CSPI Urges FDA to Ban Artificial Food Dyes Linked to Behavior Problems
Dyes Called "Secret Shame" of Food Industry and Regulators
Yellow 5, Red 40, and six other widely used artificial colorings are linked to hyperactivity and behavior problems in children and should be prohibited from use in foods, according to the nonprofit Center for Science in the Public Interest. The group today formally petitioned the Food and Drug Administration to ban the dyes, several of which are already being phased out in the United Kingdom. The other six dyes are Blue 1, Blue 2, Green 3, Orange B, Red 3, and Yellow 6.
Synthetic food dyes have been suspected of disrupting children's behavior since the 1970s, when Dr. Ben Feingold, a San Francisco allergist, reported that his patients improved when their diets were changed. Numerous controlled studies conducted over the next three decades in the United States, Europe, and Australia proved that some children’s behavior is worsened by artificial dyes, but the government did nothing to discourage their use and food manufacturers greatly increased their reliance on them.
Photo credit: Moira Donahue.
A comprehensive 2004 meta-analysis of the medical literature concluded that artificial dyes affect children's behavior, and two recent studies funded by the British government found that dyes (as well as the preservative sodium benzoate) adversely affect kids' behavior. Unlike most previous studies, those British studies tested children in the general population, not children whose parents suspected they were sensitive to dyes. As a result, the British government is successfully pressuring food manufacturers to switch to safer colorings.
"We spent years trying to figure out the cause of our son's behavioral problems," said Judy Mann, of Silver Spring, Md. "For a long time, we thought the culprit was sugar. But when we started carefully monitoring everything he ate we were able to see that artificial dyes and preservatives were the problem. Since eliminating them the change has been positively stunning."
"The continued use of these unnecessary artificial dyes is the secret shame of the food industry and the regulators who watch over it," said CSPI executive director Michael F. Jacobson. "The purpose of these chemicals is often to mask the absence of real food, to increase the appeal of a low-nutrition product to children, or both. Who can tell the parents of kids with behavioral problems that this is truly worth the risk?"
Americans' exposure to artificial food dyes has risen sharply. According to the FDA, the amount of food dye certified for use was 12 milligrams per capita per day in 1955. In 2007, 59 mg per capita per day, or nearly five times as much, was certified for use. Dyes are used in countless foods and are sometimes used to simulate the color of fruits or vegetables.Kraft's Guacamole Dip gets its greenish color not from avocados (there are almost none) but from Yellow 5, Yellow 6, and Blue 1. The blue bits in Aunt Jemima Blueberry Waffles are blue thanks to Red 40 and Blue 2, not real blueberries.
Artificial dyes are particularly prevalent in the sugary cereals, candies, sodas, and snack foods pitched to kids. For instance, General Mills' Fruit Roll-ups and Fruit-by-the-Foot flavored snacks get their fruity colors from Yellow 5, Yellow 6, Red 40, and Blue 1. General Mills' Fruity Cheerios, Lucky Charms, and Trix also contain several of the problematic dyes, as do Kellogg's Froot Loops and Apple Jacks and Post's Fruity Pebbles.
More than a dozen American varieties of Kraft's Oscar Meyer Lunchables kids' meals contain artificial food dyes, but not so the British versions. Starburst Chews, Skittles, and M&M candies—all Mars products—contain the full spectrum of artificial colors in the U.S., but not in the U.K., where the company uses natural colorings. Even foods that aren't particularly brightly colored can contain dyes, including several varieties of macaroni and cheese and mashed potatoes. Betty Crocker's Au Gratin "100% Real" Potatoes are partly not real, colored as they are with Yellow 5 and Yellow 6, both derived from coal tar. Remarkably, in Britain, the color in McDonald's strawberry sauce for sundaes actually comes from strawberries; in the U.S. it comes from Red 40.
"The science shows that kids' behavior improves when these artificial colorings are removed from their diets and worsens when they’re added to the their diets," said Dr. David Schab, a psychiatrist at Columbia University Medical Center, who conducted the 2004 meta-analysis with his colleague Dr. Nhi-Ha T. Trinh. "While not all children seem to be sensitive to these chemicals, it's hard to justify their continued use in foods—especially those foods heavily marketed to young children."
Americans need not travel to Britain to find kid-friendly food without artificial food dyes, though. Everything with a Trader Joe's label sold at the supermarket and all products at Whole Foods are free of the controversial chemicals.
"I can't imagine why the Food and Drug Administration still allows these artificial colors in food, knowing what we know," said Beth Tribble, a Fairfax County, VA parent of two boys, whose youngest is sensitive to food dyes. "It's almost impossible for parents to eliminate these chemicals from their kids' diets on their own. The FDA could make life a lot easier for parents and children by just getting rid of them."
"Banning these synthetic chemicals is certainly a far less drastic step than putting so many children on Ritalin or other potentially dangerous and sometimes-abused prescription stimulants," said Jacobson. "The food industry has known about this problem for 30 years, yet few companies have switched to safer colorings. We hope today is the beginning of the end for Yellow 5, Red 40, and these other dubious dyes."
CSPI's petition asks the FDA to require a warning label on foods with artificial dyes while it mulls CSPI's request to ban the dyes outright. CSPI also wants the FDA to correct the information it presents to parents on its web site about the impact of artificial food dyes on behavior. Joining CSPI's call are 19 prominent psychiatrists, toxicologists, and pediatricians who today co-signed letter urging members of Congress to hold hearings on artificial food dyes and behavior, and to fund an Institute of Medicine research project on the issue. Those doctors include L. Eugene Arnold, professor emeritus of psychiatry at Ohio State University; Bernard Weiss, professor of environmental medicine at the University of Rochester School of Medicine and Dentistry; and Stanley Greenspan, Clinical Professor of Psychiatry and Pediatrics at George Washington University Medical School.
Contact Jeff Cronin (jcronin[at]cspinet.org) or Ariana Stone (astone[at]cspinet.org).


Almost three-quarters of women start breastfeeding when their child is born, however by 6 to 8 weeks this drops to just 44%. This makes breastfeeding rates in England among the lowest in the world.
A new survey of 1,000 mothers of young children commissioned by Public Health England (PHE) revealed that in hindsight, mothers wished they had been better prepared for breastfeeding. Before the birth of their first child, mums’ biggest priorities were:
- buying baby equipment (66%)
- preparing for labour (49%)
- buying baby clothes (40%)
However, post birth, nearly a quarter (24%) wished they had read about and were more prepared for breastfeeding and 1 in 4 (26%) of those who had given breast milk to their first child wished they had known that asking for help can make a real difference.
Evidence shows the right support helps mothers to breastfeed for longer. PHE’s programme Start4Life has created the Breastfeeding Friend to encourage parents to adopt healthy behaviours. It is available for free on a range of platforms, including Facebook Messenger, and now for the first time it will also be available as a skill for Amazon Alexa’s voice service.
Mothers can ask Alexa a variety of questions about breastfeeding and the answers will be provided tailored to the age of the baby. This means that they can get helpful advice even when their hands are full.
The survey also highlighted that almost a third (31%) of mothers also felt embarrassed about asking for help with breastfeeding from healthcare professionals. Many mothers can find breastfeeding challenging and often this may cause them to give up.
It also found that almost two thirds (64%) felt that access to 24 hours a day, 7 days a week breastfeeding support, such as a phoneline, website or chatbot, would make new mothers:
- more likely to have a positive experience of breastfeeding
- more likely to decide to try breastfeeding (59%)
- breastfeed for longer (58%)
PHE recommends exclusive breastfeeding for around the first 6 months. Breastfeeding boosts a baby’s ability to fight illness and infection, and babies who are not breastfed are more likely to get diarrhoea and chest infections. Breastfeeding also lowers a mother’s risk of breast cancer and may reduce the risk of ovarian cancer.
Viv Bennett, Chief Nurse at Public Health England said:
Breastfeeding, whilst natural, is something that mothers and babies learn together, and whilst learning, women may have questions and setbacks. PHE is working with health professionals to make sure women are not embarrassed and receive timely help. Health professionals do an excellent job of caring for new mothers, but they cannot be available 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, which is where our Breastfeeding Friend from Start4Life is designed to help. This tool, together with the range of support materials from Start4Life, can provide breastfeeding advice at any time of night or day and support mothers and their partners and families through challenges they may face.
These digital offerings will help guide new parents through their first weeks of breastfeeding and beyond, providing help at any time of the day or night, and aim to complement support and advice from health care professionals and breastfeeding specialists. The information provided by all the Start4Life services is NHS approved and both services are independent of Amazon and Facebook.
Dr Cheryll Adams CBE, Executive Director Institute of Health Visiting, says:
This innovative new service will enhance those already provided by health professionals. Whether a mother manages to establish breastfeeding is largely determinant on the support she receives in the first few days after birth. However, with such short hospital stays, professional support is not as widely available as it once was. To have this back up, which can be accessed from anywhere, will be hugely helpful and we expect health visitors to want to promote the service.
Justine Roberts, CEO and Founder of Mumsnet, says:
Breastfeeding is a hard-won skill for many women, and most mothers will experience a setback along the way, particularly in the first few weeks. We see from conversations on Mumsnet that mothers are looking for breastfeeding support 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, and in fact middle of the night crises when face-to-face help isn’t available can be the most profoundly lonely and difficult. These new round-the-clock digital services could provide help when mothers need it most.
More information, advice and tips on breastfeeding is available on the Start4Life website.
1 - Once Breastfeeding Friend from Start4Life is enabled from the Alexa app, users can activate the skill on their Alexa by using the wake word ‘Alexa’ and asking for the ‘Breastfeeding Friend’. A ‘card’ will be sent to the user’s Alexa app showing some of the most common questions the Breastfeeding Friend can answer. Users can access quick tips or advice, and ask Alexa a variety of questions about breastfeeding. The answers will be provided tailored to the age of the baby. The 24 hours a day, 7 days a week Breastfeeding Friend from Start4Life aims to make it simple and easy for breastfeeding mums to ask for help if they are facing any breastfeeding difficulties.
2 - In addition to the Breastfeeding Friend from Start4Life there are many other ways that mothers can get breastfeeding support. The Start4Life website has a range of advice and resources which can help mothers continue breastfeeding. Mothers can also call a national helpline (0300 100 0212) provided by the Breastfeeding Network 365 days a year. Mothers can also get help through:
- friends and family
- their Midwifery team
- their health visitor
- local breastfeeding drop-in services
3 - The survey was conducted by Kantar Public from 26 January to 7 February 2018 with a nationally representative sample of 1005 mothers in England with children under the age of 4, on behalf of PHE. The data were weighted to population statistics based on age of mum, region and socio-economic group. Findings show:
- of those who ever gave breastmilk to their first child, younger mums were more likely than older mums to use online sources (42% of 18 to 34 years compared to 30% of 35 to 50 years) when researching or starting to breastfeed
- of mums who breastfed their first child, a quarter wished they’d known it can take a long time, but it’s quality time to spend with their baby (25%) and there is lots of help and support available from breastfeeding groups, other parents and online (24%)
- 1 in 4 (26%) mums felt using more online/digital tools and information would have helped them to be more prepared for becoming a mum
- in hindsight, mums wished their main priorities before the birth of their first child had been preparing for labour (33%), spending time with friends and family (26%), reading about and preparing for breastfeeding (24%) and preparing for night feeds (22%)
4 - Sometimes breastfeeding isn’t possible for a range of reasons. If this is the case, in terms of liquids babies should only be given infant formula milk for the first 12 months and no other types of milk.
5 - Start4Life’s Information Service for Parents and Start4Life website offers NHS information and advice for parents-to-be and parents of 0 to 5 year olds providing them with the advice they need to help get their child off to the best start in life.
6 - The Department of Health is also supporting Unicef UK to develop a neonatal infant feeding network to support sick and preterm babies.
7 - PHE exists to protect and improve the nation’s health and wellbeing, and reduce health inequalities. It does this through world-class science, knowledge and intelligence, advocacy, partnerships and the delivery of specialist public health services.


