Free video tutorials covering every chapter of class 6 science syllabus. In these tutorials, experts give a good explanation of every topic such as
- Major nutrients in our food
- Balanced Diet
- Methods of separating substances from their mixtures.
- Lots of variation in the food eaten in different regions of India.
- Terrestrial & aquatic habitat
- Rectilinear motion
- Variety of clothing material or fabric


A magnitude 7.7 earthquake struck deep beneath the Selat Mentawai (Mentawai Straight), between Sumatra and the nearby Simeulue and Nias Islands on April 6, 2010. Although it was stronger than any earthquake in the continental United States since the Great San Francisco Earthquake of 1906 (magnitude 7.8), it was modest by Indonesian standards. Two recent great earthquakes—a magnitude 8.6 on March 28, 2005, and a magnitude 9.1 on December 26, 2004—occurred within 125 kilometers of the recent quake. The structure of the region’s sea floor and the topography of the islands give clues about the source of the geological violence: Sumatra is part of an island arc along the boundary where the Australia and Sunda tectonic plates collide.
This map shows the location of the magnitude 7.7 earthquake (red star) and the series of weaker aftershocks that occurred over the next several days (red circles). The aftershocks ranged up to magnitude 5.1. The depth of the ocean is shown in blue, with darker colors representing deeper water. Elevation is shown in shades of brown; lighter areas are higher. The boundary between the Australia Plate and the Sunda Plate is a thick black line. Arrows represent the relative direction of motion of the two plates, which are colliding at a rate of about 60 millimeters (2 inches) per year. Most of the time, friction between the plates causes them to stick together, and stress increases over time. When enough stress builds to fracture the stuck rocks, the plates jump past each other, releasing energy in the form of earthquakes.
The map reveals typical features of a subduction zone: an oceanic trench, a fore-arc ridge, a fore-arc basin, and an island arc. The location of the plate boundary is marked by the Sunda Trench, a narrow band of very deep water that parallels the Sumatran coast. Along the trench (lower left), the Australia plate is moving underneath (represented by a curved arrow) the Sunda Plate, forming a deep trough. On the edge of the Sunda Plate, approximately 100 kilometers (60 miles) from the Sunda Trench and 180 kilometers (100 miles) from Sumatra, are a series of islands that are the crest of a fore-arc ridge. The ridge is formed primarily from marine sediments scraped off the top of the Australia plate and piled up on top of the leading edge of the Sunda Plate. These sediments are called an accretionary wedge.
Simeulue and Nias are separated from Sumatra by the Selat Mentawai. This sea is a fore-arc basin, a depression between the fore-arc ridge and island arc. Sediments washed into the basin from both the fore-arc ridge and island arc weigh down the crust in this area, creating the depression. Sumatra itself is part of an island arc. The island is raised above sea level by the upwelling of hot, buoyant magma, derived from partially melted rocks along the boundary between the subducting (Australia) plate and the overriding (Sunda) plate. Active volcanoes and calderas fed by the rising magma parallel Sumatra’s west coast. Among these is Toba Caldera, the site of the largest eruption in the past 2.5 million years.
Active subduction off the Indian Ocean coast of Sumatra is responsible for both the region’s geography and its earthquakes. Although rare on human timescales, over geologic time earthquakes are frequent in the area. The same forces that produce the earthquakes also created Sumatra, its volcanoes, the nearby islands, and shaped the sea floor.


Building upon neighborhood relationships, we launched a great program with the second grade classrooms at nearby Giffen Elementary School, supported by the Charles L. Touhey Foundation, Inc.!
The program began in February of 2017, and consisted of sustainability education undergraduate students from RPI working with four different second-grade classes at Giffen. Visits lasted from roughly 10AM to 12 noon each Wednesday, and consisted of lessons based around different themes. Subjects and activities we covered included:
- Growing microgreens and plant biology
- Soil structure and health
- Building worm composting bins and waste issues
- Air quality issues and studying the air quality index
- Renewable energy: solar, wind, and bicycle power
- Place-based education: the ecology of the South End
- Urban Biodiversity: the birds and bugs of Albany
Typically, lessons would begin with RPI students giving a short presentation on the general theme of each week, and then progress with the class dividing into smaller groups to work on hands-on projects. RPI students would meet with me each Monday to discuss teaching goals for the upcoming week. Projects were designed to build upon each other. For instance, microgreens were grown and eaten, and the leftover roots and seeds were fed to worms for further processing.
Once temperatures had warmed sufficiently in April, classes began making weekly visits to the Radix Center, conveniently located around the corner from Giffen. By doing this, students were able to observe the “micro-scale” systems they had been building in their classrooms modelled on a “meso” or neighborhood scale. This comparison gave them a sense of their place in the larger community, as well as the possibility for broader-scale sustainability system implementation.
The Radix visits were well-timed with the beginning of the growing season. Students were allowed the opportunity to weed garden beds, plant seeds, and observe germination and growth. Furthermore, they were able to observe closed-loop systems by feeding weeds to animals on the Radix farm, and seeing how compost was used to fertilize garden beds. Other topics explored were the ecology of compost piles and decomposers, and water cycles and rainwater harvesting.
Overall the program was a fantastic success. Not only did Giffen students learn and experience an incredible amount, but RPI students benefited from the experience of teaching in a real classroom setting.


One of the most basic forms of air pollution, haze, reduces visibility in many cities and scenic areas within the United States. Haze is caused when sunlight encounters tiny particles of air pollution. Some light is absorbed by these particles; other light is scattered away before it reaches an observer. More pollution means more absorption and scattering of light, which reduces the clarity and color of what we see. Haze-causing pollutants come from a variety of sources, both natural and man-made, including motor vehicles, electricity generation, industrial facilities, agriculture, and wildfires.
In amendments to the Clean Air Act in 1977, Congress added Section 169 (42 U.S. Code § 7491), setting forth a national visibility goal of restoring pristine conditions in national parks and wilderness areas. These areas were designated as Class I areas.
To achieve the national visibility goals mandated by Congress, in 1999 the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA) established a regulatory program called the Regional Haze Rule under the Clean Air Act. This program created regulations designed to improve visibility in our nation's national parks and wildernesses (Class I areas) and restore them to natural visibility conditions by 2064. The Regional Haze Rule is found in 40 CFR § 51.308 and covers over 150 Class I areas in the United States.
What are Minnesota’s Class I areas?
Minnesota has two Class I areas within its borders, the Boundary Waters Canoe Area Wilderness (BWCA) and Voyageurs National Park. Other nearby Class I areas include Isle Royale National Park in Michigan.
What does regional haze mean for Minnesota?
States are responsible for developing a Regional Haze State Implementation Plan (SIP) that addresses regional haze in each Class I area located within the state and in each Class I area located outside the state which may be affected by emissions from sources within the state. The Regional Haze SIP is required to identify existing facilities that cause or contribute to visibility impairment; analyze, identify, and apply federally-enforceable control strategies for those sources; and periodically demonstrate reasonable progress toward reaching visibility goals. States are also responsible for periodic comprehensive updates to their Regional Haze SIPs that address these same topics.
In between comprehensive updates, states are responsible for providing interim progress reports that outline the status of required Regional Haze SIP elements. These progress reports are generally due every five years after a state submits its SIP. The progress reports evaluate how the state is moving towards the visibility goals for each Class I area to assess whether or not changes to the state’s Regional Haze SIP are needed to achieve these goals.
Improving visibility at our most pristine places
During the development of Minnesota’s initial SIP, the MPCA determined that emissions sources within the state have or may have impacts both on the Class I areas within Minnesota and on the Class I area in Michigan. As a result, the MPCA submitted Minnesota’s initial Regional Haze SIP to fulfill the requirements of the Regional Haze Rule and help reduce visibility impairment in these Class I areas.
The regional haze interim progress goals are set separately for each location. Monitoring data shows both BWCA and Voyageurs National Park have achieved the 2018 interim progress goals toward natural visibility conditions.
In addition, improved visibility and the removal of haze-causing pollution from the atmosphere in order to promote increased visibility in Class I areas will result in environmental and economic benefits and improved health for Minnesota’s citizens and those in areas downwind of Minnesota.
This photo shows the view from the Boundary Waters Canoe Area Wilderness visibility monitor. The left side illustrates visibility conditions on average for the 20 percent best days. The right side shows what the view looks like on average on the 20 percent worst days in BWCA as a result of higher levels of fine particles.


