A topic that gets presented quite often in therapy is the concept of needs. When I ask some one to explain how they are getting their needs met I am often met with confusion. So I propose starting at the beginning, what is a need? With a working knowledge of what a need is, you can than go on to explore which needs are being met and, for those that are not, how to meet them.
Psychologist Abraham Maslow first proposed what he called “A Hierarchy of Needs” in 1943 and subsequently published his theory in 1953 in his book entitled Motivation and Personality.
Maslow proposes that you must satisfy your most basic needs (starting at the bottom of the pyramid) before you will go on to meet your higher order needs. Maslow also suggests that unmet needs will result in anxiety and tension.
Are the physical needs we require to survive- air, water, food, sleep, clothing and shelter. These are the most important needs and should be met first.
Are physical and financial security, health and well-being and a safety net against accidents and illness. Although these needs are mostly seen in children they can be seen across the lifespan. Steps you can take to meet this needs include, providing a safe living environment for yourself and your family, maintain employment and budget your finances and take care your health, to name a few.
Love and Belonging
Is an interpersonal need involving closeness and feelings with others. This need tends to be strongest in childhood but can also been seen unmet across the lifespan. Humans have a strong desire to belong to a group, large (teams or organizations for example) or small (spouse or best friend for example). Unmet needs at this level can result in loneliness, depression or anxiety.
Is the need to feel valued and respected by self and others. Maslow proposed to degrees to esteem, (1) low level esteem is the need for respect from others and (2) high level esteem is the need for self-respect. High level esteem can be achieved through confidence, independence and inner competence. Unmet needs at this level can result in weakness or helplessness.
Is the identification and realization of your full potential. At this level, one is ‘the best that they can be.’ This can pertain to a life role, career, hobby or activity for example. Maslow said, that in order to understand this level, one must master the previous levels.
You can use Maslow’s theory as a framework to start understanding your own needs. Start from the bottom and work your way up. You will feel motivation to reach new levels as you master the previous one. Which needs are being met? Which needs are not being met and how can you get there? It is okay to seek out extra help to get to where you need to be!


Meissen porcelain is the first European hard-paste porcelain that was developed from 1708 by Ehrenfried Walther von Tschirnhaus. After his death that October, Johann Friedrich Böttger, continued his work and brought porcelain to the market, and he has often been credited with the invention.
At the beginning the Meissen manufactory was owned by the King of Saxony; by 1830 it came to belong to the State of Saxony. After World War II, most of the equipment was sent to the Soviet Union as part of war reparations. However, already by 1946, the workers using traditional methods and the kilns that had not been dismantled were able to resume production. The company became a Soviet Joint Stock Company in Germany. Almost all of the production was sent to the Soviet Union, a crucial step that kept the artisan community alive. After the establishment of the German Democratic Republic, the company was handed over to German ownership in 1950 and became a people-owned company. Meissen Porzellan turned out to be one of the few profitable companies in the economically troubled East German system, earning much needed foreign currency. After the German reunification in 1990, the company was restored to the State of Saxony which is the sole owner. While its products are expensive, the high quality and artistic value make Meissen porcelain very desirable by collectors and connoisseurs.
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There are several facts related to blood, it is the fluid that gives oxygen to the body’s cells. It is a specialized type of connective tissue composed of red blood cells, platelets and white blood cells suspended in a liquid plasma matrix.
These are the basic concepts, but there are also much more surprising facts; For example, blood is about 8% of your weight and contains traces of gold.
While humans have red blood, other organisms have the blood of different colors including;
- Crustaceans, spiders, squids, octopus and some arthropods have blue blood.
- Some types of worms and leeches have green blood. Some species of sea worms have purple blood.
- Insects, including beetles and butterflies, have colorless or pale yellow blood.
The colour of the blood is determined by the type of respiratory pigment used to deliver oxygen through the circulatory system to the cells.
The respiratory pigment in humans is a protein called haemoglobin in red blood cells.
12 Fascinating Facts Related to Blood
Here are 12 fascinating facts related to blood include:
All blood is red like humans have red colour blood but other organisms have different blood colour.
The human body contains about a gallon of blood such as 1.325 gallons of blood. The blood makes up about 8 per cent of a person’s total body weight.
Blood consists mostly of plasma– Blood circulating in the body is composed of about 55 per cent the plasma, 40 per cent of the red blood cells, 4 per cent of the platelets, and only 1 per cent of the white blood cells. Of the white blood cells in blood circulation, neutrophils are the most abundant.
White blood cells are necessary for the pregnancy- The white blood cells are important for the healthy immune system. They contain macrophages that are prevalent in reproductive system tissues. These are also needed for the development of blood vessel systems in the ovary.
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There’s gold in the human blood- The human blood contains metals atoms including iron, chromium, gold, manganese, zinc, lead, and copper.
Blood cells originate from stem cells- All blood cells originate from the hematopoietic stem cells of the body. Approximately 90-95 per cent of the blood cells are produced in the bone marrow.
Blood cells have different lifespans- Matured human blood cells have different life cycles. Red blood cells circulate in the body for about 4 months, white blood cells range from a few hours to several days, and platelets for about 9 days.
Red blood cells have no nucleus- Mature red blood cells do not contain a nucleus, ribosomes, or mitochondria.
- The blood proteins protect against carbon monoxide poisoning.
- Capillaries spit out blockages in the blood that are followed by oxygen deprivation and nerve damage.
- Ultraviolet (UV) rays help in reducing blood pressure- Exposer of a person’s skin to rays of the sun helps in reducing blood pressure by causing levels of nitric oxide to rise in the blood.
- Blood types vary by population- Blood type distributions vary by the population.
- [People Also Like: Know Why Monitoring of Blood Pressure is Important]
What Are the Main Functions of Blood?
There are four main components of blood: plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. Blood has many different functions, like- transporting oxygen and nutrients to the lungs and tissues. Forming blood clots to prevent excess blood loss.
How Quickly Does Your Body Make Blood?
The body will replace the blood volume (plasma) within 46-48 hours. It will take four to eight weeks for the body to completely replace the red blood cells you donated. The average adult has eight to 12 pints of blood.
I hope you’ll get sufficient information about Facts Related to Blood and how it works. On a serious note if you feel any health-related issue then consult a doctor as earlier as you can. Buy medicines for blood pressure from your nearby pharmacy at a cheaper price from GoMedii.
Disclaimer: GoMedii is a recognized and a considerate healthcare platform which tends to connect every dot of the healthcare needs and facilities. GoMedii facilitates the accessibility of all health news, health tips, and information from the Health experts and Doctors to the eyes of readers. All of the information and facts mentioned in the GoMedii Blog are thoroughly examined and verified by the Doctors and Health Experts, elsewise source of information is confirmed for the same.
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Other games are easier to learn, certainly, but even young children can begin to learn how to play tennis and enjoy it. Simply be sure it’s fun for them. Having fun with a child is a sure way to get them to like an activity and stick with it. Here are some tips to ensure that the children in your life will grow to appreciate the fine game of tennis.
Keep lessons short. Attention-spans vary, but most littles have little patience for anything that is too long. Thirty minutes, if it is an active session, is usually enough. Too much longer and the lesson might drag or become overwhelming for some children.
Encourage, encourage, encourage. If children see that you or someone else in the lesson is better than they are, even after they have practiced, they might become discouraged and disinterested in the sport. Be sure to root them on, and perhaps even discuss the importance of having a growth mindset while practicing and playing the game. Anything can be learned with the right attitude and an I-can-do-it assurance. Explain to them that with practice they can grow in their skills. A baby does not run before he crawls, falls, and toddles, for example. Neither will they learn how to play tennis in a few days or even weeks. It takes time to become skilled – but they’ve got that time! If you need to make a correction to their swing, include an aspect of praise as well. For every negative you need to tell them, have two positives at the ready. Children don’t need to be coddled or lied to, but they do need to be told they definitely have the ability to learn and grow. They just need patience with themselves.
Even drills can become more fun if you’re practicing an easy volley. And if you’re feeding them the ball well, any child can hit it back. Progress from there, being sure to make a game of things, no pun intended. (A good sense of humor comes in handy as an instructor, too.)
Create small, attainable goals such as hitting four shots in bounds during a game. Kids can help you individualize goals. They know what they want and need to work on, and letting them select what they do at times holds their interest more. A little prize for achieving those goals can’t hurt their motivation, either.
Use bigger, slower, foam balls for kids because they’re easier to hit, and hitting is the key to the sport. Practicing with something easy is much more motivating than starting with official balls. It also boosts their confidence like crazy.
If a child sticks with tennis, they will reap the many physical benefits, including developing their hand-eye coordination, improving their motor control, strengthening their core (important for virtually all sports), increasing their general strength, improving their balance, and even stimulating their intellectual development. The physical activity even improves flexibility and strengthens their immune system. What’s not to love about all that? Beyond the physical benefits, it teaches emotional life skills as well. Confidence can soar as a child masters a skill. Learning to strategize gives them a leg-up on other skills in life, too, well beyond the court. And as a line judge (once they’re older and playing on their own) calls them out for a poor shot, they learn to take responsibility for their actions and mistakes. They even learn problem-solving skills as they strive to improve their serve and correct problems in other techniques. If they’re on a team or are part of a doubles group, they also learn to work effectively with others.
As your child embarks on the journey of learning tennis, Tennis Express is there to equip him, not to mention provide your equipment as well. Be sure to get your Tennis Express coupon from Groupon Coupons today! Their selection will not disappoint.


