Concrete is one of the most used materials for construction. We consume up to 31 billion tons of concrete in each year, and it is considered to be the second most consumed substance after water. Compared to other materials, concrete is considered to be one of the sustainable materials used in construction. And this is the very reason why companies and concrete contractors Burnaby take pride in providing concrete projects in different residential and commercial projects.
What makes it is sustainable? The following are the qualities of concrete that qualify it as sustainable:
- It provides several benefits and uses to the society
- There is an improvement in the production and environmental properties of its products
- It is very durable and has a longer life expectancy
- It has effective-cost savings
The concrete industry and sectors are consistently challenged to meet these demands when it comes to producing and using concrete materials. It is also the very reason why concrete recycling and reusing are encouraged so as to avoid producing more concrete every year.
Another way to identify its sustainable quality is to observe its life cycle from extracting, processing, transportation, maintenance, and disposal. Many industries use design strategies to reduce hazards to the environment as well as to minimize by-products of its production.
There are many ways of how cement is used. It can be used for roofing, driveway, wall, and even in different residential and commercial landscaping projects, and the possibility of how to use this material is limitless. It is often used not just because it is durable but also because it is less susceptible to different elements like fire and water. In fact, it even has the ability to stop the fire from spreading.
When it comes to energy consumption in producing and processing cement for those purposes mentioned above, it has declined for the past 50 years and this is rooted in the development of plants and technology. Furthermore, the cement industry has promised to use alternative fuel to lower the carbon emissions and reserve the fuel resource. this has created an enormous drop in fossil usage. In 2006, the volume of waste used as an alternative fuel was about 7 million tons.
In producing cement, it also creates aggregates such as sands, crushed rock, and grave. The aggregate industry has also taken measures to recycle older materials from old constructions. Recycling aggregates by taking up broken materials form demolitions are able to lessen the waste that can be thrown into the landfill and help us save natural resources.
Overall, the use of cement and concrete, when we try to trace its life cycle is more environmentally friendly compared to other materials for the reasons that first, concrete is more durable and therefore provides the chance to be reused and recycled, and second, the cement industry has been improving their ways on producing and processing cement in their industry.
How Can You Contribute
There are many ways on how to contribute to the sustainability when using concrete and cement. Aside from maintaining your driveway, wall, or anything that uses concrete to prolong its life, you can also reuse and recycle old concrete for gravel, rocks, etc. from demolitions and older constructions.


Lead exposure in childhood appears to have long-lasting negative effects on mental health and personality in adulthood, according to a study of people who grew up in the era of leaded gasoline.
Previous studies have identified a link between lead and intelligence, but this study looked at changes in personality and mental health as a result of exposure to the heavy metal.
The findings, which will appear Jan. 23 in JAMA Psychiatry, reveal that the higher a person's blood lead levels at age 11, the more likely they are to show signs of mental illness and difficult personality traits by age 38.
The link between mental health and lead exposure is modest, according to study coauthor Aaron Reuben, a graduate student in clinical psychology at Duke University. But "it's potentially important because this is a modifiable risk factor that at one point in time everyone was exposed to, and now, certain people in certain cities and countries are still exposed to," he said.
In a previous study, Reuben and colleagues showed that higher levels of lead in childhood were linked to lower IQ and lower social standing in adulthood.
Both sets of findings suggest that lead's "effects really can last for quite a long time, in this case three to four decades," said coauthor Jonathan Schaefer, also a graduate student in clinical psychology at Duke. "Lead exposure decades ago may be harming the mental health of people today who are in their 40s and 50s."
Because gasoline around the world was treated with high levels of lead from the mid 1960s until the late 1980s, most adults now in their 30s, 40s, and 50s were exposed as children. Lead from automotive exhaust was released into the atmosphere and soils. Today, high lead exposures are rarer, and most often found in children who live in older buildings with lead plumbing and paint.
The subjects of this study are part of a group of more than 1,000 people born in 1972 and 1973 in Dunedin, New Zealand, at a time when gasoline lead levels in New Zealand were among the highest in the world. They have regularly participated in physical and mental health evaluations at the local University of Otago.
