- freely available
Buildings 2013, 3(2), 341-356; doi:10.3390/buildings3020341
Abstract: This paper is a study of the photovoltaic (PV) systems in the buildings’ design of the Battery Park City (BPC) residential development, in New York. The BPC development is the first in the US to mandate, through the 2000 Battery Park City Authority (BPCA) guidelines, the use of PV as a renewable energy generation system in its individual buildings. The scope of this study is to show how PV is integrated in the BPC buildings’ design process, and what can be learned for future PV applications. The study draws directly from the design decision making sources, investigating on the concerns and suggestions of the BPCA director of sustainability and the BPC architects and PV installers. It attempts to contrast a theoretical approach that sees PV as a technology to domesticate in architecture and bring, through grounded research, PV industry closer to the architectural design process. The findings of the study suggest that while stringent environmental mandates help, in the short term, to kick-start the use of PV systems in buildings, it is the recognition of the PV’s primary role as energy provider, its assimilation in the building industry, and its use in a less confining building program that allows for its evolution in architecture.
Photovoltaic (PV) cells transform the visible spectrum of solar radiation (photons) into electrical energy. The greater the efficiency of the PV cell, the larger the PV surface area exposed, and the better the PV’s position with respect to the sun, the greater the total electrical output produced. It is important to remember that initial use and testing of PV cells occurred in outer space. In 1958, PV cells were installed in the satellite Vanguard to generate energy to power its radio transmitters. The event was significant because it demonstrated the original scope and potential of PV: to effectively generate self-sufficient energy from the sun. This machine-like function and high-tech aesthetic of PV remains fundamentally unchanged and is arguably what challenges architects when PV systems are to be integrated in a building’s design. The integration of PV in architecture, however, can also potentially provide an important supply of electricity for a building’s energy demand and significantly contribute to the reduction of carbon emissions. The application of PV systems in the Battery Park City (BPC) buildings represents a challenge that architects face globally when presented with PV technology; that is, to make PV perform and assimilate it as constituent parts of the design process.
This paper explores how PV systems are integrated in the design process of the BPC buildings. The scope of this paper is to show what can be learned from the BPC experience for future PV application in architecture. The paper begins with a review of PV in architecture. It then gives a background of the BPC development. The main body of the paper discusses the emerging themes stemming from the architect’s integration of PV in the BPC buildings’ designs. Finally, the paper draws conclusions on the integration of PV technology in the architectural design process.
The source material of this study originates from on-site video interviews carried out during the construction process of the Battery Park City development in the periods 18-26 June and 14-17 November, 2007, and the period 27 September to 11 October, 2009, with the Battery Park City Authority (BPCA) director of sustainability, the architects in charge of the buildings concerned, and the BPC PV installer. The raw interview data is transcribed and subjected to content analysis to show emerging themes in the integration of PV in the building’s design. The content of each theme is interpreted through observation and literature review. Conclusions are then drawn from the findings.
2. PV in Architecture—A Review
Literature on the application of PV in architecture is easily accessible and rapidly growing. This is particularly the case for practical manuals and handbooks that provide architects with design guidelines and case studies for integrating PV in their projects [1,2,3,4,5]. However, for an updated view of the synergy between solar energy, PV industry and architecture, and a better understanding of the forces in the implementation of PV in architectural design, we must refer to the International Energy Agency Photovoltaic Power System (IEA-PVPS) annual reports  and program surveys .
Established in 1993, the mission of the IEA-PVPS program is to accelerate and promote the development and deployment of PV solar energy through information dissemination and a set of scheduled tasks. The program’s premise is that of PV as a sustainable renewable energy source that can significantly contribute to the reduction of carbon emissions and world dependency on fossil fuels. Central issues relevant to the introduction of PV in buildings, accountable for more than 40% of the world’s energy demands are PV economy, government incentives, and technological innovation. In support of the advantages of integrating PV in buildings we find studies, from both IEA-PVPS program and independent sources, which focus on the PV’s economic, environmental, and architectural added value [8,9,10,11].
Within the IEA–PVPS program tasks, Task7 [12,13] and Task 10 [14,15], are particular to the implementation of PV in the built environment. More specifically, the goal of Task 7 is to enhance PV’s architectural and technical quality and its economic viability in the built environment, as well as removing non-technical barriers (such as administrative and market related), while that of Task 10 to enhance wide-scale, solution-oriented photovoltaic power production application in the urban environment. However, the issue of PV architectural quality, which according to the author of this paper is at the heart of PV integration in the architectural design process, is treated only as a subtask of Task 7 (subtask 1).
Subtask 1 is specifically aimed at providing architects with a set of criteria for successfully integrating PV in architecture (design criteria for good quality PV-projects), with guidelines on how PV can be incorporated in the building design process and a database of notable PV applications. While recognizing the difficulty for PV technology to be fully incorporated in the design process, Kaan and Reijenga  underline the value of Task 7 architectural criteria as a starting point for architects to orient themselves when integrating PV in their designs. The argument is that because PV is not an indispensable material in architecture it is seen by architects as an add-on element and in need of an organized set of criteria. The view of PV as a separate added element of architecture is evident in more recent publications  and, as will be shown, reinforced by those directly involved in the design decision making process.
Arguably, the prevailing approach to PV’s integration in architecture is top-down. It starts from the PV industry, and the powerful arguments that support its proliferation, and pushes towards its acceptance and incorporation in architecture. By contrast, the author of this paper would like to stress the importance of the contributions that go from the design process experience towards the PV industry. In this direction, and non-withstanding the specificity of its location, the BPC development offers a unique opportunity of investigation. At BPC, within a framework of time, building program and site, architects, PV installers, and real estate developers, are called to respond to the introduction of PV as a mandatory requirement. This results in diverse design approaches and in emerging themes that are perhaps a call from the world of architectural design to that of the PV industry.
3. The Battery Park City Development
The BPC development (see Figure 1) is located on the Southwest tip of Manhattan Island. It sits on a reclaimed area of approx. 92 acres, and measures one mile end to end, all on the West of the West Side highway.
The idea of the BPC development starts in the mid sixties, following the dismantling of the shipping industry and the progressive decay of the piers jutting out onto the river. Susan Kaplan, Director of Sustainability at the BPCA explains how this large dysfunctional area on the waterfront was seen by the then ex-governor of New York, Nelson A. Rockefeller, as an opportunity to have full jurisdiction over buildable areas and, through the strategy of reclaimed land, start an entire new city jutting out from Manhattan Island . The development of BPC goes through two distinct phases that are visually experienced with a visit to the site. The first goes from the mid-sixties to the new master plan of 1979. It is defined by several master plans that result in closed communities such as the Gateway, which shows exclusion to street life and nature. The second phase stems from the 1979 master plan. This phase begins to include environmental considerations, primarily at an urban design scale, and can be considered the reference driver for the rest of the BPC development.
In 2000, the BPCA establishes the Hugh L. Carey Battery Park City Authority Residential Environmental Guidelines . The formulation of the guidelines is coeval to the Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) Green Building Rating System . It distinguishes itself from LEED, however, by setting mandates, rather then options, with stringent requirements for the provision of renewable energy and green power sources. The guidelines mandates that renewable energy sources be incorporated in the BPC building’s design to initially provide 5% of the base energy load of each building; that is: the load of the buildings’ non-tenanted spaces. Several studies are conducted to explore the different renewable energy options, including wind and biomass. The application of PV systems, however, quickly appears to the developers as the most tested and economic option, and as such it is adopted in the BPC buildings.