The Internet has come to stay. It has actually crept into various aspects of our lives knowingly or unknowingly. It influences the way we work, relate, talk, think and live. Organizations are also being affected by the existence of the Internet.
Opportunities and advantages of the Internet in the work place are many. Networked workers have the capacity to work on the go. When necessity calls, they are able to respond even if they are in the fields or half-way across the globe. Through the Internet, they can be reached, and through social network, they can make their contributions in real time, at an affordable cost. Internet makes telecommuting possible. According to Bednarz (2013) networked workers who work from home are more satisfied, contribute more working hours, and are more cost effective (they save money/time on transport, they save money on renting office spaces, they save time that could have been given to sick leave, etc).
There are also a number of challenges with the Internet and networked workers. First networked workers are more stressed since they carry their work about with them on their smart devices. Second, due to the changing nature of work requirements, especially in the face of automation of many blue collar and white collar jobs, networked workers must keep learning, and honing their skills and learning new skills to remain relevant. This is quite challenging and stressful. Third, with the rapid changes being brought by the Internet, there is an air of unpredictability hanging in the air in many organizations. Organizations do not know what new trend that may render them and their services irrelevant. Fourth, there is the concern that automation may take over a lot of blue and white collar jobs. This may lead to unemployment and social unrest ( Smith and Anderson, 2014). Fifth, it has been argued that telecommuting staffs tell more lies, and it is difficult to supervise and give practical feedbacks to such staff. Sixth, availability of the internet can lead to distraction (time spent on social media) and waste of time (time spent just surfing the immense information on the net). Seventh, the undiscerning can be easily misinformed on the Internet. It takes skill to sieve the huge information seen on the Internet.
The advantages of freely available internet access to workers are many. First, it helps the workers to be socially networked and encourages communication. With communication, work effectiveness, and social relationship is enhanced. Second, availability of the Internet encourages on-going learning. Many workers learn relevant skills on their own, at their pace in cost effective manner. This is advantageous to whatever industry they are in. Third, free Internet access for workers encourages staff to communicate and collaborate more. This leads to effectiveness and efficiency. Fourth, it encourages transparency and trust. It also encourages carrying people along. Through organizations’ social media account, they can collaborate and share ideas very effectively. Fifth, communication is very important in relationships. In a networked world, where workers cut across time zones, national and organizational boundaries, the internet provide the medium that enhance the building of relationships for effectiveness in the work place. Sixth, automation of a number of jobs may lead to more leisure time for humans (Smith and Anderson, 2014). Seventh, although job automation may lead to loss of some jobs, the advancement in technology will lead to the creation of newer job opportunities especially for those workers who learn to reeducate themselves and re-adapt.
One main opportunity inherent the above challenges is that the Internet offers the time needed to develop other important aspects of life that are valuable and meaningful. Smith and Anderson (2014) explain that “Many things need to be done to care for, teach, feed, and heal others that are difficult to monetize. If technologies replace people in some jobs and roles, what kinds of social support or safety nets will make it possible for them to contribute to the common good through other means?” Perhaps, it will create the opportunity for humans to focus in other important aspects of life like those listed above. Also, the automation of jobs will also give humans time to engage in and explore other important aspects of life like building relationships and pursuing other meaningful activities like spending time in developing human relationships. Furthermore, advances in AI will be helpful for the elderly and disabled in society by providing means that will help their better integration and access to things, and also, it will enhance their care (Smith and Anderson, 2014). For instance, self-driving cars will make it easier for the disabled, visually challenged or elderly persons to move around without hindrances. This will open up a lot of economic opportunities for them, and enhance their psychological well-being. Finally, the challenges posed by automation (unemployment) may present humans with the opportunity to re-organize society to find ways to better integrate and cater for the unemployed.
In general, I believe that there are a lot of opportunities inherent in the advancement being presented to us by the Internet. There are some challenges, but the opportunities are much. Humans will continue to find ways to reduce the problems posed by the challenges of technology, and strive to maximize the opportunities these technologies present.
Bednar, A. (2013, Feb. 28). Is Yahoo’s telework ban shortsighted or savvy? Data says both. NETWORKWORLD. Retrieved from http://www.networkworld.com/article/2163977/smb/is-yahoo-s-telework-ban-shortsighted-or-savvy–data-says-both.html
Smith A., & Anderson J. (2014, August 6). A1, robotics, and the future of jobs. PewResearchCenter: Internet, Science and Tech. Retrieved from http://www.pewinternet.org/2014/08/06/future-of-jobs/


Mary Magdalene bore the surname of the noble family of Pazzi in Florence. Already by the 15th century, the Pazzi family exercised great political power. She was born on 2nd April 1566, given a good education and, from her childhood, she had a deep sense of the presence of God, a great love for the Eucharist and a longing to live a penitential life. Contrary to the usual practice but, with the consent of her confessor, she was allowed to make her first communion at the age of ten years. When she was seventeen years, she was accepted by the Carmelite nuns of Saint Mary of the Angels in Florence, her native city. During her novitiate, she had a serious illness which lasted for two months and brought her close to death. As a result, she was allowed to anticipate her profession. However, she recovered and for three years she was assistant mistress of novices, then sacristan, and, for a further six years, mistress of novices. Also, for a period, she had charge of the junior professed and in 1604 she was elected subprioress. Her continuous physical sufferings and severe spiritual trials were a great burden but she was enriched by God with extraordinary graces. She died on 25th May 1607. She was beatified in 1626 and canonised on 22nd April 1669.
In addition to her deep spiritual life, she observed conscientiously her religious vows and led a hidden life of prayer and self denial. She was filled with a burning desire for the renewal of the Church: keenly aware of the urgent need for reform, yearning to see it spread, and offering herself so that the “anointed ones” (i.e. priests) would once again be a witness to the world and that the lapsed would return to the Church. “The central theme in her spirituality (although not thought out in a fully systematic fashion) is love; we are created by God with love and by love, and such is the means by which we must turn to him; love is the measure of how far the soul has returned to God. The principal function of love is to unite the soul to God. The spiritual life is like a circle, inspired by love, which in God has both its point of departure and its moment of arrival.” Saint Mary Magdalene de’ Pazzi had also a great devotion to Our Lady and she was a significant inspiration in the development of Carmelite Marian devotion to the “Most Pure Virgin”, claiming that the beauty of Mary lay in her purity, which was what had made her one with the Word in her divine maternity.
Her mystical experiences were written in five “original manuscripts”, that is the notes which were written by her nuns recording all that she did or said during her ecstasies and her “overflowings of divine love”. These notes were later revised by the saint herself. They are entitled: Forty Days, Conversations, Revelations and Understandings, Trials and Renewal of the Church, together with her Sayings and Letters.
I am searching for a book of the writings of St. Mary Magdalene de Pazzi. Do you know where I can buy it? Thanks


