The definition of Forensics and Criminology
Forensic Science: Forensic science or Forensics is a branch of scientific investigation that employs various investigative and scientific techniques to gather physical proof to produce objective evidence suitable for legal proceedings. Utilizing knowledge gained in fields like chemistry, biology, and physics; experts analyze and interpret crime scene evidence using scientifically valid testimony and scientifically sound proof to find answers about whodunit, identify criminals and help with investigations.
Providing expert testimony that provides expert testimony as scientific proof; its main goals include finding the truth, identifying criminals as well as aiding criminal investigations through expert testimony provided scientifically valid proof; its main goal being the discovery of truth, identification of criminals as well as assistance with criminal investigations by criminal investigators alike.
Criminology: Criminology is the Scientific study of criminals and crime. This field encompasses both social and psychological influences which may contribute to criminal acts as well as their causes, patterns, and effects on society. Criminologists research various aspects of crime such as its origins, prevalence, distribution impact on communities or individuals as well as reasons people commit crimes through factors like social structures economic conditions psychological traits.
Criminologists evaluate crime-prevention strategies, functioning criminal justice systems as well as policy interventions programs intended to mitigate criminal activities.
Importance of studying Forensics and Criminology
Law enforcement professionals play an essential role in criminal justice systems and in understanding crime’s effects on society. Here are a few reasons important:
- Solving Crimes: Forensics plays an essential role in solving crimes by analyzing physical evidence at crime scenes and linking suspects with crimes committed there, providing objective proof in court proceedings, and increasing the likelihood of conviction while decreasing the risk of wrongful convictions. Accurate analysis conducted by experts increases conviction rates while simultaneously decreasing wrongful convictions.
- Ensuring Justice: To promote justice, forensics provides impartial and reliable evidence. Its use in establishing truths, correlating witness testimony, and resolving disputes make forensics essential to justice-seeking efforts. Using scientific methods and techniques in its practice ensures objectivity and fairness during court proceedings.
- Crime Prevention: Criminology’s primary focus is understanding the causes, patterns, and trends in criminality; with this knowledge comes an ability to develop effective preventive strategies against it. Criminologists provide invaluable insight into preventive policies and measures by studying criminal behavior and identifying risk factors; this in turn helps lower crime rates while improving community safety and increasing society’s well-being.
- Informing Public Policy: Forensics and criminology both play an integral part in creating evidence-based policies in response to crime and criminal law. Research conducted through criminology helps policymakers to evaluate the effectiveness of laws, interventions, and rehabilitation programs while expert testimony and forensic evidence can assist policymakers with making decisions regarding investigative techniques and evidence types as well as allocating resources between law enforcement departments and forensic labs.
- Victim Support and Rehabilitation: Studying criminology will enable you to better comprehend the needs and experiences of victims, and this knowledge is essential for creating victim services, improving advocacy efforts, and ensuring proper rehabilitation measures are in place and reintegration measures taken appropriately. Understanding crimes’ impacts on victims will enable criminologists to create a criminal justice system that offers more support and compassion to these individuals.
- Develop Forensic Methodologies: As research in forensics advances, methods, and technologies are being created that will increase accuracy, efficiency, and reliability in evidence analysis. Staying abreast of scientific advances will enable forensic professionals to tackle difficult cases more quickly while producing stronger evidence.
Studying forensics and criminal justice are integral parts of criminal investigation and solving crimes, upholding justice systems, preventing crime, informing policy, helping victims, advancing forensic science, and improving society as a whole. These programs aim to deepen our understanding of criminal conduct and create an equitable society.
Forensics is a multidisciplinary field that uses scientific principles, methods, and techniques. To examine evidence during criminal or civil proceedings. Forensics encompasses biological sciences like biology and chemistry while computer science helps preserve crime scenes for examination of physical evidence at crime scenes. At its heart lies its goal of producing objective findings that help establish truth, identify perpetrators, support legal proceedings, and aid legal proceedings.
The primary objectives of forensics include:
- Collecting and Analyzing Physical Evidence: Forensic scientists specialize in collecting and examining various physical evidence such as DNA fingerprints, fibers, bloodstains firearms, and digital evidence for use as evidence in court proceedings. Utilizing advanced tools and techniques they document preserve and analyze all forms of evidence collected to generate valuable intelligence from them.
- Determine the Cause of an Incident or Crime: Forensics seeks to understand the details surrounding any act or incident related to criminality or offense. By evaluating evidence and reconstructing events, as well as scientific data analysis, forensic specialists provide insight into how such crimes occurred and who could potentially be suspects.
Forensic science encompasses several specialized areas, including:
- Forensic Anthropology: Examining human remains, skeletal structures, and biological profiles to ascertain identity, age, and cause of death for unknown individuals.
- Forensic Entomology: the scientific study and analysis of insects as they relate to criminal investigations. This technique can help establish when or where crimes have taken place.
- Forensic toxicology: Forensic Toxicology refers to the analysis of biological samples to detect drugs, alcohol and other substances present within a person’s body for possible links in criminal deaths.
- Forensic dentistry: Examining dental evidence such as bite marks or dental records to identify individuals or establish links between suspects, crime scenes, and dental evidence.
- Forensic Psychology: Applying psychological principles to judge witness credibility, analyze suspect mental states and behaviors, as well as provide expert testimony at court proceedings.
- Digital forensics: Digital Forensics refers to the practice of collecting, preserving, and analyzing digital sources like emails or computer files to detect crimes online or analyze digital evidence gathered via social media posts and internet history.
Forensic science professionals collaborate closely with criminal justice specialists, law enforcement agencies, and legal professionals. Their expert testimony and findings play a pivotal role in criminal investigations, court trials, and the pursuit of justice. With scientific rigor as its backbone, forensic science can assist in uncovering truthful accounts as well as identifying criminals for arrest purposes.
Criminology is the study of criminals and crime. This field encompasses an examination of both social and psychological influences on criminal activity as well as an understanding of its causes, patterns, and consequences in society. Criminologists examine various aspects of crime such as its origins and prevalence before exploring its impactful distribution across communities or individuals.
The primary objectives of criminology include:
- Understanding the Nature and Scope of Criminal Activity: Criminologists seek to gain an insight into all the various aspects of crime such as its classifications, definitions, features, and classification rates; then examine crime patterns rates trends to detect commonalities and variances so they may develop an understanding of both its nature and extent.
- Investigating Criminal Behavior: Criminology examines individual, socio-economic, and environmental influences which contribute to criminality. Psychological and biological forces which predispose people towards engaging in illegal activities are also explored as this knowledge helps shed light on why people commit criminal acts as well as risk factors associated with this behavior.
- Develop Crime Prevention Strategies: Criminologists play an essential role in devising effective crime prevention and intervention strategies. By understanding the causes and patterns behind crimes, criminologists can recommend tailored solutions that address root causes and risk factors associated with them – this may involve community programming, improving law enforcement strategies, or supporting social policies which work to minimize crime and enhance safety.
- Evaluating the Criminal Justice System: Criminology is the study and examination of criminal law and its components such as courts and law enforcement agencies. Criminologists assess institutions, policies, and practices for their effectiveness at deterring crime, guaranteeing fairness, and providing rehabilitation; their research can identify areas for improvement as well as provide evidence-based reform proposals within criminal justice systems.
- Victimology: Criminology addresses both the needs and experiences of victims, while victimology explores crime’s effect on individuals, communities, victimization patterns, and service delivery effectiveness relating to victim support services. With this knowledge in hand, criminology enables policies and interventions that address victims’ needs while improving their well-being.
Criminology encompasses various areas of study, including:
- Criminal psychology: Criminal psychology encompasses all psychological processes which contribute to criminal conduct, such as personality traits, cognitive processes, and external social influences.
- Sociological theories of criminality: Sociologists often study how certain aspects of society, such as social structure, inequality, subcultures, and socialization can impact criminal behavior.
- Criminal justice systems: an examination of their structure and functioning involving law enforcement, courts, and corrections services.
- Victimology: Victimology is the study of victims of crime, their experiences, and its aftermath; as well as providing supportive services.
Their work helps increase our understanding of criminal activity and crime; inform evidence-based policies and interventions; create safer societies; and ensure justice is administered fairly.
Differences between Forensics and Criminology
There are differences between forensics and criminology that pertain to their areas of focus, methodologies, and other elements.
Here are some key distinctions:
- Forensics: Forensics is the study of physical evidence at crime scenes. The purpose is to produce objective, scientific findings which can assist law enforcement investigations or court proceedings.
- Criminology: This field includes all factors which contribute to criminal behavior including social and psychological influences that play into it as well as causes and patterns associated with it within society.
- Forensics: Forensics employs scientific methods and technologies to collect, analyze, and interpret physical evidence for court cases. Traditionally this has included biological sciences like biology, chemistry, and physics as evidence analysis methods.
- Criminology: Criminology employs Social Science research methods such as interviews, statistical analysis, and case studies to collect information on crime.
- Forensics: Forensics is used extensively in criminal investigations and legal proceedings to help identify suspects and link criminals to physical evidence, providing expert testimony in court proceedings as needed.
- Criminology: Criminal law can be applied in various contexts, from crime prevention and investigation to understanding patterns, assessing criminal justice systems, formulating public policies, and providing assistance to victims of crime.
- Forensics: Forensics is an interdisciplinary field that works closely with other scientific fields to analyze evidence and reach conclusions. Working alongside law enforcement officers, legal representatives, forensic specialists, and others is all part of its job description.
- Criminology: Criminal psychology combines sociology, psychology, and economics to understand crime and criminal behavior more thoroughly.
- Forensics: Forensics is the study of evidence collected at crime scenes or incidents to ascertain and establish the truth.
- Criminology: The study of Crime Dynamics, Patterns & Causes is an interdisciplinary field that unifies criminology with other sciences to create better prevention strategies.
Although they differ significantly, forensics and criminology share many similarities. While forensics provides empirical evidence to aid the understanding of crime, criminology provides a theoretical and contextual framework that informs the development and implementation of forensic techniques.
To combat and prevent crime, maintain justice, and create safer communities, both forensics and criminology are indispensable components. Their combined insights and collaboration help create a greater understanding of criminal behavior as well as an efficient application of scientific techniques within the criminal justice system.
Forensic and Criminology together form a formidable alliance in the pursuit of justice. The application of scientific principles to criminal investigations has revolutionized the way crimes are solved and justice is served. As we move forward, the continued development of forensic techniques and practices will undoubtedly play a vital role in ensuring a safer and more just society for all.