Happy holidays and happy new year to all of our members and readers!
NACCHO’s preparedness staff would like to take a few moments to reflect upon the past year and the issues of greatest importance to our readership. As we look back at the top ten most popular featured articles, some strong themes emerge regarding local public health preparedness priorities and challenges:
Infectious Disease and Global Health Security
The emergence of numerous novel infectious disease threats this year highlights the importance of core public health functions such as epidemiological surveillance and investigation and risk communication. While some of these threats are domestic in origin, such as Enterovirus D-68, many of the more serious ones, such as Ebola and Chikungunya, originated outside of U.S. borders. These events are a stark reminder that local public health is a critical part of the global health security framework. In our interconnected, globalized age, we must be prepared for threats on the other side of the world to appear on our doorsteps without warning.
- Ebola in West Africa and the Importance of Local Health Departments to Global Health Security
- Chikungunya: Time to Prepare for a New Mosquito-Borne Virus in the United States
Response to Natural and Man-Made Disasters
Local health departments continue to serve as critical response partners when natural and manmade disasters occur in their jurisdictions. While each emergency situation is unique, the local public health preparedness community recognizes the value in sharing their stories and experiences with each other. Disasters are never welcome, but they do provide a crucial opportunity for all to examine their plans, procedures, responsibilities, and relationships to learn from the experiences of their peers.
- The Washington State Oso Mudslide: Response, Rescue, and Recovery
- The Hazmat Spill in West Virginia: What It Means for Local Public and Environmental Health
Significant funding cuts since 2010 have posed serious challenges for local health departments as they strive to maintain their preparedness capabilities and meet the response needs of their communities. While data from NACCHO’s 2013 National Profile of Local Health Departments shows that cuts to preparedness staff have slowed, funding cuts seriously threaten other aspects of preparedness, including training, exercising, maintaining equipment, conducting community outreach, and collaborating with response partners. By failing to fund preparedness in a continuous and sufficient manner, we threaten the ability of local health departments and their partners to effectively protect their communities when disaster inevitably strikes.
- NACCHO’s 2013 National Profile of Local Health Departments Shows Continued Funding Cuts for Preparedness
- Are Preparedness Funding Cuts Impacting the Capability of Local Health Departments to Respond to Global Health Security Threats?
- Hospital Preparedness Program Budget Cuts Could Jeopardize Gains Made in Healthcare and Public Health Preparedness
Community Preparedness and Engagement
Local health departments and their response partners continue striving for whole community engagement in public health preparedness planning, including vulnerable and stigmatized populations. They continue to explore novel and targeted risk communication methods to better reach all corners of the community, including new mobile technologies. Local health departments also recognize that motivated and engaged community members are assets in themselves, and have much to contribute to local preparedness efforts. The Medical Reserve Corps program provides one such opportunity to leverage the skills and knowledge of the local community in service of public health.
- NACCHO Funds 29 Innovative Public Health Projects through the Medical Reserve Corps Challenge Award
- Health Equity Considerations for Local Health Departments’ Ebola Preparedness Planning: An Interview with Dr. Aletha Maybank
- New NACCHO/UPMC Report Released: Riding the Mobile Wave
Overall, it is clear that while 2014 posed some unanticipated and unprecedented challenges, local health departments continue to find new, improved, and innovative ways to protect the health and safety of their communities.
As we at NACCHO strive for continuous improvement to the Preparedness Brief blog in 2015, we hope you will take 5 minutes to take a brief readership survey, to help us keep this blog useful and relevant to you.
Best wishes for a safe and healthy new year!
–The NACCHO Preparedness Team


Through the Public Education Information Management System, known as PEIMS, Texas has built one of the largest education data bases in the world. This data provides a treasure trove of information for researchers, parents and the public at large to mine and learn about the workings of 1,200 districts and charters, as well as TEA. That information and other data is used to create a number of reports that provide information about a variety of topics, such as student performance, spending and implementation of legislation.
The Accountability Ratings site shows ratings as well as the data used to determine the ratings for each campus and district. The site also shows the Distinction Designations earned by campuses.
Federal Report Cards
The U.S. Department of Education requires each state to publish an annual report card with specific district- and campus-level data.
The School Report Cards (SRC), produced annually for each Texas public school campus, contain some information from the Texas Academic Performance Reports (TAPR), as well as some information from the Accountability Rating System for Texas Public Schools and Districts.
The Texas Academic Performance Reports (TAPR), formerly known as the AEIS (Academic Excellence Indicator System) reports, pull together a wide range of information on the performance of students in each school and district in Texas every year. Performance is shown disaggregated by student groups, including ethnicity and low income status. The reports also provide extensive information on school and district staff, programs, and student demographics.


This original 1934 factory film explores the ground-breaking engineering that produced the fascinating but doomed Chrysler Airflow. it’s a great story, don’t miss it.
REVISED AND EXPANDED — Produced by the Chrysler Corporation in 1934, this short promotional film is titled Fashioned for Function, which also happened to be an Airflow advertising slogan. The clip is great viewing today on a number of counts, but we especially enjoyed seeing the state of the art in automotive aerodynamics circa 1934.
As Chrysler engineering guru Carl Breer liked to point out, early automobiles were often more aerodynamically efficient when they were turned around backward. We see that principle illustrated here, and we are also treated to a glimpse of Breer himself at work. The film also shows the 1/10 scale wind tunnel at Chrysler’s Highland Park engineering lab, a potential first in the auto industry that was developed with guidance from aviation pioneer Orville Wright. There are also demonstrations of tufting, oil and lampblack testing, and the other techniques used to understand aerodynamics in the early 1930s.
Along with the aero, the film explores other aspects of the Airflow’s advanced design, including its innovative packaging and semi-unitized construction. The 1934-1937 Chrysler/DeSoto Airflow line might be one of the more notable flops in Motor City history, but it wasn’t for the lack of sound and innovative engineering, as this fascinating film illustrates. Video below.


Many people think of Harry Truman as ''a very small man who rose to the presidency by luck, by happenstance.'' By contrast, Robert Ferrell contends Truman will win a place in history as ''one of the best American presidents'' - decisive, modest, and an effective manager.
Ferrell, a History professor at Indiana University, traces Truman's political career from his first elected post as a Missouri county commissioner through his retirement from the nation's highest office.The atom bomb . . . the Truman Doctrine . . . the Marshall Plan . . . NATO . . . the Korean war . . . all emerged during his tenure as president.
In this concise, selective biography, Ferrell is clearly admiring but not uncritical. For example, he states flatly that the decision to bomb Hiroshima and Nagasaki was made ''with insufficient forethought.'' Yet the author's judgments are always well supported, including this one: ''[N]o political figure of the twentieth century . . . proved as willing as Truman to stand up for what he believed.''


Gender dysphoria is a complicated process that differs from person to person and intensity. Some aspects to gender dysphoria may be more easily assisted than others; for example, the use of preferred pronouns is one small and simple tonic for part of an individual’s gender dysphoria (that is, by using an individual’s preferred pronouns, you alleviate the dysphoria they feel in regards to being referred to the pronouns associated with their sex assigned at birth), similarly with using their preferred name.
An individual assigned male at birth, for example, may experience an intense gender dysphoria when they are masculine presenting (that is, when they look as males are expected to), and find that certain aspects or symptoms of their gender dysphoria are alleviated by being feminine presenting – for example, they feel much more comfortable or ‘themselves’ when they are wearing feminine clothes, make-up, etc, than when they are in a suit and tie and with a beard (this is a very basic example).
When left untreated, gender dysphoria can have severe mental health complications for the individual experiencing it.
Originally published: 3rd December, 2020
Last modified: 3rd December, 2020