TEXAS - Galveston Island has been dealing with an onslaught of seaweed that is piled up on beaches leaving mounds of Sargassum several feet high. Every morning before dawn, about three dozen Park Board employees are at work removing the seaweed to make sure that arriving tourists are not blocked from the surf by a wall of seaweed.
Workers are using front-end loaders and beach cleaning machines, like the Barber Surf Rakes, to remove the weed from the beach. The massive accumulations are then being trucked and carted off to growing piles of seaweed at the back of the beaches.
Local businesses say that the seaweed isn’t impacting tourism, but nevertheless, people are turned off when hit with the unmistakable, pungent odor of the Sargassum piles. It’s actually not the seaweed, but the dead and decaying small fish and other organisms within the seaweed that produces the rank smell.
The Sargassum seaweed is an algae that grows in the Sargasso Sea and is arriving on these beaches after drifting for thousands of miles. Currents return much of the seaweed to the Sargasso Sea, but some drifts into the nutrient-filled waters off the Texas Coast where it thrives and grows.
This problem isn't unique to Galveston. It is a nuisance in Port Aransas, South Padre, Corpus Christi and other Texas coastal cities. Robert Webster, marine science research assistant at Texas A&M University at Galveston, said this year is the biggest onslaught of seaweed he has seen since beginning research in 2003. Webster developed the Sargassum Early Advisory System, which uses satellites to warn Galveston officials of the coming seaweed. This video taken by a drone really shows the enormity of the Sargassum on Surfside Beach, Galveston.
Residents and beach-goers along the coast of Qingdao, China have experienced a massive influx of soft, non-toxic algae known as hutai every summer since 2007. To China State Official’s displeasure, this year’s algae bloom has proven to be the largest yet. It currently covers an area larger than the state of Massachusetts and measures more than double the size of those recorded in previous years, according to the State Oceanic Administration.
While algae growth naturally occurs during the summer months due to longer days and strong sunlight, blooms the size of those occurring annually in Qingdao are inexplicable. Though causes for the enormous bloom are uncertain, scientists suggest that the rampant growth of hutai, also known as enteromopha prolifera or “sea-lettuce”, may be connected to pollution in the form of fertilizer run-off from sites such as farms and golf courses. Some researchers also believe that it may derive from the increased presence of seaweed farms growing nori on large coastal rafts to the south of Qingdao.
Officials in China have declared this most recent bloom to be a “large scale algae disaster.” While the sea-lettuce is not harmful to humans, it stifles marine life and can begin to produce toxic hydrogen sulfide gas if left to rot in large quantities—not to mention a stinky egg smell. Since the algae began to appear in early June, hundreds of boats and bulldozers have been sent out to clean up the coastline waters. Alongside these endeavors, close to 2,500 individuals have been deployed with nets, pitchforks, and their own construction equipment in order to attempt to keep up with the seemingly constant flood of algae. As the unyielding algae continues to wash up on shore overnight, clean-up efforts persist and Qingdao’s tourism and aquatic farming industries continue to suffer.
While the sheer volume of algae that washes up on the beach necessitates removal with large bulldozers and other large-scale equipment, beach cleaning machines can help by removing daily amounts of weed and refining the quality of sand once the algae bloom slows. A consistent cleaning program that employs tine-raking beach cleaners, like the Barber SURF RAKE, can help minimize the lasting effects of similar blooms. Additionally, these beach cleaning machines can completely remove more regular amounts of seaweed that arrive on beaches daily.
New York Times
Science World Report
After Hurricane Sandy ravaged the northeast, many questions have appeared about how to cleanup and restore the beaches that were affected by the hurricane's blast. In many places, like Seaside Heights, NJ (shown bellow), the sand was carried off the beach, covering the streets and houses on shore. While in other communities, like Norwalk, CT, they actually saw their beaches grow as a result of the deposited sand from elsewhere.
While the removal of sand from communities like Seaside Heights will be a massive undertaking for heavy machinery, the question of how to clean and replace the sand on the beach remains. Whether there is new sand on the beach or the old sand is being replaced, it will be full of debris and can not be simply put back on the beach, without creating a risk for future beach-goers. Since many beach community's economies depend on well-maintained beaches during the summer months, an aggressive cleanup campaign during the winter and spring seasons is essential.
Consequently, beach cleaning machines can play a substantive role in the hurricane beach cleanup effort. H Barber and Sons has put together a solid general plan for bringing the beaches back to their original safe, graded, and appealing condition. You can find the hurricane beach cleanup guide here. The guide also includes other helpful links and information.
Recently, the beaches of Galveston, TX have been flooded with thousands of dead fish. Once these fish stay on the beach for any period of time, the sun causes them to bloat and fill with harmful toxins, which can be released into the air. In addition to being harmful for asthmatics, a beach littered with dead fish is anything but helpful for a beach's popularity and attendance during peak beach seasons.
One contractor who routinely cleans beaches in the Houston area, Hernan Botero, has been using his raking beach cleaner, the Barber Surf Rake, to scoop up the dead fish and restore the beaches to their normal state. As you can see from the before/after pictures in the news segment bellow, the beach cleaner gets the job done. Especially in such smelly, and potentially harmful, circumstances, using a beach cleaning machine to remove debris from the sand is the way to go.
Over the past several months, Michigan has been a center of beach grooming debate, as its legislature repealed the requirement for beach owners to have permits to clean the top parts of their beach to the tideline using mechanical means. Previously, beach owners needed to apply for a $100 permit and be approved to use any mechanical methods. On July 2, bill 2012 PA 247 was signed into law, allowing beach owners to maintain their beaches as they see fit down to the high-tide line.
With over 3,200 miles of coastline on the Great Lakes, this frees up a considerable amount of beach owners. Opponents of the legislation were concerned about protecting the coastline environment. However only 4 permits were denied since 2007, so the change in cleaning activity is likely not to change drastically, and the marginal profits the 500 issued permits are not likely to be missed by the state. This removal of red-tape, however, has caused quite a stir.
How is this recent tryst with policy and politics applicable to the beach cleaning community? Primarily, it highlights a common middle-ground in policy between beach owners and environmental groups. While many beaches would be unusable and unsafe without regular cleaning, ecosystems should be respected when cleaning, as well. Michigan granted additional freedom to clean the top part of the beach while respecting the environmental safety of the beaches by restricting them from cleaning bellow the tideline.
Therefore, in addition to granting additional freedom to beach cleaners in Michigan, this bill also reminds the beach cleaning community that beach cleaning is not simply bad or good, but that its benefits can be balanced with the concerns it creates.
Apparently beach cleaning equipment now has a new unexpected use: sand skiing. This picture of a Barber SURF RAKE towing a ski-path-forming device surfaced recently, revealing that now you can "cross-cost" ski in a bathing suit!
The Caribbean offers some of the worlds most beautiful beaches and best vacation spots. However, seasonal seaweed and sea grass or a change in the tide can cause catastrophic amounts of seaweed to accumulate on popular resort beaches. On many islands, beach tourism is the backbone of the economy. Therefore, the ability to not only remove vast amounts of seaweed quickly, but also to make the beach look as pristine as it did before the seaweed's arrival, is critical.
Every year, tripadvisor.com announces the Travelers' Choice top ten beach destinations in the United States. For potential vacationers, this is helpful in narrowing the search, but as beach cleaner professionals, this offers a fun chance to lear about how customers like their beaches. 7/10 of the top beaches are cleaned by tine raking beach cleaners. Check out the list here!
This blog is managed by H. Barber & Sons. Founded in 1966, Barber is the world leader in beach cleaner production and authority on beach cleaning practices. This site and blog have been compiled to provide information about beach cleaners--their methods of cleaning, importance, and many applications.
Please direct any questions our way using the 'Contact Us' form. Thanks!


“Great God!” British Capt. Robert Falcon Scott wrote in his journal on January 17, 1912, the day he reached the South Pole. He was not exultant. “This is an awful place,” he went on, “and terrible enough for us to have laboured to it without the reward of priority.”
From This Story
For more than two months, Scott and his men had hauled their supply sledges across 800 miles of ice from their base camp at Antarctica’s McMurdo Sound, hoping to become the first people to reach the pole. But the photograph at left, taken by Lt. Henry Bowers the same day, makes clear the reason for Scott’s despair: The Norwegian flag flying above the tent had been left by the explorer Roald Amundsen, whose party had arrived five weeks earlier. Inside the tent, Scott’s men found a letter Amundsen had written to Haakon VII, king of Norway, along with a note asking Scott to deliver it for him.
Even if you don’t know what came next, Bowers’ photograph conveys a sense of failure. The men show no arm-in-arm camaraderie. Their faces are weather-beaten. No supplies are visible. In fact, Scott and the four men he brought with him on the last 150-mile dash to the pole were running low on food and fuel. (Bowers had been added at the last minute, dangerously stretching their rations.) Their return trip would become one of the most dismal failures in the annals of polar exploration.
In the late Antarctic summer, the men encountered unusually cold temperatures of minus 40 degrees Fahrenheit, and blizzards kept them tent-bound for days on end. Petty Officer Edgar Evans died on February 17, probably from a head injury sustained in a fall into a crevasse. As resources ran low, Capt. Lawrence Oates famously sacrificed himself: Crippled by frostbite, he left the party’s tent during a March 16 snowstorm with the words, “I am just going outside and may be some time.”
The following November, a search party came upon Scott’s last camp, a mere 11 miles from a cache of supplies. Inside a tent were the bodies of Scott, Bowers and Edward A. Wilson, the expedition’s chief scientist. Scott’s journals were there too, with the last entry dated March 29, along with 35 pounds of geological specimens carried at great cost and Bowers’ undeveloped film. David M. Wilson, a descendant of Edward Wilson and author of the recently published The Lost Photographs of Captain Scott, says Bowers’ pictures proved that both Scott and Amundsen had reached the pole.
Bowers’ straightforward work contrasts with that of Herbert Ponting, the photojournalist Scott had hired to document his expedition. Ponting had traveled extensively in Asia and sold his work to prominent London magazines, and the Scott assignment made him the first professional photographer to work in the Antarctic. The image on this page shows Ponting’s artistry: It captures the textures of ice, water and cloud in a perfectly balanced composition, with Scott’s ship, Terra Nova, in the background. Scott described the scene in terms that suggest his own sensitivity to art and nature: “It was really a sort of crevasse in a tilted berg parallel to the original surface....Through the larger entrance could be seen, also partly through icicles, the ship, the Western Mountains, and a lilac sky.”
Ponting did not accompany Scott to the pole—among other things, his equipment was considered too heavy. As planned, he left Antarctica for England in February 1912, while Scott and his men were still struggling to make it home. At first, the news of Scott’s fate overshadowed Ponting’s pictures, but after World War I the photographer published his work, to great acclaim, in a book titled The Great White South. “All subsequent Antarctic photography,” Wilson wrote to me in an e-mail, “is a footnote to his pioneering work.”
Taken together, the two images reflect the two poles of Scott’s expedition; despite the tragedy, the words and images Scott and his men left behind became a lasting legacy to science and art. As Scott noted in his final diary entry, “these rough notes and our dead bodies” would tell his tale. Amundsen planted the flag, but it was Scott who captured our imagination.
Victoria Olsen last wrote for Smithsonian about the photographs of Frances Benjamin Johnston.


