Cristian Baitg/Getty Images
Cristian Baitg/Getty Images
Physicists say they've discovered how to zap the fat out of chocolate.
The researchers, led by Rongjia Tao of Temple University, were able to remove up to 20 percent of fat by running liquid milk chocolate through an electrified sieve. And they say the chocolate tastes good, too.
Before they're foil-wrapped bundles that make chocoholics smile, chocolate bars start out as liquid in a factory: delicious particles of cocoa solids (which give chocolate its characteristic flavor) sugar and mixed solids, suspended in melted fat and oil, mostly cocoa butter (typically, up to 40 percent by volume). The cocoa butter is essential for keeping the liquid chocolate flowing smoothly through factory pipes.
When a consulting firm working for candy giant Mars Inc. reached out to Tao back in 2012, it wanted his help in improving the viscosity of liquid milk chocolate. Tao's team worked out a method of making the chocolate flow even better than normal through the pipes — without adding any more cocoa butter.
Then the researchers had a Eureka moment: If they could make liquid chocolate flow better without any extra cocoa butter, they could also slash the fat in it — by 10 to 20 percent — and still make it flow well enough not to jam the pipes.
Tao studies smart fluids — liquids whose properties can be transformed by applying an electric field. For example, a smart fluid may thicken rapidly upon receiving an electric shock. Most smart fluids are machine oils, but, curiously, liquid chocolate is also a smart fluid.
When you look at liquid chocolate at the microscopic level, the cocoa solids are circular, suspended in the fat and oil of the cocoa butter. These circular particles can pack together and get jammed (like a glass full of golf balls). Adding cocoa butter helps get the cocoa solids moving again.
But Tao and his team figured out how to use electricity to get the flow going. The researchers inserted an electrified sieve into the liquid chocolate. When the cocoa particles passed through the sieve, they receive an electric shock. That makes the cocoa solids flatten and start behaving like little bar magnets, lining themselves up into long chains. This chain formation allows more room for the liquid chocolate to flow.
Why? Flat objects pack tighter than round objects — the so-called "M&Ms pack more tightly in your mouth than gumballs" effect. More room means smoother flow — all without adding more cocoa butter.
Previously, manufacturers trying to lower the fat content in their chocolate could only reduce fat content to about 36 percent. But Tao and his colleagues say their method allows them to slash fat content down to 28 percent.
The title of the researcher's paper, published this week in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, promises that this electric shock method "leads to healthier and tastier chocolate." The research was funded in part by Mars. Alas, the paper supplies no data to support this titular claim about improved flavor. John Hayes, a food scientist and the director of the Sensory Evaluation Center at Penn State University, is skeptical.
"Part of what makes chocolate so unique is the melting properties of the cocoa butter," Hayes says. "It just melts exactly at body temperature." That's part of the pleasure we experience when a chocolate square melts in our mouth. Presumably, changing the amount of cocoa butter in chocolate would also change this experience. "Less butter would mean more powdery, more brittle, more stringent" chocolate, Hayes says.
Sounds to us like it would taste more like dark chocolate. However, since the researchers didn't include tests for taste and texture, it's hard to know how the zapped chocolate measures up, Hayes notes.
So is electrified, low-fat chocolate coming to a store near us? Tao says he is working with a "major chocolate company" to give his electric-field technology a real-world test run.


The koan, or story, of Hakujushi, “The Cedar Trees,” is very famous both in China and in Japan. Although many Buddhists have presented their interpretations of the story, most of them are unsatisfactory. In this chapter, Master Dogen gives his own interpretation. First he describes Master Joshu’s character, then he interprets the story. In the story a monk asks Master Joshu Jushin what was Master Bodhidharma’s intention in coming to China from the west. Master Joshu says “The cedar trees in the garden.” His intention is “It was just reality” or “It was just Dharma.” But the monk understood him to mean that cedar trees are just objective things. So he asked the Master for another answer. But the Master again insisted that cedar trees in the garden are just reality.


For caterpillars, having a well-rounded diet can be fraught with peril.
UC Irvine and Wesleyan University biologists have learned that caterpillars that feed on one or two plant species are better able to hide from predatory birds than caterpillars that consume a wide variety of plants.
This is probably because the color patterns and hiding behaviors of the caterpillar "specialists" have evolved to allow them to blend into the background flora more effectively than caterpillars that eat many different plant species. Moving among these diverse plant types, the nonspecialists are not as camouflaged, making them easier for hungry birds to spot.
"It's a classic example of risk vs. reward," said Kailen Mooney, associate professor of ecology & evolutionary biology at UC Irvine. "Evolutionarily speaking, a caterpillar must choose between having a broad array of plants to feed upon but facing increased risk of being nabbed by a bird" and having a very limited menu but being less exposed to predators.
Mooney and Michael Singer, associate professor of biology at Wesleyan, led the study, which appears in the early online edition of Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences this week.
Furthermore, the researchers found that all of this matters a lot to the plants. A species consumed by caterpillars more vulnerable to birds (those with varied diets) benefits from birds removing those caterpillars. In contrast, a plant species fed upon by caterpillars better able to hide from birds (those with highly restricted diets) doesn't benefit as much from birds and must instead defend itself.
Mooney noted that this insight into the secret lives of caterpillars reveals not only the processes driving the evolution of insect diets but also the broad significance of caterpillar feeding for associated plants and birds.
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Getting Started with the Markov Decision Process
A Markov Decision Process is used in planning and decision making where the decision-maker can face repeatable situations.
For example, for a business, there can b2 two states. "High Sales", "Low Sales". The business owner can perform 2 actions. "Maximize Advertisement budget", "Minimize advertisement budget". In a given situation, (i.e. High Sales, or Low Sales), the actions can impact in a way that, the "Low sale" can turn into the "high sale" or "high sale" can turn into the "low sale". Markov Decision Process is a decision-making process that evaluates a policy so that the business owner will know what action to perform in what state. Should he/she maximize the advertisement budget when the sale is low? should he/she minimize the advertisement budget when the sale is high? Markov Decision Process can evaluate a policy that can answer this question.
Once the Markov Model is defined, a policy can be evaluated by doing Value Iteration or Policy Iteration. The policy is calculated based on the expected reward for each of the states.
The Markov Decision Process can be defined as
MDP = 〈S,A,T,R,γ〉
Here, S are the states, A the actions, T the transition probabilities and R is the rewards in a given state. γ is a discount factor that is used to reduce the importance of future rewards. The transition probabilities are the probabilities of going from one state to another.
Therefore, in order to apply the Markov Decision Process, you need to have
1. A set of the predefined set of States,
2. A set of actions that you know, you can take on those states.
3. You need to define a reward in a given state.
4. You need to know the probabilities of going from one state to another, given a specific action is performed in a state.
Step by step modeling example
Once you have all this information ready, you can start modeling the Markov Decision Process. Say, you are the business owner who wants to use the Markov Decision Process to get a policy about what to do in a High Sale / Low Sale state. Click the Markov Decision Process button from the dashboard. You will be greeted with the following screen.
Now, add the states as you know. Enter "High Sale" and "Low Sale". Then click the Proceed button. If you want to make changes to the States, like Edit the name or delete, you can do that by selecting a state and right-click to see the context menu. You can double click on the state name to turn into the Edit mode as well.
Once you click the Proceed button, you will be asked the following question.
Click 'Yes' because you want to set up your actions. Once you click Yes, you will be asked to enter the actions you can take. Enter "Maximize advertisement", and "Minimize advertisement"
Then click "Proceed". Now, you will be asked the following question. Click "Yes".
This time, you know that the same set of actions can be taken in the Low Sale state. So, set up the actions as shown below.
Click "Proceed". Now, you will be asked to define an objective, because that objective will be used to measure your Reward in a State. For simplicity, let's use an Objective like "Maximize Satisfaction". Then click "Proceed".
Identifying Objectives for Reward assignment.
Once you click the "Proceed" button, you will be asked the type of your objective. Just for this simple example, use the "Subjective" type.
Then you will be asked if you have any more objectives. As you know, Rational Will supports multi-criteria decision analysis. So, you can define many objectives. But for this simple problem, we will stick to one objective. So, click NO.
Now set the reward in High Sale State. Obviously will be very happy in the 'High Sale' state, so you can set the Satisfaction slider to its full value. Then click the Proceed button.
Once you click the Proceed button, you will be asked to set the reward for the 'Low Sale' state. Obviously, you do not want the 'Low Sale', and you will be very unhappy in that state. So, set the slider value to its minimum value. Then click the "Proceed" button.
Once you click the "Proceed" button, you will be asked to set the transition probabilities. Say, when you are in the High Sale state, maximizing advertisement keeps the High Sale state intact with 90% probability. So, let's define it like this.
Now, click the Proceed button. You will be asked the transition probabilities when you Minimize advertisement. Say, you have set up the transition probabilities like this:
Once you click the "Proceed" button, you will be asked to define transition probabilities for Low State, with Maximize advertisement action.
Once you click the Proceed button, you will be asked the following transition probabilities. You may set up as shown below.
Once you click the "Proceed" button, you will be shown the following view.
According to the calculated policy, in both situations, you need to Maximize the advertisement. Well, it is so simple example that, this policy can be evaluated by simple common sense, no need to perform any complicated calculation. But, it is an example of modeling with known answers so that it is a way of validation that the system works. Now, if you have a complicated scenario where you have more than one state and more than one action with not so extreme reward, then the Markov Decision Process can be a very useful tool to find a policy that can be applied in real life. Now, click the "Finish" button. Once you do that, you will see the following view.
Realization of the "Markov Decision Process"
From the above screen, you can see that you can modify all the input that you have entered so far from the wizard. Based on the evaluated policy, a Markov Chain is also formed. Based on the Markov Chain, the forecast chart is displayed in the carousel, as you can see from the above screen.
