Background: Located northwest of Orangeville, Ontario, the Grey Dufferin Community Pasture is an impressive block of grassland, nearly 600 acres, which provides grazing opportunities for cattle from local farms, supporting approximately 600 beef cattle through rotational grazing each spring and summer. It also provides a significant amount of wildlife habitat.
We studied three species of grassland birds that nest in the community pasture: Bobolink, Eastern Meadowlark, and Savannah Sparrow. All three species have steeply-declining populations in Ontario and rely on agricultural grasslands, including pastures, for nesting habitat. Unfortunately, grazing during the nesting season can have unintended consequences on ground-nesting birds. Nests can be impacted directly, when trampled by cattle, or indirectly, when the removal of vegetation causes exposure to predators. Grazing can also result in the displacement of birds from their breeding territories if vegetation is no longer suitable for nesting.
Project work: Using transect surveys, spot mapping of territories, and nest monitoring, our goal was to assess the distribution and abundance of Bobolink, Eastern Meadowlark, and Savannah Sparrow and how cattle grazing in the community pasture impacted abundance and nest success.
In 2019, we conducted transect surveys across the pasture to collect preliminary data on grassland bird species distribution and abundance before grazing began and in the middle of the nesting season, once many of the fields had been grazed. Following the last round of transect surveys in June, we conducted targeted spot mapping to assess breeding in a sample of Bobolink territories in grazed and un-grazed fields. We also collected vegetation data in June to assess characteristics such as height, density, and ground cover composition in grazed and un-grazed fields in order to better understand the relationship between vegetation characteristics and field use by the birds before and after grazing occurs.
In 2020, we repeated transect surveys, Bobolink spot mapping, and vegetation surveys. Additionally, we monitored Eastern Meadowlarks and Savannah Sparrows. To monitor Eastern Meadowlarks, we used spot mapping and nest monitoring, visiting each of the ~20 territories across the pasture once per week throughout the breeding season to record behaviour and nesting status. For Savannah Sparrows, we spot mapped a sample of territories in mid-June in grazed and un-grazed fields and we monitored nests we located opportunistically.
Overall, in both 2019 and 2020, few Bobolink remained in fields after the first grazing occasion and they appeared to stay only in fields where vegetation was not grazed heavily. In contrast, the number of Eastern Meadowlark territories monitored in 2020 did not change due to grazing. Some territory boundaries shifted and some pairs moved due to grazing, but most territories remained throughout the breeding season and pairs attempted to re-nest after nest failures due to grazing or predation. Savannah Sparrows also continued to be abundant across the pasture after grazing occurred.
Conservation implications: We are now analyzing data collected at the community pasture to improve our understanding of the impacts of rotational grazing on nesting grassland birds and support conservation efforts for these species. We will also provide information and recommendations to the Grey Dufferin Community Pasture managers about possible stewardship actions that could be implemented to support nesting grassland birds.
Project dates: 2019 – 2020
Funding: This project has received funding support from the Government of Ontario. Such support does not indicate endorsement by the Government of Ontario of the contents of this material. Additional support provided by The McLean Foundation, the Helen McCrea Peacock Foundation, and individual donors.
Hundreds of acres of grassland at the Grey Dufferin Community Pasture provide habitat for many grassland species, including birds at risk.
Photo: Xuan Zhang
An Eastern Meadowlark nest in the Grey Dufferin Community Pasture.
Females alone build nests, weaving dried grasses and forbs to create cup nests, frequently with a roof. Nest construction typically takes about one week.
Photo: Zoé Lebrun-Southcott


"Tower Rock", the large tupua, or rock formation, at Fatamafuti, represents a giant frozen in stone. (Photo: NOAA)
On Tutuila Island in American Samoa, a rock formation in Fagasa Bay is the source of a legend handed down over generations. Sina and Li'ava'a's rock are said to commemorate the location where a girl was mistakenly left behind by her father. The girl, Sina, eventually married a Samoan chief, Togamana.
Upon her marriage, Sina's father, Li'ava'a, said dolphins would be her dowry and would visit her every year. To this day, dolphins appear each year in Fagasa Bay.
The story of Fagasa Bay's Sina and Li'ava's rocks is among 20 coastal legend sites included in a 2007 inventory of American Samoa's maritime heritage. Study author Hans Van Tilburg, maritime heritage coordinator for the Office of National Marine Sanctuaries, said there are many narratives based in history that reflect cultural significance for particular natural features within the coastal and marine environment.
Although national marine sanctuaries are best known for protecting natural resources, Van Tilburg said some marine management decisions, including coastal and marine spatial planning, can be informed by a better understanding of history, culture and traditions, and the connection some communities have to special places. Resource managers should consider and respect the contribution and significance of indigenous cultural knowledge, he added.
"In American Samoa, natural features that are closely associated with cultural heritage, legends and history all tell a story," Van Tilburg said. "The sites are important because they hold the memory of those legends."
From a biological standpoint, Van Tilburg said awareness of the Sina dolphin story, for example, contributes useful information to scientists studying trends in animal behavior.
"The contribution that historical and cultural knowledge can make to understanding marine species population data and animal behavior has been demonstrated a number of times," he said.
Elsewhere, cultural awareness and engagement is ingrained in the management of Olympic Coast National Marine Sanctuary in Washington. The sanctuary is encompassed by the traditional harvest areas of the Hoh, Makah and Quileute tribes and the Quinault Indian Nation. As sovereign nations, the tribes have treaty fishing rights and co-management responsibilities with the state of Washington for fishery resources and fishing activities within the sanctuary.
Before public review of the Olympic Coast sanctuary's management plan began, sanctuary managers met with tribal representatives to work out a process and forum for how they wanted to participate. George Galasso, assistant superintendent of the sanctuary, said the discussions resulted in the formation of the Olympic Coast Intergovernmental Policy Council, composed of representatives from the three tribes, the Quinault Indian Nation, the state of Washington and the Office of National Marine Sanctuaries.
The council has focused on identifying research priorities, including development of a five-year Ocean Ecosystem Monitoring and Research Initiative, and preparing for the transition to ecosystem-based management.
"We had to understand where they were coming from and make the extra effort to get the council set up prior to being in a position where we could successfully go through a management review process," Galasso said.
Through many years of successful partnerships, the National Marine Sanctuary System has learned the importance of cultural legacy in marine resource management decisions. While human activities such as shipping, fishing and energy dominate marine spatial planning discussions, the sanctuaries recognize the importance of considering cultural values and heritage in this process.


The most technical and complicated PPE garments are the ones that protect you from the most dangerous working hazards – these garments are the ones that make up the PULSAR® FR & Electric ARC collection.
An ARC Flash is an undesired electric discharge that travels in the air between conductors or from one conductor to the earth. It can happen when electricity jumps through the air between conductors. The resulting explosion can reach heights of 35,000 degrees Fahrenheit – to put that in perspective, the surface of the sun is a mere 10,000 degrees Fahrenheit. It can happen in a variety of industries such as Rail, Utilities, Electrical and Construction. An ARC Flash is an extremely dangerous occurrence that more than likely will cause serious injury, and maybe even fatalities, if the worker isn’t protected properly.
ARC clothing must meet a multitude of different criteria in order to comply with the standards they need to conform to, going through several rigorous tests, ensuring not only the fabric passes but also the complete garment, making them fit for purpose. FR & Electric ARC garments are worn in potentially life-threatening situations, which is why the testing process must be precise, strict and stringent. Once the clothing has passed the testing process, it will then receive a rating based on its performance. These ratings and classifications were created to help managers and individuals find the right type of arc flash workwear depending on the risk of a flash fire and potential exposure level.
Not only should the clothing be tested and certified for protection, but it should also be comfortable to wear, ensuring the wearer can move around uninhibited in the workplace. The clothing must also be maintained over time to ensure it still meets the same protection requirements. Wearers should adhere to the manufactures directions when laundering their garments as certain detergents and fabrics softeners can reduce the clothing’s flame-resistant performance.
PULSAR®’S guidance for care with FR & Electric ARC garments
- Do not wash in biological powder, wash as synthetics
- 40C domestic wash only, hang dry, do not iron
- Do not tumble dry, do not dry clean, do not use bleach
- Do not use fabric conditioner
The Fire-Retardant properties of this garment are inherent and are not affected by repeated laundering
Working closely with Protal® and other partners, PULSAR® have been able to create a highly innovative collection of FR & Electric ARC clothing, bring garments to the market that go above and beyond the wearer’s expectations.
Their range consists of 3 different layered elements; next-to-skin garments (base layers), workwear garments (mid-layers) such as Polo Shirts, Sweat Shirt, Combat Trousers and a Coverall and waterproof garments (outer-layers) like Salopettes and Storm Coats in order to provide maximum protection for the wearer. The more layers you wear, the more protected you are from the dangers of your workplace. PULSAR garments won’t just provide you with functionality, compliance and performance but also maximum comfort. If you’d like to know more, please contact your local Service Centre and we’ll be happy to guide you through it.
The protective FR yarn used in the fabric of PULSAR® FR & Electric ARC collection is Protal®.
Protal® is a new super high-performance Protex fibre blend, supplied by Waxman fibres that are only available through their partnership chain, from the spinning of fibre, through knitting and weaving, to finished garments, ultimately giving the wearer a consistency of compliance and traceability not available with many other FR fabrics.
All PULSAR® FR & Electric ARC garments are exclusively manufactured with Protal® fibres and fabric, as they are an official Protal Partner.
Protal® has 3 different levels of fabric – Protal® 1, Protal® 3 and Protal® 5. Each fabric is a different blend, which offers different levels of protection, strength and durability.
Protal 1 is the industry-standard fibre blend, featuring the new generation of Protex fibre – the next generation in FR PPE solutions. Partners produce this highly technical fibre and carefully blend it with the very best complementary fibres (such as cotton and viscose) to produce workwear that hundreds of thousands of workers rely on every day.