Adolescent girls require a healthy diet
Good nutritional diet is essential for adolescent girs. Deficienty in nutrition will have a severe effect on their health in future and it may also affect the health of their progeny. Slow physical growth and delayed sexual maturation are the results of deficiency in nutrition. The rapid physical growth during adolescence is comparable to the first year of life and this requires additional energy and nutrients. Optimum growth potential comes only from good nutrition.
Good nutrition also prepares the adolescent girls for pregnancy and lactation in future. Adolescent girls experience the following negative effects due to under-nutrition:
1. Retarded ability to learn and sluggishness at work.
2. When they beget children at a later stage, the health of the children may get affected.
3. Delayed sexual maturation.
4. Bone and teeth are affected due to insufficient calcium intake.
5. Under-nutrition during adolescent years affects the reproductive life of the woman.
Energy needs of adolescent girls: Adolescent girls need 2000 calories per day and this is much more than what they required during their childhood days. Factors influencing energy needs of these girls are their activity level, metabolic rate and the growth needs of the pubertal period. Hence adolescent girls must be well informed of their nutrition requirements and must choose foods rich in lean protein and low fat and also fibre-rich whole grains, fruits and vegetables. It is recommended that 25% of the total energy must come from fat, out of which, 10% from saturated fat. Eating a low-fat diet helps in preventing heart disease, breast and colon cancer. Therefore skim milk and lean meat are better.
Protein needs: Additional lean body mass is required to be developed during adolescent years and hence protein intake must be sufficient enough for maintaining the existing lean body mass and also for developing additional lean body mass. The requirement has been calculated as 45 to 60 grams every day. Dairy products, beef, chicken, eggs, pork, vegetable sources like tofu, soy products, beans, nuts, etc. supply this requirement. If this required protein is not available to adolescent girls, that will cause belated sexual maturation and also affect development of lean body mass.
Calcium requirements: Studies have shown that girls attain 45% of peak bone mass and skeletal growth during their adolescent years, for which calcium is required. Calcium helps in development of dense bone mass and also reduces risks of fracture and osteoporosis. Milk, cheese, ice cream and frozen yogurt, calcium-fortified orange juice, breakfast bars, bread and calcium-fortified cereals supply the 1,200 milligrams of calcium required during adolescent years.
Iron requirements for adolescent girls: Iron transports oxygen to the entire body. If there is a deficiency in iron, it will lead to anaemia, fatigue, dizziness and weakness. As the blood volume and muscle mass increase rapidly during adolescent period, girls require more of iron. Beef, chicken, beans, peanuts, legumes, spinach, etc. can supply the required daily dose of 12 to 15 milligrams of iron.
Zinc: Growth and sexual maturation require zinc to the extent of 9 mg. per day and it can be got from red meat, shellfish and whole grains.
Folate requirements during adolescence: Folate helps in protein synthesis and plays a major role in DNA and RNA. Hence adolescent girls require more folate during puberty and this can be got from orange juice, bread, milk, dried beans and lentils.
Adolescents should never skip breakfast. About one-third of the day's nutritional supply should come from breakfast. Skipping breakfast may lead to under-nutrition which will affect the future health of adolescent girls.
Also read "Simple tips for weight loss" by the same author.


