Cleaning industry professionals are always on new technology to make their jobs more efficient. But they can’t take a chance on unproven solutions.
That’s one reason why lithium-ion (Li-on) batteries are growing in popularity. Facility cleaning professionals and building service contractors recognize the potential role of lithium-ion battery technology in day-to-day operations. Specifically, these batteries are poised to make an immediate impact as power sources for floor cleaning machines. Read on to learn how lithium-ion batteries are changing the face of the cleaning industry.
Probably the most well-known and obvious benefit is a significantly longer life. Lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO4) batteries will provide 5 – 10 times more cycles than lead-acid batteries. This means you aren’t replacing your batteries every 2-4 years. And, replacing lead-acid batteries is not a fun task; first, there is downtime to do the battery replacement, then there is the heavy lifting to remove old batteries and install new batteries. Finally, there is the disposal of the spent batteries.
Lithium-ion batteries mean as much as a 40 percent longer run time for cleaning equipment. That means cleaning staff can boost their productivity by not stopping to recharge equipment as often.
When batteries do need charging, they charge up to 30 percent faster than lead-acid batteries. Plus, since these batteries can be charged as needed instead of when they’re entirely depleted, it’s easier to have batteries at the ready. And since there’s no battery maintenance as with wet batteries, staff can spend their time cleaning instead of managing equipment.
How convenient are lithium batteries? Very. No maintenance, no adding water, no cleaning acid residue from cables, connections, battery tops, and equipment. No replacements, or at least not for many years, and easy installation due to being incredibly light compared to lead-acid batteries.
Lithium iron phosphate batteries are difficult to damage. They can’t be over-charged because the Battery Management System protects against that. Unlike lead-acid batteries, if they are under-charged or left in a partial state of charge, they will not be damaged.
Lithium iron phosphate batteries are safe. Not all lithium chemistries are the same. LiFePO4 is inherently safe chemistry. They produce a fraction of the heat generated by other lithium chemistries, due to their structural stability. Not to mention, they eliminate exposure to harmful gases that are continuously vented from lead-acid batteries.
The advantages of Lithium-Ion Batteries:
Lower Operating Costs
Long life span: 2.000 charging cycles. 5 times more than traditional AGM or gel batteries.
Partial charging: connect batteries at any time for full or partial recharge with no damage.
No memory: Li-Ion batteries do not suffer from battery degradation, which gradually decreases their performance. Experience constant productivity time after time.
Fast recharge: a special stand-alone charger, sold as optional, delivers a full charge in only 100 minutes.
Long-lasting energy: if unused, Li-Ion batteries only lose 1% of their potential energy a month. Nothing compared to 20% of some other batteries.
Zero maintenance: Li-Ion batteries are completely sealed against dust and water so they will never need a maintenance service.
Less weight: machines with lithium batteries are lighter and easier to transport.
Additional benefits include:
● Decreased sound during operation,
● No emissions as with liquid fuel,
● No reliance on fossil fuels,
● No risk of interacting with battery acid,
● Easier to train staff to operate, and
● Continuous communication between battery and machine.
For all these reasons the Floor Machines Lithium Batteries is the ideal choice for those needing a machine that is always ready to go. Even if it is used intermittently, inactive for long periods of time, or is only charged for short periods of time between uses.
How to properly maintain lithium-ion batteries?
To preserve the life of lithium-ion batteries, it will be critical to properly maintain the batteries during every charging procedure. They are especially susceptible to heat.
Lithium-ion batteries have several components that degrade over time.
Store the batteries in low temperatures and always allow the battery to cool down after charging before using it again.
Lithium iron phosphate batteries offer great savings compared to lead-acid, between 20-50%, when you consider the total cost of ownership. Although the upfront cost of lithium is higher, the areas of saving are numerous. Reduced maintenance, battery replacement, labor, and charging costs all add up to substantial savings. The lifetime cost is less than lead-acid and we’ve done the math to prove it!
Do you have questions about BSLBATT lithium batteries for floor machines? Contact us and one of our tech experts will be in touch.
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FROM THE CRITICS
The man behind the Words Are Categorical series (A Mink, a Fink, a Skating Rink: What Is a Noun?, etc.) here introduces puns gallore via homophones and homonyms in Rhyme & Punishment: Adventures in Wordplay by Brian P. Cleary, illus. by J.P. Sandy, divided into categories such as music or animals. ("When salmon I go fishing,/ we horse around and play./ Then eel always end up lion/ 'bout the ones that got away.") Factoids and visual clues help to decipher the meaning of the puns. Copyright 2006 Reed Business Information.
Children's Literature - Sharon Salluzzo
Following the introduction in which the author provides an explanation of a pun and how he creates them, are four sections. Each is a separate topic: music, animals, food, and geography. In case there are words that the reader might not know, Cleary has included a "pun-unciation" guide that provides a definition and how to pronounce the word. This is a helpful tool, for there will be certain music terms and perhaps countries with which some readers may be unfamiliar. Some of the puns will be simple to read. Others will take a bit more time to decipher. Playing with words and creating puns is a terrific way for children to begin to feel more comfortable with reading. With the humorous cartoon-style illustrations and one or two puns per page, this has an inviting picture-book look. The puns in the geography section will make an interesting introduction when studying other countries. There is a world map at the back of the book with a key to show where each of the mentioned countries is located. There is a bibliography of books with puns and also a list of websites. 2006, Millbrook Press, Ages 8 to 12.
School Library Journal
Gr 2-5-Cleary begins with an introduction that clearly defines puns and then gives various ways to decode them. The main body of the text is divided into four chapters, each of which contains roughly a dozen four-line poems related to the subject at hand. The puns are in bold print and a different color than the rest of the text, and potentially unfamiliar words are explained at the bottom of the page. Some of the selections contain expressions that may be a stretch for children ("dairy air"), but for the most part they are both amusing and get their point across, e.g., "My grandma wears a two-foot wig/that's held on with ape pin/But if you think her hair is big,/ewe otter sea urchin." Sandy's lighthearted cartoons add to the silliness, and make this a good choice for either browsers or for language-arts lessons.-Grace Oliff, Ann Blanche Smith School, Hillsdale, NJ Copyright 2006 Reed Business


291 Answered Questions for the topic geography
True or False: Most of the soils in the Greater Antilles are fertile and can sustain agriculture for many centuries
Judaism, Christianity and Islam originate in this region. Where do they originate and what are their most important holy sites?
Migration is shaping the population geography of the region. We see two types: labor migration and refugees. Provide examples of these two types of migrations in this region.
Population and making a living off the land are shaped by access to what natural resource? ____________. One can see this most clearly in which river valleys? (there are at least two)
Most of the region is dominated by what type of climate (name the climate region). Areas with dry summers and wet winters are known as what type of climate?
Properties of Pyramids and their Pharoahs
Write an equation for the line that passes through the point (1,5) and is perpendicular to the graph of x+2y=4
Solve the inequality -5(x−1)>-40, and graph the solution on a number line.
which European river saw a decrease in pollution, thanks to cooperation among the countries of Germany, France The neither lands switzerland and luxembourg
What is the climate region for the following countries? a. France b. Germany c. Italy d. Irela
the crater that killed the dinosaurs
Compare Malthus’s and Boserup’s theories of the relationship between population growth and food supply
What is the major source of carbon dioxide
Of the following, what country contributes the most greenhouse emissions to the atmosphere?
Q8.The thinning of the Ozone layers is caused primarily by chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)?
What is the Paris Agreement? Group of answer choices
Question 5 1 pts The region of earthquakes and volcanoes -a hazardous region-- surrounding the Pacific Ocean is referred to as the: Group of answer choices
All of the following are possible impacts of global warming EXCEPT: Group of answer choices melting glaciers coastal flooding ecosystem change lowering of sea level
All of the following are greenhouse gases, EXCEPT: Group of answer choices carbon dioxide methane ozone water vapor oxygen
All of the following are region of the world experiencing water stress, EXCEPT Group of answer choices
Along the equator in South America, central Africa and SE Asia, one will find a climate region characterized by?
What is the capital of tobago
write a research summary on global unemployment? 500 words


It all began when the State of Illinois was in its infancy stage; Indians still roam the flat mid-western plains, as it was a vital source for food and survival. Deer, wild game like Cows, buffalos, and yes even Raccoons as well as flying fowls were the delectable that comforted a many Indians plates. All of this rested in the State of Illinois, as well as corn, wheat and other grains. Cowboys, as they have move to take over land, have chased the Indians from all of the westerns states like Missouri, Kansas, and Nebraska just to name a few. When in the process, one night camping, along the Iowa borderline, Wild Jack, Coyote Bob, and Luke Hollow, were in the middle of a deep sleep. At the stroke of midnight, some frustrated Indians from the Iroquois Tribe, out of Iowa, tired of moving eastward, tired of loosing homeland, and just fed up with the cowboy’s ego, attack Wild Jack and the boys and cut off one leg, up to the knee, of each of the Cowboy, tied them up and let them bleed to death. Days later when people from Wild Jacks’ hometown found them, they were so upset that they were going to seek revenge on any Indian that they could find. They knew the Indians had done it because the Indians also scalped each one of the Cowboys and left their Warriors Spear as a sign.
Well one day, this group of Cowboys seeking revenge happen upon a Indian, in Illinois, hunting for food, and decided that they were going to do to him what some Indians had done to their friends, Wild Jack, Coyote Bob, and Luke Hollow. After they grabbed the Indian and tied him up, one of the Cowboys, as they began to cut the Indians leg off, kept repeating that this is for killing my brother Luke Hollow. The Indian could not understand English, but saying Hollow…..Hollow, as they cut off the leg up to the knee.
So, even until today’s time, that Indians’ body was never found, but it has been spotted, visually from afar, and occasionally, a camper or two has either disappeared or was found dead with one of his leg cut off up to the knee. If you are a camper or are just camping overnight, if you put your ear to the canvass of the tent and you will be able to hear the moaning, and groaning of Stumpy Hollow. Stumpy has a particular liking to young campers, so for the little ones, never be in the woods alone, always travel in pairs, and if you are in the tent and fall asleep before 10:00 pm chances are that Stumpy will never get to you, because he mostly, not always, but mostly canvas the campgrounds after 10:00pm.