Protal 3 takes modacrylic blends to a new technical level, providing enhanced protection for welding applications at lighter weights, edge ignition and general metal splash protection. Specifically designed for multi-risk avoidance, Protal 3 also offers improved fabric strength.
Protal 5 provides a globally compliant super-strength lightweight fabric. For the first time, comfort and safety are now introduced to this market sector which has previously been dominated by aramid only fabrics.
To learn more, contact your nearest service centre today!


Mouth breathing, instead of the nose, is bad for respiratory tract tissues and oral cavity as it fails to warm and clean the air. Causes can be nasal congestion due to allergies, upper respiratory infections, swollen tonsils or crooked septum. It causes sleep apnea, ADHD, affects the spine and facial skeleton, leads to crooked teeth, bad breath, cavities and heart disease.
Mouth breathing is a habitual respiration through the mouth instead of the nose. It appears harmless, unassuming, and unsuspecting form of breathing. Though it is perfectly natural to breathe through your mouth at certain times, such as exercising. But, breathing through the mouth most of the time, however, can have debilitating affects on your health.
These problems can be especially severe for children due to it’s implications on their dental and facial growth. Children whose mouth breathing is untreated may develop crooked teeth, and long and narrow faces.
Nose Breathing Vs Mouth Breathing
Nose breathing is the correct and the most optimal way to breathe. An important function of the nose is the preparation of the atmospheric air for use by the lungs. The nose cleans, moistens and warms the inspired air.
Failure to do so, i.e. by breathing through the mouth instead of the nose, has been considered to be injurious to the tissues lining the respiratory tract and oral cavity because of the impact of cold, dry and dirty air.
Not only are our bodies designed for nose breathing based on the specific apparatus and the mechanisms, by which we inhale and exhale through nose breathing, but there are numerous health benefits from correct consistent nose breathing. Mouth breathing bypasses important stages in the breathing process. Thus, this way of breathing leads to many health problems.
What Are The Causes Of Mouth Breathing?
Mouth breathing is a postural habit that can develop for numerous reasons. Below are the most common reasons:1
1. Obstructive – Nasal Congestion
Nasal congestion has a variety of causes, and is usually attributed to either a structural anatomic blockage or swelling of the nasal tissue. Both problems can narrow the nasal cavity and give a sensation of “nasal congestion”. The following is a list of potential causes of nasal congestion which may lead to mouth breathing:
Allergies may lead to nasal obstruction. When a nasal obstruction is present, it is common to unconsciously breath through the mouth instead of the nose. Nasal airway obstructions block the nasal passages and prevent a normal, comfortable amount of air from passing through the nose. Any obstruction in the nasal cavity can be a source of discomfort and can have a significant impact on daily life.2
Upper Respiratory Infections (URIs) are among the most common reasons for nasal congestion. Another name for this condition is the “common cold”. This can lead to mouth breathing, due to obstructed nasal passages.
Antrochoanal Polyps And Swollen Tonsils
Specific causes that have been linked to mouth breathing include, antrochoanal polyps which are benign lesions in the nose, that may cause an obstruction during normal nose breathing. Enlarged tonsils and adenoids, can also obstruct the nasal breathing system.
2. Anatomic Causes
Nasal obstruction can occur due to anatomic abnormalities of normal structures in the nose. The nasal septum is the wall that separates the two sides of the nose, and consists of cartilage and bone. Septal deviation, or a “crooked septum”, may cause a narrowed airway and difficulty in breathing through the nose.
3. Habitual Causes
Some individuals breathe through their mouth through force of habit, perhaps due to a previous cause of nasal obstruction that is now corrected.
Each of these factors make it physically impossible for a person to nasal breathe. If nasal breathing is not possible, the body’s only choice is to mouth breathe.
What Are The Adverse Health Effects Of Mouth Breathing?
1. Facial Growth And Development
Breathing through your mouth can actually change the shape of your face and alter your appearance. This is especially true for children because they are still growing. Children whose mouth breathing goes untreated may suffer from abnormal facial and dental development, such as long, narrow faces and mouths, gummy smiles, gingivitis and crooked teeth.
2. Sleep Disorders And Sleep Apnea
Studies have shown that upper airway obstruction/mouth breathing can cause sleep disorders and sleep Apnea. Studies also reflect that children with sleep disorders have problems paying attention in school, are often tired, and may exhibit behavior problems.
Many of these children are often misdiagnosed with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). The ideal treatment for these children involves treating the blocked airway, allowing the child to breathe through the nose rather than the mouth.3
3. Postural Changes
Mouth breathing causes posture changes as well. In order to open the airway, the head rests in a forward position and the shoulders slump. This is unhealthy for the spine.
4. Oral Health
The resting posture of the lips and position of the tongue due to mouth breathing have also been shown to cause problems with the orthodontic treatment. Thus, the time spent in braces can be extended, and the chance for relapse after the braces are removed is higher.
5. Other Effects On The Body
Using the mouth for breathing disrupts our natural body mechanics. It can affect a number of bodily functions and lead to symptoms such as:4
- Gingivitis and Gum disease
- Sore throat
- Cold symptoms
- Bad breath
- Higher risk for cavities
- Poor sleep — leading to chronic fatigue
- Digestive disturbances — gas, upset stomach, acid reflux, etc.
- Medical issues – Blood pressure and Heart problems
These problems are caused mainly due to oxygen deprivation. When we take in air through the mouth, less oxygen is able to be absorbed into the bloodstream. Poor oxygen concentration in the bloodstream has been associated with various medical issues.5
What Can Be Done To Treat Mouth Breathing?
Treatment for mouth breathing is available and can be beneficial for children if the condition is caught early. A dentist can check for mouth breathing symptoms and swollen tonsils.
If tonsils and/or adenoids are swollen, they can be surgically removed by an ear-nose-throat (ENT) specialist. If the face and mouth are narrow, dentists can use expansion appliances to help widen the sinuses and open nasal airway passages.
In order to stop mouth breathing, the muscles must be “re-trained” to function in new ways. A myofunctional therapist can also be an instrumental figure in helping you learn to breathe in a healthy way. Myofunctional therapists are skilled, at helping children and adults, gain control over muscle patterning habits, including those involved in mouth breathing.6
It is, thus, important to screen and diagnose for mouth breathing in adults and in children as young as 5 years of age. If mouth breathing is treated early, it’s negative effect on facial and dental development and the medical and social problems associated with it can be reduced or averted.
Since at this time, many health care professionals are not aware of the health problems associated with mouth breathing. If you or your child suffers from this condition, speak with a health care professional who is knowledgeable about mouth breathing.
References [ + ]
|1.||↑||Phulari BS (editor) (2011). Orthodontics : principles and practice. New Delhi: Jaypee Bros. Medical Publishers. ISBN 9789350252420.|
|3.||↑||Raskin S, Limme M, Poirrier R. [Could mouth breathing lead to obstructive apnea syndrome.|
A preliminary study] [article in French]. Orthod Fr 2000;71(1):27-35.
|4.||↑||Mouth Breathing- Eiology and Effects-Ronald D and Mary Massler.|
|5.||↑||Attention All Mouth Breathers: 5 Important Reasons to Breathe Through Your Nose|
|6.||↑||The negative effect of mouth breathing on the body and development of the child.|


Let’s start at the beginning - why thin lettuce?
Traditionally, a grower overpopulates the field with seed to ensure adequate yield.
Seed will be planted at about two to three-inch spacing and then wait for the plant to germinate. Once the plant germinates, a grower has an idea of yield and can make a game plan. Typically, a hand crew of about 25-60 laborers come and thin the crop by hand to get the desired spacing – usually 10,11, or 12 inches.
But with today’s challenges and labor shortages, growers are looking for technology solutions that will increase efficiency and provide less expensive ways to do that.
Enter Vision Robotics, who developed a machine that allows a grower to thin lettuce fields with just 1 or 2 people.
Product Specialist Supervisor Bryan Feemster, who lives and works in Salinas, CA - otherwise known as the “Salad Bowl of the World” - joins this week’s episode to discuss the latest in produce technology.
Check out past episodes and guests – visit the Episode Archive.
Tune in as we share the latest in agriculture technology by subscribing to our podcast on iTunes, SoundCloud, or anywhere you listen to podcasts.
Have a story idea or a precision ag topic we should highlight? Connect with us on social media: Instagram | Facebook | YouTube | Twitter and connect with podcast host, Tony Kramer on Twitter at: @RDOTonyK.
Agriculture Technology Podcast Ep. 107 transcript:
Tony: Hey, this is Tony Kramer, a Product Specialist with RDO Equipment Company. You are listening to the Agriculture Technology Podcast.
Every day there are phenomenal advancements being made in the field of agriculture technology. RDO Equipment Company is a leader in agriculture equipment and precision agriculture technology and is here with industry experts to bring the latest news and information from RDO and John Deere. Thanks for joining us on the Agriculture Technology Podcast.
Welcome back to another episode of the podcast. This is episode number 107. Today we are going to be talking about lettuce thinning technologies. Before we dive into the show, please take a moment to subscribe to this podcast if you haven't already. You can subscribe to the show on the many podcasting apps that we are streaming this out to such as Apple's podcast app, it's on Stitcher, Overcast, SoundCloud, as well as many others.
While you're out there, drop us a review, we'd love to hear what you think about the show. Lastly, make sure to follow RDO Equipment Company on Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, and catch all of our latest videos on YouTube. You can also follow me on twitter at RDOTonyK. Now with that, let's get back to the show. I'm really excited to welcome Bryan Feemster, who is a Product Specialist Supervisor with RDO Equipment Company. Thanks for joining us on the show today, Bryan. To get started, let's hear a little bit more about you and your background and how you got to where you are today.
Bryan: Thank you very much, Tony. I'm happy to be here. Basically, I started with RDO Equipment Company roughly seven and a half years ago. I started as an account manager in Salinas. After about a year and a half, I saw the growing need for developing the technology side of our operation and was really intrigued with what was going on in the direction RDO was taking the technology side. I became a product specialist supervisor and worked with the rest of our team throughout RDO and started really developing our area when it came to technology.