Garden Greenhouses: Greenhouse Growing Tips
Weekly Hint #1
In answer to a question on our forum “how much luck you have had growing fruit trees or fruit. I was thinking it would be wonderful to have fruit year round?” We at Growing Spaces answered: We grow different varieties of strawberries and get fruit about 6 or 7 months of the year.
We know dome owners who grow cherries, figs, pomegranetes, limes, lemon, cumquat, miniature oranges, peaches, grapes, bananas, mangoes, and grapefruit.
Weekly Hint #2
It is good practice this time of year, especially if you have been growing throughout the winter, to perform a soil test.
Starting from a simple PH kit, these tests can measure every aspect of nutrient balance in tired soil. This is a vital prerequsite to soil amendment if you wish to provide optimum growing conditions for plants. Manure teas, organic blood meal and well rotted finished manure/compost are what we added to our dome to make up for nitrogen depletion and alkali soil. Diatameceous earth can be used (carefully) if ground bugs are a problem. Do this before introducing beneficial insects. Hope this helps!
Weekly Hint #3
Aphids, Whiteflies, Sow bugs, centipedes, caterpillars, millipedes, mites, mealybugs, fruit flies and vinegar flies. The two most effective methods of natural pest control we have used this spring, before introducing beneficial insects are:
1). Pyola a plant extract oil that controls the egg stages of pests present in dormant season and scale insects etc and also works on live insects such as aphids and whiteflies. The active ingredient is Canola Oil and Pyrethrins. The important thing about it is that it does not persist for long periods in the environment and does not contain piperonyl butoxide. Can be purchased at www.gardensalive.com
2). Diatomaceous earth which is EPA approved and found at your local gardening shop, is fantastic for crawling insects such as sow bugs, millipedes, slugs, beetles and ants etc. It comes in powder form and like Pyola will destroy any beneficial insects so is best used before introducing them. Check the plastic liners in beds to see if this is where the bugs are coming from and if need be place the dust behind these.
Good luck winning the battle with the bugs!
Weekly Hint #4
APHIDS AND WHITEFLY DEMISE! Our absolute favorite tool for safely killing these bugs is called SAFER®, Tomato & Vegetable Insect Killer. “Safer, is a product made for the food you eat from a name you trust.” Since it was created with tomatoes in mind, you can be confident when using it in your vegetable garden. It breaks down quickly, completely and harmlessly. A patented mix of pyrethrins and insecticidal soaps, this mixture kills most soft-bodied bugs on contact. The main active ingredient, pyrthrin, disrupts the nervous system, causing virtual instant paralysis in insects. The secondary ingredient, insecticidal soap penetrates bugs and vaporizes their cell walls. The bugs don’t stand a chance. For best results use regularly. Heavy pest infestations may require more frequent useage intervals”
Note: Hose the plants down to wipe off dead bodies between sprays. Keep away from beneficials.
Weekly Hint #5
August is the best time to plan ahead for your cool hardy crops. Start seeds for carrots, kale, cauliflower, raddish, lettuce, onions, broccoli, cabbage and many others.
Now is a great time to reduce your potential pests next year by interplanting for resistance i.e. garlic and other strongly scented plants, which pests despise. Also, you should choose pest free plant stock and resistant varieties. Johnny’s Selected Seeds has a good variety of organic products and has proved popular with organic gardeners.
To prevent new plantings from being eaten, put copper mesh or wire around them, this distributes a charge which shocks and repels them. Because of the fertilizer they produce, Killing slugs is usually only advised when you have a large build up – it is much better to control them using copper around new shoots, beer traps and watering in the morning instead of night.
Pruning herbs such as basil, makes them bushier and more flavorful – add these trimmings to your compost to add an essential source of nitrogen.
Weekly Hint #6
PREPARING FOR WINTER – PART 1
After a summer of cornicopia bliss, we should now be looking once again to amending/changing our tired soil. If the goal is to produce throughout winter, the nutrients in the soil will need replenishing before planting the cooler weather crops.
If you have not changed the soil at all within the last year, you might want to dig around in various parts of the bed and look at the quality. A large amount of root matter often gets left in the soil between harvests and this drains heavy amounts of nutrients in order to be broken down.
I would try and take out as much as a third in the worst spots and then put in a good layer of green organic compost and or bagged animal manure. Then put a layer of top soil and finish off with potting soil if you are going to plant directly in the beds. This provides a perfect start for seeds and the layer of compost will release nitrogen into the rest of the soil every time it is watered.
Weekly Hint #7
PREPARING FOR WINTER – PART 2
Winter planting: Now is a great time to put in the herbs, both for winter stews and cooking and because they are natures natural insectisides.
Other plants to plant in November would include; fava beans, kale, spinich, garlic, cabbage, swiss chard, beets, lettuce, green onions, turnips, radish, kholrabi and brussel sprouts. If you are bringing plants from outside inside the dome, try to bring the smaller ones as larger ones more established plants will often go into to too much shock. Make sure you spray them with SAFER or eqiuvalent of a mild soap detergent and clean the leaves the next day to get off any pests and eggs.
Weekly Hint #8
Good compost added throughout the year will give your plants a much healthier life. They will be more resistant to bugs and will be getting a slow release via the compost into the soil of the nutrients they need to survive. The NPK balance is likely to be severely depleted by year round growing. What you are looking for is a rich humus in your finished compost and if your compost is taking a long time to finish, chances are there is not enough heat build up to be destroying disease and weed seeds. The most common reason for this is not enough green material in the pile, oxygen or manure. The pile is best put in a container with 3/4 sides and a bottom or to prevent leaching, drying out or overwatering. If the pile smells too strong, there could be too much nitrogen, don’t put animal products into your compost (exccept eggshells and manure!). Chopping up the ingredients helps break it down faster. Some good ingredients to add are: green leaves and vegatable waste, comfrey leaves, worm castings, algae from your pond, coffee grounds, egg shells, dryer lint, manure, a small amount of pine needles and wood ash.
Weekly Hint #9
One of our most common questions is regarding what kind of irrigation system is the best. We feel that mini sprayers and soaker hoses are the way to go. Both systems seem to work very well, however the disadvantage of the mini-sprays is that in the summer, plants with big foliage tended to block the spray and prevent it from watering the whole bed unless you vigilantly trim back the protruding leaves. In the winter I generally water every three to four days and in the summer every one to two days. I would definately obtain a moisture meter as often when the surface of the soil looks dry it is in fact quite moist lower down. It is only germinating seeds and young seedlings that need surface moisture.
Weekly Hint #10
People often ask how plants that need pollination have that happen inside the Growing Dome. The most common way is for insects that come into the dome, such as bees, to perform this function. For this reason we recommend not putting screens on the windows. If you need to prevent animals such as mice or chipmunks from entering through the windows, we recommend a 1/4 or 1/2 in hardware cloth that allows continued air movement.
Some plants such as cucumbers, melons, and squash require hand pollination. The way to do this is to 1st distinguish between the male and female flowers. The female flowers always have a swollen base right under the flower petals, whereas the males do not. Pick a male flower and peel back the petals to reveal pistil which should be covered in pollen. Carefully open the female flower and pollinate the stamen inside. If pollination does not happen, the baby plants will only grow to a small size, wither and fall off. You can always tell if the pollination has been successful as the fruit grows to full size and ripeness!
Weekly Hint #11
PREPARING FOR WINTER CROPS
At a time when most gardeners in the Rocky Mountains are busily trying to put their gardens to bed, after harvesting their produce before the first frost, Growing Dome owners, are going a different route.
September is the perfect time of year to sow seeds for all your winter crops. For most people, this includes all the members of the cabbage family: kale,broccoli,collards,members of the onion family: onions, leeks, garlic, and spinach, swiss chard, lettuces, Japanese greens, Mazuna, Tatsoi, Bok-choy, mustard greens, and then root crops: such as carrots, beats, turnips, radish, daikon, parsnips etc.
Because your garden beds are probably already full of highly productive summer crops such as tomatoes, peppers, melons, squash, cucumber etc…..there is very little space.
A way to deal with this is to sow the winter crops in flats to get them started. Many people put these on the crossbar of the water tank and then transplant them into individual pots, ready to put in the beds in Oct. By this time, the fruit and leaves of the summer crops are high on the plant itself. This means you can clear away space at ground level, ready for the winter crops while you harvest the end of the summer fruits and vegetables.
Note that root crops do not transplant well, and have to be sown directly into the ground. A little creativity is needed to find space for them. By the time the summer crops start to fail, (late November and early December) your winter garden will be in full production.
Weekly Hint #12
Watering: In the winter months when the vents tend to remain closed, and the fans are non-operational, the soil in the dome retains a lot more moisture than in the summer months. You may want to invest in a moisture meter to check the moisture level of the soil. Typically, the top surface of the soil can look very dry, but an inch or two down, the soil is actually quite moist. Well established plants with deep roots require a lot less moisture than smaller plants whose roots are closer to the surface.
Ventilation: During times of heavy snow you may want to disconnect the lower vents, as build up of snow with subsequent freezing may impede the opening of the vents when the sun comes out. If the vents are pushing against frozen snow and are unable to open, this could result in failure of the vent mechanism, or leaking from the actuating pistons. The univent opener can be disconnected by simply squeezing the arms together. It is slightly more difficult to disconnect the top openers, and often the snow slides off fairly quickly. However if there is a really heavy snow that stays on the top of the dome, you may want to disconnect the top vents or find a way to remove the snow from the top vents.
If you have cooling fans with shutters, it may be helpful to increase the insulation of these by wrapping some insulating material around them. Other people have put a square of insulating foam into the fan hood from the outside during the coldest time of the year. It is neccesary to disconnect the fan motor from turning and remove the actuating piston and store it in a dry place.
Grooming: Depending upon the types of plants you have growing in your dome, you may want to take a few minutes every so often to remove any wilting or unhappy leaves near the bottom of the plant, closest to the soil. This allows the rest of the plant to soak up all the nutrients without “wasting” any energy on wilting leaves.
Weekly Hint #13
SPRING IN THE GROWING DOME GREENHOUSE
This is a wonderful time of year to be working inside the growing dome. What you will probably find is that all the frost hardly leafy greens that you have been picking all winter are probably starting to go to seed. A lot of dome owners allow a couple of plants to do this and save the seeds. What we often do at Growing Spaces is sow seeds of another “catch” crop or cool weather vegetables, especially greens.
Because the soil is warming up and the days are lengthening, these vegetables usually grow very quickly and can be harvested in a short amount of time. Mid-March is also the time to be sowing your seeds for all the summer crops. These require a warm soil temperature for proper germination. Among these summers crops are tomatoes, peppers, cucumbers, squash, beans, basil, okra, pumpkin, and many other types of heat loving fruits and vegetables. These seeds can be sowed in many pots, flats, or directly into the soil bed.
If you live in a hot weather climate it can be advantageous to eventually have these plants situated in the outer bed close to the wall of the dome. Then you can persuade the climbing versions of these plants to climb up trellises or string attached to the dome structure on the inside. This technique has the advantage of creating significant shading and thus keeps the dome cool during the summer. We like the dome to resemble a jungle during the hot summer months. Happy Growing!


Which of the following constitutes a spurious emission?
Which of the following is an acceptable bandwidth for Digital Radio Mondiale (DRM) based voice or SSTV digital transmissions made on the HF amateur bands?
Within what distance must an amateur station protect an FCC monitoring facility from harmful interference?
What must be done before placing an amateur station within an officially designated wilderness area or wildlife preserve, or an area listed in the National Register of Historic Places?
What is the National Radio Quiet Zone?
Which of the following additional rules apply if you are installing an amateur station antenna at a site at or near a public use airport?
To what type of regulations does PRB-1 apply?
What limitations may the FCC place on an amateur station if its signal causes interference to domestic broadcast reception, assuming that the receivers involved are of good engineering design?
Which amateur stations may be operated under RACES rules?
What frequencies are authorized to an amateur station operating under RACES rules?
What does PRB-1 require of regulations affecting amateur radio?
What must the control operator of a repeater operating in the 70 cm band do if a radiolocation system experiences interference from that repeater?


A in Sign Language
Learn how to sign the letter A in ASL (American Sign Language). The sign for “A” is an easy one handed sign that moves smoothly between other letters in words and its hand-shape is used in many other signs. Start by making a fist with your strong hand, hold it at shoulder height with your palm facing out. Move your thumb to the side of your fist so that it stands up along the outside of your index finger, if you leave it in front it means the letter S.
Teaching Tips – to learn how to sign A in ASL
Learning how to sign “A” in sign language can be important, especially if you or one of your children’s names starts with the letter A. In many cases, names signs are made by combining the sign for a defining characteristic with a person’s first initial.
- Most people won’t use the letter A as the word “a” in sign language, it gets skipped over
- Don’t squeeze your fingers too tightly, or twist your wrist too far out, signing “A” should be comfortable and clear
- You might be surprised at how quickly your hand and forearm get tired when you start learning to finger spell, keeping loose will make it easier on you.
“This is the letter A. You make a fist with your thumb on the side. It looks a lot like a lower case a. ‘A’.”
Download the Flashcard (click on the image. Print in color or black-and-white and adjust the print size according to your needs.)


