Unlock the Power of Sound in Your Games with Godot’s AudioBusLayout
Imagine stepping into a game where the roar of dragons, the clash of swords, and the subtle whispers of the wind don’t just sound from a single direction but encapsulate you in a bubble of immersive audio experience. That’s the power of well-structured audio in game development. Our focus today revolves around the AudioBusLayout class in Godot 4, a potent tool for crafting such rich soundscapes. By mastering AudioBusLayout, you can control every nuance of the sounds in your game, enhancing the gaming experience for your players.
Table of contents
What is AudioBusLayout?
AudioBusLayout is a class within the Godot game engine that plays a pivotal role in managing sound within your projects. This class enables you to handle various aspects of audio buses, such as their position, volume, and effects among other settings.
Understanding the Purpose of AudioBusLayout
At its core, AudioBusLayout allows game developers to create complex audio systems that are both dynamic and responsive to in-game interactions. It’s through this class that one can organize how audio is processed and routed in your game. Whether you need to mute certain sounds, adjust volumes, or apply effects dynamically, AudioBusLayout is the tool you’d turn to.
Why Learn About AudioBusLayout?
Diving into the intricacies of AudioBusLayout is not just for audio experts. As a game developer, understanding how to leverage this resource can significantly elevate your game’s production value. Here’s why grasping the concept of AudioBusLayout can be beneficial:
– It gives you fine control over every sound in your game, allowing for a more polished audio experience.
– Knowing how to manipulate audio can help create more engaging and interactive environments.
– It is a crucial skill that could set your games apart in a market where players are continually seeking more immersive experiences.
Stay tuned as we progress through a comprehensive tutorial complete with examples that will guide you on how to harness the potent power of Godot’s AudioBusLayout to captivate your players through sound.
Setting Up Basic Audio Buses in Godot
Creating and customizing audio buses is essential for organizing different types of sounds in your game, such as background music, sound effects, and voiceovers. We’ll begin by setting up a basic structure for audio buses within Godot.
First, open your Godot project and navigate to the ‘Audio’ tab, which is next to the ‘Script’ and ‘AssetLib’ tabs at the bottom panel of the editor.
# Create a new Audio Bus var bus_layout = AudioServer.get_bus_layout() var new_bus_index = AudioServer.add_bus(bus_layout.buses.size()) AudioServer.set_bus_name(new_bus_index, "New Bus")
Once you’ve added a new audio bus, as shown in the code, you can customize its name according to the category of sound it will handle, such as “Music”, “SFX”, or “Voices”.
Adjusting Volume and Mute Settings
Once your buses are set up, the next step is managing volume levels and mute settings. These are crucial for dynamic sound control in game scenarios.
# Change the volume of a bus var bus_name = "Music" AudioServer.set_bus_volume_db(AudioServer.get_bus_index(bus_name), -20.0) # Mute an audio bus AudioServer.set_bus_mute(AudioServer.get_bus_index(bus_name), true)
The above examples show you how to adjust the volume of a bus in decibels (dB) and how to mute a bus altogether. These actions could be linked to game events such as pausing the game, entering a stealth mode, or triggering cutscenes.
Applying Effects to Audio Buses
Godot’s AudioBusLayout allows us to add various effects to our sound, making the audio experience more diverse and engaging. Let’s see how to add a reverb effect to our audio bus for atmospheric sounds or large environments.
# Add a Reverb effect to the 'SFX' bus var reverb_effect = AudioEffectReverb.new() var sfx_bus_index = AudioServer.get_bus_index("SFX") AudioServer.add_bus_effect(sfx_bus_index, reverb_effect) # Configure the reverb properties reverb_effect.room_size = 0.8 reverb_effect.damp = 0.5 reverb_effect.pre_delay_msec = 150 reverb_effect.spread = 0.5
In the example above, we initialize a new AudioEffectReverb, associate it with the “SFX” audio bus, and then modify various properties such as room size and damping.
Routing Audio Between Buses
Strategically routing audio from one bus to another allows for creative sound design, like flowing dialogues through environmental effects or creating sound layers. Here’s how you can route audio between buses.
# Route the 'Voices' bus to route through the 'Reverb' bus for environmental effects var voices_bus_index = AudioServer.get_bus_index("Voices") var reverb_bus_index = AudioServer.get_bus_index("Reverb") AudioServer.set_bus_send(voices_bus_index, reverb_bus_index)
With this setup, any audio playing through the “Voices” bus will be sent to the “Reverb” bus, inheriting its effects and properties. This approach can inject a dose of reality into your game’s audio landscape by mimicking natural sound behavior.
As you can see, Godot’s AudioBusLayout holds immense potential for creating a dynamic and captivating audio environment. These basics create a foundation that we’ll build on in the next parts of our tutorial, so stay tuned for further exploration into the vivid world of Godot’s audio landscapes.We’ve already covered the essentials of creating and configuring audio buses in Godot. Now, let’s dive deeper and explore more advanced features and interactions, including programming reactive sound systems and handling audio input.
Implementing Reactive Sound Systems
Reactive sound systems respond to in-game actions or environments, adjusting audio output in real-time. Consider a scenario where sound effects vary based on the player’s location. Here’s how to implement such a system:
# Check if the player enters a predefined area, and adjust the bus volume if player.is_in_area("Cave"): AudioServer.set_bus_volume_db(AudioServer.get_bus_index("SFX"), -10.0) else: AudioServer.set_bus_volume_db(AudioServer.get_bus_index("SFX"), 0.0)
In the example above, the volume of the “SFX” bus is lowered when the player character enters an area dubbed “Cave”, perhaps to simulate the dampening effect of a cavernous environment.
Applying Real-Time Audio Effects
Godot allows for the dynamic application or removal of audio effects in real-time. This enables developers to alter the audio experience based on gameplay mechanics. For example, transitioning into a slow-motion game mode:
# Add a pitch-shift effect to simulate slow-motion var pitch_shift_effect = AudioEffectPitchShift.new() var master_bus_index = AudioServer.get_bus_index("Master") AudioServer.add_bus_effect(master_bus_index, pitch_shift_effect) # Customize the pitch-shift effect pitch_shift_effect.pitch_scale = 0.5
This pitch-shift effect reduces the pitch scale, creating an auditory slow-motion effect when the player enters slow motion mode.
Handling Audio Input for In-Game Usage
Godot can also manage the audio input from the microphone or other sources, allowing for interactive voice-controlled games or voice chat implementations:
# Enable audio capture for voice input var mic_bus_index = AudioServer.get_bus_index("Microphone") AudioServer.set_bus_enable(mic_bus_index, true) # Capture audio and process it for in-game use if AudioServer.capture_is_active(): var captured_audio_data = AudioServer.capture_get_data() # Process captured_audio_data for actions such as voice commands
By activating audio capture and processing the data, you can provide a unique layer of interactivity within your game.
Automating Bus Changes Through Scripting
The power of Godot’s scripting capabilities lets you automate changes to audio buses throughout gameplay. For instance, you might want to transition music seamlessly from one track to another without abrupt stops.
# Smooth music transition with crossfade to a new track var current_music_bus = AudioServer.get_bus_index("CurrentMusic") var new_music_bus = AudioServer.get_bus_index("NewMusic") AudioServer.set_bus_volume_db(current_music_bus, -linear_interpolate(current_value, 0, transition_time)) AudioServer.set_bus_volume_db(new_music_bus, linear_interpolate(0, max_volume, transition_time))
Through this snippet, music crosses from the “CurrentMusic” bus to the “NewMusic” bus smoothly, hemmed by a pleasant fading effect.
Creating Dynamic Environment Effects
Last but not least, the dynamic adjustment of environment effects based on the game world’s states can significantly enhance realism. If, for instance, the player finds themselves in a dense fog, the audio might become muffled:
# Adjust high pass filter to simulate muffled sound in fog var high_pass_effect = AudioEffectHighPassFilter.new() AudioServer.add_bus_effect(AudioServer.get_bus_index("SFX"), high_pass_effect) # Increase cutoff frequency to muffle sounds if environment.has_fog(): high_pass_effect.cutoff = 5000 # The value is arbitrary, adjust to your liking
Adopting such layers of interactivity based on in-game conditions or player actions can bring your game world to life, making each playthrough distinctive and personalized.
Through these examples, we can appreciate the depth of control Godot provides over the game’s auditory environment. Leveraging the capabilities of the AudioBusLayout class and integrating sound dynamics with game logic not only contributes to the ambience but also engages players on a multi-sensory level. As we continue to develop a more engaging, responsive, and genuinely immersive auditory experience, these tools are indispensable for any game developer looking to make a mark with their creations.We’ve been exploring the fascinating features of Godot’s AudioBusLayout, revealing how it can influence the player’s experience with dynamic and responsive soundscapes. As we delve further into advanced applications, let’s examine more intricate examples that demonstrate the incredible flexibility and depth of audio control within Godot.
**Dynamic Volume Adjustment Based on Proximity**
One engaging feature in games is the volume adjustment of sounds based on the player’s proximity to the source. Imagine the intensity of a sound gradually increasing as the player approaches.
# Adjust the volume dynamically based on player's proximity to a sound source var player_distance = player.position.distance_to(sound_source.position) var volume_level = linear_interpolate(max_volume, min_volume, player_distance/max_distance) AudioServer.set_bus_volume_db(AudioServer.get_bus_index("Effects"), volume_level)
The code calculates the player’s distance from a sound source and interpolates the volume level accordingly. The interpolation ensures a smooth transition as the player moves.
**Switching Environmental Audio Based on Location**
Environmental soundscapes can change as the player transitions between different areas, like moving from a bustling city to a serene forest. Below, we demonstrate how to switch between environmental audio states.
# Set up bus indexes for two environments var city_bus_index = AudioServer.get_bus_index("City") var forest_bus_index = AudioServer.get_bus_index("Forest") # Switch environmental audio based on the player's location if player.is_in_area("CityArea"): AudioServer.set_bus_mute(city_bus_index, false) AudioServer.set_bus_mute(forest_bus_index, true) elif player.is_in_area("ForestArea"): AudioServer.set_bus_mute(forest_bus_index, false) AudioServer.set_bus_mute(city_bus_index, true)
The `if` conditions check the player’s current area and mute or unmute the respective audio buses to match the environment.
**Layering Music Tracks for Dynamic Composition**
Music that changes based on gameplay adds a layer of depth to the game. Here we simulate adding instrument layers when the player achieves specific goals.
# Add another layer/instrument to background music var strings_bus_index = AudioServer.add_bus() AudioServer.set_bus_name(strings_bus_index, "StringsLayer") # Add a music stream to the bus var music_stream = load("res://music/strings_layer.ogg") var strings_stream_player = AudioStreamPlayer.new() strings_stream_player.stream = music_stream AudioServer.add_child(strings_stream_player) # Play the added layer when a condition is met if player.achieved_goal("FindAncientSword"): strings_stream_player.play()
The code dynamically adds a new bus for the string layer and triggers it when the player finds an in-game item.
**Real-Time Audio Reflections and Echoes**
Sometimes, you want to simulate audio reflections to enhance the sense of space, especially in games with indoor environments. Here’s how to create real-time audio reflections or echoes:
# Add an Echo effect to a bus for indoor sound reflections var echo_effect = AudioEffectDelay.new() AudioServer.add_bus_effect(AudioServer.get_bus_index("Indoor"), echo_effect, 0) # Customizing the echo effect properties echo_effect.feedback_active = true echo_effect.feedback = 0.3 echo_effect.tap1_delay_ms = 150 echo_effect.tap1_level_db = -10
This effect will give the sound an echo, simulating an indoor acoustic environment when the player enters a building or a room.
**Synchronizing Sound with Visual Effects**
Audio can also be synchronized with visual effects, enhancing the sensation of certain events. Here’s how you can synchronize a sound with a visual explosion:
# Play an explosion sound and synchronize it with a visual explosion effect if explosion_triggered: var explosion_sound = load("res://sounds/explosion.ogg") var explosion_player = AudioStreamPlayer.new() explosion_player.stream = explosion_sound add_child(explosion_player) explosion_player.play() # Trigger visual explosion effect here trigger_visual_explosion_effect()
This snippet plays an explosion sound using an `AudioStreamPlayer` node, which should be synchronized with an explosion visual effect.
By leveraging these advanced techniques, we provide game players with a dynamic and immersive audiovisual experience that enhances gameplay and narrative. Each sound element can dynamically react to players’ actions or game events, offering a truly engaging and interactive gaming environment.
The provided code examples showcase the flexibility of the Godot engine in handling complex audio scenarios, enabling developers to craft rich auditory landscapes that blur the line between game and reality. We at Zenva pride ourselves on helping you unlock these capabilities, ensuring you can elevate your games with professional-level audio experiences.
Embark on Your Next Adventure in Game Development
Having explored the depths of audio manipulation in Godot, you’re now equipped with a powerful toolset that can transform your games into immersive experiences. But this is merely the beginning of your journey as a game developer. To continue advancing your skills and unleash the full potential of your creative visions, look no further than our Godot Game Development Mini-Degree.
Our comprehensive Mini-Degree is purpose-built to guide you from the basics to the more nuanced aspects of Godot game development. Whether you’re just starting out or building upon a foundation you already have, our curriculum is structured to ensure you can progress at your own pace. The hallmarks of Godot 4, celebrated for its flexibility and user-friendly nature, will become second nature as you dive into courses covering 2D and 3D game creation, gameplay control, combat systems, UI design, and much more. Each step of the way, you’ll be creating real projects that exemplify the knowledge you’ve acquired.
And for those looking to delve into a broader spectrum of topics, our range of Godot courses provide the perfect supplement to your learning. With Zenva, you’ll gain more than just knowledge; you’ll have the portfolio and certificates to showcase your newfound prowess. So, let’s continue this adventure together and make your game development dreams a reality.
The capabilities of Godot’s AudioBusLayout have the power to transform sounds into vivid storytelling tools, shaping deeper worlds within your games. By mastering the art of audio manipulation, you’ll not only enhance gameplay but also create memorable experiences for your players. As game developers, we strive to craft those captivating moments, and sound plays a pivotal role in bringing them to life.
As you’ve taken these steps to expand your skillset with us, remember that each new technique learned is a stepping stone to greater creativity and innovation. Whether you enchant players with the whispers of fantasy realms or the roar of intergalactic battles, your journey through sound has just begun. Fuel your passion further with Zenva’s Godot Game Development Mini-Degree, and continue to write the symphony of your game development adventure.
FINAL DAYS: Unlock coding courses in Unity, Godot, Unreal, Python and more.