UAE AT GLANCE
The United Arab Emirates (UAE) is a country on the Arabian Peninsula located on the southeastern coast of the Persian Gulf and the northwestern coast of the Gulf of Oman. The UAE consists of seven emirates and was founded on 2 December 1971 as a federation. Six of the seven sheikhdoms (Abu Dhabi, Dubai, Sharjah, Ajman, Umm Al Quwain and Fujairah) combined on that date. The seventh, Ras Al Khaimah, joined the federation on 10 February 1972. The seven sheikhdoms were formerly known as the Trucial States, in reference to the treaty relations established with the British in the 19th Century.
Artifacts uncovered in the UAE show a long history of human habitation and regional trade including with Mesopotamia. The area was settled by a number of tribes along both the coast and interior and was Islamised in the seventh century.
A number of incursions and bloody battles took place along the coast when the Portuguese, under Albuquerque, invaded the area. Conflicts between the maritime communities of the Trucial Coast and the British led to the sacking of Ras Al Khaimah by British forces in 1809 and again in 1819, which resulted in the first of a number of British treaties with the Trucial Rulers in 1820. These treaties, including the Treaty of Perpetual Maritime Peace, signed in 1853, led to peace and prosperity along the coast which lasted until the 1930s, when the pearl trade collapsed, leading to significant hardship among the coastal communities.
A British decision, taken in early 1968, to withdraw from its involvement in the Trucial States, led to the decision to found a Federation. This was agreed between two of the most influential Trucial Rulers, Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan of Abu Dhabi and Sheikh Rashid bin Saeed Al Maktoum of Dubai. The two invited other Trucial Rulers to join the Federation. At one stage it seemed likely Bahrain and Qatar would also join the Union, but both eventually decided on independence.
Today, the UAE is a modern, oil exporting country with a highly diversified economy, with Dubai in particular developing into a global hub for tourism, retail, and finance, home to the world’s tallest building, largest man-made seaport and busiest international airport.


Black History Month Woman of the Day: Mae Jemison
Traveling beyond Earth into the universe has always been one of most interesting jobs in the world. Mae Jemison (1956-present) had a fascination with space since she was young and always knew she would one take a trip to the moon. Jemison attended Stanford University at 16 and earned a B.S. in chemical engineering. While there, she received racism for being a black woman in a field where white men prospered. The fearlessness of her youth allowed her do things someone older might be too timid to try.
Mae earned her Doctor of Medicine degree in 1981 from Weil Medical College at Cornell University and joined the Peace Corps for a short time. By 1983, she applied to join NASA. She was declined the first time, but in 1987 she was finally accepted. By 1992 she became the first African American woman to travel into space aboard Space Shuttle Endeavour.
A year later she resigned from NASA and established her own company, The Jemison Group, that researches, markets, and integrates science and technology into the lives of others. Presently, she makes guest appearances on shows and events. Her drive and bravery opened the door for many African American women to join in on the sciences and make their way to space.


By DOUG GRAVES
AVONDALE, Ohio — Last month the American Heart Assoc. (AHA) announced a $75,000 grant to Avondale, a community north of Cincinnati, to support an overall awareness campaign that includes billboards, print ads and television spots.
The goal is to raise awareness of what are known as “food deserts,” or areas of the city without groceries, and the health problems caused by the lack of fresh fruit and vegetables.
Members of the Cincinnati City Council, the AHA and the Center for Closing the Health Gap in Greater Cincinnati attended the announcement at the Avondale Pride Center. This campaign is part of a larger effort to return grocery stores to neighborhoods such as Avondale, Bond Hill and Camp Washington.
“It is at a point of crisis,” said Dwight Tillery, president and chief executive for the Center for Closing the Health Gap.
The crisis comes with high rates of diet-related deaths, such as heart disease, diabetes, certain types of cancer and obesity. Roughly 1,400 such deaths were recorded in 2010 in Hamilton County, a disproportionately high percentage occurring in communities without grocery stores. Adults living in neighborhoods with grocery stores have the lowest rates of obesity.
Short of attracting investment of new commercial grocery stores, the Center for Closing the Health Gap and other nonprofits and investors have developed programs designed to make fresh fruit and vegetables more accessible to low-income communities.


We have a whole sequence of problems. Um that are so some questions about this uh this graph here that I've tried to reproduce from the book, um it's obviously piecewise continuous. It's not smooth because it looks like we have a corner there. So linear here, linear here, but with a constant Y. And then some kind of probably more like a, like a cubic or cortical function. Um Over here. They don't give it, they don't tell us what these are. We could yeah, I think we have enough points. Let's see here, we have 12345 points. We could figure out a quartet polynomial. We probably want to find this slope here. So we could figure out a Quinton polynomial on that word. Have a zero slope here and go through all these points if we wanted to. But that's not what we were asked. So we're just asked a bunch of questions about this. So I'm just gonna go through all of them in this one video, because they're all very much related and there are, you know, I have to do with this this graph here. So the first question is fine. F zero and effort negative six. Well F zero, that's when X equals zero. So we come up here and we're at my at three and then at negative six we're out here and so they've labeled this point here, X is negative six, then why is minus three now they ask us is um is F of three positive or negative? So let's see here F of three is somewhere in this in this region here and so it's positive and it's probably, you know, just again, they didn't label the point but it looks like it's three for this whole region between zero and four. An f of minus minus four, so minus three were at zero minus five, we're at minus two. So if this is indeed a line then minus four were at minus one and then clearly f of my f one of X equals minus four is clearly negative. It's on it's to the left of here. No, they ask us, let's see here. Um for what values of X is F of X zero? Well f of X is why here? So we have zero here, zero here and zero here. So there's three points. And they are when X is minus three, when X is six and when X is 10 to those three points, then they ask us for what values of X. F greater than zero. Well we can see here that it's greater than zero here and also here. And I should probably say that this should probably change this to just assume that this doesn't get extended. So we have it's greater than equal to 10. Less than equal to 11. So from here to here, right, we have X equals minus 3 to 6. So and they said greater than all Right. So I should have I should just have greater than it's not equal to um And then from here to here, you know, it goes from 10 to 11 over this region. Little region here, we also have positive values. Then I asked for the what is the domain? Well, assuming that, you know, this doesn't continue on in any way that this is just, you know, it's only defined over this region. The domain goes from X equals minus 62 X equals 11. And they asked us for the range and the range is the span of y values. So it looks like the smallest Y value we have is minus three and the largest value we have is three. So that's the range. Then we'll ask for the X intercepts. The X intercepts are actually just the points where y equals zero. So we have the exact same points here minus three at six and 10. They ask us for what is the wiring rcep? Well that's when X zero and we see that in X zero. They tell us that why is three? Yeah. And how often does the line why it was gonna have intersected graph? Well, Y equals one half. If we go down um you can see that it's gonna be down something like this. So it looks like about three. And so we know it intersects somewhere here as it this crosses it, we know what intersects somewhere here as that crosses it. And over here at this point this goes from um Y equals zero to Y equals one. So one half is right in between there. So we know what crosses it there too. So that crosses three points. How often does the line cross? Um The graph crossed the line X equals five and I thought why it was five, so this is wrong. And so let's do that. Y equals five. Um No X X equals five. So it just crosses at once. And in fact if it's a function, if it's a function then it can only cross any any constant value of X at one at one point. Otherwise it's not by definition of function. So yeah, process somewhere here if this, well I don't know what kind of curve this is. So I would speculate on what the Y value is there then how for what values of X does F equal three? Well, it looks like again assuming this is all horizontal here, it looks like it's F equals three for this entire span here from 0 to 4. Mhm. Than for what values does F equal minus two? Well we have we have a point over here minus five minus two, so we're given that one and we're told this goes through eight minus two. And again this just this double cross comes back down here. So if we look at um for why it goes minus two, we just touched this point here and I'm assuming that's a minimum it appears to be, so it doesn't go beyond it somehow. Um you know, doesn't go below and then over here, so those are the two points X equals minus five and eight. And then for and what interval is the function increasing? What intervals? So obviously it's increasing here. Right. And it's increasing here. So they have yeah. Um And so this region here is minus 6 to 0. That's not increasing here. Nor is it decreasing? We'll come back to that later. And it looks like from here from 8 to 11. It's also increasing. Did they ask about when there's a decreasing? Well it's decreasing from here to here and that goes from 4 to 8. And they asked when is a constant? Well that is it's constant between zero and four. And then they asked, when is it non increasing? Okay, so that means constant or decreasing. So basically have the union of this set and this set which is 0 to 8. So from here, other way to here is non increasing. And then they ask if it when is it non decreasing? Well, again, that's the intersection of the constant region and this region here, so that winds up being minus 6 to 4. So here to here, it's non decreasing. And then over here, 11 or 8 to 11, it's also increasing or non decreasing. So those are all the questions they ask us about this this one graph. Um, so hopefully there should be pretty simple for you to do at this point, and hopefully none of this was kind of a surprise, um, to looking at this chart here and in asking all these questions.


