Despite an increasing number of automated tools to evaluate websites for accessibility, manual accessibility testing is more important than ever for evaluating real world accessibility of websites. This is because many accessibility barriers can escape detection with automated accessibility scanners. Also, testing with assistive technology devices is the best way to get a real-world picture of accessibility, and to determine compatibility with common assistive technology devices including screen readers, braille displays, screen magnifiers, and other AT software/devices.
Also, manual tools can be used to:
- Evaluate the extent and impact of WCAG failures on website accessibility
- Identify accessibility improvements needed to ensure the best experience for assistive technology users
- Complete a conformance evaluation and make a conformance claim (aligns with W3C recommendations for evaluating websites for accessibility).
Strengths of Automated Accessibility Scanners
Automated tools are great for getting a mile-high view of website accessibility. They are also excellent tools for identifying programmatic errors that might impact accessibility such as missing alternate text, duplicate element IDs, empty buttons and links, and other errors. Premium automated tools (i.e. Siteimprove) also have the benefit of scanning larger selections of pages than might be impractical to test manually using assistive technology devices.
Here is a list of some free tools to identify HTML/CSS errors and WCAG 2.0 failures:
- Wave Accessibility Tool – Automated accessibility checker developed by Web-AIM.
- Achecker – Automated accessibility checker.
- HTML Validators – automated HTML validation tool provided by the W3C.
- CSS Validator – automated CSS validation tool provided by the W3C.
Also, there are many premium tools to evaluate website accessibility conformance and to document WCAG failures. Siteimprove, SortSite and Compliance Sheriff allow users to scan a much larger selection of pages to identify WCAG failures.
Strengths of Manual Accessibility Testing
Manual testing involves testing websites with assistive technology devices to evaluate compatibility and identify any accessibility barriers. Manual accessibility testing is the best way to get a real-world picture of accessibility compliance, and to identify significant barriers for assistive technology users.
There is no replacement for real-world testing for accessibility compliance, and manual testing can identify many errors that automated tools might miss including:
Keyboard Accessibility problems – missing keyboard focus, forms and menus that do not work with a keyboard only, inaccessible dialogs, and other accessibility errors.
Contrast Errors – Automated tools are an excellent tool to identify potential contrast problems, but they have some inherent limitations. Automated tools like Wave’s contrast tool do not account for background images, text styling, and other effects that might impact the readability of text.
Error Reporting – problems with form field validation and error reporting can only be evaluated properly using assistive technology devices.
Here are some great free tools that we use for manual accessibility testing and evaluation:
- NVDA Screen Reader – Free screen reader developed by NVAccess (donations are strongly encouraged)
- Chrome Developer Tools – Developer tools for Google’s Chrome Web browser.
To effectively evaluate website accessibility with assistive technology devices, the W3C also recommends employing both expert AT users and people with disabilities to get a complete picture of accessibility.
Evaluating websites for accessibility requires both manual and automated testing to get a complete picture of accessibility.
Automated tools are an excellent choice for identifying programmatic errors that might impact accessibility, while manual testing is essential to evaluate compatibility of websites with assistive technology devices. Together these tools can be used to evaluate website accessibility, and to verify and document accessibility compliance with the W3Cs Web Content Accessibility Guidelines (WCAG 2.0).
Need help with your Website?
Check out our industry-leading audit and evaluation services, or contact us for a free consultation or quote.


Pain is a complex physical and psychological experience that may or may not reflect injury or tissue damage. In fact, the paradox of pain is that it may often exist without recent injury or tissue damage.
Acute pain is usually a sign of actual or potential injury or trauma, often associated with anxiety or sympathetic nervous system hyperactivity, lasting a short time - from one to six months, according to different definitions. Chronic pain lasts longer than this period taken for the healing of acute tissue damage. Other symptoms commonly become associated with the chronic stage of pain: anxiety, depression, insomnia, weight loss, appetite disturbance, constipation and decreased libido.
Pain can have a somatogenic or organic cause, involving a physiological mechanism, or can be psychogenic, caused by psychological issues. Unfortunately, doctors too often ascribe chronic pain to psychological causes when organic pathology is not apparent; the correct description in this case should be idiopathic pain, i.e. pain of unknown origin. Somatogenic pain can be further classified as nociceptive, involving activation of somatic or visceral pain-sensitive nerve fibers, or neuropathic, from dysfunction of the peripheral or central nervous system. In the case of nociception, organ pain can be felt as an aching or pressure sensation, as in cancer pain. Neuropathic pain can be from compression of a peripheral nerve or central nervous system pathology, such as stroke or spinal cord injury. There may be peripheral polyneuropathies, as in diabetes. Several of these factors can co-exist in a chronic pain problem such as headache or cancer pain, which can involve, at the same time, nociception and psychological issues. (1) In a medical evaluation, an organic cause is always sought first, through physical exam, laboratory testing and X-ray, MRI or CATSCAN imaging. In evaluation of a chronic pain disorder, one would also have to take into consideration cultural, social and economic factors and the possibility of secondary gain (for example, from disability payments).
The Gate Control Theory of Pain
The Gate Control Theory of pain, formulated by Melzack and Wall in 1965, postulated a valve or gate for pain perception, through a specialized cluster of nerve cells in the substantia gelatinosa of the spinal column, probably involving activation of the endorphins, the natural morphine-like substance. Gating occurs also through the activation by such pain control techniques as acupuncture, acupressure, massage or electrical stimulation of large-diameter (A-beta) nerve fibers that suppress the slower transmission of pain impulses through small diameter (A-delta and C) nerve fibers, mediated by the pro-inflammatory Substance P (2). A higher level gate may operate in the reticular or limbic structures of the brain, involving the sensory discrimination, cognitive and emotional interpretation of the experience (3).
Signs & Symptoms of Pain
Since pain is predominantly a subjective experience, the best reflection of the existence and severity of the condition is the list of words commonly used to describe pain, compiled by the psychological researchers Melzack and Torgerson and classified by them as sensory (throbbing, pounding, shooting, pricking, sharp, stabbing, pinching, pressing, gnawing, crushing, burning, searing, stinging, smarting, wrenching, etc.); affective or emotional (sore, tender, sickening, blinding, etc.); or evaluative (excruciating, intense, unbearable, etc.) (4)
Pain Management Options
Conventional Pain Management Therapy
Conventional treatment of pain has been primarily through pharmaceutical medications.
Non-opioid analgesics, including acetaminophen and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), such as ibuprofen, naproxen and apirin, treat mild to moderate pain. Excess doses can cause toxic effects on the liver and kidney.
Opioid (narcotic) agents bind to opioid receptors in the central nervous system and can control severe, acute pain after injury or surgery, or chronic pain, such as cancer pain. For acute pain, morphine is usually delivered intravenously or intramuscularly. Other opioids include codeine and the synthetic agents methadone and oxycodone. Opioids are administered with caution for the elderly, infants and those with kidney, respiratory or liver disease, and in all cases dosage is guided by frequent monitoring of pain levels, respiratory rate and blood pressure. Excess or adverse effects of morphine and other opioids can be constipation, nausea or respiratory depression. Physical dependence can also be a danger (5). Non-drug alternatives for pain relief in conventional medicine can range from non-invasive approaches like physical therapy, including manual therapy, therapeutic exercise and modalities like ultrasound, to spinal surgery and surgical implants of electrical stimulators.
Natural Pain Management Therapy
Acupuncture has provided analgesia for acute and chronic pain for thousands of years in China and elsewhere. Clinical and experimental studies generally show a 70 percent level of pain control in comparison to placebo (6) (7). Objective evidence of this analgesic effect has also been provided by EEG evoked-potential studies (8).
Electrical stimulation of different types has been used successfully for pain control, and in particular transcutaneous electrical nerve simulation (TENS) has become increasingly popular for home therapy, utilizing pads attached over the area of pain, or clips attached to the ear lobe (for central nervous system control), and a small control unit attached to the belt. (9).
Massage and other manual therapy methods probably work similarly to acupuncture and TENS through autonomic nervous system control of pain, according to a counter-stimulus mechanism such as that postulated in the Gate Control Theory.
Psychological strategies for pain management include cognitive and behavioral skills, such as attention focusing and relaxation training, as well as preparatory information, to develop control in conditions like chronic low back pain, irritable bowel syndrome, cancer, migraine headaches and rheumatic conditions (10). Hypnosis has also been successful in inducing a deep relaxation state that can be directed specifically to an area of pain (11).
Botanical agents have traditionally been used to provide pain relief throughout the world for thousands of years and now provide safer alternatives to pharmaceutical drugs. Capsaicin, the active ingredient of cayenne or red pepper has been successfully applied topically (0.025% or 0.075% in a cream base) in a number of pain conditions. Research supports its effectiveness in reducing the pain of post-herpetic neuralgia (the chronic pain persisting after the healing of shingles lesions), trigeminal neuralgia (facial pain), post-mastectomy pain, pain due to chemotherapy or radiation, diabetic neuropathy, cluster headaches, and arthritis (12). Kava, an herb known for its sedative effect, was demonstrated also to have analgesic effect, although through a mechanism different from opiate or non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (13). The analgesic effect of ginger in experimental studies on animals is thought to operate like capsaicin in inhibiting the release of the neurotransmitter Substance P (14). In studies on rheumatoid arthritis and migraine headache, ginger had marked anti-inflammatory effect, with 75% of arthritis patients and 100 % of patient with muscular discomfort experiencing relief in pain or swelling (15). Curcumin, the active ingredient of turmeric, has been used in the Ayurvedic medical tradition of India as a topical pain-reliever, also operating like capsaicin to deplete the nerve endings of Substance P (16). The Chinese herb angelica (known in Chinese as tang-kuei), through its pain-relieving and muscle-relaxing acitivity, has demonstrated analgesic action 1.7 times that of aspirin (17). Historically, angelica has treated such conditions as uterine cramps, trauma, headaches and arthritis (18). The Chinese herb yan hu suo or corydalis has traditionally acted like opiates such as morphine and codeine to control neurological pain, and pain of headaches, low back, abdomen, arthritis and dysmenorrhea (19). The active ingredient of white willow bark is salicin, from which aspirin (acetylsalicylic acid) is formed. White willow bark has been a traditional native American herbal agent for control of painful conditions like osteoarthritis (20).
The amino acid D-phenylalanine, through its promotion of the endorphin pathway, has demonstrated positive effects in relieving post-surgical low back pain, osteoarthritis, whiplash, rheumatoid arthritis, fibrositis and migraine headaches (21). L-tryptophan, another amino acid, has raised pain tolerance threshold in numerous experimental and clinical studies of acute and chronic pain conditions (22).
Traditional Chinese herbal formulas are prescribed for pain according to a pattern described in the language of traditional Chinese medicine. For example, the formula Du Huo Ji Sheng Wan, which includes the herb angelica, is indicated for the traditionally described syndrome of Wind Dampness and Kidney Deficiency, or the Western biomedical symptoms of chronic joint and muscle pain, stiffness, spasm and cramp associated with osteoarthritis of the low back or lower limb or sciatica (23).
Homeopathic remedies are similarly prescribed according to distinctive symptom patterns, for example pain with stiffness or cramping or on movement, or accompanied by tearfulness, or aggravated by injury, or better with continued movement (24).
The Merck Manual, 17th edition, Beers M and Berkow R.,ed. 1999: 1363.Melzack R, Wall PD. Pain mechanisms: a new theory. Science 1965; 150: 971-979.Melzack R., Casey KC. Sensory, motivational and central control of pain. In Kenshalo DL, ed. The skin senses. Springfield IL: CC Thomas. 1968: 423-443.Melzack R. and Torgerson WS. On the language of pain. Anesthesiology 34. 1971: 50-59.The Merck Manual, 17th edition. Beers M and Berkow R, ed. 1999:1364-70.Lewith GT, Machin D. On the evaluation of the clinical effects of acupuncture. Pain. 1983: 16: 111-127.Reichmanis M, Becker RO. Relief of experimentally-induced pain by stimulation at acupuncture loci, a review. Comp Med East West. 1973; 5: 281-288.Chapman CR, Kitaeff R, et al. Evoked potential assessment of acupunctural analgesia. Pain. 1980; 9: 183-7.Shealy CN, Maurer D. Transcutaneous nerve stimulation for control of pain. Surg Neurol. 1974; 2: 45-57.Kitaeff R. Non-pharmacological control of pain. Textbook of natural medicine, vol I, second edition: 501-2Chaves JF. Recent advances in the applications of hypnosis to pain mangement. Am Soc Clin Hypnosis. 1994; 34: 117-129.Murray M and Pizzorno J. Textbook of natural medicine, vol I, second edition. Pizzorno J. and Murray M ed. 1999: 630-1.Jamieson DD, Duffield PH. The antinociceptive action of kava components in mice. Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol 1990; 17: 494-508.Onagi T., Minami M., Kumishi Y, Staoh M. Capsaicin-like effect of (6)-shagoal on substance P-containing primary afferents of rats. A possible mechanism of its analgesic action. Neuropharmacol. 1992; 31: 1165-1169.Murray M, Pizzorno J. Textbook of natural medicine, vol I, second edition. Pizzorno J. and Murray M. ed. 1999:1028-9.Patacchini R., Maggi CA and Meli A. Capsaicin-like activity of some natual pungent substances on peripheral nerve endings of visceral primary afferents. Arch Pharmacol 1990, 342: 72-7.Tanaka S., Kuno Y, Tabata M., Konoshima M. Effects of "toki" (angelica acutiloba Kitagawa) extracts on writhing and capillary permeability in mice: analgesic and anti-inflammatory effects. Yakugaku Zasch 1071; 91: 1098-1104.Murray M., Pizzorno J. Textbook of naturopathic medicine, vol I, second edition. Pizzorno J. and Murray, M. ed. 1999: 591.Yeung H. Handbook of Chinese herbs and formulas, vol. I. Institute of Chinese medicine. 1983: 566.Mills SY, Jacoby RK, Chackfield M, Willoughby M. Effect of a proprietary herbal medicine on the relief of chronic arthritic pain: a double-blind study. Br. J. Rheum 1996; 35: 874-8.Ehrenpreis S et al. Naloxone reversible analgesia in mice produced by D-phenylalanine and hydrocinnamic acid, inhibitors of carboxypeptidase A. Adv Pain Res & Therapy, vol 3. 1978.Werbach M. Nutritional influences on illness. Keats. 1988: 344-5.Maclean W. The clinical manual of Chinese herbal patent medicines. Pangolin.2000: 268.Locke A. and Geddes N. The complete guide to homeopathy. Darling Kindesley. 1995: 154-7.
Dr. Richard Kitaeff is the founder and director of New Health Medical Center