Hendon Publishing - Article Archive Details
Nonverbal Signs of Deception
The good news is that officers can become more efficient with a better understanding of deceptive behaviors. This is not about watching for the suspect to touch his face or pick lint. It is about understanding instant changes in behaviors that give stronger indications of deception.
Considering that between 60% to 80% of communication is done nonverbally, officers can’t afford to ignore deceptive leakage through body movements. Unfortunately, many officers fall prey to false indicators, creating an obstacle that is hard to overcome. There are three rules an officer can follow to dramatically increase the detection rate. First, deception is based on changes in baseline behavior. Second, nonverbal behaviors work in conjunction with verbal or a lack of verbal behaviors. Third, the best indicators of deception are micro-expressions.
During the early stages of the interview, officers are determining the suspect’s normal behavior. As the interview continues, the officer watches and notes differences in behavior. If a contradiction is noted, the topic can be revisited at a later time. An officer failing to observe normal behavior will have nothing to compare against during latter stages of the interview.
Nonverbal deception must be gauged with the verbal (or lack of verbal) message. The words being expressed encompass the suspect’s full thought, so it’s important to note if the suspect is saying one thing and the body is saying another. Is there a deviation from the suspect’s norm when explaining his whereabouts the previous night? Does the explanation correspond, not only with his baseline, but with the nonverbal explanation, as well?
Contrary to popular belief, liars move less, especially through illustrators. An illustrator is the use of hand and body movements to strengthen a message. People telling the truth are typically unconcerned and naturally use illustrators to strengthen their message. Liars are more cautious, so illustrators will decrease because their brain is working hard to find the right message to convince the officer of the truth.
The weight of telling the truth is less for someone who has nothing to lose. A criminal risks losing freedom, and an innocent person worries about whether the officer believes him. This alone may cause deceptive behaviors, but the displayed behaviors appear stronger, legitimate, or reliable. Keep in mind the liar’s voice is directly related to his thoughts, not his nonverbal behaviors.
Officers across the globe are trained to look for manipulators. Manipulators are behaviors interviewees perform on themselves, such as grooming, picking, pinching, or scratching a body part. Many studies conclude that people perform these behaviors in many settings and not just during fabrications. Oftentimes, these behaviors are simply a bad habit done subconsciously. These regularly displayed behaviors carry just as much or more weight.
As the liar’s emotions strengthen, his body will react accordingly. The body can create an uncontrollable fight or flight response through the autonomic nervous system. Signs include an increase in sweating, higher breathing and swallowing rates. Blushing or blanching of the skin is also a sign of stress, which is displayed in the neck and facial regions. Blushing is where the suspect’s cheeks turn red and may extend to and around the ears. Blanching is the redness you see creeping up the suspect’s neck from the collar line.
Though difficult to detect, micro-expressions could be regarded as the most accurate indicators of deception. A micro-expression is a one-quarter second facial expression giving the officer a glimpse into the suspect’s true emotion. When the suspect flashes an expression, he will quickly cover it when realizing the truth is exposed. If an officer asks a husband about his wife’s disappearance, he may flash a scowled look but quickly cover it with sadness. The scowl is the concealed emotion, and sadness is the mask.
The most prominent mask is a smile. A smile is used to cover true feelings, but there is weakness in its use. A seasoned liar can smile while lying, but it appears unnatural and not genuine. A truly felt smile is one that pulls the corner of the lips upward, while bringing the cheek and eye muscles together. A false smile lacks the bunching of wrinkles around the eyes and upward curl of the lips. When a weak or false smile is detected, it’s a good sign officers are receiving a false positive emotion and not getting the suspect’s true feelings. The topic of conversation will need further dissecting.
Many myths surround the use of nonverbal deception, but one thing is certain, if done properly, it is a very effective way to gain truth. Be conscious of what you have learned, and use it only when a baseline is established and when the behavior is exposed during verbal explanations. If videotaping an interview, go back and learn from the nonverbal behaviors you may have missed, especially micro-expressions. You may be surprised.
J.L. Sumpter, MS, is a detective / corporal with the Emmet County Sheriff’s Office and a freelance writer on police interviews and conversation management. He is a national public speaker and can be reached at email@example.com.
Published in Law and Order, Sep 2008
Rating : 6.0
Related ProductsCommunication TechniquesCommunicationsDeceptive Behavior
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Does your child have a fear of the water? Are they reluctant to swim? Try soothing your child's fears by making time in the water fun, being patient with their fears, and ensuring that they are safe at all times when close to water. Being able to swim can be an important and life-saving skill as a child ages. Help them to find confidence in the water, while still upholding clear guidelines for safety.
1Introduce bath-time as a time to feel safe in the water. By making bath-time a comfortable place, water will seem less scary. Show young kids, even at age 1, how to get used to water. By starting to teach them skills even during bath-time, they'll feel more confident in when learning how to swim.
- Get your young child comfortable with water on their face. In the bathtub, get the baby wet, let water go over their head, and get into their ears. Keep this up, so that the baby is introduced early on.
- Teach bubble blowing. This can help to teach your young child how to clear their nasal passages when they don't have their hands free. It helps to teach certain ways of breathing when around water.
- Have bath toys and pool toys available to make time in the water seem more fun.
- Teach them about unassisted floating in the tub. Help to hold them back in a floating position by sitting behind them at their head, and holding them underneath the arms.
2Avoid putting your own fears of the water on the child. You may not have learned to swim, or have some fears of your own about being in the water. Children will likely pick up on those fears. Make them feel safe by putting away your fears. When you're less anxious, they'll be less anxious.
- If you're having trouble with being in the water, consider taking swimming classes on your own to help reduce your fears.
- If you're watching your child in swimming classes and have anxiety from the sidelines, pay attention to what those anxieties are actually about, or consider having another partner or caregiver present to watch over.
3Be patient with your child's fears and concerns. Having a fear of water is a common occurrence for children. They may have experienced a time when they couldn't catch their breath in the water and panicked. It will take time for them to feel safe and secure.
- Take an active role in encouraging and reassuring them. Be present , if possible, to help them feel safe in the water. Get in the pool with them, and build a bond with them in the water. Say things like, "You're doing great" or "Awesome job."
- Don't snap at them or make them feel like their fears are unfounded. Respect their fear as real to them. Avoid saying things like, "You just have to get used to it. It's for your own good." Instead, say things like, "I understand what you're feeling. I'll be here with you the whole time."
- Gradually immerse them in the water, even if it starts with the feet, then legs, then hips, and neck. Take it slow and steady, if that's their pace.
Making Time in the Water Fun
1Focus on the positives of swimming and playing in the water. Make swimming and time in the water seem like lots of fun. Introduce games and activities that help to build confidence and trust in the pool. Just make it clear that playing in the water is fun, only when supervised.
- Use pool toys and other fun props to make the pool more interesting and fun.
- Try games like "red light, green light" to help get them moving in the water. With games, their minds will be more focused on playing the game, and less on feeling uncomfortable.
2Have the child take swim classes. Make swimming class a priority when your child is young. Consider private or group swimming classes. While there are swimming classes available for toddlers, the recommended starting age is around age 4 for classes. Often, the earlier that you teach a child to swim, the more comfortable they will be around water as they get older.
- Consider finding affordable swim classes through the YMCA or similar youth organizations.
- There may be "mommy-and me" swimming classes in your area, too. Think about these classes as a way to bond more with your child.
3Make swimming a part of your regular activities. Help to make swimming feel like second nature. The more often you spend time around the pool, the more likely it will feel comfortable and normal to be around water.
- Consider having your young child practice their swimming techniques in the bathtub.
- Turn pool time into family time. Make it something that your whole family can enjoy.
- The more that you and your child practice swimming, the more it will feel comforting rather than scary to be in the water.
4Set up goals and a reward system. Create small goals at first that are attainable. Then, as they become more comfortable in the water, increase the difficulty of the goals. When they reach their goals, provide rewards and encouragement.
- The reward can be as simple as telling them, "Good job" or "You made it this far. Great job!" Gentle and loving words of encouragement, even for small things, can help to build confidence.
- Consider providing an incentive such as a treat after swim class. You could also buy a new toy that can be used at the next swim lesson.
Ensuring Water Safety
1Never leave a child unattended near water, regardless of their swimming level. Drowning or swimming accidents are a serious matter. Without supervision, it can take just a matter of seconds for a child's safety to be in jeopardy, particularly if they are young children.
- Even when they become more advanced in their swimming, it's still unsafe to leave them unattended.
- If your child is at a pool party, at a public pool, or swimming on a lake, make sure that there is always an adult designated to watch over the children who are playing near the water.
- Make sure that access to pools is restricted when no adults are present. Consider investing in a gate if you have a home pool so that children can't get near the pool. Pool covers alone aren't safe if children start walking on them.
2Practice 'touch supervision' for young or new swimmers. Young children and new swimmers in particular need a sense of safety when at a pool or near water. This means that you need to be both present with the child, as well as within arm's reach of them.
- Provide a sense of security by being in the pool or water with them at all times.
- Protect them by being within an arm's reach. That way, if they get into trouble, you can react quickly to assist them.
- Don't rely on older siblings or other children to protect the child. Make sure it is an adult who is familiar with water safety.
3Use floatation devices and other safety measures. Life-jackets and floatation devices are key to safety. This is particularly true for young children, such as toddlers or new swimmers. Yet even with these measures, don't leave a young child unattended.
- Make sure that the flotation device fits properly. Use safe flotation devices like approved life vests and boating vests.
- The following personal flotation devices should never be used to ensure a child's safety: water wings, inflatable vests, blow-up rafts, noodles, swim rings, inflatable tubes, or inflatable floats. These devices are not durable enough to be life-saving devices.
- If you're going on a boat or canoe trip, always make sure that the child is wearing a life-jacket -- and wear one yourself.
- Get goggles for your child if they are having trouble with seeing when in the water.
4Practice pool and water safety rules in all settings, including at home. Remember that water safety rules should apply in all settings where people are in or near water. While it may seem like your pool or your neighbor's pool are safer than a public swimming pool, it's important to set clear boundaries no matter the location.
- Remind your children about safety around pools, particularly in home and on private property where there may not be any fencing. If you see a child who is playing dangerously near a pool, make sure to provide education about safety, and possibly take away privileges if they continue to disobey safety rules.
- Consider locks or gates to prevent access to pools.
- Make sure that open areas such as lakes, rivers, beaches, or natural ponds are supervised by adults when children are nearby. Stay close with your child at all times in these settings.
- Make sure that your child feels safe in crowds. This is particularly true in public spaces such as water parks, beaches, and public pools. Older children may be rough-housing, causing anxiety for your child. Make sure to reassure your child by being physically present, and enforcing safety rules for all the children there.
5Learn CPR and drowning safety measures. Be able to respond if there is a drowning emergency. Learn CPR and be aware of the warning signs that a child may be at risk of drowning.
- The Red Cross and other programs offer CPR classes. Look at available classes near you for pediatric CPR: http://www.redcross.org/take-a-class/cpr
- Be vigilant when you notice these warning signs of a potential drowning: head low in water/mouth at water level, eyes glassy and empty, eyes closed, hyperventilating or gasping, trying to swim in a particular direction but not making headway, trying to roll over on back, or appear to be climbing an invisible ladder.
- Consider having a person who is CPR-certified available, or a lifeguard, at all times when there are children near water.
- Avoid having children in or near hot tubs. They can be dangerously hot, and there is still a possibility of drowning even in shallow water.
- Don't let your guard down. Drowning is the leading cause of injury-related deaths in children, particularly those under 4 years old. Safety first.
Sources and Citations
- ↑ http://thetotsquad.com/blog/bath-time-swim-time-build-your-babys-water-confidence
- ↑ http://www.walmartlivebetter.ca/kids/schoolage/how-to-get-your-child-comfortable-in-the-water/image/7/
- ↑ https://www.parentmap.com/article/helping-your-child-learn-to-swim
- ↑ https://www.washingtonpost.com/national/health-science/at-what-age-should-a-child-learn-to-swim-very-early-may-not-be-best-experts-warn/2014/06/30/24490806-f649-11e3-a606-946fd632f9f1_story.html
- ↑ http://www.parents.com/parents-latina-magazine/ways-to-get-your-child-comfortable-in-the-water/
- ↑ http://www.walmartlivebetter.ca/kids/schoolage/how-to-get-your-child-comfortable-in-the-water/image/5/
- ↑ http://swimmingsafari.com/blog/tricks-to-getting-your-nervous-swimmer-more-comfortable-in-the-pool
- ↑ http://kidshealth.org/en/parents/water-safety.html#
- ↑ https://www.aap.org/en-us/about-the-aap/aap-press-room/news-features-and-safety-tips/pages/sun-and-water-safety-tips.aspx?rf=
- ↑ https://expertbeacon.com/helping-kids-feel-comfortable-and-safe-water-key/#.WBqNGST_ryA
- ↑ http://www.safebee.com/family/safe-unsafe-flotation-devices-kids
- ↑ http://kidshealth.org/en/parents/water-safety.html#
- ↑ https://www.healthychildren.org/English/health-issues/injuries-emergencies/Pages/Drowning.aspx
- ↑ https://expertbeacon.com/helping-kids-feel-comfortable-and-safe-water-key/#.WBq9UyT_ryB