For the Markov Chain, an initial state needs to be defined, so you can do that from this tab as shown here.
You can see the Decision Graph by clicking the "Decision Graph" button from the Ribbon.
Once you click the Decision Graph button, you will see the decision graph as shown below.
A plethora of charts for the generated Markov Chain
When a Markov Decision Process is modeled, a Markov chain is also generated based on the fact that the user selected the optimum action. various charts can be displayed in the chart section, like Steady State / long term forecast, the forecast for a specific number of iterations, etc.
Even a Custom Expression can be used to find out a calculated State forecast, like "[State A] AND [State B] AND NOT [State C].


Mini Project Arai Hanis
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Mini Project: CASCADED SMALL SIGNAL AMPLIFIER 1.0 Objectives: To investigate the ac operation of the JFET small signal common source (CS) amplifier. To investigate the ac operation of the BJT small signal common emitter (CE) amplifier with feedback. To investigate the overall performance of a cascaded small signal amplifier. To determine the budget required for the cascaded small signal amplifier. To propose retail price of the cascaded small signal amplifier.
2.0 Instruction :
Cascading amplifiers are a common practice in electronics, due to several reasons. Using the JFET as the input element means that the circuit has high input impedance, while the BJT ensures maximum gain. The combinational effect should provide wide bandwidth and significant level of linearity. An example of possible application will be in audio amplifier system, where gain, impedance matching, linearity and bandwidth are some of the important requirements to ensure the system satisfies audiophile needs.
In this mini project, a cascading preamplifier system is given to you and your partner of evaluation. Your work begins with calculating the ac small signal parameters. The circuit also need to be simulated to confirm its functionality. Further, you have to construct the subcircuits, measure the bias values, test the sub-circuit, integrate testing of the final product on a strip board, and produce a technical report detailing the findings and suggestions for improvement.
3.0 Procedure: TASK 1: Given Rs = 1k, h-parameter values for 2N2222A :hie = 1.2k, hre = 20 x 106, hfe = 180 and hoe = 20 x 10 S and 2N3819 JFET having device parameters IDSS = 10mA,Vp = -4V and rd = ; Calculate the parameters that have been involved in the AC Small Signal Analysis for the cascaded circuit shown in figure 2.0 .
Lab Calculation Cascade Amplifier (BJT and JFET) Stage 1 (JFET amplifier) Remove source and load impedance
Find input impedance, Zi RG = 2.1M // 270k = 239.24k Zi = RG = 239.24k
Find output impedance, Zo Zo = rd// RD = RD = 2.4k , where rd =
DC analysis for JFET amplifier Do dc analysis to find VGSQ and IDQ, where use to find Av with gm not given Given IDSS = 10mA, Vp = - 4V Using Shockley Equation, to find 2 point on graph
ID = IDSS Let VGS = - 1V ID = 10m = 5.625mA Point 1 (-1, 5.625) Let VGS = - 3V ID = 10m = 0.625mA Point 2 (-3, 0.625)
Find VGS line
Vth = = = 2.392V
Loop at Thevenin circuit -Vth + VRth + VGS +VRS = 0 VGS = Vth VRS = 2.392 - ID (Rs) , where IG = 0
Let ID = 0 VGS = Vth = 2.392V Point 3 (2.392, 0)
Let VGS = 0 0 = 2.392 - ID (Rs) ID (Rs) = 2.392 ID = = 1.6mA Point 4 (0, 1.6)
After all point is placed, transfer curve can be drawn.
From Q point VGSQ = -1.85V and IDQ = 2.4mA
Find voltage gain, Av where VGSQ = -1.85V Av = = -gmZo
= = - 6.45
So, AVNL = -6.45 Ri = Zi = 239.24k Ro = Zo = 2.4k
Draw the 2 port network equivalent for Stage 1
Stage 2 (BJT amplifier) Remove source and load impedance
Find overall output impedance, Zo Zo =
// Rc// 3.9k
Find overall input impedance, Zi Zi = RB // Zi = 1.268k // 55.199k = 1.24k
RB = 8.2k // 1.5k = 1.268k
Find input impedance, Zi
= = 1.2k + (180)(0.3k) + (2 x 10 6)(- (180)(3.618k) = 55.199k
Find voltage gain, Av
= = == = -11.79
So, AVNL = - 11.79 Ri = Zi = 1.24k Ro = Zo = 3.618k
the 2 port network equivalent circuit Stage 2
Draw block diagram for each stage (Stage 1 and Stage 2)
+ Vi _
For Stage 1 AVNL = - 6.45 Ri = 239.24kRo = 2.4k
For Stage 2 AVNL = - 11.79 Ri = 1.24kRo = 3.618k
+ Vo _
Two Port Network Equivalent Circuit for Stage 1 and Stage with effect of Rs and RL Stage 1 Stage 2
100k 239.24k -6.45 1.24k -11.79
Find loaded gain, Avload of each stage Avload1 =
= = - 2.197 Avload2 = = = - 11.38
AVNL2 (- 11.79)
Find total gain, Av total Avtotal = Avload1 x Avload2 = (- 2.197) (-11.38) = 25.002
Find overall voltage gain, Avs Avs = = Avtotal = 25.002 = 24.898
Find output voltage Av = Vo = AvVi = 24.898 (20m) = 497.96 mV TASK 2a: For the 2N3819 JFET having device parameters IDSS = 10mA,Vp = -4V and rd = ;
Construct the circuit in figure 1.0 and measure the values of VGS and ID as outlined in Table 1.
Parameter VGS (V) ID (mA)
Measured value -1.2 V 2.3 mA
TASK 2b 1. Construct the Stage 1 of the circuit, as shown in figure 2.0
2. Apply a 1kHz, 20mVp-p ac signal to the input of the amplifier.
3. Measure the output voltage, V01and determine the voltage gain, Av1 of the amplifier (Stage
Measurement point V01 Voltage Gain Av1 = -141mV 20m = -7.05
Value (V) 141mV
4. Neatly draw both input and output signals of stage 1 on the grid provided.
CH1 : 50mV V/div Time/Div: 0.2ms
CH2 : 20mv Time/Div: 0.2ms
5. Measure both the input impedance, Zi and the output impedance, Zo of the JFET amplifier. (Refer to appendix 1)
TASK 2c: Repeat the same procedure of Task 2b for BJT amplifier (Stage 2) shown in figure 3.0. Measurement point V02 The voltage gain, AV2 of the amplifier (Stage 2). Voltage gain, AV2 = 237mV 20m = 11.85 Value (V) 237mV
Neatly draw both input and output signals of Stage 2 on the grid provided.
CH1 : 50m V/div Time/Div: 0.2m
CH2 : 10mV/div Time/Div: 0.2m
The input and the output impedance, of the BJT amplifier.
Parameter Zi Zo
Value (Ohm) 1.23 k 3.54k
TASK 2d: When both sections comply with your gain requirements, combine the TWO (2) Stages amplifiers to make up a complete cascaded small signal amplifier circuit as in figure 2.0. Produce the cascaded amplifier circuit on the strip board. Test your circuit for gain and bandwidth compliances.
1. Apply a 1kHz, 20mVp-p ac signal to the input of the amplifier.2. Measure the output voltage, V02; hence determine the overall voltage gain, Avo of the
Measurement point V02
Value (V) 575mV
Overall Voltage gain, Avo= 575mV/20m = 28.75
Neatly draw both input and output signals of the cascaded amplifier on the grid provided.
CH1 : 20m
CH2 : 0.2 V/div Time/Div: 0.2m
3. Varies the input frequency of the amplifier and measure Output Voltage, V02. Fill in
table 2. Produce the Bode plots of the response using Semi-log graph paper and determine the cut-off frequencies and the bandwidth, Bw of the amplifier. Vin Input Frequency 10 30 50 100 400 700 1k 3k 5k 20mV p-p 10k 20K 30k 40k 60k 80k 100K 250k 500k 800k 1M 5M 10M TASK 3: V02 92.8mV 270mV 369mV 409mV 566mV 568mV 568mV 568mV 568mV 568mV 568mV 566mV 563mV 557mV 548mV 538mV 448mV 306mV 213mV 176mV 95mV 79mV AVO 4.64 13.5 18.45 20.45 28.3 28.4 28.4 28.4 28.4 28.4 28.4 28.3 28.15 27.85 27.4 26.9 22.4 15.3 10.65 8.8 4.75 3.95
Using suitable software, simulate the circuit and print the complete result of task 2d. Documents your findings from simulation in the lab report. Produce the cascaded amplifier circuit on the strip board. Test your circuit for gain and bandwidth compliances. 1. Apply a 1khz, 20 mVp-p ac signal to the input of the amplifier.
2. Measure the output voltage,Vo2; hence determine the overall voltage gain, Avo of the amplifier.
Measurement Point Vo2
Value (Vp-p) 48.3mV
Overall Voltage Gain, AVo = -(Vo/Vi) = -(-48.3m/20m) = 2.415
Varies the input frequency of the amplifier and measure Output Voltage, Vo2.