Understanding Postpartum Psychosis
Postpartum psychosis is a devastating and horrifying mental health condition that occurs in women after childbirth. Though rare, it can have serious consequences for the mother, her child and her family.
Postpartum psychosis is highly treatable and doesn’t necessarily result in a chronic mental illness. Being aware of the signs of this mental health condition is vital so treatment can be sought early enough to achieve a full recovery.
What is Postpartum Psychosis?
Postpartum psychosis is a condition that affects women in the weeks and months after giving birth. It has similar effects as a bipolar episode (manic-depressive episode). Postpartum psychosis is also occasionally referred to as puerperal psychosis, postnatal psychosis, bipolar disorder triggered by childbirth, mania or schizoaffective disorder.
Women suffering from postpartum psychosis experience severe hallucinations, paranoia and delusions. These cause bizarre and horrifying behaviors as they care for the baby. During these “psychotic episodes,” the woman is completely detached from reality. By the nature of the condition, women aren’t aware of their bizarre behaviors and rather think that they are rational.
For this reason, postpartum psychosis is a very dangerous condition that can have tragic outcomes. An estimated 10 percent of postpartum psychosis cases result in suicide or infanticide. Because of these risks, many women with postpartum psychosis are hospitalized for an extended period of time while they wait for medications to take effect.
Who Does Postpartum Psychosis Affect?
Postpartum psychosis is a condition that affects between 1 and 2 women out of every 1,000 births. It is considered a rare condition when compared to the prevalence of other postpartum conditions such as depression and anxiety.
While postpartum psychosis directly affects the mother, the rest of the family feels the effects as well. The condition prevents proper bonding between mother and child. Additionally, when a woman is hospitalized, the primary responsibility of child care falls to the father or other family members like the mother’s parents or in-laws.
Postpartum Psychosis Causes and Risk Factors
Because postpartum psychosis is so rare, its causes aren’t totally understood. Like most postpartum conditions, psychosis may set in due to the dramatic drop in hormone levels after the birth. This drop creates mood and behavioral instabilities.
These changes, combined with the pressure of new parental responsibilities, can trigger psychotic symptoms in women.
Postpartum Psychosis Risk Factors
In addition to the biological factors and the stressful responsibilities of child care, postpartum psychosis has other risk factors that can make women more vulnerable to developing it,
Here are some of the known risk factors of postpartum psychosis in women:
- A history of previous postpartum psychosis
- Being previously diagnosed with and treated for bipolar disorder (manic depression)
- A history of depression, anxiety and/or obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)
- A family history of bipolar disorder or other mood disorders
- Current or past life stressors such as lack of social support, divorce, financial troubles, etc.
- Low socioeconomic status
- Having obsessive personality traits
Postpartum Psychosis Symptoms
Symptoms of postpartum psychosis come on very suddenly and manifest themselves in ways similar to bipolar disorder. These manic-depressive states create “psychotic episodes” characterized by paranoia and delusions.
Postpartum psychosis symptoms typically appear in as little as 48 to 72 hours. Most symptoms of postpartum psychosis will present themselves in 2 weeks to 3 months following childbirth.
Here are some common signs and symptoms of postpartum psychosis:
- Sudden onset of symptoms (seemingly coming out of nowhere)
- Delusions and hallucinations that the woman thinks are real
- Serious agitation and anxiousness
- Inability to sleep or insomnia
- Being hyperactive or purposely trying to stay busy
- Behaving irrationally
- Becoming confused or making poor decisions
- Trouble concentrating and remembering things
- Sudden angry outbursts
- Emotional dysregulation (mood swings)
- Aggression towards others
- Suicidal or infanticidal threats/attempts
When postpartum psychosis first develops, some of the earliest signs you may notice are an increase in restlessness, insomnia and irritability. These can quickly morph into intense mood swings, eventually leading to full-on psychotic episodes.
Women may move quickly from “highs” such as elation to “lows” such as disorientation and confusion. Women with postpartum psychosis may also seem to be disorganized or scattered in their thoughts and behaviors.
When postpartum psychosis becomes severe, women will have delusional beliefs that center on their child. In some cases, women may hear voices that don’t exist. These voices may be instructing the woman to harm herself or the baby.
It’s important to understand that in these situations, the woman cannot distinguish between hallucination and reality, so she is not aware of her own actions or thoughts. This puts her at serious risk to her own health and her baby’s health.
Postpartum Psychosis Treatment
Postpartum psychosis requires immediate attention. Women experiencing psychotic episodes during the postpartum period almost always need to be hospitalized to protect the health and safety of both her and her child.
During hospitalization, the child is temporarily removed from the mother’s care. Women are then placed on antipsychotic medications, sedatives or other mood-altering medications to control the psychosis.
In addition to hospitalization and medication, women with postpartum psychosis also undergo psychotherapy with a psychiatrist or another mental health professional. Electroconvulsive therapy is sometimes used to treat women with postpartum psychosis.
If your loved one is exhibiting any signs of postpartum psychosis, it is critical to seek treatment immediately. She is likely not aware of her symptoms and so it is up to her support circle to help her obtain the necessary treatments.
With immediate and appropriate treatment, women with postpartum psychosis can make a full recovery, go on to live normal lives and develop healthy maternal bonds with their children.


In this video you will learn how to cut the fabric required for the casing and binding of a Jhabla.
Watch the previous video to learn how to cut fabric required for the bodice.
We shall start by making a casing for a drawstring along the neckline.
1 Making the casing for the neckline
To do this, choose a fabric that complements the colour of the primary pieces and spread it out flat on top of the table.
Fold the fabric in two along its width and once more along its length.
Then, fold the piece cut away earlier from the neckline and place it at the corner of the fabric such that all folds are aligned together, as shown.
We shall cut out a circular strip which is 2 inches in width.
Mark a series of points 2 inches from the arc of the neck piece.
Once this is done, mark the outline of the neck piece.
You can now cut the fabric along the arcs.
Now that the material for the neckline casing is ready, you can proceed to cut out binding strips for the armhole.
2. Making the strips for binding
Take the remaining fabric from which the casing was cut out and ensure there is enough material left for a 9 inch strip.
Fold the cloth along the remaining length and and mark a series of points one-and-a-half inches from the fold.
Draw a line running through the points.
Now, cut the cloth along the line you have just drawn.
Put aside the excess fabric.
Cut the strip of cloth in half along the fold so that it forms two strips measuring exactly 1 and a half inches in width.
These strips will be used to bind the sleeves.
Remember that the length of the strips have to be a minimum of 9 inches.
You have now learnt how to cut fabric required for the casing and binding of a Jhabla.
To learn how to cut the drawstring, watch the next video.


Smith, William (1679-1839). A delineation of the strata of England and Wales, with part of Scotland. London: J. Cary, 1815
William Smiths geological map of England is much better known than Fareys, and was recently called, somewhat over-enthusiastically, "the map that changed the world". It is nevertheless a monumental cartographical achievement. It was issued in fifteen sections, and in our copy, the sections are bound as an atlas. Section 8 shows the area that includes Derbyshire. There is a formation that is colored bright blue, and looks a bit like a amoeba. This blue region contains the Derbyshire toadstone, and corresponds to Fareys formations 8 and 9. In the bottom right corner of the blue area you can see the word "Matlock Bath." This is where Whitehurst made the section that we have on display (see exhibit item 42).


Meaning Of Name Chloe. The origin of the name chloe is greek. She was referred to as chloe in the spring months, due to the name’s relation to sprouts and growth.
In the new testament, chloe is a convert of st. Chloe means “blooming”, “fertility” and “green shoot” meaning new plants, that grow in spring (from ancient greek “khlóē/χλόη”). The letter c is said to be cheerful, strong and determined.
In The New Testament, Chloe Is A Convert Of St.
She was referred to as chloe in the spring months, due to the name’s relation to sprouts and growth. The most common alternative spelling is khloe, thanks to celebrity khloe kardashian. Appears in the bible as the name of someone mentioned by saint paul, and also as a.
Another Name For Demeter, The Goddess Of Agriculture And Fertility.
Chloe (also chloë, cloe, chloé, kloe, khloe, khloë, khloé, kloé or kloë) is a female christian name meaning blooming. What makes it an interesting name. As an english name, chloe has been in use since the protestant reformation.
From The Greek “Khloe,” It Was Used To Represent Demeter, The Fertility Goddess.
The name chloe is primarily a female name of greek origin that means verdant and blooming. Chloe is a ♀ female name. Chloe was a christian woman of corinth who informed paul of the disputes within the local church.
From Khloe, Originally Used In The Classical Period To Symbolize The Fertility Goddess Demeter In Blooming And Verdant Glory.
It has to do with the word χλωρος ( chloros ), meaning green. She was referred to as chloe in the spring months, due to the name’s relation to sprouts and growth. Its literal translation refers to young shoots of foliage that appear in the spring.
The Letter C Is Said To Be Cheerful, Strong And Determined.
Strong and courageous you are a person who is not easily discouraged. The name is also mentioned by paul in one of his epistles in the new testament. Chloe is also mentioned in the new testament as the name of.