The BPC buildings under investigation, completed between 2003 and 2011, represent a test case in PV application. The details of these buildings are shown below, in Table 1. All the buildings follow tight zoning and geometric constraints on massing, orientation, and envelope directives (i.e., the façade’s ratio of opaque to transparent).
|Name of building||Design (start)||Construction (completion)||Location and use of PV||Design architect|
|The Solaire||2000||2003||West façade BIPV and bulkhead*(South and West facing walls). Entrance canopy (West)||Pelli Clarke Pelli Architects|
|Tribeca Green||2000||2005||Bulkhead (East, West and South facing walls)||Robert A.M. Stern Architects|
|The Verdesian||2003||2006||Bulkhead (primarily East and West facing walls)||Pelli Clarke Pelli Architects|
|Millenium Tower||2004||2007||Bulkhead (West facing wall)||Handel Architects|
|The Riverhouse||2004||2008||PV tracking array at rooftop level (East, West and South racks)||Ennead and Ismael Leyva Architects|
|The Visionaire||2005||2008||West and East façade BIPV||Pelli Clarke Pelli Architects|
|Site 23 and Site 24||2006||2011||PV trellises at lower rooftops and on bulkheads (top and South facing) of both buildings||EE&K Architects|
* Bulkhead: structure on the roof housing mechanical systems and other installations.
4. Emerging Themes
The emerging themes from the interviews are categorized in four sections, namely: The “carrot and stick” (discusses the effects of mandating PV systems in the BPC development); PV and building integration (discusses the architect’s different approaches to PV integration in the design process); PV industry and design process (discusses the difficult relationship between PV industry and the design process); Green visible (brings out the PV overall prevailing function at BPC, comparing the short term symbolic function of PV with its potential long term goal).
4.1. The “Carrot and Stick”
Residential development is an exceedingly money conscious sector of the building industry. Newly built residential buildings must generate a certain pre-calculated return, and anything outside of a tested financial program is seen with scepticism and as a risk. Kaplan, states that having mandated the use of PV as renewable generation system through the BPCA residential guidelines has fostered the development of the PV industry in the residential sector . According to Anthony Pereira , President and CEO of AltPower, the BPC PV installer, “the reality is that if you did not use the stick, no one would apply the technology, no matter what the incentive. The stick had to happen for it to happen”. For the scope of this study, the question is: what effect did the mandatory inclusion of PV have on the BPC architects and developers?
4.1.1. The Stick
From the interviews carried out on the buildings under investigation, the architect’s general consensus is that, were PV systems not required through regulation, they would not have been considered in the building’s design. David Hess, project manager of the Solaire (see Figure 2, Figure 3) and the Verdesian (see Figure 4) buildings goes as far as stating that no one in the design team would have, of their own choice, considered PV, nor indeed any on-site renewable energy source, as an option to promote green design . Overall, the BPC architects welcomed the PV challenge, but saw it more as part of a program to carry through, rather than a design challenge [24,25,26,27]. There are multiple reasons that perhaps explain this sentiment. Firstly, the requirement for the PV to provide 5% of the base building load was seen as minimal and inconsistent for a full engagement of PV into a comprehensive design project. Secondly, overshadowing studies showed that solar access was limited to specific fronts of each building, limiting the architect’s design options in terms of PV location and positioning. Thirdly, the building’s fixed massing, orientation, and envelope requirements prevented any real spatial contribution of the PV to the building’s form. Under these terms, it could be assumed that PV was not considered by the architects on their own accord because it hindered the very nature of the architectural design process: at the design conceptual phase, there was limited scope for PV becoming a participatory element of the design, and PV systems tended to be considered as an add-on element. From a developer’s perspective, independently of economic reasons, PV represented a risk. Real estate developers tend to offer buildings that are as neutral as possible to increase the range of potential clients, and there was no precedence to show how NYC clients would respond to a PV clad building.
4.1.2. The Carrot
It is suggested, however, that it is the very challenges posed by the introduction of PV in the city and the stringent building and environmental guidelines set by the BPCA that has triggered a set of attractive advantages for architects and developers. To begin with, architects were given the opportunity to show, in a highly visible way, the environmental commitment of their practice. BPC has also shown to be an incubator for the use of PV in the city, drawing architects and developers to use PV in their future projects and engage in the use of PV systems with more confidence. An example is the Helena building in New York, by Fox and Fowle architects, completed in 2005. As PV installer of the Helena, Anthony Pereira  states that the decision to include PV in the building’s design agenda was fostered by the physical evidence provided by the BPC buildings, bringing forth confidence to the PV initiative. Likewise, the Albanese Developing Corporation, developer of the Solaire, the Verdesian, and the Visionaire has, since their experience at BPC, started to incorporate green buildings strategies as a norm, with the inclusion of PV in most of their projects. Most importantly, the BPC development has triggered the activation of PV government financial support and tax breaks incentives, making the inclusion of PV in buildings’ more attractive to clients, architects, and developers, expanding the use of PV in architecture and pushing for innovative solutions.
4.2. PV and Building Integration
The definition of a building integrated PV system (BIPV) is that of an energy generating PV surface that also takes on one or more of the functions of the building envelope components. Such functions could be, for example, insulation, rain screen, or a shading device. At best, a PV assembly can serve, besides the energy requirements of a building, many architectural functions combined, offsetting the total cost of a building construction. A full integration of PV in buildings is arguably, however, one where PV is assimilated in the design process and becomes a constituent part of a building’s resolution. The BPC architect’s address this issue in different ways. In doing so, they show evidence of a split in the PV’s potential role as efficient energy provider, building component, and aesthetic complement. Shown below is an exposition of the buildings considered in this study.
4.2.1. The Solaire
The Solaire (see Figure 2, Figure 3) is the second building in New York City to integrate PV systems (the first is 4 Times Square, located in mid-town Manhattan, about six kilometres north of Battery Park City). The Solaire’s project manager describes how sunlight geometry simulation studies showed the Solaire’s PV effective surfaces limited to the building’s West façade, overlooking the Hudson River, and to the building’s bulkhead . In these two zones, the design approach to PV integration is notably different.
On the West façade, the custom-made PV panels are designed as building cladding. In energy terms they benefit from the afternoon sun and its reflections bouncing off the river. Their prevailing function, however, verges towards an aesthetics tour de force, with the unprecedented challenge of relating the building’s PV façade to the public at pedestrian level. The PV systems in the Solaire’s bulkhead are, by contrast, off-the-shelf modules. They are added to the building to complement the energy requirements set by the BPCA and, compared to the West façade, their aesthetic pursuit is negligible, highlighting the difficulty in making BIPV a constituent part of a comprehensive, all round design resolution.
4.2.2. Tribeca Green, Millennium Tower, Site 23 and 24
These buildings (see Figure 5) are designed at different intervals during the BPC development; they show, however, similarities in their design approach. Besides meeting the energy requirements, the PV panels serve at most the additional function of rain screen to the building’s bulkhead, as in Tribeca Green and the Millennium Tower, or as rooftop trellises and on top of the bulkheads, in the Site 23 and 24 buildings.
Considering that PV application needs to gain regulation approval and any proposal that goes beyond tested solutions may not be realized, the design approach to PV in the above buildings is non-risk taking. Once the energy requirements are met, and a satisfactory aesthetic solution is achieved, there is no further push towards finding innovative ways to include PV in the design process. Such approach is stressed in the Site 23 and 24 designs, where the architects ensure an effective application of PV by considering upfront what would meet the BPCA requirement and building regulation [22,23]. In the Millennium Tower, PV panels are placed on the roof top as a PV stand alone system, suggesting disengagement to the building’s design composition process.
