This is the latest in a series of posts about Romanticism and the development of fantasy. You can find prior posts here, here, here, and here. I intend in this series to focus primarily on Romanticism in British literature, but last week I looked at the French experience and the French Revolution, and this week I want to look at German literature, which at this period is closely linked to British writing. The caveats I mentioned last week should be borne in mind; I am not a professional historian or academic, and I do not speak or read German — I’m familiar with a fair amount of this writing, but only in translation.
The German Romantic experience through to the 1830s is of an order of richness and genius at least equivalent to English Romanticism, and in order to be clear about how it all fits together, it’s probably worthwhile explaining some of the historical background. To begin with, in the middle of the 18th century, Germany wasn’t Germany. There was a vague sense of identity among German-language speakers, but their territory was divided up into 300 different polities of various sizes loosely linked together as the Holy Roman Empire (the obligatory historical joke is: The Holy Roman Empire was neither Holy, nor Roman, nor really much of an Empire). Certain noble and ecclesiastical positions among these states inherited the right to vote for the Imperial succession.
By the 18th century, this arrangement was running out of steam. Many of the states involved were finding their interests lay outside of the Empire — the House of Hanover, for example, had become the ruling family of Britain in 1714, while Austria was ruled by the powerful House of Hapsburg, who not only had effectively taken over the Imperial title but controlled a number of other states across Europe. The Holy Roman Empire in any event had suffered particularly badly in the 30 Years’ War, and arguably never fully recovered. Economically it was behind France and Britain. Three quarters of the population were poorly-educated peasantry. And because of the political division, no one German city had the central signficance of London or Paris — each state tended to be focused around its own capital; Vienna, the capital of Austria, one of the largest and most powerful states, was the closest thing to a central German metropolis. Whereas British and French literatures of the time seem dominated by writers and publishers clustered in their respective imperial capitals, the equivalent German movements developed through networks in many different places. The literary culture of Germany was overall somewhat underdeveloped, though strong traditions of popular drama had emerged, particularly in the form of stories about kings and bandits, and also in puppet-shows based on such tales as Faust (all versions of these Faust stories, incidentally, seem to be ultimately derived from Elizabethan playwright Christopher Marlowe’s Doctor Faustus).
Many of the Holy Roman states were in direct competition with each other for land and power. In the Seven Years’ War, for example, Austria, in alliance with France, went to war with Prussia, which found itself strugging to defend its borders against a joint opponent 20 times its size. Incredibly, the Prussian King Frederick II, Frederick the Great, managed to outlast the alliance, and Prussia emerged as a major European power (“Dogs,” Frederick cried to his men once when they quailed in a tough situation, “do you want to live forever?”). Rivalry between Prussia and Austria would continue to dominate ‘German’ politics, but Frederick’s achievement helped to inspire a German nationalism. Frederick, like Maria Theresa of Austria, followed the example of Louis XIV of France, who had developed a state based around the absolutist rule of the monarch. This has a forbidding ring to modern ears, but Prussia developed at this time into a rigorously-adminstered constitutional state, with (at least in theory) freedom of thought and religion, equality before the law, and a ban on torture.
Prussia continued to grow after Frederick’s time, but all German growth was interrupted by the French Revolution and then the Napoleonic Wars. Napoleon conquered much German territory outright, and came to dominate most of the rest economically. The Holy Roman Empire was swept away, finally suspended in 1806. After Napoleon’s defeat in 1815, the Congress of Vienna — itself largely the work of the Austrian Prince Metternich — created a German Confederation which included parts of Prussia and Austria.
This is all the background to the development of a German identity. At the middle of the 18th century, the German states were culturally dominated by France, a dominance exacerbated by the lack of political unity. When, in 1781, Frederick the Great published a treatise on German literature, then going through a period of significant growth, he wrote it in French (characteristically, Frederick argued that the national language had to be unified, with local dialects eliminated). England and English literature were in a sense a useful counter-balance for early German nationalists; the English were a German people, broadly speaking, and ruled by a German king. It came to be felt that English literature had an element of wildness, spontaneity, and creativity that the French were lacking.
In concrete terms, German literature began taking significant steps forward around the mid-18th century. In 1748, the 24-year-old Friedrich Klopstock began publishing Der Messias (The Messiah), a long epic poem on biblical themes. He continued to write it for decades, not completing the poem until 1773, then rewriting it up through 1799. Klopstock’s poem is spectacular, filled with wars of angels and demons; it’s been called proto-science-fiction. It was hugely meaningful to his audience in the 18th century, helping to spark German literary production, though readers since have found it rough going. In the 18th-century, even the name of the poem came to imply profundity.
Over the following years, Gotthold Lessing helped establish a German drama. Johann Joachim Winckelmann, an antiquarian, helped instill a love of Greek art among Germans, setting up an affinity for a certain kind of classicism that would endure through the Romantic era. Somewhat more controversial, because of his very urbanity, was Christoph Wieland, who was the first to translate Shakespeare into German, wrote significant early novels (influenced by Winckelmann’s sense of Greece), and in the 1770s turned to writing Oriental tales and verse romances. Geron der Adlige, in 1777, is the first modern German Arthurian poem. Wieland’s Oberon (1780) consciously draws a connection between contemporary verse and medieval romances; translated into English in 1798, it was a significant influence on English Romanticism, and especially John Keats.
Still, Wieland was considered an urbane, perhaps overly-elegant poet by the up-and-coming generation of writers. Some of his works were burned in 1773 in an oak grove outside Göttingen by students celebrating Klopstock’s birthday. This burning was, in fact, a symptom of a new literary movement being born. It seems to have started with theorists first; in 1761, Johann Georg Hamann published an essay called “Aesthetica in nuce: Eine Rhapsodie in kabbalitscher Prosa” (traditionally translated “Aesthetics in a Nutshell: A Rhapsody in Cabbalistic Prose”). Johann Herder, a teacher in the north of Germany, published a number of significant essays — including 1773’s “Auszug aus einem Briefwechsel über Ossian und die Lieder alter Völker” (“Extract From a Correspondence on Ossian and the Songs of Ancient Peoples) which celebrated folk tales, folk creativity, and especially James MacPherson’s Ossianic poetry, viewed by Herder as a true folk epic. At the time, Celts were believed to be a Germanic people; Ossian, combined with the rediscovery of the Eddas (translated into French in 1756), therefore helped to forge an alternative myth-system for Herder and other German writers.
Herder believed that German writers needed to create a national tradition out of their native folk poetry. He believed this would lead to a political and artisic German Renaissance. Herder’s criticism helped foster a fascination with folk poetry and folk tales, which would be felt particularly strongly in later generations (Herder himself would publish an admirably wide-ranging collection of Volkslieder, folk songs from around the world, in 1778), but which manifested itself in the 1770s as well. Notably, Gottfried August Bürger wrote a ballad called “Lenore” in 1773 (and published it in 1774). It’s an uncanny tale of a young woman waiting for her fiancé, who has gone off to war, to return to her. A figure who appears to be her lover comes to her, and takes her on a terrifying and uncanny night ride. Lenore wants to know why they ride so quickly; “the dead travel fast,” responds the knight. He changes as they go, turning into the figure of death, with a scythe and hourglass. The ride ends at the grave where her real lover’s skeleton lies. The poem was an incredible success, in Germany and across Europe, and was translated into numerous languages, with particular popularity in Britain. It’s been seen as a precursor of the figure of the vampire (“the dead travel fast” was quoted in Dracula), and certainly affected the developing genre of the Gothic tale.