Dehydration or hypohydration refers to the loss of water within the body. It can occur at any time, within any sport and should be avoided as it can cause further complications within the body. It is caused by a prolonged physical activity, among other things, where water has not been consumed at an adequate level.
Although in the water, swimming is a strenuous sport that can induce dehydration – especially when one is swimming for long periods of time. It is important to keep hydrated to maintain endurance, health and balance through the body while partaking in the sport. Here are some ways that can help to prevent dehydration while swimming.
It is important to know the symptoms of dehydration – and check for these symptoms regularly should you be immersed in the water for extended periods of time. These symptoms are the increased urge to urinate, a dry mouth, or swollen tongue – and weakness, dizziness and fatigue. Although there is an increased urge to urinate, there may be little urination that actually occurs. When one is dehydrated, the urine is often stronger in color when one is suffering from dehydration.
The first way that we can prevent dehydration while swimming is to ensure that proper amounts of water are being consumed. Breaks should be taken every fifteen to twenty minutes to consume at least eight ounces of water, or another beverage – a healthy beverage. Drinking water from the pool, lake or ocean should be avoided as these water sources can contain salt, chemicals and bacteria that can induce further dehydration. Just because we are in the water, does not mean we have to stop drinking water. Swimming is exercise, and with any exercise we are losing moisture from the body – and it is important to replenish this moisture.
They say that swimmers are more prone to dehydration because it causes high levels of exertion in the body, but swimmers do not feel the urge to drink because they are immersed within the water and therefore the brain is not aware of the need for water, and other liquids. To prevent this, take specified breaks from the exercise to drink water, and ensure that at least a half gallon of water is being consumed each day – to prevent these swimming dehydration risks.
When treating dehydration at home, it is important to replenish the liquid that has been lost from the body – but not too quickly, as this can cause uncomfortable feelings within the stomach. Using ice chips or sports drinks high in electrolytes will help replenish and rejuvenate the system that has suffered from dehydration.
With the combination of heat and humidity, and water – your body is more than likely losing water while swimming. This combined with the perspiration, and high heart rate is combinations that can create dehydration. Be sure to keep hydrated while participating in swim meets, especially children – and especially at an outdoor pool in high temperatures.
Dehydration is a dangerous illness that causes severe electrolyte imbalance. The treatment for severe dehydration is intravenous fluids – therefore, medical attention should be sought for any child or adult suffering from prolonged dehydration, as to avoid any damage to the body.


Researchers are using a Pacific island plant called Amborella trichopoda to help solve "Darwin's abominable mystery"—what was it, exactly, that caused the explosion of flowering plants in the fossil record around 145 million years ago? Amborella's genome, it turns out, holds clues to explaining how flowers managed their incredible diversification and sudden dominance. The Scientist explains why Amborella is a key candidate for doing this:
A. trichopoda is the sister species of all other flowering plants, or angiosperms. It is the last survivor of a lineage that branched off during the dynasty’s earliest days, before the rest of the 350,000 or so angiosperm species diversified.
After sequencing the plant's genome, researchers analyzed it and found that
Of the 300,000 flowering plants known today, Amborella is the only one that directly traces back to that common ancestor of them all, the researchers write in a statement. "In the same way that the genome sequence of the platypus — a survivor of an ancient lineage — can help us study the evolution of all mammals, the genome sequence of Amborella can help us learn about the evolution of all flowers," they say.
More from Smithsonian.com:


There is a new paper (h/t to Steve Milloy) that further documents that
1. Carbon Dioxide is but one of a diverse range of human climate forcings
2. That it is atmospheric and ocean circulation pattern changes that are of much more importance than a long term trend in the global annual average surface temperature.
We reported on these two issues, for example, in
Pielke Sr., R., K. Beven, G. Brasseur, J. Calvert, M. Chahine, R. Dickerson, D. Entekhabi, E. Foufoula-Georgiou, H. Gupta, V. Gupta, W. Krajewski, E. Philip Krider, W. K.M. Lau, J. McDonnell, W. Rossow, J. Schaake, J. Smith, S. Sorooshian, and E. Wood, 2009: Climate change: The need to consider human forcings besides greenhouse gases. Eos, Vol. 90, No. 45, 10 November 2009, 413. Copyright (2009) American Geophysical Union.
where we wrote
In addition to greenhouse gas emissions, other first-order human climate forcings are important to understanding the future behavior of Earth’s climate. These forcings are spatially heterogeneous and include the effect of aerosols on clouds and associated precipitation [e.g., Rosenfeld et al., 2008], the influence of aerosol deposition (e.g., black carbon (soot) [Flanner et al. 2007] and reactive nitrogen [Galloway et al., 2004]), and the role of changes in land use/land cover [e.g., Takata et al., 2009]. Among their effects is their role in altering atmospheric and ocean circulation features away from what they would be in the natural climate system [NRC, 2005].
Ozone depletion in the stratosphere can be added to this list.
The new paper is
S. M. Kang, L. M. Polvani,J. C. Fyfe, M. Sigmond, 2011: Impact of Polar Ozone Depletion on Subtropical Precipitation Scienc Express.org / 21 April 2011
The abstract reads [highlight added]
“Over the past half-century, the ozone hole has caused a poleward shift of the extratropical westerly jet in the Southern Hemisphere. Here, we argue that these extratropical circulation changes, resulting from ozone depletion, have substantially contributed to subtropical precipitation changes. Specifically, we show that precipitation in the Southern subtropics in austral summer increases significantly when climate models are integrated with reduced polar ozone concentrations. Furthermore, the observed patterns of subtropical precipitation change, from 1979 to 2000, are very similar to those in our model integrations, where ozone depletion alone is prescribed. In both climate models and observations, the subtropical moistening is linked to a poleward shift of the extratropical westerly jet. Our results highlight the importance of polar regions on the subtropical hydrological cycle.”
An excerpt from the paper reads
“In a broader perspective, the impact of polar ozone depletion on tropical precipitation discussed here provides one more instance of how changes in high latitudes are able to affect the tropics. Other well-known examples are the effect of Arctic sea ice … and of the Atlantic thermohaline circulation … on the position of the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ). Hence the need to deepen our understanding of polar to tropical linkages in order to accurately predict tropical precipitation.”
In a news article on this paper by Richard Black of the BBC,
it is written
“This study does illustrate the important point that different mechanisms of global change are contributing to the climate impacts we’re seeing around the world,” observed Professor Myles Allen of Oxford University, a leading UK climate modeller.
“It’s very important to unpack them all rather than assuming that any impact we see is down simply to greenhouse gas-mediated warming.”
Myles Allen has succinctly and accurately summarized the significance of this study in his quote.


