace at which internationalization takes place today is still limited by the same things that created limited when the term was first introduced. This includes it the trade sanctions, unfair trade deals, quotas, and wars. Similarly to good and services, people are also prevented from traveling past borders with approval and specific documentation that often includes notarized divorce decree translation, marriage certificate translation and birth certificate translation documentation.
But while the growth of internationalization may have encountered some obstacles, it has still made a tremendous impact in our lives over the past 20 years. For instance, in the field of law, the globalization refers to Legal Translation Services workers and attorneys begin their day early by translating and securing international patents, trademarks, copyrights, and contracts into dozens of different languages ranging from Chinese and Korean to Russian. The legal profession is not alone in the change that it has experienced from globalization. For instance, securities and exchange traders now follow global trends in trading throughout the day and invest in international markets. Even outside of our professional lives, we see the effects of globalization in multilingual broadcasts of sporting events like soccer championships. Each of these situations illustrate the dependence that the world has for accurate language translation services in globalization.
It’s important to point out too that while multinational-ism as a subject has only been discussed or the past twenty years in the United States, the concept has been a subject of discussion in Asia for more than 50-years. Just to prove how young the concept is, it is interesting to note that Word Perfect still believes that I must have made a mistake in my spelling. However, I have ignored their suggestion for correction and have instead written an article about how globalization is changing the world of translation workers. In America, the origins of the term can be traced back social scientists, economists and historians. Despite how old the definition of globalization turns out to be, its effects have created ripples in every segment of our lives, including medical care, where Medical Translation Services workers are common in hospitals and work to translate all sorts of medical reports.
Although concerns are still high about the impact that multinationalism will have on the economy, the vast majority of professional translation workers believe that they have benefited. Thomas Friedman, for example, an articulate popularized of the globalization idea, came up with the dramatic statement that no two countries that have McDonald’s restaurants have ever gone to war with each other –meaning that societies that successfully participate in global consumerism will become much more cautious about belligerence, because they will have other pleasures they seek to protect and a lot to lose.


Information Literacy through the Streets of Hollywood
Provides an overview of a credit-bearing information literacy course that utilizes documentary filmmaking as the vehicle to teach concepts like social constructs of information, how technology impacts the dissemination, creation, retrieval, and storage of information, utilization of technology for finding, managing, synthesizing, evaluating, and sharing information. The overview includes the following sections: Circumstances of the Instruction; Objectives of the Instruction; Components of the Instruction (Preparation, Presentation, Evaluation); Supplementary Materials (Syllabus sample, Homework assignment sample, Grading rubric sample); and Recommended Resources.
Sharkey, Jennifer. 2011. “Creating Documentary Shorts in a Credit-Bearing Information Literacy Course.” In Information Literacy through the Streets of Hollywood, 91–95. Active Learning Series 10. Pittsburgh, PA: Library Instruction Publications.


If you’re thinking about learning Adams, you should know that words you learn in your textbook are mostly The english language equivalents. The similarities between English and French language will make the process of learning new words less complicated. This is because each of the languages reveal many prevalent roots and have financial loan words from each other. Here are some beneficial tips for starters on how to pronounce French words and phrases correctly. To know French ideas faster, learn French phrase roots. Consequently, you can learn of talking French without difficulty!
When you speak French, you might more confident in talking to the locals and can feel more at ease when communicating with others. Seeing French films is a great approach to learn ways to communicate inside the language. It is also the to listen to French songs via the internet. The lyrics will allow you to expand your vocabulary. You can also learn People from france words with a publication, if you have one particular. But what for anyone who is unsure of exactly where to begin?
Once you’ve decided to learn French, you’ll be wanting to make that a priority. Make an effort to focus on the language’s important vocabulary just before tackling tougher concepts. Spend at least 15 minutes daily practicing that, and make sure you pay attention to whatever you hear. Minus time to study all the time, you can tempted to reduce motivation and get irritated. To learn This particular language fast and effectively, exploit free time if you are together. You can practice French ideas https://imfalle.net/2019/09/21/comment-apprendre-le-francais/ aloud or talk to yourself to boost pronunciation.