Recycling centers are stepping into the 21st century with an eye on efficiency by embracing automation at every step possible. This emphasis on utilizing the latest technology is allowing them to reduce costs and increase their capacity for materials in dramatic ways. As more and more people begin to wake up to the need for recycling on every level, the growth of this industry must accommodate the increased influx of material. The new efficiency that this industry is beginning to cultivate uses technology that takes on many forms. Balers, belts technologies, and sorting machines are the key components in the machinery that is spreading so rapidly.
Hundreds of balers and types of processing equipment are available on the open market for recycling centers. However, these machines can only be used at optimal levels when materials are sorted beforehand. In order to address this need, the technology in a sorting machine has become the new front for innovation. There are essentially two types of sorting machines that are leading the market at this point in time: laser sorters and digital optical sorters. Each of these techniques offers its own advantages when it comes to the recycling process.
The optical sorting machine allows for the automatic sorting of a large number of materials including glass, papers, eWaste, plastics, and metals. The applications for this kind of sorting technology reach into many sectors of the recycling process. They can be installed in conjunction with single stream recycling and dual lines. They can be used in conjunction with municipal solid waste processes and construction or demolition waste in single stream recycling as well. The level of efficiency that optical sorters present can benefit complex processes in addition to single-commodity sorting lines.
Laser sorting processes offer some slightly more advanced benefits. These sorting installations can be modified to handle a variety of different materials on the same line. This ability eliminates the need for recycling centers to install multiple platforms for different materials. In most cases, the existing hardware can be converted. There is also no limit on the materials that can be sorted as well. Everything from papers to iron ores can be isolated through the laser process. The flexibility of this kind of system is based on the way in which the sorting is accomplished. The technology judges each item based on its color, structure, and shape. Manipulating these variables can allow the system to distinguish virtually any known material. The product being evaluated is then separated into an acceptance stream and a rejection stream.


Researchers from the University of Toronto, Harvard and Rutgers Universities have found a way to identify the "sea level fingerprint" left by a particular sheet of ice -- and possibly enable a more precise estimate of its impact on global sea levels.
As Earth's climate warms, a melting ice sheet produces a distinct and highly non-uniform pattern of sea-level change, with sea level falling close to the melting ice sheet and rising progressively farther away. The pattern for each ice sheet is unique and is known as its sea level fingerprint.
"Our findings provide a new method to distinguish sea-level fingerprints in historical records of sea levels, from other processes such as ocean waves, tides, changes in ocean circulation, and thermal expansion of the ocean," said Carling Hay, a Ph D candidate in the Department of Physics at U of T and lead author of a study published in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS).
"It may indeed allow us to estimate the contributions of individual ice sheets to rising global sea levels."
Scientists around the world are trying to estimate both the current rate of sea level rise and the rates of ice sheet melting, and yet little work has been done to combine the two problems and answer these questions simultaneously.
Hay and colleagues Jerry Mitrovica and Eric Morow of Harvard University and Robert E. Kopp of Rutgers University sought out statistical techniques that had not previously been applied to this problem, and began developing the new method using data analysis techniques common in other fields such as engineering science, economics, and meteorology. The researchers then tested and refined the method by applying it to synthetic data sets -- i.e., data sets with the same amount of noise as real data, but with known melting signals. The tests provide important guidance for the application of the method to actual sea-level records.
"We are now applying our methodology to historical sea level records to provide a new estimate of total sea level rise and the melt rates of the Greenland and West Antarctic ice sheets, over the 20th century," said Hay. "Preliminary results show intriguing evidence for acceleration of globally averaged sea-level rise in the second half of the period, along with a simultaneous rise in temperature. Once our study of historical records is complete, the next step will be to incorporate satellite-based measurements of sea-level changes."
- C. C. Hay, E. Morrow, R. E. Kopp, J. X. Mitrovica. Fostering Advance in Interdisciplinary Climate Science Sackler Colloquium: Estimating the sources of global sea level rise with data assimilation techniques. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 2012; DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1117683109
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How do teachers get students to talk about their reading in a
As a high school English
teacher, I have often been reluctant to let students lead their own book
discussions. When I have tried book discussions in the
past, students focused on the literal meanings of their books, such as the basic recall of the plot; however, I wanted them to
use critical thinking, making inferences and relevant connections with their reading.
Consequently, over the past two years, I have experimented with
strategies, so I would feel more comfortable turning the discussion over to my
students (and to make them more at ease with taking ownership). These trials turned into my “Roundtable
Discussion,” and it’s become a great success.
Both students and administrators praised the use of this discussion
format, which I employed in my American Literature and AP Literature and
Here are some reasons why class discussions became more
1. Students preparefor their discussions. They use handouts to summarize, to identify
quotes and vocabulary, to write questions, and to research topics related to
their reading. These handouts are
assigned with specific chapters and discussion dates in mind. Students bring them to class and their completed
work is stamped at the beginning of discussion.
2. Students rehearse. After setting goals for discussion, students
meet with partners, sharing their quick writes, handouts, and goals. Next, they move the desks into a circle and
participate in a “whip around.” During this
activity, each student shares one thought about their reading. They cannot
respond to each other at this point; they just listen. Finally, this leads into spontaneous
3. After the
discussion, students reflect on the day’s
conversation. Often, they write about
whether they achieved their goals, but on other occasions I give them specific
prompts related to rubric criteria.
Sometimes I also use inside/outside circles, and students observe one
another. Then they used their peer’s
feedback for their reflections.
With practice, students had thoughtful discussions, and I was
rewarded with time to simply listen and observe. This has helped me develop other lessons
based on my informal assessment.
all? It’s wonderfully relaxing to be a
listener and not the lead participant in the discussion!
Would you be interested in learning more Roundtable
Discussion? You can get handouts, a
rubric, and a lesson plan here.
Hurray! Summer is the
time to savor activities and interests that most of us don’t have time for during the
school year. First on my list- joining
Kovescence of the Mind and other teacher bloggers in a School’s Out Blog Blowout. Find out how I plan to enjoy
summer and enter to win a $100 TpT gift card below!
My Summer Bucket List
Eastern Shore Writing Project Invitational Summer Institute
I participated in the summer institute in 2006 and loved the collegiality. Since then, I’ve worked as a teacher
consultant, attending conferences and writing scrambles, teaching young writers,
and presenting professional development.
Currently, I am interning as a facilitator by coaching writing groups and
supporting teachers as they create lessons to support writing
instruction in their schools.
Annual TpT Conference in Orlando
In July, my husband and I will drive from Maryland to
Orlando, so I can attend the annual Teachers Pay Teachers conference. Along the way we will visit friends in
Charleston, SC, and Charlotte, NC. This
will be my second TpT conference and last year I loved it! The conference helped me improve my resources
and network with other amazing teacher authors.
Read for Pleasure
I couldn’t wait to start my summer reading, so I’m already on
my fourth book. I’ve been gathering recommendations and have already read the following titles: All the Light We Cannot See by Anthony Doerr,
Mudbound by Hillary Jordan, The Round House by Louise Erdrich, and The Red
Queen by Victoria Aveyard. My favorite
has been Mudbound, and now I have several friends reading it, too.
Gardening and Cooking
Although I don’t have much gardening experience, I’ve started
a small garden with tomatoes, peppers and herbs. It’s so rewarding to make fresh salsa,
salads, and soups.
Visits with family & friends During the school year,
time is scarce, so I spend my summer days reconnecting with family and friends.
Since we live in a popular vacation spot, we will have visits from both sides
of the family. No doubt, I’ll be
cleaning my house a lot to keep up with all of the company!
A Book On My Summer PD Reading List
I’ve just ordered Writing
with Mentors: How to Reach Every Writer in the Room Using Current, Engaging
Mentor Texts by Allison Marchetti. Each
additional year of teaching experience shows me that using mentor
texts is essential for improving student writing.
For instance, I use “The Gettysburg Address” by Abraham Lincoln as a mentor
text in my American Literature class. In
this popular lesson, students analyze Lincoln’s use of parallelism and then use
the technique in their own speeches. First,
they brainstorm people or events that are worthy of a memorial, and then they write speeches dedicating the memorials that they have designed.
Would you like to try this lesson in your class? It’s
available for free this week only!
Want more freebies? Read more summer bucket lists from other teacher bloggers
Enter to win a $100 TpT gift card in the contest here:


World war two was fought between colonial powers Britain, France, Netherlands, along with the United States and the axis powers, namely Germany, Italy, Japan, and the Soviet Union.
The war witnessed massive scale destruction of life and property. The war was started by Axis powers to conquer and rule other nations, which till then were ruled by colonial superpowers. It also marked the end of imperialism and paved the way for democracy and independence of other countries. The proponents of peace emerged from allies, most notable among them was General De Gaulle from the Republic of France and Winston Churchill from Great Britain.
General De Gaulle
He was the architect of French political and economic growth and was instrumental in bringing peace to Europe. He served France as the president for two terms between 1958 and 1969. Also led the French provincial government in 1944
Early Life And Career Of General De Gaulle
Gaulle was born on 22nd November 1890. His full name was Charles Andre Joseph Marie de Gaulle.
He became General de Gaulle after he joined the French military that fought world war 1, his expertise in designing war equipment, most notably mobile Armoury served France in the second world war. He became undersecretary of war in 1940 and led the battle against the axis powers.
General De Gaulle formed a provincial government in exile following discord with the then french dispensation policy of colonialism. He continued to fight against the axis powers but opposed the French rule vehemently in Algeria, which was fighting for liberation from the French government. He was elected as the head of the provincial government in 1944 and served till 1946. The most notable achievement was the introduction of economic reforms through state control of business entities. It paved the way for thirty years of prosperity. He also initiated a campaign against colonialism and amended the third constitution to usher in peace and harmony post world war II.
French national assembly called him back in 1958 to manage the conflict with Algeria, which lasted for seven years and caused severe damage to the nation’s growth. De Gaulle brought in the fifth constitution to rebuild France as an independent, sovereign and secular nation. He acceded to Algerian demand for independence in 1962, despite protests within the country. He liberated many countries during his tenure and established a strong relationship with Germany to make Europe a potent power. Another notable achievement is the development of a nuclear arm. It catapulted France to the superpower status and veto power.
He continued till 1969 as the president before a referendum rejected him. De Gaulle was the French architect in rebuilding France during the post-war period. He ushered in an era of zero tolerance to colonialism and economic prosperity. General De Gaulle also wrote his war memoirs in 1950, which served as the basis for literature in France. He was a leader with great vision, with a propensity for peace and sovereignty. Gaulle had two children Phillps and Anne Elizabeth. He passed away on 9th November 1970.


There are certain times that sleep may evade you. It may be due to over activity of your brain. That’s why you keep on tossing and turning in your bed all night long. But, whatever your reasons are when you lack sleep you need to stop this problem. This article will help you know about yoga and sleep.
There are a lot of studies claiming that disturbed sleep patterns can increase the risk of the development of such serious diseases as diabetes and hypertension. Also, it can even cause depression, impaired memory, and judgment, as well as other cognitive problems, if you are suffering anyone of it, you can try yoga and keep reading the article on yoga and sleep.
Luckily, all you need is to either purchase a memory foam pillow practice some practical yoga tips you can follow every night. That way, you can let yourself fall asleep and remain asleep for hours.
Does Yoga Help You Fall Asleep? – Yoga and Sleep
Yoga, mindfulness, and meditation are just some of the best therapies that help induce sleep. In fact, almost 55 percent of people who perform yoga find it helpful to sleep better. Yoga and meditation can relax your busy mind and remove negative energies. Yoga is both calming and energizing. When you combine the two, it will help you obtain a sense of relaxation and balance. Also, it is an effective treatment for insomnia.
5 Tips to Use Yoga for Better Sleep – Yoga and Sleep
Here are some Yoga tips and tricks to follow for your falling asleep:
– Begin with Self-compassion
A regular basis of yoga is becoming compassionate and gentle to your mind and body. When you cling to negative thoughts, you will feel more awful. So, you need to set self-compassion when you perform yoga and let go of your worries.
– Observe Your Breathing
One of the most critical things is to seek for a comfortable place and lie down on your back. Then, start closing your eyes. Put a hand on your abdomen and the other one on your chest. Begin to take slow, smooth breaths. Take the air through your nose gently. Exhale the air through your nose, but keep your mouth shut. Lastly, pace your breathing and let go of your stress and worries.
– Release Stress and Tension with Lion’s Breath
The first thing to do is to breathe the air in your nose. Then, try sticking out your tough and breathe out through your mouth loudly. Do this as if you are fogging your mirror.
– Relaxing While Using Your Forward Folds
Prevent using your hands when you pull yourself forward or when you force your form. Remember that it is not just about your head or hands reaching the floor. Instead, you need to allow your gravity to make most of the effort.
Next, you need to execute the standing forward bend. For arm variations, put your hands on your opposite elbows. You may hold your fingers at the tip of your head. Then, you should bend your knees as much as possible to rest your torso on your thighs.
You may also try the revolved head to knee pose of cobbler pose, certainly, these two yoga are great yoga and sleep. To execute this pose, you should not tug or pull your hands. For a more balanced posture, you need to put your elbow of your lower arm along with your thigh or onto the ground. You have to turn your lower arm. That way, you will prop your head up along with your hand.
You should place the top of your arm along the top of your head for a slow side stretch. Then, allow your arm to dangle rather than rest on your foot. Again, let the gravity do its work. Repeat to the other side of your body.
– Consider a Gentle Inversion
You may try placing your legs up a wall. To do this form, you need to take a seat facing the wall. Allow a gap from your buttocks and the wall around 6 inches. Then, lie back and lengthen your legs up the wall. If you find it not intense enough, you may try sliding your buttocks farther away.
If it is not still working for you, then scoot closer. Rest your arms on your sides. Your palms should be facing upward. Then, you should be breathing slowly. Feel the stretch in the back of your legs.
Not everyone may enjoy yoga. In fact, some people may find it too difficult to execute while others lose focus in meditating and relaxing. Even if it may feel frustrating at times, you should continue doing it if you want to improve your sleep pattern.
When you do this consistently, then you may find it rewarding. What you have to do is to follow the tips indicated above and find poses that work for you. Keep in mind that yoga and sleep will help change your life completely, especially if your goal is to have a good night sleep.
This is Sandra McElroy. My mission is to help BedtimeFriends readers research, & pick mattresses, pillows & various other sleep products that suit their needs, & budget.