Tony: That's great and you bring up a really good point that the technology is continually adapting and you took the opportunity to join the product specialist team not very different than my path through RDO Equipment, started as an account manager at our Lisbon North Dakota location. I too saw the opportunity on the RDO Equipment product specialist team and made the leap onto that team.
A very similar story with the RDO background. Now that we know a little bit about you, Bryan, let's talk about this lettuce thinning. It's something new as far as the technology goes, the automation of it goes, but let's go back to the beginning. Tell us a little bit about why do we need to thin lettuce?
Bryan: Traditionally what happens is the grower plants the field and overpopulates the field with seed. Reason being is it's an insurance policy to make sure that they get the yield that they need because a lot of times the crops are a pre-sold, so they have to have that yield in order to sell to the buyer.
What the grower does is usually plants the seed at about two to three-inch spacing and waits for the plant to germinate. Once the plant germinates, then they have a great idea of what's going on in the field. Traditionally, they have a hand crew of about 25 to 50 people that come through and thin the crop out so that they get the desired spacing that they're looking for such as a 10, 11 or 12-inch spacing.
With that, we've seen a decrease in available labor due to many aspects. A lot of it having to do with the younger generation has more access to education at college, and are looking to do more skilled technical jobs out there. Labor has been a major challenge for growers. Not only that, the cost to have people out there continues to rise year after year.
With these struggles, growers are looking for ways to combat this and to find ways through technology to make it more efficient, obviously, if possible, less expensive and whatnot. In comes Vision Robotics, who developed a machine that takes away all of that and takes from 25 to 50 people down to one or two people that runs a machine that is more efficient and does a better and faster job.
John: You hit it right on the head and lead me right into the next question. You talked about the struggles of finding available labor, finding enough labor, but then also the cost that's put into it to pay that labor. Obviously, a lot of people eat lettuce salads, no matter what variety of lettuce you're eating. There's a lot of lettuce that has to be grown out there and to, like you said, to thin it manually with a hand crew, with a bunch of garden hoes out there. It's probably a struggle.
That's what we really want to talk about here is the Vision Robotics thinner. You guys are doing something really great out there on the California coast with Vision Robotics and RDO Equipment. Let's talk about that. Where did this idea come from? Where are the benefits of moving to that Vision Robotics thinner?
Bryan: It was very interesting. As this progressed with this labor issue, it was a blessing where one of our own regional sales managers found this company, Vision Robotics, and brought them into the RDO Equipment Company. We started working with Vision Robotics and seeing the technology that they had and what it could do, so we started testing with them and we eventually became partners with them.
It's been a great partnership helping develop, figure out different ways that will fit in the customers' fields because everybody's running different size beds, different size rove crops. RDO became partners with Vision Robotics. We took this machine out and started testing with it to see what it could do if it could truly help with the situation that we are seeing with the labor crisis.
The very first time we took it out, we immediately saw the benefits of this machine. We worked with a number of our customers to demo and show and run it through their fields. From day one, everybody was amazed at what this machine and technology could do.
Tony: Let's talk a little bit about the machine and the technology. Tell us, how does it operate? Is it pulled with a tractor? Is it self-propelled? How does it actually thin the lettuce?
Bryan: This particular machine is pulled by a three-point on a tractor. Because the machine is so light we're able to get in with a 5,000 series John Deere tractor. Now the machine can run on three beds. Typically in our area, we're running three-bed 80s, so 80-inch size beds. We have anywhere from five to six seed lines per bed.
The machine has a hood, what we call hood that contains a computer, camera, solenoids, and lights that runs individually on each seed line. As you pull the tractor and the thinner through the field, the cameras are taking 20 pictures per second to identify the plants that are keepers and the plants that they need to take out, thin out.
With that, it's using LED lights to light up so the imagery that the cameras are seeing has a clear picture of that. The operator puts in a desired spacing of what they want to eventually have plant spacing wise. If they want 10 inches, they put 10 inches in. If they want 11, 12, so on and so forth. As this machine goes through the field, the camera determines which ones to keep, which ones to thin and then sprays a fertilizer through a solenoid and a spray nozzle to thin out those plants.
In essence, the fertilizer is burning out the plants that you do not want any longer. There's a secondary spray if you wish to have, which will spray a beneficial such as a fungicide on the keeper plants. In essence, as you go through the field, you can thin and do your beneficial spray in one pass.
Tony: I would imagine you talk about using fertilizer to desiccate the plants that we don't want anymore. Is that fertilizer also benefiting the keeper plants?
Bryan: Yes, absolutely. What we have found through talking with the growers is that when the fertilizer is sprayed it usually stops one inch before the keeper and one inch after the keeper. After you go through the field and thin it, we typically recommend about a day before you start irrigating to allow that fertilizer to burn the plant. Once you irrigate with sprinklers or drip tape, that fertilizer then goes down into the soil, into the root zones and provides that fertilizer to those plants.
Again, not only are you thinning, possibly putting a beneficial down, but you're also fertilizing the crop all in one pass.
Tony: Absolutely. You answered my last question here about the machine. Tell us about all the benefits that come with a Vision Robotics lettuce thinner.
Bryan: The benefits of this machine not only are you going through thinning and fertilizing and all in one pass, but what we have found running through an ROI calculator with our growers, we sit down with them and discuss the costs of an operator, the costs of the machine and so on and so forth that most of the time, we have found that the return on investment of that machine is paid off within six months.
Anything after that, basically, they have saved whatever they're paying in hand labor crews out there. On top of that, you're getting the benefit, the machines are running two and a half to three miles per hour so we're able to get more acreage done in a day than a traditional hand crew.
Like I mentioned before, we're getting a better quality of thinning in the field because I'm sure as you will know when you start working in a field, hour one hour two, you've got a lot of energy, but as the day progresses, four or five, six hours, you start to tire out and the job just isn't done as well. With the machine, it doesn't tire out, it keeps going and does a perfect job.
Tony: I know exactly what you're talking about out there, walking the bean fields or sugar beet fields back in the day, I get what you're saying there. If a customer were to purchase one of these lettuce thinners, where do they go for support?
Bryan: Absolutely. With these machines, we have team setup that support, train and help manage these machines for the customer. They would contact us at RDO Equipment Company, and we would be more than happy to work with them. Every machine that is sold comes with our support team. The customer is not left on their own to figure things out.
We have a tremendous amount of experience and expertise on these machines that we can actually call into the machines wirelessly from any computer or mobile device and see what's going on with their machine without having to travel out to the field.
A lot of times, we're able to diagnose and figure out what might be going on to save the customer time, downtime, and money in the end. Then if it gets stuck on something like that, then we go out and take care of it. Everything we do with this machine comes with a full support package of our team members.
Tony: Now, I know this machine is fairly new, we've only been you guys in California, Arizona, wherever the lettuce is being grown. You guys have been doing this for a couple years now but again, it's very new. Do you have any success stories in these first few years that we've been doing this that just really put a smile on your face at the end of the day?
Bryan: Yes. One success story was one of our very first customers that we went out to, we ran through the field, thinning the field out and we came back the next day to see how well it did. Again, it was pretty new to us and also to the customer. We came out and we found that the machine did such a tremendous job. The customer was so ecstatic. They saw the benefits of it. They actually took us over to a field next door that was just thinned with a hand crew and pointed out what that field look like.
It was amazing to see the difference between this machine versus a hand crew out there. They have gone on and saved so much time and so much money that they continue to buy more machines for their operation. At this current time, they're running four machines from us and they continue to grow with that.
Tony: Yes, that's really cool. I know from my perspective in the Red River Valley, Minnesota, North Dakota, the demos, especially when you can see a side by side comparison to the practice that they are currently doing and then whatever machine you're demoing what its potential is. That's a great success story that we do see a lot when we get the opportunity to demo machines. Now, for the customer that is interested in a lettuce thinner, where can they go? With whom can they talk to learn more about this tool?
Bryan: They can contact RDO Equipment Company at [RDOequipment.com]. They can come into local dealership in Salinas or Yuma or Imperial and ask to speak with the product specialist team about the lettuce thinning or any account manager out there and we can definitely help them out.
Tony: Awesome. I just want to thank you Bryan for taking the time to sit down with me and talk about the lettuce thinning technologies that you guys are doing out there on the West Coast. It's really cool. I'm so used to the standard commodity crops in the upper Midwest with corn, soybeans and wheat and whatnot. It's really neat to learn more about these specialty crops. Thanks again for doing this.
Bryan: Absolutely. Tony, thank you so much for having me. It's been a pleasure.
Tony: Visit rdoequipment.com/podcast to listen to new episodes and catch up on any that you have missed. You can also listen and subscribe to our podcast on any device or streaming service.


Crystal structure of lonsdaleite
|Crystal symmetry||Hexagonal dihexagonal dipyramidal
H-M symbol: (6/m 2/m 2/m)
Space group: P 63/mmc
|Unit cell||a = 2.51 Å, c = 4.12 Å; Z=4|
|Color||Gray in crystals, pale yellowish to brown in broken fragments|
|Crystal habit||Cubes in fine-grained aggregates|
|Mohs scale hardness||7–8 (for impure specimens)|
|Optical properties||Uniaxial (+/-)|
|Refractive index||n = 2.404|
Lonsdaleite (named in honour of Kathleen Lonsdale), also called hexagonal diamond in reference to the crystal structure, is an allotrope of carbon with a hexagonal lattice. In nature, it forms when meteorites containing graphite strike the Earth. The great heat and stress of the impact transforms the graphite into diamond, but retains graphite's hexagonal crystal lattice. Lonsdaleite was first identified in 1967 from the Canyon Diablo meteorite, where it occurs as microscopic crystals associated with diamond.