In 1770, Herder happened to strike up an acquaintance with a young poet, with whom he discussed writers that had significance for the new literary style Herder saw growing. Rousseau was one important influence, but so was Ossian, along with Homer and Shakespeare — writers who seemed to insist on emotional response, whose work seemed to grow out of a folk culture. The young poet, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, published a Shakespearean historical drama, Götz von Berlichingen, and then in 1774 a short novel about a failed love affair: Die Leiden des jungen Werther (The Sorrows of Young Werther). An extravagant, emotional book, Werther became a European sensation. Fashionable young men dressed in the colours of the main character, read Ossian as he did — and sometimes, just as he did, committed suicide for love.
Radical emotional sentiment; a lively response to nature; perhaps above all, a concern with genius, originality, and towering personalities. These were some of the key ingredients in Werther, and these were elements of the new movement in German writing, which acquired a name from a play written in 1776 about the unfolding American Revolution: Sturm und Drang (Storm and Stress). At the time, Sturm und Drang was seen as a reaction against the German Enlightenment (Aufklärung), though recent scholarship has tended to see it more as a development within Enlightenment traditions. It certainly seems conected with later Romantic writing; the Sturm und Drang insisted on the power of genius, and its ability to overcome the limitations of imposed literary ‘rules.’ Crutches, said Herder, help the sick but hinder the healthy; so rules, in the hands of a bad or mediocre writer, can produce work that is correct but dull, while the genius must ignore the rules to produce the work that genius believes to be important. Genius was like a flood, a thing of immense power that could overturn all accepted norms — and was an implicit threat to the bourgeois social order.
Much has been written on the question of how revolutionary the Sturm und Drang was. Some of its themes seem to harmonise with radicalism; the revolt of sons against fathers, for example (and the Sturm und Drang was notable for the lack of women writers involved in it). But by 1776, when the American Revolution broke out, the movement already seems to have been in decline. German literature was looking healthier than ever — book production doubled between 1764 and 1784, and in 1780 five thousand books were published in German — but Goethe, the most talented of the Sturm und Drang writers, had moved to the small duchy of Weimar, where his writing took a more classical turn. Other writers would follow him, both physically to Weimar and artistically towards classicism. In 1781, a drama called Die Räuber (The Robbers), by a young playwright named Friedrich Schiller, was published, and staged the following year; nominally considered part of the Sturm und Drang, its themes seemed to suggest something else, pointing the way to new developments.
Schiller would produce some significant historical dramas over the 1780s, and then toward the end of the decade began a prose novel, published in installments. He soon grew tired of it, and never finished it, though it was one of his most popular works — and, I feel, immediately relevant to the development of fantasy. Titled Die Geistersehrer (The Ghost-Seer), it followed an unnamed German prince in Venice, who encountered strange and apparently supernatural phenomena — only to have some of those phenomena explained as carefully staged frauds, leading him to doubt the signficance of the rest. The overall plot seems to have had to do with a secret society that had designs against the prince, but the story breaks off before we find out what, exactly, and who the mysterious figure is that seems to be behind the events of the tale.
Personally, I think that had Schiller completed Die Geistersehrer he might have written a masterpiece. It doesn’t feel much like earlier fiction, marrying the new techniques of the realistic novel with extravagant and surreal subject-matter. As it is, it’s a rich fragment that mixes occultists, freemasons, the Inquisition, magic, and illusions with well-observed character-drawing and what seems like a complex plot and structure. In any event, it was tremendously influential, and I have to wonder whether the fragmentary nature of the work didn’t help give it some extra power with its audience — whether creative readers weren’t driven to rewrite it and complete it because it was unfinished.
It is certain that the story had an impact. Popular writers, starting with Charles Spiess, produced prose works mixing the fantastic aspects of Die Geistersehrer with the historical and Shakespearean elements of Götz von Berlichingen, creating not one but three genres of popular fiction: Ritter-, Räuber-, and Schauerromane (novels of chivalry, of banditry, and of terror; a classification devised in 1859 and followed ever since). As the name of one of these genres suggest, Die Räuber had an influence here as well. Not only novels, but popular plays were written in these styles (notably by August von Kotzebue), which also seem to have shown the influence of the German märchen, or fairy tales.
It’s tempting to speculate about the links to the French literary fairy tale tradition — and some studies seem to suggest that oral tales may derive from literary works to a greater extent than one would suspect — but there seems no doubt that the Schauerromane in particular entered into a complex relationship of mutual influence with the English Gothic novel. Novels were translated from one language to another, often through an intermediary French translation. Spiess’ 1791 Petermännchen (Literally Little Peter, translated 1792 as The Dwarf of Westerbourg), a tale of two demons competing for a knight’s soul, seems to have been particularly significant, but any number of these works were churned out, part of a burgeoning popular fiction industry.
Schiller himself joined Goethe in Weimar in the mid-90s, following Goethe in his investigation of classical themes. But another generation of writers, influenced by the Sturm und Drang, was emerging with an interest in the ‘romantic’ world — the medieval Christian era, as opposed to the Greek and Roman pagan times — and an interest as well in the novel, the romane. These writers tended to congregate in the town of Jena, around the figures of two brothers, the essayists and editors Friedrich and August Wilhelm Schlegel, along with August Wilhelm’s wife, Caroline Schelling, and Friedrich’s wife, Dorothea Veit (August Wilhelm Schlegel was also a translator of note, whose ten-volume Shakespeare translation, published from 1797 to 1810, still stands as definitive).
These writers, later to be known as Early Romantics, rejected monolithic systems and questioned assumptions. They insisted on individual subjectivity, and the imagination. They were fascinated by altered states, dreams and visions, which they nevertheless believed should be scrutinised with the use of reason. The novel seemed like the ideal form for all these concerns, a new medium that could explore a multitude of themes with a radical freedom of form — a venue in which the creative genius could find his or her own way, and develop sophisticated new structures. In 1798 the Schlegels founded their own journal, the Athenaeum, in order to promote these ideas, “the miraculous eternal alternation of enthusiasm and irony.”
This irony, though, was of a different order than Enlightenment irony. You can perhaps see this is the work of one of the key Early Romantic prose writers. Johann Ludwig Tieck wrote various works through the 1790s — including a horror novel in 1795 (Abdallah) — before moving on to write literary märchen. A collection of these tales appeared in 1797, including plays on Ritter Blaubart (Sir Bluebeard) and Der Gestiefelte Kater (Puss-in-Boots) that used sophisticated structure and fairy tale ideas. Tieck seems to have become fascinated with märchen; after writing some volumes of art and music criticism with his friend Wilhelm Heinrich Wackenroder, insisting on the importance of creative expression and the artistic freedom of genius, Tieck went on to write fairy tales for the next two decades or so, producing a notable collection in Phantasus (published in three volumes between 1812 and 1817).