Machine learning is gaining increasing importance in the field of business analytics and business intelligence today. Based on the type of data and business problem, machine learning approaches can be classified into supervised, unsupervised and semi-supervised learning. This module is designed to help understand how to apply machine learning on different types of data using SPSS and R software.
Classification in supervised learning
The primary difference between supervised, unsupervised and semi-supervised learning is the format of data. Supervised learning includes structured or formatted data. The prominent feature of supervised learning is that it inculcates the applications for classifiers. Classification helps to predict the categories and classifies data into categories based on a sample dataset.
Correlation in supervised learning
Supervised learning serves three main requisites, risk minimization, prediction of trends, and offering optimised e-solutions. Correlation is a statistical measure that helps in determining the extent of the relationship between two or more variables or factors. There are two types of correlations; bivariate and partial correlations. Some of the commonly used methods are:
Regressions in supervised learning
Extensive sets of data can be processed and predicted based on past trends and external information. Regression is applied to data in order to determine the relationship between a set of variables. In supervised machine learning, a regression can be performed using many tests, depending on the aim and type of data. Most popular regression tests are:
Detection in supervised learning
Machine learning is gaining increasing importance in the field of business analytics and intelligence today. It can be described as the ability of computers to learn without being explicitly programmed. Outlier detection and determination of values based on a training dataset is known as detection in supervised learning. It is used either as a replacement for regression or as a supplement. Common methods include:
Estimation in supervised learning
Supervised learning consists of algorithms generated through external information or instances to build hypothesis suiting the nature of the study. A critical part of supervised machine learning includes estimation of factors such as error rates, demand and revenues. Common methods of estimation include:


In early September, I made the case for a rising U.S. dollar, based on the basic supply and demand for dollars stemming from four dynamics:
- Demand for dollars as reserves
- Other nations devaluing their own currencies to increase exports
- "Flight to safety" from periphery currencies to the reserve currencies
- Reduced issuance of dollars due to declining U.S. fiscal deficits and the end of QE (quantitative easing)
Since then the dollar has continued its advance, and is now breaking out of a downtrend stretching back to 2005--and by some accounts, to 1985:
Technically, the Dollar Index has broken out of a multi-year wedge:
So what does this mean for the global economy?
Since currencies are intertwined with virtually every aspect of the global economy--trade, credit, inflation/deflation, commodities and capital flows, even political and soft power--there is no one consequence, but a multitude of interactive consequences.
For U.S. households, the rising dollar will have gradual, generally marginal effects: our dollars will buy more euros and yen when we visit Europe and Japan as tourists, imports from countries with weakening currencies will be slightly cheaper (if the importers don't palm the difference as extra profit) and we may be competing with more foreigners for dollar-based assets such as American homes, oil wells and Treasury bonds.
In sum, a rising dollar will only affect households on the margins. Since roughly 85% of the U.S. economy is domestic, imports and exports have relatively limited influence on the entire economy.
In other words, the direct consequences of a stronger dollar on U.S. households are generally positive, with the exception of those working in price-sensitive export industries, where the rising dollar will make goods sold in countries with weakening currencies more costly.
But the secondary effects could end up being far more consequential for Americans and everyone else on the planet, for this reason: the centrality of the dollar in the global economy means that the effects of a stronger dollar can create potentially destabilizing dynamics.
Central Banks Are Responsible for the Heightened Risk
One primary reason for this expansion of risk is the unprecedented actions of the world's central banks since the 2008 Global Financial Meltdown. In effect, the central banks doubled down on debt and leverage as the politically expedient "solution" to the implosion of credit and leverage (what we call de-leveraging) as the collateral underlying highly leveraged loans (think subprime mortgages on overpriced McMansions) evaporated like mist in Death Valley.
Any solution that forced the write-down or write-off of the mountain of bad debt would have collapsed the over-leveraged banks which had become linchpins in the global financial system.
So the only way to maintain the status quo and avoid handing massive losses of wealth to financial elites was to issue trillions of dollars in new credit-money, lower interest rates to near zero and start buying assets from private-sector owners, turning their assets into cash that could then be used to invest overseas or in domestic stocks and bonds.
Each major central bank injected unprecedented sums of new money into their economies to ease the refinancing of debt at lower interest rates and enable expansion of credit for new loans.
If each economy (or in the case of the European Union, currency region) was moated by strict capital-control regulations, this massive goosing of credit might have been contained within each economy.
But in today's world of digital finance, capital, credit, risk and interest rates all flow wherever the risk is perceived to be controllable and the return is greatest.
Let's pause for a moment to recall that risk in 2008 was perceived to be controllable right up until the day that Lehman Brothers declared bankruptcy and the global financial system erupted in a fireball of panic and liquidation.
Why was risk considered controllable right up to the implosion? Derivatives and hedges were widely assumed to be solid protection against any spot of bother in global credit markets. But this confidence was misplaced, as it ultimately relied on multiple counterparties retaining their solvency. If a position was hedged by a derivative that was to be paid by a counterparty if things went south, and the counterparty blew up before the hedge could be paid off, there was no hedge.
It turned out that liquidity--a market of buyers and sellers that allows any security to be sold more or less whenever the seller decides to sell--dried up, and markets for risky securities went bidless, i.e. there were no buyers at any price.
If there are no buyers, the value of the security drops to zero, and everybody down the line who counted on that security fetching the anticipated price so their hedge could be paid off also implodes.
Central banks countered this implosion by buying bonds and mortgages and lowering interest rates so old debt could be refinanced at much lower costs.
But in doing so, they created a vast market for global carry trades--the borrowing and buying of assets in various currencies to take advantage of yield and interest-rate differences. In the old pre-digital days, it was difficult to arbitrage these variations in national currencies and interest rates. But in today's world, it's easy for financiers and financial institutions to borrow money in dollars or yen at low interest rates and re-invest the money in higher-yield securities issued in other countries.
The Problem with Carry Trades and Cross-National Debt
The central bank's massive issuance of new money put trillions of dollars in the carry trade, and this vast expansion of global currency/interest-rate arbitrage has put currency values front and center.
The carry trade simply means cheap-to-borrow money in the US and Japan flows to emerging markets where rates are higher. If you can borrow $1 billion at a 0.25% rate in the U.S. or Japan and then buy emerging-market bonds that pay much higher yields, why not? The profit is free money.
The sums of money being gambled in carry trades are enormous. It is estimated that $7 trillion of emerging market debt is denominated in another currency. According to the Telegraph newspaper (U.K.), roughly two thirds of the $11 trillion in cross-national loans are denominated in U.S. dollars.
$11 trillion may not seem like much when compared to America's $16 trillion gross domestic product (GDP), but the emerging markets which have been the happy recipients of this vast river of capital have much smaller economies and credit markets.
They also have fewer options to refinance debt, as they lack heavyweight central banks like the Bank of Japan, the European Central Bank and the Federal Reserve.
As a result, these capital flows are extremely consequential and thus potentially disruptive.
Here's the risk in carry trades:if the currency you borrowed the money in strengthens and the currency you're receiving the interest payments in weakens, the deal sours. The rise and fall in currencies can erase the profits of the carry trade.
If the currencies weaken/strengthen beyond break-even, a once-profitable trade turns into a losing trade.
And how do you extricate yourself from the carry trade? You sell the emerging-market assets and repatriate the money back into the currency you borrowed the money in: for example, the U.S. dollar.
This has immediate supply-demand effects on currencies. The emerging-market currency that's being sold drops in value while the currency that's in demand (U.S. dollars) strengthens.
We might imagine that the Federal Reserve ending its vast money-issuance program of quantitative easing would lessen the global risk posed by the carry trade, as it reduces the flood of dollars seeking higher-yield homes outside the U.S.
But this tightening has actually increased the risk of carry trades blowing up and bringing down emerging-market economies, for it reduces the flow of fresh capital into emerging markets. As the supply of dollars dries up, demand for dollars rises as carry trades are unwound. Emerging-market currencies then weaken significantly, causing profitable carry trades to reverse into losing trades, which then causes those holding debt in dollars and assets in other currencies to dump the assets and pay off the dollar-denominated debts before the trade goes even more against them.
There is a positive feedback in play: the more the dollar rises, the greater the losses in carry trades denominated in the dollar, and the greater the incentive for those still in the trade to sell emerging market assets and currencies.
In response to these massive outflows of capital, emerging nations must raise interest rates quickly to offer incentives for capital to stay put, which then causes the cost of new loans (and doing business in general) to quickly rise to painful levels.
As the currencies suffering outflows decline against the dollar, imports become more expensive and exports lose value when traded for dollars. It's a triple-whammy for emerging nations: their borrowing costs are soaring, the capital leaving to pay off dollar-denominate debt leaves them starved for investment capital, and their imports rise in cost as their exports earn less.
So here is the net result of central banks pursuing quantitative easing and zero-interest rates: a massive increase in global risks resulting from the carry trades the money expansion and cheap rates fueled.
The central banks' "solution" has blown another global bubble of risk that now threatens to destabilize not just the carry trades but the economies and credit systems that have become intertwined with the carry trade.
In effect, the failure to address the structural problems revealed in the Global Financial Meltdown of 2008-2009 have been transferred to the larger foreign-exchange (FX) market, which is connected to virtually everything in the global economy.
In Part 2: Why The Strengthening Dollar Is A Sign Of The Next Global Crisis, we examine these risks to the global economy. Not only is a rising dollar a sign of weakness elsewhere in the world, but the higher it rises, the more destabilizing global currency imbalances become. If it rises too high, it then becomes a cause of further destabilization -- one that could trigger the next global crisis.