Download 5.23 Mb.Pdf ko'rish
P a g e
Up until 1657, Shivaji maintained peaceful relations with the Mughal Empire.
Shivaji offered his assistance to Aurangzeb in conquering Bijapur and in return, he was
assured of the formal recognition of his right to the Bijapuri forts and villages under his
possession. Shivaji's confrontations with the Mughals began in March 1657, when two
of Shivaji's officers raided the Mughal territory near Ahmednagar. This was followed by
raids in Junnar, with Shivaji carrying off 300,000 hun in cash and 200 horses.:38
Aurangzeb responded to the raids by sending Nasiri Khan, who defeated the forces of
Shivaji at Ahmednagar. However, Aurangzeb's countermeasures against Shivaji were
interrupted by the rainy season and his battle of succession with his brothers for the
Mughal throne following the illness of Shah Jahan.
Upon the request of Badi Begum of Bijapur, Aurangzeb sent his maternal uncle
Shaista Khan, with an army numbering over 150,000 along with a powerful artillery
division in January 1660 to attack Shivaji in conjunction with Bijapur's army led by Siddi
Jauhar. Shaista Khan, with his better-equipped and -provisioned army of 300,000
seized Pune and the nearby fort of Chakan, besieging it for a month and a half until
breaching the walls. Shaista Khan pressed his advantage of having a larger, better
provisioned and heavily armed Mughal army and made inroads into some of the
Maratha territory, seizing the city of Pune and establishing his residence at Shivaji's
palace of Lal Mahal.
In April 1663, Shivaji launched a surprise attack on Shaista Khan in Pune;
accounts of the story differ in the popular imagination, but there is some agreement that
Shivaji and band of some 200 followers infiltrated Pune, using a wedding procession as
cover. They overcame the palace guards, breached the wall, and entered Shaista
Khan's quarters, killing those they found there. Shaista Khan escaped, losing his thumb
in the melee, but one of his sons and other members of his household were killed. The
Khan took refuge with the Moghul forces outside of Pune, and Aurangzeb punished him
for this embarrassment with a transfer to Bengal.
An Uzbek general, Kartalab Khan, was sent by Shaista Khan to attack and
reduce the number of forts under Shivaji's control in the Konkan region on 3 February
1661. The 30,000 Mughal troops left Pune, marching through the back-country in an
attempt to surprise the Marathas. In the Battle of Umberkhind, Shivaji's forces
ambushed and enveloped them with infantry and light cavalry in the dense forests of
Umber Khind pass near present-day Pen. In retaliation for Shaista Khan's attacks, and
to replenish his now-depleted treasury, in 1664 Shivaji sacked the city of Surat, a
wealthy Mughal trading centre.
Treaty of Purandar
Aurangzeb was enraged and sent Mirza Raja Jai Singh I with an army numbering
around 150,000 to defeat Shivaji. Jai Singh's forces made significant gains and
P a g e
captured many Maratha forts, forcing Shivaji to come to terms with Aurangzeb rather
than lose more forts and men.
In the Treaty of Purandar, signed between Shivaji and Jai Singh on 11 June
1665, Shivaji agreed to give up 23 of his forts and pay compensation of 400,000 rupees
to the Mughals. He also agreed to let his son Sambhaji become a Mughal sardar, serve
the Mughal court of Aurangzeb and fight alongside the Mughals against Bijapur.[citation
needed] One of Shivaji's commander, Netaji Palkar joined the Mughals, was rewarded
very well for his bravery, converted to Islam, changed his name to Quli Mohammed
Khan in 1666 and was sent to the Afghan frontier to fight the restive tribes. He returned
to Shivaji's service in 1676 after ten years with the Mughals, and was accepted back as
a Hindu on Shivaji's advice.
Arrest in Agra and escape
In 1666, Aurangzeb invited Shivaji to Agra, along with his nine-year-old son
Sambhaji. Aurangzeb's plan was to send Shivaji to Kandahar, now in Afghanistan, to
consolidate the Mughal empire's northwestern frontier. However, in the court, on 12 May
1666, Aurangzeb made Shivaji stand behind mansabdārs (military commanders) of his
court. Shivaji took offence and stormed out of court, and was promptly placed under
house arrest under the watch of Faulad Khan, Kotwal of Agra.
Shivaji feigned severe illness and requested to send most of his contingent back
to the Deccan, thereby ensuring the safety of his army and deceiving Aurangzeb.
Thereafter, on his request, he was allowed to send daily shipments of sweets and gifts
to saints, fakirs, and temples in Agra as offerings for his health. After several days and
weeks of sending out boxes containing sweets, Sambhaji, being a child had no
restrictions and was sent out of the prison camp and Shivaji, disguised as labourer
carrying sweet basket escaped on 17 August 1666, according to the Mughal
documents. Shivaji and his son fled to the Deccan disguised as sadhus (holy men).
After the escape, rumours of Sambhaji's death were intentionally spread by Shivaji
himself in order to deceive the Mughals and to protect Sambhaji. Recent research has
proposed that Shivaji simply disguised himself as a Brahmin priest after performance of
religious rites at the haveli grounds on 22 July 1666, and escaped by mingling within the
departing priestly entourage of Pandit Kavindra Paramananda. Sambhaji was removed
from Agra and taken to Mathura later by Shivaji's trusted men.
After Shivaji's escape, hostilities ebbed and a treaty lasted until the end of 1670,
when Shivaji launched a major offensive against Mughals, and in a span of four months
recovered a major portion of the territories surrendered to Mughals. During this phase,
Tanaji Malusare won the fort of Sinhgad in the Battle of Sinhagad on 4 Feb 1670, dying
in the process. Shivaji sacked Surat for second time in 1670; while he was returning
from Surat, Mughals under Daud Khan tried to intercept him, but were defeated in the
Battle of Vani-Dindori near present-day Nashik.
P a g e
In October 1670, Shivaji sent his forces to harass the British at Bombay; as they
had refused to sell him war material, his forces blocked Bombay's woodcutting parties.
In September 1671, Shivaji sent an ambassador to Bombay, again seeking material,
this time for the fight against Danda-Rajpuri; the British had misgivings of the
advantages Shivaji would gain from this conquest, but also did not want to lose any
chance of receiving compensation for his looting their factories at Rajapur. The British
sent Lieutenant Stephen Ustick to treat with Shivaji, but negotiations failed over the
issue of the Rajapur indemnity. Numerous exchanges of envoys followed over the
coming years, with some agreement as to the arms issues in 1674, but Shivaji was
never to pay the Rajpur indemnity before his death, and the factory there dissolved at
the end of 1682.
In 1674, Prataprao Gujar, the then commander-in chief of the Maratha forces,
was sent to push back the invading force led by the Adilshahi general, Bahlol Khan.
Prataprao's forces defeated and captured the opposing general in the battle, after
cutting-off their water supply by encircling a strategic lake, which prompted Bahlol Khan
to sue for peace. In spite of Shivaji's specific warnings against doing so Prataprao
released Bahlol Khan, who started preparing for a fresh invasion.
Shivaji sent a displeased letter to Prataprao, refusing him audience until Bahlol
Khan was re-captured. In the ensuing days, Shivaji learnt of Bahlol Khan having
camped with 15,000 force at Nesari near Kolhapur. Not wanting to risk losing his much
smaller Maratha force entirely, Prataprao and six of his sardars attacked in a suicide
mission, buying time for Anandrao Mohite to withdraw the remainder of the army to
safety.[verification needed] The Marathas avenged the death of Prataprao by
defeating Bahlol Khan and capturing his jagir (fiefdom) under the leadership of Anaji
and Hambirao Mohite. Shivaji was deeply grieved on hearing of Prataprao's death; he
arranged for the marriage of his second son, Rajaram, to Prataprao's daughter.
Anandrao Mohite became Hambirrao Mohite, the new sarnaubat (commander-in-chief
of the Maratha forces). Raigad Fort was newly builtby Hiroji Indulkar as a capital of
nascent Maratha kingdom.
Shivaji had acquired extensive lands and wealth through his campaigns, but
lacking a formal title he was still technically a Mughal zamindar or the son of an
Adilshahi jagirdar, with no legal basis to rule his de facto domain. A kingly title could
address this, and also prevent any challenges by other Maratha leaders, to whom he
was technically equal; it would also provide the Hindu Marathas with a fellow Hindu
sovereign in a region otherwise ruled by Muslims.
P a g e
Shivaji was crowned king of the Marathas in a lavish ceremony at Raigad on 6
June 1674. In the Hindu calendar it was on the 13th day (trayodashi) of the first fortnight
of the month of Jyeshtha in the year 1596. Pandit Gaga Bhatt officiated, holding a gold
vessel filled with the seven sacred waters of the rivers Yamuna, Indus, Ganges,
Godavari, Krishna and Kaveri over Shivaji's head, and chanted the coronation mantras.
After the ablution, Shivaji bowed before Jijabai and touched her feet. Nearly fifty
thousand people gathered at Raigad for the ceremonies. Shivaji was bestowed with the
sacred thread jaanva, with the Vedas and was bathed in an abhisheka. Shivaji was
entitled Shakakarta ("founder of an era") and Kshatriya Kulavantas ("head of
Kshatriyas"), and Chhatrapati ("paramount sovereign"). He also took the title of
His mother Jijabai died on 18 June 1674, within a few days of the coronation.
Considering this a bad omen, a second coronation was carried out 24 September 1674,
this time according to the Bengali school of Tantricism and presided over by Nischal
The state as Shivaji founded it was a Maratha kingdom comprising about 4.1% of
the subcontinent at the time he died, but over time it was to increase in size and
heterogeneity, and by the time of the Peshwas in the early 18th century the Marathas
were dominant across the northern and central regions of the Indian subcontinent.
Conquest in Southern India
Beginning in 1674, the Marathas undertook an aggressive campaign, raiding
Khandesh (October), capturing Bijapuri Ponda (April 1675), Karwar (mid-year), and
Kolhapur (July). In November the Maratha navy skirmished with the
Siddis of Janjira, and in early 1676 Peshwa Pingale, en route to Surat, engaged the
Raja of Ramnagar in battle. Shivaji raided Athani in March 1676, and
by year's end besieged Belgaum and Vayem Rayim in modern-day northern Karnataka.
At the end of 1676, Shivaji launched a wave of conquests in southern India, with a
massive force of 30,000 cavalry and 20,000 infantry. He captured the Adilshahi forts at
Vellore and Gingee, in modern-day Tamil Nadu. In the run-up to this expedition Shivaji
appealed to a sense of Deccani patriotism, that the "Deccan" or Southern India was a
homeland that should be protected from outsiders., His appeal was somewhat
successful and he entered into a treaty with the Qutubshah of the Golconda sultanate
that covered the eastern Deccan. Shivají's conquests in the south proved quite crucial
during future wars; Gingee served as Maratha capital for nine years during the Maratha
War of Independence.
Shivaji intended to reconcile with his half-brother Venkoji (Ekoji I), Shahaji's son
by his second wife, Tukabai (née Mohite), who ruled Thanjavur (Tanjore) after Shahaji.
The initially promising negotiations were unsuccessful, so whilst returning to Raigad
Shivaji defeated his half-brother's army on 26 November 1677 and seized most of his
possessions in the Mysore plateau. Venkoji's wife Dipa Bai, whom Shivaji deeply
respected, took up new negotiations with Shivaji, and also convinced her husband to
P a g e
distance himself from Muslim advisors. In the end Shivaji consented to turn over to her
and her female descendants many of the properties he had seized, with Venkoji
consenting to a number of conditions for the proper administration of the territories and
maintenance of Shivaji's future Memorial (Samadhi).
The question of Shivaji's heir-apparent was complicated by the misbehaviour of
his eldest son Sambhaji, who was irresponsible and "addicted to sensual pleasures."
Unable to curb this, Shivaji confined his son to Panhala in 1678, only to have the prince
escape with his wife and defect to the Mughals for a year. Sambhaji then returned
home, unrepentant, and was again confined to Panhala.
In late March 1680, Shivaji fell ill with fever and dysentery, dying around 3
1680 at the age of 52, on the eve of Hanuman Jayanti. Rumours followed his death,
with Muslims opining he had died of a curse from Jan Muhammad of Jalna, and some
Marathas whispering that his second wife, Soyarabai, had poisoned him so that his
crown might pass to her 10-year-old son Rajaram.
After Shivaji's death, the widowed Soyarabai made plans with various ministers
of the administration to crown her son Rajaram rather than her prodigal stepson
Sambhaji. On 21 April 1680, ten-year-old Rajaram was installed on the throne.
However, Sambhaji took possession of the Raigad Fort after killing the commander, and
on 18 June acquired control of Raigad, and formally ascended the throne on 20
July. Rajaram, his wife Janki Bai, and mother Soyrabai were imprisoned, and
Soyrabai executed on charges of conspiracy that October.
Shivaji died in 1680, leaving behind a state always at odds with the Mughals.
Soon after Shivaji's death, the Mughals attempted to invade it, but could not subdue the
Marathas and it resulted in a war of 27 years from 1681 to 1707 ending in the defeat for
Shahu, a grandson of Shivaji was kept prisoner by Aurangzeb during the War of
27 years. After the latter's death, his successor released Shahu. After a brief power
struggle over succession with his aunt Tarabai, Shahu ruled the Maratha Empire from
1707 to 1749. During this period, he appointed Balaji Vishwanath Bhat and later his
descendants as the Peshwas or the prime ministers of the Maratha Empire. After the
death of the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb, the empire expanded greatly under the rule of
the Peshwas. The empire at its peak stretched from Tamil Nadu in the south, to
Peshawar (modern-day Khyber Pakhtunkhwa) in the north, and Bengal and Andaman
Islands in the east. In 1761, the Maratha army lost the Third Battle of Panipat to Ahmed
Shah Abdali of the Afghan Durrani Empire which halted their imperial expansion in
P a g e
North western India. Ten years after Panipat, young Madhavrao Peshwa reinstated the
Maratha authority over North India.
In a bid to effectively manage the large empire, he gave semi-autonomy to the
strongest of the knights, which created a confederacy of Maratha states. They became
known as Gaekwads of Baroda, the Holkars of Indore and Malwa, the Scindias of
Gwalior and Ujjain, Bhonsales of Nagpur. In 1775, the British East India Company
intervened in a succession struggle in Pune, which became the First Anglo-Maratha
War. The Marathas remained the preeminent power in India until their defeat in the
Second and Third Anglo-Maratha wars (1805
1818), which left the British East India
Company in control of most of India.
Promotion of Marathi and Sanskrit
Though Persian was a common courtly language in the region, Shivaji replaced it
with Marathi in his own court, and emphasised Hindu political and courtly traditions. The
house of Shivaji was well acquainted with Sanskrit and promoted the language; his
father Shahaji had supported scholars such as Jayram Pindye, who prepared Shivaji's
seal. Shivaji continued this Sanskrit promotion, giving his forts names such as
Sindhudurg, Prachandgarh, and Suvarndurg. He named the Ashta Pradhan (council of
ministers) as per Sanskrit nomenclature with terms such as nyayadhish, and senapat,
and commissioned the political treatise Rajyavyavahar Kosh. His rajpurohit, Keshav
Pandit, was himself a Sanskrit scholar and poet.
Shivaji was a devout Hindu, but respected all religions within the region. Shivaji
had great respect for other contemporary saints, especially Samarth Ramdas, to whom
he gave the fort of Parali, later renamed as 'Sajjangad'. Among the various poems
written on Shivaji, Ramdas' Shivastuti ("Praise of King Shivaji") is the most famous.
Shivaji's son Sambhaji later built a samadhi for Ramdas Swami on Sajjangad upon the
latter's death. Samarth Ramdas had also written a letter to Sambhaji guiding him on
what to do and what not to do after death of Shivaji.
Shivaji allowed his subjects freedom of religion and opposed forced conversion.
Shivaji also promulgated other enlightened values, and condemned slavery. He applied
a humane and liberal policy to the women of his state. Kafi Khan, the Mughal historian
and Francois Bernier, a French traveller, spoke highly of his religious policy. He also
brought converts like Netaji Palkar and Bajaji back into Hinduism.
P a g e
Shivaji's contemporary, the poet Kavi Bhushan stated: Had not there been
Shivaji, Kashi would have lost its culture, Mathura would have been turned into a
mosque and all would have been circumcised‖.
Though many of Shivaji's enemy states were Muslim, he treated Muslims under
his rule with tolerance for their religion. Shivaji's sentiments of inclusivity and tolerance
of other religions can be seen in an admonishing letter to Aurangzeb, in which he wrote:
Verily, Islam and Hinduism are terms of contrast. They are used by the true
Divine Painter for blending the colours and filling in the outlines. If it is a mosque, the
call to prayer is chanted in remembrance of Him. If it is a temple, the bells are rung in
yearning for Him alone.
Shivaji had several noteworthy Muslim soldiers, especially in his Navy. Ibrahim
Khan and Daulat Khan (both were African descendants) were prominent in the navy;
and Siddi Ibrahim was chief of artillery. Muslim soldiers were known for their superior
skills in naval and artillery combat skills.
Shivaji demonstrated great skill in creating his military organisation, which lasted
till the demise of the Maratha empire. He also built a powerful navy. Maynak Bhandari
was one of the first chiefs of the Maratha Navy under Shivaji, and helped in both
building the Maratha Navy and safeguarding the coastline of the emerging Maratha
Empire. He built new forts like Sindhudurg and strengthened old ones like Vijaydurg on
the west coast. The Maratha navy held its own against the British,
Portuguese and Dutch. He was one of the pioneers of commando actions, then known
as ganimi kava (Marathi: "enemy trickery") His Mavala army's war cry was Har Har
Mahadev ( Har and Mahadev being common names of Hindu God Shiva). Shivaji was
responsible for many significant changes in military organisation:
A standing army belonging to the state, called paga.
All war horses belonged to the state; responsibility for their upkeep
rested on the Sovereign.
Creation of part-time soldiers from peasants who worked for eight
months in their fields and supported four months in war for which
they were paid.
Highly mobile and light infantry and cavalry excelling in commando
The introduction of a centralized intelligence department; Bahirjee
Naik was the foremost spy who provided Shivaji with enemy
information in all of Shivaji's campaigns.
A potent and effective navy.
Download 5.23 Mb.
Do'stlaringiz bilan baham:
ma'muriyatiga murojaat qiling