Book Excerpt: Cisco Secure Internet Security Solutions - part 3 - Page 3
There are only a few changes from the basic configuration. You first changed the inside IP address to reflect the separate network between the PIX and the interior router. The two global commands shown next assign both NAT and PAT to be used by the inside hosts. Because you used a range of IP addresses, the first global command allows for each host on the LAN to get a dynamically assigned global address, or NAT. Once all of the available global IP addresses are in use, any hosts attempting to connect to the outside will use PAT. The second global line is critical because it assigns one address for use with PAT. If a single address is not reserved for use by PAT, hosts will simply not be able to get through the PIX.
The users will think that the Internet connection has been dropped, because they will receive no indication of a problem other than a lack of connection.
You might wonder why the range of IP addresses starts at 50 in the first global command. This allows servers to have static IP addresses. The number 50 was arbitrarily chosen. Whatever number is chosen ensures that there are sufficient reserved IP addresses for all servers on the network. You could have also reserved a set of IP addresses on the upper end of the network. The inside and outside routes were also changed to reflect the network as shown in Figure 4-6. You are now actually ready to allow users on the Internet to access your e-mail, FTP, and Web services.
Setting up to allow e-mail to traverse the PIX requires a few new commands. This replaces the mailhost command in previous versions of the PIX. These commands are covered later in this section. Enter the following lines into the PIX configuration.
static (inside, outside) 192.168.1.49 10.1.1.49 netmask 255.255.255.255 0 0 conduit permit tcp host 192.168.1.49 eq smtp anyThat is all that is required to allow SMTP packets to traverse the PIX to the server with the 10.1.1.49 IP address. Users outside the PIX will see this server as 192.168.1.49. Packets sent to 192.168.1.49 will have NAT applied to them and will be forwarded to 10.1.1.49. Only the SMTP commands HELLO, MAIL, RCPT, DATA, RSET, NOOP, and QUIT are allowed through the PIX. The response to all other SMTP commands is an OK packet from the PIX. You added two new commands here, the static and the conduit commands. Each of them will be examined before moving on to the FTP and Web servers.


Etymology: From Latin "lanugo" = "wool-like
surface" and "spina" = "spine" for its downy
Description: The typical
Haageocereus lanugispinus (Pygmaeocereus
densiaculeatus) is a
small finger sized sprawling
cactus spreading from its base with most unusual dense, plumose, short,
glassy white spines which detach very easily. The
crested form is less rare than the normal plant, and it is particularly sought after for its white
glassy cover of spines. Also
stay quite small, making a fascinating specimen.
However the crested form sometimes throws off normal stems, but they
proved to be particularly difficult to root, for this reason the few
plants found in specialized cactus collections are - usually - grafted.
mountain cactus necessitate deep
and a well
mineral potting mix.
Need a sufficient
amount of air. They
overwatering, but need enough water during
vegetation. They tolerate light frost -5
(-10) °C. Need to be kept in a cool place
winter rest this is important for the flowers as well as for their
health. Without this cool winter period they normally wont get many
buds. Need a good amount of sun.
Propagation: Usually propagated by
grafting . Grafted plants in culture are most common and sprout
strongly. But it is also feasible
to root them but they grow much slower on their own roots.


Research has revealed that young Brits are among the many that lack cyber security awareness, despite the continuing push to boost skills.
The surveys of 2,261 respondents revealed that more than 52% of Britons aged 18-25 are using the same password for a number of different online services. Additionally, 27% of respondents admitted to using the same key identifier to unlock their account across all platforms.
On average, the survey found that people use at least six online accounts including social media and online shopping all with the same log ins. Shockingly some admitted having up to 21 different accounts, with the same or similar credentials. Furthermore, a staggering 79% of the respondents admitted that they had sent bank details or copies of identification documents via messaging systems.
The survey results increased concerns over the safety of sensitive data on the internet and the ease it will bring hackers to steal data. The UK Government’s Cyber Aware campaign warned internet users of the dangers of repeating passwords, as well as the impact it can bring to them such as identity theft.
“With cyber-attacks a regular occurrence in today’s headlines, it is distressing to see that the public still hasn’t taken steps to better protect their personal information online,” Rob Norris VP Head of Enterprise & Cyber Security EMEIA at Fujitsu said. “Every one of us who has ever used the internet from their mobile, PC, laptop or tablet, shopped online or opened an email account is now a potential target to hackers.
The Cyber Aware Campaign suggested that users use strong and separate passwords for all of their accounts. Additionally, other advice they offered was for users to not use names of children, pets or other things that could be easily discovered or hacked into.
Additional security elements have been added to many platforms to better protect individuals. One of those is the two-factor authentication ability, which Apple introduced in its iOS 11 update. This gives individuals the ability to create a double security layer, making it harder for hackers to access their accounts.
The survey findings have caused quite a stir among the technology industry, bringing concern that not enough is being done to reduce results like these.
“One thing users should also consider is two factor authentication alternatives where possible. As passwords and PIN numbers are increasingly being considered a thing of the past because they can be copied, stolen, guessed or shared easily, consumers should be considering biometrics such as facial, voice, iris, palm or fingerprint, for an additional layer of protection,” said Norris.
– Cyber Security concerns grow as actions stay the same – McAfee
– Cisco looks to the education sector for cyber security skills
A contributing factor to increasing cyber security awareness around passwords is the MPs password scandal that happened late last year. It was found that MPs were giving their passwords to other people to access their accounts, or leaving accounts logged in giving free access to hackers to take control of their computers and accounts.
Following the discovery, the UK clamped down on cyber security to ensure everyone had the right skills and awareness to protect themselves. Various programmes have been launched, such as a £20m cyber security training programme, as well as added training within organisations.
Norris said: “There are no more excuses for users to put cyber security on the backbench – we need to stay ahead of the curve when it comes to safeguarding our technology and be vigilant when it comes to our practices.”


Anybody wishing to understand the relationship between Russia and Iran better should start by looking at an atlas and a history book. From Moscow’s perspective, Iran is a near neighbour and there is a shared history connecting Russia to Persia – in uneasy proximity. Persia became part of Russia’s sphere of influence following the second Russo-Persian War of 1828. There have been phases of constructive cooperation, but also of hostilities, which are still remembered in Iran to this day. Even before then, there were mutual and conflicting interests on both sides.
Today, Russia sees Iran as a key state in containing US dominance and shoring up its own influence in the Middle East, which has declined since the Soviet era. However, regional dominance for Iran would not be in the interests of Russia’s foreign policy, which is reliant on balance to maintain stability.
Moscow considers that the US is responsible for the current Iranian crisis. Furthermore, this chimes with the anti-American rhetoric of Moscow’s propaganda. The Russian population, on the other hand, is largely indifferent to Iran. Ukraine is closer and at one point even Syria came in for a certain amount of national attention. Iran evokes fewer emotions. As there is no appetite for a broad national discourse on foreign policy, developments in Iran tend to be a specialist subject area reserved for political scientists.
Divide, yes, but at no great risk
Moscow has no particular interest in an escalation of the Iran conflict. Certainly, it likes to use the situation as a means of dividing Western society – but not at any price. From Russia’s perspective, Iran has an important role in the force field of the Middle East, but Russia is also making efforts to create or bolster relationships with countries from the wider region that are anywhere on the scale from negative up to downright hostile towards Iran: Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Israel. This multi-vector policy is inconsistent with the dominance of a regional power, even that of Iran. Additionally, there are various interests prohibiting a fundamental partnership between Russia and Iran other than one arising from the situation.
In the spirit of its role as a major power, Russia must do all in its power to preserve the geopolitical balance of the Middle East, so as to strengthen security on its southern flank. Military hostilities between the US and Iran would generate too many uncertainties. Russia would have to decide whether and how to get involved in a conflict with uncertain consequences. A military victory for the USA would destroy the balance to which Russia aspires.
Economic interests are a less important factor for Russia. Trade between the two countries is insignificant ($1.7 billion in 2018) and Russia and Iran are competitors in the oil and gas markets.
Pragmatism is an opportunity
Russia’s interest in limiting and controlling the Iranian nuclear programme is enormous and one of principle. For the sake of its security, Moscow is keen to prevent any proliferation of nuclear weapons in the Middle East. Accordingly, Russia has previously gone along with UN sanctions against Iran. This increases the prospects of keeping the nuclear deal with Iran afloat. Although Russia would like to back Iran against the US sanctions, it is not prepared to do this to its own detriment. Above all, Moscow hopes to contain the conflict. This pragmatism and its interest-driven policy offer possibilities for solutions to which Russia could actively contribute as well. It is worth noting that Russia’s policy in the Middle East is often characterised by local knowledge and skilful diplomacy that tend to be missing from relations with the former Soviet republics.
Currently, there are many indications that the USA is keen to avoid military combat with Iran. A direct confrontation with Russia is even more unlikely and externally, Russia stresses its solidarity with Iran. If it came to war, however, its military intervention would be almost unthinkable from current perspectives. At most, Russia could supply weapons and exchange strategic information and reconnaissance data with Teheran.
In the Middle East, Russian behaviour seems more predictable than what the President of the United States or the Iranian government might do. Certainly, Russia’s influence over the latter is limited. The external hostile pressure benefits Teheran by overshadowing tensions at home. However, a moderate escalation of the conflict could spiral out of control if the regime felt compelled to back up its provocative gestures and strong words with actions.