Hexagonal diamond has also been synthesized in the laboratory (1966 or earlier; published in 1967) by compressing and heating graphite either in a static press or using explosives. It has also been produced by chemical vapor deposition, and also by the thermal decomposition of a polymer, poly(hydridocarbyne), at atmospheric pressure, under argon atmosphere, at temperature 1,000 °C (1,832 °F).
It is translucent, brownish-yellow, and has an index of refraction of 2.40 to 2.41 and a specific gravity of 3.2 to 3.3. Its hardness is theoretically superior to that of cubic diamond (up to 58% more) according to computational simulations but natural specimens exhibited somewhat lower hardness through a large range of values (from 7 to 8 on Mohs hardness scale). The cause is speculated as being due to the samples having been ridden with lattice defects and impurities.
The existence of lonsdaleite as a discrete material has recently been questioned, as evidence suggests that what has been interpreted as lonsdaleite is instead cubic diamond dominated by structural defects.
Lonsdaleite has a hexagonal unit cell, related to the diamond unit cell in the same way that the hexagonal and cubic close packed crystal systems are related. The diamond structure can be considered to be made up of interlocking rings of six carbon atoms, in the chair conformation. In lonsdaleite, some rings are in the boat conformation instead. In diamond, all the carbon-to-carbon bonds, both within a layer of rings and between them, are in the staggered conformation, thus causing all four cubic-diagonal directions to be equivalent; while in lonsdaleite the bonds between layers are in the eclipsed conformation, which defines the axis of hexagonal symmetry.
Lonsdaleite is simulated to be 58% harder than diamond on the <100> face and to resist indentation pressures of 152 GPa, whereas diamond would break at 97 GPa. This is still below IIa diamond's <111> tip hardness of 162 GPa.
Lonsdaleite occurs as microscopic crystals associated with diamond in several meteorites: Canyon Diablo, Kenna, and Allan Hills 77283. It is also naturally occurring in non-bolide diamond placer deposits in the Sakha Republic. Material with d-spacings consistent with Lonsdaleite has been found in sediments with highly uncertain dates at Lake Cuitzeo, in the state of Guanajuato, Mexico, by proponents of the controversial Younger Dryas impact hypothesis. Its presence in local peat deposits is claimed as evidence for the Tunguska event being caused by a meteor rather than by a cometary fragment.
- Aggregated diamond nanorod
- Glossary of meteoritics
- List of minerals
- List of minerals named after people
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- Handbook of Mineralogy
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- Misra, Abha; Tyagi, Pawan K.; Yadav, Brajesh S.; Rai, P.; Misra, D. S.; Pancholi, Vivek; Samajdar, I. D. (2006). "Hexagonal diamond synthesis on h-GaN strained films". Applied Physics Letters 89 (7): 071911. Bibcode:2006ApPhL..89g1911M. doi:10.1063/1.2218043.
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- Diamond no longer nature's hardest material
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DSM in Animal Nutrition & Health
Properties and Metabolism
Chemically, niacin is one of the simplest vitamins, having the empirical formula C6H3O2N (Illus. 13-1). Nicotinic acid and nicotinamide correspond to 3-pyridine carboxylic acid and its amide, respectively. There are antivitamins or antagonists for niacin. These compounds have the basic pyridine structure; two of the important antagonists of nicotinic acid are 3-acetyl pyridine and pyridine sulfonic acid. Nicotinic acid and nicotinamide (niacinamide) generally possess the same activity, although one report with lactating cows suggested that the nicotinamide form has slightly higher activity (Jaster and Ward, 1990). Nicotinic acid is converted to the amide form in the tissues, and Erickson et al. (1991) suggests this occurs in the rumen. Nicotinamide functions as a component of two coenzymes: nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP).
Both nicotinic acid and nicotinamide are white, odorless, crystalline solids soluble in water and alcohol. They are very resistant to heat, air, light and alkali and thus are stable in feeds. Niacin is also stable in the presence of the usual oxidizing agents. However, it will undergo decarboxylation at a high temperature when in an alkaline medium. An important source of niacin for ruminants is ruminal synthesis. Synthesis of niacin in the rumen has been demonstrated in sheep (Rérat et al., 1959), cattle (Hungate, 1966) and goats (Porter, 1961). This synthesis also has been suggested to be under metabolic control; e.g., more is synthesized when small amounts are provided in the ration and vice versa (Porter, 1961; Abdouli and Schaefer, 1986).
Nicotinic acid and its amide are readily and very efficiently absorbed by diffusion at either physiological or pharmacologic doses. The mechanism by which nicotinamide nucleotides present in animal feeds are absorbed, however, is unknown. Whether the coenzyme is hydrolyzed in the lumen or after it is taken up by the mucosa is unclear.
In animals, absorption from the small intestine seems to be the major route by which niacin is made available to the host. Although direct absorption from the rumen is possible, normally it is thought to be limited because only a small portion (3% to 7%) of the vitamin is in the supernatant fraction of rumen fluid; most is bound within the microbes themselves (Rérat et al., 1959).
Niacin in foods occurs mostly in its coenzyme forms, which are hydrolyzed during digestion, yielding nicotinamide, which seems to be absorbed as such without further hydrolysis in the gastrointestinal tract. The intestinal mucosa is rich in niacin conversion enzymes such as NAD glycohydrolase (Henderson and Gross, 1979). Nicotinamide is released from NAD in the liver and intestines by glycohydrolases for transport to tissues that synthesize NAD as needed. In the gut mucosa, nicotinic acid is converted to nicotinamide (Stein et al., 1994). Nicotinamide is the primary circulating form of the vitamin and is converted into its coenzyme forms in the tissues. Blood transport of niacin is associated mainly with red blood cells. Niacin rapidly leaves the blood stream and enters the kidney, liver and adipose tissues.
The tissue content of niacin and its analogs, NAD and NADP, is a variable factor, dependent on the diet and a number of other factors, such as strain, sex, age and treatment of animals (Hankes, 1984). Although niacin coenzymes are widely distributed in the body, no true storage occurs. The liver is the site of greatest niacin concentration in the body, but the amount stored is minimal.
Urine is the primary pathway of excretion of absorbed niacin and its metabolites. The principal excretory products in humans, dogs, rats, and pigs is the methylated metabolite N1-methylnicotinamide or as two oxidation products of this compound, 4-pyridone or 6-pyridone of N1-methylnicotinamide. On the other hand, in herbivores, niacin does not seem to be metabolized by methylation, but large amounts are excreted unchanged. In the chicken, however, nicotinic acid is conjugated with ornithine as either alpha- or delta-nicotinyl ornithine or dinicotinyl ornithine. The measurement of the excretion of these metabolites is carried out in studies of niacin requirements and niacin metabolism.
The amino acid tryptophan is a precursor for the synthesis of niacin in the body. There is considerable evidence that synthesis can occur in the intestine (Löffler and Petrides, 2003). There is also evidence that synthesis can take place elsewhere within the body. The extent to which the metabolic requirement for niacin can be met from tryptophan depends first on the amount of tryptophan in the diet and second on the efficiency of conversion of tryptophan to niacin (McDowell, 2000). The pathway of tryptophan conversion to nicotinic acid mononucleotide in the body is shown in Figure 13-1. Protein, energy, vitamin B6 and riboflavin nutritional status and hormones affect one or more steps in the conversion sequence shown in Figure 13-1, and hence can influence the yield of niacin from tryptophan. Iron is required by two enzymes for the conversion of tryptophan to niacin with a deficiency reducing tryptophan utilization. At low levels of tryptophan intake, conversion efficiency is high. It decreases when niacin and tryptophan levels in the diet are increased.
Figure 13-1: Conversion of Tryptophan to Nicotinic Acid Mononucleotide Plus Some Side Reactions
Animal species differ widely in ability to synthesize niacin from tryptophan, but all are relatively inefficient. From a variety of experiments, approximately 60 mg tryptophan is estimated to be equivalent to 1 mg niacin in humans, while the rat is more efficient at a conversion rate of 35 to 50 mg tryptophan required. Conversion efficiency of tryptophan to niacin in the chick is estimated to be 45:1 (Baker et al., 1973; Chen and Austic, 1989) and relatively efficient, whereas in the turkey it is inefficient, with conversions ranging from 103:1 to 119:1 (Ruiz and Harms, 1990). Ruminants would be less efficient in this conversion than most species. Conversion efficiency is probably due to inherent differences in liver levels of picolinic acid carboxylase, the enzyme that diverts one of the intermediates (2-amino, 3-acroleylfumaric acid) to the picolinic acid pathway instead of allowing this compound to condense to quinolinic acid, the immediate precursor of nicotinic acid. Picolinic acid carboxylase activity in livers of various species has a positive correlation to experimentally determined niacin requirements. The rat diverts very little of its dietary tryptophan to carbon dioxide and water, and thus is relatively efficient in converting tryptophan to niacin. Picolinic acid carboxylase activity of various species is presented in Table 13-1. The cat has been shown to have 30 to 50 times as much picolinic acid carboxylase activity as the rat. Thus, the cat has so much of this enzyme that it cannot convert any of its dietary tryptophan to niacin. The cat, therefore, has an absolute requirement for niacin itself. The duck has a very high niacin requirement (approximately twice as high as chickens), with considerably higher levels of picolinic acid carboxylase activity (Scott et al., 1982).