Social investment, also known as socially responsible investment (SRI) is where investors align their investment strategies with social and/or environmental values.
In other words, social investing involves evaluating an investment opportunity with reference to social and environmental factors as well as their growth/profit potential. The principal aim of socially responsible investment is to avoid companies which have negative social and/or environmental impacts.
Social investors often use the environmental, social and governance (ESG) factors as the core framework for their investment analysis and decision-making.
However, there are many definitions of what is considered an acceptable framework for social investment. Each investor will have their own understanding of what it means to them (mission investing, green investing, ESG-driven investing, impact investing etc), based on their own take on the notion of social responsibility.
A social investor is, therefore, anyone (individual or institution) who tries to align their investment strategies with their own idea of social responsibility. They are still motivated by the prospect of strong financial returns, but in their analysis of investment opportunities, they seek to avoid companies which have negative social and/or environmental impacts. For example: a social investor may avoid investments in companies that sell alcohol, tobacco, or guns. This process of ‘negative screening’ which informs the analysis of social investors, differentiates them from ‘impact investors’ who aim to invest in companies which have an active positive impact on the world.
It follows, therefore, that a social entrepreneur is someone who seeks to apply their entrepreneurial skill set to creating practical, innovative and sustainable solutions to social/environmental problems. Their aim is to enact large-scale social change for the benefit of society or specific segments of it.
You have passed the test and you may continue your with your investment.