From bread and pie to pastries and cakes, baking has a long history that has satisfied the hunger of countless people from worldwide civilizations for thousands of years. The next time you bake a culinary masterpiece—or simply pop a frozen pizza in the oven—think of this history of baking.
The oldest known ovens were unearthed in Croatia in 2014. They are estimated to be 6,500 years old. The Egyptians were also pioneers in baking as the first recorded civilization to use yeast in their bread as long ago as 2600 BC.
Then, there was the Roman Empire’s Baker’s Guild established around 168 BC. This organization, called the Pistorum, recognized bread bakers as skilled artisans. In fact, baking was held in such high regard that a festival was held once a year to celebrate Fornax, the oven goddess.
Baking in the Middle Ages
During the Medieval period, ovens weren’t a standard fixture in any home. Those who could afford wood-burning stoves (and the fuel to heat them) baked bread. The ability to produce high-quality bread helped people climb higher up the social ladder.
In the Middle Ages, wheat bread was reserved for wealthy people. Dense, rich cakes in exotic colors were only available to the highest echelons of society. Poor people stuck with rye and black bread and, if they could afford it, meat pies.
15th – 17th Century Baking
The introduction of saffron and other expensive spices helped baking take off in Britain in the 15th century. Sweetened dough buns, mincemeat pies, and gingerbread all entered the scene at this point in the history of baking.
Economic growth and globalization in the 16th and 17th centuries led to more decadent treats with butter, cream, and raisins. Baking became more accessible to the average person at this time, so families started to bake cakes and biscuits together. Late in the 17th century, the price of sugar went down, and refined flour became available, bringing desserts to the forefront, including pastries, pies, and iced cakes.
18th – 19th Century Baking
The Industrial Revolution marked a turning point for the accessibility of cake-making in the average home—not only because of changes in taste and the availability of ingredients, but because of evolution in technology. The development of the semi-closed oven and the publishing of The Art of Cookery in 1747 provided budding chefs with the tools and ideas they needed to try an array of cake recipes.
As more women became employed in the 19th century, they had less time to devote to elaborate food preparation. As a result, convenience food grew in popularity, which cut down on the time women had to spend in the kitchen. Also introduced in this century, baking powder transformed the dense, yeast-based cakes of centuries past into the light, fluffy baked goods we know today.
Today, baking plays an integral role in modern life. Whether you enjoy baking from scratch or you like the convenience of purchasing premade food you can throw in the oven, there’s no arguing that flour is one of the most important features of our diet. It takes on countless forms, from traditional sugar cookies to easy frozen pizza to homemade wheat rolls.
Whatever you choose to bake, you need a reliable oven to get the job done. As a reminder, Mr. Appliance® can repair your broken oven—whether gas or electric—and restore modern convenience to your home. Once your oven is up and running again, try making these tasty mason jar recipes courtesy of Glass Doctor!


Acupuncture is a branch of Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM).
In TCM the body is described as having an “energy” flowing through it called “Chi”. This energy is said to flow along “meridians” that are channels throughout the body. An “acupuncturist” inserts needles at certain points on these meridians which are said to block or aid the flow of Chi and so bring balance and ultimately health to the body and mind.
Acupuncture helps by addressing problems that affect fertility such as an under-functioning thyroid (hypothyroidism) or over-functioning thyroid (hyperthyroidism).
Acupuncture is frequently combined with herbal medicine. This combination has been used for centuries to treat some but not all causes of infertility. For example, acupuncture and herbs will not work to address tubal adhesions which can occur as a result of pelvic inflammatory disease or endometriosis.
However, in this situation, an individual could still benefit from acupuncture and herbs because of the potential effect of improved ovarian and follicular function. Additionally, acupuncture can increase blood flow to the endometrium, helping to facilitate a thick, rich lining.
Acupuncture is similar to physical therapy in that the more sessions and treatment you have the more likely the treatment will work. It is better to do more than less. Patients are commonly treated for three to four months before progressing to insemination, in vitro fertilization (IVF), or donor-egg transfer. This pacing of treatment seems to have a therapeutic effect.
It is important that anyone considering any complimentary medicine should not stop getting advice and help from conventional medical sources. If you feel that acupuncture may help with becoming pregnant you must still consult a doctor and continue taking any prescribed medicines


Science Shows Hierarchy in College Basketball
College basketball's March Madness is about to engulf fans across the country. At Duke University, an engineering professor says the usual suspects will dominate the NCAA Tournament. And Adrian Bejan says that can be explained by his theory of Constructal Law. He says great basketball players tend to wind up at the same colleges and universities in the same way water flows to a single point through many small streams that join bigger and fewer river channels.
Bejan says once established, that hierarchical structure is hard to change.
"Once a college is one of these, you know, big channels, this college actually attracts the best players and attracts the best coaches. The other ones who would like to break into the elite, meaning colleges or players or coaches and so forth have to go to great lengths to recruit, to invest, to build, to grow, to spread the news."
Bejan says his theory can not predict a victor of tomorrow night's game between Duke and Carolina. The winner ends the regular season in first place and gets a number one seed in next week's ACC Tournament.


This recent article by the National High Schools Center looked at Early Warning Indicators (EWI) of English language learners to identify graduation trends for these students. Edweek has published a recent article on this report and it highlights :
1. How well 9th graders perform in their courses predict whether they will graduate– more telling that their English language profiency.
2. Grade point average
These 3 indicators can accurately predict the high likely of dropping out of high school. As part of a multi-tier system of support (MTSS) or an Response to Intervention (RTI) model we can used this information to provide a strong core that engages students and keep them coming and completing their work at Tier 1 level. It can also serve to identify Tier 2 and Tier 3 needs and interventions so that they can perform in their courses and be successful in 9th grade thus increasing the probability that will graduate. This is a great link between this two frameworks with promising practices for teachers and administrators.
Here is a link to the article in Ed Week