In the early modern world, syphilis victims suffered through four stages of disease over a ten- to thirty-year time span. The first two phases manifested on the skin, beginning with painless ulcers near the site of infection (usually the genitals or mouth), which progressed to blotchy, red rashes on the palms of the hands and the soles of the feet. Those suffering from stage-two syphilis experienced skin rashes, painful sores, fevers, weight loss, hair loss, headache, fatigue, and muscle aches. Scars faded and symptoms subsided, but the illness could resurge anywhere from ten to thirty years later with ugly consequences.1
Bearing the physical signs of disease garnered more than physical discomfort; it also invited judgment. In the colonial Spanish world, women faced a society entrenched with the Roman Catholic faith and and Iberian notions of female virtue. Unmarried women were expected to be modest, virginal, and discreet. Within this worldview, the physical manifestations of syphilis betrayed a sexually promiscuous lifestyle. Given the specific outbreak patterns of disease, around the genitals and on the hands and feet, it is not surprising that locals easily recognized Peruvian bubas (syphilis).
They were also aware it carried social stigma. Women who contracted syphilis were often judged as morally deficient, licentious, or too sexual. As Mary Lindemann notes, most early-modern Europeans assumed that men who slept with “[P]rofessional prostitutes and courtesans…flirts, and those who dressed above their station – would contract the disease.”2 Syphilis afflicted the physical and social body.
The public price of syphilis enticed women to clandestinely buy the most powerful medicine on the market: mercury. As one record from July 1551 shows, this was the case in Lima, Peru, one of the Spanish empire’s largest South American cities and home to an ethnically and socially diverse population of Iberian, indigenous, and African peoples. Enslaved black women also obtained mercury, either by purchasing it or receiving it from their owners. As Linda Newson’s analysis of contemporary legal cases shows, Lima’s slave owners regularly used “agua de solimán” (mercuric chloride water) to treat slaves with bubas.3
People could access mercury cheaply, thus increasing its popularity as a treatment. It could be regionally sourced and it was used in Andean silver mines, which made it more affordable than other drugs imported from the Iberian peninsula. Purchasing mercury from an apothecary was also less expensive than visiting a physician. The art of pharmacy required fewer years of a formal university education, and therefore pharmacists charged less for their services. Mercury sales and fatalities came to a head to a head on July 24th, 1551, when Lima’s town council reported “some women and esclavas (female slaves) have taken mercuric chloride and died…which might have been overlooked if it weren’t for the widespread sales of mercury and other fatal [medicines] used to avoid illness and inconveniences.”4 Municipal leaders worried that apothecaries selling lethal, over-the-counter drugs endangered women, and that their shop assistants and slaves, who lacked Latin language skills, prepared dangerous medicines incorrectly.5
Lived Disease Experiences
Using sixteenth-century town council minutes to understand health culture is not without its limitations. The municipal scribe did not identify the names or number of deceased. All we know is that the victims included Spanish women (mujeres) and black female slaves (esclavas). While Lima’s town council records brim with weekly notes on city life and administrative issues, the July 1551 episode’s emphasis on female health and treatment appears as an outlier. Nevertheless, even this small blip in the documentary record reveals how some women in colonial Lima coped with an STI.
The secondary literature often overlooks ordinary disease experiences. Instead, scholars of disease and the Spanish Conquest emphasize the catastrophic effects of Old World diseases such as smallpox and measles on New World landscapes and indigenous peoples. In Alfred Cosby’s classic study of “ecological imperialism,” he casts the environment as the unintended conquistador, whereby plants, animals, and diseases invaded the New World, with deadly consequences to local landscapes and indigenous peoples.6
Yet epidemics and death rates overshadow quotidian disease experiences. How did people living in colonial Latin America deal with illnesses that were perhaps less threatening, but nevertheless uncomfortable, debilitating, embarrassing, or annoying? This incident demonstrates that Spanish and black enslaved women recognized the signs of disease, determined treatment options, and purchased (or were given) powerful medicines.
Early modern theories on disease, particularly the theory of four humors, contributed to mercury’s renown. The theory of four humors, taught at Iberian and Italian universities, held that four essential fluids maintained human bodies: phlegm, blood, black bile, and yellow bile. Accordingly, all humans contained unique fluid levels, with one dominant humor. The dominant humor determined an individual’s corporeal composition and influenced personality, physical characteristics, and health. It was critical for an individual to understand her natural composition and maintain a balance between the humors in the body.
Balance, achieved through diet, exercise, and the environment, maintained the body at its natural levels and ensured salubriousness. Imbalances created by excess humors triggered illness and death. Syphilis was allegedly caused by an excess of blood and black bile. Physicians, pharmacists, and consumers believed mercury counteracted the disease by expelling these superfluous liquids.
The goal of many treatments was to decrease the abundant fluid. Popular methods included enemas, purgatives, diuretics, expectorants, and skin plasters to cool or warm the skin. Plasters might also generate blisters and boils that could be burst, punctured, drained, or lanced. Thus, if the women of colonial Lima had followed the proper medical protocol, they would have visited a physician and undergone anything from topical applications of sarsaparilla (sourced from Guayaquil, Ecuador), bloodletting, or laxatives.7
Instead, the town council record details that Spanish women and black female slaves went straight to pharmacists for mercury, red sulfate of arsenic, and yellow arsenic.8 In the early-modern period, these drugs were usually applied externally as a salve, ointment, plaster, or rub.9 If patients sought a more immediate or intensive treatment, they might ingest the medication. The women discussed here were buying solimán (mercuric chloride), or liquid mercury.10
After drinking the metallic, burning solution, the body salivated uncontrollably and sweated profusely. The ache of dehydration took over as the abdomen contracted and erupted with bloody diarrhea. These results were exactly what women expected; they knew that mercury was a powerful medicine, so powerful it would purge bad humors from the body (blood and black bile). As Lindemann describes, “Mercury corroded the membranes of the mouth, loosened teeth in their sockets, and even ate away jawbones, often turning the mouth and throat into one large stinking ulcer.”11
Yet it was precisely this corporeal violence that syphilis sufferers sought. According to popular European belief, mercury’s side effects were what made it a successful drug.12 By expelling sweat, saliva, vomit, and diarrhea, the body purged excess blood and black bile. Unfortunately, though they may have had eradicating powers, mercury and arsenic were toxic.
To prevent the use of potentially lethal medications unless absolutely necessary, the town council intervened in local apothecary practices. On one level, this subverted the authority of the Royal Protomédicato, the official charged with regulating Lima’s medical trades. On another, it restricted prescription preparation and sales to licensed Iberian men, even though indigenous and African peoples had traditionally served Lima’s pharmacies.
Indigenous vendors sold regionally sourced plants and medicines to pharmacies, slave owners privately contracted pharmacists, and indigenous and free(d) blacks and slaves worked in apothecaries.13 But, in July 1551, the town council prohibited mestizo and African pharmacy assistants from preparing prescriptions and banned over-the-counter sales of mercury chloride, red sulfate arsenic, yellow arsenic, or any other fatal medicine.14
As we now know, mercury did not cure syphilis. Patients either slowly succumbed to the disease or were fatally poisoned. This episode highlights three lived disease realities in colonial Lima. It underscores how some women in colonial Lima coped with the nuisance, discomforts, and “inconveniences” of sexually-transmitted diseases.15 It also shows that they self-diagnosed illness symptoms and pursued medical care. And it suggests the town council influenced racial and gendered restrictions in local medical practice. While the incident fades from the documentary record (it is not mentioned again in the town council records during the sixteenth century), it demonstrates how non-epidemic disease experiences are significant to the history of medicine and society.
Newson, Linda. Making Medicines in Early Colonial Lima, Peru: Apothecaries, Science, and Society. Leiden: Brill, 2017.
Warren, Adam. Medicine and Politics in Colonial Peru: Population Growth and the Bourbon Reforms. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2010.
- In its fourth phase, which manifests ten to thirty years after infection, the infected could experience a range of unpleasant consequences: organ damage, neurological problems, stroke, inflammation of the membranes around the brain and spinal cord, numbness, deafootnoteess, visual problems, blindness, personality changes, dementia, heart valve disease, aneurysm, and inflammation of the blood vessels. Return to text.
- Mary Lindemann, Medicine and Society in Early Modern Europe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010), 70. Return to text.
- Linda Newson, Making Medicines in Early Colonial Lima, Peru: Apothecaries, Science and Society (Leiden: Brill, 2017), 182. Return to text.
- Cabildo de Lima, Libros de Cabildos de Lima, 3 (July 24, 1551): 416. En este cabildo se trato de que en esta ciudad algunas mujeres y esclavas han tomado soliman y muerto se con ello lo cual por ventura se hubiera excusado sino se vendiese tan comúnmente el dicho soliman y otras cosas mortíferas para evitar los dichos males e inconvenientes… Return to text.
- Ibid. Return to text.
- Alfred Crosby, Ecological Imperialism: The Biological Expansion of Europe, 900-1900 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1986). Return to text.
- Lindemann, Medicine and Society, 69-70, and Newson, Making Medicines, 162. Return to text.
- Cabildo de Lima, Libros de Cabildos de Lima, 3 (July 1551):416. Return to text.
- Red arsenic of sulfate was applied in oral and topical remedies for its antipyretic, anti-inflammatory, antiulcer, anti-convulsive, and anti-schistosomiasis properties. Jie Liu, Yuanfu Lu, Qin Qu, Robery A. Goyer, and Michael P. Walkes, “Mineral Arsenicals in Traditional Medicines: Orpiment, Realgar, and Arsenolite,” The Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics 326, no. 2 (2008): 362-368. Return to text.
- This was a mixture comprising mercury, water, and alcohol. Return to text.
- Lindemann, Medicine and Society, 70. Return to text.
- Of course, the medical history of Iberian and black enslaved Africans highlights the much larger issue of African and indigenous medical practices. Research on Mexico and Guatemala has looked at this question, but scholarship on Peru is less established. Linda Newson highlights some African and indigenous healers, but the question requires comprehensive attention. Linda Newson, Making Medicines. For a discussion of indigenous healers in Mexico and Guatemala see Brad R. Huber and Alan R. Sanstom, eds. Mesoamerican Healers (Austin: University of Texas Austin, 2001). Return to text.
- Newson, Making Medicines in Early Colonial Lima, Peru, 45, 59-51, 97 and 100. Return to text.
- Cabildo de Lima, Libros de Cabildos de Lima, 3:416 (July 1551). Return to text.
- Ibid. Return to text.