4.2.3. The Verdesian
In the Verdesian building (see Figure 4) the custom made PV panels cover primarily the East and West of the building’s bulkhead. Besides generating energy, their additional constructional role is of rain screen for the mechanical rooms. It is important to note that the architects of this building insisted on maintaining the vertical mullion aesthetics on its West façade all the way to the building’s bulkhead. The bulkhead’s vents are, for that reason, located in the South façade, reducing the area of PV southern exposure and consequently the PV system energy potential; a design choice that shows the priority given to the aesthetic composition of the BIPV façade over its energy generating potential.
4.2.4. The Visionaire
The Visionaire’s PV custom-made panels (see Figure 6) act as a full cladding system, incorporating a ventilated cavity to avoid heat build up and loss of PV efficiency. The panels represent an example of learn by doing, gathering from the Solaire’s experience where the direct contact of the insulation to the PV glass generates heat build up, and incorporating the technological improvements in the building design process. In the Visionaire, the architects maintain the PV panels flush with the façade. In doing so, however, they rely on a fixed building configuration and show, as in the Solaire, the domestication of PV to an aesthetic and constructional role.
4.2.5. The Riverhouse
The Riverhouse (see Figure 7, Figure 8) is one of the last buildings to be completed at BPC and, perhaps because of that, one of the most innovative with PV application. The building’s large volume and base building energy demands would have required vast PV surfaces. The architects responded to this requirement with a dynamic PV sunlight tracking system in the building’s bulkhead, shown in Figure 8. The system crowns the building and is expected to allow up to 20% increase in efficiency when compared to an equivalent solution with fixed PV [22,23]. Here, the PV does not substitute any architectural building’s component. This trade off, however, allows the PV to work freely and to deliver what is arguably PV primary function, to effectively generate energy from the sun.
4.3. PV Industry and the Design Process
When the BPC architects and PV installers were asked about the single most important lesson learned on the application of PV in the design process, the recurring theme is that of the challenging relationship architects have with the PV industry, and the need for PV versatility [24,25,26,27] . That has obvious design implications as each solution has to be valuated by local jurisdictions, leaving the approval of each specific proposal of PV integration uncertain. In this sense, the IEA-PVPS Task 7 architectural criteria is perhaps a testimony of the need to find a common ground between what the PV industry can offer and the architects requirement of PV versatility. The confining BPC building program magnifies this issue, showing examples that range from high connection to disengagement of PV in the design process. This disengagement can be seen, for example, in the Millennium Towers, where the PV system is placed vertically on the building’s rooftop detached from any significant contribution to the building’s architectural design. In other cases, however, there is a strong will to find a common ground by integrating PV into the design process, such as in the Solaire’s West façade.
4.3.1. The Case of the Solaire’s West Façade
The Solaire’s West façade, shown in Figure 2, could be considered as the most important example at BPC of finding a meeting point between what the PV industry can offer as a product, and its integration into the buildings design process. The Solaire’s designers were faced with a design challenge that was unprecedented for their office, which also meant dealing for the first time with trade issues on ownership over the installation of the custom made PV panels. The window installers, the iron worker, and the electrician called for ownership and responsibility over the panel’s installation. The debacle was resolved by sending each PV customized panels to an offsite window manufacturer who glazed them into a unit. The panels were then delivered to site and installed by window glaziers as window elements and wired by electricians. This non-programmatic way of operating, in which the outcome shows to be the product of an empirical approach, suggests that we are still at a very early phase of PV integration in buildings. Architects and PV producers have to improvise to find solutions and the outcome of PV design integration is highly uncertain.
4.3.2. PV and Glass
Arguably, PV is an unlikely architectural component because it still lacks the versatility of most building elements necessary to compose architecture, such as, for example, a brick or a concrete masonry unit. The best way of PV becoming a versatile architectural component, as the architects and PV installer in this study suggest, is to associate PV with glass. The architects state that: “PV is basically glass, and is to be treated as such’ , ‘PV can potentially disappear’ . The PV installer suggests architects to ‘consider PV as glass’  and that ‘PV glass replaces standard glass’ . In fact, PV is treated at BPC either like an add-on glass panel (Tribeca Green, Site 23 and 24, and the Riverhouse) or like an extension of the building’s glass envelope (Solaire, Verdesian, and Visionaire). Although the association glass-PV presents the apparently insurmountable challenge of allowing for transparency while absorbing light energy, many innovative PV producers are already going in this direction. This study suggests that the main advantage of PV as glass is that it would become an architectural component, rather than a system, greatly increasing its versatility in architecture, and hence its ability to be incorporated in the design process.
4.3.3. Green Visible
If a PV systems’ main purpose is to generate energy from renewable sources and significantly contribute to a building’s energy demands, then the PV installed at BPC need to be put into question. In fact, the BPCA 2000 Guidelines requirement to provide only 5% of the base energy load, updated in 2004 to 0.75% of the building’s base energy loads calculated on the actual PV energy produced, is a small contribution to a building’s energy demands, particularly when compared to the estimated energy potential of BIPV. To put things in perspective, based on a IEA-PVPS report, it is estimated that if building surfaces are used that generate 80% of the maximum solar power, the ratio between BIPV solar electricity production and current electricity consumption can vary from 15% to almost 60% in IEA countries .
At BPC, the PV’s purpose of rendering the buildings’ green agenda visible to the public predominates. This intention is already present in the BPCA guidelines , which state: “Where appropriate, strongly consider using BIPV in locations that are highly visible to the public” (p.11). PV is evidently considered the primary tool for conveying the green message. This is reinforced by Kaplan, who describes PV “one of the few green elements that people see” , and by architect of record of the Riverhouse, Bhaskar Srivastava, who states that PV “has a pedagogical intent” , showing a clear wish to be less dependent on non-renewable energy sources. The BPC development, however, provides no single comprehensive visual design strategy. According to Kaplan, developers were required to integrate PV without aesthetically knowing what directions they wanted PV to take them . The design approach in the BPC buildings is highly diversified: it goes from a full commitment to PV integration within a building’s aesthetics, to simple PV labeling. These two extremes, and the variations in between, are discussed below.
4.3.4. The Two Extremes: The Solaire and Millennium Towers
In visual terms, the Solaire stands out as the most experimental and risk taking of the BPC buildings considered in this study. The visual engagement of PV starts at street level, with the embedment of PV cells in the entrance canopy, and continues upwards on West façade with the color variation of the recycled Intel chip cells. There is, in the Solaire, an attention to scale and visual perception. At street level one can see the single PV cells of the canopy, from further away the electric blue panels blend in the West facade. In the Millennium Tower, by contrast, the PV cell array is out of visual reach from the street. Being on the building’s roof top and facing West towards the river, the Millennium tower PV system can only be spotted from an aerial view, as shown in Figure 4b. The design approach in the two buildings goes to the two extremes: fully committed to engage the public in the Solaire, satisfied with just confirming the PV energy requirements in the Millennium Tower.
4.3.5. Variations to the Green Visible Theme
The architect’s push towards a green manifesto is well seen in the Visionaire building. Kaplan describes how, during the building’s design development phase, the Visionaire’s architect’s wanted to change the PV color, from black to blue, and how this would have meant increasing the PV blue cells surface area (to obtain equivalent energy output). It is important to note that the architect, initially resisted to satisfying that revised surface requirement . The event is significant, because it shows the designer’s focus on the PV symbolic role over its energy goal. In the Visionaire, evidently, a symbolic PV blue strip flag sufficed to send the green message.