The Making Good Progress pilot was set up to test new ways to increase rates of pupil progress. It started in September 2007 and ran to July 2009 and involved pupils in Key Stage 2 and 3 in over 450 schools in 10 Local Authorities.
The MGP Pilot aims to respond to the challenge of continuing to raise educational achievement by focusing on progression as well as attainment in five key strands.
The evaluation found that respondents were supportive of the principles of the Pilot, with 63% of teachers surveyed reporting that the Pilot should be rolled out nationally.
Analysis of progression data shows that at KS2, the proportion of pupils in the Pilot making at least two levels of progress was: 87.5% in reading; 72.6% in writing; 80.7% in English and 78.8% in mathematics.
All local authority pilot leaders, 83% of headteachers, 69% of Heads of Department and 71% of teachers indicated that the MGP Pilot overall had contributed to increased rates of progression.
EVALUATION OF THE MAKING GOOD PROGRESS PILOT is available from DCSF


I need help with a Law question. All explanations and answers will be used to help me learn.
1.The emergence and growth of the emergency management team has grown over the years from the very first disaster that took place in 1736, the Union Fire Company. As disasters started to arise, each incident was documented so a preparedness plan was put in place for a similar future disaster. The evolution of emergency management expanded and many important leaders like Benjamin Franklin, United States Federal Government, Clarissa Harlowe Barton, Army Corps of Engineers, US Congress, and more started developing plans and Acts to deal with these emergency.
For more information about the timeline of events:
The 9/11 terrorist attacks enhance /affect the growth of emergency management by providing more safety measures to take when boarding a plane. For example; Airport checkpoint screening has been significantly tightened since 2001, and security personnel are more thoroughly trained to detect weapons or explosives. In addition to standard metal detectors, many U.S. airports now employ full-body scanning machines, in which passengers are screened with millimeter wave technology to check for potential hidden weapons or explosives on their persons.
2.Reginald and Classmates,
The emergence of emergency management has always been around from the time I was a kid. It just did not come together till the 9/11 attacks because that was when it really hit home. Before that attack if we had issues from people over seas than we would just send our military and call it done while we hear about it on the news channels. Before anyone asks I remember when we as a nation had gone to war with iraq in operation desert storm which at that time I was some where between 5 and 8 I believe but never the less. We never really thought that an attack could happen on our soil till that happen than all branches from local, state to federal came together to make emergency management happen that way it would not happen again.
The 9/11 attacks help enhance our understanding of what we need to do in order to make sure that attacks like those do not happen again. But now with current times like the attack on the capital we need to plan not only for a attack from forces unknown but also from people on our own homeland. Which in return affects how things will be done over time because it seems like people are overlooking the important matters for something that should not be getting as much attention. I can openly say that in order to grow from these attacks we must learn from them which is what we do from every attack.
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The world’s first entirely ray-traced game is here. Q2VKPT is the name of the project and it’s completely open-source. It’s freely available for download on GitHub. This research project is based on the Quake II engine, utilizing it to create fully dynamic real-time lighting.
Q2VKPT is powered by the Vulkan API. Thanks to the advent of the RTX cards, this game performs ray-tracing at respectable speeds. It is able to produce 60fps at 1440p with the RTX 2080Ti GPU. The project consists of 12k lines of code and completely replaces the graphics code of Quake II. This concept of ray-tracing, previously only available in live-action films, is now a realistic future for video games.
Here are some parts from the Q&A:
Quake II is ancient! If these techniques have any future, it should run at 6000 FPS by now!
While it is true that Quake II is a relatively old game with rather low geometric complexity, the limiting factor of path tracing is not primarily raytracing or geometric complexity. In fact, the current prototype could trace many more rays without a notable change in frame rate. The computational cost of the techniques used in the Q2VKPT prototype mainly depend on the number of (indirect) light scattering computations and the number of light sources. Quake II was already designed with many light sources when it was first released, in that sense it is still quite a modern game. Also, the number of light scattering events does not depend on scene complexity. It is therefore thinkable that the techniques we use could well scale up to more recent games.
Why Quake II?
Since Quake II is open source and has a long-standing modding tradition, it is a great sandbox for putting academic research to the test in the real world. Particularly, the game has fast-paced action and is played competitively, setting high standards for the performance and robustness of any implemented rendering techniques. Finally, in some sense, Quake II is to this day quite a modern game since it already shipped with complex and artistic light design back when it was first released.
How is path tracing different from raytracing?
Path tracing is an elegant algorithm that can simulate many of the complex ways that light travels and scatters in virtual scenes. Its physically-based simulation of light allows highly realistic rendering. Path tracing uses Raytracing in order to determine the visibility in-between scattering events. However, Raytracing is merely a primitive operation that can be used for many things. Therefore, Raytracing alone does not automatically produce realistic images. Light transport algorithms like Path tracing can be used for that. However, while elegant and very powerful, naive path tracing is very costly and takes a long time to produce stable images. This project uses a smart adaptive filter that re-uses as much information as possible across many frames and pixels in order to produce robust and stable images.
Are path tracing and raytracing the future of game graphics?
The recent release of GPUs with raytracing capabilities has opened up entirely new possibilities for the future of game graphics, yet making good use of raytracing is non-trivial. The purpose of this project is to find out exactly what’s still missing for a clearer pathway into a raytraced future of game graphics. While some problems have already been addressed by academic research, many open real-world problems slip unnoticed until one actually tries to implement a full game renderer. We plan to look into some of these issues, like better light sampling, better filtering, and more consistent renderer software architecture in the future. Good solutions for the new, different issues of raytracing- and path tracing-based renderers will be necessary for this change to happen on a broad scale.


Launch of the IASTA e-Bulletin
Aerosols play diverse roles in modulating the Earth's climate and impacting agriculture and human health. Aerosol research in India has grown manifold in the past few decades. Ground-based monitoring network has expanded, while several coordinated field campaigns were carried out, both over the Indian landmass and surrounding oceans, to understand the space-time variability of aerosol microphysical, chemical, optical and radiative properties. Observations by new generation satellites are increasingly used to complement the in-situ measurements. Climate models are being developed to incorporate aerosols for more accurate simulation of the atmospheric circulation and precipitation. New research initiatives are taken in emerging sub-areas such as nanoparticle science & technology and bio-aerosols in the country.
Besides some on-going intense aerosol observational programs, several national research initiatives were taken in the recent years. The "National Carbonaceous Aerosol Programme (NCAP)" was launched under the patronage of Ministry of Environment and Forest, Govt. of India to understand the role of carbonaceous particles in influencing the regional climate, precipitation pattern and Himalayan glaciers. One of the major
science objectives of the "Continental Tropical Convergence Zone (CTCZ)" programme under the auspices of Ministry of Earth Sciences, Govt. of India is to understand the role of aerosols in the variability of Indian monsoon through aerosol-cloud interaction. A national network programme on "Climate Change and Human Health" initiated by DST, Govt. of India identifies "Air Pollution" as one of the key thematic areas.
IASTA has been working towards promotion of aerosol science and technology in the country by way of organising conferences on topical themes, workshops and lectures; and publishing these proceedings as bulletins. To increase the frequency of these bulletins, it was decided by the General Body that the e-format may be adopted. Beginning with this issue, IASTA is launching the web-based version to encourage students, researchers and industry partners to send their contributions for the bulletin and hope that the new design will be reader-friendly.
Editor, IASTA e-Bulletin
Foreword by IASTA President
IASTA 2012 Conference: A Brief Report
Ganges Valley Aerosol Experiment (GVAX)
Air Pollution and Human Health
Cover Image: MODIS image of haze over India and Bangladesh on 24th Jan 2013
Image Courtesy: MODIS Land Rapid Response Team, NASA GSFC


Many millions of Americans own a car or pickup truck, and these vehicles are a major responsibility to own. Any new or used car may need some repair or maintenance due to wear and tear or a recent accident, and this includes the tires, wheels, and rims. All cars and trucks have wheels, of course, and they are not to be ignored. Having new car rims installed helps keep the wheel solid and stylish, and custom wheels may have fancy new rims installed for aesthetics. Even cheap tires may prove to be a fine upgrade over worn out or damaged tire sets, and a tire shop may offer all sorts of models to choose from. In fact, some tires are designed for particular types of terrain or conditions, and that includes not just car tire sets but also a tire for an ATV or dune buggy. What are the hazards that may present themselves to a car wheel’s tire or rim?
A New Tire Set
Car tires are large and tough, and they are inflated with air for a sturdy driving surface. Newer drivers may soon learn that only fully inflated tires offer a smooth and efficient ride, as solid tires help maintain the car’s fuel economy. If tires are very old, they may start slowly deflating even if they aren’t traumatically punctured, and this is a problem. An old tire will keep leaking air and go soft, which makes it less efficient to drive on, at the very least. A car with an old set of tires will lose fuel economy efficiency, and at worst, this car may go out of control or handle in unexpected ways. In the worst case scenario, this might even cause a crash.
Tires may also suffer due to sudden, serious trauma. A car’s driver might go over sharp and hard objects such as scrap metal, rocks, or broken glass, and this may puncture a tire and blast out all the air. This is hard to miss; a punctured tire may explode loudly, and even if not, a flat tire will severely hamper the car’s driving, and the driver may have to pull over and stop. In yet other cases, an old tire has been worn down and it provides poor grip, and that may be a real hazard in slippery conditions such as rain, snow, and ice.
Fortunately, there is a massive and constant need of new car tires, so any car owner can find a new tire set anywhere they look. A new tire will be tough and easily hold its air, helping to restore a car’s fuel economy efficiency. A new tire may also be a specialized model designed for ice, snow, or water, and even if not, a new tire will have better and safer grip than an old one. Car enthusiasts are experts who may own their own garage, and there, they can swap out an old tire set and put on a new set of tires onto any car. This may be done for upkeep, aesthetics, particular driving conditions, or any other reason.
Meanwhile, a car’s wheel is made up not only of the rubber tire, but the metal wheel itself. Repairing or replacing a wheel calls for help, and a number of problems may come up. On old cars, the wheel’s inner parts may rust out and wear thin, or the ball bearings may fall out or get damaged. In other cases, though, the damage may be more superficial. In particular, the metal rims (often made of aluminum) may get very dirty or damaged after a road incident or other trauma. But that doesn’t have to last for long.
Car rims are relatively easy to fix, and a car enthusiast can easily take care of this in their private garage. Rims can be taken right off a wheel, and once heated, these malleable aluminum disks can be pounded back into shape and put back on. They can also be washed and cleaned, but the owner should not use steel wool (which will scratch up the surface). Some car enthusiasts also like to put on entirely new rims on their cars, mainly for aesthetics. Custom rims vary in their shape and even their color.