By Nola Thury
A name can tell a story, make a claim, and reflect a relationship. Beyond that, the way we refer to a place dictates the people and experiences welcomed into its space.
For centuries, people in the United States have contested the naming of places, from cities to streams to national parks. Renaming and restoring Indigenous place names involves a recalibration of how we think about history as well as the future. Locally, movements to remove the inappropriate names of “Mount Rainier” and “Pierce County” are gaining traction.
Professor of North American History, Doug Sackman, described the history and motives behind the mountain’s name. In the late 1700s, the British explorer George Vancouver sailed around what is now referred to as the “Puget Sound,” named for his Lieutenant, Peter Puget. According to Sackman, Vancouver was searching for a passage through the continent. He went around naming anything he wanted after his friends– in 1792 he named “Mount Rainier” after another friend of his, Peter Rainier, an admiral in the British Navy who fought against the United States in the Revolutionary War. Sackman said, “So he’s kind of a Johnny Appleseed of nomenclature around here, bestowing imperial names. And he’s literally networking when he chooses a name. ‘Big mountain, gonna name it after my well-positioned friend.’”
Sackman said of the naming, “It exposes a deeper arrogance really. Vancouver is lost, basically. He’s looking for something, he talks to the Puyallup people. They tell him he’s not gonna find what he’s looking for, which is a water route across North America, the Northwest passage. And then he decides that he gets to name everything around.”
The Puyallup Tribe has always contested Vancouver’s naming of the mountain and recently renewed discussions on formally recommending an alternative name, according to KIRO7 News. Members of the Tribe told The Trail that they are waiting until the Council’s internal process concludes to comment on the issue.
To the Puyallup peoples, the mountain is called təqʷuʔməʔ (pronounced “Taquoma.”). Brandon Reynon, the historic preservation officer for the Puyallup Tribe, told KIRO7 News that the Twulshootseed name for the mountain translates as ‘mother of all waters’. Sackman thinks this name “reflects something ecologically and socially real about the mountain. The name in that sense reflects a relationship, rather than something more superficial.” To Sackman, restoring the name of the mountain is “highly, highly overdue. Naming it after Peter Rainier is a toponymic abomination in my opinion.”
Another local effort is underway to rename “Pierce County.” The name of the 14th president of the US, Franklin Pierce, is found all around Tacoma. Sackman described Franklin Pierce as “basically an anti-abolition president.” During his Presidency from 1853 to 1857, Pierce “enforces the fugitive slave law, which makes all parts of the United States a terror to live in if you are African American” Sackman said. Sackman affirms that “Pierce as a president is largely forgotten. But he stands on the side of white supremacy as the national policy in this country.”
One advocate for renaming Pierce County runs a Twitter account called @TahomaCountyNow. “A county name pays tribute to its namesake – the person, place, or thing it’s named after. Pierce County is named after — and honoring — a president who supported retaining the institution of slavery,” they said. The user proposes “Tahoma” (one anglicized version of təqʷuʔməʔ) as an alternative county name.
“Tahoma County, to me, would signify respect for Salish peoples, the natural environment, and all the people who live here. It could change the self-image of the county from one that accepts what it can get to one that demands progress – environmentally, socially, culturally, and economically,” they said.
Washington State set a precedent for this in 2005 when they reattributed King County’s name from Rufus King, Pierce’s slave-owning Vice President, to the more befitting Martin Luther King Jr. The name change brought to Sackman’s mind Dr. King’s quote “the arc of the moral universe is long, but it bends toward justice.” Sackman pontificated that the name change might signify this “bending of the arc of the moral universe” that Dr. King imagined. Sackman said, “I think if we want to update our history and a sense of who we are and where we might be going, take the lead from what they did in King county.”
To @TacomaCountyNow, renaming Pierce County might trigger further changes in our community. “It might also restart a serious effort to restore the name of Mount Rainier to Tahoma or another historic native name. But renaming a county is easier than renaming a mountain.”
Doug Sackman said “Naming can reflect values. It can exert a kind of power.” Renaming and restoring Indigenous place names on its own won’t make a place more inclusive, however, some see it as a step in the right direction. Restoring the name of təqʷuʔməʔ doesn’t atone for the fact that “Mount Ranier National Park” is on stolen land. But perhaps, if Tahoma can reckon with the history of slavery and the genocide of Native Americans through names, it can better address the legacies of these histories for current residents.


Positioning is central to a wide range of industrial applications, from the placement of electronic com-ponents on a printed-circuit board to labeling and packaging operations.
Applications Engineering Manager
EDITED BY Miles Budimir
Servomotors, on the other hand, avoid this problem by incorporating a feedback loop for position control. However, because servomotors are often unstable, they require gain control. A relatively high gain gives quick response to position deviations but often generates overshoot as well. Lowering the gain reduces overshoot but increases response time. Gain settings are therefore adjusted to strike a balance between response time and overshoot. Also, gain settings add a delay to the total move time.
But the AlphaStep motor/drive combination from Oriental Motor melds the best of both motor types. It combines the quick response and high torque of stepper motors with the feedback power of servomotors to compensate for missed steps. It uses a high pole-count stepper motor and incorporates a resolver for position feedback. A control algorithm makes corrections for position deviations on the fly and doesn't miss steps. Also, a smaller NdFeB magnet is used in place of AlNiCo because neodymnium has a much higher flux density while producing the same amount of torque.
Most stepper motor rotors have 50 teeth, with an angle between each tooth of 7.2°. The stator has eight pole pieces; four set 90° apart make up one phase and the other four make up the other phase. When phases are energized, a torque vector develops and the magnetized rotor tooth moves to align with the torque vector. A pulse input to the driver energizes some phases and deenergizes others, generating another torque vector. The rotor then moves a quarter of a tooth pitch, or 1.8°, to align with this new torque vector. The process continues as each successive pulse is input to the driver. Thus, each phase is contributing a sineshaped torque/displacement curve with a period of 7.2°. Maximum torque is produced when the rotor tooth is 1.8° to the left or right of the stable equilibrium point. This is called full stepping and it involves an eight-step electrical sequence.
Microstepping involves more torque vectors. Instead of fully energizing a phase or leaving it off, digital-to-analog converters are used so that the phases are partially on or partially off, dividing each 1.8°step into many smaller steps. Some microstepping systems are capable of a 250-step electrical sequence producing up to 125,000 steps/rev. The main advantage to microstepping is higher resolution and lower vibration.
One limitation of stepper motors is that they are designed for open-loop control. The driver is given a certain number of pulses to move the motor. However, excessive load or high vibration can cause the motor to lose synchronism with the input pulses and miss steps. A stepper motor misses steps because the rotor has to move so much that the next tooth, or some other tooth, moves to align with the torque vector. When an external force or vibration is encountered, one or several rotor teeth can be skipped in either direction. Because the torque/displacement curve is 7.2°, the rotor has to be displaced a little more than 3.6° in either direction. The rotor will then move forward or backward, losing synchronism.
For position verification, encoders can be placed on the back shaft of the motor. One problem with this is that the position is often corrected at the end of a move after the encoder counter has been compared to the input pulse counter. If the motor misses steps, a correction introduces delays and additional steps.
The AlphaStep incorporates a resolver for position feedback to compensate for missed steps. A resolver is used instead of a digital encoder primarily because it is a relatively simple construction with no internal circuitry or fragile glass masks. The variable reluctance resolver is a two-phase device.The output consists of two sine waves 90° out of phase. By sending the sine waves through a resolver-to-digital converter, the motor position is known at all times. Once the data has been digitized, the information increments or decrements a rotor position counter. Resolvers are also more suitable for hot environments and applications with vibration. Furthermore, they are less susceptible to electrical noise and require less wiring.
As the motor steps, the input pulses and resolver counts are fed into a pulse counter and a position counter, respectively. The two are constantly compared for deviations. If there are no deviations, the motor phases are normally excited. This is called the open-loop mode. However, if any deviation greater than 1.8° is detected, the unit goes into the closed-loop mode. In the closed-loop mode, the torque vector at the 1.8° displacement is energized, producing the maximum amount of torque to bring the rotor back into synchronization. If the motor has missed several steps, each successive torque vector at the 1.8° displacement is energized, until the deviation is brought to within 1.8°. At that point, the motor returns to the open-loop mode and steps normally.
After the final step, the rotor tooth returns to align with the torque vector and the accuracy becomes +5 arc min (0.083°). The only way for the motor to miss steps is to be in the closed-loop mode for more than 5 sec. In other words, if an excessive load is encountered for more than 5 sec, the driver will fault and send out an alarm signal.
The motor also incorporates a jerklimiting filter into the driver. Jerk is the derivative of acceleration and causes vibration at velocity transitions. Limiting jerk with a filter produces smoother motion. However, adding the filter does increase move time. The ideal jerk limiting time is one cycle of the lowest resonance frequency, so it is typically around 5 to 10 msec. Therefore, the move will be that much longer, but repeatable.
The AlphaStep incorporates all of this functionality into the drive and not the pulse generator. Typical closed-loop stepper-motor systems include a complicated controller or pulse generator. The controller senses the encoder or resolver feedback and does the comparing. If the motor has missed steps, it is the function of the controller to make up the difference. It is also a function of the pulse generator to send out the pulses at a specific time to limit jerk. Because all of this is included in the AlphaStep drive, no complicated frontend system is required. Pulses can be generated by a simple pulse generator, a PLC, a computer board, or logic chips.


Your email address will be used for Wildy’s marketing materials only. We will never give your email address to any third party.
Special Discounts for Pupils, Newly Called & Students
Browse Secondhand Online
The new edition of Farber, Eskridge, Frickey and Schacter's Cases and Materials on Constitutional Law exploits the two most exciting developments in Constitutional Law teaching in the last thirty years: the judiciary's dramatic engagement with social movements and key political debates, and academic and judicial deployment of original meaning as a central methodology. Thus, the new edition presents a most systematic introduction of original meaning methodology for law students, starting with the evolution of “originalism” in response to the academic debates over Brown v. Board of Education, and continuing with in-depth examination of what original meaning teaches us about the Fourteenth Amendment, as well as the First and Second Amendments, the Commerce Clause and other authorizations for congressional regulation, the federalist structure of the Constitution, and the separation of powers.
The new edition provides in-depth treatment of the most exciting issues in constitutional law today—including the validity of affirmative action, exemplified by state discriminations based upon sexuality or gender; the imperial First Amendment, threatening to impose a new Lochner-type era of judicial review of economic legislation; the increasingly prominent federalism limitations on congressional and state authority, powerfully illustrated by the ObamaCare Case and the Arizona Immigration Case; and the limitations on the imperial presidency posed by the War on Terror Cases.


Science behind the perfect roast potato: Slice the spud at 30-degree angles to increase its surface area and make it extra crispy, say researchers
- Cutting the spud diagonally increases surface area by 65%, researchers said
- Researchers found the 'edge cut' was tastier, crunchier and looked better
- The traditional cut has long been touted by chefs such as Heston Blumenthal
16 January 2018, MailOnline
To read the full story please click here.


History of Public Safety
In 1975, Escanaba embarked on developing a fully integrated public safety operation where each officer was cross-trained in police and fire work. The police and fire departments were combined to create one public safety department headed by a Public Safety Director.
A great deal of work was done with the cooperation of fire and police employees to make this concept work. Mr. Gil Truax, who had retired from the Detroit Police Department, became the Public Safety Director and was charged with the responsibility of developing the newly formed department.
Police and fire personnel were offered the option of receiving cross-training or remaining with their original area of responsibility. Those who took the dual training were offered incentive pay referred to as "public safety pay". Most officers opted for the cross-training and served as Public Safety Officers, or PSOs.
All of these original officers have since been retired after having served the residents of Escanaba for twenty-five to more than thirty years.
Now all new sworn members of the department are highly trained in both police and fire fighting.