Why non-communicable diseases overseas can affect the U.S.
An Indian nurse (R) collects a blood sample from a patient using a glucometer at a free Diabetic health check up camp in Hyderabad on Nov. 1, 2009.
Jeremy Hobson: Well a lot has happened this week at the UN General Assembly in New York. But here's one warning that hasn't gotten much attention: Non-communicable diseases like stroke, cancer, and diabetes could cripple economies in the emerging world.
That's what concerns Dr. Thomas Frieden, the director of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, who joins us now. Good morning.
Thomas Frieden: Good morning.
Hobson: So you're the head of the CDC. We've got plenty of health challenges here in the U.S. -- why is it so important to you and to the United States to focus on problems overseas?
Frieden: Well we're obviously concerned when it comes to infectious diseases, but we also have connections in the non-communicable diseases. Both in terms of food and medicine safety, but also in learning lessons from each other and confronting what's now the leading cause of death, not just in rich countries, but in poor countries also: heart disease, stroke, cancer and diabetes.
Hobson: Why are we, in the U.S., concerned about these non-communicable diseases overseas?
Frieden: One of the things that we can do is to promote healthy development in other countries, and that's good for us. Actually what we're seeing is that in the past decade, as you know, U.S. exports to developing countries have grown many times faster than exports to major economies. So if we can help countries remain healthy and vibrant, it's good for them and it's good for us.
Hobson: How much does it cost a country -- an emerging country -- to deal with these problems like diabetes or obesity or heart disease?
Frieden: It's always going to be a whole lot cheaper to prevent health problems than to treat them, even in the U.S. The care of someone with diabetes costs $6,600 more every year than the care of someone without diabetes. And for developing countries that have very limited resources, it's going to be very difficult to manage problems if they don't reduce the number of people with these conditions.
Hobson: Thomas Frieden is head of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Thanks so much for talking with us.
Frieden: Thank you.


The Book in Transition
Bookbinding came out of the dark ages as European culture began to flourish. Books became more common with the invention of printing mid-century. Very different styles of bindings developed in northern and southern Europe, differences which would be evident for the next few centuries. The books shown here bridge the medieval book and the structure of the book which would last until the 19th century.
Title:Scriptores rei rusticae.
Reggio Emilia : Bartholomaeus and Laurentius de Bruschis, Bottonus, June 5, 1482.
Call Number:PA 6139 .R8 1482
A southern European binding in vellum. The ends of the sewing supports, called slips, can be seen laced through the binding at the hinge. The cloth ties were used to hold the book closed, since vellum tends to warp when the humidity changes.
Bartholomaeus, Anglicus, 13th cent.
Title:De proprietatibus rerum.
Publisher:Nuremberg, Anton Koberger, 20 June 1492.
Call Number:AE 2 .B3 1492 c.1
A northern European binding in full leather. The diapered pattern (i.e. the diagonals) are fairly typical of this era of binding. There were clasps to hold the book shut, which are now missing. The wood of the boards, most likely beech or oak, can be seen in the split in the leather.
Voerda, Nicasius de, d. 1492.
Lectnra [sic] libri Institutionn[m] [i.e. Institutionum] magistri Nycasij de voerda ... Iustinianus.
Publisher:[Cologne] : ... Industria Iohannis Koelhoff ..., 1493
Call Number:KJA 1925 .N52 A36 1493
A northern European binding in full leather with blind tooling on the cover. The title can be seen on hand-written on the fore edge, rather than tooled on the spine. The wooden boards are exposed at the corners.
Back to Top
Filelfo, Francesco, 1398-1481.
Publisher:[Basel, Johann Amerbach, ca. 1496]
Call Number:PQ 4621 .F45 Z5 A3
A southern European binding bound in quarter leather with exposed wooden boards. Binders in southern Europe tended to use beech. The large ridges on the spine cover the sewing, mostly likely on split alum-tawed thongs. A vellum title label has been glued to the spine. There are evidence of claps on the front board. The back board has been lost and replaced with a cloth replacement.


For Women, Lower Legal Minimum Drinking Ages Linked to Increased Suicide and Homicide Risk
From 1949 to 1972, legal drinking ages across American states differed substantially. To find out what impact growing up with a lower legal minimum drinking age might have on violent death rates, researchers at Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis examined data from 200,000 suicides and 130,000 murders during this 23 year period.
For men, they found that variations in legal minimum drinking age had little impact on violent death, but for women, the story was slightly different.
- Women who grew up in states with lower legal minimum drinking ages were 15% more likely to have been murdered and 12% more likely to have committed suicide than women who grew up in states with a legal minimum drinking age of 21.
The researchers say that based on this, they estimate that the nationwide legal minimum drinking age of 21 saves roughly 1200 women per year from death by suicide or homicide.
The full study results can be found in Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research
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Printed from http://tektonics.org/dayofl.php
The NT several times refers to the "day" of Christ in the context of an impending judgment. In order to understand how this term is used in the NT, it is necessary to look at how an OT precursor of the phrase is used.
The phrase "the day of the Lord" (TDOL) occurs 26 times in the OT, always in the prophetic literature. Six of these occurrences refer to a "day of the Lord's..." X, but not all of these refer to a future event. We begin, in OT order, with Isaiah:
Is. 2:12 For the day of the LORD of hosts shall be upon every one that is proud and lofty, and upon every one that is lifted up; and he shall be brought low...
The first example of TDOL occurs in the context of an oracle which predicts in the "last" or future days a time when "all nations" will flow to the house of the Lord (2:2) and there will be an end of all war (2:4) and proud men are humbled (2:11-17) or try to hide from the judgment of God (2:19ff). This use clearly indicates a picture of final judgment.
Is. 13:6-9 Howl ye; for the day of the LORD is at hand; it shall come as a destruction from the Almighty. Therefore shall all hands be faint, and every man's heart shall melt: And they shall be afraid: pangs and sorrows shall take hold of them; they shall be in pain as a woman that travaileth: they shall be amazed one at another; their faces shall be as flames. Behold, the day of the LORD cometh, cruel both with wrath and fierce anger, to lay the land desolate: and he shall destroy the sinners thereof out of it.
This time, though, TDOL is a judgment directed exclusively against Babylon. Babylon is directly addressed (13:1, 19) and the Medes are said to be the instrument of Babylon's destruction (13:17). For reference, take note as well of how this singular judgment is described:
Is. 13:10-13 For the stars of heaven and the constellations thereof shall not give their light: the sun shall be darkened in his going forth, and the moon shall not cause her light to shine. And I will punish the world for their evil, and the wicked for their iniquity; and I will cause the arrogancy of the proud to cease, and will lay low the haughtiness of the terrible. I will make a man more precious than fine gold; even a man than the golden wedge of Ophir. Therefore I will shake the heavens, and the earth shall remove out of her place, in the wrath of the LORD of hosts, and in the day of his fierce anger.
It is easy to see a parallel to Jesus' pronouncements upon Jerusalem. More such language is found in Isaiah's last reference:
Is. 34:4, 8-10 And all the host of heaven shall be dissolved, and the heavens shall be rolled together as a scroll: and all their host shall fall down, as the leaf falleth off from the vine, and as a falling fig from the fig tree...For it is the day of the Lord's vengeance, and the year of recompenses for the controversy of Zion. And the streams thereof shall be turned into pitch, and the dust thereof into brimstone, and the land thereof shall become burning pitch. It shall not be quenched night nor day; the smoke thereof shall go up for ever: from generation to generation it shall lie waste; none shall pass through it for ever and ever.
Is. 34 is an oracle of judgment against Edom. Note here that the "day" of the Lord is equated with the "year of recompense," thus indicating that "the day of the Lord" isn't associated with a single 24-hour period. (Stuart notes that the phrase likely originated in the ANE conception of an ideal warrior who could vanquish foes in a day; Hosea-Jonah commentary, 231.)
Jer. 46:10 For this is the day of the Lord GOD of hosts, a day of vengeance, that he may avenge him of his adversaries: and the sword shall devour, and it shall be satiate and made drunk with their blood: for the Lord GOD of hosts hath a sacrifice in the north country by the river Euphrates.
The oracle this time is a warning to Egypt (46:2) and to the Pharaoh of Jeremiah's day. Jeremiah also used this phrase in Lamentations:
Lam. 2:22 Thou hast called as in a solemn day my terrors round about, so that in the day of the LORD'S anger none escaped nor remained: those that I have swaddled and brought up hath mine enemy consumed.
In this case, TDOL is used to refer to a past event of judgment, this time upon Jerusalem.
Next up: Ezekiel --
Ezek. 13:5 Ye have not gone up into the gaps, neither made up the hedge for the house of Israel to stand in the battle in the day of the LORD.
This warning is made to Israel's prophets (13:1) and is an admonition against them for being false prophets (13:6-7). These prophets have predicted peace for Jerusalem (13:16). The reference to TDOL is most likely here to the impending Babylonian attack on Jerusalem.
Ezek 30:3 For the day is near, even the day of the LORD is near, a cloudy day; it shall be the time of the heathen.
The oracle this time is against Egypt, and Babylon will be the mechanism of judgment (30:10).
The next five references are from the book of Joel.
Joel 1:15 Alas for the day! for the day of the LORD is at hand, and as a destruction from the Almighty shall it come.
Joel 2:1 Blow ye the trumpet in Zion, and sound an alarm in my holy mountain: let all the inhabitants of the land tremble: for the day of the LORD cometh, for it is nigh at hand;
Joel 2:11 And the LORD shall utter his voice before his army: for his camp is very great: for he is strong that executeth his word: for the day of the LORD is great and very terrible; and who can abide it?
Joel 2:31 The sun shall be turned into darkness, and the moon into blood, before the great and the terrible day of the LORD come.
Joel 3:14 Multitudes, multitudes in the valley of decision: for the day of the LORD is near in the valley of decision.
Because of the difficulty in knowing when Joel was written, it is not possible to say in all cases who the "enemy" is. It is enough to say that the first three references are to an impending judgment against the Jews.
The next three references to TDOL are from Amos, who was probably the first of the prophets chronologically to use the phrase.
Amos 5:18-20 Woe unto you that desire the day of the LORD! to what end is it for you? the day of the LORD is darkness, and not light. As if a man did flee from a lion, and a bear met him; or went into the house, and leaned his hand on the wall, and a serpent bit him. Shall not the day of the LORD be darkness, and not light? even very dark, and no brightness in it?
Amos 5-6 is a prophetic oracle against the northern kingdom of Israel.
Little Obadiah makes the next use of the phrase:
Obad. 15 For the day of the LORD is near upon all the heathen: as thou hast done, it shall be done unto thee: thy reward shall return upon thine own head.
Obadiah's oracle is upon Edom, and it is clear that Obadiah expects TDOL to affect Edom.
Now Zephaniah takes his turn:
Zeph. 1:8 Hold thy peace at the presence of the Lord GOD: for the day of the LORD is at hand: for the LORD hath prepared a sacrifice, he hath bid his guests. And it shall come to pass in the day of the LORD'S sacrifice, that I will punish the princes, and the king's children, and all such as are clothed with strange apparel.
Zeph. 1:14 The great day of the LORD is near, it is near, and hasteth greatly, even the voice of the day of the LORD: the mighty man shall cry there bitterly.
Zeph. 1:18-2:3 Neither their silver nor their gold shall be able to deliver them in the day of the LORD'S wrath; but the whole land shall be devoured by the fire of his jealousy: for he shall make even a speedy riddance of all them that dwell in the land. Gather yourselves together, yea, gather together, O nation not desired; Before the decree bring forth, before the day pass as the chaff, before the fierce anger of the LORD come upon you, before the day of the LORD'S anger come upon you. Seek ye the LORD, all ye meek of the earth, which have wrought his judgment; seek righteousness, seek meekness: it may be ye shall be hid in the day of the LORD'S anger.
These oracles are against Jerusalem and Judah (1:14). Again it is worth noting the symbolism used:
Zeph. 1:15-17 That day is a day of wrath, a day of trouble and distress, a day of wasteness and desolation, a day of darkness and gloominess, a day of clouds and thick darkness, A day of the trumpet and alarm against the fenced cities, and against the high towers. And I will bring distress upon men, that they shall walk like blind men, because they have sinned against the LORD: and their blood shall be poured out as dust, and their flesh as the dung.
Now Zechariah has some use for the phrase:
Zech. 14:1 Behold, the day of the LORD cometh, and thy spoil shall be divided in the midst of thee.
For the first time since Isaiah, TDOL may here be used as a phrase reflecting final judgment. The Lord is king over all the earth (14:9) and the nations all come to observe the Feast of Tabernacles (14:16). Other preterists, though, see this as a reference to 70 AD and believe we are now in a place where the Lord is king over the earth and we observe the feast in the "heavenly Jerusalem". I tend to agree with the latter.
Finally, Malachi uses the phrase:
Malachi 4:5 Behold, I will send you Elijah the prophet before the coming of the great and dreadful day of the LORD...
Of course Christian exegetes see this as a prophecy of John the Baptist. Notwithstanding that interpretation, this oracle to the returned exiles speaks of a day that "cometh, that shall burn as an oven; and all the proud, yea, and all that do wickedly, shall be stubble: and the day that cometh shall burn them up, saith the LORD of hosts, that it shall leave them neither root nor branch. But unto you that fear my name shall the Sun of righteousness arise with healing in his wings; and ye shall go forth, and grow up as calves of the stall. And ye shall tread down the wicked; for they shall be ashes under the soles of your feet in the day that I shall do this, saith the LORD of hosts." (4:1-3)
To what does this TDOL refer? TDOL here refers to the destruction of Jerusalem in 70 AD.
Our conclusion: "The day of the Lord" is a general phrase of judgment that can describe the final eschatological judgment of the world, but more often describes any forthcoming day of judgment. What "day" is in mind is determined by context, not merely by the phrase itself.