Vin = 20mV p-pInput Frequency 10 30 50 100 400 700 1k 3k 5k 10k 20k 30k 40k 60k 80k 100k 250k 500k 800k 1M 5M 10M Vo2p-p 5.5mv 15.6mv 23.7mv 38.9mv 47.6mv 48.1mv 48.3mv 48.5mv 48.2mv 48.2mv 48.2mv 48.7mv 48.7mv 48.5mv 48.2mv 48.2mv 48.5mv 48.2mv 48.2mv 48.4mv 35.1mv 21mv Avo 0.27 0.78 1.186 1.945 2.38 2.405 2.415 2.425 2.41 2.41 2.41 2.435 2.435 2.425 2.41 2.41 2.425 2.41 2.41 2.42 2.25 1.05
Produce the Bode plots of the response
2.4378 x 0.707 = 1.723
Determine the cut-off frequencies(fl-fh)and the bandwidth,Bw of the cascaded amplifier.
fH = 6.026MHz
= fH fL = 6.026 MHz 58.84 Hz = 6.025941Mhz
TASK 4 Analysis the result obtain from the calculation, experiment and by simulation Measure the value ofParameter (V) (A)
andCalculation - 1.85V 2.4mA Experiment -1.2V 2.3mA
Measure of the peak-to-peak output voltage stage 1, ParameterOutput (V) Voltage Gain, -6.45 -7.0 Voltage,
Measure of the input impedance,Parameter Input Impedance, Output Impedance,
and output impedance,Calculation 239.24 k
at stage 1Experiment undefined
Measure of the peak-to-peak output voltage stage 2, ParameterOutput (V) Voltage Gain, - 11.79 -11.85 Voltage,
Measure of the input impedance,Parameter Input Impedance, Output Impedance,
and output impedance,Calculation 1.24 k
at stage 2Experiment 1.32 k
Measure of the peak-to-peak output voltage completed cascaded circuit, ParameterOutput (V) Voltage Gain, 25.002 28.4 2.415 Voltage,
Determine the cut-off frequencies ( and ) and the bandwidth, BwParameter Experiment Simulation
Lower Frequency, (Hz) Upper Frequency, (Hz) Bandwidth, Bw
For this mini project, we need to construct the Cascaded small-signal amplifier. First, before doing the lab practical we have to calculate the theoretical value of what we should obtain during do the hands-on lab. So, we have calculated the value of voltage gain,Avo, input impedance, Zi, output impedance, Zo. The value of calculation was listed in the table. As given in the lab sheet, during the lab practical have some parameters to measure. The value of measurement of lab practical was shown in the listed table. First for task 2a,DC analysis for JFET circuit, we have to measure and . From the practical value and calculation value get some minor difference, it maybe because of the component error which the and the JFET parameters is not same what are given in the lab sheet to do the calculation. Then for task 2b for the AC analysis, we measure the output voltage and calculate the voltage gain. The output we get it is without any distortion and its inverted. There are a little bit difference values between lab practical and calculation. It maybe because during the practical lab we changed the value 2.1 M resistor with the resistor value 2M or during implement setting of the voltage input get some difference value. For the input impedance, Zi the calculation value was 239.24 k while the practical value was undefined. It JFET theory provides a very high input impedance, so when we do the lab practical get a distortion at the output waveform. The output impedance a little bit different between calculation and practical value and it maybe because tolerance in the components. Next for task 2c for the BJT AC analysis, we measure the output voltage and calculate the voltage gain. The output we get it is without any distortion and out of phase between the input and output waveform. There are a difference values between lab practical and calculation it because we measured the Av loaded which is including the 100 k, which is the Av loaded for stage two but it still have a little bit difference. Its maybe because some different value for BJT parameters, when we do the calculation and in the real components. For the input impedance, Zi and the output impedance, Zo a little bit different between calculation and practical value and it maybe because tolerance in the components.
After that for task 2d for the completed cascaded small signal amplifier, we measure the output voltage and calculate the voltage gain. The output we get it is without any distortion and in phase between the input and output waveform. It because it was inverted at the first stage cascaded circuit and it was invert back at the stage 2. There are almost the same values between lab practical and calculation which has bit difference and it maybe because we measured the Av loaded which is including the internal resistance of the function generator. With varying input frequency, the output voltage and gain are measured and recorded in the provided table and sketch a graph using semilog graph paper and from the graph it can clearly see the highest and stable Av is 28.4. From the graph it determines the Lower Frequency, 780Hz and Upper Frequency, 118kHz and also bandwidth, Bw 117.22 kHz. For the simulation we doing only task 2d, measure the output voltage and calculate the voltage gain of the amplifier. Based on the calculation, lab practical and simulation get a difference value of output voltage and voltage gain. For the measurement of bandwidth with using bode plot. From the simulation the value that we get is Lower Frequency, 58.84Hz and Upper Frequency, 6.026MHz and also bandwidth,Bw 6.025941 M. it also different value that we get from the lab practical value. One cause of the difference the result is in the simulation the transistor 2N3819 didnt have in the Multisim software, so we replace with almost same characteristic FET transistor with using 2N3821. So, it maybe varies the value of this cascaded amplifier circuit.
Task 5 Prepare the costing for the cascaded amplifier and suggest the retail price of the circuit. Justify your answer.
Total Price (RM)
Resistor Transistor Capacitor Strip board Wire jumper Soldering lead
10 2 5 1 0.5 m 0.5 m
0.05 0.40 0.10 1.50 1.00 2.50 TOTAL A
0.50 0.80 0.50 1.50 0.50 1.25 RM 5.05
Total Price (RM)
4.00 TOTAL B
= TOTAL A + TOTAL B =RM5.05 + RM8.50 =RM13.55 = 15% = 15% x Total Cost = RM 2.03
RETAIL PRICE = TOTAL COST + PROFIT = RM 13.55 + RM 2.03 = RM 15.58 Calculation for one completed cascaded small-signal amplifier
Based on the table above, it show total cost for one completed cascaded amplifier circuit. The cost A show the price of component and the cost B show the workers salary. Salary workers for the soldering it maybe one and half hour to complete soldering the and for the testing process which is to troubleshooting and testing the amplifier circuit it take maybe an hour to finish. The salary price was suitable with the experience and knowledge about construct, solder, testing and troubleshooting of cascaded small-signal amplifier. For the retail price of this cascaded amplifier, the selling price is about RM 15.58. It is because we take a 15% profit of total cost for one completed cascaded amplifier. One of the advantages of this amplifier is produces high gain which is 50. The circuit was constructed and solder properly. The profit of the amplifier will be used for improvement in another amplifier in the future.
Task 6: Viva


To combat dating violence and domestic abuse, Day One provides tools and resources that support both educators and students. Get more resources to promote healthy relationships here.
Let’s talk healthy friendships! As teachers, we want to give our students the tools they need to be successful, including surrounding themselves with positive friendships. Preparing them for the next step in their education—middle school—can be a daunting task. Middle school drama, hormone changes, and battling expectations make having positive friendships even more important. Teach students key skills including managing emotions, understanding boundaries, and maintaining healthy friendships to help set them up for success in middle school.
Our friends at Day One have free lessons and activities to help your students build these essential skills. Bring the framework for healthy friendships into your classroom with the Let’s Talk About Healthy Friendships Guide, which helps to:
Identify and Manage Emotions
- Talk about nonverbal clues that hint at how others are feeling.
- Brainstorm specific words that describe emotions and how those emotions make us feel.
- Activity: Work through strategies students can use to manage emotions.
- Define boundaries and brainstorm examples of boundaries in a friendship.
- Talk about consent and what it means in a friendship, like asking for a hug.
- Activity: Working in pairs, read scenarios and decide how to respect boundaries in the given situation.
Manage Healthy Friendships
- Explore four words that describe a healthy friendship: independence, communication, respect, and equity.
- Predict the outcome of different actions between friends.
- Activity: Plan a skit, comic strip, or illustration to display new knowledge of emotions, boundaries, and friendships.


Fort McMurray is still recovering after being engulfed by wildfires fed by bone-dry conditions, prompting authorities to order the evacuation of about 80,000 people in the northern Alberta city. The blaze destroyed dozens of homes and businesses, but the full breadth of the destruction and economic impact to the community remains unclear.
Events such as these are a harsh reminder that all businesses must be prepared for the unexpected.
Provincial regulations such as Ontario’s Fire Code provide direction and governance in preparing a fire safety plan. This is a detailed document designed to deal with all aspects of fire safety related to a specific building or property. It’s intended to be a reference manual outlining routine fire safety practices and should be approved by your local fire department.
In some cases, the plan is owned by the landlord; in other cases, it falls under the jurisdiction of individual business owners. Regardless, all businesses — big and small — should be aware of how to minimize the threat of fire to people and critical infrastructure.
Loss prevention goes hand in hand with business continuity management. Planning efforts should include all forms of production or manufacturing infrastructure that deliver products and services to customers, as well as the technology and critical infrastructure that are essential to providing business continuity.
A fire safety plan should take into consideration the nature of the business, the availability of human resources, the fire safety features available within each facility and any operational processes that could create a fire hazard.
Like Fort McMurray, that could include potential exposure to wildfires from close proximity to wooded areas. In some cases, this might involve the construction of a firebreak (cutting trees, brush and grass) around all structures, particularly in muskeg or peat areas.
If done correctly, a specific response plan to the threat of fire can provide a reasonable degree of protection (though not guaranteed) for facilities supporting business continuity. Without a strategy in place, you risk losing continuity of service or the ability to restore service in a timely manner.
A plan needs to comply with your building code, municipal fire codes and all legislation related to fire prevention and response. It should include emergency procedures for all employees, the designation of staff to carry out fire safety duties, the training of supervisory staff and the holding of regular fire drills.
You can’t predict a disaster or emergency, but you can proactively prepare to mitigate or eliminate the risk of one.
As part of Business Continuity Awareness Week, The Disaster Recovery Information Exchange Toronto will be holding a number of seminars this week, from building a business case for business continuity planning to applying BCP to emergency services.
Image courtesy of Free Digital Photos


Vogt–Russell theorem(fohkt russ -ĕl) A theorem proposed independently by H.N. Russell and H. Vogt in 1926 stating that, if the age, mass, and chemical composition of a star are specified, then its temperature and luminosity are (in almost all cases) uniquely determined. Hence for a star whose age, mass, and chemical composition are known, the equations of stellar structure will have only one solution.
Vogt-Russell theorem[′fȯkt ′rəs·əl ‚thir·əm]
A theorem that states that if the pressure, opacity, and rate of energy generation in a star depend only on the local values of temperature, density, and chemical composition, then the star's structure is uniquely determined by its mass and chemical composition. Also known as Russell-Vogt theorem.