According to Jo’s Cervical Cancer Trust, cervical cancer is the most common form of cancer in women under 35, with two women in the UK dying per day from the disease. Regular screening can prevent up to 75% of cervical cancer, which could save 5,000 lives per year.
But despite the importance of cervical screening, many women are failing to attend their appointments. Research by Jo’s Cervical Cancer Trust states that 1-in-4 women skip the cervical screening, with the proportion increasing to 1-in-3 among those aged 25 to 29, and 1-in-2 in more deprived regions of the UK.
There are many reasons why women miss their appointment, including embarrassment of their body, past or current sexual abuse, women believing they are healthy due to not having any symptoms, and some women reporting that they didn’t believe having the test done would reduce their chances of having cancer.
This week is National Cervical Screening Awareness Week, an annual event organised by Jo’s Cervical Cancer Trust. The purpose of the week is to promote the importance of regular cervical screening, also known as smear tests.
So let’s take a look at the most commonly asked questions to help alleviate any fears you may have and help you to make an informed choice when it comes to deciding whether to book your cervical screening test.
When you attend your smear test a nurse or doctor will take a sample of cells which are collected from the cervix. These cells are then sent off to the lab and checked for abnormalities that may suggest you are at increased risk of developing cervical cancer in the future.
A lot of women worry that a cervical screening test will hurt. For some the test is uncomfortable but it does not hurt. The nurse or doctor will use a plastic speculum to help open up the vagina so they can see the top of your cervix. Using a small brush, they gently wipe around the edge to collect cells. The whole test takes less than 5 minutes.
Your test results will take about 2 weeks, a paper copy will be posted to you and your doctor.
According to Jo’s Cervical Cancer Trust, it is extremely rare for cervical cancer to be diagnosed from cervical screening. Only about 1 in 2,000 (less than 1%) people with an abnormal cervical screening result will have cervical cancer.
To keep it simple there are three main categories that results will fall into:
- Normal - meaning that there were no changes to the cells and you will be invited back for a smear test in 3-5 years time depending on your age.
- Inadequate - this means that the test could not be read properly, most likely because there weren’t enough cells to examine.
- Abnormal - this indicates that you may have borderline or low-grade cell changes. These changes are very close to being normal and may not need treatment. Further testing is done on your cells in the lab and then a decision is made on the next step to take.
How Often Do I Have to Have a Cervical Screen?
"You will be invited to have a cervical screening from the age of 25 in the UK, every 3 years. This then extends to every 5 years between the ages of 50 - 64. If you have missed a screening you can call your doctor and book a test without waiting to be invited."
Can I have a Smear Test on my Period?
It is unlikely that the doctor will perform the test if you’re on your period as the blood and tissue can interfere with the results. If you have an irregular period you may have to re-arrange your appointment, however, call the doctor and double check first.
Due to the cells being collected from the cervix, it’s possible that you may experience some spotting following the test. This spotting is nothing to worry about and is unlikely that it’s a sign of your period starting. The bleeding should stop after a day. If it doesn’t, contact your nurse or doctor.
Can I protect myself from cervical cancer?There are things you can do to reduce the risk of contracting HPV including:
- Using condoms
- Regularly attending smear tests from the age of 25
- Having the HPV vaccine that is offered to girls aged 11-17
What Are The Symptoms Of Cervical Cancer?
The initial signs of cervical cancer can include:
- Abnormal bleeding during or after sex
- Irregular bleeding between periods
- Post-menopausal bleeding if not on HRT, or have stopped it for 6 weeks or more
- Unusual vaginal discharge
- Discomfort or pain during sex
- Lower back pain
As cervical cancer develops there are other symptoms that may become apparent such as:
- Needing to urinate more
- Blood in urine
- Bleeding from the bottom
- Incontinence (not being able to control bladder and bowel movements)
- Swelling in lower limbs
It’s important to add that it’s possible to have cervical cancer without any of the symptoms above. This highlights the importance of having a smear test as this can pick up on any cell abnormalities.
Where can I get more information on Cervical Screening?
During National Cervical Screening Awareness Week there will be stands and information points at some doctor’s surgeries, community centres, and sports centres. You can also pop into your doctor’s surgery to ask any questions you may have.
Jump on social media and check out women’s stories as they share their experiences throughout the week.
If you feel comfortable to talk to a friend or family member they may be able to offer you advice, reassurance, and information.


by Staff Writers
Dartmouth UK (SPX) May 23, 2013
A new Dartmouth College study finds human-caused climate change may have little impact on many species of tropical lizards, contradicting a host of recent studies that predict their widespread extinction in a rapidly warming planet.
Most predictions that tropical cold-blooded animals, especially forest lizards, will be hard hit by climate change are based on global-scale measurements of environmental temperatures, which miss much of the fine-scale variation in temperature that individual animals experience on the ground, said the article's lead author, Michael Logan, a Ph.D. student in ecology and evolutionary biology.
To address this disconnect, the Dartmouth researchers measured environmental temperatures at extremely high resolution and used those measurements to project the effects of climate change on the running abilities of four populations of lizard from the Bay Islands of Honduras. Field tests on the captured lizards, which were released unharmed, were conducted between 2008 and 2012.
Previous studies have suggested that open-habitat tropical lizard species are likely to invade forest habitat and drive forest species to extinction, but the Dartmouth research suggests that the open-habitat populations will not invade forest habitat and may actually benefit from predicted warming for many decades.
Conversely, one of the forest species studied should experience reduced activity time as a result of warming, while two others are unlikely to experience a significant decline in performance.
The overall results suggest that global-scale predictions generated using low-resolution temperature data may overestimate the vulnerability of many tropical lizards to climate change.
"Whereas studies conducted to date have made uniformly bleak predictions for the survival of tropical forest lizards around the globe, our data show that four similar species, occurring in the same geographic region, differ markedly in their vulnerabilities to climate warming," the authors wrote.
"Moreover, none appear to be on the brink of extinction. Considering that these populations occur over extremely small geographic ranges, it is possible that many tropical forest lizards, which range over much wider areas, may have even greater opportunity to escape warming."
The findings, which appear in the journal Global Change Biology, offer new hope for survival of a creature thought to be doomed.
Darwin Today At TerraDaily.com
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Water levels on the Sooke Lake Reservoir have recovered thanks to recent rain and snowmelt, but are still below the five-year average.
Water levels are now at 83.5 per cent of capacity (77,383 million litres) as of Jan. 1, back above the five-year minimum level. That’s thanks to the snow, which takes longer to register in the water measurements, according to Andy Orr, Capital Regional District spokesperson.
“(Levels are lower) primarily due to less precipitation in the fall and early winter. This was exacerbated when recent precipitation fell as snow which does not immediately increase runoff levels,” Orr wrote in an email.
When the level was measured on Dec. 25, water levels were at 72.3 per cent of capacity, which was below the five-year minimum. While the numbers have bounced recently, they’re still below the five-year average (92,727 million litres measured Jan. 31), dipping below that level in late October.
It’s also a marked drop from water levels this time last year, when the reservoir was at the other end of the scale, having filled up nearly to capacity after the atmospheric river back in Nov. 2021.
Meanwhile, Goldstream Lake reservoir, the CRD’s reserve water storage system, which isn’t currently used to distribute water, is above the five-year average, with 9,828 million litres this year versus 8,412 million litres.
The Goldstream Lakes system is made up of Butchart Lake, Lubbe Lake, and Goldstream Lake.
With healthy water levels in Goldstream Lakes, back in November 2022 the CRD turned on the tap to help boost water levels down Goldstream River to help support the salmon run.
In a usual year, the CRD releases 3.0 Imperial million gallons/day (mgd) from the Goldstream Lakes system around this time of year.
With this summer’s drought, the Goldstream Hatchery asked the CRD to up the amount of water it lets flow through, with the CRD increasing the release rate to 8.0 mgd for 10 days, according to Orr.
Sooke Lake Reservoir opened in 1915 and was last expanded in 2002, when the dam was raised.


George the hamster was truly a literary genius. His research into the rodent history of the world was only surpassed by his creative genius in which he compellingly demonstrated that hamsters were there at the most important events in recorded human history though, being so small, they often went unnoticed.
Now brought together in one volume, human history will need to be re-written from a rodent perspective - too long have humans held control of the pen of history and claimed to be pre-eminent.
In this book, read about the first hamster in space, the rodent who flew for the RAF in World War 2 and the Babylonian hamster who found himself in the same lions' den as the great Daniel.
Learn how Furatio Half-Nelson won the Battle of Copenhagen, how the Lone Hamster overcame enemies more numerous than himself in the Wild West and how the most famous rodent detective of all time, Furlock Holmes, solved the greatest of all the sunflower seed robberies of history.
This 256 page, 80,000 word book will live on in your memory, long after the translators have been committed.
Suggested minimum reading age:
Humans - 10 years and upwards
Hamsters - not before 2 months
George wrote these stories for all ages, however, and it was never intended to be a children's book.
The price for 'The Stories of George the Hamster' is obtainable from the authors using the details on the Contact Page (linked below). Please include your location in the world so we can work out postage.
George the Hamster wallpaper - Live at the food bowl - The book cover
Book graphics - Space Hamster - Lone Hamster - Pilgrim Hamster - Mona Hamster - Celtic Cross
Book extracts - Full Contents - A Human's Introduction - Voyage to the Bottom of the Duck Pond - The Great Escape - The Rest
Articles - What makes a writer a literary giant in the Public's eyes? - The literary biography of Lee H Smith - Disclaimer
The translators can be contacted here