The major function of niacin is in the coenzyme forms of nicotinamide, NAD and NADP. Enzymes containing NAD and NADP are important links in a series of reactions associated with carbohydrate, protein and lipid metabolism. They are especially important in the metabolic reactions that furnish energy to the animal. The coenzymes act as an intermediate in most of the H+ transfers in metabolism, including more than 200 reactions in the metabolism of carbohydrates, fatty acids and amino acids. These reactions are of paramount importance for normal tissue integrity, particularly for the skin, the gastrointestinal tract and the nervous system. Like the riboflavin coenzymes, the NAD- and NADP-containing enzyme systems play an important role in biological oxidation-reduction systems due to their capacity to serve as hydrogen-transfer agents. Hydrogen is effectively transferred from the oxidizable substrate to oxygen through a series of graded enzymatic hydrogen transfers. Nicotinamide-containing enzyme systems constitute one such group of hydrogen transfer agents. Important metabolic reactions catalyzed by NAD and NADP are summarized as follows (McDowell, 2000; Kirkland, 2007):
a. Carbohydrate metabolism:
- Glycolysis (anaerobic and aerobic oxidation of glucose)
- TCA (Krebs) cycle
b. Lipid metabolism:
- Glycerol synthesis and breakdown
- Fatty acid oxidation and synthesis
- Steroid synthesis
c. Protein metabolism:
- Degradation and synthesis of amino acids
- Oxidation of carbon chains via the TCA cycle
e. Rhodopsin synthesis
Niacin, riboflavin and co-enzyme Q10 are associated with poly (ADP-ribose) which is involved in the post-translational modification of nuclear proteins. The poly ADP-ribosylated proteins seem to function in DNA repair, DNA replication and cell differentiation (Carson et al., 1987; Premkumar et al., 2008). Poly (ADP-ribose) is synthesized in response to DNA strand breaks. Rat data have shown that even a mild niacin deficiency decreases liver poly (ADP-ribose) concentrations and that poly (ADP-ribose) levels are also altered by food restriction (Rawling et al., 1994). Zhang et al., (1993) suggest that a severe niacin deficiency may increase the susceptibility of DNA to oxidative damage, likely due to the lower availability of NAD. Turnover rates of protein in Japanese quail have been related to niacin deficiency; a high turnover rate due to the deficiency was primarily attributed to an enhanced degradation rate of protein rather than an enhanced synthesis rate of proteins (Park et al., 1991).
Niacin-dependent poly (ADP-ribose) is involved in the post-translational modification of nuclear proteins. For ruminants, niacin is particularly required for unique features involving protein and energy metabolism, including liver detoxification of portal blood NH3 to urea and liver metabolism of ketones in ketosis. It is apparent that niacin can increase microbial protein synthesis (Girard, 1998). This may result in an increased molar proportion of propionate in rumen volatile fatty acids and may cause an increased rate of flow of material through the rumen. The function of primary interest for lactating dairy cows deals with the role of niacin in fatty acid oxidation and glucose synthesis, particularly as a preventive and possible treatment for clinical and subclinical ketosis.
There is a wide variation in the response of ruminant livestock to supplemental niacin, in part due to variations in: (1) endogenous niacin synthesis from tryptophan; (2) niacin supply and bioavailability in common feedstuffs; and (3) rumen niacin synthesis and degradation. Young, pre-ruminant calves and lambs would be expected to have a dietary requirement for niacin. However, early studies with lambs and calves failed to produce a deficiency by feeding niacin-free diets. The development of a low-tryptophan milk diet enabled researchers to study the situation more clearly. From these studies, it was concluded that a dietary niacin requirement does not exist as long as dietary tryptophan is maintained near 0.2% of dry matter (Hopper and Johnson, 1955). In the absence of dietary tryptophan, 2.5 mg per liter of milk offered ad libitum was required to prevent deficiency symptoms. The minimum niacin level suggested for calf milk replacers is 2.6 mg per kg (1.2 mg per lb) (NRC, 1989). Niacin supplementation of milk replacer would be of more concern when alternative, non-milk protein sources are used as the primary protein source in milk replacer, due to low tryptophan content.
The supply of niacin to the ruminant comes from three main sources: (1) dietary niacin; (2) conversion of tryptophan to niacin; and (3) ruminal synthesis of niacin. Niacin is widely distributed in feedstuffs of both plant and animal origin. Animal and fish by-products, distiller’s grains and yeast, various distillation and fermentation solubles and certain oilseed meals are good sources. The niacin in cereal grains and their by-products is in a bound form, which is largely unavailable, at least to monogastric animals (Luce et al., 1966, 1967). By use of a rat bioassay procedure, it was shown that in eight samples of mature cooked cereals (corn, wheat, rice and milo), only about 35% of the total niacin was available (Carter and Carpenter, 1982). It seems likely that much of this niacin will also be unavailable to rumen microorganisms.
In the calculation of the niacin content of formulated diets, probably all niacin from cereal grain sources should be ignored or at least given a value no greater than one-third of the total niacin. Some bound forms of niacin are biologically available, but the niacin in corn is particularly unavailable and is implicated in the etiology of pellagra in human societies that consume large quantities of the grain. The bioavailability of niacin is 100% in soybean meal but zero in wheat and sorghum and varies from 0 to 30% in corn (McDowell and Ward, 2008).
In immature seeds, niacin occurs as part of biologically available coenzymes necessary for seed metabolism. Binding of niacin to carbohydrate by ester linkages may cause it to be retained in the mature seed until it is utilized; the vitamin availability for man and animal is thus impaired. In rat growth assays for available niacin, corn harvested immaturely (“milk stage”) gave values from 74 to 88 µg per gm, whereas corn harvested at maturity gave assay values of 16 to 18 µg per gm (Carpenter et al., 1988).
Due to conversion of the essential amino acid tryptophan to niacin, the niacin and tryptophan content of the diet are often considered together in expressing niacin values of feeds (the “niacin equivalent”). However, tryptophan is preferably used for protein synthesis (Kodicek et al., 1974), and ruminant feedstuffs tend to be low in tryptophan. Furthermore, the efficiency of the biochemical conversion of tryptophan to niacin in cattle is less than in the pig and chicken (Scott et al., 1982).
There is little doubt that synthesis of niacin can occur in the rumen (Mathison, 1982), but the extent to which it occurs, particularly with commercial feedstuffs, and its contribution to the niacin supply are controversial. Niacin is often present in higher concentrations in rumen dry matter than in the diet, and this has been interpreted as evidence of net synthesis in the rumen (Hollis et al., 1954). Nevertheless, the positive response of ruminants to supplemental niacin in some studies indicated that niacin supply is sometimes sub-optimal.
Niacin is commercially available in two forms, niacinamide and nicotinic acid, with both forms providing about the same biological activity. Positive response to supplementation has been noted with either source. Campbell et al., (1994) noted only minor differences in metabolism of nicotinic acid and niacinamide in dairy cows.
In the pre-ruminant calf, a diet free of niacin and low in tryptophan produced deficiency signs of sudden anorexia, severe diarrhea, ataxia and dehydration, followed by sudden death. Supplementation with 2.5 mg of nicotinic acid per liter of milk, offered ad libitum twice daily, prevented the deficiency (Hopper and Johnson, 1955). On this basis, the daily niacin requirement for calves from all sources would be 10 to 15 mg per day. Niacin may increase microbial protein synthesis, however several studies indicate no effects. Differences between these studies, all of which utilized in vitrosystems, may reflect the amount and availability of niacin in the unsupplemented diet, the niacin status of the microbes, or both (NRC, 2001).
Responses to Niacin Supplementation — Beef Cattle
Responses to supplemental niacin in feedlot cattle have been variable. The addition of niacin to beef cattle diets has been shown to significantly improve average daily gain and feed efficiency. Feeder calves responded positively in rate and efficiency of gain in the 29-day adaptation study, gaining an additional 8.3 kg (18.3 lb) with 70 ppm of supplemental niacin (Byers, 1979).
Byers (1979; 1981) summarized 14 beef cattle studies in which niacin supplementation increased gains and feed efficiency by 9.7% and 10.9%, respectively. Niacin supplementation during adaptation of cattle to feedlot diets was beneficial for growth in all studies. Table 13-2 shows the effects of niacin supplementation on gains and feed efficiency of feedlot cattle. Sixteen of the 18 reports showed improved gains and feed efficiency resulting from niacin supplementation.
The large response during the feedlot adaptation phase indicates that supplemental niacin assists in overcoming shipping stress and allows for a more rapid adjustment to feedlot conditions and changing diets, probably because rumen niacin synthesis is reduced by feed deprivation and diet change.
Responses to Niacin Supplementation — Dairy Cows
A number of studies have been conducted on the effects of supplemental niacin in dairy cows. The effect of niacin on milk production and composition has been variable (Table 13-3). Under some conditions, supplemental niacin at 6 to 12 g per cow per day has had a beneficial effect on milk production in early lactation and when fed to ketotic cows.
Up to 50% of dairy cows in high-production herds go through borderline ketosis during early lactation (Emery et al., 1964). The concentration of 3-hydroxybutyrate in serum was reduced from 1.24 to 0.74 mmol per liter after five days, when 10 g of niacin was fed to ketotic cows (Flachowsky et al., 1988a). Fronk and Schultz (1979) indicated that supplementing ketotic dairy cows with 12 gm doses of nicotinic acid daily had a beneficial effect on the reversal of both subclinical and clinical ketosis. More recent studies indicate that 6 gm of niacin may be sufficient. Endogenous synthesis of niacin is decreased by ketones and increased by corticosteriods, leading to the hypothesis that part of the beneficial effect of adrenal corticoids on ketosis is derived from increased niacin synthesis. This suggests that niacin may be a useful adjunct to glucocorticoid therapy for ketosis. Supplemental niacin has been reported to increase plasma insulin and glucose response to beta- agonists (Chilliard and Ottou, 1995). Insulin resistance in periparturient ruminants serves to prioritize glucogenic nutrients for vital functions, fetal growth, and lactose production and to enhance mobilization of fatty acids and glycerol from adipose tissue (Bell and Bauman, 1997). However, exaggerated insulin resistance in adipose tissue can potentially lead to further increases in plasma non-esterified fatty acid (NEFA) concentrations and to the onset of metabolic disorders. Increased plasma NEFA concentration has been associated with insulin resistance in Holstein cows. Reduction of plasma NEFA concentration by nicotinic acid was found to enhance the response to insulin in feed-restricted Holstein cows (Pires et al., 2007). Impaired insulin signaling due to elevated NEFA may affect an array of cell functions in different tissues, with important repercussions on the physiology and productivity of the periparturient dairy cow. Erickson et al. (1990) reported a trend for reduced lipolysis (area under curve for NEFA) in response to epinephrine challenge in cows fed 12 g per day of either nicotinic acid or nicotinamide. Skaar et al. (1989) did not find any effect of niacin on hepatic lipidosis during the periparturient period in dairy cows.