Filed under ‘trans’ — or not
As the transgender community becomes more visible, scholars like K.J. Rawson are working to make trans history more accessible. In February, the College of the Holy Cross English professor launched what he says is the first digital repository of transgender history.
Already, the Digital Transgender Archive has illuminated some of the unique challenges facing researchers who want to document something that has long been so misunderstood and taboo. It also raises questions about how to accurately document a history that’s often filled with anonymity and pseudonyms.
Rawson became an archivist by accident. As a graduate student in rhetoric, he chose the rhetoric of transgender history archives as his dissertation topic. “My first challenge was, okay, now where do I find these materials?” Many libraries held relevant documents, but they were scattered and irregularly categorized. For example, one grassroots LGBT archive labeled its homophobic holdings with an expletive that might be loosely paraphrased as “garbage.”
The word transgender has only existed for 50 years, but practices we now associate with trans identities have been around for centuries. As a result, historians have to cast a wide net when looking for materials, often by using older and very different keywords like “cross-dresser,” “transvestite,” and “transsexual.” The DTA now has more than a thousand documents, including magazines, photographs, and letters.
As simple as it seems, compiling an online archive related to a formerly taboo or underground culture presents a host of challenges. Many transgender newsletters include dozens of authors, and sometimes their names change over the lifespan of a publication. “The more we can normalize names, the better. But of course, that is a very political practice,” Rawson says.
Individuals who change their names may not want to be connected with their past work — which, at times, brings pragmatism into conflict with privacy. “We certainly don’t resurrect names, and we don’t apply them to people who no longer use them. That’s a particularly sensitive issue for trans people,” Rawson says.
Copyright restrictions also pose a challenge for online archives. Because some trans publications are circulated in tight-knit communities, Rawson can’t always assume that their creators would want their words and images online. He’s contacted dozens of copyright holders for permission. “There’s a lot of dead ends,” he says. On the other hand, a few contributors have provided not only permission, but also piles of private documents they’d like archived.
Catarina-Oliva Beal, a student and research assistant who works at the DTA, scrolls through several scanned periodicals, pausing to laugh at a comic in “Crosstalk,” a cross-dressing newsletter. It depicts a man who’s struggling to fit into a “maidenly form” bra. “It’s a more personal look at people who identify as cross-dressers,” Beal says of the periodical. “There’s a lot of humor.”
Not all of the archive’s holdings are amusing: Many trans-related historical texts demean or objectify trans people. For example, the 1964 book “Sex Life of a Transvestite” was marketed as a “confession” from “that strange breed of men who have the compulsion to dress up in women’s clothes.” Though it supposedly advocated “a more tolerant attitude” toward cross-dressers, it also labeled the practice as “unhealthy” and “neurotic in origin.”
Other publications in the archive, like a series called Female Mimics, sexualized trans people with a style reminiscent of Playboy or Penthouse. “You don’t have to go very far back to find an overwhelming amount of representations of trans people that are highly eroticized,” says Rawson. “It’s sort of a question of what constitutes history.”
For now, such materials are only a small part of the DTA. “I want to focus on materials that were created by trans folks for trans folks,” Rawson adds. Dozens of newsletters in the archive document and discuss trans issues. Issues of Transgender Tapestry magazine include editorials, interviews with “tall blonds,” and obituaries for the victims of hate crimes. Although most of the DTA’s holdings come from the US, a few documents come from Africa and Europe.
The current inaccessibility of trans history poses a problem on two fronts: it slows the acceptance of the trans community, and it prevents trans people from seeing their own stories in history and pop culture.
Rawson says his work as an archivist has made him a more aware scholar. He used to visit archives for the documents they contained, but now he’s conscious of their symbolic importance — for example, as institutions that can “counter the fear of the unknown.” He also believes archives need to do more to preserve materials created online, from email newsletters to Tweets to viral memes.
Because College of the Holy Cross is affiliated with the Roman Catholic Church, an institution that has been criticized for its LGBT policies, the school seems an unlikely home for the Digital Transgender Archive. “I was surprised it existed at Holy Cross,” says Michael DeSantis, another student who works at the DTA. “We just don’t have a lot of this type of material in our courses here.”
But Rawson says the school has been deeply supportive of the project. He points out that Jesuit Catholicism takes a special interest in “seeking out the poor and the powerless, and understanding marginalization.” Students tend to be curious, not critical, and the DTA has raised the profile of Rawson’s transgender studies courses. “Whenever you do this kind of work, you take on a responsibility on behalf of a community,” he adds. “I’ve taken on a lifelong work in this project.”
Correction: Due to a reporting error, an earlier version of this story used an imprecise pronoun. It has been updated for accuracy.