Whether inspired by French writers or not, Tieck seems to have found a form in German for retellings of old tales, and indeed for the creation of new tales; a form involving a feel for nature (especially the deep dangerous woods), a seeming artlessness, and a language sprinkled with archaisms. In particular, Tieck seems to have had a sense of the emotional effect of horror and the marvellous on his readers, and exploited this in a new and distinctive manner. On the other hand, Tieck has also been seen as less than fully-committed to Romanticism, or more precisely, as inhibited in his fantasy. One critic said that like a cat he slinks “around the one thing that is needful, nibbles, but never risks burning a paw;” Friedrich Schlegel privately described Tieck to his brother as “hollow,” “quite an ordinary and coarse man,” who was “equally thin in spirit and body.” This does not seem to have inhibited Tieck’s popularity among readers at the time, or indeed his influence on later writers.
Also among the Early Romantics in Jena — indeed one of the archetypal Romantic writers — was Friedrich von Hardenberg, frequently known by his pen name, Novalis. Novalis was a writer of mystical verse, best-known for his Hymnen an die Nacht (Hymns to Night). Before his early death in 1801, he also produced an unfinished novel, Heinrich von Ofterdingen, set in the Middle Ages and incorporating poetry, dream-visions, and märchen — indeed the fragmentary latter part of the novel seems to dissolve into fairy tales. The book created a resonant symbol of Romanticism in an early dream sequence: the blue flower (blaue blume), which stands for the striving after the infinite, and inspiration, and love. The novel overall is unfinished, and critics have had difficulty in finding a form implied by what Novalis did produce; but the Romantics were prepared to experiment radically with form, building novels around ‘geometrical progression’ or similar abstract ideas, giving classical critics fits even today.
The Jena Romantic group had broken up by about 1805, but some writers, such as Tieck, continued to produce work, and other writers appeared who were clearly influenced by the Early Romantics. The 24-year-old Karoline von Günderrode published Gedichte und Phantasien (Poems and Fantasies) in 1804, following it a year later with Poetische Fragmente (Poetic Fragments), then committed suicide a year after that. Her work used traditional stories from numerous mythologies, celebrating and interrogating past heroes and contemporary figures — specifically Napoleon.
While the early Romantics had their heyday, Goethe and Schiller were continuing their classically oriented writing. Or so they and most German critics of the past couple hundred years would say. And yet other nations, particularly the English, still perceived them as Romantic; one might say that their project involved unifying the classic and romantic. Or one could say that the complexity of their work precludes easy definitions. At any rate, in 1790 Goethe published a collection of his works which included a fragment of a play on the Faust legend. Schiller encouraged Goethe to work further on it, until Schiller’s early death in 1805, and Goethe eventually published the first part of Faust in 1808.
You can see the outline of the traditional Faust in Goethe’s version, but the tale’s been reworked and given both new depth and new linguistic density. The play begins in heaven, in a scene evoking the Book of Job, in which God gives the diabolical Mephistopheles free reign to tempt the occult scholar Faust, and take him to hell if he can catch him. As the story goes on, we see Faust enter into his bargain, but with a twist. The traditional Faust asked for power during a set period of time, after which he’d give his soul to hell. This Faust makes a bet: he will have power as long as he likes, until he wants to tarry, until he asks time to slow down so that he can enjoy a moment longer. It’s a resonant change, emphasising the striving, energetic nature of Goethe’s character. The sardonic, ironic, and cynical Mephistopheles is equally as memorable, making the play not merely profound and dramatic, but funny. Ultimately this first part of Goethe’s story ends with Faust going to the diabolical festival on the Brocken on Walpurgisnacht (as later celebrated in Modest Mussorgsky’s Night on Bald Mountain), and the co-incidental death of a woman he loved but ruined.
At about the same time as Faust was being published, the final volume of a remarkable collection of Volkslieder, folk-songs, came out — Das Knaben Wunderhorn: Alte deutsche Lieder (The Youth’s Magic Horn: Old German Songs). It was a collaborative venture by two Romantic writers, Clemens Brentano and Achim von Arnim. Brentano was a poet, novelist, and playwright, whose play Ponce de Leon was based on a plot from a story by Madame d’Aulnoy collected in the Cabinet des Fées. Arnim was a historical novelist and epic poet. They first hatched a plan to collect songs in 1802, and published the collection in three volumes, from 1805 to 1808. The songs aren’t fantastic, instead recalling pre-modern and pre-industrial rhythms of life. But the collection did unintentionally spur the creation of a classic work of fantasy.
Arnim and Brentano didn’t see themselves as scientific curators so much as collaborators with the volk, the people, rewriting and correcting as they saw fit to make the best songs they could imagine. One pair of philologically-inclined brothers who had helped to find songs for them were dissatisfied with the liberal way the poets treated the material. Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm believed that it was important to record the actual traditions and texts of the volk, using philological laws where possible to recover vanished ways, but fundamentally being faithful to the actual recorded words.
Oddly, they didn’t stick to this theory with their own collection of folktales, the Kinder- und Hausmärchen, the first volume of which was published in 1812, with the second following in 1815. They revised their books constantly over the years, in later printings toning down the earthier and more sexual elements (though occasionally increasing the violence) in a successful bid to make a collection aimed at children. They shaped the style of the tales as they told them. Wilhelm Grimm edited the tales, inventing beginnings and endings: “Es war einmal …” and “… und sie lebten vergnügt bis an ihr Ende;” “Once upon a time …” and “… and they lived happily ever after”. Moreover, rather than gather tales from the peasantry, for the most part they seem to have gathered narratives from bourgeois ladies. The preface to the second volume of the tales named one source as a farmer’s wife, Dorothea Viehmann; she was actually a tailor’s wife who lived in a city. She was also of French Huguenot extraction, and knew the French fairy tales of Perrault and the précieuses. The distinction between traditional tales and shaped artistic work, between volkspoesie and kunstpoesie, was hopelessly blurred.
Coincidentally or not, at about this time a flowering of Late Romantic fantastic tales took place. A number of writers began producing prose fiction, both novel length and shorter works, notable not only for the marvels in their plots but sometimes also for their structural daring. Adelbert von Chamisso’s 1814 Peter Schlemihls wundersame Gaschichte (The Wondrous History of Peter Schlemihl) told the story of a man without a shadow. Johann August Apel published collections of ghost stories he’d gathered, in annual collections called Gespensterbuch, from 1811 to 1815; one of these books, translated into French as Fantasmagoriana, was read at a certain memorable evening at the Villa Diodati in Geneva (more on that next week, I think). Wilhelm Hauff wrote several novels and three cycles of fairytales; the novels include 1826’s Liechtenstein, a historical tale with supernatural overtones, 1825’s satirical Memoiren des Satan (Memoirs of Satan, volume 2 published 1826), and 1828’s Das kalte Herz (The Cold Heart), a parable about nature and commerce. Joseph Eichendorff’s Das Marmorbild (The Marble Image, 1818) described a man caught between Venus and Christianity. Friedrich de la Motte Fouqué wrote a tale praised by Coleridge and (later) George MacDonald in his Undine, the tragic story of a knight and a water spirit (1811). Perhaps greatest of them all, from 1814 to his death in 1822 Ernst Theodore Amadeus Hoffmann wrote short stories — and two novels — that took fantastic material of all kinds, fairy tales and ghost stories and crime stories and historical fiction, and mixed them together in fascinating, powerful ways.