PIGEONHOLE GARAGE (May, 1952)
COME TIME AGO a businessman named A. G. Dezendorf gazed at the Washington Monument while calculations tumbled through his mind. The monument, he knew, was 55-1/2 feet square at the base and 555 feet high. Its lower 400 feet. Dezendorf calculated, contained enough space to park 648 automobiles.
The businessman knew that a conventional parking lot big enough to handle that many cars would cost a fortune, even if available. Why not a tall narrow building?
Today, on an area measuring only 25 by 72 feet, Dezendorf operates a fully automatic parking garage. In it, robots do all the workâ€” not a hand touches the car as it travels to or from a stall on any of the 18 floors in the building.
The project requires but one attendant. Here’s how it works: The customer leaves his car in an entrance lane. He may lock it if he wishes, as long as he doesn’t set the hand brake. The attendant then presses a button which sends a 22-foot steel dolly on rubber tires under the automobile. The dolly moves along an angle-steel guide, propelled by a three-horsepower electric motor.
When the dolly is directly under the car, another motor swings two metal arms from a horizontal to a vertical position. From either end of the car these arms move toward each other until they press the car’s bumpers.
Pressure against the bumpers starts the motor again, and the dolly rolls the car along the track and onto an elevator. The attendant, noting from green lights on a 72-button control board which stalls are unoccupied, presses a button to instruct the mechanism as to where the car is to be parked. The elevator moves up to the proper floor and the dolly rolls the car into the designated stall. The two clamping arms then drop to a horizontal position and the dolly moves off for its next load. The car remains in the stall because the floor slopes gradually away from the elevator.
The front wheels rest against a concrete barrier.
When the owner calls for his car, the attendant presses the proper button and the dolly rushes off to the desired car, whisks it down on the elevator and delivers it to the owner. The attendant can deliver any car in the building within one minute.
Should the attendant, at any time, push the button controlling an occupied stall, the mechanism cancels his instructions.
One side of each parking stall contains a trough-shaped runway for the car wheels, while the other is a broad slab of concrete. This allows for variations in widths of cars, thus permitting the garage to accommodate any size car from an Austin to a Cadillac.


History of Religions of Western Origin
In 1539, Cardinal Jacopo Sadoleto, Bishop of Carpentras, addressed a letter to the magistrates and citizens of Geneva, asking them to return to the Roman Catholic faith. John Calvin replied to Sadoleto, defending the adoption of the Protestant reforms. Sadoleto’s letter and Calvin’s reply constitute one of the most interesting exchanges of Roman Catholic/Protestant views during the Reformationand an excellent introduction to the great religious controversy of the sixteenth century.
These statements are not in vacuo of a Roman Catholic and Protestant position. They were drafted in the midst of the religious conflict that was then dividing Europe. And they reflect too the temperaments and personal histories of the men who wrote them. Sadoleto’s letter has an irenic approach, an emphasis on the unity and peace of the Church, highly characteristic of the Christian Humanism he represented. Calvin’s reply is in part a personal defense, an apologia pro vita sua, that records his own religious experience. And its taut, comprehensive argument is characteristic of the disciplined and logical mind of the author of The Institutes of the Christian Religion.
Olin, John C., "A Reformation Debate: John Calvin & Jacopo Sadoleto" (2000). Religion. 2.


Boleslaw Szymanski and Gyorgy Korniss of the NeST Center are members of SocialCube $4M grant funded by the new DARPA Social Sim program
In the News
Comet may have struck Earth just 10 million years after dinosaur extinctionSeptember 30, 2016 -
Some 56 million years ago, carbon surged into Earth's atmosphere, raising temperatures by 5°C to 8°C and causing huge wildlife migrations—a scenario that might mirror the world's future, thanks to global warming. But what triggered this so-called Paleocene-Eocene thermal maximum (PETM) has remained a mystery.
Glass bits, charcoal hint at 56-million-year-old space rock impactSeptember 30, 2016 -
A period of skyrocketing global temperatures started with a bang, new research suggests.
Too little is known about the newfound impact to guess its origin, size or effect on the global climate, said geochemist Morgan Schaller of Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in Troy, N.Y. But it fits in with the long-standing and controversial proposal that a comet impact caused the PETM. “The timing is nothing short of remarkable,” said Schaller, who presented the discovery September 27 at the Geological Society of America’s annual meeting.
Heidi Newberg, RPI – The Size of the GalaxyJuly 15, 2016 -
This universe of ours is pretty big, and it might be bigger than we think.
Heidi Newberg, astronomer and physicist at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, is studying the size of the galaxy.
Dr. Heidi Newberg has worked in many areas of astronomy over the course of her career. She did her Ph.D. with the Berkeley Automated Supernova Search, which measured the supernova rates as a function of supernova type in Virgo-distance galaxies; and the Supernova Cosmology Project (SCP), which is measured the cosmological parameters Omega and Lambda using the light curves of distant supernovae. She shared the Gruber Cosmology Prize for her work with SCP.
Scientists Explore Properties Of Wonder Material PhosphoreneMay 19, 2016 -
In a collaborative and multidisciplinary study, scientists develop methods to explore phosphorene and its properties. Phosphorene, discovered in 2014, is related to the two-dimensional graphene and has been established to have numerous photonic applications. The majority of these properties, however, is its capacity for anisotropic electron conduction. This means that its electron conduction property changes depending on the crystal orientation.
Top 100 Science Stories of 2015 - #59 A Wider, Groovier Milky Way GalaxyJanuary 8, 2016 -
The starry disk that is our galaxy may extend at least 50 percent farther from its apparent edge than we thought. Instead of being flat, the Milky Way appears grooved like a vinyl record, upping its width to at least 150,000 light-years, researchers now say.
Ripples in the Milky WayMarch 16, 2015 -
When you think of our Milky Way Galaxy, you might imagine a smooth disk with spiral arms embedded in it, like swirls in a peppermint. But a second look at observations from the Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS) suggests that our galaxy’s disk is actually corrugated.
The Milky Way May Be 50 Percent Bigger Than ThoughtMarch 11, 2015 -
A ring-like filament of stars wrapping around the Milky Way may actually belong to the galaxy itself, rippling above and below the relatively flat galactic plane. If so, that would expand the size of the known galaxy by 50 percent and raise intriguing questions about what caused the waves of stars.
UCSB professor who helped create blue LEDs shares Nobel PrizeOctober 8, 2014 -
While other researchers abandoned gallium nitride and tried less persnickety materials, the Japanese researchers pressed on. “They felt like the oddballs, talking about something nobody else was working on, so they were really out on their own there,” said Christian Wetzel, a physicist at the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in Troy, N.Y. “It took some character to not do what others were doing but keep [going] despite all the frustration.”
How Blue LEDs Changed the WorldOctober 8, 2014 -
Blue LEDs, in combination with red and green LEDs (which had been discovered previously), make it possible to produce white light. This kind of lighting is much more energy efficient and has a longer life span than conventional incandescent lights, said Christian Wetzel, a physicist at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in Troy, New York ... Car lighting is another application where LEDs are making inroads. LEDs used to be used only for daytime running lights, but now many new cars have LED headlights for nighttime use, Wetzel said.
HPC Speeds Desalination EffortMay 8, 2014 -
According to new research from Oak Ridge National Laboratory and Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, a hybrid material, called graphene oxide frameworks, or GOFs, could provide a big advantage over the inefficient desalination processes currently in use.
Water is trying to avoid being in contact with graphene, so you can design it in such a way that you’re forcing the water not to be close to one layer but also not to be close to the other,” Meunier said. “This effect creates channels, which direct water through the system very quickly.”"
RPI fraternity to make neighborhood grantsApril 2, 2014 -
A $50,000 micro-grant program sponsored by Phi Sigma Kappa fraternity that is intended to improve the quality of life in the Mount Ida neighborhood will be launched on Wednesday. The fraternity, whose members attend Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute will hand out grants of up to $1,000 to homeowners, landlords, nonprofit groups and business owners in the community. The fraternity will award 50 grants over a five-year period.
High Schoolers break out the robots for battleMarch 19, 2014 -
It's all about robotics today at RPI. Thirty eight High School teams are showing off their creations in the Tech Valley Regional Competition. It's the first time this regional event has been held in the Albany area. Photojournalist Rich Frederick takes a look.
Troy Record: High school students gather at RPI for annual robotics competitionMarch 19, 2014 -
More than 1,000 high school students, along with hundreds of teachers, college and professional mentors, parents, and 3,000 pounds of metal, gears, and electronics will converge at the East Campus Athletic Village at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institue in Troy, N.Y., for two days of compeition today and Saturday.
Western Pa. students prepare for robotics competitionsMarch 19, 2014 -
Area high school students will take robots this weekend to Troy, N.Y., and Youngwood.
While McKeesport Area students pack for Troy and the first of two FIRST (For Inspiration and Recognition of Science and Technology) regional tests, others are headed for competition at Westmoreland County Community College.
Bernard Harris Summer Science Camp at RensselaerJanuary 15, 2014 -
Part of The Best Of Our Knowledge's series on astrobiology, this piece visits the the sixth annual Exxon-Mobile Bernard Harris Summer Science Camp at Rensselaer. The story features commentary from physics professor Wayne Roberge.
Proved: Why LED efficiency drops at high currentSeptember 9, 2013 -Researchers at the US Rensselaer Polytechnic have proven a link between LED efficiency drop at high current and carrier mobility. Better lighting LEDs could result. “Efficiency droop, first reported in 1999, has been a key obstacle in the development of LED lighting for situations, like household lighting, that call for economical sources of versatile and bright light,” said the university.