Government Land Grants
The Land Grant Process
Various royal, colonial, state, and federal governments established the first claims to land in what is now the United States. These governments have since sold or given much of this land to individuals. The person who obtains title to the land from the government receives a land grant. The process of receiving a land grant is sometimes referred to as “land-entry.” Obtaining a grant of land from the government is the final step in a process that often resulted in the creation of several documents. The following is a general description of the documents that may have been created. Not all steps of the process may have been necessary, depending on local laws and customs.
The process generally began when a person seeking a grant submitted an application (petition or memorial) to the king or a governor, proprietor, or government office. He may have applied to purchase land or to receive it free as payment for military or other service. Various documents could have been submitted with the application, such as evidence of citizenship, military service, or prior claim to the land.
If the application was approved, a warrant was issued to the individual. The warrant was a certificate that authorized him to receive a certain amount of land. This was surrendered to the appropriate official or land office to request that a surveyor produce a survey (a written legal description of the land's location).
Early surveys used a metes-and-bounds system. This system described physical features of the land, such as “north fifty rods from the creek” or “S10° W 38 rods to the red oak on hill.”
After 1785 many lands were described by a rectangular survey system, using townships, ranges, and sections, such as “NW1/4 of section 13, T2S R4W.” (This example is read as “northwest quarter of section 13 of township 2 south, range 4 west.) A township is a unit of land containing 36 sections. Each section is one square mile in area and contains 640 acres which can be divided into lots of various sizes. To learn more about sections,ranges and townships, see the on line video course at www.familysearch.org entitled "Sections, Ranges and Townships" by Roberta "Bobbi" King.
To purchase land that had already been surveyed, a person may have simply selected an available lot or bid for it at a public auction. Available lots were sometimes distributed through lotteries. Land lottery records are available for some states.
A government official or land office then recorded the individual's name and the location of the land in tract books and on plat maps. Tract books record the written legal descriptions of all the lots within a township or given area. Tract books of the public domain states are arranged by sections within townships. Plats or plat books are maps of the lots within the tract.
The individual may have needed to complete certain other requirements, such as installment payments or a period of residency on the land, before he could actually obtain title to the land. Records of his completion of these requirements may have been kept in a case file along with his application. After all the requirements were completed, a patent or final certificate was issued to the individual. The patent (a first-title deed) secured the individual's title to the land. The individual could then sell or give the patent to someone else. For further information on how to locate a patent, see the article entitled Land Patent Search on the United States Land and Property page.
The government generally retained the survey notes, tract books, plat maps, case files, warrant books (records of warrants issued and surrendered), and the patent books (records of patents issued). The individual retained his copy of the patent. The file containing the information gathered is called the case file. It is this record which is the most important to search and is found at the National Archives.
Oberly, James W. Sixty Million Acres: American Veterans and the Public Lands Before the Civil War. Kent, Ohio: Kent State University Press, 1990. (FHL 973 N2ob) This book explains how military bounty land warrants were usually sold for cash and the resulting effect on public land policy in the United States.
General Land Office Records are searchable online and most have free images of patents to download. The minimum information needed for a search is the state where the land is located and the name of the person receiving the patent. Surveys and Land Status Records can also be searched here.


See detailed images of an amazing find: a 16-foot dinosaur tail buried for up to 72 million years. Fifty connected vertebrae remain intact.
In the northern Mexican state of Coahuila, paleontologists have spent the last three weeks brushing away sand and gravel to slowly reveal a 16-foot dinosaur tail with 50 connected vertebrae intact. The tail is thought to have been buried for up to 72 million years.
The dig site is located in the small town of General Cepeda, in the northern Mexican state of Coahuila. Now an arid desert rich with fossils, the area was much closer to the coast during the Cretaceous Period.
The team working to unearth the giant tail comes from Mexico's National Institute for Anthropology and History (INAH) and National Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM). Here, paleontologist René Hernéndez compares the dinosaur remains to an image of the hadrosaur scapula, called the crested duckbill.


It seems we pay a heavy price for our sweet tooth. Not only do we eat a lot of sugar and make ourselves ill, but it has no nutritional value at all. No vitamins, no minerals, no enzymes, no fiber. (Honey and molasses lovers could make a teeny tiny case for their sweeteners, since they do have trace amounts of a few nutrients.)
Sugar tastes good. Humans crave sugar right down to their DNA. “Sugar is a deep, deep ancient craving,” Daniel Lieberman, an evolutionary biologist at Harvard University recently told Business Insider. Early humans looked for sweet fruits and vegetables because they contained the natural sugars that give us energy. Of course, cavemen were never tempted by Ring Dings or Snickers bars. How badly do we crave sugar? Here are (some of) the shocking statistics:
1. Americans consume, on average, 765 grams of sugar every five days. To put that in perspective, in 1822 we consumed on average 45 grams every five days. That is equal to one can of soda. Now we consume 17 times that, or the equivalent of 17 cans of soda.
2. Americans consume 130 pounds of sugar every year. Our 1822 predecessors ate under 10 pounds of sugar a year. 130 pounds a year means about three pounds a week. That equals about 3,550 pounds in an average lifetime—approaching two tons of sugar.
3. More on that last one: 130 pounds of sugar equals about 1,767,900 Skittles. Or just fill an industrial a dumpster with Skittles.
4. The American Heart Association recommends we consume less than 10 teaspoons of sugar a day. The average adult American misses that mark by a lot. Like about 12 teaspoons. The average American gobbles down on average 22 teaspoons a day. And the average child? 32 teaspoons. Pretty sure none of us needs that much to make the medicine go down. Mary Poppins, it seems, was an enabler.
5. Our sugar consumption is both in plain sight and hidden, ingested from the most unlikely places. Sugar in cookies seems obvious. Sugar in potato chips not so much. And ketchup and TV dinners and soup and crackers and just about every other processed food out there. Who are the biggest baddies? Soft drinks lead the list at 33% of our sugar consumption (drink water instead of coke and you’ve already made a huge dent). Candy and other obvious sweets, 16%. Baked goods like cookies and cakes, 13%. Fruit drinks 10%. Sweetened yogurt, ice cream and milk almost 9%.
6. One can of Coke, 12 ounces, contains 10 teaspoons of sugary goodness. That’s more sugar than two Frosted Pop Tarts with a Twinkie thrown in.
7. The average American consumes 53 gallons of soda a year. Let’s do the math. 128 ounces in a gallon times 53. That’s 6,784 ounces. Or just to simplify it, that’s 565 cans of soda a year.
8. If you took away all the sugar in an average American diet, you would subtract 500 calories a day. Of course, since we are not taking it away, that means sugar adds 500 calories a day to our diet (and waistlines). That is like eating 10 strips of bacon a day. Even bacon-loving Americans might stop short of that.
9. So, given all the bad stuff: Diseases, bad teeth, expanding waistlines. Zero nutrition. Why do we keep consuming sugar? Well, there is that DNA connection. Sugar is how we are wired for energy, but evolution never took processed sugar into account. Sweets eaters survived because they ate more energy-efficient fruit and veggie sugar that metabolizes slowly and doesn’t kill us.
Sugar is as addictive as cocaine. Brain scans after sugar consumption, are very similar to when we do blow. Dopamine floods the brain and, boy, do we feel good. And of course it is a lot easier on the nostrils…unless you’re snorting your sugar… Hello. My name is Larry, and I’m a sugar addict.
So what does a poor American do? We can start by being conscious of the sugar we are consuming. The stuff comes in many disguises. It’s like the Peter Sellers of ingredients. Sugar, cane juice, cane syrup, high-fructose corn syrup, fruit juice concentrate, honey, molasses, malt syrup. Those are its favorite masks. If we are at least aware of what we are chowing down or chugging, we have a fighting chance. Increase the water intake, decrease the soda intake. Check out the ingredients on the labels. Opt for reduced sugar products. Awareness is a good start. As Daniel Lieberman said: “We need to realize that our bodies are not adapted to the amount of sugar that we are pouring into them and it’s making us sick.”


Improvement Factors for Schools Identified
Parent involvement, student behavior, teacher collaboration, and professional development aren’t the most important factors contributing to student achievement, suggests a survey of schools serving low-income students in California.
Rather, the study of 257 elementary schools—conducted by EdSource, a Mountain View, Calif.-based educational research organization—found that setting high expectations for students, implementing standards-based curricula, using data from state assessments to improve instruction, and having up-to-date instructional materials and experienced teachers correlated most strongly with higher academic performance by students on the state’s standardized tests.
Vol. 25, Issue 10, Page 10


Nails and hammer
See the Chenilles Chapter for more instructions, hints, tips, and ideas.
Using the templates below, make bending jigs using wood and finishing nails. The small head on these nails will make getting the chenille off the jig easier. Cutting the heads off the nails will also work.
For the small hand, use one thin chenille. Bend the chenille around the jig following the diagram. Hold the jig as shown below.
Around 1, over to 2 and around it from the top, over 3, under 4 and 5, to the right of 1 and up around 6 from left to right, then below 7, above 8, below 9, above 10, below 11, above 12 and back down to the right of 3.
Once the hand is formed, remove it from the jig and adjust its shape to make it look better. Bend the two ends around the wires that cross them to make it more sturdy. Now bend the fingers to make the letter you want. See this page for help on hand signs. Several small hands may be combined to spell out a short word, initials, or name using sign language. The signs may be glued onto a piece of craft foam or craft stick (pop-cycle stick). Glue a PVC ring to the back of the background material.
For the large hand, twist the ends of two thick chenilles together. Bend the chenilles around the jig following the diagram. Once the hand is formed, you will notice that you have some extra chenille. We will take care of that in a moment. First, remove the hand from the jig and adjust its shape to make it look better. Now, take the extra chenille, and weave it in and out between the fingers. It should go in front of the pointer finger, behind tall man, in front of the ring finger, and behind the pinky. Any that remains wrap around to the other side of the hand to reinforce the palm. Bend the starting end around the wire that it crosses.
With the large hand, you can bend the fingers into a letter (see hand signs), the Cub Scout or Boy Scout sign, or "I love you" or thumbs up. Glue on a PVC ring to complete the project.