||total: 678,500 km2
land: 657,740 km2
water: 20,760 km2
||42,909,464 (July 2006 estimate)
English, Shan dialects, Kayin, Mon, Chinese dialects (Hokkien, Cantonese), Hindi, Tamil
||Buddhist 89%, Christian 4% (Baptist 3%, Roman Catholic 1%),
Muslim 4%, animist 1%, other 2% (mostly Hindu)
||220V/50Hz (American and/or Central Europe plug)
, officially the Union of
(ပြည်ထောင်စုမြန်မာနိုင်ငံတော်) is a country in Southeast Asia
It lies on the Bay of Bengal and Andaman Sea coast with Bangladesh
to the west, China
to the north, and Laos
to the east.
Like most of Southeast Asia's countries, Myanmar's people and
history is a glorious mishmash of settlers and invaders from all
fronts. The Mon and the Pyu are thought to have come from India
, while the now dominant Bamar
(Burmese) migrated through Tibet
and, by 849, had founded a powerful kingdom centered on Pagan
. For the next millennium, the
Burmese empire grew through conquests of Thailand
) and India
), and shrank under attacks from China
and internal rebellions.
conquered Burma over a period of 62 years (1824-1886) and
incorporated it into its Indian Empire. It was administered as a
province of India
when it became a separate self-governing colony. During the Second
World War, Burma was a major battleground as the Allies fought the
Japanese for dominance over Asia. The Burma Road
was built to get supplies to China
. The Thailand-Burma railroad
(the so-called "Death Railway") from Kanchanaburi
over the River Kwai to Burma was
built by the Japanese using forced labour — Allied
prisoners-of-war, indentured Thai labourers, and Burmese people.
They had to work in appalling conditions and a great number of them
died (estimated at 80,000) during construction of the railway.
Large parts of Western Burma, particularly the hilly areas
bordering India and the city of Mandalay
were severely damaged during the war.
Independence from the Commonwealth under the name Union of
was attained in 1948.
General Ne Win dominated the government from 1962 to 1988, first
as military ruler, then as self-appointed president, and later as
political kingpin. Pro-democracy demonstrations in 1988 were
violently crushed, with general Saw Maung taking over in a coup and
installing the State Law and Order Restoration Council (SLORC) to
rule the country, now renamed Myanmar.
Multiparty legislative elections were held in 1990, with the
main opposition party - the National League for Democracy (NLD) -
winning a landslide victory (392 of 489 seats). But SLORC refused
to hand over power, instead placing NLD leader and Nobel Peace
Prize recipient Aung San Suu Kyi under house arrest, which she has
endured for 14 of the last 20 years.
Today Myanmar, a resource-rich country, suffers from pervasive
government controls, inefficient economic policies, and rural
poverty. The junta took steps in the early 1990s to liberalize
price controls after decades of failure under the "Burmese Way to
Socialism," but had to reinstate subsidized prices on staples in
the face of food riots, upon which the democracy movement grafted
its agenda. The government called out troops and the rioters were
defiant until the monks intervened: standing between both sides,
they told everyone to go home and they did. The riots caused
overseas development assistance to cease and the government
subsequently nullified the results of the 1990 legislative
In response to the government's attack in May 2003 on Aung San
Suu Kyi and her convoy, the USA
imposed new economic sanctions against Myanmar, including bans on
imports of products from Myanmar and on provision of financial
services by US citizens.
The summer of 2007 was marked by demonstrations against the
military government which were again brutally suppressed. The
demonstrations started in August, apparently in an uncoordinated
manner, as a protest against a stiff hike in the price of gasoline,
but morphed into a more serious challenge to the government after
three monks were beaten at a protest march in the town of Pakokku.
The monks demanded an apology but none was forthcoming and soon
processions of monks with begging bowls held upside down filled
many cities (including Sittwe
, and Yangon
). Yangon, particularly the
area around Sule Pagoda in the downtown area, became the center of
these protests. While the monks marched, and many ordinary citizens
came out in support of the monks, the world watched as pictures,
videos, and blogs flooded the Internet. However, the government
soon suppressed the protests by firing on crowds, arresting monks
and closing monasteries, and temporarily shut down Internet
communications with the rest of the world. This led the USA
and the European Union
to impose additional
sanctions, some targeting the families and finances of the military
leaders. Dialogue between the UN and the military government has
Despite international condemnation, Aung San Suu Kyi is
presently imprisoned in Rangoon's Insein prison and being tried on
charges of breaching the terms of her most recent 6-year period of
house arrest (she was arrested in late May 2009, just days before
expiry of her house arrest).
Generally, Myanmar is considered to have 3 seasons. The hot
season is usually from March-April, and temperatures would then
cool off during the rainly season from May-October. The peak
tourism season is the cool season from November-February.
Temperatures can climb as high as 36°C in Yangon in the hot season
while in the cool season, noontime temperatures are usually a more
bearable 32°C, with night temperatures falling to around 19°C.
Mandalay is slightly cooler in the cool season, with temperatures
falling as low as 13°C, while temperatures in the hot season can go
as high as 37°C. Generally, Lower Myanmar, the area around Yangon,
receives more rainfall than the drier Upper Myanmar (around
In the highlands such as Inle Lake
and Pyin U Lwin
, winter temperatures can fall
below 10°C at night, while daytime temperatures tend to be very
pleasant. Even in the summer, temperatures rarely climb above 32°C.
Near the Indian border in Kachin State
, there are mountains which
are permanently snow capped throughout the year.
- The River of Lost Footsteps by Thant Myint-U. Easily
the most accessible history of Myanmar available. Read it before
you go and you will marvel at how the once great and rich cities
(like Martaban, Syriam, and Mrauk-U) have been transformed into the
dingy and smoky villages of today. (ISBN 0374163421)
Map of Myanmar with regions colour coded
- Bago (formerly Pegu)
- historic city near Yangon full of wonderful Buddhist sights
- Kawthaung - beach
town in the far south which is as much like Thailand as Myanmar
- Mandalay - former
capital of the Konbaung Dynasty built around the Mandalay Royal
(Moulmein) - capital of Mon State and the third largest
- Pyin U Lwin
(Maymo) - cool town which was a wonderful old British
colonial hill station
- Taunggyi - capital of
Shan State in the heart of the Golden Triangle
- Twante - a delta town that
is famous for pottery
- Yangon (formerly
Rangoon) - the commercial capital, known for its pagodas and
- Bagan - an archaeological
zone with thousands of pagodas near the banks of the Ayeyarwady
- Inle Lake - a large
shallow lake good for beautiful boat trips, visiting floating
villages inhabited by the Intha people, hiking, and also a source
of excellent silk
- Kengtung - between Mong La (on the border with
China) and Tachileik (on
the border with Thailand) in the Golden Triangle, known for the
Ann (black teeth people) and Akha tribes and
- Kyaiktiyo - a
gold-gilded rock sitting atop a cliff and a major pilgrimage
- Mount Popa - an
extinct volcano regarded as the Mount Olympus of Myanmar, a green
oasis high above the hot plains and an easy day trip from
- Mrauk U - former capital
of the Rakhine kingdom
- Pyay - a town on the
Ayeyarwady River midway between Yangon and Bagan, known for its
archaeological site Sri Kittara, the ancient Pyu capital
from 2 to 9 AD
To go or not to go?
Aung San Suu Kyi, the leader of Myanmar's opposition National
League for Democracy, as well as most Western governments, have
called for tourists not to visit the country, as this helps prop up
the military junta and some infrastructure has been constructed
using forced and child labour. On the other hand, other
pro-democracy advocates such as Ma Thanegi, and the vast majority
of people in Myanmar, encourage tourism as a way of getting funds
into local hands - despite the fact that the government will also
derive some financial benefit. In addition, many feel that the
presence of foreign tourists deters the government from the worst
of its excesses.
In the end, the choice is yours. If you want to visit
and avoid supporting the junta, then: avoid five star
hotels, eat at local restaurants, and generally attempt to ensure
that your money is going to locals, rather than large, partially
government-owned enterprises. Remember that foreign corporations
only can operate in-country as joint partners with the junta.
Visa / Visa Free Entry
Visa Free Entry
Visa-free entry is possible at some border crossings - however
you must then exit Myanmar via the same border crossing, usually
(but not always) on the same day that you enter, and fees apply
Visa In Advance
For all entries, other than those where vise-free entry is
possible, a visas must be obtained in advance by all visitors.
While ASEAN and PRC nationals may have had visa-free access in the
past, the Myanmar Embassy in Singapore declares that "all
nationalities" must obtain visas before travel (9 April 2008). Some
additional restrictions, requirements or conditions may be applied
to applications - reports have included a need for a detailed
itinerary, a detailed job history, etc. be prepared for some
unusual questions (either on the forms, or from the Consulate
staff) when applying for your visa.
Actually, the easiest way to get the visa is to apply through a
travel agency. The form is simple and requires an ID photo or two.
In Bangkok, it takes one or two business days.
A standard application for a tourist visa requires: a completed
visa form (available from the Embassy), a completed arrival form
(again, from the Embassy), a photocopy of the photo page from your
passport, two passport sized photos, the applicable fee (810 Thai
Baht - US$24 as at September 2009).
Tourist visas are issued for a single entry, valid for two
months from the date of issue. The visa is good for a stay of up to
four weeks (from date of entry), although you can overstay if you
are willing to pay a $3 a day fee when you leave. Successful
applicants will also be issued an "Arrival Form", which will be
stapled into your passport and must be presented on arrival in
Myanmar, along with your passport containing the visa sticker.
Ensure that the visa sticker, and arrival form have both been
signed by the immigration officer before leaving the Embassy. Note
that you will still have to fill in the usual customs and
immigration forms on your flight into the country.