Researchers measured blood lead levels -- in micrograms per deciliter of blood (ug/dL) -- when participants were 11 years old. Today, blood lead levels above 5 ug/dL will trigger additional clinical follow-up of a child. At age 11, 94 percent of participants in the Dunedin Study had blood lead levels above this cutoff.
"These are historical data from an era when lead levels like these were viewed as normal in children and not dangerous, so most of our study participants were never given any treatment for lead toxicity," said Terrie Moffitt, the senior author of the study and Duke's Nannerl O. Keohane University Professor of psychology & neuroscience and psychiatry & behavioral sciences.
The Duke research team also assessed participant mental health and personality at various points throughout their lives, most recently at age 38. Diagnostic criteria or symptoms associated with eleven different psychiatric disorders -- dependence on alcohol, cannabis, tobacco, or hard drugs; conduct disorder, major depression, generalized anxiety disorder, fears and phobias, obsessive-compulsive disorder, mania, and schizophrenia -- were used to calculate a single measure of mental health, called the psychopathology factor, or "p-factor" for short.
The higher an individual's p-factor score, the greater the number and severity of psychiatric symptoms. Lead's effects on mental health as measured by the p-factor score are about as strong as those on IQ, explained coauthor Avshalom Caspi, Edward M. Arnett Professor of psychology & neuroscience and psychiatry & behavioral sciences at Duke. "If you're worried about lead exposure's impact on IQ, our study suggests you should probably also be worried about mental health," Caspi said.
The research team also determined that participants exposed to higher levels of lead as children were described as having more difficult adult personalities by family members and friends. Specifically, they found that study members with greater lead exposure were rated as more neurotic, less agreeable, and less conscientious than their less-exposed peers.
These findings confirm personality characteristics that have been previously linked to a number of problems, including worse mental and physical health, reduced job satisfaction, and troubled interpersonal relationships.
"For folks who are interested in intervention and prevention, the study suggests that if you're going to intervene on a group of kids or young adults that have been lead exposed, you may need to think very long-term when it comes to their care," said Schaefer.
In the future, the Dunedin Study team is interested in whether lead exposure might be linked to the development of later-life diseases such as dementia or cardiovascular disease.
Reuben said the findings are relevant to other developed countries as well. "When we see changes that may be the result of lead exposures in New Zealand it's very likely that you would have seen those same impacts in America, in Europe, and the other countries that were using leaded gasoline at the same levels at the same time."
This article has been republished from materials provided by Duke University. Note: material may have been edited for length and content. For further information, please contact the cited source.
Reference: "Association of Childhood Lead Exposure With Adult Personality Traits and Lifelong Mental Health," Aaron Reuben, Jonathan D. Schaefer, Terrie E. Moffitt, Jonathan Broadbent, Honalee Harrington, Renate M. Houts, Sandhya Ramrakha, Richie Poulton, Avshalom Caspi. JAMA Psychiatry, January 23, 2019. DOI:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2018.4192


Is the use of digital technology cutting back the interactions parents have with their babies? Communications Professor Lelia Green believes it could be affecting the important ‘baby talk’ stage of …
Has your toddler started to string words together to make cute little sentences? Here’s why now is the perfect time to expand your toddler’s vocabulary. Any parent of a child …
There are some baby books Australia simply loves. We’ve compiled a list of 5 fabulous Australian titles guaranteed to foster learning with little ones.
Every baby learns to talk by listening to people talk, by playing with sounds and words, and by talking to others. Our early childhood expert, Jan Jones, describes how babies first learn to recognise sounds, and then create them based on these foundations.
Many parents wonder if children’s language and listening skills are developing normally. While individual children develop their talking and listening skills at different rates, our early childhood expert, Jan Jones, reveals that there is a general pattern to children’s language development.
Babies might not be able to talk, but they definitely know how to let us know how they are feeling! Jan Jones explores how children communicate and provides tips on how to encourage their communication skills and reasons why things might not be progressing as well as they should.
If only your baby came with a dictionary! But it doesn’t, and a large part of the early months (and years) is spent trying to work out what your baby is saying.


Gasket plate heat exchangers
have been widely used in metallurgy, mining, petroleum, chemical industry, electric power, medicine, food, chemical fiber, paper making, textile, shipping, heating and other departments. Here are some introduce to each application:
It can be used to produce titanium oxide, alcohol fermentation, ammonia synthesis, resin synthesis, rubber production, cooling phosphoric acid, cooling formaldehyde water, alkali carbon industry, electrolysis alkali production.