Global Warming Wreaks Havoc Across the West
Global warming could be the cause behind a beetle infestation killing off lodgepole pine forests in Colorado.
About 60 percent of the lodgepole pines have turned red and brown.
“The population built up rapidly and exploded. It takes out the mature trees,” said Ingrid Aguayo, an entomologist for the Colorado State Forest Service.
“Now we’re seeing a new carpet of forest coming up,” she said.
Whether global warming is to blame or not, the evidence is daunting. A new calculation of government temperature data shows that the average annual temperatures in the Colorado River Basin – the heart of the west – have risen by 2.2 degrees over the past 5 years – twice as fast as the global rate.
The Rocky Mountain Climate Organization, a coalition of local governments, businesses and others working to protect the climate, and the advocacy group National Resources Defense Council published the report. They say the West is heating up faster than any other region in the continental U.S. with more devastating wildfires among the results.
“It’s already begun. We are already seeing the effects, and scientists are telling us it’s going to get markedly worse,” said Stephen Saunders, the organization’s president in Louisville, Colo.
Researchers are hesitant to pinpoint a single cause of the warming, but most agree these changes can’t be ignored.
Martin Hoerling, a meteorologist at the NOAA-funded Earth System Research Laboratory in Boulder, Colo. suggests the West could heat up much more, possibly by 5 degrees by the midpoint of the century, pending the level of greenhouse-gas emissions.
“By and large, there is a very detectable warming in this region,” said Hoerling.
The report, “Hotter and Drier: The West’s Changed Climate,” crunched numbers kept by NOAA’s Western Regional Climate Center in Reno, Nev.
“That sounds about right,” the center’s acting director, Kelly T. Redmond, said.
“It’s been warming in this region for the past 35 years, after a cool period in the 1970s,” he said.
Redmond made calculations similar to the report’s 2.2-degree rise, meaning fewer subzero nights to control the pine beetle population that is devastating Colorado’s lodgepole pines.
The results of the calculations came from a network of around 2,000 thermometers across the West, many coming from airports and weather hobbyists’.
“I didn’t know whether to trust these numbers or not,” said Redmond.
However, earlier snowmelt in the spring and earlier lilac and honeysuckle blooms convinced him the recordings were accurate.
“We can’t definitely attribute it to human causes, but my suspicion is at least part of it is due to climate change,” he said. “In 100 years, this is the largest change we’ve seen, so it catches your attention.”
A decade long drought has gripped the West and raised temperatures making Hoerling hesitant to attribute the warming of the West exclusively on carbon emissions. Cyclical changes in the sea-surface temperatures may also be to blame.
The consequences, though, are evident. Aerial photographs taken over Yellowstone park show orange-needled forests of whitebark pine, those of which were green only three years ago. Colorado’s signature aspen stands are drying, making them vulnerable to fungus.
U.S. Geological survey researchers have calculated that the glaciers at Montana’s Glacier National Park could melt entirely by 2022.
The Rocky Mountain snow packs are melting earlier in the spring, leaving less water for summer irrigation that heats up trout streams.
The National Weather Service reported Phoenix had 47 days of 109 degrees or hotter, while Montana, Idaho and Wyoming had their hottest Julys on record last summer.
Powell and Mead reservoirs, the reservoirs that collect water from the Colorado River, supplying most of the Southwest, are half-empty. If they keep drying up, it could damage the Colorado River Compact of 1922, an agreement that allocates fixed amounts of water among seven states.
Bradley H. Udall, director of the Western Water Assessment Cooperative at the University of Colorado, said the upper basin states have the water, but lower basin states including California have senior water rights – a crisis in the making.
“There’s an old saying, ‘I’d rather be upstream with a shovel and a ditch than downstream with a decree,’” he said.
On the Net:


Research Triangle Park, N.C. (PRWEB) September 12, 2012
Triangle science teachers gave a green thumbs up to Bayer CropScience’s recent Making Science Make Sense® workshop, where area educators got their hands in the dirt to cultivate open minds and an interest in active learning among students. On Thursday, June 28, 30 area third through fifth grade science teachers participated in a workshop at the Bayer CropScience Innovation Center in Morrisville, N.C. The 62,500 square foot facility is dedicated to driving the company’s robust research and development pipeline through commercial gene discovery, trait generation and product development.
During the Making Science Make Sense workshop, teachers toured the Innovation Center and participated in three specially-designed experiments: properties of matter and separation, soil exploration, and DNA extraction. All participants were encouraged to take these experiments back to the classroom to help students develop a love of learning and an ability to scientifically navigate opportunities for innovation in agriculture, bioscience, technology and more. Teachers also received continuing education credits for the course.
Making Science Make Sense received highly positive reactions from teachers who participated in the workshop. Jessica Anderson, third grade teacher at Carpenter Elementary School in Cary, N.C., said “Thank you so much for one of the best workshops I have ever been to. I am so excited to do some of the experiments with my students next year.” Jennifer H. Frydrychowicz, MSed., coordinating teacher for special education services for the Wake County Public School System, added that “This was the single best workshop I have participated in. I was so excited; I went home and showed my nephew all of Bruce’s experiments that we could find on YouTube. He was floored and so anxious to try them at home. His first question (at six years old) was – ‘What is
the objective of your experiment?’ Please continue the wonderful work with the Making Science Make Sense program that you do. Thanks so much.”
“Making Science Make Sense has been encouraging science literacy among children for more than 15 years now,” said Adrian Percy, VP and Head of Development North America. “At Bayer CropScience, we are committed to advancing this initiative through hands-on, inquiry-based science learning, employee volunteerism and public education. What the teachers experienced in our workshop will be incredibly beneficial in forming the scientific leaders and problem solvers who will be responsible for creating a better tomorrow.”
For more information on Making Science Make Sense, visit:
About Bayer CropScience
Bayer is a global enterprise with core competencies in the fields of health care, nutrition and high-tech materials. Bayer CropScience, a subgroup of Bayer AG with annual sales of EUR 7.255 billion (2011), is one of the world’s leading innovative crop science companies in the areas of crop protection, non-agricultural pest control, seeds and traits. The company offers an outstanding range of products and extensive service backup for modern, sustainable agriculture and for non-agricultural applications. Bayer CropScience has a global workforce of 21,000 and is represented in more than 120 countries. This and further news is available at: press.bayercropscience.com
Media can utilize the hotline at 1-866-99-BAYER, or contact
Director of Communications & Bayer CropScience NA Coordinator
Tel: (919) 549-2030
©2012 Bayer CropScience LP, 2 T.W. Alexander Drive, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709. Always read and follow label instructions. Bayer (reg’d), the Bayer Cross (reg’d) are trademarks of Bayer. For additional product information call toll-free 1-866-99-BAYER (1-866-992-2937) or visit our Web site at http://www.BayerCropScience.us.
This release may contain forward-looking statements based on current assumptions and forecasts made by Bayer Group or subgroup management. Various known and unknown risks, uncertainties and other factors could lead to material differences between the actual future results, financial situation, development or performance of the company and the estimates given here. These factors include those discussed in Bayer’s public reports which are available on the Bayer website at bayer.com. The company assumes no liability whatsoever to update these forward-looking statements or to conform them to future events or developments.