I personally consider Hoffmann to be one of the world’s greatest short story writers. A talented cartoonist whose caricatures once cost him a coveted government post, and a gifted musician whose opera based on de la Motte Fouqué’s Undine has shown real staying power, Hoffmann’s fiction is by turns urbane, wondrous, ironic, horrific, funny, and thoughtful. Above all, it’s grotesque; but it’s the grotesquerie that derives from the rapid and unpredictable switch between radically different registers of tone and emotion. It’s usually seen as part of the märchen tradition; to me, it’s clearly a part of the tradition of the fantasy short story — specifically, it is effectively the beginning of the tradition.
Hoffmann’s fiction exploits the structural freedom of Romantic prose to the utmost. He uses stories-in-stories, framing stories, flashbacks, and any number of other devices to help create a shifting world that is always specific but insists on being interpreted in multiple ways. His 1820 novel Lebens-Ansichten des Katers Murr nebst fragmentarischer Biographie des Kapellmeisters Johannes Kriesler in zufälligen Makulaturblättern (The Life and Opinions of Kater Murr, Including a Fragmentary Biography of the Kapellmeister Johannes Kreisler on Miscellaneaous Pieces of Scrap Paper) takes the form of a self-satisfied autobiography written by Murr, Hoffmann’s cat, on the backs of paper containing bits and pieces of the biography of a conductor named Johannes Kreisler — a longstanding fictional alter ego of Hoffmann’s. Hoffmann is one of the greatest and most wonderfully strange writers I have ever come across, and his fiction is, to me, one of the great triumphs of Romanticism. It is utterly characteristic of the movement, and I think vital for the later development of fantasy, not only in terms of its direct influence on later writers like Poe, but in the way that Hoffmann creates or perfects techniques and approaches still to be found in modern fantasy — the structural dexterity, the balance of irony and symbol, the ability to build an atmosphere through elegant description and also call that atmosphere into question without breaking it. I would say, in fact, that Hoffmann’s work still seems to me to hold a storehouse of potential for future writers; it is profoundly suggestive, and could perhaps be studied indefinitely with profit.
If Hoffmann’s work is the defining triumph of Late Romanticism in German, there still remains another text to discuss before concluding this post. Goethe died in 1832 (in the early morning, famously calling out for “more light!”) having published Faust Part 2 earlier that year. Far longer than Part 1, it’s also much more ambitious, an epic in the form of a verse drama. It’s a phantasmagoria of symbol, allusion, and story. Faust’s traditional tryst with Helen of Troy becomes here a symbol for the fusion of German and Classical culture; the two have a son, Euphorion, who symobolically represents the English Romantic writer Lord Byron. But although the play’s dense with meaning, acquiring a dreamlike feel as Faust hurtles from one resonant scenario and situation to another, it also describes his character as it moves along its way to what ought to be a tragic end — and yet, miraculously, is not. Goethe’s Faust is one of the highest achievements of the fantastic in literature, the product of decades of work and study by one of the greatest of Europe’s writers. In French, one speaks of the French language as la langue de Molière; of English as la langue de Shakespeare; of Spanish as la langue de Cervantès — and of German as la langue de Goethe.
Although Goethe had decisively rejected the label ‘Romantic,’ it seems a resonant coincidence that German Romanticism faded in the years after his death. Although Romanticism was on the ascendant in France, it was, as we shall see, waning in England. But throughout the German Confederation the conservative settlement and control over the press that had settled in following the Conference of Vienna seemed opposed to the wild, radical, individualistic Romantic notions of genius. The satirical character of Beidermeier, the self-satisfied small-minded bourgeouis, seemed to embody the new age. As time went on, a new wave of liberal political writers emerged, later known as the Vormärz, or “pre-March” — pre-March of 1848, when revolution broke out. These writers were engaged and socially-aware, but did not have the Romantic concern for the transcendent. The Romantic age had passed.
In 1790, the word ‘romantik’ appeared in German, referring to a writer of novels, ‘romane.’ By 1810, it was used by the artistic opponents of the Romantic writers to mock their movement, identified with novels by the Schlegels. By 1833 it was used in a neutral sense in Heinrich Heine’s survey of contemporary literature, Die romantische Schule. From there, it moved to English, ‘Romanticist’ appearing about 1850. Similarly, the influence of German Romantics on the English writers of the era should not be overlooked. I think that the German writers were on the whole more programmatic in defining their movement, consciously articulating philosophy and critical principles; English Romanticism, important as it is, has a more ad hoc feel, a group of disparate writers and groups associated by a few trends. I don’t think it would be right to say that the Germans anticipated the English Romantic writers — who, by the nature of their times and sensibilities, were finding their own individual means of expressions. But I do think the Germans, in addition to the relevance of their work for their own concerns, worked out approaches and techniques that had a tremendous impact on English Romanticism — and on fantasy in English, at the time and in the years since.
Matthew David Surridge is the author of “The Word of Azrael,” from Black Gate 14. His new ongoing web serial is The Fell Gard Codices. You can find him on facebook, or follow his Twitter account, Fell_Gard.


To increase public awareness and understanding of clinical research in Scotland, a generic media campaign – the “Get Randomised” campaign – involving television, radio and newspaper advertising showed leading clinical researchers, general practitioners and patients informing the public about the importance of randomised clinical trials (RCTs) was developed. A website was also developed with information and resources about clinical trials and randomisation. To assess the impact of the campaign, cross-sectional surveys were conducted in representative samples of 1040 adults in Scotland prior to campaign launch and again 6 months later. The evaluation showed increased understanding of aspects of clinical trials had increased by about 10% after the campaign
Marion Campbell; firstname.lastname@example.org
MacKenzie IS, Wei L, Rutherford DR, Findlay E, Saywood W, Campbell MK, MacDonald TM. Promoting public awareness of randomised clinical trials using the media: the 'Get Randomised' campaign. Br J Clin Pharmacol 2010;69(2):128-135.


Japan is relentless in its implementation of enabling technologies that will allow it to maintain and improve its present manufacturing power in the field of electronics. Key enabling technologies that are being actively pursued by the Japanese to achieve their goal of manufacturing excellence are outlined below.
Computer-Assisted Design and Computer-Assisted Engineering. The implementation of CAD for design is common throughout the industry. The move towards the implementation of CAE is viewed as an important step to achieve successful development of high-value-added products while simultaneously shortening the product development cycle and reducing development cost. Following are three examples of CAD/CAE implementation:
Sensor Technology. Research and development in the field of sensor technology is common throughout the Japanese electronics manufacturing industry. The philosophy is to maximize integration of sensor technology within automated production equipment to increase product yield, quality, and reliability. Process areas for implementation include solder paste circuit pattern inspection, shape inspection for via-hole fillings of green sheets, fine-pitch surface mount component geometry inspection, solder joint inspection, automated color inspection for color CRT displays, and verification and inspection of raw materials and discrete components.
Super Precision Processing Technology. To manufacture complex precise products, it became imperative for the Japanese to invest in research and development of precision processing technology. The following three examples demonstrate their ability to successfully implement precision processing technology:


The Power Of Conformity: How To Actually Change A Persons Thoughts With Advertising
In the 1950′s, psychologist Solomon Asch performed a series of now famous experiments on social conformity. In the re-enactment video above, you can get a good idea of what they were about.