Bronze Age Odin
Since many want to be a leader it is easy to see Odin as the leader of the tribe. I doubt it always was so. Others maybe saw it as the leading aspect in man. In the Ritual Age there were seemingly no leader since the priest or priestess read the will of deities.
Leadership, Odin, messenger birds, Lugh Long-arm, Odin, Tyr, Amled saga, neck-ring, Cernunnos, the Stag, Trinity, the Horse, The Bird, comradeship, Loke, MercuriusLeadership | Messenger birds | Lugh Long-arm | Odin | Rigveda | Thor | Odin and Tyr | Balder myth | Trinity | AS-ideas |Goddesses | indexBR | indexAE | home |
All living being organise themselves up to their manners and population. Those living in small groups do not need the same prefect organisation as the very big populations. This thesis is valid also for humankind in small and big developed sites around the world. Capitalists and technocrats are true Texas-philosophy and set quality in everything big and that counts many units. Unfortunately the big is wearing and tearing the surroundings and like many old cultures destined to fall out.
In small communities equality become rule as a natural solution. In the Edda it is expressed in the saying even, equally high and third. The known pair is the first link in the chain that continues with the unknown third.
The Roman historians told that the Germans had no leaders like the sitting Caesar ... yet, maybe some had a leader. On the thing they choose leader for special purposes and time ... we choose parliament every fourth year.
During the last millennium BC the big men came to the rocks and were cut over the old pictures. The "Half" or the dwarf is along and is maybe the helper Tjalve, not supposed to have a head. Ordinary people are just bones. The spear is the novelty, nevertheless still the gestures are ritual symbolism.
We do not know much about the rule of the Romans in the provinces. However we know that they in some respect set up colons and stelae to the gods in the provinces. Sometimes they were pure native and sometimes a mix with a Roman god as the highest. Mars Thingsus was one of the names and it tells that they equalised a war god with a peaceful judge god. We may also ask if the Roman military legatus was the highest judge? Up to Northern legend the one armed Tyr was the icon for a judge.
From the early medieval documents and earlier find we may ask if they had two lawmen at the Pan-Geat Thing. In the text from Ugarit in the Levant we know that the Twins were law readers. Every god and symbol item has mostly a sophisticated meaning and a practical purpose in everyday life. That was the analysis of the society studied and completed during ages to follow the needs of the people. Pure ancestors' cult will not give the daily bread.
Hard to find any evidence of real fights on the rocks. There are no pictures where swords or spears hurt another figures. Either there are no figures on the ground with someone above with a weapon. If there were it is still not evidence for local fights, since it might by a saga or referring to another place. Finds of wounded bones and skulls are few and that may be up to the normal behaviour of man. We have simply no digging covering a big area for a long time, that could be used as evidence.
Thing are seldom what they look like. In Egypt are on some places many remains after wounded and killed people. Some ancient Greek traveller told that in one place it was custom to have "village fights" at least once a year. Maybe it was in connection with the Seth cult?
There are many weapons on the rocks. The most visible are in ritual gestures showing virtual borders for a territory or a law room. We call them law codes and rules, but they saw them as nearly physical spaces with borders. Less visible are the swords as some status symbol for the figures. Most of them have a bird-head or else not humans head and might be just idols.
Surely they in practise used what they had at hand. The ritual weapon we see is more sophisticated than a normal axe made for work. We see the balta sometimes lying on a ship with the edge towards the sky to sanctify the space under it. Many of them are made as art to be beautiful at the same time they are ritual pieces.
According to the medieval province law of Zealand they used a variant of this thinking. When a peasant should take a field out of common ground he used his sickle and throw it over a bit of common land ... I hope he trained before ... Anyhow, when done with witnesses the land was sanctified for a new member of the village.
Some carvings are clearly made on one occasion and for ritual purpose. In these cases we can try to interpret what we see and perhaps come nearer the truth than just speculating around. Laukeberget is one of the largest ritual carvings. This section is the beginning of a clear half circle of pictures in moments. Maybe we here se some of the main idols from the Edda at this early stage during Bronze Age.
The one-armed Tyr
The one-armed we can suppose to be Tyr god of thing. It can also be compared to figures with cut arms in Egypt and other places used to specify a certain star. However in the oral tradition there should be a story about the idol. The gods tied the beast Fenrisulven with non-existing thing or in fact words. That is the method to choose some stars as a certain observation point. We se the wolf/dog/fox in many places in the figurative art and it is a line between the dog and some other stars across the round. Usually a line to the Crab. However once they made the story they found that a man with experience of pain could also understand victims and other hurt people, so what, he could be an idol for a judge.
Messengers of gods
Birds of gods …..….. ...
Above Tyr we see a figure without arms. It is quite common in Bohuslaen and in Östergautland. Then what did they say with that. It shows that the idol was not fit for work or be with working people. Is he a god or does it show that he leave the decisions to others? Other idols have bird-head and some have horns, which may show that they are just virtual beings. If we search for a Northern idol with some of the characteristic it is Hanno from Fyn, Denmark according to Saxo Grammaticus. Hanno always said, "may others decide", which means democracy if he is the symbolic leader.
This illustration is from the Edda of Ólafur Brynúlfsson.
Tjatse, the night frost has taken the apples of Idun and fly away in the guise of an eagle. Loke try to spear it on a pale but fastens on the pole and gets a wild flight. Once we got the clue we can spin on and tell the whole tale.
We see the scene on Laukeberget above the ship. The figure in the peak is made in the same way as they picture eagles in later pictures. Someone is clearly hanging from the pale. There is also a one-stroked footprint IPA and a symbol URBANEK, that we find in Haugsbyn marking Loke as Capricorn.
On right side and above this picture is the mourning mother that may us thing about the Balder's myth. To read this scene as the murder with the mistletoe is easy, with the helping Loke behind.
It is not the spear but the torque that makes us think about a leader.
Is it fiction or had they leaders like this? In the Celtic feudal culture the ring shows that he has given his neck to his tribe or league. The Celtic oppida" and the hill-forts may be remains of a place for a chieftain. Was it just an island in the big land or were a big land ruled by the chieftain. Our archaeologists measure often with our time and want to see big bosses everywhere. Still it does not fit into the idea of Celts ruled by their druids!
Never will we know for sure if some places were lead in this way. Neither can we know in how many places and how big lands were ruled by leader. Were they ritual or chiefs, we will not know that either. I have my doubts since I know how sparsely populated my own province was in the early Middle Age. Another fact is the find of golden collars and rings from the age of Great Migration in Vaestergautland.
We know the principles of feudalism from the Hittites, where chieftains within the male league ruled the satelles and one was chosen as ritual leader. The Greek society we can se in the Linear B tablets was organised in that way too.
Our castles from the Middle Age are visible reminds of the era when in feudal nobility the families got their own kingdom. Often it was a family affair. The church became organised in the same way in many places. The only difference was that the church owned the property and it could not be inherited.
However, our province laws speak for general peasants' folkland with lawmen as leaders. If there were nobility they were like islands in the folkland. It is the principle we know from concepts like ornum and birke. Maybe we can see it in some symbolism for instance in Bronze Age Bohuslaen.
The big mounds are dated to Bronze Age. They are perhaps signs of a short period with either chieftains or ritual leaders. We can never prove that. Some of the mound are without any sign of burial and can be symbolic graves of Time. In many of the mounds are later burials or urns. Maybe the new DNA technique can tell us where they belonging to one family or was the mound centre in a "parish".
But back to the little one, who ride sitting backward down the spear. My first association goes to Finland and their old proverb "A little harm is a harm too". The Finns were capitulating officially on a rainy and clayey road in the wilderness. They managed to stand behind a muddy water puddle so that the Russians had to walk thorough it ... in that way the Finns kept their self-respect in that tricky situation.
The Finns have known the high boot since 13th century.
The Amled saga
However overall we have the symbolism in several tales and naturally from Denmark where we see the earliest high society. Saxo Grammaticus tells about the brothers Roar and Helge sons of a king. They became orphans and had to hide for the new ruler. Helge played fool and once he rode sitting backward to fool the suspicious searchers. The same theme we find in the Amled saga, which later was adapted by Shakespeare to Hamlet. Once I read about some rock-carvings with the same figure between the plain and the wooden Dal.
Then it is another question why the little boy sits on the dolphin on one plate from the Gundestrup cauldron.
Anyhow on the carving with the Celt the artist wanted to tell something with his composition. My feeling is that the little speeder does not worry. Maybe he thinks that the range of the spear is limited and the horse is fast ... quite a different attitude compared to one easterner saying "The oxen is slow, but the earth has plenty of patience."
Locally they call this figure the Shoemaker.
Whether it is the little hammer or some old tale behind we do not know. Some very old folktale is about traders asking for skin, because their Queen has no shoes ... and it is hard for a queen to walk barefooted. There is no aggression in the picture and he wears two torques I rather callneck-rings. Is it a picture, a local ritual leader or does he belong to a male league?
The cauldron became naturally famous in a large area around Gundestrup. This is the masterpiece among less than a dozen cauldrons and kettles in South Scandinavia.. Still today every book about Bronze Age have at least a picture of some plate from it.
Cernunnoshas a ring in one hand and a snake in the other. The stag is the central figure. We may read his name as "ker nunnos" meaning "round new" with Celtic word order. He is Perseus in the night sky and many cultures sow a Stag or deer near him. He is symbol of spring with Water-snake as symbol of growing.
The cauldron is made in Southeast Europe but we find the stag-horned idol in Val Camonica too.
The Celts kept usually their secrets and we know little about their higher education as we say. The bronze calendar from Coligny France shows 61 months with alternating 30 and 29 days. It is sign of normal regulated time.
We know about their four main feasts and we know that Jonian philosophers esteemed their Celtic colleagues. We know that Caesar wanted to knock down the proud Celts and rape their women. Even when we know little we must pay respect to our ancestors. They are in our genes and without them we would never have be born.
This coin with the Stag is from Haithabu Schleswig, the trading centre in beginning of Viking Age.
Perhaps it is the oldest symbol we can find and it is the same as the above Cernunnos and the Sames used it too, but some tribes used an elk. Besides the male league had a horse in its place. The latest we see a horse is for instance on the Danish early coins and the runic carvings Sigurd and Gauk. These were almost the same as Yggdrasil. On the runic carvings the horse stand by the tree.
Now we have three other symbols RAS/Ansur, Water-snake and Trinity. The Stag stands at the spring equinox that was the zodiac from Perseus to Pisces. We know that Water-snake begins at Crab. Trinity is indivisible three aspects on the same thing and originally it must have been the three Maids to give birth.
The face Ras in Hittitian was surely a statue of some kind. Some of the early glyphs are a face in profile with the Egyptian IN-symbol on head. We may suggest it was the symbol for the leader ... Many cities in the Levant has a Ras as attribute. So maybe they had a statue as symbol for the city.
In our world the leader was surely Wotan or Odinn known as Waterman/Aquarius and the boat-lifter on our carvings. There is some find in Norway of a stony head. The finds of wooden statues are probably on the same theme and we have several constellations like one head, a pair, a female, twins and tri-heads ... remember it was a multi-culture.
In this male trinity the leader wear a torque and we do not se the holes in his head.
He had probably horns and we normally see them on a bull or Taurus the star constellation below Perseus and Pisces. The name nowadays Kaitos or Whale. The torso is from Dordogne France. We have find of a "trivalde"/tri-head from Glejbjerg near Esbjerg Denmark. On the Gallehus horns from about 400 Ad we see Trivalde with a buck in one hand and an axe in the other. The horned figures are many from the last millennium on our rocks.
In the same symbolism we have in the Edda the trinity Odin, Lodur and Haener as creators of Ask and Embla the first couple. The gods gave the main components air, fire and blood respectively.
When we look closer at this horse we see a complex symbolism.
I think the back of the horse is 2 + serpents. The eight legs symbolise in eight divided year and round in the sky. The four bird-heads are the cardinal directions. In the saddle we see something like a Celtic rose, but when we look closer it is a double spiral and a head as symbol for the trisected moon year.
The Horse naturally symbolised power and movability for the riding nobility. It was favourite on early Danish coins and two runic rock-carvings have the Horse tied to a tree in centre. Most known is the Sigurd carvings where we see symbols of calendar too.
At the same time we can look at this bird from Hovinsaari Finland.
The Bird with B we see in symbolism from the very beginning i.e. 203/4 30000 years before present. In style it is like the horse. Both are made in East Europe. In a frozen grave in Siberia they found a singer with much gifts in the grave. She had a headdress made like a bird. The symbolism with "four of the fix-idols" we know also from Egypt. The earliest are four bullheads on the Narmer palette and in late time it was four Khnums or rams.
Our ancestors had a free imagination and we see often strange symbols or odd symbols. The old law of Island was called Gragàs, which surely means, "grey goose". Maybe it was to remind that law thing had always been in autumn, when we have the Morten Goose or the "blot" and guzzling the goose after the slaughter. As always most of our ancestors were practical and the mind and heart was in the stomach.