A Typical Scenario
22-month old Lydia reaches for the glass vase filled with flowers. Her mother, giving her “the look,” firmly says, “No!” With a glint in her eyes, Lydia continues to reach for the colorful vase, repeating a chorus of “No! No! No!”
Just before the vase comes crashing to the ground, Lydia’s mother reaches her, uprights the vase, and yells; “You know you aren’t supposed to touch the vase.” Lydia bursts out laughing, which infuriates her mother.
Shortly after the above incident occurred, Lydia’s mother called a friend, voicing some common concerns among parents of toddlers. “Why won’t Lydia listen to me? If I don’t start teaching her now, won’t it just be harder as she gets older? What can I do?”
Three is the magic age
While you do need to teach your children proper behavior, it is best to save your efforts at true discipline till after your children turn three years of age. Remember that all children grow and mature at different rates; three is an average age at which children are typically ready for “discipline” and is given as a guideline. Your particular child may be ready a little before or after age three.
At around three, children will just begin (“begin” being a very important word) to have the maturity to monitor their own behavior and to control their impulses. When we talk about disciplining kids, we actually mean helping them learn to regulate their own behavior. That means when you give them information, tools, and skills they will be able to listen to you when you say “no” and to behave in ways that follow your values and society’s demands.
Prior to age three, most children do not have the inner control to stop themselves from doing whatever it is they want to do, nor do they have the judgment to keep themselves safe. It is your job as the parent to provide the external control that will protect them until they are able to protect themselves. You can do this by using “limit setting” techniques, such as:
providing a safe environment,
repeating basic rules.
You do all of this without an expectation that your under three-year-old will follow the rule.
As children mature, you can begin to expect them to gradually internalize the rules and behave according to them. It will actually take many years before you can totally trust that your children will curb their impulsivity and show improved decision-making abilities.
What can parents do?
A Limit Setting response
So what can Lydia’s mother do now with her 22-month old? As Lydia shows interest in the vase, mom can:
remind Lydia of the rule, “We don’t touch the flowers.”
distract Lydia by pointing out something else which may interest her, such as a toy, the clouds outside the window, or the sound of the clock.
move the vase out of sight or at least out of reach.
recognize Lydia’s interest in the flowers. While holding her hands, mom can show Lydia how to smell them from a distance. “You really like the flowers. They have such pretty colors. Let’s see if we can smell them.”
explain why there is the rule. “The vase can fall over, the water can spill, and you can get hurt from the broken vase.”
A Discipline response
When Lydia is older – after age three – mom can expect her to display greater inner-discipline. At this point, if Lydia reaches for the vase, the interaction could be as follows:
Remind Lydia of the rule, “No, Lydia, we don’t touch the flowers.”
If Lydia leaves the vase alone, praise her. “Even though the flowers are really pretty, you did not touch them. Thank you for following the rule.”
After the fact, make sure Lydia understands why the limit was set by asking, “Why doesn’t Mommy want you to hold the vase?”
If Lydia doesn’t leave the vase alone, mom can remove Lydia from the room.
- Once Lydia and mom are calm, she can talk with Lydia.
“Do you know why we can’t touch the vase?”
“What could happen if the vase falls?”
“What were you trying to do with the vase when I told you to stop?”
“How can you get to touch the flowers the next time?”
The answer to this last question could be having Lydia ask mom to hold the vase so Lydia can get closer the flowers.
The purpose of discipline is to teach children inner-discipline so ultimately they won’t need their parents to set limits for them.
Until they are developmentally ready, it is your job to provide the controls that children need but don’t yet have.
You can use techniques which do not shame or blame your children and which leave you feeling confident in your role as a parent.
For more information about discipline check out the following books. Purchasing books from our website through Amazon.com supports the work we do to help parents do the best job they can to raise their children.