Nitrates and Nitrites in Drinking Water
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Many people have questions about the impact of nitrate in their drinking water. Water quality monitoring shows that nitrate is present in groundwater throughout much of Pennsylvania at relatively low concentrations, but in areas of intense farming the nitrate-nitrogen concentration may approach or exceed the EPA drinking water limit of 10 mg/L. In addition, there are isolated cases were the concentration of nitrate-nitrogen downgradient of large volume on-site wastewater disposal sites, septic/solids disposal, and landfills may exceed the drinking water limit.
Nitrogen is essential for all living things as it is a component of protein.
Nitrogen exists in the environment in many forms and changes forms as it moves
nitrogen cycle. However, excessive concentrations of nitrate-nitrogen
or nitrite-nitrogen in drinking water can be hazardous to health, especially for
infants and pregnant women.
Nitrogen is the nutrient applied in the largest quantities for lawn and garden care and crop production. In addition to fertilizer, nitrogen occurs naturally in the soil in organic forms from decaying plant and animal residues. In the soil, bacteria convert various forms of nitrogen to nitrate, a nitrogen/oxygen ion (NO3-). This is desirable as the majority of the nitrogen used by plants is absorbed in the nitrate form. However, nitrate is highly leachable and readily moves with water through the soil profile. If there is excessive rainfall or over-irrigation, nitrate will be leached below the plant's root zone and may eventually reach groundwater.
Nitrate-nitrogen (NO3-N) in groundwater may result from point
sources such as sewage disposal systems and livestock facilities, non-point
sources such as fertilized cropland, parks, golf courses, lawns, and gardens, or
naturally occurring sources of nitrogen. Proper site selection for the
location of domestic water wells and proper well construction can reduce
potential nitrate contamination of drinking water source.
Nitrate in water is undetectable without testing because it is colorless, odorless, and tasteless. A water test for nitrate is highly recommended for households with infants, pregnant women, nursing mothers, or elderly people. These groups are the most susceptible to nitrate or nitrite contamination. Nitrate-nitrogen occurs naturally in groundwater, usually at concentrations far below a level of concern for drinking water safety. An initial test of a new water supply is needed to determine the baseline nitrate concentration. Therefore, if the water supply has never been tested for nitrate, it should be tested.
Activities near the well can potentially contaminate the water supply.
Domestic wells near potential point sources of contamination, such as livestock
facilities or sewage disposal areas, should be tested at least once a year to
monitor changes in nitrate concentration. Depending on the location of the well
relative to areas where nitrogen fertilizer is applied, follow-up testing to
monitor changes from non-point sources may be conducted less often. All drinking
water supplies should be checked at least every two or three years to assure
that significant increases in nitrogen compounds (nitrate, nitrite, ammonia, and
TKN) are not occurring. If a fertilizer or manure spill occurs, the spill
should be cleaned up immediately and any wells near the spill should be tested.
Unfortunately, any nitrate from the spill may not move through the soil profile
quickly and annual testing is recommended to monitor the effects of the spill.
The primary health hazard from drinking water with nitrate-nitrogen occurs when nitrate is transformed to nitrite in the digestive system. The nitrite oxidizes iron in the hemoglobin of the red blood cells to form methemoglobin, which lacks the oxygen-carrying ability of hemoglobin. This creates the condition known as methemoglobinemia (sometimes referred to as "blue baby syndrome"), in which blood lacks the ability to carry sufficient oxygen to the individual body cells causing the veins and skin to appear blue.
Most humans over one year of age have the ability to rapidly convert methemoglobin back to oxyhemoglobin; hence, the total amount of methemoglobin within red blood cells remains low in spite of relatively high levels of nitrate/nitrite uptake. However in infants under six months of age, the enzyme systems for reducing methemoglobin to oxyhemoglobin are incompletely developed and methemoglobinemia can occur. This also may happen in older individuals who have genetically impaired enzyme systems for metabolizing methemoglobin.
In 1962, the U.S. Public Health Service adopted drinking water standards and set the recommended limit for nitrate-nitrogen at 10 mg/L. This drinking water standard was established to protect the health of infants and was based on the best knowledge available. The potential health hazard for others depends on the individual's reaction to nitrate-nitrogen and the total ingestion of nitrate-nitrogen and nitrites from all sources. During the period from 1970 to 1992, the US Geological Survey found that 9 % of the private wells there were tested exceed the recommended limit of 10 mg/L nitrate-nitrogen.
The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has since adopted the 10 mg/L standard as the maximum contaminant level (MCL) for nitrate-nitrogen and 1 mg/L for nitrite-nitrogen for regulated public water systems. Subsequent reviews of this standard have not resulted in any changes. However, it is difficult to establish an exact level at which nitrogen concentrations in water are safe or unsafe. The intake of nitrogen from food and other sources also is important and must be considered.
Even though the MCL for nitrate-nitrogen in drinking water is 10 mg/L, there have been cases where infants have been exposed to water with nitrate-nitrogen concentrations greater than 10 mg/L without developing methemoglobinemia. Definitive guidelines for determining susceptibility to methemoglobinemia have not been developed. Therefore, if your water contains more than 10 mg/L nitrate-nitrogen, it is advisable to use an alternate source of water for infant formula and food. In addition, there are reports of potential birth defects associated with pregnant women drinking water high nitrogen. Therefore, it is advisable that pregnant women should not drink water containing more than 10 mg/L NO3-N. It also is recommended that nursing mothers use water that has an NO3-N concentration below 10 mg/L since nitrate may be passed to infants in breast milk.
Adults can tolerate higher levels of nitrate-nitrogen with little or no documented adverse health effects and may be able to drink water with nitrate-nitrogen concentrations considerably greater than the 10 mg/L level with no acute toxicity effects. However, little is known about possible long-term chronic effects of drinking high nitrate water. If your water test indicates a level of nitrate-nitrogen above 10 mg/L and only adults or older children will be drinking it, consult your family physician for a medical recommendation.
A potential cancer risk from nitrate (and nitrite) in water and food has been reported. A possibility exists that nitrate can react with amines or amides in the body to form nitrosamine which is known to cause cancer. Nitrate must be converted to nitrite before nitrosamine can be formed. The magnitude of the cancer risk from nitrate in drinking water is not known.
Bacteriological contamination in water may contribute to an individual's
susceptibility to the presence of nitrate.
All drinking water sources also should be tested for bacteriological
contamination, particularly if the nitrate-nitrogen level exceeds the 10 mg/L
standard. The presence of both nitrate and bacteriological contamination may
indicate poor well location or construction, and possible contamination from
surface drainage, feedlots, sewage systems, or some other source.
Tests for nitrate can
be performed, for a fee, by the Water Research Center, some city/county
health department laboratories, and some commercial laboratories.
Select a laboratory and obtain a drinking water nitrate test kit from them. The
kit will contain a sterilized sample bottle, an information form, sampling
instructions, and a return mailing box. The sampling instructions provide
information on how to collect the sample. Follow these instructions carefully to
avoid contamination and to obtain a representative sample. Promptly mail the
sample with the completed information form to the laboratory. Take the sample on
a day when it can be mailed to arrive at the laboratory Monday through
Wednesday. Avoid weekends or holidays which may delay the mail or lab analysis.
Although field test kits are available for measuring nitrate-nitrogen
concentration, they are not as accurate as laboratory procedures. Results from
field test kits can be affected by the presence of certain chemicals and by
temperature variation. Laboratory testing should be used to assure the most
accurate and reliable results.
The laboratory will report the nitrate concentration as milligrams per liter (mg/L) or as parts per million (ppm), which are equivalent for the concentrations occurring in dilute aqueous systems, such as: drinking water (1 mg/L = 1 ppm).
Most laboratories report nitrate as nitrate-nitrogen (NO3-N), which is the amount of nitrogen in the nitrate form. Some labs may report total nitrate (NO3-). Be sure to check your test report for which quantity, NO3-N or NO3-, is reported. Use the following to compare the two reporting systems:
10 mg/L nitrate-nitrogen (NO3-N) =
44.3 mg/L nitrate (NO3-)
The U.S. Public Health Service recommended limit of 10 mg/L NO3-N
in drinking water is used by the EPA as the maximum contaminant level for public
water systems. Public water systems are legally defined as those that have 15 or
more connections or regularly serve more than 25 persons. These systems must
comply with the 10 mg/L NO3-N standard in order to be an approved
water supply. EPA requires regular testing of public water systems for
nitrate-nitrogen and nitrite-nitrogen and these test results are available from
the supplier. If a test indicates that the nitrate-nitrogen concentration of the
delivered water exceeds the standard, the public must be notified and treatment
must be performed. Often, the treatment may be as simple as blending the water
that exceeds the standard with water that has a nitrate-nitrogen concentration
less than 10 mg/L such that the average concentration of the delivered water is
below the EPA standard.
If excessive nitrate-nitrogen is present in your water supply, you have two
basic choices: obtain an alternate water supply or use some type of treatment to
remove the nitrate-nitrogen. The need for an alternate water supply or
nitrate-nitrogen removal should be established before making an investment in
treatment equipment or an alternate supply. Base the decision on a nitrate
analysis by a reputable laboratory, and after consulting with your physician to
help you evaluate the level of risk or other professionals.
It may be possible to obtain a satisfactory alternate water supply by drilling a new well in a different location or a deeper well in a different aquifer, especially if the nitrate contamination is from a point source such as livestock or human wastes. If the water supply with high nitrate is coming from a shallow aquifer, there may be an uncontaminated, deeper aquifer protected by a clay layer or other aquitard that prevents the downward movement of the nitrate-contaminated water. A new well should be constructed so surface contamination cannot enter the well and the well should be cement grouted. Ideally, the new well should meet the standards for a community water supply. It should be located away from any potential sources of contamination, such as septic systems, feedlots, or underground fuel tanks.
The Division of Water Supply in the Department of Environmental Protection or
Department of Environmental Protection in your state
may be able to assist you in determining the cause of water contamination and
make recommendations to correct the problem. In addition, the Water Research
Center can provide general information on this topic. Another alternate
source of water is bottled water that can be purchased in stores or direct from
bottling companies. This alternative especially might be considered when the
primary concern is water for infant food and drinking. The purchased water must
be handled and stored in a manner to prevent contamination - if you buying
bottled water - you may want to purchase something labeled "Spring Water".
Nitrate can be removed from drinking water by three methods: distillation, reverse osmosis, and ion exchange. Home treatment equipment using these processes are available from several manufacturers. Carbon adsorption filters, mechanical filters of various types, and standard water softeners do not remove nitrate-nitrogen.
The distillation process involves heating the water to boiling and collecting and condensing the steam by means of a metal coil. Nearly 100 percent of the nitrate-nitrogen can be removed by this process. Merely boiling water will increase rather than decrease the nitrate concentration. Water without nitrate is obtained by collecting and condensing the steam generated as the water boils.
In the reverse osmosis process, pressure is applied to water to force it through a semi-permeable membrane. As the water passes through, the membrane filters out most of the impurities. According to manufacturers' literature, from 85 to 95 percent of the nitrate can be removed with reverse osmosis. Actual removal rates may vary, depending on the initial quality of the water, the system pressure, and water temperature.
Ion exchange for nitrate-nitrogen removal operates on the same principle as a household water softener. In a standard water softener, calcium and magnesium ions are exchanged for sodium ions. However, for the nitrate removal process, special anion exchange resins are used that exchange chloride ions for nitrate and sulfate ions in the water as it passes through the resin. Since most anion exchange resins have a higher selectivity for sulfate than nitrate, the level of sulfate in the water is an important factor in the efficiency of an ion exchange system for removing nitrates.
All of the methods described here for the removal of nitrate are relatively expensive. Consider both the initial cost and the operating costs. Operating costs include the energy needed to operate the system, additional water that may be needed for flushing the system, consumable supplies and filters, repairs, and general maintenance. See related Homeowner Page
Regardless of the quality of the equipment purchased, it will not perform satisfactorily unless it is maintained in accordance with the manufacturer's recommendations. Maintenance of the equipment may include periodic cleaning and replacement of some components. Also consider any special installation requirements that may add to the equipment cost. Reputable water conditioning equipment dealers can assist you in evaluating available equipment. Equipment should be purchased only through reputable dealers and manufacturers. This helps assure that the equipment will perform the necessary task, and maintenance and repair parts will be available when needed. Check to see if the equipment has been tested or evaluated by an independent agency. Ideally, you should obtain multiple bids from licensed contractors before considering the installation of any new water treatment system.
The Water Quality Association (WQA) and the NSF International (NSF) both operate voluntary
programs to test water treatment equipment for manufacturers. Equipment listed
by WQA and NSF has been evaluated, meets the test standards requirements, and
normally has a label identifying the WQA or NSF testing. This independent
testing provides some assurance that the manufacturers' claims have been
Nitrate in drinking water can be a problem, especially for infants. A water test is the only way to determine whether the nitrate-nitrogen concentration is under the acceptable standard of 10 mg/L. Proper well location and construction are key practices to avoiding nitrate contamination of drinking water. Management practices to reduce the risk of contamination from applied fertilizers and manure help keep the water supply safe.
If drinking water exceeds the acceptable nitrate-nitrogen standard, the choices are to use an alternate water supply or treat the water. An alternate supply may be bottled water for drinking, especially for infant formula, or a new well in a different location or aquifer. Water treatment options are distillation, reverse osmosis, or ion exchange.
Approximately 2% of private wells may have elevated levels of nitrate or nitrite. Most of these wells would be relatively shallow wells in areas with a long historic of agricultural development.
Water Quality in Rural Pennsylvania and the Effect of Management Practices”,
“Mean nitrate concentrations were significantly higher in the southeast and southcentral regions compared to the other four regions.”
“A notable exception to the lack of importance of nearby land-uses was the strong correlation between the distance to nearby agricultural fields and nitrate concentrations in wells.”
Nitrate Treatment Systems (Whole House)
Up to 1,000,000 gallons
Nitrite/Nitrite Test Strips (Self Test)
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In the United States, Indiana ranks among the highest for the number of babies who die before their first birthday. Despite community involvement and active programs attempting to address factors related to this devastating issue, the state’s infant mortality rate is 20 percent higher than the national average.
Infant mortality is a complex problem. That’s why IU School of Medicine, as part of its strategic plan prioritizing improving population health in Indiana, is partnering with communities throughout the state to address an array of contributing factors—from spacing between pregnancies and maternal care to safe sleep.
Community Health and Social Stability
Twice as many deaths occur in the first year of life than during the next 13 years combined, making infant mortality a leading indicator of a community’s health and social stability. Based on this metric, Indiana is not doing well.
Nationally, the infant mortality rate has decreased over the past ten years—from 6.5 to 5.9 deaths per 1000 live births. While we hope to eventually get to zero, the Healthy People 2020 goal for the United States is 6.0. Indiana, at 7.5—in 2007 as well as in 2016—is still well above that target goal, making this a high-priority issue for the state’s leaders.
In his 2018 State of the State address, Governor Holcomb set a goal to become the best state in the midwest for infant mortality rates by 2024. To help achieve this ambitious goal, IU School of Medicine is working with its clinical partners, including Eskenazi Hospital and IU Health, to address this devastating issue in new ways.