When we read about Oden in the Edda style many find it odd that the horse has eight legs. Maybe the writer once wanted someone to remember that he like all the other figures are just fiction. When we use tales about people or animal acting we get the impression of real life and how it works. The imaginative mind may easily find a pattern that fits own problems. I have often spoken with friends about totally different things than my personal problem. Still, after a discussion I had the answer in my head ... in my childhood some neighbours came to grind their tools and for a chat and solved their immediate problem that way. I think women came and borrowed something and got more with them home.
The fundamentalists in the Asa-faith can not think Oden on the ground. It must be another idol and maybe it is. Still this one has a blinded eye. Of course there might have been several tales about a half-blind hero. This plate is from the Vendel Age and the brave warriors usually had them on their helmets. Only a few could afford the luxurious outfit, I believe. Then come the question about leadership in at least a small "kingdom" of their own.
In the Sutton Hoo grave we find this plate with the weapon brothers or Asvins with a very old name. Every league has its own language and terms. We find the brothers earlier as statues in Portugal or on one of the Gallehus horns and of course in the Hittitian symbolism.
In Rigveda they were the guards or kasatrya. Two of a kind symbolised brotherhood or quality. During Roman Age Mithraism was fashion and he was just a symbol of intimate mateship. It is timeless behaviour among individuals gathered in some league. For some reason men's mateship is more holly than that among women?
The most known half-blind expert on spears was naturally Filip of Macedonia who invented the spear phalanx. It was a war-machine when several rows of men with spears attacked in order. The spear could be over four metres long. The carving at Tuna Uppland we see at least eleven spears of different length from 1,5 to 6 metres long. Maybe they just noted what they had heard about that hero.
Humankind has used spear in hunting for long. But we see it in battles only in few paintings in Spain, Africa and maybe e few other places. The early axes we see in ritual gestures. The swords in the big mounds from Bronze Age are hardly used. Other are worn but was it in battle or in training they got the marks and became blunt?
The ritual spear we see as a rule in the last millennium BC. It is puzzling that the male fight seem to have needed rules and that I should be man against man, The use of spear was not an equal fight. We saw the rule of fights and the phalanx until or century's destructive war. Naturally war is war and is a new relativity with very different rules than the relativity field of peace. Man becomes a beast when he leave the last will to equality and trial to use negotiation instead of total destruction. After a war the case is still left to be solved by negotiation. But wisdom is a rare thing.
Still it is obvious that the war machine has escalated in time and at least the generals try to be as far as possible from the war place ... they call it surgical warfare. I have written much about non-violence and trials in negotiation before war. But I understand that in certain circumstances the collective of people can not avoid violence. Only the collective can keep the beast in place. If the beast have no rules it must be learned by force. We loose our self-respect if we let some best kill other people en masse and use ethnic cleansing, which is the fashion when I write this ... but, back to the Celts.
Perhaps he was the biggest hero in Celtic myth at the time.
One of his names was Lugh Lámhfada meaning Lugh Long-arm. He was "sam-ildanách" which means inventor of many things and of course also the long spear. His son CuChulainn speared a hind like Heracles got the hind from Kerenyeia, a mountain.
The Romans called the idol from the British isle Mercurius like the Gaul Sucellos and northern Wotan and maybe they saw the trickster in them. It may have been a cultural collision also in this case, when the Romans had to barter in stead of confiscating and demanding for taxes.
We have some place-names in Southern Scandinavia we can connect to him. Luggude is nearest but he may hide in names like Loke, Lopt; Loft, Loss and we have to go to the earliest known version. In Roman Europe we have names like Lyon, Leon, Loudan, Laon, Leiden, Liegnitz, London and Carlisle they called Luguvalum. To this we can add the possibility that his attributes gave name to places.
Lugh Lamhfáda belongs to the early idols and was surely a fix-star since he is connected to the sun. His grandpa was Balor with "the evil eye". Lugh killed him later with a slingstone in the eye. Mannannan MacLir, the seas, fostered Lugh. We call him Hler or Ler in the Edda. Others tell that Gobniu the smith fostered him, but that is a question about came the inventor before the ironsmith or after. By marrying a deadly woman Dechtire he became father of the wheel CuChulainn, one of the very big late heroes.
In Celtic myth part of the mystery is that we cannot keep apart dead and living heroes at a time in a tale or in reality. Otherworld is part of the discussion and then there is no border between dead and alive. They surely believed in resurrection and that they were living "in the flow" and Underworld. The idols moves between the worlds in the tales and it is hard for us to follow because we are not used to.
Gods are born and become out of date, but inspire other heroes and vanish in history. So it is in real life. The language and cultural heroes like Newton, Columbus, Hoyle, Tolstoy, and so on changes in importance, however they are just "living in their graves". It is a matter of definition and language. We live in several worlds too but with other words.
Thanks to pope Gregorius. He wrote the missionaries and told them to be cautious with old customs. That is why sacred wells were saved near churches. Another area was that the monks and monasteries saved old folk tales to the after-world. Maybe they put some Christianity to it, but it is the only we have.
Actually the difference was not that big. In the Old Testament there is many strange things and mysteries. I suppose people used both halves of their brain and used many imaginative pictures when describing spiritual matters. Monks and priest were salesmen in the invisible branch and needed to catch the customers in some way. There were no rules as long as they got a true proselyte. Selling ideas is the true non-violence, where you have to get the "treaty" by words.
In my opinion the Celtic world in the tales is more humble and soft than that of Moses. At the time of Snorre Sturlasen the church was established and we know not much about earlier free Christians. Maybe it is a falsification that the Catholic Church Christianised the Scandinavians. The church has always problems with Marc 12:31, since it demands for equality. That state is not reached when they demand for someone's head and tell the heathen to be of less value as heathen.
New science ask if Scandinavians learned about Christianity in the same pace as Rome, since we had trade with Rome and many were legionaries there. Our interaction and trade with West Europe was almost continuous all the time. The main struggle was that Hamburg, Bremen and Canterbury struggled about primacy and to get the tribute from Scandinavia. The Holy Roman Empire was pure business and trials in getting the Scandinavians under the crown of the Holly Empire.
The Greeks called them Hyperboreans = "they live where it is very cold". However we do not know exactly which tribes it was since it was an overall statement about people north of Trace. The Romans learned a new name Cimbri in the same style. People in Himmerland north Jutland believed at once that it was their land. Maybe the sandstorm drew away the people and they ended in Italy. Hard to prove, but some think it good to hear that the ancestors were brave and killed many people. The Romans killed many tribes and became famous ... and that count also for their circus at which you could see tied Libyans be eaten by lions. The world is absurd at times.
Real stable facts about Scandinavians that we have only from the Roman time. They are the stelae with latin inscriptions telling about Mercurius Rex, Mercurius Hanno and Mercurius Leudisio and referring to the traders furnishing the Roman fortifications at Rhine with fish, skin, handicraft and whatever they could produce. The Romans learned to treat at least the traders with respect. Maybe they had learnt that it was dangerous to sail in the Baltic Sea. So why not let the traders do the job.
It is normal human behaviour that foreign names are made more like the own language and in some cases they give nicknames. In our time of migration we see it every day. For us in research it is a bad habit because we may learn by transcription and understanding the morphology of names. About Latin sources we never know if it is a transcription, a Latinised word or a pure Latin word we meet. The original word may tell a story.
Usually I use the word Odin or Odinn in these books in search for the original. In syllables written and with Celtic word order it would then be OD_IN_IN, where OD means the same as in English today and mostly about magnetism forcing through everything. ININ shortened INN is the verb in, but in this case I think it means the Nordic INGE/ING or EUNGE/YNG meaning "to give in" understood as a dative in Ritual Age, when the gods were the ideas of "giving in". It is a question of the development of language, which took time. In the Edda we usually see the worn word Oden and in Danish it is On seen in the genitive Ons-. They say the Danes swallow the words ... that is only because they do not understand the song of the Raven. I speak fluently Danish but have no words in my throat.
We can take another word near the former and show the logic. In some tale Siv's husband is Odd, which should be in syllables OD_OD. Then since two of a kind is a verb it means growth or growing, which is just the case with this pair symbolising fertility.
When Snorre and other northern saga tellers write about Odin it is from their own background. The same is case when transcriptors of our time tell about the Asa-faith. For Snorre the leader in mind was surely The Holy Olaf, which left much blood in his tracks. Mostly these leaders bloody footprint were struggles within the class of wealthy farmers seeking for a place in the hird, i.e. his staff around the table. Olaf had 64 chosen men in that hird. But many thought they were better or had inheritance too. Ordinary people lived on their farms and tried to avoid crossing the way or to be near when the high boots came usually on horses.
Generally I call the hird or feudal nobility the "male league" and we know it from the Hittites and Greece. We have not enough evidence to say how numerous it was. I only state that they were like islands in the growers and cattlemen's land. We see that pattern as late as during Middle Age. Nobility opened the new settlements outside the farming villages. The other fact is that the principle is outspoken in the some province laws. It may go back to the beginning of Iron Age or even longer.
(The early church supported naturally the high boot since they could get offers from the rich men. While the peasants did not want pay for a bath and they did not understand Latin or English. The first priests were usually imported from Canterbury or in Denmark from Hamburg.)
Since we see the leader as symbol during last millennium it is natural to suggest that Odin = as the point of spear = leader was born. Still the Scandinavians were sailors and the leaderships seem to have been vague in the team on board. Equality was the rule on board as far as we know. Usually we are told that he is the symbol of the leader of the flock.
We all want to be leader and have the leader inside. Then it is another question if we want to and can gather a bigger flock than the near family clan is. This is up to the character of the individual ... and sometimes the female take over. All boys from ten to seventy dream about all the insignia belonging to leadership.
The most used symbol has always been the eagle. Jupiter, some Celtic heroes and Odinn had the eagle as favourite. Late interpreters tell us that Odin's birds were the ravens Hugin = mind = will and the other Munin = yarning and his memory is deep in Mimer.
It is a quite natural analysis of the soul every being. We do not need to talk about it, since we all have these aspects to some extend. Some scientist has found that westerners use only one half of the brain. That is the rational one. Then it is natural that we use only one eye and I have noted that too by watching people all my life. This is not a scientific statement but a conclusion builds on feeling. I use only one eye and had to teach my brain to use imagination and pictures.
In this picture I see the first bird as an eagle compared to the eagle in his helmet and other "standardised" pictures at the time. The birds are pictured differently. It would be natural if the mind and will was pictured by an eagle. To the same symbolism belongs the sea-eagle with a fish in the talons. Christianity used it to symbolise grasping souls to the church.
It is also a habit of the male league to preferably be interested in the leadership and its symbol. Maybe it is safer to be an anonymous one in the suite behind a strong leader. Many leaders I met in life said they're are only a messenger. Others are of the lamenting type. It is easy to forget there are many types if we want to make nuances in valuing. I usually use three examples just to keep in mind that we cannot generalise and make only one statement about the humans being all different individuals.
The pictures of Odin are the ends of the line. No scientist has paid attention to the Celtic heritage in Scandinavia. In my book about the age of the Eriles I have only followed the symbolism and a few aspects on the theme. Maybe we can blame Caesar, who wrote down the Celts. It was only natural since they were his greatest enemies. Other puts much mysticism in the question and that is natural too.
I have made a proverb saying "The less we know, the more imagination we use to describe unknown things"
Still, I have tried to make some conclusions from the material we have. One is about the nobility that must have been partly traders to earn their luxury and get the cultural items and raw material. The stelae to Mercurius at Rhine verify the term trader. This league must have been established at least in southern Scandinavia during Bronze Age. Adam Smith, the guru of capitalism said once, "Whenever three traders put their head together we may expect conspiracy". I think every male league are formed they want to keep their secrets.
Then we can ask about the runes. Were they a secret within the Eriles' league? In Rome they know the Eriles but no other tribe in Scandinavia to mention. That means the legionaries and the traders were a closed league. They were thrown out by the Danes, which verify the conclusion that they were "an island" in farmers' society. Lastly we have the finds of torque's and female collars from the age when the Eriles officially disappeared. This is in short the main question about our Celtic heritage for next generation to dig in.
The Eriles are the link between the Celtic traders and leaders we imagine behind finds and pictures during Bronze Age and Roman Age and the other end the Vikings. It is more spectacular to write about fighting and plundering Vikings than remember that many of them were traders on the route from the entire Baltic Sea to the coasts of West Europe. The ages of war are usually very short in history the other time is normal life. We have also to remember the peasants behind the traders. From known time we know that in coastal areas trading and "viking" were common affairs. But how was it in inland?