Teenagers' texting, tweeting and posting on Facebook hasn't improved their writing, even when students have laptops with a spell-checking program.
Nearly three-quarters of the eighth- and 12th-graders failed to achieve proficiency on a national writing test, according to a U.S. government report released Friday. For the first time, the exam let students use a computer.
Most students' writing "falls far short of the well- organized, well-developed prose that connects with those they are trying to reach," Susan Pimentel, a member of the U.S. Education Department board overseeing the test, said in a statement. That performance will hurt them in college, damaging their career prospects.
The 2011 test, known as the Nation's Report Card, adds to concern about American schoolchildren's knowledge of math and science relative to other countries, particularly China, Japan and other economic rivals.
The new version of the test, officially called the National Assessment of Educational Progress, offered students the tools of modern writing: a laptop with a word-processing program, including spell-checking, cutting and pasting and other editing functions, as well as a thesaurus.
To read this article in one of Houston's most-spoken languages, click on the button below.
More than 24,000 eighth-graders and 28,000 12th-graders took the exam. On the writing exam, 24 percent of students were considered proficient in writing and 3 percent, advanced.
On the latest report card, students who wrote more often at home did better on the test. So did those who made use of computerized tools during the exam to revise their work or find words on the thesaurus. By contrast, those who relied heavily on spell check scored lower.
© 2017 Hearst Newspapers, LLC.


Smart meters are a potential replacement for your electricity and gas meters. They can establish two-way communication with the power supplier by reporting the energy consumption daily (or in any other time interval). They can collect electricity consumption reading frequently, say every 1 hour, store it internally then transmit it once a day to save bandwidth. There can be various ways of transmitting the collected data like GPRS network, Wi-FI, wireless mesh networks and so on.
How Do Smart Meters Work?
Smart Meters connect to your wi-fi network or establish a connection with the supplier through a power line carrier (PLC). They log your electricity consumption on the fixed time intervals and either immediately transmit the logged data to the power company or aggregate data and transmit it once a day to save bandwidth. In case your meter sends out data on the set time intervals, say every 30 minutes, you will have a near real-time access to your data through either the supplier's website or a local connection. if your electricity goes down a smart meter immediately notifies the grid company enabling a faster response time for fixing the issue.
Advantages of Electric Smart Meter
Advantages of having smart meters installed in your house may be that no electricity or gas supplier employee will bother you asking to see the meter readings - they are transmitted without human intervention. Besides you can have your usage data available to you digitally. This will make it possible for you to analyze energy or gas usage patterns and reveal how you can save on utility bills. Energy supplier can also help you make informant decisions for saving energy by enabling you to compare your energy usage for some period, say 2 months, to the same period a year ago. Smart meters can also account for net metering. That is if you have your own solar panels generating electricity you don't have to measure the solar power output separately, just connect it to the same meter and if it produces more energy than the house consumes you may be credited or otherwise compensated by your grid company.
As reported by the British "The Telegraph" grid companies may use the data from smart meters to introduce new tariffs that may fluctuate hourly or even every half an hour. This means the peak hour electricity usage in the mornings and in the evenings will be charged the highest rate to encourage even distribution of energy demand. The hope is that smart meters coupled with smart home gadgets can achieve more efficient energy consumption habits. Besides, as EV (electric vehicle) market is expected to grow in the future, the regulators hope that grid companies will meet the new increase in electricity demand introduced by EVs without costly reinforcements to the existing grid infrastructures.


By Nick Huxsted – Arrowfile …….
One of the largest ever UK discoveries of Anglo Saxon coins has been unearthed by a metal detector enthusiast in a field in Buckinghamshire. Paul Coleman is a member of the Weekend Wanderers Detecting Club and was out with his club and son when he made the discovery on the 21st Dec 2014.
The coins were found buried beneath two feet of dirt in a farmers field in Aylesbury. Uncovered in a lead box the coins are in a remarkable condition. A local archeologist suggested that it looks as if only two people has ever touched them, the person who made them and the person who buried the. They have no scratches and have been remarkably well preserved.
Initial estimates are that each coin could fetch around £250, giving the total value of the collection at around £1.3m.
Local experts have suggested that the coins may have been buried after the Battle of Hastings to protect them from Norman Invaders. The excellent condition of the coins could also be due to their close proximity to the historic Buckingham Mint, only a days walk away from the find.
Currently being examined by the British Museum who may eventually purchase the coin, any deal in accordance with British law will split the proceeds 50-50 between the finder and the landowner.
So far only half of the coins have been cleaned but the initial signs are that many of the coins contain the head of King Ethelred the Unready (978-1016).
Given the nickname ‘Un-raed’ or ‘Unready’ (meaning ‘no counsel’, or that he was unwise), Ethelred failed to win or retain the allegiance of many of his subjects.
In 1013, Ethelred fled to Normandy when the powerful Viking Sweyn of Denmark dispossessed him. Ethelred returned to rule after Sweyn’s death in 1014, but died in 1016.
The coins reflect a remarkable period of English history when the Vikings were invading the country. A time that pioneered the mass production of the solid silver currency.
Silver had replaced Roman gold and early Anglo Saxon copper in the 8th century, and by the time Ethelred took the throne England had more than 70 mints including in London, Winchester, Lincoln, York and of course Buckingham, near the recent discovery.
The early ‘pennies’ weighed around one and a half grams each and were struck with a die at royal mints by skilled workmen who could stamp more than 2,000 blanks a day.
This post was written by Arrowfile. A collectable storage specialist helping coin collectors look after and protect their valuable collections.


24 January 2018
Mathematicians have devised a way of calculating the size of a tsunami and its destructive force well in advance of it making landfall by measuring fast-moving underwater sound waves, opening up the possibility of a real-time early warning system.
The sound waves, known as acoustic gravity waves (AGWs), are naturally occurring and can be generated in the deep ocean after tsunami trigger events, such as underwater earthquakes.
They can travel over 10 times faster than tsunamis and spread out in all directions, regardless of the trajectory of the tsunami, making them easy to pick up using standard underwater hydrophones and an ideal source of information for early warning systems.
In a new study published in the Journal of Fluid Mechanics, scientists from Cardiff University have shown how the key characteristics of an earthquake, such as its location, duration, dimensions, orientation, and speed, can be determined when AGWs are detected by just a single hydrophone in the ocean.
More importantly, once the fault characteristics are found, calculating the tsunami amplitude and potential destructive force becomes more trivial, the researchers state.
Lead author of the study Dr Usama Kadri, from Cardiff University’s School of Mathematics, said: “By taking measurements of acoustic gravity waves, we basically have everything we need to set off a tsunami alarm.”
Underwater earthquakes are triggered by the movement of tectonic plates on the ocean floor and are the main cause of tsunamis.
Tsunamis are currently detected via dart buoys – floating devices that are able to measure pressure changes in the ocean caused by tsunamis. However, the technology relies on a tsunami physically reaching the dart buoys, which could be problematic if the buoys are close to the shoreline.
The current technology also requires the distribution of a huge number of buoys in oceans all around the world, which is very costly.
“Though we can currently measure earthquakes using seismic sensors, these do not tell us if tsunamis are likely to follow,” Dr Kadri continued.
“Using sound signals in the water, we can identify the characteristics of the earthquakes fault, from which we can then calculate the characteristics of a tsunami. Since our solution is analytical, everything can be calculated in near real-time.
“Our aim is to be able to set off a tsunami alarm within a few minutes from recording the sound signals in a hydrophone station.”
AGWs are naturally occurring sounds waves that move through the deep ocean at the speed of sound and can travel thousands of metres below the surface.
AGWs can measure tens or even hundreds of kilometres in length and it is thought that certain lifeforms such as plankton, that are unable to swim against a current, rely on the waves to aid their movement, enhancing their ability to find food.