Space Station 360: Destiny lab
Explore NASA’s space laboratory for the International Space Station from every angle in this panorama.
This 360° panorama lets you explore the International Space Station’s fourth module, Destiny. Launched on 7 February 2001 on Space Shuttle Atlantis, the American module is the heart of the non-Russian part of the Station according to ESA astronaut Samantha Cristoforetti (who took the pictures to create this view). The module allows experiments to be performed in many disciplines, from biology to physics, including a rack for burning liquids in weightlessness and the European Microgravity Science Glovebox.
The images to create this view were taken by ESA astronaut Samantha Cristoforetti during her Futura mission in 2015.
Explore Destiny in Flickr, Facebook or YouTube format with your mobile phone and virtual-reality headset, or take the full tour including all Space Station modules with videos and extra information below. We will release a new Space Station module in 360° every week on Thursday.


Quick definitions: Coaching, Mentoring, Training
Some links for you below:
Rider Coach: A formal, temporary, paid, position helping an individual achieve certain skills or goals. Defined by goal and task orientation.
Mentor: Informal, usually unpaid, fluid relationship where a person with more experience serves as a role model and possibly sounding board for another less-experience person.
Horse Trainer: Paid position where one improves the responses, skills, patterns and understandings of the horse. (Paving the way for the less experienced-rider.)


If a body is acted upon by centripetal acceleration, you can visualize that the body is constantly falling toward the center, but never reaches it. Since it can be shown that the fall distance is proportional to Pi, we can equate this to a value found for the fall distance through geometric means. This allows me to derive a recursive d expression using the concept of centripetal acceleration. To find the nature of the Pi Associates, one must find all of the finite Pi Associates. All of the other Pi Associates would be unbounded. To approximate the areas of definite integrals is to approximate the area under the curve of a function. We can do this by fitting rectangles under the curve and finding their areas. The smaller the rectangles are, the more accurate the approximation will be. This is represented as an infinite process.
I was able to derive an expression for Pi from the concept of centripetal acceleration. When I investigated the Pi Associates, I found that the only finite Pi Associate is d, and all the rest are unbounded. I did derive some expressions for Pi by approximating the areas of definite integrals.
Although I have derived an expression for Pi from the concept of centripetal acceleration, I still believe there is so much more to be investigated in that area. I was hoping that there would be more finite Pi Associates, but the only Pi Associate is - d. In the future I plan to investigate more definite integrals. I also plan to continue my investigation of Pi and also derive expressions for Pi by approximating the surface area and volume of a sphere.
This Mathematical project was done to derive an expression for Pi from the concept of centripetal acceleration, investigate the Pi Associates, and derive expressions for Pi by approximating the areas of definite integrals.
Science Fair Project done By Aruna O. Gnanasekaran


20 August 2018
With the successful drilling of the Stoer target two weeks ago, Curiosity has been busy characterizing the surrounding terrain using its remote instrument package, performing contact science in the immediate vicinity to understand the composition and physical nature of the bedrock, and also performing power-intensive lab-quality analyses of the Stoer sample using its onboard analytical instruments. In today’s plan, Curiosity will perform an evolved gas analysis (EGA) on the Stoer sample using the Sample Analysis at Mars (SAM) instrument. EGA analyses are critical towards understanding the volatiles and organic molecules that may be present within the sample. SAM will heat the Stoer sample to very high temperatures, more than 900 degrees Celsius, and will measure the composition of gases (including H2O, CO2, and SO4) that bake out of the sample at each temperature increment. Many mineral species, including clays, sulfates, and carbonates, have diagnostic temperatures at which the volatile compounds are baked away. This EGA analysis will directly complement other chemical (e.g., APXS, ChemCam) and mineralogical (e.g., CheMin) analyses of the Stoer sample, and will be extremely important in understanding how the composition of this sample compares to others along the rover’s traverse.
Before these SAM EGA activities, however, there is enough spare power for the science team to conduct approximately one hour of targeted remote science. The activities added to this science block include several Mastcam images to monitor changes in small ripple patches near the rover, imaging of the rover deck to monitor the accumulation of wind-blown sand and dust, and multispectral images of two targets. The first multispectral imaging target is named ‘Pentland Hills,’ which is a patch of broken rocks that was run over by Curiosity (within the wheel tracks of the displayed Navcam image. The second multispectral target is named ‘Strontian,’ which is an exposure of grey rocks in front of the rover. In addition to a few minutes of environmental analyses (including a dust devil survey), the bulk of the science block will be dedicated to a ChemCam passive observation calibration sequence. This sequence will ensure that ChemCam passive spectra can be accurately calibrated even as the martian dust storm continues to evolve over time.
Once these science activities are completed (by approximately local noon), Curiosity will spend the majority of the afternoon napping and saving power before the SAM EGA analyses run overnight from just before 11pm until just after 5am. After a mid-morning nap, Curiosity will be ready to go to perform additional science activities in tomorrow’s plan!
Written by Mark Salvatore, Planetary Geologist at University of Michigan