Tribeca Green, the Verdesian and Site 23 and 24 buildings all come under the BPC building typologies that have to rely on the bulkhead and rooftop of the building to guarantee sufficient PV exposure to sunlight. The Tribeca Green and Verdesian buildings are, however, the only ones that can count on a certain degree of visibility from the street level. It is perhaps because of this reason that the incorporation of PV in these two buildings is visually incisive. In both instances the PV stands out from the buildings fabric: jet black in Tribeca Green, electric blue in the bulkhead of the Verdesian, both against the buildings’ red brick fabric. The PV of the two buildings must be noticed, even if that means in stark contrast with the buildings’ fabric.
In the Riverhouse there is no need to negotiate between PV and building’s composition because the PV systems stand out for what they are: a mechanical device, detached from the building’s main body. The only compositional license in the Riverhouse is the design of fake PV panels on the North façade to complete and crown the building. In the Riverhouse, there is no detachment between PV aesthetics and function. PV is expressed for what it can offer: a machine-like technology that generates energy.
5. Conclusion Remarks
The research analysis of the PV systems at BPC has led to a series of emerging themes. The content of these themes has led to findings that can be of use to a better understanding of the integration of PV in the architectural design process. These are:
5.1. The “Carrot and Stick”
Mandating PV in a building’s design process can initially find resistance by architects and developers alike. There is evidence, however, that this can trigger a wider and more consistent application of PV in architecture. The application of PV in a rigid pre-constituted building program (such as the BPC development) limits the contribution of PV in a building’s design resolution. The study suggests that greater design potential (ability of PV to contribute to a building’s resolution) and greater scope (a more significant contribution to a building’s energy demands) would allow a greater design involvement and push for innovation.
5.2. PV and Building Integration
The BPC buildings show that PV can assume three different roles: that of energy generators, as substitute to building component, and an aesthetic complement to the building’s composition. In all of the BPC buildings, however, there is a distinct visible separation and prioritization of the roles (including in the Solaire where, to meet the pure energy goals, additional PV arrays have to be added on the roof bulkhead), showing the difficulty in integrating photovoltaic technology and architecture. Depending on the architect’s design approach, PV verge towards aesthetic goals, their function as building components, or as efficient energy generators, but not all of these three things together. The study suggests that, with the current PV technology offered, by releasing one of the PV roles (i.e., that of substituting a building component) it allows PV to work more effectively. This satisfies what is arguably the PV imperative: to generate energy from the sun in the most efficient way possible.
5.3. PV Industry and Design Process
There is a consensus among the architects that the relationship between PV industry and architectural design is a difficult one. In design projects that explore the integration of PV in architecture and push for new solutions, that relationship is still improvised, and the outcome highly uncertain. This calls for a robust program that will ensure greater control over that relationship while allowing for innovation to take place. PV versatility is key in PV building integration and this can be pursued with PV as a building element. Architects are already associating PV with glazing, suggesting that this is where the technological efforts need to be placed in the evolution of BIPV.
5.4. Green Visible
Together with wind turbines, PV is a commonly recognizable form of renewable energy generation system. This is an attractive incentive for architects and developers that want to convey a message of green involvement to the public. The PV’s overwhelming ability to send the green message with little corresponding substance in energy provision can, however, distract from PV’s primary function of generating energy.
Overall, the findings of the research suggest that the integration of PV technology in architecture is still at a raw and early phase, and that PV integration as an organic, constituent part of the design process may require a significant leap in PV technology. Battery Park City is perhaps an expression of the short-term goals of PV design integration. These are: to promote PV in the building industry, to build knowledge on the integration PV in the design process, and to render PV green technology visible. A long-term goal of PV integration in sustainable architecture, however, must have as primary imperative to make PV generate energy efficiently, and significantly contribute to a building’s energy demands.
The author of this paper would like to thank the BPCA and all of the architects cited in the text. A particular thanks to Susan Kaplan, who made this study possible in the first place, and to Anthony Pereira for his sustained support. Many thanks also to my colleague, Timothy O. Odeyale, for his precious suggestions in writing the paper.
- Thomas, R. Photovoltaic in Architecture; Spoon Press: New York, NY, USA, 2001. [Google Scholar]
- Prasad, D.; Snow, M. Designing with Solar Power; The Images Publishing Group PTY Ltd.: Melbourne, Australia, 2006. [Google Scholar]
- Weller, B.; Hemmerle, C.; Jakubetz, S.; Unnewehr, S. Detail Practice: Photovoltaic; Birkhauser: Basel, Switzerland, 2010. [Google Scholar]
- Krawietz, S. Building Integration of Photovoltaics: A Guideline for Practical Use; Springer: London, UK, 2011. [Google Scholar]
- German Solar Energy Society (DGS), Planning and Installing Photovoltaic Systems: A Guide for Installers, Architects and Engineers; Earthscan: London, UK, 2012.
- International Energy Agency Photovoltaic Power System (IEA-PVPS), IEA-PVPS Annual Report (2008–2011), IEA-PVPS, Fribourg, Switzerland, 2012, Available online: http://www.iea-pvps.org/index.php?id=6(accessed on 27 November 2012).
- IEA-PVPS, IEA-PVPSTrends in Photovoltaic Applications: Survey Report of Selected IEA Countries between 1992 and 2011, IEA-PVPS, Fribourg, Switzerland, 2012, Available online: http://www.iea-pvps.org/index.php?id=32(accessed on 27 November 2012).
- Oliver, M.; Jackson, T. Energy and economic evaluation of building-integrated photovoltaics. Energy 2001, 26, 431–439. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kasahara, T.; Plastow, J. Added Values of Photovoltaic Power Systems. In Proceedings of 3rd World Conference on Photovoltaic Energy Conversion, Osaka, Japan, 11–18 May 2003.
- IEA-PVPS, IEA-PVPS Potential for Building Integrated Photovoltaic, 2002, IEA-PVPS, Fribourg, Switzerland, 2002, Available online: http://www.iea-pvps.org/index.php?id=9&tx_damfetools_pi1[setCatList]=61-78(accessed on 27 November 2012).
- Marsh, G. BIPV: Innovation puts spotlight on solar. Renewable Energy Focus 2008, 9, 62–67. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- IEA-PVPS. IEA-PVPS Task 7. Photovoltaic Power Systems in the Built Environment. Available online: http://www.iea-pvps.org/index.php?id=53&no_cache=1&sword_list=integration (accessed on 27 November 2012).
- Schoen, T.; Prasad, D.; Ruoss, D.; Eiffert, P.; Sørensen, H. Task 7 of the IEA PV Power Systems Program—Achievements and Outlook. In Proceedings of the 17th European Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conference, Munich, Germany, 22–26 October 2001.
- IEA-PVPS. IEA-PVPS Task 10. Urban Scale Photovoltaic Applications. Available online: http://www.iea-pvps.org/index.php?id=46&no_cache=1&sword_list=integration (accessed on 27 November 2012).
- Gaiddin, B.; Kaan, H.; Munro, D. Photovoltaics in the Urban Environment; Earthscan: London, UK, 2009. [Google Scholar]
- Kaan, H.; Reijenga, T. Photovoltaic in an architectural context. Prog. Photovolt. Res. Appl. 2004, 12, 395–408. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bahaj, A.S.; James, M.F.; Jentsch, M.F. Photovoltaics: Added value of architectural integration. Proc. ICE Energy 2007, 160, 59–69. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kaplan, S. Personal communication, Battery Park City Authority: New York, NY, USA, 2007.