Continental drift(Redirected from Continental Drift)
Continental drift is the theory that the Earth's continents have moved over geologic time relative to each other, thus appearing to have "drifted" across the ocean bed. The speculation that continents might have 'drifted' was first put forward by Abraham Ortelius in 1596. The concept was independently and more fully developed by Alfred Wegener in 1912, but his theory was rejected by many for lack of any motive mechanism. Arthur Holmes later proposed mantle convection for that mechanism. The idea of continental drift has since been subsumed by the theory of plate tectonics, which explains that the continents move by riding on plates of the Earth's lithosphere.
Abraham Ortelius (Ortelius 1596), Theodor Christoph Lilienthal (1756), Alexander von Humboldt (1801 and 1845), Antonio Snider-Pellegrini (Snider-Pellegrini 1858), and others had noted earlier that the shapes of continents on opposite sides of the Atlantic Ocean (most notably, Africa and South America) seem to fit together. W. J. Kious described Ortelius' thoughts in this way:
Abraham Ortelius in his work Thesaurus Geographicus ... suggested that the Americas were "torn away from Europe and Africa ... by earthquakes and floods" and went on to say: "The vestiges of the rupture reveal themselves if someone brings forward a map of the world and considers carefully the coasts of the three [continents]."
In 1889, Alfred Russel Wallace remarked, "It was formerly a very general belief, even amongst geologists, that the great features of the earth's surface, no less than the smaller ones, were subject to continual mutations, and that during the course of known geological time the continents and great oceans had, again and again, changed places with each other." He quotes Charles Lyell as saying, "Continents, therefore, although permanent for whole geological epochs, shift their positions entirely in the course of ages." and claims that the first to throw doubt on this was James Dwight Dana in 1849.
In his Manual of Geology (1863), Dana wrote, "The continents and oceans had their general outline or form defined in earliest time. This has been proved with respect to North America from the position and distribution of the first beds of the Silurian – those of the Potsdam epoch. … and this will probably prove to the case in Primordial time with the other continents also". Dana was enormously influential in America – his Manual of Mineralogy is still in print in revised form – and the theory became known as Permanence theory.
This appeared to be confirmed by the exploration of the deep sea beds conducted by the Challenger expedition, 1872-6, which showed that contrary to expectation, land debris brought down by rivers to the ocean is deposited comparatively close to the shore on what is now known as the continental shelf. This suggested that the oceans were a permanent feature of the Earth's surface, and did not change places[clarification needed] with the continents.
Wegener and his predecessorsEdit
Apart from the earlier speculations mentioned in the previous section, the idea that the American continents had once formed a single landmass together with Europe and Asia before assuming their present shapes and positions was speculated by several scientists before Alfred Wegener's 1912 paper. Although Wegener's theory was formed independently and was more complete than those of his predecessors, Wegener later credited a number of past authors with similar ideas: Franklin Coxworthy (between 1848 and 1890), Roberto Mantovani (between 1889 and 1909), William Henry Pickering (1907) and Frank Bursley Taylor (1908). In addition, Eduard Suess had proposed a supercontinent Gondwana in 1885 and the Tethys Ocean in 1893, assuming a land-bridge between the present continents submerged in the form of a geosyncline, and John Perry had written an 1895 paper proposing that the earth's interior was fluid, and disagreeing with Lord Kelvin on the age of the earth.
For example: the similarity of southern continent geological formations had led Roberto Mantovani to conjecture in 1889 and 1909 that all the continents had once been joined into a supercontinent; Wegener noted the similarity of Mantovani's and his own maps of the former positions of the southern continents. In Mantovani's conjecture, this continent broke due to volcanic activity caused by thermal expansion, and the new continents drifted away from each other because of further expansion of the rip-zones, where the oceans now lie. This led Mantovani to propose an Expanding Earth theory which has since been shown to be incorrect.
Continental drift without expansion was proposed by Frank Bursley Taylor, who suggested in 1908 (published in 1910) that the continents were moved into their present positions by a process of "continental creep". In a later paper he proposed that this occurred by their being dragged towards the equator by tidal forces during the hypothesized capture of the moon in the Cretaceous, resulting in "general crustal creep" toward the equator. Although his proposed mechanism was wrong, he was the first to realize the insight that one of the effects of continental motion would be the formation of mountains, and attributed the formation of the Himalayas to the collision between the Indian subcontinent with Asia. Wegener said that of all those theories, Taylor's, although not fully developed, had the most similarities to his own. In the mid-20th century, the theory of continental drift was referred to as the "Taylor-Wegener hypothesis", although this terminology eventually fell out of common use.
Alfred Wegener first presented his hypothesis to the German Geological Society on 6 January 1912. His hypothesis was that the continents had once formed a single landmass, called Pangaea, before breaking apart and drifting to their present locations.
Wegener was the first to use the phrase "continental drift" (1912, 1915) (in German "die Verschiebung der Kontinente" – translated into English in 1922) and formally publish the hypothesis that the continents had somehow "drifted" apart. Although he presented much evidence for continental drift, he was unable to provide a convincing explanation for the physical processes which might have caused this drift. His suggestion that the continents had been pulled apart by the centrifugal pseudoforce (Polflucht) of the Earth's rotation or by a small component of astronomical precession was rejected, as calculations showed that the force was not sufficient. The Polflucht hypothesis was also studied by Paul Sophus Epstein in 1920 and found to be implausible.
Rejection of Wegener's theory, 1910s–1950sEdit
The theory of continental drift was not accepted for many years. One problem was that a plausible driving force was missing. A second problem was that Wegener's estimate of the velocity of continental motion, 250 cm/year, was implausibly high. (The currently accepted rate for the separation of the Americas from Europe and Africa is about 2.5 cm/year). It also did not help that Wegener was not a geologist. Other geologists also believed that the evidence that Wegener had provided was not sufficient. It is now accepted that the plates carrying the continents do move across the Earth's surface, although not as fast as Wegener believed; ironically one of the chief outstanding questions is the one Wegener failed to resolve: what is the nature of the forces propelling the plates?
The British geologist Arthur Holmes championed the theory of continental drift at a time when it was deeply unfashionable. He proposed in 1931 that the Earth's mantle contained convection cells which dissipated radioactive heat and moved the crust at the surface. His Principles of Physical Geology, ending with a chapter on continental drift, was published in 1944.
Geological maps of the time showed huge land bridges spanning the Atlantic and Indian oceans to account for the similarities of fauna and flora and the divisions of the Asian continent in the Permian era but failing to account for glaciation in India, Australia and South Africa.
Geophysicist Jack Oliver is credited with providing seismologic evidence supporting plate tectonics which encompassed and superseded continental drift with the article "Seismology and the New Global Tectonics", published in 1968, using data collected from seismologic stations, including those he set up in the South Pacific.
It is now known that there are two kinds of crust: continental crust and oceanic crust. Continental crust is inherently lighter and its composition is different from oceanic crust, but both kinds reside above a much deeper "plastic" mantle. Oceanic crust is created at spreading centers, and this, along with subduction, drives the system of plates in a chaotic manner, resulting in continuous orogeny and areas of isostatic imbalance. The theory of plate tectonics explains all this, including the movement of the continents, better than Wegener's theory.
Hans Stille and Leopold Kober opposed the idea of continental drift and worked on a "fixist" geosyncline model with Earth contraction playing a key role in the formation of orogens. Other geologists who opposed continental drift were Bailey Willis, Charles Schuchert, Rollin Chamberlin and Walther Bucher. In 1939 an international geological conference was held in Frankfurt. This conference came to be dominated by the fixists, especially as those geologists specializing in tectonics were all fixists except Willem van der Gracht. Criticism of continental drift and mobilism was abundant at the conference not only from tectonicists but also from sedimentological (Nölke), paleontological (Nölke), mechanical (Lehmann) and oceanographic (Troll, Wüst) perspectives. Hans Cloos, the organizer of the conference, was also a fixist who together with Troll held the view that excepting the Pacific Ocean continents were not radically different from oceans in their behaviour. The mobilist theory of Émile Argand for the Alpine orogeny was criticized by Kurt Leuchs. The few drifters and mobilists at the conference appealed to biogeography (Kirsch, Wittmann), paleoclimatology (Wegener, K), paleontology (Gerth) and geodetic measurements (Wegener, K). F. Bernauer correctly equated Reykjanes in Iceland with the Mid-Atlantic Ridge arguing with this that the floor of the Atlantic Ocean was undergoing extension just like Reykjanes. Bernauer thought this extension had drifted the continents only 100–200 km apart, the approximate width of the volcanic zone in Iceland.
David Attenborough, who attended university in the second half of the 1940s, recounted an incident illustrating its lack of acceptance then: "I once asked one of my lecturers why he was not talking to us about continental drift and I was told, sneeringly, that if I could prove there was a force that could move continents, then he might think about it. The idea was moonshine, I was informed."
- First, it had been shown that floating masses on a rotating geoid would collect at the equator, and stay there. This would explain one, but only one, mountain building episode between any pair of continents; it failed to account for earlier orogenic episodes.
- Second, masses floating freely in a fluid substratum, like icebergs in the ocean, should be in isostatic equilibrium (in which the forces of gravity and buoyancy are in balance). But gravitational measurements showed that many areas are not in isostatic equilibrium.
- Third, there was the problem of why some parts of the Earth's surface (crust) should have solidified while other parts were still fluid. Various attempts to explain this foundered on other difficulties.
Road to acceptanceEdit
From the 1930s to the late 1950s, works by Vening-Meinesz, Holmes, Umbgrove, and numerous others outlined concepts that were close or nearly identical to modern plate tectonics theory. In particular, the English geologist Arthur Holmes proposed in 1920 that plate junctions might lie beneath the sea, and in 1928 that convection currents within the mantle might be the driving force. Holmes' views were particularly influential: in his bestselling textbook, Principles of Physical Geology, he included a chapter on continental drift, proposing that Earth's mantle contained convection cells which dissipated radioactive heat and moved the crust at the surface. Holmes' proposal resolved the phase disequilibrium objection (the underlying fluid was kept from solidifying by radioactive heating from the core). However, scientific communication in the '30 and '40s was inhibited by the war, and the theory still required work to avoid foundering on the orogeny and isostasy objections. Worse, the most viable forms of the theory predicted the existence of convection cell boundaries reaching deep into the earth that had yet to be observed.
In 1947, a team of scientists led by Maurice Ewing confirmed the existence of a rise in the central Atlantic Ocean, and found that the floor of the seabed beneath the sediments was chemically and physically different from continental crust. As oceanographers continued to bathymeter the ocean basins, a system of mid-oceanic ridges was detected. An important conclusion was that along this system, new ocean floor was being created, which led to the concept of the "Great Global Rift".
Meanwhile, scientists began recognizing odd magnetic variations across the ocean floor using devices developed during World War II to detect submarines. Over the next decade, it became increasingly clear that the magnetization patterns were not anomalies, as had been originally supposed. In a series of papers in 1959-1963, Heezen, Dietz, Hess, Mason, Vine, Matthews, and Morley collectively realized that the magnetization of the ocean floor formed extensive, zebra-like patterns: one stripe would exhibit normal polarity and the adjoining stripes reversed polarity. The best explanation was the "conveyor belt" or Vine–Matthews–Morley hypothesis. New magma from deep within the Earth rises easily through these weak zones and eventually erupts along the crest of the ridges to create new oceanic crust. The new crust is magnetized by the earth's magnetic field, which undergoes occasional reversals. Formation of new crust then displaces the magnetized crust apart, akin to a conveyor belt — hence the name.
Without workable alternatives to explain the stripes, geophysicists were forced to conclude that Holmes had been right: ocean rifts were sites of perpetual orogeny at the boundaries of convection cells. By 1967, barely two decades after discovery of the mid-oceanic rifts, and a decade after discovery of the striping, plate tectonics had become axiomatic to modern geophysics.
In addition, Marie Tharp, in collaboration with Bruce Heezen, (who initially ridiculed Marie's observations that her maps confirmed continental drift theory), provided essential corroboration, using her skills in cartography and seismographic data, to confirm the theory.
Evidence for the movement of continents on tectonic plates is now extensive. Similar plant and animal fossils are found around the shores of different continents, suggesting that they were once joined. The fossils of Mesosaurus, a freshwater reptile rather like a small crocodile, found both in Brazil and South Africa, are one example; another is the discovery of fossils of the land reptile Lystrosaurus in rocks of the same age at locations in Africa, India, and Antarctica. There is also living evidence, with the same animals being found on two continents. Some earthworm families (such as Ocnerodrilidae, Acanthodrilidae, Octochaetidae) are found in South America and Africa.
The complementary arrangement of the facing sides of South America and Africa is obvious but a temporary coincidence. In millions of years, slab pull, ridge-push, and other forces of tectonophysics will further separate and rotate those two continents. It was that temporary feature that inspired Wegener to study what he defined as continental drift although he did not live to see his hypothesis generally accepted.
The widespread distribution of Permo-Carboniferous glacial sediments in South America, Africa, Madagascar, Arabia, India, Antarctica and Australia was one of the major pieces of evidence for the theory of continental drift. The continuity of glaciers, inferred from oriented glacial striations and deposits called tillites, suggested the existence of the supercontinent of Gondwana, which became a central element of the concept of continental drift. Striations indicated glacial flow away from the equator and toward the poles, based on continents' current positions and orientations, and supported the idea that the southern continents had previously been in dramatically different locations that were contiguous with one another.
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|The Wikibook Historical Geology has a page on the topic of: Continental drift|
- A brief introduction to Plate Tectonics, based on the work of Alfred Wegener
- Wegener and his proofs
- Maps of continental drift, from the Precambrian to the future
- Continental Drift: Theory & Definition at Live Science
- The theory of continental drift
- Benjamin Franklin (1782) and Ralph Waldo Emerson (1834) both made mention of Continental Drift
- Observe an animation of the breakup of Pangaea – Animation of continental drift for the last 150 million years