Church of Greece structure
The structure of the Church of Greece is unique in that it does not included all the area of the nation of Greece within its jurisdiction. The Orthodox ecclesiastical structure in the nation of Greece reflects the secular political actions during the formation of the nation of Greece beginning from its establishment in the second decade of the nineteenth century.
The Church of Greece was formed after a portion of the present day nation won its independence from the Ottoman empire in the 1820s and received autocephalous status from the Church of Constantinople in the mid 1800s. This area included the southern part of the peninsula of Greece consisting mainly of the Peloponnese peninsula and included Athens and Attica and some of the Greek islands. Following the Balkan Wars in the first decades of the twentieth century, Greece grew, adding to the nation of Greece the territories in Epirus, Macedonia, and Thrace, referred to as the New Lands, many of the islands in the Aegean Sea, and the island of Crete. However, ecclesiastical jurisdiction over most of these territories remained with the Church of Constantinople. Following World War II, the Dodecanese Islands in the southern part of the Aegean Sea also became part of the nation of Greece but ecclesiastically remained under the jurisdiction of the Church of Constantinople.
During the period following World War I, agreements were reached among the Ecumenical Patriarchate, the Church of Greece, and the Government of Greece concerning the News Lands in which the New Lands remained within the jurisdiction of the Church of Constantinople but de facto were made part of the Church of Greece for administration under an agreement between the churches of Athens and Constantinople and under which the Ecumenical Patriarch is commemorated.  Thus, the structure of the Orthodox Church within the nation of Greece is divided into three categories:
- that part fully under the jurisdiction of the Church of Greece as the Archdiocese of Athens,
- that part consisting of the New Lands that is jurisdictionally under the Ecumenical Patriarchate but administered as part of the Archdiocese of Athens, and
- that part, Crete and the Dodecanese Islands, that is fully under the jurisdiction and administration of the Ecumenical Patriarchate.
Metropolises of the New Lands in Greece that are within the jurisdiction of the Church of Constantinople but de facto are administered for practical reasons as part of the Church of Greece under an agreement between the churches of Athens and Constantinople:


If there is one sub-category within the 3D printing space that we have covered the most over the past year and a half, it would probably be the 3D printing of prosthetic hands and arms. While there have been hundreds of heart warming stories in the past two years about children and adults who have received custom-made 3D printed prosthetic arms from volunteers around the world, the majority of these volunteers stem from an organization called e-NABLE. e-NABLE, now with over 5,200 members worldwide, focuses on the design and fabrication of 3D printed prosthetic arms and legs. Members, who work strictly on a volunteer basis, share their design files, ideas and assembly instructions with each other, leading to the 3D printing of what has been thousands of super affordable prosthetic devices in just a couple years.
Typically it is extremely difficult for children to get fitted for traditional prosthetic hands and arms. With the continual bone growth seen in childhood and adolescence development, children typically need to be refit for a prosthesis every two years or so. This can get extremely expensive, oftentimes leaving children with upper limb differences without two working hands for much of their early life.
Today, e-NABLE has announced probably their most exciting news yet. They have been awarded a grant from Google.org in the amount of $600,000 as part of the $20 million Google Impact Challenge which focuses solely on disabilities.
“We created the e-NABLE Community Foundation to support the fast growing community of volunteers now known around the world as ‘eNABLE’,” explained Foundation President Jon Schull. “Google.org’s support will allow us to improve and to prove our products and our processes.”
This is quite significant, as the funding should go a long way in allowing e-NABLE to further develop their technology, as well get their 3D printed hands and arms out to more children and adults in need. As for exactly what the funding will be used for, details have not yet been made available, but the organization says that they will focus the funds on “accelerating research and development through strategic partnerships”, global design challenges, and development of self-service software that will allow beginners to more easily create custom 3D printed prostheses themselves.
“We think the e-NABLE community’s products and practices are a potential model for other ventures that can inspire digital humanitarians to use emerging technologies to develop innovative solutions for underserved populations,” explained Schull. “Google.org has challenged us to test that idea, and given us the resources to do it, even as we continue to serve volunteers and recipients.”
Representatives from e-NABLE hope that this grant will entice an entirely new wave of volunteers to join this inspirational movement, so they are currently in the process of “ramping up their efforts” to train volunteers as well as recruit new individuals and find more recipients in need.
“Because we now have unprecedented access to knowledge, to technology, and to fellow problem-solvers, we have new options for developing, sharing, and disseminating new solutions to challenging intractable problems,” said e-NABLE Community Foundation Director Ivan Owen. “The e-NABLE community has thrived by using communications and collaboration tools that are breathtakingly powerful, rapidly evolving and virtually free. With Google.org’s direct support, we can do even more.”
Surely this grant will not only provide e-NABLE with much needed resources, but also provide them with additional publicity, now that they are supported by internet giant Google. At the same time though, e-NABLE is still in need of additional donations in order to continue their growth and keep organized while they continue to expand.
What do you think about this incredible news? How quickly do you expect to see e-NABLE grow now that they have working capital and the support of a company with the notoriety of Google? Discuss in the Google Awards e-NABLE with Huge Grant Forum thread on 3DPB.com. Be sure to check out the recently updated and very helpful e-NABLE FAQ for more information on the organization.