The obstinate rebelliousness of the Israelites is one of the most striking themes when one first reads Exodus. Yaweh performs wonder upon wonder, miracle upon miracle, and yet in every other chapter the people either complain or rebel. “Surely,” thinks the reader, “I wouldn’t have behaved like that.” But when the reader makes an effort to see the unfolding events of Exodus through the eyes of the Israelites, their response to God seems all too human.
Exodus records the Israelites’ acute wrestling with the issue of trust. An unfamiliar God shows up out of the blue and says, “Come with me. We are going to the desert.” This kind of chutzpah reminds me of an unusual incident. I had just sat down to eat at McDonald’s when a young boy I had never seen before crawled into my lap. He turned and looked up at me with a toothy grin and said, “I’m gonna hep you eat yo lunch.” My first thought was, “Who invited you?” The Israelites must have had a similar response. At the outset, they had no real basis for trust.
To suggest that Yaweh was unfamiliar to the Israelites may seem strange. I had always assumed that the Hebrews had preserved the stories of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob; that they had preserved God’s prediction that He would lead them from Egypt back to Canaan; that they had faithfully continued to worship Yaweh throughout their stay in Egypt. Certainly some did. For instance, the midwives who refused to kill the baby Hebrew boys “feared God.” But the responses of the masses of Israelites points to ignorance about Yaweh. Moses’ objection to God’s sending him to lead the people is revealing: “Behold, I am going to the sons of Israel, and I shall say to them, ‘The God of your fathers has sent me to you.’ Now they may say to me, ‘What is His name?’ What shall I say to them?” Apparently, if the Israelites retained a memory of the God of Abraham, He had become just one of many they acknowledged. Forcing Aaron to build a golden calf indicates that the Egyptian culture in which they were raised had shaped their religious impulses.
If the Israelites did not remember God, then the story of the exodus is an account of Yaweh introducing Himself to His chosen people and forging them into a distinct culture with a worldview very different from those of other ancient Near Eastern societies. Moses introduced God to the Israelites; then God began to make himself known to His people through acts of supernatural power. By dramatically acting on their behalf time after time, God sought to earn His people’s trust.
From the beginning, however, God demonstrated that He is not a simple God. When Moses told the people that God would lead them out of Egypt, the initially receptive Israelites soon had second thoughts. When Moses first asked Pharaoh to let the Hebrews worship God in the desert, Pharaoh not only rejected the request, but made them work harder to teach them a lesson. So the first act of Moses, who claimed to represent the God who intended to free the Hebrews from slavery, increased the weight of their chains. It appeared that God either did not love them, or He was incompetent. Either way, He could not be fully trusted without a wary eye.
As if to show how complicated He is, God chose this moment of discouragement to set in motion a whole series of sensational plagues that finally forced Pharaoh to let the Hebrews leave Egypt. Egypt owed its great wealth to the forces of nature. Gentle annual floods and consistently sunny weather allowed the Egyptians to raise more grain more easily than any other kingdom, and the Egyptians credited a whole pantheon of gods for restraining the forces of chaos and maintaining the orderliness of nature in their land. Therefore God devised ten plagues that dramatically demonstrated not only to the Egyptians, but also to the Israelites, that the gods of Egypt were impotent and no match for the sovereign God. At this stage in their relationship, God simply had the Israelites sit and watch, while He worked His wonders.
When Pharaoh finally let the Israelites go, they must have heaved a huge sigh of relief as they trudged away from Egypt. But trouble mounted almost immediately. Pharaoh had changed his mind. When the defenseless Israelites saw Pharaoh’s pursuing army bearing down on them, they became very frightened and cried out to Moses. Once again God responded quickly and graciously by destroying the entire army without the Hebrews lifting a finger.
God had given the Israelites ample evidence of His power, but did God really love them? In the desert the Hebrews were out of their element. They had grown up in the wealthiest country in the world, with plenty of food and water, even for slaves. In the desert very few things could live. How could this God, who was taking them away from a land of plenty into an area with very little food and water, be good? Whenever things became uncomfortable they yearned for the comforts of Egypt. Bondage with plenty seemed better than freedom with scarcity.
When water or food became scarce they feared for their lives. Driven by this fear, their accusing fingers looked for a target. Invariably Moses, not God, was the object of their scorn. Two reasons may account for this. First, God did not speak to the Israelites directly. Although God had provided the people with many evidences of His personal involvement, not the least of which were the cloud and the pillar of fire that led them, He gave His instructions only to Moses. The Israelites had no way of knowing for sure what God had said to Moses. Perhaps Moses had taken actions not sanctioned by God.
The more important reason, however, for the Israelites blaming Moses was their desire to influence him and thereby to influence God. Being human, Moses was subject to the psychological pressures that can be brought to bear on a person. Either the Israelites dared not approach God directly or they despaired of being heard, so they tried to use guilt to force Moses to use his influence with God to alleviate their suffering. But Moses saw this manipulation for what it was. He was just a servant acting in conformance with God’s instructions. The Israelites’ grievance was with God not Moses, and they had ample evidence that this was so. Clearly, God had ordained the route that took them into the wilderness; inescapably, God had led them into places void of food and water. They grumbled because they did not trust God’s guiding hand.
In spite of the people’s poor attitude, God graciously responded to their suffering. When Moses conveyed their complaints to God, God miraculously supplied their need. Although the Israelites worried about starvation and dehydration, they were never without food and water. But God’s provision was not enough to erase the memories of abundant food and drink in Egypt. And with time, the Israelites began to take the gifts of manna and quail for granted. In their minds, these gifts ceased to be God’s miraculous provision and became just the way things are in the desert.
As time went on, the Israelites’ response to hardship changed. At first they responded with concern and even fear, seemingly too stunned by the hardships themselves to think about the wider implications. Later they began to respond with anger and hostility. They seemed to think their hardships were evidence that either God was abusing them or He was not taking their suffering seriously. Their hostility became so intense that on one occasion Moses feared the people would stone him.
The golden calf incident must be seen in the light of this mistrust of God. The Israelites were scared to death of the desert. Only Moses knew desert ways, and he had gone away for much longer than they had expected; maybe he was gone for good. Furthermore, this God who had adopted them had never provided for them at the level to which they had become accustomed. So, in desperation, they forced Aaron, the only other person who might be able to lead them through the desert, to solicit divine help. The people wanted help; they did not much care which god provided it, just so they were taken care of. Aaron vainly tried (and thought he had succeeded) to curb the people’s rebellion by restoring their commitment to the God of Abraham. Having made the golden calf, he organized a celebration to honor the God he meant it to represent—Yaweh. But God was not fooled; the Israelites were worshipping whatever divine power would provide them with what they needed. The Israelites were willing to follow Yaweh if He were willing to serve them in that way—otherwise they were in the market for a more responsive god.
The issue the Israelites faced is one we all face. They had seen many impressive demonstrations of God’s power. They had seen Him miraculously provide food and water in times of great need. But it was hard to reconcile this with the fact that God had taken them from relative comfort in Egypt and subjected them to great hardship. Could such a God be concerned about their well-being? They could understand God subjecting them to hardship if it served some greater purpose. But how could they know this was the case?
As if to answer this question, Exodus frequently repeats a very significant statement: God freed the Israelites from slavery. The Israelites were God’s chosen people. He had told Abraham that his, Abraham’s, descendants would become a great nation, they would inhabit the land of Canaan, and through them God would bless all the families of the earth. God had informed Abraham of the very noble purpose for which the sons of Israel had been brought into existence. Several centuries later, in the exodus, God was acting to fulfill this promise. Humanly speaking, God did the impossible by freeing the Israelites from enslavement to the most powerful kingdom in the world. The exodus was God’s down payment on the fulfillment of His promise to Abraham. If He had freed the Israelites from slavery, surely He would carry through and lead them into possession of the Promised Land. God had moved so mightily, surely nothing could deter Him from keeping His promise. The Israelites could have reasoned, therefore, that any time it appeared that God had abandoned or forgotten them, it must not be so. The glitches and delays must all be part of a bigger complex of purposes that God is determined to fulfill.
In retrospect we can see that God never did abandon the Israelites. He carefully guided them through the desert and constantly looked after them like a shepherd watching His flock. God did bring them into the land He had promised to give them; it took forty years, but He did it. God also led the Israelites to possess the land; this took several hundred years. So God did all that He had promised. But He was in no hurry, because He had other purposes to achieve along the way—purposes beyond the imaginations of the Israelites.
One of those bigger purposes was to create a helpful analogy for us. Just as God had given the Israelites a promise of glory, God has also promised glory to all believers. Just as God freed the Israelites from slavery in Egypt as the first step towards fulfillment of His promise to them, God has also freed believers from the slavery of sin as the first step toward fulfilling His promise of eternal glory. When life gets difficult and we feel that God’s long silence must indicate He has abandoned us, we must remember the lesson of the exodus: God is not simple, but He does keep His promises.


2nd grade - Habitats of Shenandoah
A habitat is a specific place where plants and animals live. A complete habitat must provide the basic needs, both living and nonliving, for the survival of its inhabitants. Within each habitat, there are many complex relationships as residents strive to meet their needs. Shenandoah National Park offers the opportunity for students to discover and explore nature as they apply and expand concepts and knowledge learned in the classroom. Through hands-on experiences and exploration, students will identify successful habitats and see the interdependencies needed for survival. As human and environmental impacts are evaluated, stewardship behaviors that support healthy habitats will be considered and practiced.
Following the park experience and classroom activities, the students will be able to
Virginia Science Standards of Learning Addressed:
Strand: Living Systems
2.5 - The student will investigate and understand that living things are part of a system. Key concepts include
a) living organisms are interdependent with their living and nonliving surroundings; and
b) habitats change over time due to many influences.
2.8 - The student will investigate and understand that plants produce oxygen and food, are a source of useful products, and provide benefits in nature. Key concepts include
c) plants provide homes and food for many animals.