All of them involved a group of participants answering some very simple questions about their perception (for example: which line was longer than the other?, which lines were the same length?, etc.). All but one of those participants were “confederates”, meaning they were in on the experiment, and were asked to give the same incorrect answers. Asch wanted to see how the remaining subject would react to the rest of the participants behavior.
The results were startling: When they were surrounded by participants giving an incorrect answer, 75% of the subjects followed along and gave the same incorrect answer at least once, and 37% of the subjects followed along and gave an incorrect answer the majority of the time.
If even one of the confederates gives a different answer, the conformity drops dramatically (from 5% to 10%). And this dissenting minority doesn’t even has to give the correct answer. It just has to be an answer different from the majority.
The Scary Part:
The most frightening aspect of the experiment only came to light recently, in 2005. Dr. Gregory Berns from Emory University led a study where the researchers used an fMRI brain scan on the subjects in an experiment similar to the original Asch study. The results showed that, when individuals conform to a group’s opinion, even when the group is wrong, perceptual circuits in the brain light up. This suggests that groups actually change the way we see the world. Second, when an individual stands up against the group, they observed strong activation in the amygdala, the fear center of the brain. All this suggests that not only are our brains not wired for truly independent thought, but it takes a huge amount of effort to overcome the fear of standing up for one’s own beliefs and speaking out.
Humans are a social species, we’re built to function in a group. If everyone around us starts running, it makes sense for us to start running too, without putting much thought into it. This is the reason advertisers are so keen on giving the appearance of popularity. It’s why political ads have shots of cheering crowds, and car commercials say “best selling sedan of 2008″. It’s why our opinion of a politician changes when we think that a majority of people support him.
Dr. Berns brain scan study showed us that our actual perception can change solely based on the opinions of those around us. This is a frightening aspect of the human brain and, hopefully, one we can try to counter now that we are aware of it.


CANTON, Miss. When school begins next month in Mississippi, Akeeleon Lewis will head to kindergarten for the second time. He started school last fall not knowing his colors or numbers.
"He couldn't even hold a pencil," says Judy Packer, his kindergarten teacher at McNeal Elementary School in Canton, a city of 13,000 about 30 miles northeast of the state capital in Jackson.
Akeeleon was one of about 10 percent of kindergarteners kept back at McNeal when the school year ended in May, a rate twice the national average. Before he arrived at McNeal, he hadn't played much with children his age or ever set foot in a classroom.
Thirty years after Mississippi established statewide kindergarten and made school attendance compulsory starting in first grade, classroom readiness remains a major obstacle to student success in this state, which has the highest rate of childhood poverty in the country and test scores that are consistently among the nation's worst.
Although neighboring states have made great strides in early education, Mississippi remains the only state in the South and just one of 11 in the country that doesn't fund any pre-k programs. Researchers have found that high-quality pre-k programs can improve long-term outcomes for low-income children and help close an achievement gap for minorities that tends to worsen over time. Being able to stand in line, listen to directions or make eye contact with the teacher play in an important role when it comes time to try to teach kids how to read and write. And a lack of school readiness is evident the minute children walk in on the first day of kindergarten, says Kaye Sowell, who has taught for 30 years in Rankin County. "I've had to chase children into the street," she says. "I have kids who don't know their given name and can't recognize it in print. They can't go through the lunch line without holding it up. You can't fathom it unless you've lived it."
Failure to prepare children for kindergarten or first grade costs the state a lot of money. One of every 14 kindergarteners and one of every 15 first-graders in Mississippi repeated the school year in 2008, the most recent year for which statistics are available. From 1999 to 2008, the state spent $383 million on children who had to repeat kindergarten or first grade, according to the Southern Education Foundation. Children like Akeeleon start so far behind they may never catch up, and those who repeat one or more grades are much more likely than their classmates to drop out of school, decades of research have shown.
The state's academic results abysmal by just about any measurement don't improve as the children grow older. In 2011, the state's fourth-graders were outperformed on the reading portion of the National Assessment of Educational Progress by their peers in 44 states. In math, they finished second to last in the nation, ahead only of fourth-graders in the District of Columbia.
Just 61 percent of Mississippi's students graduate from high school on time more than 10 percentage points below the national average. Mississippi found itself at the bottom again this week, ranking 50th on six of the 10 national indicators of child well-being in a report released by the Annie E. Casey Foundation.
Over the years, countless committees, taskforces and politicians in the state have argued that investing in pre-k will improve high-school graduation rates and build a more highly educated workforce in Mississippi. Retired military leaders added their voices in May, calling for state-funded pre-k to help prepare the more than 75 percent of young Mississippi residents who are ineligible to join the military because, among other reasons, they failed to graduate from high school on time.
But legislators have held firm in the belief that the economically depressed state cannot afford pre-k. Nationally over the past decade, enrollment in pre-k programs has soared even as state funding has declined by more than $700 per child, according to the National Institute for Early Education Research.
In Mississippi, those who argue against state-funded pre-k say there's no evidence it would change the state's dismal education performance. "Appropriating more money in general has not proven to make any change at all in outcomes," says Forest Thigpen, president of the Mississippi Center for Public Policy, a right-leaning independent think tank based in Jackson. Thigpen says it's up to churches and families to do more to get children ready for school; he would rather see state money spent on improving the current system.
When Pre-K Isn't the Norm
Nationally, about three-quarters of 4-year-olds attend some type of public or private pre-k program. But experts estimate that fewer than half of Mississippi's 4-year-olds are in pre-k, most of whom attend federally funded Head Start programs, which target low-income families.
"Kids who haven't been to school don't interact or participate," says McNeal kindergarten teacher Cartessia Angrum. "They get scared a lot, and have no concept of the difference between letters and numbers."
High-quality programs do exist like the one in Walton Elementary School in Jackson, which uses federal Title I money to serve about 40 pre-k students a year. Principal Gwendolyn Gardner sees children coming to kindergarten from those classrooms eager to build on what they've been learning. "We have some pre-k students who are reading, writing stories, on the computer, doing math, and counting to 100," Gardner says. "Kindergarten can be a real catch-up game for those without the readiness skills."
But getting parents to demand access to high-quality preschools has proven to be a challenge in Mississippi. Parents or grandparents who didn't attend themselves may not see the value. In Canton, where school begins the second week of August, each year scores of students from kindergarten through 12th grade fail to show up until after Labor Day.
Canton Public Schools superintendent, Dwight Luckett Sr., says he wants to see "an all-out campaign" in underprivileged communities to get students into any type of pre-k classroom. And he would like more outreach to these programs and teachers about what children will be expected to know when they arrive.
But the state's fragmented network of early childhood providers which includes informal daycare, licensed facilities, church-based programs and Head Start do not always communicate with the public school system. Many of the programs have no uniform quality standards. In addition, to teach pre-k in Mississippi, teachers need only be 18 and possess a high school diploma or its equivalent.
In Canton, challenges are compounded by poverty. The median annual income for families at McNeal is just under $28,000 the national median is nearly double that amount and more than 96 percent of students qualify for free or reduced-price lunch.
Michael Ellis, McNeal's principal, says learning to read can be agonizing for children with little exposure to books. In one kindergarten class last spring, children carefully sounded out letters and memorized frequently used words. They moved to a new "learning station" whenever a buzzer sounded. Each wall had a behavior chart, and students seemed acutely aware of the need to remain orderly. Before eating pizza at an end-of-the year celebration, they folded their hands and prayed silently.