Due to economic santions from most western countries,
international flights into Myanmar are limited. The usual way to
get into Myanmar would be to fly into Yangon
from either Bangkok
, both which have good connections
from around the world and have several flights into Yangon daily.
The only other international point of entry to Myanmar is Mandalay
, which is served by
a flight to Kunming
- Thai AirAsia  has
one daily flight from Bangkok to Yangon (from 2150 baht) and one
daily return flight (from 1450 baht).
- Bangkok Airways  has one daily flight from
Bangkok to Yangon and one daily return flight, costing from 3500
- Thai Airways International  flies Bangkok to Yangon and back
2-3 times daily from 3500 baht one-way (tickets best bought from a
Bangkok travel agency).
- Air Mandalay  flies direct both ways
between Chiang Mai (in
northern Thailand) and Yangon, and Chiang Mai to Mandalay (but no
direct flights in the opposite direction) for about US$80. The
Chiang Mai - Mandalay flight currently does not seem to be
- Air Bagan
flies the Yangon-Bangkok route.
- Silk Air
links Yangon with Singapore daily.
- China Southern Airlines  links Yangon with
Guangzhou twice a week.
- China Eastern Airlines  links Mandalay
with Kunming three times a week.
Hopping across the Thai border into Myanmar's border towns is
easy, but crossing into or out of Myanmar proper by land varies
between difficult and impossible.
- Tachileik / Mae Sai - foreigners can access
this crossing from either side, and enter and/or exit either
country here. As of March 2007, travel beyond Kengtung to the rest of Myanmar is not
possible, even with a valid tourist visa. Travelers wishing to exit
Myanmar at Tachileik can only do so with a permit from the MTT
office in Yangon.
- Myawaddy / Mae Sot - foreigners can only
access this crossing from the Thai side; neither onward travel into
Myanmar (ie beyond the border town) nor overnight stays are
possible. No visa needed; instead there's an entry stamp fee -
US$10 if paid with US$ notes, more (500 baht) if paid with Thai
currency. As of August 2009, only Thai baht is accepted.
Pagodas Pass (Payathonzu / Sangkhlaburi) - foreigners can only access
this crossing from the Thai side; onward travel into Myanmar (ie
beyond the border town) is not possible; entry/exit stamps are NOT
issued here, and foreigners passports are held at the Myanmar
checkpoint, where a fee is levied - US$10 if paid with US$ notes,
more (500 baht) if paid with Thai currency. However, as of November
25, 2008, this crossing is temporarily closed.
- Kawthoung / Ranong - foreigners can access
this crossing from either side, and enter and/or exit either
country here. If entering without a visa, maximum stay is 3 days /
2 nights, travel beyond Kawthoung is not permitted, and there's an
entry stamp fee - US$10 if paid with US$ notes, more (500 baht) if
paid with Thai currency. As of March 2007, the only way to continue
onward from here appears to be by plane to Mergui or Yangon, although there have previously been
ferries on these routes as well.
foreigners can enter Myanmar at Lashio
), although a permit (as well as a visa)
and a guide are needed. You will most likely need to join an
organized tour, costing 1450 RMB as of January 2009. As of April
2009, it is impossible for foriegners to across over from Ruili,
even for the day, without first getting a visa in Kunming, ie a
tour group. Crossing in the opposite direction is more difficult to
arrange and details are uncertain; however, it's possible to fly
, and there's even a
Chinese consulate that issues visas in Mandalay.
land border crossing exists between India and Myanmar at
Moreh/Tamu. While there have been confirmed reports of some
travellers crossing into Myanmar from India, with their own
transport as well as with permits arranged in advance, the general
consensus is that obtaining all the necessary permits is very hard.
At the least, a foreign (a person who is neither a citizen of India
nor a citizen of Myanmar) will need to get a Indian permit to visit
the state of Manipur
, and an
MTT permit to enter or leave Myanmar at Tamu. Travellers may also
need a permit to travel from Tamu to Kalewa, although there are
unconfirmed reports that this is no longer required.
- it is not
currently feasible to independently cross the borders between
Myanmar and Bangladesh or Laos.
Myanmar's infrastructure is in poor shape. As a result of the
political situation, Myanmar is subject to trade sanctions from
much of the western world, and this can cause problems for unwary
travellers. Travel to certain regions is prohibited; for others,
special permits must be obtained, and a guide/interpreter/minder
may be mandatory - although whether these "guides" accompany you to
look after you, or to keep you from going to places the government
doesn't want you to see, is moot.
Much of Myanmar is closed to foreign travelers, and many land
routes to far-flung areas are also closed (for example, to Mrauk U
, Kalewa, Putao
). Thus, while travelers can travel
freely in the Bamar majority Burmese heartland, travel tends to be
restricted or circumscribed in other places. In theory, any tourist
can apply for a permit to visit any restricted area or to travel on
any restricted land route. In practice, it is unlikely that any
such permit will be issued in a reasonable amount of time, or at
all. Permit requests can be made locally in some cases (for
example, requests for the land route to Kalewa can be made in
Shwebo) but, in most cases, the request has to be made in Yangon
. Requests to visit
restricted areas must be made at the MTT (Myanmar Travel and Tours)
office in Yangon (Number 77-91, Sule Pagoda Road, Yangon,
for local permits can often be made at a local MTT office or at a
police station. As of writing this, local permits are available
only for the following places/routes:
- Shwebo - Kalewa. A permit is necessary if going by road. It is
uncertain whether one is required if going by boat.
- Kengtung - Tachilek. This used to be
straightforward but the availability is now uncertain.
- Myitkyina - Indawgyi
Lake. Easily available in Myitkyina but must travel with a guide.
Your hotel or a local tour company can arrange this for you.
- Mrauk U Chin/ Zomi
village tours. Easily available in Mrauk U but must visit with a
guide. Your hotel or a local tour company can arrange this for
All other permits must be obtained in Yangon.
Nevertheless, Myanmar is not North Korea
, so unless specifically
instructed otherwise, leaving your hotel for a walk on the streets
is fine and should not cause you any problems.
The poor state of Myanmar's roads and railways make flying by
far the most comfortable option of travelling long distances.
State-run Myanma Airways
(UB) - not to
be confused with Myanmar Airways International (8M) "MAI" - is
known for its poor safety record. Even locals prefer to avoid it
There are also three privately owned airlines serving the main
domestic routes in Myanmar. They are Air Bagan
(W9), Air Mandalay
(6T) and Yangon
(YH). While more
expensive, they are a safer option and would get you to all the
main tourist destinations from Yangon or Mandalay.
Myanmar has an extensive but ancient rail network. Trains are
slow, often delayed, and charge exorbitant prices from foreign
travelers making buses a cheaper and faster alternative. Still, a
journey on a train is a great way to see the country and meet
people. The rail journey from Mandalay
, up switchbacks and hairpin bends to
Pwin U Lwin
then across the mountains and the famous bridge at Gokteik, is one
of the great railway journeys of the world. Trains in lower
Mandalay (Yangon - Pathein and Yangon Mawlymaing) are little
communities of their own with hawkers selling everything
imaginable. Sleepers are available on many overnight express
trains, although, in the high season, you may want to reserve a few
days in advance (the Yangon-Mandalay trains now run in the daytime
only, apparently because the government does not want trains
passing Pyinmana at night). Food service is available on the
express up and the express down between Yangon and Mandalay as well
as on the Yangon - Mawlymaing run.
Except for the new bridge and rail line that connects Mawlymaing
to points on the western side of the Salween River, the rail
network is exactly the way it was in British times. The most used
line is the 325km line from Yangon
with several trains a day (this is
also the only double line in Myanmar), and the only one that is
competitive in time with buses (note that the fastest trains take
15 hours for the 385km run, an effective rate of 25km/hour!). A
second line connects Yangon with Pyay
(9 hours for the 175km journey!) with a
branch heading off into the delta region town of Pathein
. These tracks, the earliest constructed
are in poor shape. With the construction of the bridge across the
Salween, it is now possible to go by train from Yangon
to Mawlymaing (8 hours for the 200km
journey) and on to Ye (Ye is closed to foreign travelers). From Mandalay
, trains continue on
in Kachin State
in 24hours) and to Lashio
There are also rail connections between Yangon-Bagan
, but bus or ferry are better alternatives
(The 175km from Mandalay to Bagan takes 10hrs).
The following table summarizes travel time and prices between
most visitable places in Myanmar (note: prices are approximate,
check with more up to date and reliable sources!):
There is also a large river ferry network. Both are to a large
extent run by the government, although there are now some private
ferry services. The trip from Mandalay to Bagan takes the better
part of a day, from Bagan to Yangon is several days.
Buses of all types ply the roads of Myanmar. Luxury (relatively
speaking) buses do the Mandalay
run while lesser vehicles can get
travelers to other places. Fares are reasonable and in Kyat and,
for the budget traveler, there is no other option because of the
high price of train tickets for foreign nationals. Many long
distance buses assign seats so it is best to book seats at least a
day in advance. Because the roads are bad, avoid the rear of the
bus and try to sit as far up front as you can get. Long distance
buses also have an extra jump seat that blocks the aisle and,
because it is not well secured to the chassis, can be uncomfortable
(which also means that there is no such thing as a side seat where
taller travelers can thrust their legs). A window near the front of
the bus is always the best option.
A scam about bus tickets seems to be popular in Yangon
currently. While many travelers make a stopover in Bago, they are
told at their guesthouse or at the bus station it's not possible to
buy tickets up there in the direction to Mandalay. In a country
where everything might be possible when it comes to transport, some
people tend to believe is. Actually, this is not the case and
tracking back to Yangon for a bus ticket up north is not necessary
at all. Bago has a bus terminal with several bus offices. Buying
your ticket at Bago might be slightly cheaper (of course depending
upon your bargaining skills) and gives you more freedom for the
rest of your journey.