B. Milk Production
Milk yield was increased after niacin supplementation in some studies, while it was without influence in other trials (Niehoff et al., 2009). The absence of a niacin effect may be explained in that cows were too far into lactation and thus not in a negative energy balance (Ottou et al., 1995). Girard (1998) summarized effects of supplemental niacin on milk production in dairy cows. Some of the individual studies and recent results are discussed below. Many of the more recent studies have tested the possible interaction of feeding niacin with or without supplemental fats.
Daily supplementation of 3 to 6 gm of niacin to early lactation dairy cows resulted in slight increases in milk production. In a study involving six dairy herds, Jaster et al. (1983) found that milk production of niacin-supplemented cows peaked earlier, and milk production of high-producing cows in first lactation was greater when they received supplemental niacin. In these herds there was only a slight increase in milk fat percentage. French et al. (2011) reported that feeding nicotinamide during the close-up period reduced early lactation culling and increased fat-corrected milk yield.
Muller et al. (1986) and Bartlett et al. (1983) both reported that supplemental niacin increased milk yield of cows in early lactation in commercial dairy herds. Muller et al. (1986) noted a 4% increase in milk production over the entire lactation in response to feeding 6 gm of niacin per day.
Horner et al. (1986) reported that feeding whole cottonseed and most other dietary fat sources to dairy cows results in a reduction of milk protein percentage and protein yield. Diets supplemented with niacin (6 gm niacin per 20.45 kg of dry matter) increased milk protein percentage in diets with 15% whole cottonseed. The authors concluded that milk protein depression with whole cottonseed was alleviated by niacin because of stimulation of mammary casein synthesis. A subsequent study reported that supplemental niacin increased milk production by 3% with no effect on dry matter intake (Horner et al., 1988). In another study, there was no beneficial effect of niacin on milk casein synthesis for cows fed whole cottonseed, which may have been due to their late stage of lactation (Lanham et al., 1992). Driver et al. (1990) suggest that feeding niacin to cows receiving heat-treated soybeans corrected a dietary oil-induced milk protein depression. Erickson et al. (1992) reported that feeding cows 12 gm of niacin daily increased milk protein yield and reduced plasma ketones.
More recently, Cervantes et al. (1996), using cows in mid-lactation, found that feeding 12 gm of nicotinamide daily increased milk and milk protein production, decreased milk fat percentage and had no effect on blood glucose or beta-hydroxy butyrate. Madison-Anderson et al. (1997) tested effects of feeding 0 or 12 gm of nicotinic acid daily with or without supplemental fat from extruded soybeans. Milk yield was 3.3 kg per day higher for cows fed niacin, but the difference was not statistically significant. Niacin exerted some effects on fatty acid composition of milk, increasing the proportion of unsaturated and long-chain fatty acids. Milk oleic acid concentration was increased by duodenal infusion of 6 gm of nicotinic acid daily with no other effects on milk yield or composition (Wagner et al., 1997). Minor et al. (1998) tested effects of supplementary niacin (0 or 12 gm per day) fed with either high or moderate levels of nonstructural carbohydrate in the ration, starting 19 days prepartum and continuing through week 40 of lactation. Niacin had no significant effects on production parameters or blood metabolites. In contrast, Drackley et al. (1998), using similar rations with or without supplemental fat (whole soybeans and animal fat), and supplementing either 0 or 12 gm of nicotinic acid daily for weeks four through 43 of lactation, reported increased milk production (6.2% to 7.2%), lower milk casein concentration and a trend toward higher milk protein yield in cows fed niacin.
The variation in response to supplemental niacin in dairy cows is difficult to explain. Interactions of niacin and dietary fat are predicted based on metabolism but have not been observed, although niacin has increased milk yield in diets containing supplemental fat. Tryptophan status of animals may be involved in some of the milk production responses if supplemental niacin is able to spare tryptophan for use by the mammary gland. Horner et al. (1986) reported a trend for elevated plasma levels of free tryptophan in niacin-supplemented cows. Others have noted an apparent effect of niacin in decreasing plasma calcium and increasing plasma phosphorus concentration (Dufva et al., 1983). This has led to speculation that marginal dietary calcium levels may limit the response to supplementary niacin (Harmeyer and Kollenkirchen, 1989). In addition, there are the variable effects of niacin on rumen metabolism and the variations in rumen niacin synthesis and degradation to consider. Girard (1998) concludes that because of its role in energy metabolism, niacin is likely of most value when fed during early lacatation, when body lipid stores are mobilized and when nutrient deficits are most likely to occur. Retrospective analysis of some trial data has led to the theory that cows in heavier body condition, and therefore cows that will mobilize more body fat after calving, are more responsive to supplementary niacin than cows in thin condition. Overall the research results suggest that niacin be considered as a supplemental nutrient at 6 to 12 gm per day in high-producing cows during early lactation, particularly with higher fat diets (>6% fat).
C. Response to Heat Stress
Encapsulated niacin was administered to lactating Holstein cows to study the vitamin’s affect on heat stress (Zimbelman et al., 2007). Cows receiving niacin had increased dry matter intake. Between 11:00AM and 4:00PM average sweating rate for the niacin group was higher than the control (81.1 vs. 68.2 g/M2/hour in shaved areas and 70.6 vs. 62.3 gm/M2/hour in the unshaved area). Vaginal temperatures recorded at 15 minute intervals and averaged over the last 72 hours were lower (38.4 vs. 38.0°C) for cows given niacin compared to control cows. It was concluded that cows given encapsulated niacin, had higher sweating rates and lower core temperatures during acute thermal stress.
D. Responses to Niacin Supplementation — Lambs
Mizwicki et al. (1975) observed that 500 ppm of supplemental niacin improved feed efficiency of lambs fed a high-concentrate diet containing urea. Subsequent studies using 100 ppm niacin fed to growing and finishing lambs showed increased performance (Table 13-4), with evidence that niacin stimulates rumen microbial protein synthesis (Shields et al., 1982). These studies indicate that supplemental niacin: (1) increased nitrogen utilization; (2) improved the percentage of absorbed nitrogen retained; (3) reduced urinary nitrogen excretion; and (4) reduced the percentage of nitrogen found as urea nitrogen. All of these positive responses indicate improved protein metabolism with high-concentrate diets.
Much of the niacin in common feeds (plant sources) is bound in a form that is not readily digestible by animals. Although the bioavailability of niacin is 100% in soybean meal, it is 0 in wheat and sorghum and varies from 0 to 30% in corn. In calculating the niacin content of formulated diets, probably all niacin from cereal grain sources should be ignored or at least given a value no greater than one-third of the total niacin content. Tryptophan, the immediate precursor of niacin in animals, is particularly low in corn. Soybeans and soybean meal and cottonseed meal contain moderate levels (0.5%), while fish meal and blood meal are highest in tryptophan, although these products normally make up only a small portion of the ration. Addition of niacin to a milk replacer is recommended based on lack of synthesis in the pre-ruminant animal. The suggested level is 9 to 18 mg per calf per day (Roche, 1997).
As discussed in the previous section there have been positive responses of cattle and sheep to supplementary niacin. Supplementation appears to be of greatest benefit to stressed animals, such as beef cattle entering the feedlot, feedlot cattle and lambs and dairy cows immediately postpartum, particularly if symptoms of ketosis are present. Recommended supplemental niacin levels are 1 to 2 gm per day for beef receiving cattle or feedlot cattle, 100 to 500 ppm in the diet of feedlot lambs and 3 to 12 gm per day for dairy cattle.
Niacin may be beneficial in the acclimation to non-protein nitrogen (urea) in feedlot rations. However, the stimulation of microbial protein production by niacin was greatest when natural protein rather than non-protein nitrogen was fed (Brent and Bartley, 1984). Kung et al. (1980) reported no interaction between supplemental niacin and protein sources of either soybean meal or urea in lactating dairy cows.
Research has shown some beneficial effects of niacin in preventing or treating ketosis and possibly fat-cow syndrome. For individual cows with positive urinary ketone tests, a level of 12 gm per day is recommended. When used as a general dietary supplementation, a level of 6 gm of niacin per day is suggested, starting two weeks before calving.
Commercially produced niacin is quite stable compared to most other vitamins. Synthetic niacin and niacinamide were stable in premixes with or without minerals for three months (Verbeeck, 1975). Gadient (1986) reports that niacin is stable to heat, oxygen, moisture and light. The retention of niacin activity in pelleted feeds after three months at room temperature and dry storage conditions should be 95% to 100%. Niacin stability is reduced by the presence of trace minerals and choline.
Niacin has a wide margin of safety. Toxic effects of nicotinic acid occur only at levels far in excess of requirements. Limited research indicates that nicotinic acid and nicotinamide are toxic at dietary intakes greater than about 350 mg per kg (160 mg per lb) of body weight per day (NRC, 1987). The intravenious LD50 of niacin in mice is 2.5 gm per kg (1.1 g per lb) of body weight. The oral LD50 and subcutaneous LD50 in mice are 4.5 and 2.8 gm per kg (2.0 and 1.3 gm per lb), respectively. Nicotinamide is two- to three-times more toxic than the free acid (Waterman, 1978). The nicotinic acid and niacinamide tolerance for ruminants has not been determined.