Dr. Herman Turnower created the Scarsdale diet, named for the New York town of its birth, in the 1970s as a weight loss program for heart patients. It was intended to be used for quick weight loss, claiming an individual could lose up to twenty pounds in two weeks if they followed it to a tee.
On this diet, individuals still consume three meals per day, but limit their caloric intake to just one thousand calories.
The meals are made up of forty-three percent protein, 22.5 percent fat, and 34.5 percent carbohydrates and are accompanied by four cups of water each day.
The diet, which is known for being a crash diet in nature, is intended to be followed for only seven to fourteen days. Many members of the medical community advise against extreme crash diets like this one. Learn about this diet now.
Signs of a Crash Diet
There are obvious signs of a crash diet and they cite a variety of red flags most crash diets are characterized by, explaining they cause weight cycling, otherwise referred to as yo-yo dieting, and even negative health detriments.
Crash diets, for example, are always characterized by an extreme restriction of calories, which can lead to weakness, fatigue, and the inability to concentrate.
The rules are unsustainable, which is why these diets are only recommended to be used for short periods. Often, crash diets also put a restriction on foods known to be healthy and contain crucial macronutrients.
Although most health organizations recommend a diet consisting of at least thirty percent fat, these diet plans restrict fat intake, work by putting the individual’s body into a starved state in which it quickly consumes its own fat at a fast rate because of the low caloric intake.
Basics of the Scarsdale Diet
Similar to the Atkins diet, the Scarsdale diet also calls for low carbohydrates and fats in exchange for a high protein intake. They also emphasize fruits and vegetables.
The Scarsdale diet, as stated, was made for heart patients, allowing them to lose harmful fat quickly. A major part of the diet, then, is focused on the consumption of proteins, such as lean meats and fish.
In conjunction with a light exercise routine, it claims to help promote the building of lean muscle mass in addition to aiding weight loss. However, the Scarsdale diet specifically prohibits many healthy fats that help reduce inflammation and obesity.
Complex carbohydrates, the good carbohydrates found in whole grains and some fruits and vegetables, are also eliminated from the Scarsdale diet, which does allow for the consumption of protein-rich bread.
Consuming water and green tea are also said to flush out toxins, kick start fat mobilization, and reset the body.
Foods to Eat on the Diet
The list of foods to eat on the Scarsdale diet is fairly short and simple. Since its conception in the ’70s, the Scarsdale diet has been modified to include more raw fruits and vegetables.
On the original version of the diet, for example, grapefruit was the only fruit allowed. This list has been expanded to include peaches, tomatoes, cantaloupes, and papayas.
Raw vegetables may also be eaten alongside lean meat, such as chicken breast or turkey. Low-calorie vegetables that make the Scarsdale cut include carrots, radishes, cauliflower, broccoli, spinach, and celery.
While dairy is not allowed, a hard-boiled egg can be thrown into the mix or eaten alongside a high-protein low-carb slice of bread.
Water, tea, and even diet soda are permitted for drinking, and meals can be seasoned with salt, pepper, lemon, herbs, vinegar, soy sauce, Worcestershire sauce, or mustard.
Foods to Avoid on the Diet
However, foods to avoid on the Scarsdale diet are numerous. The list is extensive, but generally follows the low-fat, low-carb rule of thumb. All dairy items are prohibited for this reason, even though many dairy products contain probiotics that are invaluable for gut health.
All fatty meats, such as bacon, sausage, and pork belly, are also not allowed. Vegetables and grains that are high in carbohydrates are also forbidden when dutifully following the Scarsdale diet.
These include all types of potatoes, rice, beans, and lentils. Sweets, such as processed juices and desserts, are also a no-go on the Scarsdale plan.
Final Word on the Scarsdale Diet
While the Scarsdale diet does allow for rapid weight loss, an obvious pro, especially for individuals who need to lose weight quickly for an event or occasion, there appear to be many more cons.
The diet is obviously not nutritionally sound, and as such, is not sustainable for maintaining overall health. One of the major pitfalls is the restrictive, inflexible nature of the plan, which dramatically limits options and does not allow for snacking between meals.
As an admitted crash diet, followers are put at risk of weight cycling, as well as gaining even more weight after the diet. As such, the results work only as a temporary solution.
To solidify weight loss on a long-term and healthy basis, adopting a healthy lifestyle, including exercise and a nutritious diet, is the safer, more balanced option.
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At the end of the year, it’s nice to reflect on the year to come! Whether you’re doing it before winter break, or shortly after your return from a longer holiday break, it’s nice to have students reflect on their hopes and goals for the coming year. The Spanish tradition of 12 grapes is fun to pair with a reflection and cultural lesson! Students enjoy creating a craft to display in the classroom while completing a writing activity that is perfect for novices!
I put together this simple Spanish New Year Writing Activity and Craft to work on with students in the days before holiday break. We start by reading about the New Year’s tradition of eating twelve grapes at midnight!
How to Use This Spanish New Year Writing Activity and Craft in the Classroom
After we read about the tradition, we complete the writing portion of our new year craft activity by completing the prompt in each of the grapes on their sheet! This resource is perfect for your language learners because they can self level. You can have students write single words, phrases, or short sentences, depending on their abilities!
After completing the writing activity, students can color their grapes to decorate it. You can have them cut out their grapes and put their name on the back. If you’re short on time, students can skip cutting out their grapes. Just hang the colored papers!
If you have students who are absent, left early vacation, or need an alternative, you could have them complete the digital version of this activity instead!
This New Year craft is a fun way to learn about cultural traditions, celebrate the new year, brainstorm hopes for the new year, and it makes an adorable bulletin board display in your classroom or in the hallway. You can find it in my shop here.
This craft is also included in my Navidad and Día de los Reyes Magos Activity Bundle. The bundle includes a variety of activities to learn about the history, traditions, and practices that comprise La Navidad, Día de los Reyes Magos, La Nochevieja, and other cultural holiday traditions.