The following table summarizes travel times and approximate
fares between important tourist destinations in Myanmar (Note: most
bus fares have gone up with the recent gas price hike, the fares
listed here are rough estimates):
Old Toyota pickup trucks run everywhere in Myanmar,
inexpensively ferrying men, women, children, and monks from one
place to another. The rear of the truck is converted into a canvas
covered sitting area with three benches, one on each side and one
running along the center of the truck (some smaller trucks have
only two rows), and the running board is lowered and fixed into
place providing room for six or more people to stand on (holding on
to the truck frame). Pickups are ubiquitous in Myanmar and every
town has a central point somewhere from where they depart to places
both near and far. Travelers who go off the beaten track will find
them indispensable because often the only alternative is an
expensive taxi or private car.
The basics of pickups are fairly straightforward, wait till it
is reasonably full before heading out. On well traveled routes (Mandalay
- Pyin U Lwin
example), they fill up quickly and the journey is quick. On less
well-traveled routes (Bhamo
, for example), passengers
arrive (early, usually around 6AM), mark their place, and then hang
around drinking tea and chatting until the truck fills up. When the
pickup does get moving, it may linger or go out of its way in the
hope of picking up more passengers. The inside of a pickup can be
hot and uncomfortable - passengers, packed in like sardines, face
away from the windows (which are tiny) and into the truck - and
standing on the running board can be tiring and tough on the arms!
On the other hand, the window side seat next to the driver is very
comfortable and well worth the little extra that you have to pay,
so it is best to go early and reserve that seat.
You can hire a private car and driver at reasonable rates to
tour independently. The licensed guides at Schwedagon Paya in
Yangon can arrange to have a driver with a car meet you at your
hotel. Another way is to arrange for a car through a travel agency,
though it can be quite expensive. You can "test" the driver and the
car by driving around the city for 10 or 15 minutes. If you are
satisfied, a departure date and time and per diem rates (inclusive
of petrol) can be negotiated. Some guides are willing to travel
with you to serve as interpreters.
Road travel to tourist destinations is generally safe, although
some roads may be rough. Highways are often 2-lane, and cars often
pass one another recklessly. Allow two days to drive from Yangon to
Bagan in fair weather. Pyay provides a good midway stopover point.
Allow a day to drive from Bagan to Inle Lake.
In cities, it is also considered illegal to cross an amber light
without stopping. Despite having crossed 3/4 of the way, you will
be required to stop in the middle of the road and make your way
back in reverse!
Accidents and fatalities are common. Night-time road travel is
not recommended, and medical facilities are extraordinarily limited
in rural areas. At government hospitals, bribes may be required for
expedient services. Make sure needles are new or carry your own.
HIV is a major problem in Myanmar.
In Yangon, riding motorcycles and bicycles is illegal.
Mandalay's streets, on the other hand, are filled with both.
Cars and pedestrians may not follow the established rules, and
crossing the road can be difficult.
The official language of Myanmar is Burmese
(known by the government as Myanmar). A majority of Burmese
pronunciation is derived from the ancient language of Pali (at the
time of the Buddha), but the language is a Sino-Tibetan language
related to Chinese and hence tonal (word pitch matters) and
analytic (most words are one syllable long). It is written using
the Burmese script, based on the ancient Pali script. Bilingual
signs (English and Burmese) are available in most tourist spots.
Numbers often are also written in Burmese script.
There are also many other ethnic groups in Myanmar such as the
Mon, Shan, Pa-O and many others who continue to speak their own
languages. There is also a sizeable ethnic Chinese community, most
visible in the city of Mandalay, and many of whom speak Mandarin
Some areas are also home to various ethnic Indian communities who
continue to speak various Indian languages. However, with the
exception of the elderly, it is rare to find any locals who do not
Myanmar is a former British colony, and as a result - and
because English is still being taught in kindergartens and primary
schools - many Burmese understand at least some rudimentary
English. In fact, you may find more English spoken in Myanmar than
In a misguided attempt to fight rampant black marketeering, the
Myanmar government has an unfortunate habit of declaring
notes to be worthless: this happened for the first time on
May 15, 1964, when the 50 and 100 kyat notes were demonetized. On
November 3, 1985, the 20, 50 and 100 kyat notes were demonetized
again and replaced with new kyat notes in the unusual denominations
of 25, 35 and 75, possibly chosen because of dictator Ne Win's
predilection for numerology; the 75-kyat note was introduced on his
Only two years later, on September 5, 1987, the government once
again demonetized the 25, 35 and 75 kyat notes with no prior
warning, rendering some 75% of the country's currency worthless. A
new series of 15, 45 and 90-kyat notes was issued, incorporating Ne
Win's favorite number 9. The resulting economic disturbances led to
serious riots and eventually the 1989 coup by General Saw Maung,
The post-coup notes come in more normal denominations from 1 to
1000 kyat, and this time the old ones remain legal tender... so
Myanmar's currency is the kyat
), pronounced "chut/chat". Pya
are coins, and are rarely seen. Foreign travelers are required to
pay in US$ for hotels, tourist attractions, rail and air tickets,
ferry travel, and sometimes for bus tickets as well, and are
technically required to pay in kyat for most other transactions
(trishaws, pickups, tips, food, etc.). According to the law, it is
illegal for a Myanmar citizen to accept (or hold) dollars without a
license but this law is mostly ignored and dollars are generally
accepted. Never insist though because it may be dangerous for the
legal tender but are rarely seen.
Kyat officially cannot be exchanged abroad, though money
changers in places with large overseas Burmese populations such as
exchange anyway. Bring US$ cash, and dispose of remaining kyat
Visitors must bring enough cash with them to cover their
entire visit, as there's no easy way to get more without leaving
the country. However in an emergency, some hotels in
Yangon will do a cash advance on a credit card through Singapore.
People have reported that hotels charge a commission ranging from
7% up to 30% and may need to sight your passport to process the
The currency of choice in Myanmar is the US$ nationwide, though
you can readily also exchange euros in Yangon and Mandalay but
perhaps not beyond. Other solid options are the Chinese Yuan (CNY)
and Thai baht (THB). Your best rates would be in Yangon and
Be sure to bring a mix of US$ denominations when visiting
Myanmar because money changers will not give change and
20/10/5/1-dollar notes are deliciously useful for some entry fees
Official and Blackmarket
Never exchange money in a bank or at the
as the rates are excruciatingly uncompetitive: the
official rate "floats" around a farcical 6 (yes,
) kyats to the US dollar
while the going street rate fluctuates considerably around
1000 kyat (1050 Kyat to the US$ in September 2009 in Yangon,
slightly less in Mandalay), and dissident newspaper The Irrawaddy
is a good source for
recent exchange rates. Exchanging money on the black market is only
theoretically illegal: ask in any farmers' market, jewelry shop or
Check Your Banknotes
This cannot be stressed enough. A good number of travellers find
themselves in possession of a small fortune in worthless bills (at
least, worthless when dealing with Myanmar moneychangers) due to
their condition being less than perfect.
Ensure that your banknotes:
- Do not have any marks, stamps, anti-counterfeit pen, ink, or
any other mark on them at all. Pencil can be removed with a good
eraser, but any permanent marks will greatly decrease a bills value
and ability to be exchanged.
- Are fresh, crisp and as close to brand new as possible.
Moneychangers have been known to reject notes just for being
creased and/or lightly worn.
- Are undamaged. No tears, missing bits, holes, repairs, or
anything of that sort.
- Are, preferably, the new US Dollar designs, with the larger
portrait, and the multiple-color prints. Although, old-style US$1
are still commonly traded.
- If carrying US$100 bills, notes with serial numbers starting
"CB" may not be accepted. This is because they are associated with
a counterfeit "superbill" which was in circulation some time
When Exchanging Money/Making
Purchases With US Dollars
There are a number of tricks and scams running around Myanmar
trapping tourists who are carrying US Dollars. Sometimes,
guesthouses or traders will try and pass you damaged or
nonexchangeable bills in change. Always inspect all notes when
making a purchase and request that the vendor swap any bills you
think you will have trouble using down the track (this is perfectly
acceptable behavior for vendors and customers, so don't be
Some moneychangers will also attempt sleight of hand tricks to
either swap your good banknotes for damaged, or lower denomination
bills. Other reports suggest that the kyats may be counted and then
somehow, some disappear from the table during the transaction. For
example, after going through an elaborate counting process for
piles of ten 1000 kyat notes, some money changers will pull some
notes out as they count the piles of ten.
When changing money, be sure that, after any money is counted,
it is not touched by anyone until the deal is sealed. Also do not
allow your US Dollars to be removed from your sight until all is
agreed - in fact it is not even necessary to pull our your US
Dollars until your are paying for the kyats you received. It sounds
extreme, but ending up in a country where you cannot access
whatever savings you have, and having a good portion of your budget
rendered useless (until you get to more relaxed changers in
Bangkok) can really put a dampener on your plans.
Is it safe?
So, you're traveling around carrying 100s, if not 1000s, of
dollars stuffed into your pockets in a country where most people
subsist on a few dollars a day. Everyone around you knows that if
they could get their hands on the money in your pockets, they'll be
set for life. What, you may ask, are the odds that someone will try
to relieve you of your money? The answer: almost nil. There have
been almost no instances of a tourist being mugged and only the
rare pilferage. Myanmar is an extremely safe country for travelers.
Some say it is because of the nature of the people. Others say it
is because the punishment for robbing from a foreigner is
draconian. Actually, it's the Buddhism: you do not take what is not
given you, which is stricter than "Thou shalt not steal" because it
rewords as "Thou shalt not help thyself, even in the home of dear
friend." Whatever the cause, your money will be safe!
Foreign Exchange Certificates
Visitors to Myanmar were previously required to change US$200
into FECs upon arrival, but this was abolished in
August 2003. FECs are still valid tender, but should be avoided at
all costs as they are no longer worth their face value (although a
one FEC note has good souvenir potential).