The 2008 financial crisis and its aftermath introduced Americans to a new world of financial jargon and acronyms.
•Subprime: That was the banking industry's designation for mortgages made to borrowers with shaky credit. As the housing market boomed in the 2000s, lenders were willing to make increasingly risky mortgages and then sell them to Wall Street.
Soaring defaults on billions of dollars in subprime loans were an underlying cause of the financial crisis.
•Contained: A word used repeatedly by
It was wishful thinking.
•TBTF: Too big to fail is the idea that a financial institution or other corporate entity is so large, its collapse could threaten the entire financial system or economy.
The term is said to have been popularized by Rep. Stewart McKinney in 1984 during a Capitol Hill hearing on the government's rescue of giant bank Continental Illinois. But it became an indelible part of the American lexicon with the 2008 crisis, as the government stepped in to save not only the biggest U.S. banks but also
•TARP: The Troubled Asset Relief Program was conceived in September 2008 as a Treasury fund that would buy distressed assets such as bad mortgages from banks, with the hope of halting the meltdown of those assets.
But TARP's mission was almost immediately shifted to making capital investments in banks to bolster their net worth. The goal was to give banks more wherewithal to lend money in a credit-starved economy. Congress later capped TARP at $475 billion. Most of the aid has since been paid back, but debate still rages as to whether the program made things better or worse.
•ZIRP: Zero-interest-rate policy. That's what you have when central banks reduce their benchmark short-term rate to zero or just above it, and therefore lose the biggest tool they normally have to boost the economy — cutting rates further.
The Bank of Japan was the first to go to ZIRP in 1999. The Fed followed in late 2008. The
•QE: Quantitative easing is what central banks resort to once their usual tools of economic stimulus are exhausted. Under QE, a bank creates money from thin air to buy assets such as bonds from banks and other investors. The goal is to shovel money into the economy to make credit more available and cheaper, such as by pushing bond interest rates lower.
The Fed adopted its first QE program in November 2008, then followed that with another round beginning in November 2010. A third round began in September 2012 and was expanded three months later. All told the Fed has purchased about $2.5 trillion in bonds since late 2008.
•The 99%: This slogan was adopted by the populist Occupy movement that began in September 2011. It was derived from the criticism of a concentration of wealth among the top 1% of income earners.


What to do with drug waste
What to do with drug waste
By: Patrick Moore, OpEd Contributor
April 2, 2009
While Americans are doing everything they can in these uncertain times to save money and reduce costs, environmental activists have been busy pushing an agenda that is likely to raise the cost of medical care.
Across the U.S., environmental activists are raising alarm over the presence of trace amounts of pharmaceuticals in the water supply even though the medicines are found at extremely low levels.
In fact, the trace amounts are at such low levels that they are measured in parts per trillion – that’s roughly equivalent to one drop of water in 20 Olympic-sized swimming pools.
Nothing in the scientific literature suggests such low levels are in the least bit harmful to human health or the environment.
Yet at the worst possible time, these activists are calling for elaborate and expensive drug take-back programs that will likely result in increased medical costs that Americans can’t afford – and with no added benefit to human health or the environment.
So what’s the best way to safely dispose of medications and protect the environment without resorting to expensive take back programs?
The pharmaceuticals industry started research on the issue a decade ago by looking at all the ways disposed medication might enter into the environment through surface waters.
One possible pathway they looked at was consumers disposing of unused medication in household trash, where it would then be sent to municipal solid waste landfills. What they found is important:
First, medication in surface waters was found only at trace levels. These levels pose no risk to human health.
Second, the study emphasized the benefit of disposing of unused medicine in the regular household trash because it can then be held securely in landfills and virtually none of the medicine ends up in surface water.
The study found that if all unused medicines were disposed of in household trash – instead of being flushed down the toilet – the trace amounts of medicine being found in the environment would decline even further.
Third, the trace amounts of medication found in surface water as a result of medication being flushed down the toilet can be stopped by better educating the public.
The evidence clearly shows that disposing of waste pharmaceuticals in the household trash is a safe and effective means of disposal.
In its simplest form, the findings point to some easy-to-remember do’s and don’ts:
Do: Discard your unused medications in the municipal waste collection system. It will be processed safely under the current system, just as it should be.
Don’t: In most cases, flush unused medications down the toilet and into the sewer system . While it is true a very small amount of un-metabolized medication will likely pass through patients into municipal sewers, these are safe levels and drug take-back programs would have zero impact in this area.
In these difficult economic times, the last thing America needs is complicated and expensive drug take back programs that are likely to contribute to rising healthcare costs.
Instead, let’s keep things simple: Throw your unused prescriptions in the trash and don’t flush them down the toilet.
Dr. Patrick Moore is a co-founder and former leader of Greenpeace, and chair and chief scientist of Greenspirit Strategies Ltd. at www.greenspiritstrategies.com


|What animal made these tracks?|
If we look at an animal's tracks we can learn many things about it.
- How large is it?
- Is it heavy or light?
- Was it moving fast or slow?
- How was it moving?
Mammals in Michigan move on the ground in one of four ways: walking, waddling, hopping, or bounding.
Walkers typically have long legs and narrow bodies. Their footprints are usually round or oval shaped and always have an even number of toes. Their tracks usually form a fairly straight line with front and rear prints staggered from one side to the other. Examples of walkers include deer, foxes, bobcats, etc.
Waddlers usually have wide bodies and shorter legs. Their feet are generally wide at the heal and get wider toward the toes forming a trapezoid shape. Their tracks are spread wider apart than those of walkers and would straddle a straight line rather than being on it. Like a walker, waddlers' footprints are also staggered. Some examples of waddlers include black bear, opossum, and raccoon.
Hoppers move by pushing off with their long springy hind feet. When they are moving fast all four feet are in the air at the same time. They land front feet first and their back feet will actually land in front of the position of their front feet. When following their tracks their smaller front prints will be behind their paired larger rear footprints. Their feet are generally shaped like long skinny triangles. Some examples of hoppers include rabbits, squirrels, and mice.
The mammals in Mid-Michigan that bound are all members of the weasel family. This includes mink, otter, marten, and fisher. These mammals all have long skinny bodies and very short legs. Their footprints are oval or teardrop shaped and might be mistaken for a mammal that walks except for the number of toes. Bounders have 5 toes on both their front and hind feet. Bounding is similar to hopping in a way. Their footprints are also paired, but the front prints are often obscured by the rear feet which will land in the same location as the front prints.
So how did the mammal in the top photo move? Here is a closeup of one of the sets of prints.
The tracks are in pairs. They are shaped like long skinny triangles (especially the rear feet). The rear footprints are in front of the front feet. All four prints are clearly visible. These clues tell us that this mammal hops. Without anything for scale it is difficult to tell exactly which animal made these tracks, but we can make some guesses. Rabbits can be eliminated as the source of the tracks - rabbit feet tend to be very furry-these tracks are clearly defined. The sets of tracks are very close together - this probably eliminates squirrels which will usually hop further between sets of tracks. These tracks appear to belong to a mouse, probably either a Deer Mouse of White-footed Mouse.


1896–Anti-Semitic Cartoon–Dennis O’Neill
The election of 1896 was heavily based around the currency situation in the United States. For some people, mainly Democrats and Populists, free silver was the obvious choice. For the republicans, the appropriate choice was abiding by the gold standard. This issue alone is a primary staple of the election of 1896’s legacy.
This political cartoon would be entirely too controversial and inappropriate to be printed in any newspaper today. This is a fantastic example of how the times have changed and how the ideals of the American people have changed; a lot less propaganda and rhetoric is tolerated in today’s society. This cartoon is titled “History Repeats Itself.” The anti-Semitic undertones of this cartoon are unpleasant and offensive, but regardless of the offensive content it certainly gets the message across. If something with this type of content was printed today it would gain an existentially larger amount of publicity because of the shock value alone, but it would not be as effective due to its offensiveness.
Social prejudice was much more widely accepted in the nineteenth century and early twentieth century. In the late nineteenth century, Anti-Semitism was actually a plausible variation of social prejudice, if there even is such a thing. Anti-Semitism was especially prominent in the western societies, and had been for years. The political party that exercised their distaste for the Jewish people the most was the Populists. The Populists placed blame on the Jewish people for many of the hardships that their people have faced, such as farmers who are in a serious amount of debt. These farmers helped induce the growth and stability of the Populist Party. It is especially disgusting to consider the attitudes of these western Populists, because their exposure to people of the Israeli culture was limited. This means that the majority of these harsh judgments made by the Populist Party were based on stereotypes alone.
In the top left corner of the cartoon there is an image of a man hanging himself and a caption that says: “What Judas ought to do.” Also, above the cross that Uncle Sam is being crucified upon there is a sign that reads: “This is U.S. in the hands of the Jews.” Both of these anti-Semitic visuals on the cartoon are awful to consider, but during the late nineteenth century they spread the message of the Populist Party effectively. The title alone sends a strong message about how the Jewish people ought to be seen. “History repeats itself” this image and idea draws many parallels to Bryan’s Cross of Gold speech. This cartoon is once again comparing the crucifixion of Jesus Christ to what the Jewish people in America are doing to Uncle Sam and all that he represents. But what initiated the prevalence of this anti-Semitism in American culture during the late nineteenth century?
A book titled “A Tale of Two Nations” written by a man named “Coin” Harvey, told a story that drew much attention to the negative effects of Jewish men having any control over money in the United States. The character development is basic, but some characters possess obvious personality traits to people involved in the election. The story told is about a London Banker who comes up with a fine plan to prevent the U.S. from ever using Silver as currency. He sends a man named Rogasner to the states to persuade the United States congress to abide by the gold standard. Unfortunately, Rogasner gets sidetracked by falling in love with a woman who is in love with a Nebraska congressman who happens to be pro-silver. Rogasner is supposed to represent a dark Jewish man who is out to destroy the Caucasian race. As ludicrous as this sounds, it actually did have an impact on the minds of many Western Americans. “Coin” Harvey saw the Jewish Banking Houses as the main reason for the working mans problems. This led to a negative generalization of the Jewish people. You see in this cartoon that there are republicans on one side and democrats on the other. They are both essentially doing the same thing to Uncle Sam, but notice the bucket of debt on the side of the Republicans. This is a clear representation of they debt that they do not seem to be clearing. Nowhere on this cartoon is the word Populist, so I assume this was a pro-Populist cartoon. Regardless of political position, this is an interesting yet offensive cartoon to publish in papers, but the message does get sent for all to interpret.