Various methods for bicycle chain wheel manufacture are available in the current markets. Forging is simple and inexpensive in mass production. Metallic materials are processed through plastic deformation. This not only changes the appearance but also changD e es the internal organization of materials that improve mechanical properties. The main purpose of this research was to design a forging die for bicycle chain wheels, depending on a particular company's needs. This study employed the rigid-plastic finite element (FE) DEFORM TM3D software to investigate the plastic deformation behavior of an aluminum alloy (A7075) workpiece as it is forged for bicycle chain wheels. Factors include the temperature of the forging billet, friction, punch speed, and mold temperature control all parameters. Moreover, this study used the Taguchi method to determine the most favorable optimization parameters, and to analyze the effective stress, effective strain, and radial load distribution of dies. Finally, the paper identified the results of simulation analyses when designing the experimental forging die to lower the deformation behavior of bicycle chain wheels.
All Science Journal Classification (ASJC) codes
- Computer Science(all)
- Health(social science)
- Environmental Science(all)


The Big Bang Theory is a theory within the branch of space science - called cosmology - that attempts to explain the physical origins of the Universe and everything within it, including us.
Further down on this page you will find links to articles and a few videos that can help you gain insight into the details of cosmology and the Big Bang Theory.
But what are the metaphysical aspects of this theory, and how might you use it in your everyday life?
As physical science continues to explore the nature of our universe at both the largest and smallest scales, the evidence continues to grow that what we perceive to be a material universe is in fact not physical.
On the quantum level (the smallest level of particles and waves) scientists have found - through observation, hypothesis, and mathematics - that what we perceive as "matter" may in fact be made up of something "less than nothing".
In cosmology (the largest level of stars, galaxies, and the universe) the same quality of physical matter seems to be true. If the Big Bang Theory is correct, then the Universe emerged from "something" - a quantum singularity - that also might be "less than nothing".
How might this apply to your everyday physical life experience?
For some, this information is enough to justify belief in God, creationism, or a supernatural source (ie. the "something" that is "less than nothing") that caused the beginning of the Universe and life within it. It can and has been used to justify religious belief.
For more about the nature of knowledge and belief, check out "Epistemology" in the PHILOSOPHY section of Metaphysics-for-Life.com.
On another level, understanding the role of Mind and consciousness and how these affect our perception of the physical Universe, could give us some understanding into the true nature of our physical life experience and who we really are within it.
Quantum physics has shown that what we perceive as physical matter exists as waves of infinite possibilities or probabilities, collapsing into one single option when the Mind observes it.
Quantum science has also shown that one thing (in this case the Mind) can exist simultaneously in any number of points in space and time. This backs up the spiritual and philosophical claims that every human being is in fact One Mind appearing in many - perhaps billions - of places at once. This idea also supports the theory that the Universe is the manifestation of thought in one Universal Mind, with each of us occupying a unique point of view within it.
The Big Bang Theory also supports evidence of "entanglement" in quantum physics - the observation that two particles that were once joined, and then separated in space, continue to react to stimuli as if they are still joined. If all matter was once "joined" in the quantum singularity that preceded the Big Bang, then all matter in the Universe is "entangled".
Some believe that entanglement, the existence of quantum singularities, the Universal Mind, and other elements of Cosmology and the Big Bang theory can explain experiences such as remote viewing and influencing, "spiritual" healing, quantum jumping, psychic awareness, and much more.
Scientific theories and the evidence that supports them helps us grasp the true nature of our reality. This gives us justification for pursuing the study of metaphysics and its practical applications.
To learn more about the Big Bang Theory, cosmology, and the true nature of time, space, energy, and matter, please explore the links and watch the videos below...
Links to more pages about Cosmology on Metaphysics-for-Life.com.
~~ Mayan Cosmology - The Mayan Calendar: A Metaphysical Viewpoint.
The Mayan civilization had a gift for perceiving cycles of time. These cycles were associated with the movements of Earth, Sun, and Moon through space and time. On December 21, 2012 the Sun will eclipse the center of the Milky Way Galaxy. It is also the winter Solstice, which places the Earth between the Moon and the Sun. This alignment only happens once every 26 thousand years.
~~ 2012 - End Times? Or just another movie?
Who knows. Perhaps on December 21, 2012 we will encounter events that have not been seen or experienced in nearly 26,000 years. Or not. We do know we are witnessing the end of a very long cycle, and the beginning of the next, very long cycle. What that transition will bring we cannot know - at least not until we "go through it" - and therefore "know it" - ourselves.
~~ The Theory of Everything: Uniting The Physical and Non-Physical Dimensions of Experience
Both science and spiritualism have come to the realization that what we perceive as physical matter arises from, and is in fact, non-physical. Therefore, to seek a TOE in terms of three dimensional matter and energy is not only frustrating, but impossible. Modern scientists who are willing and able to integrate both physical and non-physical aspects of reality into their theories are beginning to meet with some success
Links to articles and resources on other sites:
The-Big-Bang-Theory.com at All About Science
There are many misconceptions surrounding the Big Bang theory. For example, we tend to imagine a giant explosion. Experts however say that there was no explosion; there was (and continues to be) an expansion. Rather than imagining a balloon popping and releasing its contents, imagine a balloon expanding: an infinitesimally small balloon expanding to the size of our current universe.
Wikipedia: About the cosmological model of the Universe
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. According to the Big Bang model, the universe expanded from an extremely dense and hot state and continues to expand today. A common analogy explains that space itself is expanding, carrying galaxies with it, like raisins in a rising loaf of bread. The Hubble Ultra Deep Field showcases galaxies from an ancient era when the universe was younger, denser, and warmer according to the Big Bang theory.
Cosmology: New Scientist Magazine
Cosmologists study the universe as a whole: its birth, growth, shape, size and eventual fate. Get started with our beginner's guide.
On Truth and Reality: Cosmology - The Big Bang Theory
Top Ten problems of the Big Bang Theory, and how they are easily solved by the most simple explanation of physical matter - the Wave Structure of Matter...
Is The Universe Infinite? Cosmology, Aristotle, Metaphysics and Physical Science explore the ultimate questions.
Watch Stephen Hawking's Universe - Episode 2 - The Big Bang.
Watch more videos about cosmology at: A Mind With Heart Channel on Youtube. The official Youtube channel of Metaphysics for Life!
Aug 25, 20 10:26 PM
Living In The Chrysalis is about the 14 "Days" of Total Transformation that collective Human Consciousness is experiencing in 2020 and beyond.
Jul 20, 20 01:04 PM
Reality is made up of infinite zero points radiating energy and information into the space-time of the mind.
Jan 03, 20 01:15 PM
Metaphysics for Life is for practical people looking for a way to apply the science, philosophy, and spiritual aspects of metaphysics to their real, everyday lives.


|What Is Vitiligo?|
|Wednesday, 04 November 2009 19:07|
According to the MayoClinic Staff, Vitiligo (vit-ih-LI-go) is a condition in which your skin loses melanin, the pigment that determines the color of your skin, hair and eyes. Vitiligo occurs when the cells that produce melanin die or no longer form melanin, causing slowly enlarging white patches of irregular shapes to appear on your skin. Exactly why this occurs isn't known.
Vitiligo affects all races, but may be more noticeable and disfiguring in people with darker skin. Vitiligo usually starts as small areas of pigment loss that spread with time. These changes in your skin can result in stress and worries about your appearance. Like Scleroderma, there is no cure for vitiligo.
The goal of treatment is to stop or slow the progression of pigment loss and, if you desire, attempt to return some color to your skin.
Although any part of your body may be affected by Vitiligo, depigmentation usually develops first on sun-exposed areas of your skin, such as your hands, feet, arms, face and lips. Although it can start at any age, Vitiligo often first appears between the ages of 10 and 30.
The natural course of Vitiligo is difficult to predict. Sometimes the patches stop forming without treatment. But, in most cases, pigment loss spreads and can eventually involve most of the surface of your skin.
Doctors and scientists have theories as to what causes Vitiligo. It may be due to an immune system disorder. Heredity may be a factor because there's an increased incidence of Vitiligo in some families. Some people have reported a single event, such as sunburn or emotional distress, that triggered the condition. However, none of these theories has been proven as a definite cause of Vitiligo.
Vitiligo is the most likely diagnosis in cases in which there is a progressive depigmentation leading to symmetrically distributed, chalk-white macules on the face, neck, scalp, mucous membranes, or periorificial areas, and not accompanied by any other symptom. This is essentially what differentiates Vitiligo from Scleroderma.
Diffuse scleroderma may result in areas of skin hypopigmentation. However, systemic signs of Scleroderma include essential vasomotor disturbances, such as Raynaud's phenomenon, fibrosis, and abnormalities of the lungs, kidneys, digestive system, and heart.
For more information on Vitiligo, you're welcome to view the MayoClinic's full article here, or visit the Vitiligo Foundation here. The International Scleroderma Network has some excellent links to additional resources on Vitiligo, such as diagnoses, personal stories and more. Similarly, there are many research papers on Vitiligo, one of which you can read here.


Two-thirds of Americans believe that domestic violence is a serious problem, yet just over 1 in 3 have ever talked about it. Jenesse's Youth Conversations serves to generate conversation about the issue. Jenesse Youth Conversations is an intergroup dialogue that Challenges student to share ideas, debate and questions about domestic violence and intimate partner violence. Youth Conversations defy educational traditions by creating a safe space for students to engage in facilitated discussions focused on controversial issues of interest to the campus community. They are uniquely structured to empower student-directed learning among participants and effectively communicate with a diverse population. This culturally relevant framework contributes the development domestic violence awareness and prevention that is more responsive to the needs of a young demographic. Youth Conversations equips students with the knowledge, skills and awareness for active participation in a global society. Youth Conversation participants will produce socially inclined, morally conscious leaders to advocate social change.