Credit cards & ATMs
Due to EU and US sanctions, credit cards are rarely accepted in
Myanmar. There are places where cash can be obtained with a credit
card, however the rates are extremely uncompetitive (with premiums
certainly no lower than around 7%, and with quotes of 30% and more
frequently reported). An exceptionally small minority of up-market
hotels accept credit card payments (and will surcharge
Some ATMs can be found in large cities, but these are purely for
locals and cannot be used for withdrawing money.
Travellers cheques are not accepted in Myanmar.
The only exception might be some especially shady money changer -
but be prepared to pay an astronomical commission (30% is not
It's quite possible to be comfortable on less than US$20/day.
Foreigners will likely be charged fees, including video camera,
digital camera, entrance, parking, and zone fees.
- Lacquerware A popular purchase in Myanmar is
lacquerware, which is made into bowls, cups,
vases, tables and various items, and is available almost anywhere.
The traditional centre of Lacquerware production though is Bagan in central Myanmar. Beware of fraudulent
lacquerware, though, which is poorly made, but looks authentic. (As
a general rule, the stiffer the lacquer, the poorer the quality and
the more you can bend and twist it, the finer the quality.)
- Precious stones Myanmar is a significant miner
of jade, rubies, and sapphire (the granting of a license to the
French over the ruby mines in Mogok was one of the causes leading
to the Third Burmese War) and these can be obtained at a fraction
of what it would cost in the West. Be warned, however, that there
are a lot of fakes for sale amongst the genuine stuff and, unless
you know your gems, buy from an official government store or risk
being cheated. Bogoyoke Aung San Market in Yangon has many licensed shops and is generally
a safe place for the purchase of these stones.
- Tapestries, known as kalaga, or
shwe chi doe. There is a long tradition of weaving
tapestries in Burma. These are decorated with gold and silver
thread and sequins and usually depict tales from the Buddhist
scriptures (the jatakas) or other non-secular objects from
Burmese Buddhism (mythical animals, the hintha and the
kalong are also popular subjects). The tapestry tradition
is dying out but many are made for tourists and are available in Mandalay and Yangon. Burmese tapestries don't
last so be warned if someone tries to sell you an antique shwe
- Antiques Myanmar is probably the last
unspoiled market for antiques and, with a good eye, it is easy to
pick up bargains there. Old Raj coins are the most popular (and
have little value except as souvenirs) but everything ranging from
Ming porcelain to Portuguese furniture (in Moulmein) can be found. Unfortunately, the
Burmese antique sellers are becoming increasingly sophisticated
and, increasingly, the bargains were probably made the day before
in the shop-owners backyard! It is against the law to export
religious antiques (manuscripts, Buddhas, etc.).
- Textiles Textiles in Myanmar are stunning.
Each region and each ethnic group has its own style. Chin fabrics
are particularly stunning. They are handwoven in intricate
geometric patterns, often in deep reds and mossy greens and white.
They can be quite pricy, perhaps US$20 for the cloth to make a
There is also a wide variety of beautiful silverware and
jewellery as well as textiles, including gorgeous silks and
handcrafts such as wooden carvings, silk paintings and
Some items may require customs permits.
Burmese food is a blend of Chinese, Indian and Mon influences.
Rice is at the core of most Burmese food, and good vegetarian food
is widely available. Burmese food is often extremely pungent. Food
is inexpensive at most restaurants (around 500-1500 kyat), but
there are many upscale restaurants in Yangon and Mandalay for
What to eat
Because the Burmese cuisine is a medley of many regional
influences, it has many characteristics. Seafood is more common
along the coastline, while preserved meats are more common in
inland areas. Many Indian, Chinese, and Shan dishes are served
throughout the country. Some dishes to try are:
- Mohinga (pronounced mo-HIN-ga) is a dish of
rice vermicelli with fish gravy(orange in colour) and is usually
accompanied by corriander and with chilli powder (the Burmese eat
chilli). Its taste can range from sweet to spicy, and is usually
eaten during breakfast. It is considered by many to be the national
dish of Myanmar, and is widely available throughout the country,
albeit in slightly different styles in different regions.
- Onnokauswe (pronounced oun-NO-kao-sui) is a
dish of thicker noodles in a thick soup of coconut milk. Often
added is chicken, and it has a strong taste and odour.
- Laphet thote (pronounced la-peh THOU) is a
salad of fermented tea leaves and a variety of nuts. It is commonly
mixed with sliced lettuce, and is eaten with rice. The dish
originally comes from Shan State.
- Mee swan (pronounced mee-SUAN) is a Chinese
dish of noodles in a broth, served with herbs and little meat.
- Palata (prounced pa-la-ta) is an Indian bread
(parata), which is fried and served with sugar for breakfast, or
with curried meats for lunch and dinner.
- Shan food The Shan are an ethnic group who inhabit
Shan State around Inle lake, near the Thai border. Their food is
marvelous and spicy. It can be found in Yangon if you search.
- Curry Myanma people have a very different definition
of curry than other countries. It is very spicy compared to Indian
and Thai options, and although you may find it served at room
temperature in cheaper restaurants, in a typical Burmese home all
curry dishes are served hot. The Burmese curry does not contain
coconut milk, unlike its south-east asian counterparts, and has a
large quantity of onion. Myanmar is the highest per-capita consumer
of onions in the world.
Where to eat
- Black Canyon Coffee Found in Mandalay (Next to
Sedona Hotel) and in Yangon (next to International Hotel) offers
Air-conditioned dining and wonderful Starbucks-style coffee for all
those yearning for a quality caffeine shot in this country.
- Mac Burger Due to US sanctions American
corporations aren't allowed to do business in Myanmar. However,
this Yangon McDonalds knock-off is the closest you'll get. Mind the
Tap water in Myanmar is not safe to drink,
likewise ice may be contaminated. Bottled water is
readily available at many tourist sites.
Similar to ChineseTea
Yenwejan is usually provided free at restaurant tables.
While not flavourful, it is boiled water, and so safe to drink (do
not drink plain water - even in restaurants - unless it is bottled
water). Dried tea leaves similar to Laphet thote's tea leaves
(except these are wet) are added to the boiled water to give
Yenwejan Be sure to order it with Laphet thote
Alcohol is frowned upon by conservative
Buddhists, Hindus, and Muslims, but consumed widely, mostly among
men. Myanmar Beer (lager) is most popular in the country. Other
variants, including Mandalay Beer exist. However, many of such
companies are government-owned and/or have links to the drug trade.
Toddy juice (ta-YEI) is popular in
central Myanmar, and is made from fermented palm sugar. An
alcoholic drink popular in the Shan State is Shwe le
maw, and is reportedly very strong. It is also possible to
buy full strength Beer Chang imported from Thailand; exports to
most countries are not nearly as strong.
Beware of alcoholic drinks served in the far northern states.
The locals refer to it as alcohol which does not
burn when lit, and it is widely suspected to be an opiate
concoction rather than a fermented beverage.
There are a lot of nightclubs, including those attached to the
five star hotels (eg Grand Plaza), and also local entertainment
centres (eg JJs, Asia plaza).
While not as inexpensive as neighboring Thailand
, Myanmar has surprisingly good hotel
accommodation at reasonable prices. Rooms with attached bath are
available for under US$10 everywhere except in Yangon
and with shared bath for anywhere from
US$3 to US$6 in most places. Almost every hotel licensed for
foreigners has running hot water (though, in remote areas,
availability may be restricted to certain hours of the day).
Hotels, with a few exceptions, are usually clean though, at the
budget end, sheets and blankets may be threadbare and the rooms may
be poorly ventilated. A few low-end hotels, particularly in Yangon
and other large cities,
specialize in cubicle rooms - small single rooms with no windows -
which, while cheap and clean, are not for the claustrophobic. Rates
are quoted as single/double but the rooms are usually the same
whether one person or two stay in the room, making good hotels a
real bargain if traveling as a couple. Except at the top-end,
breakfast is always included in the price of the room.
Myanmar has a problem providing enough electricity to its people
and power supply is severely restricted everywhere. In many places,
electricity may be available only for a few hours each evening or,
in some cases, only every alternate evening. If you don't want to
spend your nights without a fan or AC, ask if the hotel has a
generator (most mid-priced hotels do). On generator nights, the AC
in your room may not work (the price is usually lower as well).
At the top-end, Myanmar has some excellent hotels including one
or two great ones (The Strand in Yangon and Kandawgyi Palace Hotel
in Yangon). The Myanmar government runs many hotels, including some
beautiful colonial era ones (though not the two listed in the
previous sentence). Many large five-star hotels in Yangon and
Mandalay are run by friends of the government or by people with
connections to the drug trade. Socially conscious travelers may
want to avoid these two types of hotels.
Work in Myanmar for foreigners is hard to come by. NGOs and
other aid groups operate in the capital and remote rural areas but
may require specific skill sets to hire you. Another option is
European and Asian companies, mostly operating on a small scale.
Teaching English is feasible in private schools but skip the
education ministry, which only hires citizens with teaching
The government punishes crime, particularly against tourists,
severely; it has a hard enough time convincing tourists to go there
due to its international reputation. In addition, many locals,
being devout Buddhists, are wary of retribution in their next life
should they commit any crimes against others. As a result, as far
as crime and personal safety go, Myanmar is extremely safe for
tourists, and it is generally safe to walk on the streets alone at
night. In fact, you are less likely to be a victim of crime in
Myanmar than in Thailand
. However, as
with anywhere else, little crime does not mean no crime and it is
still no excuse to ditch your common sense.