It is around 16 to 20 cm in length, with a slightly longer tail, and weighs between 90 and 150 grams. The fur is generally pearl grey, with black and cream patches at the base of the pink ears. The tail tapers only moderately and the last quarter of it is black, often with a white tip. The muzzle is short and rounded. Northern forms tend to be brown coloured rather than grey and, as predicted by Bergman's rule[?], smaller.
The most noticeable features of its anatomy, however, are the twin skin membranes which extend from the fifth finger of the forelimb back to the first toe of the hind foot. These are inconspicuous when the Sugar Glider is at rest—it merely looks a little flabby, as though it had lost a lot of weight recently—but immediately obvious when it takes flight. The membranes are used to glide between trees: when fully extended they form an aerodynamic surface the size of a large handkerchief.
Sugar Gliders can occupy any area where there are tree hollows for shelter and sufficient food. Their diet varies considerably with both geography and the changing seasons, but the main items are the sap of acacias and certain eucalupts, nectar, pollen, and arthropods[?]. They are difficult to see in the wild, being small, wary, and nocturnal, but a sure sign of their presence is the stripping of bark and tooth marks left in the soft, green shoots of acacia trees.
The gliding membranes are primarily used as an efficient way to get to food resources. They may also, as a secondary function, help the Sugar Glider escape predators like goannas[?], introduced foxes[?] and cats[?], and the marsupial carnivores that foxes, cats, and Dingos largely supplanted. The ability to glide from tree to tree is clearly of little value with regard to the Sugar Glider's avian predators, however, in particular owls and kookaburras.
Although their aerial adaptation looks rather clumsy and primitive by comparison with the highly specialised limbs of birds and bats, Sugar Gliders can volplane for a surprisingly long distance—flights have been measured at over 50 metres—and steer effectively by curving one or other of the gliding membranes. They use their hind legs to thrust powerfully away from a tree, and when about 3 metres from the destination tree trunk, bring their hindlegs up close to the body and swoop upwards to make contact with all four limbs together.
In suitable habitats, they are common, often reaching densities of 10 per hectare provided that there are tree hollows available for shelter. They live in groups of up to 7 adults, plus the current season's young, all sharing a nest and defending their territory. Adult males mark the territory with saliva and with scent glands, and also mark members of the group with the scent produced by separate glands on the forehead and chest. Visitors which lack the appropriate scent marking are expelled violently. The dominant male mates more frequently with the female of the group than the other males, and does most of the scent marking. When an adult member of the group dies, it is normally replaced: by one of the group's own offspring if female, but by an outsider if male.
In the more temperate south, breeding starts in mid-winter (June or July). In the north, there seems to be no particular breeding season. Two young per female is typical; they remain in the pouch for about 70 days, and after leaving it stay inside the nest for another 40 or 50 days, then begin to forage outside, usually under the care of the mother. The young are normally ejected from the group territory at 7 to 10 months of age. Sometimes they form new groups if an area is vacant, but competition for territory is fierce and not many survive the first months of independent life.
Unlike many native animals, particularly smaller ones, Sugar Gliders are not endangered. Despite the massive loss of natural habitat in Australia over the last 200 years, they are adaptable and capable of living in surprisingly small patches of remnant bush, particularly if they do not have to cross large expanses of clear-felled land to reach them. Several close relatives, however, are endangered, particularly Leadbeater's Possum and the Mahogany Glider[?] (which, to the non-expert, looks almost exactly like a Sugar Glider).
Like all native creatures they protected by law in Australia. It is illegal to keep them as pets, and to capture or sell them without a licence (which is usually only issued for bona-fide research). However, they are not difficult to breed in captivity under the right conditions, and small numbers have been legally exported to America where they have formed a breeding population for sale as pets. The Sugar Glider is a popular pet because of its sweet, lively, inquisitive nature, but is illegal in certain jurisdictions, such as California.


Neon green spiders are a type of arachnid that can be magnificent to behold. These spiders are a common sight around the world, found in many different environments. But very few people tend to know about them. Let us learn about what is the strange neon spider.
What is this strange neon green spider?
Neon green spiders are species of spiders that have adapted to blend in with their surroundings. This helps them avoid being preyed upon by other animals. They can be found in a variety of habitats, including forests, meadows, and gardens.
The green spider is a dangerous predator that feeds on other insects and small animals. It has venom that can paralyze its prey, and it hunts at night.
Are Neon-Green Spiders Poisonous?
There are various types of neon green spiders, some of which are venomous. However, bites from the neon green lynx spider species are typically not dangerous for humans.
On the other hand, huntsman spiders and cucumber spiders which are also neon green spiders, can be painful and cause swelling.
Where Do Neon Green Spiders Live?
Neon-green spiders are found in the United States, Mexico, most of Central America, Venezuela, and the West Indies. They can be identified by their bright neon green coloring, and they tend to live in trees or other high-up places.
In addition to their neon green coloring, another distinguishing feature of these spiders is that they like to live in warm and humid climates. They can be found on green shrubs and tall grasses, as well as wildflowers.
Neon-green huntsman spiders, while native to Europe, are also found in North America. These spiders are generally found in warm climates and can thrive both indoors and outdoors.
The neon green spiders that have been generating so much buzz lately are cucumber spiders. These spiders are indigenous to northern Europe but can be found all around the world.
They are typically not harmful to humans, and their bright coloration is meant to warn predators of their toxicity.
What to do If You Find a Neon Green Spider?
The neon green spider is a harmless creature that is often found in gardens and fields. While they are not aggressive, it is important to be aware of their potential predators, which include birds, wasps, and other spiders.
In the event that you find a neon green spider, it is best to remove it from the area and relocate it to a dense shrub or tall plant. By doing so, you will protect yourself from potential bites and also prevent the spider from invading your space again.
Some interesting facts about the Neon Green Spider
It Can Adjust Its Camouflage
Most of the neon green spider species of that can change their color to blend in with their surroundings.
This allows them to avoid being seen by predators or prey. They are found in a variety of habitats, including forests, meadows, and urban areas.
The spiders can take a while to adjust their camouflage depending on the surrounding environment.
It’s a Spider Who Jumps, but Not a Jumping Spider
The neon green spider is a unique and interesting creature. It is not your average spider, as it does not jump like a jumping spider but instead darts and hops nimbly through vegetation.
While it technically isn’t a jumping spider, they belong to the family Salticidae; while lynx spiders are in Oxyopidae, it leaps around with a precision exceeded only by true jumping spiders.
It Lays Bright Green Eggs
The female neon green spider is the one who lays eggs. They are a bright neon green color and can be found in many parts of the world. These spiders are not considered dangerous to humans, but they should be left alone if encountered.
The eggs of the green spider hatch after about two weeks, and the baby spiders at birth are bright oranges. They will stay in this color until they molt for the first time, after which they will be green.
This neon green spider is a young spider that has recently hatched from its egg sac. It will stay in the sac for a while before molting into a more capable spiderling. The mother will often cover them with her web to protect them.
When the eggs of these pests are nearly ready to hatch, the mother helps them emerge by ripping open the egg sac.
It Can Spit Venom Nearly 8 Inches
Spitting venom is a defensive behavior that is exhibited by female spiders. This usually happens when the spider feels threatened and can shoot venom up to 8 inches away. The venom is used to incapacitate their prey or to deter predators.
Female spiders are the only ones that have been observed to spit venom, and they use it for self-defense as well as to capture prey.
It Isn’t Dangerous to Humans.
The neon green spiders, such as the green lynx spiders, are not dangerous to humans. In fact, they are usually quite timid and will only spit venom when provoked. They can be distinguished from other types of spiders by their bright green coloring and large size.
The venom is bitter, cool, and rarely causes any serious effects.
Hopefully, now you are well aware of what the neon green spiders are and the fact that they are not really dangerous for humans. Nonetheless, the next time you see one, maintain your distance.
Is a garden spider bite painful?
Mild symptoms like pain and swelling are what most individuals with spider bites experience. With at-home care, these symptoms eventually go away. Most individuals recover from deadly spider bites with the help of competent medical treatment.
What is a neon green spider called?
Neon-green lynx spiders, such as Peucetia viridans, are often found on plants with greenery. It belongs to the family Oxyopidae and is the biggest species in North America. This spider may be found in abundance in several West Indian islands, Mexico, and the southern United States.
Do green garden spiders bite?
Garden spiders are typically not aggressive and are not known to bite people. Garden spiders, on the other hand, will bite if they are startled while weaving their webs or if they sense danger.
Does a garden spider bite hurt?
Although they have vast webs and are big in adult females, garden spiders are not violent and only strike when startled or touched. Garden spiders usually try to leave rather than attack an intruder, and their bites are normally less severe than bee stings.