Diet in Pregnancy Second TrimesterAs an Indian pregnant woman, ensure that your meal plate includes food from the five essential food groups. These five food groups help you get all the nutrients, such as protein, minerals, fats, carbohydrates and vitamins vital for overall well-being. The five essential food groups are:
Whole grainsEat lots of whole grains to get carbohydrates that are the vital source of energy for our bodies. The wholegrain products are full of fibre, iron, proteins, minerals and B vitamins. Eating whole grains relieves constipation problem and prevents the risk of haemorrhoids. You can eat whole grain/ multigrain foods, such as:
- Wholemeal bread
- Brown rice
- Wheat berries
- Quinoa and other foods wholegrain items
- Oats porridge
- Whole wheat toast and omelette
- Wheat rava upma with vegetables
- Vegetable daliya
VegetablesEat loads of vegetables as a part of your diet in second trimester. Rich in vitamins, minerals, fibre and other nutrients, vegetables aid in digestion and prevent constipation in pregnancy. Include different colours of vegetables and leafy greens in your diet for iron, fibre, vitamins A, B, C, E, K, beta carotene, potassium and other minerals required for healthy prenatal nutrition. Also, the nutrients received from vegetables may avoid gestational diabetes, prevent anaemia, control blood pressure and maintain healthy weight gain. According to the National Health Service, UK, eat at least 5 servings of vegetables a day. You can eat fresh or frozen or canned vegetables. Each serving is of 80g of vegetables. You can include the following vegetables in your diet in pregnancy second trimester:
- Bell peppers
- Wheatgrass and other greens
FruitsAccording to NHS UK, you need to eat at least 80g of fruits every day to supplement your diet in second trimester. Eat fruits for more vitamins, minerals and fibre. Get vitamins, such as C, B, E, K and folate and minerals, such as copper and potassium to reduce leg cramps and improve your health. You can add:
Dairy productsInclude dairy products as foods to eat during second trimester in India. In the second trimester, consume more calcium and vitamin D rich product and for stronger bones and teeth in your baby. Dairy products are rich in high-quality proteins (casein and whey) along with B vitamins, magnesium, phosphorus and zinc. Consume dairy products, such as:
- Calcium-fortified soymilk
LegumesLegumes are plant-based crops, such as lentils, pulses, beans, peas and seeds. Supplement your diet in pregnancy second trimester with legumes for the daily requirement of folate. Legumes are full of protein, iron, folate, fibre, magnesium, potassium, calcium and other important vitamins and minerals. Eat one serving of legumes of 80g every day. Include:
- Kidney beans
- Dried beans
- Black beans and other products
Nuts and seedsEat a handful or 30g of each serving of nuts, seeds and dried fruits every day to get enough calories essential for the second trimester of pregnancy. Consume these nuts and seeds in your diet:
- Pistachios Dates
Protein-rich foodsProtein is an essential nutrient for building, maintaining and repairing the cells and tissues in our body and supporting the overall development of your baby. Protein forms the building blocks of muscles, bones, hair, skin, nails and all the cells and tissues of our bodies. So, increase protein consumption in your diet in second trimester. Add the following to your diet:
- Pulses – boiled
- Peanut butter
- Beans – soybeans, kidney beans, black beans
- Dairy products – Milk, curd/yoghurt, cheese
- Fish – Salmon, mackerel or sardines (not more than 2 servings a week)
- Lean meat – chicken, turkey or pork. Avoid liver.
- Eggs – a good source of protein source, but avoid raw and undercooked eggs
Avoid This Diet in Pregnancy Second TrimesterFor a safe and healthy pregnancy, you must also be careful of the kind of food you eat. So, here is a list of foods that must be avoided during the second trimester of pregnancy.
Foods with high mercury levels:Do not eat food that has high levels of mercury in it. Mercury is a toxic element that can harm your immune system, nervous system, brain development, and interfere with normal kidney and lung function. It also impacts your hearing and vision abilities. Avoid:
- Tuna (bigeye tuna)
- King mackerel
Organ meat:Avoid eating organ meat because it provides animal-based vitamin A, which is dangerous for your pregnancy. It may result in congenital malformations and miscarriage. Avoid eating:
Unwashed and undercooked food:
Avoid consuming unwashed, unpeeled and undercooked diet in pregnancy second trimester as it may be contaminated with bacteria, such as Salmonella, Listeria and E. coli. Always cook your food thoroughly to reduce the risk of infection and pathogens in food.
Unpasteurized cheese and milk:
Do not consume unpasteurized milk, juice and soft mould-ripened cheese because there is a risk of infection that can harm expecting mothers and unborn babies.
Smoking and drinking:
Avoid smoking and drinking in your gestation period. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, US, expecting mothers who smoke are at higher risk of miscarriage than women who do not smoke.
Smoking may increase the probability of stillbirth, underweight babies, birth defects, such as cleft palate/ cleft lip and premature birth.
Drinking may affect normal brain development in babies, increase the odds of stillbirth and miscarriage.
Processed or junk food:
Replace your urge for junk and processed food with fresh and nutrition-dense food for a healthy pregnancy. Processed foods have more sugar, unhealthy fats and empty calories that may result in excess weight gain, gestational diabetes and birth complications.
According to the FDA, you need to avoid eating raw sprouts because it may increase the threat of eating food contaminated/infected with Salmonella bacterial. However, you can eat sprouts after thoroughly cooking them.
Restrict your caffeine intake to less than 200mg per day, according to the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG). The recommendation is based on an observation that caffeine can be easily absorbed and passed into the placenta. This may inhibit regular foetal growth and may result in low birth weight.
So, eat the right diet in second trimester to support the healthy growth of your unborn.


Discover the cosmos! Each day a different image or photograph of our fascinating universe is featured, along with a brief explanation written by a professional astronomer.
2002 April 14
Explanation: Is RJX J185635-375 really so small? Previously, this compact star held claim to being the closest neutron star -- only 150 light-years away. Now new observations and analysis indicate not only a larger distance, roughly 450 light-years, but a very small radius for RXJ J185635-375, pictured above. One hypothesized solution holds hope a RJX J185635-375 is actually a not a neutron star but a quark star -- something new. Now quark stars are truly strange -- some may have made a transition to type of matter known as strange quarks. Quark stars, were they to exist, can be intermediate between neutron stars and black holes in size and density. Quark stars can also be more compact and cool faster than neutron stars. In fact, some might even be ultracompact -- so dense that light itself can orbit. Future observations will likely settle the controversial claims of RJX J185635-375's distance and radiative geometry, and hence determine if a previously undiscovered type of beast roams the sky.
Authors & editors:
Jerry Bonnell (USRA)
NASA Technical Rep.: Jay Norris. Specific rights apply.
A service of: LHEA at NASA/ GSFC
& Michigan Tech. U.


Monday, November 24, 2014
Let's Orange UR World...
Today is the International Day for the Elimination of Violence against Women and Girls and the 16 Days of Activism against Gender- Based Violence occur at a critical juncture for efforts to end violence against women and girls. This is a very important subject to talk about because I believe that ending violence against women and girls and gender equality are one of the greatest challenges of 21st century. As I write this I am getting so emotional and at the same time so defied as a female, reading all this statistics from UN agencies and civil organizations. Violence against women and girls happens everywhere: in every country, at every level of society. Every day millions of women and girls face the horror of rape, sexual assault, domestic violence. Part of them might be our sisters, friends, colleagues, at some point of their lives. That horrified me. Did you know that across the globe 60 million girls are sexually assaulted on their way to school each year, and according to recent UNICEF report, around 120 million girls worldwide have experienced forced sexual acts?
I’m not writing this just to show you some numbers, but to acknowledge that this problem still exists, all around us, and I know you know it. I know it too. We’re just too lazy to act and we’re always turning our head round it. So next time you hear or see this kind of problem ACT, write about it, speak loud, DO something. The individual becomes mass when everyone starts to believe that the problem can be solved and they’re acting against it. The mass gets global by gathering individual experiences who act against the violence. Everyone have a role to play in the community: politicians, civil organizations, men, boys, religious leaders, teachers, police officers but the most important role have parents. They are the brick builders of their children’s respect for human rights and meaning of gender equality.
And what can WE do: Educate public about discrimination, promote gender equality, and promote women’s empowerment, making sure that the voice of the victims is heard by everyone who can make a change. And we all have to start to BELIEVE.
I believe in women’s emancipation, I believe that women can be smarter than this problem and can fight for their rights and identity. I believe that women can be equal to men, I believe that girls can be equal to boys. When I was a little girl, I had male as well as female friends. I was happy playing with anyone and any toys, I was not playing only with the girls. I was part of the girls as well as the boy’s gangs. Today, I’m proud woman knowing that I am equal to all the men in the world. But I made this happened by positioning myself equal to all the boys and I always fought for my rights when someone tried to take that feeling away from me. And yes, I think equality is a feeling. And you have to find it in yourself. Sooner you feel it, it’s better for the world: One case less to fight for.
We all have to make some sacrifice to give a better opportunities not only for ourselves, but for our daughters, and learn how to become a force for justice and CHANGE. So no more ignorance. No more.
Look at vibe to look your best!


Last updated: 12 September 2016
Most significant projects
- Long term investment in Madagascar has created a thriving solar cooking enterprise- Since 2001, the Association pour le Développement de l’Energie Solaire (ADES) has been making and selling solar cookers in the southwestern part of Madagascar, providing much-needed cooking alternatives as well as employment for over 30 local carpenters and trainers. In 2003, ADES built its first permanent solar cooker construction workshop in Tulear. A second construction workshop was established in Ejeda in 2006, followed in 2008 by a workshop in Morondava. Each of these regional centers also has sales and demonstration offices. Future plans include development of a fourth regional center in Anosy or Antandroy, and the creation of two or three local branches within each region to reduce transportation distances and increase outreach capacity. According to ADES, southwestern Madagascar experiences about 330 sunny days per year and is a nearly ideal region for solar cooking. However, per capita income in Madagascar is only about $400 per year, making it difficult for families to afford solar cookers and spend their meager income on a technology they are not familiar with. Rising firewood and charcoal costs over the past few years are making solar cookers comparatively more affordable, but still out of reach for many. Subsidies have mostly come from donors in Switzerland and a handful of awards. The Madagascar government has provided some additional support, partnering with ADES to promote renewable energy in Tulear. Hand-crafted wooden solar box cookers, produced locally for upwards of $200 each, are sold at a subsidized price of just over $20. These cookers reach temperatures of up to 150 °C (302 °F), and are commonly used to cook rice, various root vegetables, meat, fish, bread, and cakes. Metal parabolic solar cookers are assembled locally for about $160 each, from aluminum and steel parts made by another local organization at an already subsidized price. The parabolic cookers are then sold at a subsidized price of about $50. These cookers reach even higher temperatures, but require stirring of food and more frequent adjustments to track the sun. They are particularly useful for frying, and can work in a complementary fashion with solar box cookers. Both cookers come with 7-year warranties. By the end of 2009, ADES had sold 4,640 solar cookers. It hopes to ramp up its outreach and sales capacity with funding from carbon credit offsets.