from The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, 4th Edition
- adj. Of or relating to Acadia or its people, language, or culture.
- n. One of the early French settlers of Acadia.
- n. A descendant of these settlers, especially a Cajun.
- n. A dialect of French spoken by the Acadians.
from Wiktionary, Creative Commons Attribution/Share-Alike License
- adj. Of or pertaining to the Acadian epoch.
- proper n. A French speaking descendant of the early settlers in the Maritime Provinces.
- proper n. Acadian French: the form of French spoken in Acadia.
- proper n. Acadian epoch; the Middle Cambrian; the geologic time period from 497 million year ago to 509 million year ago.
from the GNU version of the Collaborative International Dictionary of English
- adj. Of or pertaining to Acadia, or Nova Scotia.
from The Century Dictionary and Cyclopedia
- Pertaining or relating to Acadia or Nova Scotia.
- n. A native or an inhabitant of Acadia or Nova Scotia; specifically, one of the original French settlers of Acadia, or of the descendants of those who were expelled in a body by the English in 1755, many of whom formed communities in Louisiana, then a French colony, and have retained the name.
- n. In geology, the middle division or stage of the Cambrian system of eastern North America, named from its typical development in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, but extending into Newfoundland, Cape Breton, and eastern Massachusetts, and perhaps farther south in the Appalachian region.
from WordNet 3.0 Copyright 2006 by Princeton University. All rights reserved.
- n. an early French settler in the Maritimes
Sorry, no etymologies found.
One of the most entertaining characters, Raymond, a firefly, identifies himself as Cajun, which, to those who remember their history, is a derivation of the word Acadian, the name of the French people group who occupied the eastern coast of Canada until the late 18 th century, when the English forced exile upon them.
Can you give more detail on the short-term Acadian contract is that I assume a capacity contract for six months and is that an undivided interest with your partner, Cajun Gas?
Accordingly, he laid siege to it with the six or seven hundred whites and Indians of his party, aided by the so-called Acadian neutrals.
She added that food - its preparation and consumption - must be classified as Acadian pleasure.
There is an epicurean appeal to Cajun cooking, also known as Acadian cuisine, originating in the entire Cajun region of Louisiana known as Acadiana.
"Acadian" became "Cajun" down south, and the two peoples evolved very differently, but the accent remained the same.
One of the planters so notified was an old Cajun -- Cajun being a corruption of the word "Acadian," denoting those persons of French descent driven from Acadia, in Canada, by the British many years ago.
( "Acadian" or the "Fund"), today reported financial and operating results (1) for the three and twelve month periods ended December 31, 2009.
This News Release contains forward-looking information and other forward-looking statements within the meaning of applicable Canadian securities laws that involve known and unknown risks, uncertainties and other factors that may cause the actual results, performance or achievements of the Corporation and its subsidiaries (collectively, "Acadian"), or industry results, to be materially different from any future results, performance or achievements expressed or implied by such forward-looking statements.
Mining Corporation (TSX: ADA) ( "Acadian" or the "Corporation") announced today that it has concluded an agreement with ...


When Original Murdick’s Fudge came up with our Turtle fudge flavor, it wasn’t by accident. In fact, the Turtle variety’s very conception draws on the fact that Mackinac Island itself has for many generations been referred to as the Great Turtle.
But of course, when it comes to legend and how things began way back when, there are always different interpretations.
So let’s sloooow down (like a, well, turtle) and sit back for a few minutes to explore how the island’s turtle reference actually came to be. (Read on to find out about our oh-so-caramel-y free Turtle fudge deal, too!)
According to many, Native Americans in the Straits of Mackinac region likened the shape of Mackinac Island to that of a turtle, so they named it “Mitchimakinak,” which means “Big Turtle.” Others state that the area had been named after an ancient tribe that had lived there — the Mishinemackinawgo.
And then there’s the legend, cleverly told in the book The Legend of Mackinac Island (the second book in a series of Great Lakes Legends by Kathy-jo Wargin), which shares that a wise, old turtle named Makinauk told other animals one day that the Great Spirit in the sky asked him to create a new land.
The creation was to be accomplished by putting a handful of the bottom of Lake Huron on the turtle’s back. After several animals tried, an unlikely candidate (a muskrat!) returned to the surface with the soil. Upon placing it on Makinauk’s back, the turtle was transformed into a great island.
As for that muskrat, Kathy-jo says his friends — loon, beaver, and otter — actually laugh at him when he offers to help. “But muskrat is humble; he doesn’t engage with their laughter. Instead, he dutifully goes to the bottom of the lake to earnestly work at getting the soil.” And thus a wonderful legend unfolds!
Storytellers long ago also stated that when the world was very, very young, a turtle was lured north by lights to a point of land between Lake Michigan and Lake Huron. As winter arrived, he stayed there and eventually grew into an island, which the Indians named Michilimackinac (the Great Turtle).
As you can see, various Mackinac Island legends relate to the turtle’s tale. The thing is, we may never know exactly how the turtle reference came to be, but one thing’s for certain, Mackinac Island is definitely a cool turtle, sitting out there in Michigan’s gorgeous Straits of Mackinac.
And of course, we’d be remiss if we didn’t mention that the painted turtle was designated the official state reptile of Michigan in 1995 —this is a turtle-crazed state we live in!
TURTLE FUDGE HISTORY
That said, let’s now take a quick look at the legend of turtle candy. DeMet’s candy company, which opened in 1916 in Chicago, first created the turtle we know today as the chocolate-caramel-nut cluster that looks like a turtle. They of course became wildly popular, and why wouldn’t they with all that caramel goodness?
Eventually, Original Murdick’s Fudge turned our thoughts to turtle-style fudge, not only because we recognize the perfection you get when combining nuts, chocolate and caramel, but also as an honorable nod to our Great Turtle island, one of the world’s most beautiful fresh-water sites.
We took our sweet time, of course (just as a turtle would!), perfecting our Turtle fudge. The results? A fantastic, caramel-y, sticky-sweet and totally addictive fudge brimming with fresh, chopped pecans. It’s slooooow good!
SPECIAL OFFER: In honor of our “turtle island,” we’re shelling out a not-to-be-missed deal — anyone who makes an Original Murdick’s Fudge online order now through midnight on Oct. 11 will receive a complimentary slice of Turtle fudge!
You’ll want to act fast on this slooow-good offer. So order your fudge online today!.
And then check our Facebook page this week for more on how to enter our contest to win a copy of The Legend Of Mackinac Island!
Posted October 4, 2016


Artificial satellites can provide the basis for all-weather, long-term navigation systems to determine with accuracy geodetic position, speed, and direction of a surface vehicle or aircraft, north reference, and vertical reference. Other methods, such as dead reckoning, Sun and star sighting during clear weather, and use of inertial guidance devices can provide such information with adequate precision in many applications for limited periods of time. It is, however, necessary in many cases to check, independently and periodically, the navigation data indicated by these systems.
In checking and correcting navigational data, two distinct techniques employing a satellite are of interest: (1) Sphereographical navigation, which is very similar to celestial navigation, and (2) a method which makes use of the doppler-shift phenomenon. 1-4
Celestial guidance involves measurement of the angle between the vertical and the line of sight to a celestial body. The position of the observer on the Earth's surface can be determined from a pair of such observations of two celestial bodies. The same kind of procedure can be used to determine position from two successive observations of a satellite. There are, of course, differences in detail between navigation by stars and by satellite, since star positions change very slowly while a satellite fairly close to the Earth moves at great speed. In both applications, the observer must also determine the local direction of the vertical by pendulum or some other device.
For all-weather navigation, the satellite would radiate a continuous radio signal. The observer, equipped with an electronic sextant and an indicator of the vertical, would then be able to determine his position from radio observations of the satellite.
An all-weather navigation system can also be based on a satellite broadcasting a continuous radio signal, by using the "doppler-shift" principle. The basic phenomenon is the following: The radio signal received from a moving vehicle will appear higher in frequency as the vehicle approaches the observer and lower as the vehicle recedes from the observer. The difference between the observed signal frequency
1 Lawrence, L., Jr., Navigation by Satellites, Missiles and Rockets, vol. 1, No. 1, October 1956, p. 48.
2 Siry, L. W. The Vanguard IGY Earth Satellite Program Naval Research Laboratory, presented to the Fifth General Assembly of CSAGI. Held in Moscow July 30 to August 10, 1958.
3 Leighton, R. B., Tracking an Artificial Satellite Using the Doppler Effect, California Institute of Technology, October 28, 1957.
4 Quier, W. H., and G. C. Weiffenbach, Theoretical Analysis of Doppler Radio Signals From Earth Satellites, Johns Hopkins Applied Physics Laboratory, Bumblebee Series Rept. No, 276, April 1958.
and the known transmitter frequency is a measure of relative position and motion of the vehicle and observer; and, therefore, proper use of such frequency shift information can provide navigational data. This type of system does not require determination of the local vertical by the observer.
For either of the above methods, the observer must know the true position of the satellite at the time of observation. Thus, he must be provided with a table of satellite positions covering the duration of his trip. These tables must be prepared in advance as mathematical predictions, as is now done by the Naval Observatory in the case of tables of positions of celestial bodies for navigation purposes.
Navigation accuracy is dependent upon the precision with which satellite position can be predicted into the future. This precision is, in turn, dependent largely upon the accuracy of observations, the computational procedure used, the accuracy with which the relevant physical constants are known, and the magnitudes of unpredictable disturbing effects acting on the satellite. The most important of these disturbances is the uncertain air drag at lower altitudes. Since it is at fairly high altitudes, the orbit of Vanguard I can be predicted into the future for about a month with reasonable accuracy, whereas predictions of the lower Explorer IV orbit are useful for only about 1 day in the future. Current predictions of Vanguard I position tend to be in error by some tens of miles after a month, but are in error by less that 5 miles over a few days. Prediction a few hours in advance would be off by less than a mile.
In addition to errors in satellite observations, there are two sources of difficulty in accurate orbit predictions. First, the classical methods used for many years by astronomers to determine orbits have not proven to be adequate when used in connection with artificial satellite orbits. New techniques or modifications of existing techniques appear to be necessary in order to improve the accuracy of orbital predictions. Second, further study must be made of the disturbing forces influencing orbital motion.
The basic measurements required in sphereographical navigation are the azimuth and elevation angles of the satellite and the time of observation. The equipment of the navigator consists of a highly directional antenna and receiver, a clock, and equipment for defining the vertical. The accuracy of navigation is determined by various equipment characteristics. The factor with greatest implications for vehicle design is the antenna size.
As an indication of this size, an antenna about 12 feet in diameter will allow position determination within an error of about a mile when directed toward a satellite 1,000 miles away under representative conditions. A smaller antenna would lead to larger errors. The other equipments involved are generally comparatively small and light. The satellite would carry a transmitter.
For using the doppler technique of navigation the physical extent of the equipment needed on the navigated vehicle is less. The navigation equipment consists of a sensitive radio receiver, an accurate frequency reference, and an accurate clock. The equipment carried by the satellite would again be a transmitter, but one specifically designed to emit a very stable frequency.