Teachers in Canton use checklists, observational reports and informal tests to track student progress, and they can set their own criteria for holding children back. More students have been struggling since 2010 when the state adopted the new Common Core standards for English and math, which provide parents and teachers with clear expectations of what must be learned in each grade, says Luckett, the superintendent. "Kindergarten is a lot more rigorous now," he says. "There are homework packets and a lot more emphasis on what they [students] should know and be able to do."
Potentially Cost-Effective Solutions
Advocates are pushing hard for better early learning in Mississippi, devising potentially cost-effective solutions. They have distributed studies that underscore the long-term economic benefits of pre-k, and pointed to research by Nobel laureate James Heckman calling pre-k the best investment for developing job skills later on. And they've tried to collaborate with influential business leaders, including former Netscape CEO Jim Barksdale, who in 2000 gave the state $100 million to create the Barksdale Reading Institute and who is working to improve early literacy.
The issue remains tricky for the public, though. A 2010 survey by The Center for Education Innovation found that while 71 percent of Mississippi's registered voters wanted to improve early learning opportunities, only 31 percent thought the state government should foot the bill.
Carol Burnett, founder and executive director of the Mississippi Low-Income Child Care Initiative, says the state faces an even larger obstacle: overcoming long-held attitudes about race. One out of every two black children in Mississippi lives in poverty, compared with 16 percent of white children, according to the National Center for Children in Poverty. Burnett says too many people in power don't want to support public programs "to benefit people whose outcomes they don't care about."
Investing in early education, however, can help everyone in the state by reducing dropout rates and teen pregnancy, says Danny Spreitler, head of the Gilmore Foundation, which has found some promising results by paying for supplies, teachers and classrooms in three counties.
"What really needs to happen is the state needs to decide what's the vision for the future," Spreitler says.
Dick Molpus, a former Mississippi secretary of state who helped guide the 1982 education reform that required the state's public schools to offer kindergarten, agrees. "Not having pre-kindergarten puts our children at a competitive disadvantage," says Molphus, who co-founded the nonprofit advocacy group Parents for Public Schools in 1989. "The next big push in Mississippi needs to be ensuring that every child is ready to begin school."
Jackie Mader contributed to this story, which was produced by The Hechinger Report, a nonprofit, nonpartisan education-news outlet based at Teachers College, Columbia University.


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Health and wellness worksheets for students pdf
On this page, we will provide you with a Health and wellness worksheets for students pdf, which will help them to learn about wellness.
What is a Health and wellness worksheets for students pdf about?
Health and wellness worksheets for students are specifically about mental and physical health. As a student, you get to deal with a lot of stress that comes from studies, academics, and then your mental wellbeing. Wellness is multi-dimensional, not only physical or mental, but it has been divided into various dimensions like physical, spiritual, social, emotional, intellectual, and environmental. To be considered well, one has to fulfil all of the categories. In today’s world, only such people are successful who can deal with their stress and move ahead.
How will a worksheet for Health and wellness worksheets for students pdf help?
This worksheet will help you to read about how 8 dimensions of your wellness make a person well as a whole. You will read this worksheet and see how each dimension contributes to a person's wellness.
Instructions on how to use a Health and wellness worksheets for students pdf
Read the table given below and see how different dimensions of wellness contribute to the whole wellness of a person.
You can download this worksheet here.
On this page, we provided you with a Health and wellness worksheets for students pdf, which hopefully helped you to learn about wellness.
If you have any questions or comments, please let us know.


There are numerous reasons why a homeowner may require plumbing repair when it comes to pipeline repairs. One of the most common causes of plumbing repairs is a collapsed pipe. Collapsed pipes are the most common cause of sewer backups in the United States. These problems can be caused by outdated plumbing infrastructure that has not been fixed or replaced. But what exactly is a collapsed pipe? What does it look like? What causes it, and what can be done to prevent it?
Read on to learn more about the cause of how pipes collapse.
Deterioration Due to Time
An aging material causes pipe collapses. Every pipe has a limited amount of strength. Their durability begins to deteriorate over time. Weather exposure and external element damage are significant causes of deterioration. This is why the maintenance crew needs to check them and replace them from time to time.
Hard water is caused by dissolved minerals like calcium and is rampant in various places of the United States. Furthermore, hard water, being mineral-rich, is prone to limescale formation. Limescale is a yellowish buildup on surfaces exposed to hard water. These accumulations can cause pipe degradation and blockage.
Intrusion of Plant Roots
Pipes can collapse as a result of root intrusion. Plant roots have a high tendency to crawl to areas with water. Having a piping system near trees increases the risk of your pipes collapsing because roots can wrap around the pipes, damaging and choking your lines.
Clogs due to Fatbergs
Fat, oil, and grease (abbreviated as FOG) and can combine with kitchen sink wastes to form Fatbergs. They are mostly found on pipelines after the kitchen sinks. These blockages might eventually develop to be so large and hefty that they shatter pipelines. They can, at the absolute least, trap wastewater in pipes, placing extra strain on them. The more of these build-ups there are, the more weight the pipes must bear.
Immediate Remedial Actions
Pipe collapses occur in both water supply and drain systems. You can significantly reduce water pressure if a water supply line fails. Taps and fixtures connected to the affected line may not run. Collapsed sewer lines can cause multiple slow drains. The water from your toilets may also take a long time to drain.
When faced with a pipe collapse, take the actions outlined below.
Water Supply Line Burst
In this situation, cut off the main water valve. This will prevent water from flooding your property.
After closing the valve, call a plumber. Depending on the extent of the damage, the plumber may merely need to patch it up.
Sewer Pipeline Collapse
Call a sewer line repair specialist if you fear a central drain or sewer pipe collapse. You may simply have slow drains now, but you risk sewer backups unless that line is repaired. The longer you put off pipe repairs, the more likely it is that they may break.
After doing all the remedial actions and calling a professional plumber, you’ll want to discuss the advantages and disadvantages of each option with your plumber. Additionally, a professional plumber should consider your needs and budget. The trick is to locate a plumber capable of providing high-quality service at an affordable price. This ensures the longevity of your plumbing system. Throughout the year, numerous specialists offer discounts, coupons, and bargains. Several even lend money to those in need.
Are you currently experiencing plumbing issues? Are you concerned that you may have a busted pipe on your property?
Make sure to contact the best plumber in Lake County, CA. Contact Benjamin Franklin Plumbing California for assistance. We are your reliable plumbing service company in Lakeport, CA, and the surrounding areas of California. We have an outstanding record in this area for successfully fixing a wide variety of plumbing issues.


When it comes to dental health, it is more than just regular brushing and flossing. We put various food and beverages into our mouth daily, and they can have a profound effect on our teeth both negative and positive.
Soft drinks or sugary drinks are prominent on the negative list. Yet, even though they have a known effect on our dental health, people often reach for them to quench their thirst. Even though there are known consequences to excessive drinking of these high in sugar drinks, they are still consumed heavily by both adults and children. But what do they actually do to your teeth?
It is known that sugary drinks can have a detrimental effect on our bodies when consumed regularly, but even small dabbles in sugary drinks can impact your dental health. This is because the sugar from these drinks can latch onto your teeth, which the natural forming bacteria in the mouth consumes, leading to the production of acid. The over production of the acid starts to eat away at the enamel of the teeth, making the teeth thinner and weaker than how they would usually be. This heightens the risk of cavities forming. This is what makes sugary drinks one of the most common forms of tooth decay.