- Battery Park City Authority (BPCA) Homepage. Available online: http://www.batteryparkcity.org/ (accessed on 20 April 2013).
- BPCA, Hugh L. Carey Battery Park City Authority Residential Environmental Guidelines; BPCA: New York, NY, USA, 2005.
- U.S. Green Building Council (USGBC). LEED Green Building Rating Systems. Available online: http://www.usgbc.org/DisplayPage.aspx?CMSPageID=222 (accessed on 27 November 2012).
- Kaplan, S. Personal communication, Battery Park City Authority: New York, NY, USA, 2009.
- Pereira, A. Personal communication, AltPower: New York, NY, USA, 2009.
- Hess, D. Personal communication, Pelli Clarke Pelli Architects: New York, NY, USA, 2009.
- Kearns, R. Personal communication, Handel Architects: New York, NY, USA, 2009.
- McCormack, B. Personal communication, EE&K Architects: New York, NY, USA, 2009.
- Srivastava, B. Personal communication, Ismael Leyva Architects: New York, NY, USA, 2009.
- Medio, S. Photovoltaic Design Integration at Battery Park City, New York. In Proceedings of Sustainable Architecture and Urban Development Conference (SAUDI 2010), Amman, Jordan, 12–14 July 2010; Available online: http://eprints.lincoln.ac.uk/3077/ (accessed on 20 April 2013).
- Perkins Eastman and Ehrenkrantz Eckstut & Kuhn Architects (EE&K) Homepage. Available online: http://www.eekarchitects.com/portfolio/16-residential/9-liberty-green-and-liberty-luxe (accessed on 20 April 2013).
- AltPower Homepage. Available online: http://www.altpower.com/home.php (accessed on 23 April 2013).
- Allbee, A. Personal communication, AltPower: New York, NY, USA, 2009.
© 2013 by the authors; licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/).


ENGL 306 History of the English Language (HEL)
How Allison Burkette used her WOW! Grant
In terms of course content, I added materials that reflect the reality of English as ever-changing and ever-various. To the more ‘traditional’ HEL textbook, I added supplementary readings (one book, written for a general audience, and several academic articles) that speak to this reality directly. I also added video content to make the course more friendly (a ‘welcome’ video from me) and varied (“History of English in 10 Minutes”, a TED talk, a conversation with a Shakespearean actor, etc.).
Instead of tests, I use a series of small assignments (akin to homework assignments), larger projects, and group projects. The small assignments are geared at reinforcing basic linguistic concepts while the larger projects ask students to apply those concepts to a bigger question. The larger projects also call on students to use the online Oxford English Dictionary, which offers an interactive platform for learning about the etymology of words. The group projects are intended to let the students get to know each other better and work together to produce a ‘blog’ entry about a topic related to course material.
The changes in content have, I think, been successful. Students like the videos and have said they help reinforce course information. I still think that students struggle with basic concepts as presented in the ‘traditional’ textbook; I have witnessed some grave misunderstandings about pretty fundamental concepts (e.g. weak verbs vs. strong verbs), which have shown up in students’ applications of those concepts in the larger projects.
I did try to make the course friendlier by adding a welcome video, a welcome page, “Start Here” directions with links to the syllabus, to IT, technical assessments, etc., which I do think was helpful. The content of the course was re-arranged (per the suggestions of course design reviewers) to make it easier to navigate.
When I taught the course over the summer of 2016, I used the Blackboard ‘discussion’ and ‘blog’ tools and saw mixed results. Many students could not figure out how to add to a discussion thread or make a blog post (they would attached a document instead). So, for the summer of 2017, I tried focusing on the ‘discussion’ tool for the group projects, again to mixed results – the group members couldn’t ‘find’ each other (despite explicit instructions on how to do it) so part of a group would post and then a straggler would post an addition. I’m not sure how to get a class better coordinated with each other via the online medium.
I wanted to turn this in to a hybrid class and so met with Patti O’Sullivan and Jasmine Karlowski (former Instructional Designers), separately and together on a number of occasions, to talk about options for a course platform. I looked into Google classroom, but it didn’t have the structure that you need to present course material ‘all at once’ (vs. scrolling through a feed to find info from the week before). I now use Google classroom, though, for all of my traditional courses during the regular semester as a way to post readings, assignments, links to relevant news articles, etc. I wasn’t able to make this a hybrid class precisely because it is a summer course; too many students are traveling or are located at a great distance from campus. While the plan for the course did not go exactly the way I wanted, I do feel that the changes that I made have created a course that is friendlier and easier to use and has the kind of content that I envisioned.
–Dr. Allison Burkette
2016 WOW! Grant Recipient


National Alliance on Mental Illness
page printed from http://www.nami.org/
(800) 950-NAMI; firstname.lastname@example.org
Frequently Asked Questions
The Crisis Intervention Team (CIT) model is designed to improve the outcomes of interactions between law enforcement officers and individuals living with mental illness. When an individual living with mental illness experiences a mental health crisis or acts out as a result of a mental illness, CIT works by diverting them to appropriate mental health services and supports rather than to the criminal justice system. CIT provides training to law enforcement officers on preventing psychiatric crises and deescalating a crisis when it occurs, while reducing the need for use of physical force.
However, CIT is not just a training program. CIT programs are only effective when law enforcement personnel, mental health providers, people living with mental illness and their families, and other community leaders collaborate to help ensure that when officers divert an individual, the treatment system is willing and able to provide appropriate services. CIT has three key components:
The first CIT program was established in Memphis in 1988 after a police officer shot and killed a man with a serious mental illness. This tragedy prompted a collaborative effort between the police, NAMI Memphis, the University of Tennessee Medical School and the University of Memphis to improve police training and procedures in response to calls involving individuals with mental illness. The Memphis CIT program has achieved remarkable success, in large part because it has remained a true community partnership. Today, the so-called "Memphis Model" CIT has been adopted by approximately 1500 communities in nearly all states, and is being implemented statewide in several states.
CIT has been successfully used with adults for decades in states and communities across the country, with outstanding results. As a result of the extraordinary success of CIT, innovative states and communities are working to expand CIT to effectively respond to youth in crisis in communities and in schools.
To learn more about CIT, visit NAMI's CIT Resource Center.
CIT is not a NAMI signature program. The first CIT program was founded in Memphis in 1988, through a joint effort between NAMI Memphis, the Memphis Police Department, the University of Memphis and the University of Tennessee Medical School. Since then the program has been replicated by hundreds of communities across the country. NAMI State Organizations and NAMI Affiliates have been instrumental in most of these communities.
No organization "owns" the CIT program and there is no one standardized curriculum. There are, however, agreed-upon standards for the CIT program and an international CIT organization.
CIT for Youth is not a distinct program, but is an extension of the CIT program. The overarching goal is the same: to improve interactions between law enforcement officers and individuals living with mental illness and to divert individuals living with mental illness to mental health services and supports and away from the criminal justice system (in the case of CIT for Youth, the juvenile justice system).
CIT for Youth focuses on the specific needs of youth with mental health needs and their families. As such, CIT for Youth involves new community partners, including school-based law enforcement officers, parents/caregivers and youth, school personnel and child and adolescent mental health providers. These partners work together to focus on the needs of youth with mental health needs and the services and supports available in the community to address these needs.