It can be used for cooling quenching oil, cooling plating solution, cooling reducer lubricant, cooling rolling mill, drawing machine coolant.
It can be used for heating and cooling of aluminate mother liquor, cooling of sodium aluminate and cooling of lubricating oil of Aluminium mill.
4.Machinery Manufacturing Industry
It can be used for cooling various quenching fluids, cooling press, industrial lubricating oil and heating engine oil.
Salt making, dairy products, soy sauce, sterilization and cooling of vinegar, heating and cooling of animal and vegetable oils, heating and cooling of malt juice, sugar making, gelatin concentration, sterilization and cooling, and sodium glutamate production.
Heat recovery of waste liquor, cooling of boiling phosphating fibers, cooling of viscose, acetic acid and acetic anhydride, cooling of alkali aqueous solution, heating and cooling of viscose filament.
Cooling black water, heating and cooling of alkali liquor, heat recovery of cellophane waste liquor, heating of cooking acid, cooling of sodium hydroxide aqueous solution, recovery of bleached sheet paper waste liquor, condensation of exhaust gas, preheating and concentration of pulp-like waste liquor.
Heating in waste heat area of thermal power plant, heating domestic water and heating in boiler area
Heating and cooling synthetic detergent, heating whale oil, cooling vegetable oil, cooling sodium hydroxide, cooling glycerin and emulsified oil.
It is used for cooling of generator shaft pump and transformer oil.
It is used in diesel engines, central coolers, jacket water coolers, piston coolers, lubricating oil coolers, preheaters, and seawater desalination systems (including multi-stage and single-stage).
12.Marine aquaculture seedling industry
Matching boilers are used to raise seedlings in seawater, so as to save energy, protect environment and improve efficiency.
Pharmaceutical, petroleum, pottery, glass, cement, geothermal utilization, etc.


The chatter and motherly call of the Superb fairy-wren hen might sound like music to our ears but her complex solo song system has evolved to both train and protect her babies to be strong, safe and survive to adulthood.
Less conspicuous than her colourful male companion, whose mating and territorial chirps have ulterior motives, Flinders University Biological Sciences researchers are focusing on the female of the species to unlock the secrets of their vocalisation – casting new light on the powerful function of their birdsong.
The research findings have already surprised with embryonic recordings proving the pre-hatchlings learn their mother’s “incubation calls”, a series of two tones that are repeated to train the most-fit embryos to successfully beg for food after hatching.
In new research, published this month in the Royal Society’s Biology Letters, Flinders scientists have now linked the more varied maternal “chatter song” of female blue wrens (Malurus cyaneus) with the role it plays in further educating the young but with some lethal consequences.
Not only do these more varied vocalisations communicate with young while away from the nest, but the females’ chatter while in the nest can attract unwanted attention from predators such as ravens and currawongs. Predation of nests is one of the biggest risks to the birds in the wild.
“Our latest study provides the first explanation for why females sing less frequently than males: not because their song is less important but because female song attracts predators to the nest,” says Flinders University Professor in Animal Behaviour Sonia Kleindorfer.
“For decades scientists overlooked female song because it was perceived as being infrequent and was condescendingly considered a by-product of selection for male song,” says Professor Kleindorfer, who is Scientific Director of Flinders Research Centre for Climate Adaptation and Animal Behaviour.
“While naturalists focused on colourful males and loud male-male contests, female song was not thought to have any real purpose on its own. It was ignored.
“But we are finding that they do sing – and they are very clever about it – because mothers balance the needs of egg and chick care with vocal tutoring.”
Female songbirds tailor their vocalisation to fulfil their role as the main caregiver as they provide most of the parental care (egg laying, tending eggs and newly hatched chicks).
The Flinders University study has identified two vocalisations: the incubation call and the chatter song. The incubation call consists of two elements repeated ~5 times for ~1 second; while a chatter song in this species consists of 8 elements each repeated ~10 times for ~3 seconds.
“Both these ideas are new to science for songbird females. This research is giving females a voice,” says Professor Kleindorfer, who juggles her own parenting responsibilities with her academic and research work on native species and endangered birds in the Galapagos and Pacific islands.