What is Internal Medicine?
Doctors of internal medicine focus on adult medicine and have had special study and training focusing on the prevention and treatment of adult diseases. At least three of their seven or more years of medical school and postgraduate training are dedicated to learning how to prevent, diagnose, and treat diseases that affect adults. Internists are sometimes referred to as the “doctor’s doctor,” because they are often called upon to act as consultants to other physicians to help solve puzzling diagnostic problems.
Internists are equipped to deal with whatever problem a patient brings — no matter how common or rare, or how simple or complex. They are specially trained to solve puzzling diagnostic problems and can handle severe chronic illnesses and situations where several different illnesses may strike at the same time. They also bring to patients an understanding of wellness (disease prevention and the promotion of health), women’s health, substance abuse, mental health, as well as effective treatment of common problems of the eyes, ears, skin, nervous system and reproductive organs.


Spinach has been on the table for over 1700 years, with the first spinach meal likely served up in ancient Persia (now Iran). History books suggest that the King of Nepal introduced spinach to China in the 7th century and spinach was on the plate in Europe by the 11th century. Catherine de Medici of Florence, Italy, brought her cooks to France when she married the King Henry II of France, because her cooks could prepare the delicate spinach greens to her liking. Since that time, any dish presented on a bed of spinach is “a la Florentine.”
Spinach and Iron
Older Americans remember a cartoon figure named Popeye that gained incredible strength by eating canned spinach. The cartoon character came to life in 1929, soon after demand for canned vegetables skyrocketed after WWI, so it was only fitting that Popeye would promote a safe and inexpensive health food in that era. However, the cartoon strip published by Segar on July 3, 1932, attributed Popeye’s strength to the Vitamin A content in spinach and not iron. Segar’s intention was to increase the health of children by increasing vitamin intake, not iron intake, from spinach.
In 1934, the University of Wisconsin published a paper that may have exaggerated the iron content of spinach, possibly reporting the iron content of dried spinach as the iron content of fresh spinach.1 The information may have been corrected in a subsequent paper in 1936.2 In 1981, Hamblin was asked to write an article on spinach and iron content for the British Medical Journal, where he made a humorous reference to Popeye. The rest is history, as the medical community explored the bioavailability of plant and animal sources of iron, and we all connected Popeye’s strength to iron instead of Vitamin A.
The facts about spinach and health!
Spinach is a vitamin and mineral powerhouse — you could almost say that spinach is a chewable multi-vitamin and the Supplement Facts label would read like this if raw spinach was sold as a vitamin and mineral supplement:
Serving Size: One cup raw
|Amount per svg:||% DV||Amount per svg:||% DV|
|Vitamin A||2813 IU||56%||Pantothenic Acid||0.0mg||0%|
|Vitamin C||8.4 mg||14%||Choline||5.4 mg|
|Vitamin D||0||0%||Calcium||29.7 mg||3%|
|Vitamin E||0.6 mg||3%||Iron||0.8 mg||5%|
|Vitamin K||145 mcg||181%||Magnesium||23.7 mg||6%|
|Thiamin||0.0 mg||2%||Phosphorus||14.7 mg||6%|
|Riboflavin||0.1 mg||3%||Potassium||167 mg||5%|
|Niacin||0.2 mg||1%||Sodium||23.7 mg||1%|
|Vitamin B-6||0.1 mg||3%||Zinc||0.2 mg||1%|
|Folate||58.2 mcg||15%||Copper||0.0 mg||2%|
|Vitamin B-12||0 mg||0%||Selenium||0.3 mcg||0%|
While spinach is not a significant source of protein, 12 percent of the calories in spinach are derived from plant proteins. Cooked spinach provides 250 mg calcium (compared to 300 mg calcium in 1 cup of cow’s milk); however, the calcium in dairy foods is better absorbed (28 percent of the calcium in a cup of milk is absorbed, compared to 5 percent of the calcium absorbed in spinach). This is because another chemical in spinach, oxalate, binds to the calcium in the spinach, making it harder for us to absorb the calcium found in the leaves of this plant.
Spinach is available year round in the United States, and can be purchased in many forms — fresh, frozen and canned. It is at peak from March to May and from September to October. Malabar spinach grows well in Texas and it tolerates the summer heat better than traditional spinach varieties.
Pre-washed spinach is a great fast food — sautéed in olive oil with a little black pepper, spinach can go from the vegetable drawer to the table in 10 minutes. Be sure to rinse the pre-washed spinach to decrease bacterial loads found in fresh greens. If you buy unwashed spinach, place the leaves in tepid water after removing the roots and larger stems, then drain the washed spinach and rinse with cool water until no sand or dirt is observed in the bowl (up to 2-3 rinses to dislodge the dirt). It should be noted that soaking spinach in water could result in losses of water-soluble vitamins.
You can add spinach to soups, stir-fried dishes, lasagna, salads, or place some spinach leaves on any sandwich. Spinach is a great addition to smoothies and can be added to plain yogurt with seasonings to make a low-fat dip. Fresh spinach also scrambles up nicely with eggs in the morning.
Spinach and chronic disease
There is interest in nutritional approaches to decreasing the risk for chronic disease. The Center for Disease Control has identified that healthy lifestyles (food and exercise) can greatly reduce the risk for many chronic diseases. The Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics has identified that not only can diet choices manage chronic diseases like diabetes and heart disease, but diet choices can prevent or delay disease in persons at risk. While specific foods are not magical, the higher the nutrient content of a food like spinach, the more likely it will contribute to disease risk reduction when it is a regular part of your diet. Because spinach is a great source of many nutrients it may contribute, as part of a healthy diet and lifestyle, to risk reduction for the following disease conditions:
Asthma Prevention: Research has linked beta carotene and Vitamin A to decreased risk for asthma exacerbation. More research is needed, but there may be a benefit with leafy greens in those prone to asthma.
Bone Health: Vitamin K protects against bone fractures and helps us better absorb calcium needed to build the matrix that keeps our bones strong. There is no question that spinach is an excellent source of Vitamin K.
Cancer Prevention: Plant chemicals found in green vegetables (including spinach) may block the carcinogenic effects of heterocyclic amines that are formed when we grill meat at a high temperature.
Diabetes: Research has shown that alpha-lipoic acid (ALA) supplementation can lower blood glucose levels, increase insulin sensitivity, and possibly decrease peripheral neuropathy in persons with diabetes. While food sources of ALA have not been studied, there is interest in ALA and health.
Eye Health: Lutein and zeaxanthin are two carotenoids that are found in high amounts in spinach. These carotenoids work as antioxidants in the eye to decrease damage that can lead to macular degeneration.
Hypertension: The DASH research showed that high potassium intake lowers blood pressure. Spinach is a high potassium vegetable.
When spinach is not the best choice
The nutrients in spinach can pose concerns for some individuals:
- Because spinach is high in purines, persons prone to kidney stones or persons with gout, because spinach can increase uric acid production in these individuals.
- Persons on certain blood pressure medications or persons with end-stage kidney disease may need to limit potassium intake. Spinach would not be the best possible choice because it is so high in potassium.
- Persons on Coumadin are usually asked to limit intake of spinach and leafy greens, because the Vitamin K in greens works against the medication.
Talk to your doctor or a registered dietitian if you have concerns about spinach consumption as part of your personal diet plan.
 Sherman SC, Elvehjem CA, Hart EB, Further Studies of the availability of iron in biological materials. The Journal of Biological Chemistry. 1934: 107(3): 383-394.
 Kohler G, Elvehjem C, Hart E, Modifications of the bibyridine method for available iron. Journal of Biological Chemistry. 1936 (Vol 113):49-53.


The use of so-called genetic fingerprinting now allows scientists to identify changes in the evolution of the virus and thereby dispute accusations, such as the one Libya made against Bulgarian nurses, that one group or another was spreading the virus.
“With the exception of one serious outbreak in China, virtually all the strains of HIV now circulating in Asia - from Manipur, India, all the way to Vietnam, from mid-China all the way down to Indonesia, come from a single country,” Laurie Garrett, author of the 67-page report, told a news conference.
“Several research teams have proven that these various HIV strains can be tracked along four major routes, all originating in Burma,” she said, referring to Myanmar’s former name.
The highest infection rates are among prostitutes and heroin users in Myanmar, ranked as the world’s top opium producer until 2003 when Afghanistan moved to first place.
“Burma is a failed state, rife with civil war and rival gangs of drug, gem and sex-slave smugglers,” said the report, entitled “HIV and National Security: Where Are The Links?”
Garrett said the new technology, known as molecular epidemiology, could counter accusations of who spread the epidemic. For example, a year ago, India charged that “promiscuous Pakistanis” spread HIV in Kashmir.
More serious is Libya’s jailing in 1999 of five Bulgarian nurses and a Palestinian doctor, accused of deliberately infecting 426 children with HIV. Bulgaria countered that Libya failed to screen its blood transfusion supplies.
“Were the Libyan government willing to comply, a study of the HIV strains found in the 426 infected children might offer proof of their origin,” Garrett’s report said.
Using genetic techniques, researchers have also proved that the rapidly growing HIV epidemic in the former Soviet Union - Russia, Ukraine and the Baltic states - appears to stem from one strain spread by drug users nearly a decade ago.
“Nearly all of the HIV viruses circulating in that region…closely match one another genetically, were introduced into the area in 1996-97 and are being spread through injection by drug users,” Garrett wrote.
Revision date: June 22, 2011
Last revised: by Andrew G. Epstein, M.D.