Since 2005, Yangon
have seen a barely
perceptible rise in the very low level of street robberies. Several
years ago, there were isolated bombings: 26 April 2005 in Mandalay
; 7 May, 21 October
and 5 December 2005 in Yangon
2 January 2006 in Bago
Despite traditional taboos against it, begging has become a
major problem in the main tourist areas such as Bago
Children and "mothers" carrying babies are often the ones who beg
as they are more effective at soliciting pity. Note that most
beggars are part of larger begging syndicates or just after easy
money, as tourists are usually seen to be rich. In addition, the
poor can always obtain food for free from the nearest monastery if
they can't afford to pay for it, so begging is not necessary for
their survival. If you really must give, note that most Burmese
earn only US$20 a month doing manual labour; giving US$1 to a
beggar is very
Myanmar is one of the world's most corrupt countries. Officials
and other civil servants may discreetly ask you for a bribe, or
invent issues (missing forms, closed offices, etc) in order to get
you to suggest one. Pretending not to understand or asking to speak
to a superior may work. However, visitors of Caucasian descent are
rarely targeted, while those of Asian descent (including South
Asians and East Asians) may be forced to give bribes, but the brunt
of the problem hits normal Burmese.
Again, Westerners are very rarely asked for bribes. Then too,
most bribes are in the order of a US dollar or less and requested
by folks earning as little as US$30/month.
Various insurgent groups continue to operate in the
Shan, Mon, Chin (Zomi), and Karen States of
Myanmar, along the Thai and Chinese borders. Travel to these
regions is generally requires a government permit. The government
also restricts travel to Kayah State and Rakhine
State due to insurgent activity. However travel is
entirely unrestricted to the districts of Yangon, Bago, Ayeyarwady,
Sagaing, Taninthayi, Mandalay and Magwe.
The price of computers and a home internet connection is
prohibitive so most people surf at Internet cafés. Web-based email
websites such as Yahoo! or Hotmail can be accessed in savvy cafés.
The blocking is because Myanmar Telecom sells email addresses and
free web-based email address suppliers cut into their bottomline.
The government records screenshots every five minutes from PCs in
Internet cafés to monitor Internet usage. If you don't want your
privacy violated in this way, save your surfing for Thailand or
wherever you head next.
Myanmar has been under strong military rule for the past 40
years, with a reputation for repressing dissent, as in the case of
the frequent house arrests of democracy campaigner Aung San Suu
Kyi, and currently has more than 1,500 political prisoners
[sentences of 65 years and hard labor in remote camps were given to
leaders of the Saffron Revolution]. When in Myanmar, abstain from
political activities and don't insult the government.
Discuss politics, if you must, with people who have had time to
get a feel for you. The danger however, is primarily posed to those
you speak with, and thus you should take care with their safety.
Let them lead the conversation. Also, realize that many phone lines
are tapped. And if you absolutely must wave a democracy banner in
front of a cop shop, you'll simply find yourself on the next
Avoid doing things that might make the military or police feel
uncomfortable, such as taking pictures of police and police
buildings or vehicles.
Ice and tap water are a gamble. Always buy bottled water and
check that the cap is sealed on, not simply screwed on. When in
doubt, shop at City Mart, a reputable local food retailing chain.
Diseases such as dengue fever
, Japanese encephalitis and malaria
Drug-resistant strains of malaria and tuberculosis are common in
many areas. Hepatitis vaccinations are highly recommended but
unvaccinated travellers have survived after suffering no more than
the odd case of diarrhea. At the dinner table, Burmese use a knife
and fork, or their fingers when this is more convenient. You might
feel better rinsing all of them before meals.
As in any other developing country: "if you can't fry,
roast, peel or boil it - then forget it".
Myanmar's healthcare system is in a poor state. If you should
fall sick in Myanmar, you can visit the doctor in major cities for
minor ailments such as coughs and colds. However, for more serious
medical care, hospital conditions tend to be unsanitary and there
is often a shortage of medical supplies due to economic sanctions.
Most of the government officials and rich locals head to Singapore
for more serious
medical treatment and hospitalisation and you will be better off
doing so too. Just ensure your insurance is in order as arranging
to be airlifted in an emergency can be rather costly.
, the old capital of
Rakhine in Myanmar
The people cover their arms and legs; they are also courteous
and considerate and low-key dress is highly appreciated,
particularly in temples and monasteries (of which there are
thousands). Miniskirts, shorts and sleeveless shirts are not
allowed in consecrated areas, where you also have to remove your
shoes, so prefer loafers and flip-flops that can slip on & off
at the entrance--Myanmar has some of the most stunning temples in
Asia and you will be tempted to visit more than you think.
Both men and women wear a longyi, a sort of sarong sold
everywhere. They are wrapped in different ways for men and women,
so find out how to tie yours. If you turn up at a temple in
inappropriate dress, you can always rent a longyi for a
Also avoid t-shirts with images of Buddhas or Buddhist imagery,
which is considered highly disrespectful. Folks are forgiving about
it, but one should not look like a bigger fool than is
Give generously at temples and monasteries but women are not
allowed into some sacred areas--actually the restriction should
cover only women in menstruation, but since it would be rude to ask
and unthinkable to verify, they keep all ladies out. You will often
see monks begging for alms in the streets in the morning (they are
not allowed to eat after 12pm). Note that monks are not allowed to
come into contact with the opposite sex. In addition, you should
only donate food to the monks, as they are not allowed to accept
money under any circumstances - those that accept money are almost
You can also purchase little squares of gold leaf to apply to
When praying or paying respects, it is important to ensure that
the *soles* of your feet do not point towards the Buddha or anyone
else. However, statues are arranged so that won't happen unless you
get acrobatic about it. Do not point to images of Buddha. Tuck your
feet underneath you when kneeling at shrines and temples.
Tourists of Caucasian descent are commonly referred to as
bo, which translates "leader", as a sign of respect.
Address elders with U (pronounced "oo", as in
soon) or "Uncle" for men, and Daw or
"Auntie" for women.
International phone calls can be arranged at the Central
Telephone & Telegraph Office at the corner of Ponsodan
and Mahabandoola Streets in Yangon. International Direct Dial calls
are also available at most hotels and at many public call offices
(often a phone in a shop), but they are expensive, e.g. a call to
the US costs $6 to $7/min.
International mail out of Myanmar is reportedly quite efficient.
As elsewhere, there is always a risk if you send valuables as
The hotel in Yangon said that postcards mailed in the country
had less than 1% chance of being delivered abroad.
Internet is now widely and cheaply available in Yangon, Mandalay
and Bagan, but more limited elsewhere. However access is very slow
and many sites are inaccessible. Rates are around 1000 kyat/hour in
Yangon and 2000-5000 kyat/hour elsewhere.
A list of proxys to circumvent blocks can be found at proxy.org
Webmail: most free webmail providers are
blocked, however many Internet cafés circumvent this - jot down the
workaround in case it's still unknown in the next café you visit.
If one Internet café can't connect you, the next one probably will
the next day. As of January 2010, Hotmail and Yahoo are blocked,
while Gmail is available.
As of May 2006, the following workarounds worked:
- Yahoo - use wap.oa.yahoo.com - the WAP (mobile phone) gateway,
which gets you the basic interface.
Myanmar has two ISPs, MPT and Bagan. Proxy sites are blocked by
MPT, but may work with the Bagan ISP.
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Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports (PBIS) gives people a new way to think about behavior. PBIS is based on understanding why problem behaviors occur – the behavior’s function. This approach to behavior can occur on a school-wide level, in a specific setting, classroom, or with an individual student. PBIS is the application of evidence-based strategies and systems to assist schools to increase academic performance, increase safety, decrease problem behavior, and establish positive school cultures.
On an individual level, PBIS uses functional behavior assessments to understand the relationships between a student’s behavior and characteristics of his or her environment. The functional behavior assessment identifies multiple strategies to effectively reduce problem behavior including changing systems, altering environments, teaching skills, and focusing on positive behaviors. The PBIS process results in the creation of effective intervention plans that will reduce problem behaviors, teach new skills, and create support systems for the student.
On a school-wide level, PBIS relies on accurate and reliable discipline referral data for information about behaviors occurring across campus. An analysis of the data allows a school team to identify the problem areas, brainstorm interventions such as where and what to teach, reinforcing the students exhibiting the expected behavior, and communicate findings to the staff, students, and families. The PBIS process is a team-based approach that relies on a strong collaboration between families and professionals from a variety of disciplines.
PBIS provides a positive and effective alternative to the traditional methods of discipline. PBIS methods are research-based and proven to significantly reduce the occurrence of problem behaviors in the school, resulting in a more positive school climate and increased academic performance. It is consistent with the Individuals with Disabilities Education( ), which advocates the use of positive behavior interventions and school-based disciplinary strategies that reduce or eliminate the need to use suspension and expulsion as disciplinary options.


Our Federal government is split into three branches. They are the Executive, Legislative and Judicial
The original constitution of the US, ratified in 1781, which was replaced by the US Constitution in 1789.
Bill of Rights
An act of vesting the legislative, executive, and judicial powers of government in separate bodies.
Constitutional Convention 1787–1789. The Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia met between May and September of 1787 to address the problems of the weak central government that existed under the Articles of Confederation.
The first ten amendments to the US Constitution, ratified in 1791 and guaranteeing such rights as the freedoms of speech, assembly, and worship.


1997 estimated population of Cuba was 10,999,039,
giving the country an average population density of 96 persons per
sq km (249 per sq mi).
Professed Roman Catholics have declined from more than 70 percent
of the population in 1957 to about 33 percent today. Among Protestants,
who account for 1 percent of Cubans, Pentecostalism is the predominant
tradition. About 50 percent of Cubans consider themselves nonreligious.
Spanish is the official language of Cuba.
Cuban population is made up mainly of three groups. Approximately
66 percent of the population is white and mainly of Spanish descent,
22 percent is of mixed racial heritage, and 12 percent is black.
Almost all of the people are native born. Some 76 percent of the
population is classified as urban.
Resent researches prove that an undefined number of people show
characteristics of native ancestors. There is no racial discrimination
in Cuba. Cuban people are friendly, talkative and great hosts;
they are also joyful and good-humored.