Edited by Professor Gary Sheffield and Air Commodore (ret’d) Dr Peter Gray, Changing War is an important contribution to our understanding of 1918 not just in terms of the end of the First World War but also concerning the character of warfare in the twentieth century. It also includes contribution from members of the Centre for War Studies at the University of Birmingham. It is broadly based on a 2008 conference held at the university on 1918.
In 1918, the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) played a critical role in defeating the German army and thus winning the First World War. This ‘Hundred Days’ campaign (August to November 1918) was the greatest series of land victories in British military history. 1918 also saw the creation of the Royal Air Force, the world’s first independent air service, from the Royal Flying Corps and the Royal Naval Air Service. Until recently, British histories of the First World War have tended to concentrate on the earlier battles of 1916 and 1917 and often underplayed this vitally important period.
Changing War fills this significant gap in our knowledge by providing in-depth examinations of key aspects of the operations of the British Army, the Royal Air Force and its antecedents in the climactic year of the First World War. Written by a group of established historians and emerging scholars it sheds light not only on 1918, but on the revolutionary changes in warfare that took place at that time.
Table of Contents
Introduction – Peter Gray, Ross Mahoney and Gary Sheffield
- Command Culture and Complexity: Third Army during the Hundred Days, August-November 1918 – Jonathan Boff
- ‘Delivering the Goods’. Operation Landovery Castle: A Logistical and Administrative Analysis of Canadian Corps Preparations for the Battle of Amiens 8-11 August, 1918 – Rob Thompson
- ‘After Amiens’: Technology and Tactics in the British Expeditionary Force During the Advance to Victory, August – November 1918 – Bryn Hammond
- The Last Battle of the B.E.F: The Crossing of the Sambre-Oise Canal, 4 November 1918 – Niall Barr
- War of Liberation: British Second Army and Coalition Warfare in Flanders in the Hundred Days – Dennis Williams
- Behind the Lines: Sir Douglas Haig and the Cavalry Corps, September-October 1918 – Simon M Justice
- The Air Ministry and the Formation of the Royal Air Force – Peter Gray
- The Smuts Report: Interpreting and Misinterpreting the Promise of Air Power – Christopher Luck
- The Genesis of Modern Warfare: The Contribution of Aviation Logistics – Peter Dye
- The Genesis of Modern Air Power: the RAF in 1918 – David Jordan
- The Battle of Amiens: Air-Ground Cooperation and its Implications for Imperial Policing – Simon Coningham
- The Battle of Amiens and the Development of British Air Land Battle, 1918-1945 – Alistair McCluskey
Gary Sheffield and Peter Gray (eds.), Changing War The British Army, the Hundred Days Campaign and The Birth of the Royal Air Force, 1918 (London: Bloomsbury Academic, 2013)


The Pennacook Indians dwelled in the area we now refer to as New England. They could be found in the Merrimack river valley, encompassing the lower 2/3 of New Hampshire, southern Maine, and northeastern Massachusetts.
As many as 12,000 Pennacook lived in this area prior to European migration; by 1647, more than 90% of these had succumbed to disease. They spoke Algonquin, officially, but their language (and most of their culture) was closer to western Abenaki than to the traditional Algonquin common in southern New England.
The word Pennacook derives from an Abenaki term meaning "at the bottom of the hill."
The Pennacook are often identified so closely with the Abenaki that they are sometimes classified as the southernmost group of that tribe. In 1620, however, the Pennacook were seen as an independent confederacy, and indeed apparently viewed the Abenaki as enemies. By the turn of the 18'th century, the encroachment of and subsequent wars with European colonists in Massachusetts drove the Pennacook and Abenaki together.