Anatomy of the Spine
The spine is a combination of stacked bones, called vertebrae, flexible tendons and ligaments. The vertebrae are in a column divided into four regions: cervical, thoracic, lumbar and sacral/coccyx. The spinal cord runs through the column of bones and nerve roots that are critical to the transmission of messages to and from the brain.
Our spinal system is strong enough to protect the sensitive nerve roots, while at the same time it allows us the flexibility to accomplish all the movements of daily life like walking, twisting, bending and lifting. Between the vertebrae are discs, which are spongy pads of cartilage that act like shock absorbers. Each disc, along with the vertebrae immediately above and below, form what is called the spinal motion unit.
Unfortunately between 80 to 90 percent of the population has back or spinal pain at some point in their lives. A spinal motion unit that moves improperly or is overly strained can irritate nerves, interfere with muscle tension and result in pain. This nerve interference is called subluxation. Parts of the body serviced by affected nerves, including blood vessels, internal organs and limbs, may not function optimally because of subluxation.
Trauma, lifting injuries or other unknown causes can create a spinal disc herniation, which is sometimes referred to as a "slipped" or "bulging" disc. When you have ongoing back pain, early diagnosis and care is important to avoid permanent damage.
Taking Care of Your Spinal Health
There are many ways to help take care of your spinal health including practicing correct lifting/carrying techniques, mindfully paying attention to your posture, sleeping with a pillow under your knees, quitting smoking, making sure your diet is nutritious and getting enough exercise.
Back pain is one of the most common reasons for healthcare and chiropractic visits but it doesn't have to be part of your daily life. Many back ailments respond well to conservative treatment, and research and studies have demonstrated successful treatment of back pain and injuries through chiropractic adjustments and care. With chiropractic care, gentle adjustments to any misaligned vertebrae may restore normal movement within the spine, decrease irritation of nerves and reduce pain.
A healthy spine is key to your overall well-being. With a normally functioning spine and healthy nervous system, the body is better able to heal itself. Trauma, lifestyle, age and injury can render the spine vulnerable, but chiropractic care can help alleviate discomfort and assist you along the road to improved overall wellness.
Chiro One's Tips to Prevent Back Pain
- Maintain a healthy diet and weight
- Quit smoking to ensure that maximum oxygen and nutrient amounts reach spinal tissues
- Make sure ongoing chiropractic care is part of your wellness lifestyle
- Be active, avoid leading a sedentary lifestyle
- Maintain proper posture
- Wear properly fitted shoes with customized orthotics
- Warm up and stretch before all physical activities, including chores like yard work
- Lift with your knees, with objects close to your body
- Avoid twisting when lifting
- Talk to your chiropractor about creating an ergonomically correct workstation
Read on to learn more:
Back Pain Facts & Statistics, American Chiropractic Association, accessed 2015
Chiropractic Care for Back Pain, National Institutes of Health/U.S. National Library of Medicine, 2013
The Effectiveness and Cost-Effectiveness of Chiropractic Management of Low Back-Pain, Ontario Ministry of Health, 1993
United Kingdom back pain exercise and manipulation (UK BEAM) randomised trial: cost effectiveness of physical treatments for back pain in primary care (Abstract), British Medical Journal (BMJ), 2004
Acute Low Back Problems in Adults, Clinical Practice Guideline, Agency on Health Research and Quality (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services), 2003
Randomised clinical trial of manipulative therapy and physiotherapy for persistent back and neck complaints: results of one year follow up (Abstract), British Medical Journal (BMJ), 1992