CIT training is a minimum of 40 hours; the length of CIT for Youth training varies, since it is often offered as a follow-up or in-service to officers who have already received CIT training. CIT for Youth training curricula vary in length from 40 hours to eight hours. CIT for Youth training specifically targets officers who are assigned to schools and/or frequently encounter youth in the community. CIT for Youth training may also be offered to school personnel. CIT for Youth training includes a specific focus on child and adolescent development, the manifestation of mental illness in youth, school policies and procedures and strategies for identifying and responding to youth in crisis. For more information on the different CIT for Youth training curriculums available and the topics they address, visit Training Information section of the CIT for Youth Resource Center.
In any CIT program, whether or not it includes a focus on youth, the involvement of individuals living with mental illness and their families is a vital component. In a CIT for Youth program, the families involved are usually parents/caregivers of youth living with mental illness and their children. They are involved in the planning and coordinating of CIT for Youth and in CIT for Youth training (as role players, instructors and presenters on the lived experience of mental illness).
If possible, communities considering implementing CIT for Youth should have a CIT program in place. The communities that we worked with in the three target states all had an existing CIT program. These communities found that an existing CIT program served as an important starting point for CIT for Youth. Leaders in communities without CIT should be willing to dedicate significant time and energy to building relationships with community partners, planning and coordinating and providing a minimum of 40 hours of CIT training. To learn more about CIT implementation, visit NAMI's CIT Resource Center.
CIT has been adopted by approximately 1500 communities in nearly all states. In most states, CIT is not in every community however there are a number of states with widespread CIT and well-organized state level CIT organizations, including Ohio, Maine, Utah, Georgia, Florida, Connecticut and others. To see where there are CIT programs near you, visit the University of Memphis CIT Center's CIT National Map.
CIT for Youth has only recently been developed and implemented in some states across the country, including Connecticut, Colorado, Illinois, Louisiana, Pennsylvania, Utah, Texas and others. CIT for Youth is quickly spreading to other states and we expect it to grow as information is shared and exchanged. There is not yet a central directory of CIT for Youth programs.
In addition, the MacArthur Foundation's Models for Change project is a multistate effort that is developing a national CIT for Youth program and implementing it in target states.
Communities with CIT for Youth have shared that the program can be implemented and sustained at low cost through community partnerships. The core community partners provide free resources, volunteers and in-kind donations.
In addition, some communities have financed their programs with grants. For more information about applying for grants, visit NAMI's CIT Advocacy Toolkit.
For more information on CIT for Youth implementation, visit the NAMI CIT for Youth Resource Center. NAMI's CIT Center and the University of Memphis CIT Center are available to provide general information and guidance on CIT implementation.
You should also connect with your NAMI State Organization or NAMI Affiliate to involve them in the process. Contact information for NAMI State Organizations and NAMI Affiliates can be accessed at www.nami.org/local.
In addition, the community leaders implementing CIT for Youth in NAMI's three target states agreed to offer technical assistance to communities who wish to implement the program. They are also happy to share their training curriculums. Here is their contact information:
Lieutenant David Anders
Major Virginia ("Ginny") Higgins
Detective Ron Bruno
NAMI also learned from and worked with leaders of the following programs:
San Antonio, Texas
Models for Change


A ‘Saharan plume’ heatwave has swept across Europe, breaking all-time records as Paris braces for a sizzling 42C amid fears the Notre Dame could collapse completely.
According to The Sun, the heatwave began on Tuesday, setting record highs across southwestern France and again on Wednesday in Belgium, Germany and the Netherlands.
It’s the second heatwave to hit Western Europe in a month and is set to reach its peak on Thursday.
Bordeaux, in southwestern France, reported its highest ever temperature on Tuesday as the mercury climbed to 41.2C, Meteo France reported.
Temperatures in the French capital could hit new highs on Thursday, with some forecasters predicting 42C — shattering July records for the first time in seven decades.
The previous record, set in 1947, stands at 40.4C.
Notre Dame chief architect Philippe Villeneuve has said he is “extremely worried” that the cathedral’s vaulted ceiling — which was damaged by fire — may collapse completely in the heat.
Mr Villeneuve told reporters on Wednesday: “I am very worried about the heatwave.
“What I fear is that the joints or the masonry, as they dry, lose their coherence, their cohesion and their structural qualities and that all of sudden, the vault gives way.”
The city has been placed a “level three alert”, which includes measures to ensure that elderly and vulnerable people are checked on regularly, and that rooms are set aside for shelter.
More than 20 other local regions, mainly in the south of the country, have also been placed on heatwave alert.
Meteo France said: “It will be very hot again in France this week, with a hot air flow coming from the Iberian Peninsula.
“Thursday will be the hottest day of the heatwave with expected maximum temperatures above 40C over a large quarter northeast of the country in particular.”
This week’s heatwave has been compared to the one which hit France in August 2003, when the severe weather contributed to 15,000 deaths.
In Belgium, the town of Kleine Brogel hit 39.9C, the hottest since 1833.
A code red has similarly been issues across the country.
And in Germany’s weather service also reported a new record of 40.5C — just 0.2C higher than previous measures — in Geilenkirchen, near the Belgian and Dutch borders.
Temperatures are expected to rise even more on Thursday.
As the sun set on Wednesday, forecasters announced at least ten stations had reported temperatures above 39C — including ones in Cologne and Bonn, and Saarbrücken, all of which lie in the west of the country near the border.
The Dutch record was broken at Gilze-Rijen air base on Wednesday with a with a scorching 38.8C, before a higher temperature was recorded in the southern Dutch city of Eindhoven.
The new high of 39.3C beat the 75-year-old national record.
Last month’s heatwave engulfed countries including France, Spain, Germany, Italy, Switzerland, Belgium the Czech Republic and Poland.
Hundreds of firefighters battled to contain wildfires raging in southern France, and again in Portugal.
At least 15 people have died so far.
Three died in southern France, two have passed away in Spain and at least a further three people have died in central and northern Italy.
Transport across the region has also been affected with trains in Britain and France slowed in response to the extreme weather.
Thalys and Eurostar train services between Brussels, Paris and London were disrupted on Wednesday by a failure on an overhead power line.
The 600 passengers were eventually taken back to Brussels, Belga news agency said.
The World Meteorological Organisation said that 2019 is on track to be among the world’s hottest years and 2015-2019 would be the hottest five-year period on record.
It said the European heatwave was “absolutely consistent” with extremes linked to the impact of greenhouse gas emissions.
“June was the hottest June on record and July is now shaping up to be the hottest July on record,” Michael Mann, Climate Scientist, Professor & Director of the Penn State ESSC, told Euronews.
This article first appeared in The Sun and is republished with permission.
Originally published as Notre Dame ‘could fall’ in record heat


What led to the rise of the spirit of "Manifest Destiny" in the 1840s, and how did that spirit show itself in the American expansionism of the decade?
Manifest Destiny was a phrase that expressed the belief that the United States was destined to expand from the Atlantic seaboard to the Pacific Ocean; it has also been used to advocate for or justify other territorial acquisitions. Advocates of Manifest Destiny believed that expansion was not only good, but that it was obvious ("manifest") and certain ("destiny"). It was originally a political catch phrase or slogan used by Democrats in the 1845-1855 period, and rejected by Whigs and Republicans of that era. Manifest Destiny was an explanation or justification for that expansion and westward movement, or, in some interpretations, an ideology or doctrine which helped to promote the process.
The phrase "Manifest Destiny" was first used primarily by Jackson Democrats after 1845 to promote the annexation of much of what is now the Western United States including the Texas Annexation and the Mexican Cession from Mexico, and the Oregon Territory ...
This solution discusses how Manifest Destiny came about and what led to American expansionism in 620 words.