Disease and war, as they did most indian nations of the northeast, plagued the Pennacook in the late 1500's-early 1600's. Typhus and other, unknown diseases struck them as contact with Europeans grew, and the ongoing conflicts between the neighboring nations of Penobscot and Micmac spilled over into Pennacook lands, bringing significant losses of people and property.
Despite the prevalence of European borne diseases, the early interactions between the Pennacook and Colonists were evidently largely friendly. But the Powhatan-led near destruction of Jamestown in Virginia had eroded the English trust of the natives, and relations between the two groups became increasingly tenuous.
The introduction of firearms into the Pennacook culture drove another wedge into an already widening gulf, and Colonist paranoia drove the English to capture the leaders of the tribe. The son of the chief was among these taken, and his release was granted only after a treaty of Pennacook submission to the Massachusetts colonists was signed.
Meanwhile, the balance of power in North America was shifting, as the Iroquois in the Great Lakes region overcame the Huron. This convinced the French to form a new alliance with the Algonquin in New England, and a more precarious one with the Pennacook. But English refusal to help the French fight the Iroquois Mohawk eventually led to a strengthening by the Mohawk, and the Pennacook and a few other tribes now faced them without a broad power base.
Due to the large amount of land given to the Massachusetts colonists, the Pennacook were in a particularly vulnerable position in these battles, and were obliged to petition the Massachusetts legislature to give them back some land. As the Mohawk continued to overrun the remaining tribes aligned against them, the Pennacook absorbed some of the defeated nations. But were themselves hard-put to repel the Iroquois onslaught, as they had signed a treaty and trade agreement with the English, allowing the Mohawk to devote more resources to their battles.
This agreement evolved into a formal military alliance when French reinforcements hurt the Iroquois. By the mid 1660's, the Pennacook had been betrayed by the English, who had switched sides, as far as the natives were concerned. Even the French had agreed to a general peace with the Iroquois by 1667. With this newfound power base, the Mohawk were able to drive the Pennacook across New Hampshire and into southern Maine.
By this time the once-captured-and-now-released son of the Pennacook chief had succeeded his father, but not before converting to Christianity. This change in spirituality may have been a factor in Wanalancet's drive to keep his nation neutral in King Philip's war, a drive which, remarkably, worked.
In an effort to preserve the neutrality of his people, Wanalancet sent a portion of them north, as far away as Lake Huron. He and most of the remainder of his people followed, and returned south only at the end of the war. Unfortunately the English were not even close to being ready to sign peace accords with any Indian tribe; even after King Philip had been raised in effigy, their continuing hatred and distrust of the natives served to continue the war on another front. As the Pennacook accepted refugees from neighboring tribes, the English were outraged, and renewed their attacks on them. These attacks, soon assisted by the Iroquois, drove Wanalancet and his people into fleeing again, this time to Canada, and ultimately to the Abenaki.
These retreats, the ongoing war between the English and the Abenaki, and Wanalancet's death served to splinter the Pennacook into villages along the upper Merrimack, Lake Champlain, and St. Francois, in Canada. This splintering and forced abandonment turned the Pennacook decidedly anti-English, and they became staunch French allies.By the advent of King William's war in the 1690's the Pennacook were sending war parties to defend Quebec.
Some Pennacook groups along the Merrimack tried hard to remain neutral, but they too either joined with the French or withdrew further. After his family was taken hostage, a new leader of Pennacook war raids finally made peace with the English, though battles between the Abenaki and the colonists continued until 1699.
This conflict, the Pennacook were mightily opposed to neutrality. Queen Anne's War loomed on the horizon, and some Abenaki joined with the still seething Pennacook. The English and the French both tried to lure this group to their respective sides, but the french won.
By the end of this war, the Pennacook were widely considered to be largely absorbed into the Abenaki, but this is not entirely accurate. More likely, they survived in small villages along the upper Merrimack, and almost certainly preserved their identities in these new tribes. It is even said that the members of the last extant group of Pennacook saved some colonists from starving one harsh winter.