“Yes, females sing less than males (on average) but this is not because they can’t sing or don’t want to sing,” she says.
“Rather, the constraints of parental care would make it unwise to sing too much yet still these females are able to vocally tutor the kids.”
Professor Kleindorfer and fellow Flinders School of Biological Sciences researcher Christine Evans, have co-authored the new paper, Female in-nest chatter song increases predation, and also collaborated on a new paper entitled Superb fairy-wren sons and daughters acquire song elements from mothers and social fathers (for Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution).


1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Epigoni
EPIGONI (“descendants”), in Greek legend, the sons of the seven heroes who fought against Thebes (see Adrastus). Ten years later, to avenge their fathers, the Epigoni undertook a second expedition, which was completely successful. Thebes was forced to surrender and razed to the ground. In early times the war of the Epigoni was a favourite subject of epic poetry. The term is also applied to the descendants of the Diadochi, the successors of Alexander the Great.


Did you realise that as much as 30% of the population could be carrying Staphylococcus Aureus on their skin and still be healthy; however, Meticillin Resistant Stapphylococcus Aureus (as MRSA is more properly known) is far more serious and can be contracted in the UK’s healthcare facilities including hospitals and nursing homes. Up to 3% of the population are thought to be infected with MRSA, a bacterium which is stubbornly resistant to most antibiotics and can have serious symptoms.
The bug can spread easily through direct contact with another individual, through a ward, or through contaminated clinical equipment for example. The Department of Health is in charge of the surveillance of MRSA but tackling the ‘superbug’ has proved difficult. Unfortunately, it is the most vulnerable patients who are at the most risk of contracting MRSA and are worst affected by it.
In order to prevent the bug spreading and in order to treat it effectively, it is important that it is diagnosed early. Although no single method of tacking the spread of MRSA has been successful, studies have concluded that various methods used in conjunction can help prevent further infection. Improving surveillance of the bug, isolating infected patients away from others and taking more caution when in contact with patients are some of the methods hospitals can use.
Improving hand hygiene is also crucial and many hospitals now provide hand sanitizers on all wards for both the public and for staff. It is now thought that MRSA is most commonly contracted following contact with the hands of medical staff. Even when gloves are worn, hands can become colonised with the bacterium, so hand washing after the gloves are taken off is important.
Every patient admitted to hospital for a pre-arranged procedure should now be screened for the bug prior to being admitted but the following steps should also be taken:
• Keeping wards clean and tidy
• Keeping the environment clean
• Wearing gloves when treating wounds and then thoroughly washing hands following removal of gloves
• Using disinfectant to clean surfaces in examination areas
• Disposing of materials that come into contact with bodily fluids carefully
Looking to make an MRSA compensation claim? Dial 01722 422300
If you contract MRSA, medical negligence could be to blame and as a result, you may be entitled to claim compensation. Our medical negligence solicitors could help you win the damages you deserve, so dial 01722 422300, or
Complete the contact form below to get in touch.
Comments or questions are welcome.


PERSONAL SAFETY EQUIPMENT
Personal protective material( PPE) refers to protective cloak, helmets, goggles, or other garments or material designed to protect the wearer's organization from hurt or infection. The safeties addressed by protective material include physical, electrical, hot, substances, biohazards, and airborne fine particulates. Protective material is a possibility wear for job-related occupational safety and health determinations, as well as for boasts and other recreational activities." Protective cloak" is applied to conventional all types of cloak, and" protective gear" applied at parts such as pads, protects, shields, or masks, and others.
The purpose of personal protective equipment is to reduce hire show to safeties when engineering and administrative controls are not feasible or effective to reduce these risks to acceptable levels. PPE is needed when there are hazards present. PPE has the serious limitation that it does not eradicate the hazard at informant and may result in employees being exposed to the safety if the material fails.
Any item of PPE imposes a railing between the wearer/ used and the working environment. This can create additional damages on the wearer; diminish their ability to carry out their work and organize substantial high levels of pain. Any of these can deter wearers from squandering PPE correctly, therefore locating them at risk of hurt, ill-health or, under extreme circumstances, extinction. Good ergonomic motif can help to minimise these roadblocks and can therefore help to ensure safe and healthy working conditions through the proper use of PPE.