Avoiding the Damage
When it comes to sugary drinks and tooth decay, the best way to minimise deterioration is to avoid the drinks altogether. There are many healthier options that will quench your thirst and aid your teeth, such as water.
If you are looking to consumer healthier alternatives for fruit juices, try your hand of making it yourself so that it contains natural sources of sugar and a higher fruit concentration overall.
More than that, ensure that if you are consuming soft drinks regularly that you take precautions that can slow or subside the effects of sugar on your teeth. This includes rinsing the mouth out with water after having sugary drinks, as well as brushing after consumption.
For those that cannot help but indulge in the sugary drink, ensure that you keep up a healthy dental routine to combat the effects. Toothpaste and mouthwash with fluoride can help to protect your teeth against cavities, whilst strengthening enamel. The best way to stay on top of any decay is by sticking to regular visits to your dentist.


Nursing is the protection, promotion, and optimization of health and abilities, prevention of illness and injury, alleviation of suffering through the diagnosis and treatment of human response, and advocacy in the care of individuals, families, communities, and populations (American Nurses Association, 2014)
Nurses are on the frontlines delivering care and ensuring that a patient’s safety and best interest remain at the center of care. Key nursing values promote a holistic approach to patient care – one that incorporates not only clinical responsibilities, but also compassion, cultural sensitivity, situational awareness and tech savviness.
A nurse’s day is jam-packed with activity. Whether it is direct patient care – from admitting and transferring patients or performing physical exams and administering personalized clinical interventions – or internal processes like documenting care transitions or coordinating across the multi-disciplinary care team, nurses must multitask to stay on top of their workloads. Their days are highly mobile and physically demanding, and often characterized by inefficient processes that have them chasing information. Their days are heavily interrupted with nurses completing 100 tasks per shift, spending approximately three minutes on a task before being interrupted, while 48 percent of nurses cite a lack of communication takes time away from caring for patients.
Technology has the potential to ease some of the challenges that nurses face every day – but only if it meets their needs. Nurses need technology solutions to simply work in mission critical situations. While an average person gets annoyed with a call dropping or a text taking too long to send, such technology hiccups in healthcare are unacceptable as they impact patient care and safety.
When considering technology in the hospital, there are a few key criteria to meet to encourage adoption and ensure satisfaction:
- Reliable Network – Nurses need a high-quality and reliable wireless network within their facilities that ensures communication will go through when they need it to.
- Reliable Device – If a device is perceived to be dysfunctional or have bugs, it will deter adoption as it negatively affects patient safety if the hardware fails or the software glitches.
- Adequate Training – Training and coaching is essential when implementing new innovations. It takes time for individuals to adapt to new tools and feel confident using them. Without this sort of personal investment, nurses will not feel comfortable or be able to spare the time to add it to their already packed workday.
- Effective Alarms – Caregivers have become desensitized to alarms because of the frequency of false alarms that do not need intervention. Ensuring that nurses receive effective and clinically reliable alerts will improve care and ensure engagement.
While technology and automation can make workflow easier, it also has the potential to add frustration if not done properly. It can also create a cycle of inefficient workflow and compromise patient safety. For those of us working to deliver effective health IT solutions, we need to put ourselves in others’ shoes. We wouldn’t want the nurse who is taking care of us or someone dear to us to be using a defective medical device. Therefore, it is our responsibility to make sure we give nurses the tools to be efficient and safe in the healthcare environment.
 Rosin, T. (2014, Sept. 14). 35 Statistics on Nurse Satisfaction. Becker’s Hosptial Review. Accessed on Aug. 2nd. 2015 from http://www.beckershospitalreview.com/hospital-physician-relationships/35-statistics-on-nurse-satisfaction.html
Aparna Bala is Clinical Transformation Consultant at AirStrip. As a registered nurse, Aparna’s knowledge of nursing workflow stems from 15 years of direct patient care experience in over 20 hospitals, including UCSF Medical Center, Cleveland Clinic and Children’s National in Washington, DC. Her active participation in hospitals’ healthcare technology implementations motivated her transition to clinical informatics with a focus on the multi-dimensional aspects of clinical transformation.


A broad classification of dysfunctions and diseases that impair the body’s ability to move, sometimes called motor function disorders or movement disorders. Many motor system disorders are progressive and degenerative, such as Parkinson’s disease, multiple sclerosis, AMYOTROPHIC LATERAL SCLEROSIS (ALS), and MUSCULAR dystrophy. These disorders often have genetic components. For such disorders, treatment typically targets symptom control. Other motor system disorders result from trauma or injury and remain stable or can improve with treatment, such as stroke and spinal cord injury.


Jainism buddhism and hinduism essay
Hinduism essay: history, beliefs and culture print reference this some of the religions are jainism, sikhism, and hinduism panikkar draws on his broad understanding of hinduism and buddhism to present the reader with his unique insights into wisdom wright. Buddhism and jainism are two ancient indian religions that developed in magadha (bihar region) and continue to thrive in the modern times sangave, vilas adinath (2001a), facets of jainology: selected research papers on jain society, religion. Hinduism hinduism is the oldest and most complex of all religious systems the origins of hinduism can be traced to the indus valley civilization sometime. Hinduism term papers available at planet paperscom, the largest free term paper community home search results you were looking for : hinduism jainism, buddhism, and hinduism. Essays related to jain, buddhism and hinduism 1 buddhism and the concept of ataman at their core, the world religions that originated in south asia known as hinduism, buddhism, jainism. Essay on jainism in india jainism and buddhism have been foremost in upholding the doctrine of ahimsa and jainism has held firm to its original ideology jainism simply took refuge in hinduism which opened its capacious bosom to receive it and to the conquerors it seemed an. Read this essay on jainism come browse our large digital warehouse of free sample essays the nature of karma in hinduism, jainism, and buddhism people of all religions partake in traditional ceremonies, have.
Hinduism vs jainism essays: over 180,000 hinduism vs jainism essays, hinduism vs jainism term papers, hinduism vs jainism research paper the concepts of varna and karma are each closely related to the eastern civilization religions of hinduism, buddhism, and jainism. Essays related to jainism 1 like buddhism, jainism rose against the corruption in the interpretation of hinduism prevalent at the time these three religious traditions of india, hinduism, jainism and buddhism, all share fundamental views on the univers word count. Free essay: jainism, in many respect, is the most prominent religion in india, it is also associated with other major religions eg hinduism and buddhism. Jainism vs sikhism essay jainism and buddhism: a comparative study hinduism essay monsters by anna quindlen buddhism and hinduism your testimonials haven't found the essay you want get your custom essay sample for only $1390/page. Comparing religions: hinduism, buddhism, jainism, sikhism, zen buddhism, confucianism hinduism, buddhism, jainism, sikhism, zen buddhism, confucianism, taoism and i created this site as a place for me to store and organize all of the philosophy papers i've been writing along. Essays from bookrags provide great ideas for jainism essays and paper topics like essay view this student essay about jainism.