- "A civilization in Centra 4000 years ago. These Centra people immigrated to other continents and founded the Dollet Empire to the west and Esthar to the east. Centra was destroyed 80 years ago by the Lunar Cry."
- —"Centra Civilisation", FFVIII Info Corner
Centra (セントラ, Sentora?) was a flourishing civilization in Final Fantasy VIII, which was destroyed by Lunar Cry. The Centra Ruins, Edea's Orphanage, and the mobile shelters are the only remaining artifacts of Centra's civilization.
4,000 years prior to the game's events, the Centra civilization spanned the southernmost reaches of the World Map. What little is known about their technology and influence suggests they were a highly mobile people, who would travel distances to explore the world. The modern-day civilizations of Dollet, in the west, and Esthar, in the east, are remnants of the Centra civilization.
The Centra built mobile shelters the size of small cities, able to hover and cross gentle terrain, and which are also capable of planting themselves in the ground. Only three are known to have survived until the present day, in the form of Balamb Garden, Galbadia Garden, and Trabia Garden.
80 years prior to the main storyline Centra was struck by Lunar Cry that annihilated the entire civilization and wiped it from the world map. The only structures left standing were the Centra Ruins and the building that would become Edea's orphanage. According to the Ultimania, the Lunar Cry that destroyed Centra brought the Crystal Pillar from the moon and buried it under the Centraian soil, to be dug up later by Esthar.
Architecture and TechnologySửa đổi
From information based on the few remaining structures the Centraian architecture was similar to real-world ancient Rome. Built with prominent white stone intricate murals and stone pillars were abundant, particularly seen in the example of Edea's Orphanage. The Centra Ruins however, the only other reasonably intact structure, reveals a more mystical structural plan. Although the Roman influence still remains the structure, or at least the remains, is of a diamond shape that rests solely on a point. What is more is that the installation's stonework is threaded with wires and piping alluding to a real-world 1970s to 1980s technology that is also supported by mystical powers.
As seen from examples of Centraian ruins the Centra held the Sorceress and the Sorceress Power in high regard. Whether they regarded her as a holy or malevolent force is unknown, however flattering statues and murals have been erected in her image. Such images can be prominently seen in the Centra Ruins. It is possible that the story of the Great Hyne, the origin story of the Sorceress Power, originated from Centra.


Coral reefs are one of my favorite biotopes. It’s astounding the variety of flora and fauna you can find in a very small area of reef, with their attendant diversity in color. Plus sessile animals! Those of us paying attention know that these species are extremely sensitive to environmental changes, and that even a minor rise in water temperature – a degree or two – would spell disaster, and could result in mass extinctions. Unfortunately, temperature isn’t the only parameter changing – water chemistry is changing, too.
The world’s oceans are turning acidic due to the buildup of carbon dioxide (CO2) in the atmosphere, and scientists say the effects on marine life will be catastrophic.
In the next 50 to 100 years corrosive seawater will dissolve the shells of tiny marine snails and reduce coral reefs to rubble, the researchers say.
The scientists stressed that increased ocean acidity is one of the gravest dangers posed by the buildup of atmospheric CO2.
“Ocean chemistry is changing to a state that has not occurred for hundreds of thousands of years,” said Richard Feely of Seattle’s Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory.
Already, Feely said, ocean acidity has increased about 30 percent since industrialization began spurring harmful carbon emissions centuries ago. Unless emissions are reduced from current levels, an increase of 150 percent is predicted by 2100.
Such an increase would make the oceans more acidic than they’ve been at any time in the last 20 million years, he added.
As oceans absorb CO2 from the air, the gas reacts with water to produce carbonic acid. The acid in turn consumes the carbonate that sea creatures need to build their shells.
Not just shells – coral skeletons. The structure of the reef itself. Hobbyists who keep reef aquariums know how critical carbonate levels, and water chemistry (pH, etc), are to maintaining animal health.
Mass extinctions of marine life in the distant past, he said, were probably caused by chemical changes similar to those happening today.
“It took coral reefs about four to ten million years to recover each time,” he added.
Unfortunately, Veron said, “the very corals that will escape mass bleaching are those most prone to the effects of ocean acidification.”
Perhaps even more alarming is the threat to marine snails called pteropods.
Populations of these tiny creatures can reach up to ten thousand individuals per cubic meter (35 cubic feet) in the Southern Ocean. Their loss, Orr said, would have far-reaching effects.
“They’re an integral component of marine food webs, a huge food source for many marine predators,” he said.
It’s not just the risk to biodiversity – it’s the risk to the food chain as a whole.
I’m glad I had the opportunity to snorkel in a Caribbean reef when I was younger. I feel like I should make it a priority to do the same on some South Pacific reefs before that is no longer an option.


Bank of England
Bank of England, central bank and note-issuing institution of Great Britain. Popularly known as the Old Lady of Threadneedle Street, its main office stands on the street of that name in London. The bank has eight branches, all of which are located in the British Isles. Although Bank of England notes are legal tender throughout Great Britain and Northern Ireland, banks in Scotland and Northern Ireland also issue notes that may be either used as currency themselves or exchanged for Bank of England issues. In all matters beside note issue, the Bank of England has sole central banking functions in Great Britain. The affairs of the bank are controlled by a governor, a deputy, and 16 directors.
It was founded (1694) as a commercial bank by William Paterson with a capital of £1.2 million, which was advanced to the government in return for banking privileges, including the right to issue notes up to the amount of its capital. In 1709 the capital was doubled; the charter was renewed in 1742, 1764, and 1781. The bank's facilities proved a great asset in English commercial, and later industrial, expansion. The bank's functions were both public and private; it safeguarded the English pound and also operated for private profit. Efficient regulation was assured by the Bank Charter Act of 1844, which laid the basis for the bank's modern structure. The issue department, which handles the issuing of bank notes for general circulation, was separated from the banking department, which handles the remaining banking functions, including the management of the public debt, and serves as the depository of government funds and as the staple bank of England. It was privately owned until 1946, when an act of Parliament provided for its nationalization. The stockholders were compensated, and the bank subsequently dropped virtually all its private business. In 1997 the bank was given the power to set interest rates, a function formerly performed by the cabinet; at the same time its oversight of the British banking industry was transferred to the Securities and Investments Board
See J. H. Clapham, The Bank of England: A History (2 vol., 1944; repr. 1966); J. Giuseppi, The Bank of England (1966); R. Roberts and D. Kynaston, ed., The Bank of England: Money, Power, and Influence 1694–1994 (1995); The Bank of England, 1891–1944 (1976, repr. 1986) by R. S. Sayres and 1950s to 1979 (2010) by F. Capie.
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed. Copyright © 2012, Columbia University Press. All rights reserved.
More on Bank of England from Fact Monster:
See more Encyclopedia articles on: Money, Banking, and Investment


President Trump continues to predict we will have a COVID vaccine in October, driving a fever pitch of reactions among the public and private industry.
Despite this optimistic forecast, seven-in-ten Americans doubt we will have a vaccine before the end of the year and eight-in-ten worry the president is influencing the vaccine approval process for political points.
As Americans worry politics are taking precedence over science, they are looking to other sources for reliable information about COVID vaccines.
They trust frontline workers most, including doctors, nurses, and nationally recognized health systems.
Fewer trust the CDC, the FDA and drug companies, while trust in the White House depends on personal politics. 71% of Republicans trust information from the White House and President Trump compared to just 21% of Democrats.
The pharmaceutical industry is looking to restore confidence in the vaccine development process as the FDA faces growing criticism.