Practices of occupational safety and health can use safety controls and interventions to relieve workplace safeties, which pose a threat to the safety and quality of life of workers. The hierarchy of safety power hierarchy of power supplies a policy framework which ranks the types of safety sees in terms of absolute threat reduction. At the top of the hierarchy are abolition and substitute, which remove the safety only or supplant the safety with a safer alternative. If abolition or substitution measures cannot apply, engineering controls and administrative controls, which seek to motif safer device and tutor safer human demeanor, are enacted. Personal protective material ranks last-place on the hierarchy of controls, as construction workers are regularly exposed to the safety, with a railing of defence. The hierarchy of controls is important in admitted that, while personal protective material has terrific utility, "its not" the desired device of power in terms of craftsman safety.
Personal protective material can be categorized by the area of their own bodies protected, by the types of safety, and by the type of clothe or accessory. A single piece, for example boots, may require numerous different forms of defence: a sword toe detonator and sword insoles for protection of the paws from crushing or stab injuries, impenetrable rubber and liner for protection from ocean and substances, high-pitched reflectivity and hot fighting for protection from glowing hot, and high-pitched electrical resistivity for protection from electric shock. The protective attributes of each portion of material is necessary compared with the hazards expected to be found in the workplace. More breathable the different types of personal protective material is not able to lead to more impurity but do result in greater used atonement
Industrial noise is often forgot as an occupational safety, as it is not discernible to the eye. Overall, about 22 million employees in the United States are exposed to potentially prejudicial noise levels each year.Occupational hearing loss accounted for 14% of all occupational illness in 2007, with about 23,000 instances significant enough to begin permanent hearing disorder .[ 9] About 82% of occupational hearing loss instances appeared to workers in the manufacturing sector.The Occupational Safety and Health Administration launches occupational noise revelation rules. NIOSH recommends that worker exposures to sounds be reduced to a stage equivalent to that given to 85 dBA for eight hours to abbreviate occupational noise-induced hearing loss.
PPE for sounding shield contained in earplugs and earmuffs. Proletarians who are regularly exposed to noise levels above the NIOSH recommendation should be furnished sounding protection by the employers, as they are a low-priced intervention.
Respirators serve to protect the user from breathing in contaminants in the air, thus preserving the health of one's respiratory tract. "Theres" two major types of respirators. One sort offices by filtering out chemicals and gases, or airborne corpuscles, from the aura breathed by the user. The filtration may be either passive or active( powered ). Gas cover-ups and particulate respirators are examples of this type of respirator. A second sort keeps consumers by providing clean, respirable aura from another source. This sort includes airline respirators and self-collected breathing apparatus( SCBA ). In work environments, respirators are relied upon when adequate breathing was not possible or other engineering control systems are not feasible or inadequate.
In the United kingdom government, an organization that has extended knowledge in respiratory protective equipment is the Institute of Occupational Medicine. This knowledge has been built on a long-standing and varied investigate programme that has included the fixed of workplace care parts to the assessment of efficacy of cover-ups available through high-pitched street retail outlets .[ cite necessitated]
The Health and Safety Executive( HSE ), NHS Health Scotland and Healthy Working Lives( HWL) have jointly developed the RPE( Respiratory Protective Equipment) Selector Tool, which is web-based. This interactive tool caters descriptions of various types of respirators and breathing apparatuses, as well as" dos and don'ts" for each type.
In the United States, The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health( NIOSH) provides recommendations on respirator implementation, prepared in accordance to NIOSH federal respiratory regulations 42 CFR Part 84. The National Personal Protective Technology Laboratory( NPPTL) of NIOSH is tasked towards actively conducting examines on respirators and providing recommendations.
Each day, about 2000 US proletarians have a job-related eye injury that requires medical courtesy. Eye injuries can happen through various categories of entails. Most eye injuries occur when solid particles such as metal flakes, wood microchips, sand or cement microchips get into the eye. Smaller particles in inhales and larger particles such as ruined glass also account for particulate matter-causing eye injuries. Blunt force trauma can occur to the eye when excessive personnel comes into contact with the eye. Chemical smolders, biological agents, and thermal agents, from roots such as welding torches and UV light, also contribute to occupational eye injury.