- See other Most significant solar cooking projects worldwide.
- July 2016: ADES is chosen as one of 100 Projects for the Environment.
- December 2014: ADES has created a document detailing their work with solar cookers and fuel-efficient woodstoves in Madagascar: ADES from 2001 to 2013
- November 2012: Zahana reports that solar box cookers have been very well accepted in the schools. The students like it a lot and have been experimenting, and cooking is many things as possible. In the latest text message from the village, we received a little synopsis of the cooking efforts by the students. The students have been encouraged to keep notes. They recorded the time required to cook local foods: Rice, 2h30; Zebu, 2h30; Fish, 2h; Cassava, 2h30; Dried beans, 3h; Boiling water for coffee, 1h; Madeleine (small cake), 1h; Cassava cake, 2h. Note: they let the internal temperature go up to 100 degree C (216˚F) before the pot gets put in the solar cooker. Introducing solar cookers in the schools was a long-term project. The solar cookers have generated a lot of interest, because a solar cooker does not require firewood to make food for the children and, which seems to be even more important, there is no smoke in the cooking process, as with traditional firewood stoves. Zahana will tie together the solar cooker project and the tree-planting project intertwined in a tangible way. In December 2012, it will be a year we launched the official tree-planting project. Working with the community leaders, we will identify the person, who has planted the most trees that took root successfully. Planting trees alone, is no guarantee that they will grow, if it is not tended to and watered by the person planting it. We had told from the community from the beginning, that we will give awards in the first, second and third year, to the person who has planted the most trees that are still growing. This year the price will be a solar cooker.
- November 2012: Niconet Tsukuba has been introducing solar cookers to local citizens in Japan to increase people’s awareness of environmental and global issues, as well as to make small changes from their fossil-fuel-centered lifestyles to eco-friendly ones. Our programs are usually performed in an informal and relaxed manner, by our motto “Niconet’s 3E = Enjoy, Environment, and Eating.” Solar cooking is, in fact, effective for promoting communication with others. In 2011 -2012, we worked with the faculty of a local university to conduct an analysis on the efficiency of the Sun Peace solar cooker which was developed by our member Yuko Tomioka, by using thermo-graphic devices. We plan to include the results in our Solar cooking recipe booklet, which will be available on the web this year. In recent years, we also have focused on hand-made “retained heat cookers”. We introduced that newspaper as an effective material for insulating. While we are mainly active in the local area in Japan, some members are also active in other countries. Our member Fumi Sakurai stayed in Madagascar for two years, where serious deforestation is evident. She introduced villagers to the solar cooker Sun Peace. This solar cooker is easy to make because it does not require measurement. She suggested to some key persons in villages to use aluminum sheets of used snack packages for reflective material. It was found to work successfully in the sun-rich climate. Some villagers who learned how to make/use solar cookers became “teachers” and started to share the skills with others. In Japan, introducing such information is also useful for educational purposes.
- November 2012: ADES from 2001 to 2012 - ADES started its solar cooking program in Madagascar in 2001 with a small carpentry shop under a party tent, two motivated carpenters and an instructress. Today we operate six centres with manufacturing facilities, a new sales point in Antananarivo, the capital and a coordination centre in Tuléar. ADES actually employs 85 persons and additionally created about 50 jobs in external enterprises. On average a family of 20 people is living off the salary of one employee. ADES is a socially sustainable employer. All the children of our employees go to school at our expense and the families are covered by health insurance. For each solar cooker sold we have two trees planted in a reforestation project in Madagascar. Read ADES from 2001 to 2012 to find out more and see photographs of our facilities, products, and activities.
Madagascar, with its unique biological diversity, has attracted the attention of environmentalists from around the world to its rescue. It is somewhat surprising then to learn that little has been done to curtail the use of fuelwood as the major cooking energy for the population. Around one-fifth of the island's land has forest cover, which is diminishing at nearly 1% annually (FAO, 2003). A representative of the country, speaking at the Varese meeting in 1999, spoke of solar experimentation in the 1970s, revived in the 90s as deforestation worsened, but with little progress in mass implementation. The initial introduction was principally of parabolics, but later the 'breadbox" model was introduced and enthusiastically endorsed. The report called on governments, non-governmental organizations, and businesses to attempt to establish a strong national program, urging that international research and development be done cooperatively and shared widely with smaller nations.
One program operating in Madagascar is run by the medical arm (SALFA) of the Malagasy Lutheran Church. SALFA runs 25 hospitals throughout the country. Dr. Stanley Quanback and his wife, medical missionaries in the country, initiated the project and helped to develop collaboration with another medical organization, Pathologists Overseas. Teaching materials and consultation were provided to the volunteers by California volunteer, Alice Hoenecke, sociologist Agnes Rasamimampianina , and nutritionist Sosanna Suzanne, the latter two employees of SALFA and citizens of the country.
The group began by training women in one village in a semiarid region of the country. The trainees were hospital staff members and members of a churchwomen's organization. As stated above, fuelwood was become very scarce and expensive. Miss Sosanna directs the project, supervising 15 trainers who are working now in 11 villages. Primary health centers are usually the site for training in the use of solar cookers. They estimated, as of 2003, that there were 1,000 users and others begging to have solar cookers made available to them.
 Another project currently active in Madagascar is l'Association pour le Développement de l'Energie Solaire (ADES) is an NGO and a non-profit organization that produces solar cookers in Madagascar and supports the use of renewable energy sources. It started in Tuléar in the south of Madagascar in 2001. Local production by local people with local material is part of the ADES philosophy.
Climate and culture
Solar Cookers International has rated Madagascar as the #19 country in the world in terms of solar cooking potential (See: The 25 countries with the most solar cooking potential). The estimated number of people in Madagascar with fuel scarcity but ample sun in 2020 is 3,000,000.
From Association pour le Développement de l'Energie Solaire: For centuries the population of Madagascar has been cooking their food with charcoal, which requires vast amounts of firewood in its production. About 90% of the original forest in Madagascar has been destroyed. It is not any more a green island but becomes more and more a red one. Madagascar has, especially in the south and southwest regions of the country, close to ideal conditions for the use of solar energy. The solar cookers and efficient stoves are an important contribution towards halting the deforestation process. Besides environmental reasons, there are also economical and practical reasons to favor the solar cooker. Families spend less money on wood and charcoal, and cooking with the solar cooker saves having to cook over smoky fires and avoid the associated respiratory disease.
- Wikipedia article on the climate of Madagascar
- Discussion of southern Africa's suitability for solar cooking
- Solar cooker dissemination and cultural variables
Construction plans in Malagasy
- August 2015: ADES report on challenges of solar cooker promotion - Short report by the Association pour le Développement de l'Energie Solaire detailing reasons they have moved away from solar cooking and toward fuel-efficient woodstoves
- February 2014: Life Cycle Assessment and Environmental Impact Evaluation of the Parabolic Solar Cooker SK14 in Madagascar - Journal of Clean Energy Technologies, Vol. 2, No. 2, April 2014
Articles in the media
- July 2016: Africa’s Charcoal Economy Is Cooking. The Trees Are Paying - New York Times
- November 2008: Akany Avoko - A safe haven - Otago Daily Times
- July 2008: Un four solaire ADES sauve 22 tonnes de bois - Madagascar Tribune (English version)
- June 2008: TRITEC finances the 1st Solar Village in Madagascar - PresseBox
Audio and video
- May 2012:
Manufacturers and vendors


The U.S. transportation system carried 20 percent more ton-miles of domestic freight in 2000 than in 1990 . This growth was unevenly distributed in terms of geography and mode. The Federal Highway Administration developed the Freight Analysis Framework (FAF) to estimate geographic freight flows on the nation’s infrastructure . These results can be depicted on maps like figure 9, figure 10, and figure 11.
Nearly one-third of urban Interstate highways carried more than 10,000 trucks each day on average in 1998,1 according to FAF estimates. By 2020, the portion of heavily used urban Interstates is expected to rise to 69 percent . Rail freight flows appear to be more concentrated than trucking flows. In addition to growth in domestic freight shipments, increased trade with Mexico and Canada has altered the distribution of freight movement within the United States, creating high traffic areas near borders .
For waterborne freight, domestic flows are highly concentrated along the Mississippi and Ohio Rivers. Domestic waterborne ton-miles decreased 23 percent between 1990 and 2000 .
1. U.S. Department of Transportation (USDOT), Bureau of Transportation Statistics (BTS), calculation based on USDOT, BTS, National Transportation Statistics 2002 (Washington, DC: 2002), table 1-44, also available at http:// www.bts.gov.
2. U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration, Freight Analysis Framework website, available at http://www.ops.fhwa.dot.gov/freight/adfrmwrk/index.htm, as of March 2003.
3. _____, The Freight Story (Washington, DC: November 2002), also available at http://www.ops.fhwa.dot.gov/freight/, as of March 2003.
1 At the time this report was prepared, 1998 was the most recent year for which data were available.