In Europe, the engineer degree is ranked at the same academic level as a bachelor's degree or master's degree, and is often known literally as an "engineer diploma" (abbreviated Dipl.-Ing. or DI). In some countries of Latin America and the United States, the engineer's degree can be studied after the completion of a master's degree and is usually considered higher than the master's degree but below the doctorate in engineering (abbreviated Dr.-Ing.) in Europe. In other countries of Latin America, there is no proper engineer's degree, but the title of Engineer is used for 5 year bachelor's graduates.
Through the Canadian Engineering Accreditation Board (CEAB), Engineers Canada accredits Canadian undergraduate engineering programs that meet the standards of the profession. Graduates of those programs are deemed by the profession to have the required academic qualifications to be licensed as professional engineers in Canada.
In Canada, A CEAB-accredited degree is the minimum academic requirement for registration as a P.Eng (professional engineer) anywhere in Canada, and the standard against which all other engineering academic qualifications are measured.
Europe, prior to the Bologna Process
In most countries of continental Europe, universities specializing in technical fields have traditionally awarded their students an engineer's degree lasting 5 years. This degree was typically the first university-awarded degree after finishing secondary education, and completing it granted qualifications to further pursue a doctorate.
Following German custom in higher education, the engineer's degree is called Diplom. In addition to Germany itself, this system was common in states like Austria, Belarus, Belgium, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Czech Republic, Finland, Greece, Hungary, Montenegro, the Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Russia, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, R. Macedonia and Ukraine.
Germany and Austria
In German, the traditional engineer's degree is called Diplom-Ingenieur (Dipl.-Ing., in Austria also DI) . This degree is generally equivalent to a Master's degree, which is not to be confused with the old Magister degree. Most programs that used to lead to a Dipl.-Ing. degree lead to master's degrees today, as the Diplom-Ingenieur as an academical title is phased out because of the Bologna process. However, some universities continue to hand out so-called equivalence certificates that certify the equivalence of a Dipl.-Ing. with the newly introduced M.Sc. Degrees.
The German "Universities of Applied Sciences" (Fachhochschule) awarded the traditional engineering degree Diplom-Ingenieur (FH) (Dipl.-Ing. (FH)). This degree also required to write a Diplom thesis. This is also being modified by the Bologna process, as bachelor's and master's degrees from a University of Applied Sciences are equal to the degrees from a traditional university. Universities of Applied Sciences are phased out and they are changed to universities with own faculties and research institutes. These universities are strongly focused on fields like computer science, engineering or business schools. Subjects like Law or Human Medicine etc. which requires a Staatsexamen (state exam) can only be studied at traditional universities. Since 2009, most Universities in Germany offer bachelor's degree programmes (B.Sc., B.Eng. M.Sc., M.Eng, M.C.A. and others) and Master programmes that lead to the academic degree Master of Science, Master of Engineering, Master of Business Administration and others.
In Austria there also exists the Ingenieur (respectively Ing.) . This is not an academic degree as it is given to graduates of a so-called HTL (Hoehere Technische Lehranstalt) which is a High School with a very technical background. Graduates of these schools are allowed to start their studies at universities.
In Turkey typical length of study for bachelor's degree at any engineering program is 4 years. Owner of a valided degree which given by faculty titled with engineering at Turkish universities, can be called Mühendis, meaning "geometrist, one who knows geometry and calculation". The "Mühendis" title is limited by law to people with a valid engineering degree, and the use of the title by others. (even persons with much more work experience) is illegal. (Law No: 3458 Law about Engineers and Architects 28.06.1938 Publish no:3945) If a person get master's degree at same title with previous engineering degree can called as "Yüksek Mühendis" (meaning Higher Engineer)
In Finnish, the engineer's degree is called diplomi-insinööri and abbreviated dipl.ins., DI or M.Sc.(Tech.). It is possible to obtain after 5 years of studying, or even faster, but the average is around six years. Under the Bologna process, this is split into two parts, the first being one where the students can get the intermediate tekniikan kandidaatti (B.Sc.(Tech.)) degree.
The degree of insinööri (AMK) is a bachelor's degree from a Finnish University of Applied Sciences (ammattikorkeakoulu), similar to a German Fachhochschule, but it is not interchangeable with the academic tekniikan kandidaatti.
Due to the Bologna process, a new master's degree called insinööri (ylempi AMK) or "engineer (higher amk)" has been introduced. It carries a requirement of two years of work experience after the degree of insinööri (AMK) and then some studies.
Poland, Czech Republic and Slovakia
In the western Slavic-speaking countries, the engineer's degree is called inżynier (Polish), inžinier (Slovak) or inženýr (Czech), and the abbreviation is inż. in Poland, and Ing. in the Czech Republic and Slovakia, which may be written before the person's name.
In the Czech Republic and Slovakia, the degree of Ing. is given for complete university studies in technical (like engineering), economical or agricultural fields. In one of these cases it can be equivalent to a Master of Science in Engineering.
In Poland, the degree of inżynier is available after 3, 3.5 or 4 years of studies (like the licencjat in non-engineering science) after a final thesis is completed. A magister inżynier (abbreviated mgr inż.) refers to a Master of Science in Engineering, after completing 5 years of study and a written thesis. Originally there were "inżynier" studies that lasted for 4 years, and after that degree one could obtain the "magister" title in 2 years of studies - the total of 6 years resulted in two degrees, "magister" and "inżynier". In the early 1960s a new track of studies was developed to speed up education and the "magister inżynier" 5-year track was created. Whichever way one obtained the education the "magister inżynier" (mgr inż. before the name) was the equivalent degree with "inżynier" designating the professional level and "magister" designating the academic level. After the Bologna process the first level is "inżynier," obtainable after nominally 3 years of studies (although some are longer) with the same professional privileges as before, and "masters" after 1 or 2 years gives the same academic and professional designation as before. But the ultimate shortening of the period of studies resulted in some professional groups (e.g. architects) demanding that "magister inżynier" be made a basis for professional rights.
In Belgium, there are three types of engineering degrees :
- "Burgerlijk Ingenieur" /"Ingénieur civil" or "Master of Science in Engineering" (abbrev. "ir.") - 5 years study (3 BSc. + 2 MSc.)
- "Bio-ingenieur"/ "Bioingénieur" or "Master of Science in Bioscience Engineering" (abbrev. "ir.") - 5 years study (3 BSc. + 2 MSc.)
- "Industrieel Ingenieur" or "Master of Science in Engineering Technology" (abbrev. "Ing.") - 5 years study in the Walloon region (3 BSc. + 2 MSc.) 4 years of study in Flanders ( 3 BSc. + MSc.).
Names are traditionally prefixed with the ir. and/ or Ing. titles, although this practice is not as widespread as in The Netherlands. Use of these titles are regulated and protected by law. Belgium is particularly noteworthy as having a system under which demands made on students of engineering are particularly severe.
In Portugal, Engineer (Portuguese: engenheiro, feminine: engenheira, abrev.: eng.) is a professional degree reserved for the effective members of the Portuguese Institution of the Engineers (OE, Ordem dos Engenheiros) & Portuguese Institution of Technical Engineers (OET, Ordem dos Engenheiros Técnicos). There is not an academic degree of engenheiro, despite the title being used informally to refer to anyone who has a degree in engineering, even not member of the OE or OET.
Until the Bologna Process, having a licenciado (5 years) degree in engineering was a previous condition to be able to be admitted to the OE. Presently, admission to the OE requires a post-Bologna licenciado (3 years) degree or a mestre (5 years) master in engineering. OE members holders of a post-Bologna licenciado degree are now classified as E1 grade engineers, while holders of a pre-Bologna licenciado or a mestre are classified as E2 grade engineers.
In Greece, the title of "Engineer" is awarded by two parallel and complementary parts of public higher education.
The title "Diplomate Engineer" is awarded after completion of the five-year engineering study course (300 ECTS, ISCED 5A) at a University or a Technical University. Although some institutions issue certificates of equivalence to a master's degree, these are not officially recognized by the Greek legislation.
The title of "Certified Engineer" is awarded after completion of the four-year course of engineering studies, equivalent to Honours bachelor's degree (240 ECTS, ISCED 5A),at a Technological Educational Institute - T.E.I.
In the Netherlands, somebody holding an engineer's degree is an ingenieur. There are two types of engineers with different abbreviations:
- Ir. is obtained by university graduates (Wetenschappelijk onderwijs or WO). It is the highest engineer qualification. - 5 years study (3 B.Sc. + 2 M.Sc.)
- Ing. is obtained by graduates from polytechnics (hoger beroeps onderwijs or HBO). - 3 or 4 years study depending on previous education (3 B.Eng.)
Names are traditionally prefixed with the ir. and/ or ing. titles. Use of these titles are regulated and protected by Dutch law. Under the Bologna agreement the titles are increasingly interchanged with the English-language degrees (B.Sc, BBE, M.Sc, etc.).
The highest engineer qualification in the UK and Ireland is the Chartered Engineer (C.Eng) which is a minimum of 8 years but usually a 12-year education, training and professional practice process. Chartered Engineer is a terminal qualification. The academic qualification which is minimum for gaining chartership in engineering is the Master of Engineering (MEng) or BEng plus MSc or MA in addition to 4–6 years peer reviewed professional practice. In England, Northern Ireland and Wales this is a four-year course or a 'sandwich' five-year course (with one year spent working in industry). In Scotland, it is a five-year course. The Bachelor of Engineering (BEng) is usually a three-year course (four in Scotland), or can also include a year in industry. Many universities offer the BEng, and may then allow a transfer onto the MEng.
The City and Guilds of London Institute have established a recognized route to higher engineering qualifications with the Institution of Engineering and Technology (IET), the Institution of Mechanical Engineers (IMechE) and The Institution of Civil Engineers (ICE). CGLI has align the Graduate Diploma (level 6) and Postgraduate Diploma (level 7) with the registration requirements for Incorporated Engineer and Chartered Engineer status. The Graduate Diploma is set at the same level as the final year of a British BEng and its Postgraduate Diploma is set at the same level as the final year of a British MEng. UK Professional institutions have delegated authority from the engineering council to approve university degrees and also award the Chartered Engineer qualification in a specific discipline. So for example IMechE awards C.Eng,MIMechE, ICE awards CEng,MICE, and IET awards CEng,MIET.
Engineers who have been awarded a BEng(Ordinary) or BEng(Honours) and have appropriate training and experience in the work place are able to apply to become an Incorporated Engineer (IEng), if the qualification has been accepted for this classification, by the engineering council. If an engineer has studied beyond the BEng for an MSc or has an MEng, they may apply to become a Chartered Engineer (CEng), once they have completed the required amount of post graduate work-based competency training and experience. Competency and training requirements are met over a period of 4–8 years in practice for a total of 8–12 years education, training and professional responsibility. Formal structured post graduate training schemes such as the monitored professional development programme administered by IMechE enables the Engineer in training to satisfy the requirements for Chartered Engineer faster.
Chartered Engineer and Incorporated Engineer titles awarded by the Engineering Council UK, are similar but not equivalent to North American Professional Engineer (PEng / PE) and Professional Technologist (PTech) designations, but with often a far greater geographical recognition. The UK and North American system of regulating engineering professional qualifications is very different and not equivalent. In the USA and Canada engineering is a regulated profession in terms of practice and enforced by law and licensing. It is more than the regulation of engineering titles - like the UK. This means that many UK chartered Engineers who are grandfathered to the title or are non degrees holders (HNC/HND) will be unable to be recognized formally as professional engineers in Canada and the USA. There is strict interpretation of qualifications and education because there are legal implications. There is no back door entry or experiential exemption from the formal academic requirements. This is simply because of the legal legislation on practice. This engineering governance legal framework does not exist in the UK.
MIET-Member of the Institution of Engineering and Technology is recognised as regulated engineering profession by virtue of the Statutory Instruments n.2007/2781-The European Communities (Recognition of Professional Qualifications) Regulation 2007-Directive European Union 2005/36/EC. http://ec.europa.eu/internal_market/qualifications/regprof/index.cfm?fuseaction=profession.regProfs&profId=6361&mode=desc&cId=0&quid=3
This meaning retains the 19th century idea that "real" engineers were military personnel, while "other" engineers were civilians.
As of year 2012 in Russia, following degrees correspond to the "engineer's degree" in the sense of this article:
- Инженер - "engineer", which was formerly awarded after 4, 5, 6 years of study, may also contain clarification on the nature of engineering field, such as "mining engineer" or "systems engineer".
- Инженер по специальности - "engineer at specialty" (where specialty's name is mentioned), currently awarded after 5 or 6 years of study, may also contain clarification on the nature of engineering field, such as "engineer-ecologist at specialty "Rational usage of natural resources and protection of the environment"
- Инженер-исследователь по специальности - "engineer-researcher at specialty" (where specialty's name is mentioned), was formerly awarded after 7 years of study
- Бакалавр по направлению - "bachelor at area" (where area's name is mentioned), currently awarded after 4 years of study, and "area" is an engineering area, corresponding to one or more of former "specialties"
- Магистр по направлению - "magister (master) at area" (where area's name is mentioned), currently awarded after 2 years of study to those already having any higher-education degree, and "area" is an engineering area, corresponding to one or more of former "specialties"
Anything but "bachelor" is considered "second-level" higher education and gives access to post-graduate education for "candidate of sciences" degree, "bachelor" is considered "first-level" higher education degree and gives access to study for master's (magister) degree.
Post-graduate scientific degrees in engineering areas include кандидат технических наук - "candidate of technical sciences" and доктор технических наук - "doctor of technical sciences". Sometimes in English translations "...of technical sciences" is exchanged for "...of engineering".
Belarus and Ukraine
France, Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia
In France, Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia the degree is Diplôme d'Ingénieur, while the title is Ingénieur diplômé (ID) but is never used before the holder's name. The degree can be obtained after five years of engineering studies after the Baccalauréat. The degree deliverance is regulated by the Commission des titres d'ingénieur (CTI) independent organism. The CTI mandates the French engineering schools (mainly Grandes Écoles) to deliver the Diplôme d'Ingénieur. This degree is officially considered as a European Master's Degree since the Bologna Process.
After the French/francophone baccalaureat (high school diploma), about 10% of students are accepted in "Classes Préparatoires aux Grandes Écoles" (intensive preparatory classes), where mathematics, physics, technology or biology are taught. National examinations, with restricted acceptances in the engineering schools, are realized after the first two years. Some schools also include a two-year program shaped with continuous assessments and do not require to pass a national examination.
In France, "Ingénieur" is an official academic title that is protected by the government, and has a certain degree of added prestige that is differentiated from the word "engineer" in English-speaking countries. Anyone misusing the title can be fined a large sum and jailed. A common misconception is that the "Ingénieur" title refers to merely a membership of the French executive elite and has no relation to technological skills. This is false; the engineer title in France is reserved for graduates of engineering grandes écoles that reserves a highly intensive scientific training program for the best students in France.
In Italy until 2001 there were two degrees: a three-year diploma in ingegneria (BEng level, title abbrev. "dipl. ing.") and a five-year laurea in ingegneria (MEng level, title abbrev. "ing."). Since 2001 reform, the bachelor's level is called laurea (abbrev. "L") and master's degree level is called laurea specialistica or laurea magistrale (abbrev. "LS"). Accordingly, today after three years of engineering studies, the degree called laurea in ingegneria (BEng level) and the title of dottore in Ingegneria (abbrev. "dott.") can be obtained. After two additional years of engineering studies, the degree called laurea magistrale in ingegneria (MEng level) and the title of dottore magistrale in Ingegneria (abbrev. "dott.") can be obtained. After a "state exam" you become "Ingegnere" (abbrv. Ing)
Romania followed the French system. One needs a baccalaureate diploma to be accepted at the university. The engineering degree was called Diploma de inginer, and the graduate was called a Inginer diplomat. These five years of study are equivalent to a Bologna Master(M.Sc/M.Eng/MCA). The five-year course concludes with a comprehensive set of specialising exams (examen de diploma). Marks 9 and 10 are considered exceptional. Some universities had called Diploma de Sub-inginer which was a 3-year course equivalent with a college degree. Following the Bologna process, the graduates obtain the Inginer licentiat degree, after following a four-year program. In this case the Inginer Master degree is obtained after an additional one- or two-year graduate program.
The situation in Spain is very similar to France but without the grandes écoles and Germany-U.k. in relation to the Technical Engineering Degrees. Long cycle Engineer's degrees (Ingenieros) traditionally used to be (at least nominally) six-year programs but the tendency since the mid-1990s has been to reduce them to five years. The last step to get the degree is the Proyecto de Fin de Carrera (Degree Project), which involves a combination of application development and some research work. Students submit a dissertation that they have to defend. The Spanish official name for the degree is Ingeniero (Engineer), or other degree called Ingeniero Técnico (Technical Engineer), which is a three-four years degree (involving also a Final Degree Project) and is equivalent to a Bachelor of Engineering, the Technical Engineer in Spain has full competencies and legal authority in their field. A distinctive characteristic of Spanish engineering degrees is that the average duration of studies up to graduation is about 40% above the nominal duration and that the drop-out rate is considerable due to stricter examination standards.
Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Macedonia, Montenegro, Serbia and Ex-Yugoslavia
In Croatia, the old system included the engineer's degrees diplomirani inženjer (abbr. dipl.ing.) which was awarded by university faculties, and a lower ranked engineer's degree inženjer (abbr. ing.) which was awarded by polytechnics, in a similar vein to the situation in the Netherlands. The old dipl.ing. degree could later be upgraded to a magistar (abbr. mr., Magister degree) and then a doktor (abbr. dr., Doctorate). The situation was the same in other countries previously part of Yugoslavia. In Serbian, the abbreviation is dipl.inž. Serbian titles of magistar (abbr. mr, Magister degree) and doktor (abbr. dr, Doctorate) in abbreviated versions are used without full stop as a punctuation mark at the end.
Europe, according to the Bologna Process
Following the introduction of the Bologna process, universities divide higher-education studies in three cycles, corresponding to a three to four-year bachelor's degree, a one to two-year master's degree, and a doctoral degree. Accordingly, engineering studies are now divided in two parts: first, the bachelor's degree (baccalaureus, three to four years), and the second optional part (one to two years), after which either the traditional engineer's degree or a master's degree (e.g. MEng or MSc) is awarded. These can often, however, still be combined into a single 'integrated' degree programme in many countries, normally lasting 5 or 6 years (although only 4 years in England, Wales and Northern Ireland). Countries have varied in the implementation of the Bologna process, meaning the combination of first (bachelor's) and second (master's) cycles, even when taken as a single degree, can last from four to six years, although many countries have set five years as the minimum.
Most traditional universities continue to have a primary academic degree program, for example, a five-year Civilingenjör in Sweden, that is distinct from the 3+2 scheme that awards the bachelor's and master's degrees but a student who has done both at a Swedish technical university will in most cases also fulfill the requirements for the civilingenjör degree.
In France, engineering is taught in écoles d’ingénieurs, which are part of the French grandes écoles system. Since the Bologna process, the Diplôme d’Ingénieur is officially considered to be at the level of a European master's degree.
In the United States, the degree of engineer or engineer's degree is the least commonly obtained advanced degree in engineering. It is usually preceded by a master's degree and is not a prerequisite to a doctoral degree, sometimes serving as a terminal degree but just as often a mid-Ph.D. degree where preliminary work in the candidates respective field is recognized. The availability of degrees and the specific requirements differ considerably between institutions and between specialties within an institution. In the past, it was not uncommon for a would-be engineer to earn an engineer's degree as their first and only college degree. But since World War II this has fallen out of favor, and it becomes continually more difficult to find a school that offers this option. Regulation and licensure in engineering in the U.S. usually requires an Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology (ABET) engineering program accreditation, which is granted only to bachelor's degrees and, rarely, master's degrees.
For graduate students in engineering, the two-year master's degree is most commonly followed by a traditional research doctorate (Ph.D.). However, the engineer's degree provides an alternative to the doctorate for professional engineers rather than academicians. Some graduate programs, such as those offered at Stanford, Caltech, and the Naval Postgraduate School, require a thesis for the engineer's degree but the research requirements are generally less than those of Ph.D. candidates and more comparable to those of master of science students. For this reason, some consider an engineer's degree to be on a level between a master's degree and a doctorate.
A degree with some form of the word engineer or engineering in the title is not necessarily an engineer's degree. Particularly, a "Master of Engineering" (M.Eng.) or "Engineering Doctorate" (Eng.D.) degree is not an Engineer's degree, nor is any other bachelor's, master's, or doctoral degree. Rather, the engineer's degree is in a category of its own. For example, a student with a B.S. and M.S. in electrical engineering might next earn the degree Electrical Engineer. The person would then have a B.S. in E.E., a M.S. in E.E., and an E.E. degree. The former two are degrees in engineering, and only the latter degree is actually an engineer's degree.
In Latin America a degree or title of "Ingeniero" is awarded after completing a 5 years of college, that may be translated as "Engineer", however, its international academic equivalence depends on each country's educational system, and can be compared to a 6-year post-master's degree. Its award may imply obtaining a state licence to legally practice in the field, or a professional certification outside academic environments.
In Mexico, the educational system follows closely that of the United States. University education is structured in three cycles, as Licenciatura (bachelor's degree), Maestría (master's degree), and Doctorado (doctorate).
The Ingeniero (Engineer) degree is awarded depending on the nature of the studies he wish to pursuit. In order to be called an Engineer, he must have passed certain courses related to engineering and awarded a professional credential (cédula profesional) that certifies him as an engineer. The graduate has different abilities and capabilities related to the nature of the title Engineer. In this case, having a professional credential (cédula profesional) in engineering allows you to partake in various engineering-only activities, and certifies the ability of the engineer to exercise his profession.
For engineering, completing all taught courses of a Licenciatura does not automatically awards the graduate the title and licence of Ingeniero, for this, it depends on the name of the career and having the prefix Ingeniería attached to the name of the degree. It is the case that many people finish all courses in an engineering program, they obtain the diploma and title of Engineer, and the professional credential, after getting their professional credential (cédula profesional).
Degrees in engineering require 4 to 5 years to complete. After this, the graduate may enroll in a postgraduate program, such as a master's degree, or in exceptional cases, directly into a doctoral degree.
In Chile, the educational system does not strictly follows that of the United States. University education is structured in four cycles, as Licenciatura (bachelor's degree), Título Profesional (Professional Title), Magíster (master's degree) and Doctorado (doctorate or Ph.D).
In this case, the engineer state is a general denomination for a person who has a professional title of engineering (Título Profesional en Ingeniería). The title is obtained after 6 years of study, in this way including a bachelor's degree in science, which is obtained after four years of study.
As in other countries, students only need to obtain the bachelor's degree to enter a master's degree or doctoral program, which commonly last 2 and 3 years respectively. Since a professional title considers six years of study, after obtaining this title the graduate can enroll directly into a doctoral degree. In this manner, the international academic equivalence of a Professional Title in Chile corresponds to a 6-year post-master's degree.
Pakistan Engineering Council (PEC) accredits the undergraduate engineering degrees and regulates the engineering profession in Pakistan. The qualification of B-Tech(Honours) Degree is also equivalent to Bachelor of Engineering or Bachelor of Science in Engineering according to decision & solemn statement of HEC (Higher Education Commission) Pakistan. In Pakistan: Bachelor of Technology (Honors) degree is a four-year undergraduate university level degree, including Engineering and Applied Science courses, supervised industrial Practical training and projects. The prerequisite for this program is a three-year Diploma of Associate Engineering in specific fields e.g. Chemical Engineering, Electronics Engineering, Electrical Engineering, Mechanical Engineering and Civil Engineering etc. or two-year Fsc pre engineering. B.Tech Honors four years degree awarded by public and private sector Universities under the supervision of Higher Education Commission (Govt. of Pakistan). Public & private universities Such as IIUI,IUB, MUET, NED, UET, PRESTON, INDUS offer admission in B-Tech degree Program.B.Tech program was formally launched in 1973 in Pakistan and then Ministry of Education directed to give status of B.Tech (Hons) degree at par with B.Sc Engineering/B.E degree,& professionals called B-Tech Engineers according to the letter No. 15-29/73-Tech. According to the letter no PEC/4-P/QEC, PEC stated that B.Tech degree will be considered equivalent to B.Sc/BE there is no difference in the program objectives and learning outcomes of B.Tech or BE. Pakistan represented by PEC is a provisional signatory to Washington Accord.
Engineering degrees at undergraduate level are referred to as: BS Engineering / B.Sc Engineering (Bachelor of Science in Engineering). B.E. (Bachelor of Engineering) - 4 years duration.
Likewise, a postgraduate degree in engineering is referred to as: MS Engineering (Master of Science in Engineering) - 2 years duration.
A doctorate in engineering is simply referred to as: Ph.D. Engineering - 4 to 5 years duration.
In Bangladesh, the engineering degree is referred to as B.E. (Bachelor of Engineering) and B.Sc Engineering (Bachelor of Science in Engineering) at the undergraduate level. Likewise, a master's degree is referred to as Master of Science in Engineering (M.Eng), Master of Science in Engineering (M.Sc), Master of Computer Application (MCA). At the undergraduate level, the duration of the course is 4 years whereas a master's degree has a duration usually between 1.5 and 2 years. Graduated Engineers who are members of Institution of Engineers, Bangladesh are legally and formally allowed to use 'Engr.' before their names (e.g. Engr. John Smith).
In India, engineering qualifications include the following:
- Diploma in engineering (3/4 years, after class 10).
- Bachelor's degrees (4 years, after class 12): BE (Bachelor of Engineering) and BTech (Bachelor of Technology). Both are equivalent. Admission is usually through an engineering entrance examination.
- Master's degrees (2 or more years, after BE, BTech, MCA or equivalent): ME (Master of Engineering), MTech (Master of Technology), MSc (Eng) (Master of Science in Engineering), MS (Master of Science), MCA (Master in Computer Application). Admission usually requires qualification in the Graduate Aptitude Test in Engineering, or some work experience in engineering. The MTech and ME degrees are of 2 years duration, and usually have coursework in the first year and a project in the second year. The MSc (Eng) and MS degrees are usually research - oriented, and may require 2 or more years to complete.
- Doctoral degrees (3 to 5 years): PhD (Doctor of Philosophy). Admission requirements vary across universities, but usually include a master's degree in engineering or science, or a bachelor's degree in engineering with an exceptionally good academic record.
- "Accreditation Resources". Engineers Canada.
- Beschluss der Kultusministerkonferenz vom 10.10.2003 i.d.F. vom 07.02.2008)
- "3458 Sayılı Mühendislik ve Mimarlık Hakkında Kanun".
- ""Οχι" στο αίτημα για master σε πολυτεχνεία - Ελλάδα - Η ΚΑΘΗΜΕΡΙΝΗ".
- "Artikel 435 lid 3 Wetboek van strafrecht" (in Dutch)
- "Opleidingen met een zogenoemd 'zwaar wiskundig profiel' als Bouwkunde, Econometrie en Elektrotechniek zorgen voor de meeste vertraging bij wo-studenten" (in Dutch)
- "Vooral bij techniek, industrie en bouwkunde is de wo-studieduur veel langer" (in Dutch)
- In Italy the state accreditation system, degrees and titles are regulated by state law. See regulations (in Italian) DM 4 Agosto 2000 for "laurea" (bachelor) and DM 28 Novembre 2000 for "laurea specialistica" (BEng(Hon)-master). Chartered professions (including engineering) are regulated by state law 328/01 ("D.P.R. 5 giugno 2001, n. 328").
- "National systems of engineering education, QA and accreditation", TREE – Teaching and Research in Engineering in Europe
- Ivan Klajn, Rečnik jezičkih nedoumica (NOLIT, Beograd)
- European Commission/EACEA/Eurydice (2015). The European Higher Education Area in 2015: Bologna Process Implementation Report (Report). Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union. pp. 54–56.
- LA H. XLIX LEGISLATURA DEL ESTADO DE MEXICO. "Ley del Ejercicio Profesional".
- "International Engineering Agreements".