There are many similarities and many differences between buddhism and jainism to begin, we will there are many differences between buddhism and hinduism buddhism is a non-theistic religion which if you are the original writer of this essay and no longer wish to have the essay. Ahimsa essay competition winner, jain sto oct 15 what is to be realised is that, hinduism is a religion based on the vedic tradition, while jainism and buddhism are separate religions based on thus it can be seen that same terms connote different meanings in hinduism and jainism. This paper examines the similarities and differences of buddhism, jainism, and hinduism.
This essay jainism and other 63,000+ term papers, college essay examples and free essays are available now on reviewessayscom jainism jainism hinduism jainism and buddhism who founded jainism and why comparisons of jainism, buddhism and hinduism. This research paper jainism and other 63,000+ term papers, college essay examples and free essays are available now on reviewessayscom autor: like hinduism and buddhism jainism is a very strict and intricate religion and its followers are big believers in peace and non violence.
Jainism buddhism and hinduism essay
Here are the common similarities shared by hinduism sikhism , buddhism and jainism 1all these religions see om or omkar as a sacred word and is commonly used in the beginning of their mantras or sacred invocations. I am attempting to write this one in good faith and to best of my knowledge and ability key difference between sikhism, hinduism, and buddhism is the difference in their religious doctrines, by the way, you can add jainism and lingayatism to the list. Hinduism research papers overview the complex practice of hinduism hinduism and buddhism - hinduism and buddhism research papers explore buddhist beliefs and hindu traditions ahimsa research papers discuss a form of indian religion which is called jainism.
Free essay on buddhism vs hinduism, comparison essay available totally free at echeatcom, the largest free essay hinduism, buddhism, and jainism however, which is present in all native american religions that element is the integral tie between native american spirituality. Jainism and hinduism are two ancient indian religions there are some similarities and differences between the two religions is the use of the term dharma as a common denominator, which also includes jainism and buddhism communal harmony edit. What's the difference between buddhism and jainism buddhism is centered upon the life and teachings of gautama buddha, whereas jainism is centered on the life and teachings of mahavira buddhism is a polytheistic religion and it's main goal is to gain enlightenment. Hinduism jainism and buddhism essays: over 180,000 hinduism jainism and buddhism essays, hinduism jainism and buddhism term papers, hinduism jainism and buddhism research paper, book reports 184 990 essays, term and research papers available for unlimited access. The religion of jainism has many components that are said to be very similar with certain parts of hinduism as well as buddhism the jain religion is most. Analyse the similarities and differences between jainism and buddhism jain religion is nearer to hinduism whereas buddhism followed the policy of keeping away from hinduism (8) essays, letters, stories, poetries, biographies, notes, reviews.
While the buddha was the founder of buddhism, mahavira did not found jainism he is the 24th the blog 09/21/2015 05:59 pm et updated sep 21, 2016 3 unique contributions: the worlds of jainism, buddhism, and hinduism by pankaj first-person essays, features, interviews and q. India's three primary religions hinduism, jainism and buddhism are all responses to the aryan religion of brahmanism the aryans came into power in indian around 1000 bce, and as their political influence spread, their religious beliefs followed in its wake two fundamental beliefs of. Comparison - buddhism and jainism buddhism comparison tibetan buddhism zen buddhism poem comparison poetry comparison/contrast analysis essay of buddhism and hinduism 4 pages (1000 words. Noting that neither jainism nor buddhism contains a creating or controlling god view of jainism it includes three essays that might fit more within the genre of a sermon than an academic paper hinduism table of contents hinduism introduction. Jainism vs hinduism jainism and hinduism are two religions of the world that show differences between them when it comes to their concepts, religious beliefs. Jainism is a very old religion an article / essay on jainism - an indian religion but now it is well known that jainism is much older than buddhism some of the important teachings of jainism are as follows image source.


UT Dallas Researchers Spin Nanotech Breakthrough
Possible Applications Range from Electronic Textiles to Superconducting Cables
Jan. 24, 2011
UT Dallas nanotechnologists have invented a groundbreaking new technology for producing weavable, knittable, sewable and knottable yarns containing giant amounts of otherwise unspinnable powders.
A tiny amount of host carbon nanotube web holds guest powders in the corridors of highly conducting scrolls, without altering their performance for high-tech applications such as energy storage, energy conversion and energy harvesting.
With conventional technology, powders are either held together in a yarn using a polymer binder or incorporated on fiber surfaces. Both approaches can restrict powder concentration, powder accessibility for providing yarn functionality, or the strength needed for yarn processing into textiles and subsequent applications.
In the Jan. 7 issue of the journal Science, co-authors working in the Alan G. MacDiarmid NanoTech Institute of UT Dallas describe the use of “bi-scrolling” to solve these problems.
“In this study, we demonstrated the feasibility of using our bi-scrolled yarns for applications ranging from superconducting cables to electronic textiles, batteries and fuel cells,” said Dr. Ray H. Baughman, Robert A. Welch Professor of Chemistry and director of the UT Dallas NanoTech Institute.
Bi-scrolled yarns get their name from the way they are produced: A uniform layer of guest powder is placed on the surface of a carbon nanotube web. This two-layer stack is then twisted into a yarn.
The carbon nanotube webs used for bi-scrolling are not ordinary— they can be lighter than air and stronger pound-per-pound than steel. Four ounces of these webs would cover an acre of land and are about a thousand times thinner than a human hair.
These strong carbon nanotube webs hold together yarns that are mostly powders and can even be machine-washed. The web’s thinness means that hundreds of scroll layers can be included in a bi-scrolled yarn no thicker than a human hair.
The choice of imbedded powder determines yarn function. For instance:
- UT Dallas researchers used yarns imbedded with metal oxide powder to make high-performance lithium ion batteries that can be sewn into fabrics.
- Bi-scrolled yarns for self-cleaning fabrics were obtained using photocatalytic powder.
- A powder of nitrogen-containing carbon nanotubes provided highly catalytic yarns for chemical generation of electricity, avoiding the need for expensive platinum catalyst.
- Using other types of powders, the team made superconducting yarns for potential use in applications ranging from powerful magnets to underground electrical transmission lines.
“UT Dallas’s bi-scrolling technology is rich in application possibilities that go far beyond those we described in Science,” Baughman said. “For instance, our collaborator, professor Seon Jeong Kim of Hanyang University in Korea has already used bi-scrolled yarn to make improved biofuel cells that might eventually be used to power medical implants.”
“I am especially proud of two of our former NanoExplorer high school students, Carter Haines and Stephanie Stoughton, who are undergraduate co-authors of both our article in Science magazine and our internationally filed patent application on bi-scrolling,” Baughman added.
Other co-authors of this article are postdoctoral fellows Dr. Márcio Lima, who is lead author; Dr. Elizabeth Castillo-Martínez, Dr. Javier Carretero-Gonzáles, Dr. Raquel Ovalle-Robles and Dr. Jiyoung Oh; graduate students Xavier Lepró, Mohammad Haque, Neema Rawat, and Vaishnavi Aare; laboratory associate Chihye Lewis; research professors Dr. Shaoli Fang and Dr. Mikhail Kozlov; and Dr. Anvar Zakhidov, professor of physics and associate director of the NanoTech Institute.
Funding for this research was provided by grants from the Air Force, the Air Force Office of Scientific Research, the Office of Naval Research, the National Science Foundation, and the Robert A. Welch Foundation.