Nine pharmaceutical companies that currently have a coronavirus vaccine in clinical trials issued a joint pledge to complete Phase III clinical trials to ensure safety and efficacy before submitting vaccines for approval or emergency use authorization.
Still, one-third of Americans say they will not get a coronavirus vaccine as soon it becomes available. Among 27 countries surveyed, the U.S. ranks among the top ten countries where vaccine skepticism is highest.


- source: Getty Thesaurus of Geographic Names
- source: Family History Library Catalog
- the following text is based on an article in Wikipedia
Toddington is a village and civil parish in north Gloucestershire, located approximately 20 km north-east of Cheltenham with a population of around 300 people. The parish has been since 1974 in Tewkesbury Borough or District. Before the nationwide reorganization of municipalities in 1974, Toddington was in Winchcombe Rural District from 1894 until 1935 and in Cheltenham Rural District from 1935 until 1974.
The village is split into two, the "Old Town" near the church and the "New Town" at the crossing of the B4077 and B4632 roads. Despite the size of the village, it has a large church, St. Andrew's which contains the marble tombs of local nobility, the Tracy family, who variously lived at Sudeley Castle, Hailes Abbey and Toddington Manor.
A 19th century description
A Vision of Britain through Time provides the following description of Toddington from John Marius Wilson's Imperial Gazetteer of England and Wales of 1870-72:
- "TODDINGTON, a parish in Winchcomb district, Gloucester; 3 miles N by E of Winchcomb, and 7 E of Ashchurch [railway] station. Post town, Winchcomb, under Cheltenham. Acres: 1,857. Real property: £2,990. Population: 153. Houses: 31. The manor, with [Toddington] House, belongs to Lord Sudeley. The living is a vicarage, united with Stanley-Pontlarge, in the diocese of Gloucester and Bristol. Value: not reported. Patron: Lord Sudeley. The church was rebuilt in 1723."
Online sources which may also be helpful:
- GENUKI gives pointers to other archive sources as well as providing some details on each parish in the county. The emphasis here is on ecclesiastical parishes (useful before 1837)
- A listing of all the Registration Districts in England and Wales since their introduction in 1837 and tables of the parishes that were part of each district and the time period covered with detailed notes on changes of parish name, mergers, etc. Do respect the copyright on this material.
- The FamilySearch Wiki for Gloucestershire provides a similar but not identical series of webpages to that provided by GENUKI
- A Vision of Britain through Time has a group of pages of statistical facts for almost every parish in the county
- Unfortunately, A History of the County of Gloucester in the Victoria County History series provided by the website British History Online does not cover this part of the county
Categories: Gloucestershire, England | Kiftsgate (hundred), Gloucestershire, England | Winchcombe Rural, Gloucestershire, England | Cheltenham Rural, Gloucestershire, England | Tewkesbury (district), Gloucestershire, England | Toddington, Gloucestershire, England | Winchcombe Registration District, Gloucestershire, England | Cheltenham Registration District, Gloucestershire, England | Gloucestershire Registration District, Gloucestershire, England


SAN FRANCISCOCalifornia's Air Resources Board (ARB) said Thursday (Feb. 26) it adopted regulations to control, and in some cases phase out, chemicals used in semiconductor manufacturing and other industries.
The regulations set new maximum allowable greenhouse gas emission limits for the use of a variety of gases used in chip making. Roughly 85 operations, mostly in the Silicon Valley, will be affected by these regulations, the ARB said.
The regulations, aimed at reducing gases thought to contribute to global warming, require additional reporting and record-keeping of the controlled gases.
One of the regulations passed Thursday aims to directly regulateand eventually phase out the use of sulfur hexafluoride, except in certain exempted applications.
According to the ARB, a pound of sulfur hexafluoride released into the atmosphere has the same amount of heat-trapping potential as 10 metric tons of carbon dioxide or driving 25,000 miles.
"These chemicals, though used in small quantities, pose a danger to the planet because they have such a high capacity to trap atmospheric heat," said ARB Chairman Mary Nichols, in a statement.
Nichols said the regulations are "cost-efficient ways of fighting climate change" and were developed in conjunction with the industries that use the gases.


What are Flood Logs ?
Definition of Flood Logs in Construction
A flood log is a section of a flood barrier, and consists of an aluminum plank, with neoprene casketing on both sides of the plank.
The logs are normally 12 inches in width and designed to cover the entire opening that they are protecting. These logs can be assembled to the design height required to provide the necessary protection from flood waters. The logs are installed in channel mounts that are either jamb installed or wall mounted on each side of the opening to be protected. If the design requires, intermediate supports are installed to further provide structural stability to the center of the spans, if they are long enough to warrant the additional support. The use of flood logs, instead of a full flood panel, allows the installation by two men of larger flood barriers due to the limited weight of the individual flood logs. Additional information can be found on www.floodpanel.com


Listen to the Solar Wind With New Data From NASA’s Parker Solar Probe
The Parker Solar Probe, a spacecraft launched in 2018 on a mission to discover the solar’s outer layers, is already revealing new insights about our star. Now, scientists have translated a few of the probe’s measurements into funky sound clips you could pay attention to on their SoundCloud web page or in the embedded video under.
We’re listening to (after some sound reconstruction) motions in the wind blowing off of the solar’s floor. The whooshing and whistling noises are waves in the scorching, electrically charged plasma that come off of the solar’s wispy outer layers, or corona, and stream by means of area as photo voltaic wind.
One of the Parker Solar Probe’s major targets is to probe why the solar’s corona is a lot hotter than the solar’s floor — and thus how the particles in the photo voltaic wind have a lot vitality. By finding out these plasma waves, researchers hope to perceive what processes are heating up the corona and accelerating the photo voltaic wind.
Hearing the Solar Wind
Though these audio clips have been by no means sound, per se, the information does share some similarities with sound right here on Earth. The Parker Solar Probe measures stress waves in the particles that make up photo voltaic wind. In our day by day lives, we hear stress waves as sound.
The Parker Solar Probe doesn’t have a microphone on board, however its devices can measure the frequencies and amplitudes of those waves in the photo voltaic wind. Scientists then turned these wave measurements into sound waves, creating clips of what the waves would possibly sound like to the human ear.
The plasma waves that Parker Solar Probe is capturing are the results of particles interacting with magnetic and electrical fields. When electrons spin round a magnetic area, they will generate stress waves, which the spacecraft picks up on. This sort of wave, known as a Whistler wave, additionally types in Earth’s magnetosphere, the area round our planet that is dominated by Earth’s magnetic fields.
Another sort of wave the probe picked up in the photo voltaic wind is named a Langmuir wave. These are very high-frequency stress waves — speedy fluctuations in densities of electrons that type when beams of electrons stream alongside magnetic fields. Translated into sound waves, the Langmuir waves right here make an ethereal, high-pitched keening.
Surfing Plasma Waves
Understanding how particles work together with magnetic and electrical fields might reveal what bodily processes are heating up the corona and accelerating the photo voltaic wind.
Plasma waves, like these captured by the Parker Solar Probe and featured in these sound clips, are one attainable clarification for this vitality switch course of, in accordance to Nour Raouafi, the challenge scientist for Parker Solar Probe at Johns Hopkins University’s Applied Physics Laboratory. Particles could also be getting a lift by touring on these waves, Raouafi stated, like surfers driving ocean waves at the seashore.
“Parker Solar Probe, by going to the source of the solar wind, is basically revealing to us a new picture of the young solar wind,” Raouafi stated. “It’s actually providing us with the missing pieces of the corona puzzle that we have been looking for over the last 60 years.”