I am currently studying geology on the island of Santorini. One of the concepts that is really important in doing that is how the islands in the Cyclades form. For most of the islands, plate tectonics hold the answer.
The idea of plate tectonics is that the Earth’s crust is made up of plates. These plates move around and crash into each other which is what causes most of Earth’s volcanism and earthquakes.
At the edges of each of these plates are smaller plates that are called microplates. These are usually grouped with the larger plates because they behave in a similar fashion. However, in the Aegean, it is important to understand that these plates are separated from the main plate by fault lines and sometimes act separate from the main plate.
In the Mediterranean, the African plate in moving under the Eurasian plate and the Aegean microplate. When one plate moves under another plate. It is called subduction. This creates a trench in the sea floor at the plate boundary which is marked in red in the above map. Parallel to subduction zones are volcanic arcs, including one within the Aegean Sea.
As the subducting plate sinks into the Earth, it pulls the overriding plate with it. This is known as subduction rollback and it makes the overriding plate move faster near the plate boundary.
The pulling from the subduction rollback creates uneven movement within the overriding plate. This leads to extension and thinning of the crust within the plate or microplate.
In order to thin the crust, normal faults form. Faults are breaks in the earth. Normal faults have a hanging wall and a footwall. The hanging wall is on top of the footwall. In a normal fault the hanging wall moves down relative to the footwall. The faults in the Aegean tend to point in a line from northeast to southwest.
As the hanging wall moves down relative to the footwall in a normal fault, the footwall also moves up relative to the hanging wall. After enough time has passed and the footwall has moved enough, the footwall will emerge above the water as an island. This is how most of the islands in the Cyclades are formed.
However, a few of the islands were constructed by volcanism and are either active or dormant volcanoes. These volcanoes are located on a different type of fault called a strike-slip fault. Strike-slip faults do not have a hanging wall and a footwall, but move horizontally whereas normal faults move vertically.
The strike-slip faults that are located with the volcanoes are special in that they are oblique strike-slip faults, so they move predominately horizontally but also move vertically. This type of motion creates a gap where the magma can move to the surface. Which is why there are volcanoes on these strike-slip faults, but no volcanoes along a strike-slip fault such as the San Andreas.
There are only four volcanic centers within the Aegean Sea. The rest of the islands all formed from normal faults. The four centers in order from West to East are Methana, Milos, Santorini, and Kos/Nysiros. These are circled in pink on the map of the Aegean above.
Plate tectonics created faulting, which then created islands and allowed magma to flow through the crust and make volcanic islands. I think this is a very important concept to understand in order to truly comprehend why there are so many islands within the Aegean Sea.
1. Walter Friedrich, Santorini, Aarhus University Press, 2009


Société Anonyme (1920-1950)
With the advent of railways, bringing cheaper midwestern produce to market, the farms of rural Redding, Connecticut, began to fail, depressing property values. Attracted by the beautiful landscape and affordability, artists and progressives moved in, taking up part-time and summer residence.
Mark Twain relocated to Redding in 1908 and founded the local library, in part funded by proceeds from a book sale stocked from his personal library.
Art collector, artist, and Société Anonyme co-founder Katherine S. Dreier had a country house in Redding, where she welcomed guests including Société Anonyme co-founders artists Marcel Duchamp and Man Ray, as well as artists Josef and Anni Albers, and modern dancer and choreographer Ted Shawn, who gave dancing lessons to the local farmers’ wives.
Edward Steichen, photographer, gallerist, and the Museum of Modern Art’s first curator of photography, deeded his Redding farm, Topstone, to the town, now a public park.
Other notable residents included composers Charles Ives and Leonard Bernstein, art critic John Russell, publisher Virginia Kirkus (Kirkus Reviews), novelist Flannery O’Connor, and early organic gardening advocate Ruth Stout, who was rumored to have brought traffic to a standstill gardening in the nude at her house on Poverty Hollow Road.
From this vibrant cultural heritage, it is the Société Anonyme that offers a model, both visionary and practical, for a new millennium of ecological uncertainty and extremes of financial precarity and concentrations of wealth that rival pre-revolutionary France.
Société Anonyme was an artist collective, whose primary mission was education: teaching the American public about the art of the day — European modernism.
These artist-educators didn’t teach “about” art but were artists making art.
Today’s science community — especially young scientists — have initiated a similar project, building scientific literacy at the community level with the global community bio lab movement. Their mission is to empower local people to more fully engage the scientific basis of social transformations already underway and anticipated from climate change impacts to innovations in synthetic biology and artificial intelligence.
Astrophysicist and NPR commentator Adam Frank acknowledges that science can only take us so far — society has to “metabolize” issues in order to engage and participate actively.
Art is cultural metabolism.
The challenges of planetary ecology, financialization, scientific and technological innovation ask for system-level re-invention that some have called an “imagination revolution.”
Artists at work in their communities are the revolution’s vanguard; the art of our day asks, “How do we sustain the growth machine of human civilization on a warming planet of finite resources?”
“The challenges of planetary ecology, financialization, scientific and technological innovation ask for system-level re-invention that some have called an ‘imagination revolution.'”
A cardinal tenet of art making is that an artwork cannot be strategized. Cognitive science characterizes creativity as “low focus.” We experience this as we strain away trying to solve a problem only to finally figure it out when we distract ourselves with a walk or are absently brushing our teeth.
Artist work is a practice, underscoring process, not training as in “piano practice.” Rejecting the convention of art as a category separate from daily life in the world, German artist Joseph Beuys (1921-1986) affirmed the transformative power of creativity, declaring, “Everyone is an artist.” Beuys considered teaching to be his primary artist practice and regularly presented public lectures. Criticized for “talking about everything under the sun but art,” he retorted, “Everything under the sun is art!”
Everyone’s creativity is needed in the practice of reinventing our man-made networks of supply and demand toward new processes that sustain human life and the biodiversity supporting us on earth.
It is not the planet that needs saving, but ourselves.
The artist collective Société Anonyme metabolized a new century for a young country fast emerging as a world force economically and geopolitically, but still beholden to European culture.
Similarly tethered to and dependent on incumbent processes and infrastructure, from power generation to waste management, communities can be creative collectives at the forefront of system-wide transformations that nurture, endure, and prosper now and for generations to come.
It will be a practice of community, the imagination frontier.


In the last week, the top health story picked up by most media outlets has warned that calcium supplements could increase heart attacks. The study at the eye of the media storm, published in the journal Heart, concluded that use of calcium supplements increased risk of heart attack by 86%. But after taking a closer look at the study details, dietary supplement groups poked holes in the research methodology and issued swift rebuttals to its findings.
The research team was led by Professor Sabine Rohrmann of the Division of Cancer Epidemiology and Prevention, Institute of Social and Preventive Medicine at the University of Zurich in Switzerland. In an interview with Nutraceuticals World, Dr. Rohrmann said she and her colleagues were drawn to previously established connections between calcium supplementation and heart attack risk. “We knew of meta-analyses that already indicated an increased risk of MI (myocardial infarction) among calcium supplement users,” she said. “We wanted to examine this in a non-clinical setting.”
The researchers culled data from 23,980 Heidelberg cohort participants of the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition study, who were aged 35–64 years and had not experienced major cardiovascular disease (CVD) events at the time of recruitment. In a nutshell, during a follow up period that spanned eleven years, 354 MIs, 260 stroke cases, and 267 CVD deaths were documented. The researchers concluded that the numbers indicated calcium supplements “might raise MI risk” and “should be taken with caution.”
When asked if specific doses of supplemental calcium proved more detrimental than others, Dr. Rohrmann said dosage levels were not tracked in her study. “In most clinical trials the usual dose is 1000 mg/day,” she said. “Based on or results we cannot give information on a safe dose. For this, we need a study with better assessment of dose and frequency of use.”
She went on to add that as a nutritionist, her recommendation was that calcium intake should come from dietary sources such as low fat dairy products, and vegetables like kale rather than from pills. “Also, some orange juices are supplemented with calcium but at a lower dose than a usual supplement,” she said. “If at all, people should think about splitting up their daily dose into smaller portions.”
Dr. Rohrmann said she planned to continue studying this phenomenon. “My next step will be to examine if individuals who use calcium supplements do indeed have higher serum levels of calcium, which is a possible explanation for our finding,” she said.
The Industry Responds
Given calcium’s increasingly important and trusted role in the realm of bone health, dietary supplement groups were quick to counter the media coverage that warning consumers about calcium pills.
“Calcium is an important mineral with proven benefits for bone health and a long history of safe use backed by an extensive body of observational and clinical studies that supports its use for reducing the risk for osteoporosis and hip, bone and other fractures. In addition, research has shown positive effects on risk factors associated with heart health,” said Taylor C. Wallace, Ph.D., senior director, scientific & regulatory affairs for the Council for Responsible Nutrition (CRN). “This study itself is not reason enough to discount the important benefits of calcium, but consumers with questions—as well as their doctors—should consider these following points: The original study wasn’t designed to measure cardiovascular events; consequently confounding factors for cardiovascular disease were not equally distributed across the study groups. So, for example, the calcium supplement group had a population with a greater incidence of high cholesterol at baseline, and also included more smokers who were more likely to smoke for a longer duration. (The association between smoking and heart disease is well-established.) In terms of considering the relative risk, of the 851 individuals taking supplements containing calcium, only seven events occurred in users of supplements containing only calcium.”
Dr. Wallace added that for those at prone to falls and fractures due to weak bones, removing calcium supplements from the diet could create an even greater health risk. “Our advice is for consumers to be aware of how much calcium they get from their diet, supplement with calcium if needed, and check with their doctor or other healthcare practitioner to determine their own personal needs.”
Dr. Cara Welch, vice president of scientific and regulatory affairs, for the Natural Products Association (NPA), concurred with Dr. Wallace and disputed points within the study’s methodology. “It’s important to note that this study was not set up to look at cardiovascular disease,” she said. “The sub-population this study looked at, users of calcium supplements alone, was very small compared to the total group, with an older average age as well as a longer duration of smoking. Meanwhile, the benefits of calcium are well-accepted. In fact, the Food and Drug Administration has approved a health claim on the use of calcium with regard to osteoporosis.”
Dr. Welch also added that the National Institutes of Health Office of Dietary Supplements agreed that calcium does not negatively affect the heart. “They have stated that, ‘Calcium has been proposed to help reduce cardiovascular disease risk by decreasing intestinal absorption of lipids, increasing lipid excretion, lowering cholesterol levels in the blood, and promoting calcium influx into cells,’” she said. “Results from other prospective studies have shown no significant associations between calcium intake and cardiac events or cardiovascular mortality.”
She concluded that NPA did not believe that the published study should cause consumers to stop taking their calcium supplements. “Calcium supplements are important for those Americans who do not get the appropriate amount of calcium in their diet,” she said. “We recommend you discuss your calcium intake with your health care professional.”
Calcium Supplements Dealt a Blow
Study warns calcium supplements increase risk for adverse cardiovascular events.
By Joanna Cosgrove, Online Editor