Jane Lind presents ...
Theme: Science / Health, Ages 5 to 8
Penny is a lively little girl who rides her new bicycle at a ferocious speed
down the hill to get home in time for supper. But when she tries to stop,
she rolls over, scrapes her knee and cuts her chin. She walks home the rest
of the way beside her bicycle.
Her mother decides Penny must see a doctor, so her parents take her to the
hospital. The doctor is a good-humoured man who gives her a shot to numb her
chin and then stitches her up.
The story is told in a gentle, straight-forward way and the illustrations
portray the people as good-humoured and caring. Penny's parents do not scold
her and through it all she learns something new about taking care of
1. Why did Penny ride her bike so fast?
2. Why did Mr. Jennings call her a big green bug?
3. Why did her mother decide Penny should see a doctor?
4. Why did the doctor call Penny "Little Stitch"?
5. What did Penny learn about biking?
1. This book is especially suitable for teaching language skills, for
expanding vocabulary. Many of the words are easy for beginning readers, and
other words that may be unfamiliar are action words that the children would
enjoy saying and using. Here are some examples.
Penny Ellis hummed happily
tires skidded, danced, squeaked
knee was scraped
After reading the story with the children, write the words on the chalkboard
or on chart paper and talk about their meanings, and let the children try
making up sentences using those words.
2. Storytelling. Allow time for the children to tell stories about their own
accidents or injuries, or about experiences of being hospitalized.
After the storytelling session, create a bulletin board titled "Visiting
the Doctor." Give each child strips of paper on which to record their
experiences in brief sentences. For example, "Ben went to the doctor
because...." These can all be posted on the bulletin board.
Theme Catalogue and Teaching Guide for Children's Books
written for Penumbra Press by Jane Lind
© Jane Lind