4.2 Joshua -- Rahab
This remarkable incident is the first "wrinkle" in God's decree of destruction upon Canaan.
Joshua sent two spies into the city of Jericho. They stayed at the home of Rahab the prostitute. One wonders if this was on official business. "There is no place like a harlot's house for people coming and going. There is no indication whatever that they went there for any immoral purpose."1 Still, they were inept spies, because the King of Jericho knew who they were (Josh 2:2-3). However, Rahab hid them and saved their lives, and informed them of the low morale of her fellow citizens:
"All who live in this country are melting in fear because of you" (Josh 2:9-11).
She asked the men that the lives of her family be spared. They told her to tie a red cord in her window, and not to let any of her family go outside her house. This corresponds to the Israelites putting the lamb's blood on the doorposts of their houses in Egypt (Ex 12:21-23). And indeed, when the walls of Jericho fell, and the Israelites invaded, the whole city was burned, but Rahab and her family were spared (Josh 2:24-25).
Rahab is another of these interesting outsiders who keep intervening in critical places in the Biblical narrative: Melchizadek, Hagar, Asenath, Pharaoh's daughter, Jethro and Zipporah. She was not a moral woman, obviously, and her motivation for helping the spies was enlightened self-interest. Rahab is an affront to religious sensibilities:
"Rahab was a harlot in a heathen land. Some people have been embarrassed by this and have tried to tone it down, but it is impossible to do so. That is really what she was. It is the only thing the Hebrew word in Joshua 2:1 can mean....We miss the whole point of the story...if we become embarrassed and soften it" (Schaeffer, pp. 73, 75).
The NIV (and Josephus) try to sanitize her by giving the alternate translation "innkeeper" (footnote to Josh 2:1). But the New Testament references to her are explicit: "Rahab the prostitute" (Heb 11:31, James 2:25).
In the New Testament, Rahab is listed as an ancestor of David, and thus of Jesus Christ (Mat 1:5). Note that this genealogy omits many generations between Rahab and David (almost the entire period of the Judges is missing). If the Rahab of Joshua is the same person as the Rahab of Matthew, it means she married Salmon, an Israelite of the tribe of Judah. Rahab also appears in the list of "heroes of the faith" (Heb 11:31) and is praised for her righteous deeds (James 2:25).


Health risks of alcohol use
Beer, wine, and liquor all contain alcohol. Drinking an excessive amount of alcohol can put you at risk for alcohol-related problems.
Alcoholism - risks; Alcohol abuse - risks; Alcohol dependence - risks; Risky drinking
Definition of Alcohol Use
Beer, wine, and liquor all contain alcohol. If you are drinking any of these, you are using alcohol. Your drinking patterns may vary, depending on who you are with and what you are doing.
Drinking an excessive amount of alcohol can put you at risk for alcohol-related problems if:
- You are a man under 65 years old who has 15 or more drinks a week, or often have 5 or more drinks at a time.
- You are a woman or a man over 65 years old who has 8 or more drinks a week, or often have 4 or more drinks at a time.
One drink is defined as 12 ounces (355 milliliters, mL) of beer, 5 ounces (148 mL) of wine, or a 1 1/2-ounce (44 mL) shot of liquor.
Alcohol Use and Your Health
Long-term excessive alcohol use increases your chances of:
- Bleeding from the stomach or esophagus (the tube the food travels through from your mouth to your stomach).
- Swelling and damage to the pancreas. Your pancreas produces substances your body needs to work well.
- Damage to the liver. When severe, liver damage often leads to death.
- Poor nutrition.
- Cancer of the esophagus, liver, colon, head and neck, breasts, and other areas.
Video: Alcoholic liver disease
Excessive drinking can also:
- Make it harder to control high blood pressure with medicines if you already have high blood pressure.
- Lead to heart problems in some people.
Alcohol can affect your thinking and judgment each time you drink. Long-term excessive alcohol use damages brain cells. This can lead to lasting damage to your memory, thinking, and the way you behave.
Damage to nerves from alcohol use can cause many problems, including:
- Numbness or a painful "pins and needles" feeling in your arms or legs.
- Problems with erections in men.
- Leaking urine or having a hard time passing urine.
Drinking during pregnancy can harm the growing baby. Severe birth defects or fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) may occur.
How Alcohol Use Can Affect Your Life
People often drink to make themselves feel better or to block feelings of sadness, depression, nervousness, or worry. But alcohol can:
- Make these problems worse over time.
- Cause sleep problems or make them worse.
- Increase the risk for suicide.
Families are often affected when someone in the home uses alcohol. Violence and conflict in the home is much more likely when a family member is abusing alcohol. Children who grow up in a home where alcohol abuse is present are more likely to:
- Do poorly in school.
- Be depressed and have problems with anxiety and low self-esteem.
- Have marriages that end in divorce.
Drinking too much alcohol even once can harm you or others. It can lead to any of the following:
- Car accidents
- Risky sex habits, which may lead to unplanned or unwanted pregnancy, and sexually transmitted infections (STIs)
- Falls, drowning, and other accidents
- Violence, sexual assault or rape, and homicide
What You Can Do
First, ask yourself what type of drinker you are?
Even if you are a responsible drinker, drinking too much just once can be harmful.
Be aware of your drinking patterns. Learn ways to cut back on drinking.
If you cannot control your drinking or if your drinking is becoming harmful to yourself or others, seek help from:
- Your health care provider
- Support and self-help groups for people who have drinking problems
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention website. Fact sheets: alcohol use and your health. www.cdc.gov/alcohol/fact-sheets/alcohol-use.htm. Updated December 30, 2019. Accessed January 23, 2020.
National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism website. Alcohol & your health. www.niaaa.nih.gov/alcohol-health. Accessed January 23, 2020.
National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism website. Alcohol use disorder. www.niaaa.nih.gov/alcohol-health/overview-alcohol-consumption/alcohol-use-disorders. Accessed January 23, 2020.
O'Connor PG. Alcohol use disorders. In: Goldman L, Schafer AI, eds. Goldman-Cecil Medicine. 26th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier; 2020:chap 30.
Sherin K, Seikel S, Hale S. Alcohol use disorders. In: Rakel RE, Rakel DP, eds. Textbook of Family Medicine. 9th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier Saunders; 2016:chap 48.
US Preventive Services Task Force. Screening and behavioral counseling interventions to reduce unhealthy alcohol use in adolescents and adults: US Preventive Services Task Force recommendation statement. JAMA. 2018;320(18):1899–1909. PMID: 30422199 pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30422199/.


We provide a learning environment that is open ended, flexible, and meaningful to the children, based on their interests, strengths and experiences, and which is rich in opportunities that encourage the development of skills, knowledge and creativity. The ideas and opinions of John Dewey have become the foundation for many current views of play.
He believed that educators need to observe children to determine the experiences they are interested in and are ready for. Educators need to be able to guide children’s learning, engage their minds, and work collaboratively with children and not just instruct. The curriculum needs to be purposeful and assist children to make sense of the world. He believed that children’s own instincts, activities, and interests should be the starting point of education.
Our play based programs are child initiated and directed, encompass intentional teaching and are responsive to spontaneous teaching moments.We encourage children to be active participants and believe they learn best through ‘doing’ and experimenting themselves. We encourage them to take the initiative, be independent, and make own choices. This practise is supported by Psychologist Lev Vygotsky, who viewed children as active learners. He believed children must be given opportunities to explore, discover and experiment.
We believe that all children are successful, competent and capable learners. We offer opportunities to discover, explore, question, problem solve, imagine, create and reflect. We provide children with long periods of uninterrupted play and time to explore at their own pace, and in their own individual way.
We believe the ‘process’ is more valuable than the end product because of the learning that takes place. All children have the right to equal opportunities, resources and adult interaction regardless of their gender, race or culture.
We believe the development of a healthy self-esteem is paramount to a child’s development and is vital to learning, being happy and coping well with challenges. We respect each child as a unique individual, and celebrate children’s individuality, efforts and achievements.
Children have the right to get messy, muddy, dirty wet, slimy and gooey in their play. Children will be supported, encouraged and empowered to take risks, climb trees, try new things and use real tools inside and outside. We value the natural world and all the learning that can take place in a nature-based environment.
We promote an awareness of environmental practises in our programs. We demonstrate a strong commitment to sustainability and taking care of our environment, by using recycled materials, composting food scraps into the worm farm, growing herbs and vegetables and using environmentally friendly cleaning products.
We believe that the ‘kinder photos’ embrace our philosophy to show case children in play, in the moment and in their environment.


Icelandic Sign Language
|Icelandic Sign Language|
|(no estimate available)|
The Icelandic sign language (íslenskt táknmál) is the sign language of the deaf community in Iceland. It is based on the Danish Sign Language; until 1910, deaf Icelandic people were sent to school in Denmark, but the languages have diverged since then. It is officially recognized by the state and regulated by a national committee.
Icelandic Sign Language is distinct from spoken Icelandic; in 1999, the Icelandic Ministry of Education stated that, in the Icelandic basic curriculum, Icelandic Sign Language is the first language of deaf people, while spoken Icelandic is a second language. Therefore, deaf Icelanders should learn Icelandic Sign Language as their first language and Icelandic as their second language.
For more information on the recognition of Icelandic Sign Language and the comparison with other countries, see Legal recognition of sign languages.
A lexical comparison of signs from Icelandic Sign Language with their counterparts in Danish Sign Language was undertaken (Aldersson 2006) to try to determine the degree of current lexical similarity. It was found that whilst the two sign languages are certainly related, 37% of signs analysed were completely different in structure and a further 16%, whilst similar, still contrasted in one of the four parameters of hand-configuaration, location, movement or orientation.
Sign Language Studies | October 1, 2008 | Aldersson, Russell R; McEntee-Atalianis, Lisa J | 700+ words
|This Iceland-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.|


A design method which includes the effect of the torsional-flexural buckling mode of failure is proposed.
The results give a continuous spread of compressive strengths for practical ranges of slenderness parameters. The results show that torsional–flexural buckling and plate buckling need not be considered simultaneously even for unequal angles if they are designed according to CAN/CSA-S16.1-94. Key words: angle, buckling, codes and standards, compression, design strength, flexural buckling, local buckling, specifications, steel, torsional–flexural buckling.
Because steel angles are singly symmetric or asymmetric, torsional-flexural buckling is an important mode of failure.
Compared to 90° angles of the same size, these angles are weaker in torsional-flexural buckling.
We distinguish Euler buckles that develop in beds without cross fractures, block-flexure buckles that form with smooth buckled bedding surfaces in beds with cross fractures, and block buckles that develop with large rotations of rock blocks in rock layers more than 0.1 m thick.
Experimental failure loads are compared with the loads computed according to the general theory of torsional–flexural buckling, ASCE Manual No. 52, and the ECCS recommendations.
Recent experimental studies have shown that the design of 60° angles will be quite safe, if design is carried out using the expressions for factored axial compressive resistances given in CAN/CSA-S16.1-M89, taking into account only the effect of local buckling and flexural buckling about minor axis, and neglecting torsional-flexural buckling.
These two latter properties are required for determining failure loads of angles subjected to torsional–flexural buckling.
The paper presents the results of an experimental investigation consisting of 34 hot-rolled steel angles under concentric compression (slenderness ratios between 50 and 150) failing in torsional?flexural buckling.
Showing page 1. Found 11 sentences matching phrase "flexural buckling".Found in 0 ms. Translation memories are created by human, but computer aligned, which might cause mistakes. They come from many sources and are not checked. Be warned.