BIRMINGHAM, Ala. – The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) adapts so well to the body's defense system that any successful AIDS vaccine must keep pace with the ever-changing immunological profile of the virus, according to researchers at the University of Alabama at Birmingham (UAB) and the University of Oxford in England.
A new study better describes HIV's ability to adapt by spelling out at least 14 different "escape mutations" that help keep the virus alive after it interacts genetically with immunity molecules that normally attack HIV.
The researchers analyzed genetic data from more than 2,800 HIV-infected patients on five continents. The findings are published online in the journal Nature.
"Key genetic regions of HIV introduced into individuals of different ancestry in different places have been evolving to a greater or lesser degree according to inherited factors controlling immune response," said Richard Kaslow, M.D., a professor in the UAB School of Public Health and a co-author of the study. "If HIV adapts differently in genetically distinct hosts, the challenge ahead in vaccine design is formidable," he said.
The researchers looked at different DNA variations of HIV in conjunction with different forms of human leukocyte antigen (HLA), a group of molecules that orchestrate immune response. Normally HLA molecules present fragments of HIV proteins on the surface of infected cells to the immune system, acting as a signal for HIV destruction.
The Nature study shows just how efficiently the virus evolves escape mutations that help infected cells avoid destruction, Kaslow said. HLA genes themselves vary considerably across populations, most likely due to many biological and environmental factors that researchers are just beginning to understand.
The future of vaccine exploration will need to address the escape mutation capacity and identify new drug targets that work against an ever-changing HIV immunology landscape, said Philip Goulder, M.D., a professor of immunology at the University of Oxford and the study's senior author.


Silver Age Beyond
A mathematical computer (major gadget)
Mathematical literacy isn’t as rare as computer literacy, but many merchants find it much easier to manage their businesses with a little help. As it’s name suggests, this computer can perform basic mathematical operations. Some adding machines are simple calculators, others are elaborate laptops that have decayed so much that they can do little more than perform simple math and show a few pretty pictures. Most store their data on internal drives, but can output to standard disks.
Programmed in Tambda or Maurocastrum
Cost: 400 desk/500 lap


The Food and Drug Administration is expected to authorize a third dose of the Pfizer and Moderna COVID-19 vaccines as a booster for people with compromised immune systems, according to multiple reports.
A panel of advisors to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention met last month and urged extra doses for immunocompromised adults, NBC News reported.
There was no mention in either report about a booster shot for those who have received the Johnson & Johnson vaccine. That one is a one-dose treatment while Pfizer and Moderna require two doses.
About 3% of U.S. adults have weakened immune systems. Among them are people with HIV or AIDS, transplant recipients, some cancer patients and people with autoimmune disorders such as rheumatoid arthritis, inflammatory bowel disease and lupus.
COVID-19 shots weren’t studied in large numbers of people with weak immune systems. But limited data and experience with flu and pneumonia vaccines suggest they won’t work as well as they do in others. That means people with weakened immune systems should keep taking precautions like wearing masks and avoiding large crowds.
French guidelines already recommend a third COVID-19 dose for the immunocompromised, including organ recipients. Israel recently began giving an extra dose of the Pfizer vaccine to transplant patients and others with weak immune systems. Some U.S. transplant recipients seek out a third dose on their own in hopes of more protection even though the federal government hasn't authorized extra vaccinations.
ABC News, citing an internal CDC document, reports that an estimated 1.1 million people who have received the Pfizer or Moderna vaccine have gone back for an unauthorized third booster shot. Florida, Ohio, California, Illinois and Tennessee are the states with the most people seeking a third dose.
The Associated Press contributed to this report.


Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI) is caused by a bump, blow, or jolt to the head that disrupts brain functioning. The leading causes of TBI are falls, being struck by or against objects and motor vehicle crashes. TBIs range from mild (a brief disruption in consciousness) to severe (prolonged unconsciousness or amnesia). While a majority of the TBIs that occur each year are mild—commonly referred to as concussions—many are severe and occasionally lead to permanent disability or death. In 2013, there were approximately 2.8 million TBI-related emergency department (ED) visits, hospitalizations and deaths in the United States.
In addition to the emotional burden of TBIs, the economic burden of TBIs in the United States is estimated to be approximately $76.5 billion. Programs and services that support TBI patients are funded through various federal and state sources. For example, Medicaid Home- and Community-Based Services (HCBS) waivers are active in 47 states and the District of Columbia and fund cost-effective services to those at risk of being institutionalized due to a medical condition. At least 22 states utilize a HCBS waiver to extend benefits and services to certain patients with TBI.
Many states aim to prevent TBIs as well as effectively diagnose and rehabilitate TBI patients. Between 2009 and 2015, 50 states and the District of Columbia passed laws to address traumatic brain injury. The majority of states enacted legislation targeting youth sports-related concussions. According to the Youth Risk Behavior Survey, sports-related concussions affected about 2.5 million high school students in 2017. Other introduced legislation addresses traumatic brain injury in veterans, appropriates funds to traumatic brain injury prevention or treatment programs, and requires insurers, hospitals and health maintenance organizations to provide insurance coverage for survivors of traumatic brain injury.
Return to the injury and violence prevention overview page to learn about other topics and additional resources.
Below is a list of enacted legislation between 2009 and 2014 to address traumatic brain injury. To view state actions from 2015 onward related to TBI and other injury and violence prevention topics, please visit NCSL's Injury and Violence Prevention Legislation Database.
The box allows you to conduct a full text search or use the dropdown menu option to select a state.
*External links are included for informational purposes only and do not imply an endorsement of the content.


When it comes to basic survival, fire building is something that everyone should know. It doesn’t matter if we are talking about getting lost while hiking outdoors, being caught in a storm while driving or trying to survive a nuclear holocaust. Being able to build a fire from the most basic of tools is something that everyone should know, and can be the difference between surviving or not.
The ability to create heat is a basic, in fact it is the ability to make fire when we need it that separates us from animals and that most archeologists use as a determinate on when we became human. Being able to make a firepit and stay warm when lost in the woods could mean the difference of whether you survive the night or not. Of course, just lighting a fire is not enough, true fire building requires knowledge of tinder, kindling, and how to arrange the wood to control the amount of heat and length of time you want the fire to burn. Circumstances will dictate what kind of fire you make and how to build a fire for your specific needs.
In this section we will address everything from the tools for making a fire in our booklet on The Workings of Flint and Steel and How To Make Fireproof Matches to some woodcraft survival techniques such as How to Make a Dakota Firepit and How to Make a Firebed. Firebeds have saved the lives of countless hikers trapped by sudden changes in weather and are something anyone who enjoys hiking or camping should know how to do.
While knowing the skill of fire building may seem like a simple thing, it is that simple knowledge in these booklets that can save a life or at least make it easier. Fire is such a basic in our lives we almost take it for granted and yet without the knowledge of how to build a fire we would all be sitting in the dark and the cold.
This very thorough five page document has step by step instructions with pictures to show the right methods for constructing a Dakota fire pit.
This very complete seven page document will walk you through the basics to constructing a life saving firebed and comes complete with photos.
This concise four page document shows you very clearly in step by step instructions with pictures exactly how to make your own fire starters.
This very simple easy to use two page document with photos will walk you through how to make your own waterproof matches.
This essential document is a must have for cooking on an open fire in any emergency kit; just print out and add to your kit today.
This very informative four page document will give you all the information you need to truly understand how and why flint and steel works to create a spark.
Fire Building: Our Free Articles
Efficient Firewood Harvesting supplies a great deal of information on getting a good supply of quality firewood with little cash expense without harming the environment. You will also read about ways to locate areas of potential firewood, best time to cut, splitting and storage methods by well-organized planning, preparation and execution.
Notes on Fire Building offers concise information on different types of wood materials to start and stir up fire as well as characteristics of a variety of woods are also presented here.
Survivalist Guide on How to Start Fires confers a few techniques to start fire when you are out in the wilderness and there is no modern way to light fire. You do not need any experience starting fires before, as this guide will teach you everything you need to know.
Do you know What are the Basics of Campfire? Here you are going to be skilled on ways to start and retain campfire in any climatic condition without running out of firewood supplies. If you love the outdoors, this is something you should know.


Time is a measurement of the duration of an event, and is referenced with expressions such as "a week," "an hour," and "an eternity." There are many ways in which we measure time. Sometimes, we use a watch or clock to keep track of it. Other times, time is expressed in intervals lasting one minute, one second, or one millisecond.
The tool above is a time addition calculator. It is capable of adding two discrete times together.
It is simple and easy to use. Simply input the necessary data in the appropriate slot and the calculator would sum up the inputted times.