Muscarinic receptors are the ones present in parasympathetic system.
They are stimulated by acetylcholine a neurotransmitter in the nervous system.
Hence they are called as cholinergic receptors beside nicotinic receptors.
All the muscarnic receptors are G-protein coupled receptor types.
They show their response in few seconds to minutes unlike nicotinic receptors which show response in milliseconds.
Muscarinic Receptors types
There are 5 types of muscarnic receptors. They are divided so based their mechanism of response and also their specific function. The list of muscarnic receptors include
- M1 receptor
- M2 receptor
- M3 receptor
- M4 receptor
- M5 receptor.
Of the five types M1, M2 and M3 are present in large proportion while other two are limited to nerve endings in the brain.
M1 Receptor: This is selectively stimulate by oxytremorine and antagonized by pirenzepine. This is distributed in regions like cortex, hippocampus, striatum of the brain and also in the ganglionic cells.
Functions: Control motor functions, learning and memory, gastric secretion etc. This is mediated by release of histamine and stimulation H2 receptors in the stomach to secrete the acid.
M2 Receptors: These are selectively stimulate by methacholine and antagonized by tripitramine and methoctramine. Present majorly in the heart and few smooth muscles.
Function: They regulate bradycardia i.e. decrease in heart rate. Also responsible for analgesia and tremor in Parkinsonism.
M3 Receptors: These are selectively stimulated by bethanecol and antagonized by solifenacin and darifenacin.
Function: They control the constriction of iris in the eye, blood vessels and also dilation of blood vessels by release of nitric oxide an endothelial relaxation factor.
M4 Receptors: These are located only in the brain and have limited function.
M5 Receptors: Theses also have limited function and are confined to only brain in distribution.
All the muscarnic receptors are G-protein coupled receptors. They have small differences among the mechanism of G-protein function for individual receptor type. Receptor M1 and M2 function by rise in intracellular calcium while M2 functions by influx of potassium.


The latest news from academia, regulators
research labs and other things of interest
Posted: Dec 12, 2012
New geometries: Researchers create new shapes of artificial microcompartments
(Nanowerk News) In nature, biological functions are often carried out in tiny protective shells known as microcompartments, structures that provide home to enzymes that convert carbon dioxide into energy in plant cells and to viruses that replicate once they enter the cell.
Most of these shells buckle into an icosahedron shape, forming 20 sides that allow for high interface with their surroundings. But some shells — such as those found in the single-celled Archaea or simple, salt-loving organisms called halophiles —break into triangles, squares, or non-symmetrical geometries. While these alternate geometries may seem simple, they can be incredibly useful in biology, where low symmetry can translate to higher functionality.
Researchers at Northwestern University have recently developed a method to recreate these shapes in artificial microcompartments created in the lab: by altering the acidity of their surroundings. The findings ("Molecular Crystallization Controlled by pH Regulates Mesoscopic Membrane Morphology") could lead to designed microreactors that mimic the functions of these cell containers or deliver therapeutic materials to cells at specific targeted locations.
“If you want to design a very clever capsule, you don’t make a sphere. But perhaps you shouldn’t make an icosahedron, either,” said Monica Olvera de la Cruz, Lawyer Taylor Professor of Materials Science and Engineering, Chemistry, and (by courtesy) Chemical and Biological Engineering at Northwestern’s McCormick School of Engineering and one of the paper’s authors. “What we are beginning to realize is maybe these lower symmetries are smarter.”
To create the new shell geometries, the researchers co-assembled oppositely charged lipids with variable degrees of ionization and externally modified the surrounding electrolyte. The resulting geometries include fully faceted regular and irregular polyhedral, such as square and triangular shapes, and mixed Janus-like vesicles with faceted and curved domains that resembled cellular shapes and shapes of halophilic organisms.
The research was conducted by three McCormick faculty members: Olvera de la Cruz, Lawyer Taylor Professor of Materials Science and Engineering, Professor of Chemistry, and (by courtesy) Chemical and Biological Engineering; Michael J. Bedzyk, professor of materials science and engineering and (by courtesy) physics and astronomy; and Samuel I. Stupp, Board of Trustees Professor of Materials Science and Engineering, Chemistry, and Medicine.
Source: Northwestern University
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This week we are talking about boundaries! If you have ever tried to set boundaries in the past and found the process difficult, you are certainly not alone. Setting them can be a challenge and almost feel like a selfish thing to do, but rest assured; those feelings are perfectly normal. As human beings, we have the desire to want to be liked and not go against the grain, which is why setting boundaries can cause internal tension. But moving through that tension may be the best thing you do. Because creating boundaries for your health can help to protect and maintain physical and emotional health, allowing you to prioritise your needs, reduce stress and burnout, and enhance relationships with those around you. If setting boundaries is new for you, we have put together some examples for physical, emotional, and social health, to provide some context and help to get your inspiration flowing: 1. Physical health Screen time is a boundary that can often slip through the net and is an example of how you could support physical health. With the increasing use of technology, having boundaries on social media, email, and other digital devices can make a big difference. Overuse of technology can negatively impact physical health, contributing to issues such as eye strain, poor posture, and a lack of physical activity. 2. Emotional health An example of supporting emotional health is being honest with those around you to let people know your needs, whether that be with family, friends, or colleagues. When it comes to family, it may be the case that you need an hour a day for you, so you can get out for a walk, take a bath, or go to your chiropractic appointment in peace. If you don't communicate this, the days can soon pass without any time out, creating stress, lowering mood, and putting pressure on relationships. 3. Social health Saying no can be challenging, but sometimes it is the best thing you can do to protect your health. Let’s take a social engagement as an example. You are invited to a party on a Friday but it doesn’t start until late, and you know when you reach the end of the week, all you will want to do is rest, eat good food, and get an early night. Rather than reluctantly saying yes, being honest by saying no and prioritising your needs will positively influence your health. Once the party is over, you will likely feel proud that you maintained your boundaries. As you may have noticed, the three areas we have discussed can all interlink and support one another. But by establishing clear boundaries, you can enhance your health, which will positively impact all areas of life. It is never too late to set boundaries, so why not take a moment today to reflect on whether you already have boundaries, or if it is time to create new ones? We look forward to hearing how you get on! The content of this blog is for educational purposes and is not intended to offer personal medical advice. You should seek the advice of a qualified healthcare provider with any questions you may have regarding a medical condition. Never disregard professional medical advice or delay in seeking it because of something you have read in this blog.
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The superhero alphabet printables are a great way for little learners to practice identifying and matching each letter of the alphabet. These will be a hit with every superhero fan!
These superhero letters free printables are a great addition to literacy centers. It is a fun activity to work on independently or with a partner. Download the printable pack at the bottom of the post
- letter recognition
- letter sound identification
What is your child’s favorite superhero? Does your child dress up and fight the bad guys? Why not sneak in a little learning using something that they love!
Superhero Printable Masks with Capital Letters
For children just beginning to explore the alphabet, start the mask cards. Matching capital letter to capital letter will be a gentle introduction to the alphabet. Start with only a few superhero cards at a time to match. This will be less overwhelming and your little superhero will have more success.
Match the upper case letters to make a mask or shield. My child’s favorite is Captain America. You could also use these as cutting practice. Give your child the shield or mask and challenge them to cut along the line to cut it in half.
Download the Superhero Capital Letter Matching Activity
Superheroes with Lowercase Letters
When your students are solid with their capital letter identification, you can begin to introduce lowercase letters. Introduce the letters first that look similar to their uppercase letter.
Match the lower case letters to the capital letters. You could also use these as cutting practice. Give your child the superhero and challenge them to cut along the line to cut it in half.
Clipart from MyClipartStore
Download the Superhero Capital and Lowercase Matching Activity
More Ways to Use the Superhero Alphabet Activities
Hide one part of the puzzle in the room. Find the pieces and match them.
Put the letters in alphabetical order.
Find the letters in your name.
Find all of the letters with straight lines only.
Find the letters that only have curves.
Turn it into a race. Put a few pieces in front of your child and the matching pieces at the end of the hall. Say “Go” and have your child race down to find the piece he is looking for and race back to complete the puzzle.
Put magnets on the back and move the matching game to a vertical surface that is magnetic such as the refrigerator. Working on a vertical surface is great for wrist rotation which is important for writing.
If you have a felt board, put velcro dots on the back of the cards and match them on the vertical surface of the felt board.
More Superhero Printables
Download the FREE Superhero Cut and Paste Activity Printable Set
The challenge is for your child to cut apart the superheroes (on the line). Then, mix them up and glue each piece on top of the matching hero.


What is the definition of a third world country and where did it come from? Are there first, second, and fourth world countries?
Coined by French demographer Alfred Sauvy in the 1950s, "third world" refers to economically underdeveloped countries. Sauvy was making an analogy between pre-industrial nations with the poor of pre-Revolutionary France, who were considered part of the "third estate."
When the concept became popularized, it was extended to include "first" (industrialized or westernized) and "second" (communist) worlds. These distinctions have become less useful with the end of the Cold War.
The concept of the "third world" still rings true as there are many nations with high infant mortality, high rates of poverty, and dependence on industrialized nations.


China’s size and rapid growth have made it an economic and political powerhouse. But while these advances transformed the country’s economy and lifted more than 500 million people out of poverty, they’ve come with environmental challenges.
China is a leading emitter of greenhouse gases. The country burns almost as much coal as the rest of the world combined—and has more than 350 new coal plants slated for development. Nearly 38 percent of China’s major lakes and 30 percent of its largest rivers are so polluted they’re unsafe for use.
China’s leaders recognize these problems and have made “ecological progress” a priority. WRI China—established in 2007—works with business, government, and community leaders to shift the country onto a more sustainable development path.
Our research-based solutions and tools allow businesses and governments to measure, manage, and reduce their greenhouse gas emissions. We identify methods to cost-effectively tackle China’s water quantity and quality concerns. We demonstrate models of environment-smart development for China’s growing cities. And we aim to advance safe, sustainable transport systems throughout the country.
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