New research out of Florida State University (FSU) claims that the world has been warming over the past 100 years, but that warming trend hasn’t affected all areas of the globe equally.
“Global warming was not as understood as we thought,” said Zhaohua Wu, assistant professor of meteorology at FSU, who led the research team.
While some areas have warmed others have actually cooled, researchers found. Wu’s team analyzed global land and surface temperature trends since 1900 and found that warming first started around both the arctic and subtropical regions in both hemispheres — though researchers did not look at temperatures from Antarctica.
The largest amount of warming occurred in northern hemisphere mid-latitude regions, but some areas of the world, including the some equatorial regions, were actually cooling down. Leading the team to say that the regional cooling is still part of an overall warming trend.
“The global warming is not uniform,” said Eric Chassignet, director of FSU’s Center for Ocean-Atmospheric Prediction Studies. “You have areas that have cooled and areas that have warmed.”
Researchers said that data from 1910 to 1980 show that equatorial areas near the Andes mountains in South America were actually cooling. Temperatures in those areas stabilized until the mid 1990s when they started to warm. In other parts of the world, temperatures haven’t significantly changed at all.
The groups research is published in the journal Nature Climate Change. While the study still argues that cooling areas are dwarfed by an overall warming trend, it still shows that initial assumptions that the global warming will affect all areas of the global at the same time.
“The global climate has been experiencing significant warming at an unprecedented pace in the past century,” the FSU study says. “This warming is spatially and temporally non-uniform, and one needs to understand its evolution to better evaluate its potential societal and economic impact.”
“We find that the noticeable warming (>0.5 K) started sporadically over the global land and accelerated until around 1980,” the study continues. “Both the warming rate and spatial structure have changed little since. The fastest warming in recent decades (>0.4 K per decade) occurred in northern mid-latitudes. From a zonal average perspective, noticeable warming (>0.2 K since 1900) first took place in the subtropical and subpolar regions of the Northern Hemisphere, followed by subtropical warming in the Southern Hemisphere.”
While the study warns of accelerated warming in the 20th century, there has been no warming since the late 1990s — about 17 years and 9 months.
In fact, some scientists have been arguing that the last warming trend was indicative of increasing solar activity and ocean oscillation cycles. Now solar activity is declining, which could cause the world to cool in the years to come.
“Attention in the public debate seems to be moving away from the 15-17 year ‘pause’ to the cooling since 2002,” writes Dr. Judith Curry, the chair of the School of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences at Georgia Institute of Technology.
Curry says the period since 2002 ss “scientifically interesting” as “it coincides with the ‘climate shift’” of roughly 2001-02. “This shift and the subsequent slight cooling trend provides a rationale for inferring a slight cooling trend over the next decade or so, rather than a flat trend from the 15 [year] ‘pause’,” she said.
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The Briscoe Library building was completed in 1983 when laptops, cell phones, iPods, iPads, and other mobile computing devices were just a gleam in someone’s imagination. Today, most students and others who enter the library building have a need for electrical power to keep their mobile devices charged up and ready to go. Students have often requested more electrical outlets in the Briscoe Library building for laptop use.
In 2009 and 2010, the Briscoe Library was upgraded with additional electrical outlets on the main floor Information Commons. This still left the library lacking in electricity to most study tables on the upper floors. As an interim measure, in August electrical power strips were added to a number of study tables on the 4th and 5th floors of the library. In addition, D-rings were added to some study tables so students can easily attach laptop security cables.
Robert Zuniga, Library Technology Assistant, worked diligently to come up with a solution for laptop security and electrical improvements as well as completing the installation. In addition to these improvements, badly worn study tables with peeling finishes have been laminated in order to restore a smooth finish and better appearance.
Executive Director of Libraries


Written by Karen Langley
1. His matrilineal great grandfather was a Black African Page brought over to Russia as a slave. Abram Petrovich Gannibal (1696–1781) was kidnapped and taken to Russia as a gift for Peter the Great. Gannibal was educated in France to the profession of a military engineer, later progressing to become governor of Reval and finally Général en Chef (which was the 3rd most senior army rank) – in charge of the building of sea forts and canals in Russia.
2. Pushkin met Gogol! By 1831 Pushkin’s literary influence had grown and at that time he met Nikolai Gogol, who was then in the early stages of his career. Gogol had published his first volumes of Ukrainian tales and Pushkin supported him, publishing some of his most famous short stories in the The Contemporary, a magazine he founded in 1836. After Pushkin’s death, Gogol went on to write his most famous work, “Dead Souls”.
3. A spurious erotic journal was attributed to him. Published in 1986, “The Secret Journal 1836-37” was claimed to be the decoded contents of a private journal kept by Pushkin. In actual fact it was simply an erotic novel told as if from Pushkin’s point of view – which hasn’t stopped it still being sold under its fictional description!
4. He was a serial duellist. Pushkin is believed to have fought as many as 29 duels and was obviously a main who care deeply about his honour. His last engagement was the one where he would receive his fatal wound, when he fought with Georges-Charles de Heeckeren d’Anthès, a French officer serving with the Chevalier Guard Regiment. Pushkin had accused d’Anthès of having designs on his beautiful young wife, Natalya, and paid the ultimate price…
5. Pushkin was a member of the outlawed political group The Decembrists. They were a collection of noblemen who wanted to give more rights to all Russian citizens at a time when the strict hierarchy of the country meant that the peasants were basically slaves. The Decembrists wanted fairer laws which all could understand and rights for the peasants. By writing in Russian when the predominant language among the nobles was French, Pushkin gave Russian Literature its voice. This put him in a dangerous position at court and he narrowly avoided execution; but his relationship with the Tsar was unsettled ever after, and there are conspiracy theories that say his final duel was set up to get him out of the way once and for all…
See also Karen’s review of a new edition of Pushkin’s Belkin’s Stories here.