While the required eye armour varies by residence, the safety provisioned is also possible extrapolated. Safety glasses provide protection from external rubble, and are required to provide slope armour via a wrap-around intend or slope shields.
Goggles provide better protection than safety glasses, and are effective in preventing eye injury from substance sprinkles, blow, dusty milieu and welding. Goggles with high air flow should be used to prevent fogging.
Face shields accommodate additional protection and are worn over the standard eyewear; they also provide protection from blow, substance, and blood-borne hazards.
Full-facepiece respirators are considered the best species of eye armour when respiratory armour is required as well, but may be less effective against potential impact hazards to the eye.
Eye terms of protecting welding is colors to different degrees, is dependent on the specific activity.
Self-contained breathing apparatus( SCBA)
A self-collected breathing apparatus, or SCBA, sometimes referred to as a compressed breeze breathing apparatus( CABA ), or simply breathing apparatus( BA ), is a device worn by rescue workers, firefighters, and others to specify breathable breeze in an" Instantly Dangerous to Life or Health" atmosphere( IDLH ). When not used underwater, they are sometimes announced industrial breathing pitches. The call "self-contained" means that the breathing positioned is not dependent on a remote quantity( e.g ., through a long hose ). If designed for abuse under liquid, it is called SCUBA( self-collected underwater breathing apparatus ).
An SCBA generally has three main components: a high-pressure cistern( e.g ., 2,216 to 4,500 psi( 15,280 to 31,030 kPa ), about 150 to 300 environments ), a distres regulator, and an breath attachment( spokesperson, mouth mask or aspect mask ), connected together and prepared to a carrying chassis .[ 1]
A self-collected breathing apparatus may fall into two different categories. These are open tour and closed circuit.
A fire blanket is a safety device designed to extinguish incipient( starting) fires. It consists of a membrane of ardour retardant fabric which is targeted over a ardour in order to strangle it.
Small fire blankets, such as for be utilized in kitchens and around the residence, are frequently made of fiberglass and sometimes kevlar ,[ award involved] and are folded into a quick-release apparatu for affluence of storage.
Fire blankets, together with ardour extinguishers, are fire refuge components that can be useful in case of a ardour. These nonflammable blankets are helpful in temperatures up to 900 magnitudes and are useful in strangle fires by not granting any oxygen to the ardour. Due to its purity, a ardour covering may be more helpful for someone who is inexperienced with ardour extinguishers.
Larger fire blankets, for be utilized in laboratory and industrial status, are often made of woolen( sometimes treated with a flare retardant liquor ). These blankets are frequently prepared in vertical quick-release container so that they can be easily gathered out and wrapped round a person whose clothes are on fire.
HOW TO USER FIRE BLANKET
Fire blankets are fire refuge components that can be useful in case of a ardour. These nonflammable blankets can fight temperatures up to 900 F. They strangle small-scale fires by not granting any oxygen in to fuel the ignites. Due to its purity, a ardour covering may be more helpful for someone who is inexperienced with ardour extinguishers. Discover how to use a ardour covering in case of a ardour and protect your residence or office.
Putting Out a Fire( METHODE 1)
1. Remove the ardour covering by attracting down crisply on the tabs hanging from the bottom of the pack. Fire blankets are generally stored under small-scale pouches with two grey tabs hanging down. Pulling on the tabs will soon release the covering, allowing for speedy access in the event of an emergency
2. Protect your hands. You do not want any flare or fume to hurt your hands. Roll the areas of the covering over your hands protecting children. You can also use flare retardant gloves if you can get them on time to deal with developments in the situation promptly.
3. Locate the covering over the ardour. Once you have the covering procured over your hands, residence it over the ignites. Do not propel it, but lay it down gently. Start with the nearside of the ignites and move in. Shedding the bottom of the covering on the far side first can cause ignites to creep up over the covering, degenerating the situation
4. Turn off any hot source, such as a stave burner. If the flare was started by any hot source, such as an oven, stave burner, or cavity heater, roll the hot source off. This reduced in the amount of meter it takes for the ardour to suffocate.
Expect some smoke to run through the covering. This is normal. It is not a signal the covering itself is on fire or not working properly
5. Leave blanket in place for at the least 15 hours. Leave the covering at the hot source until flare is suffocated. This should take about 15 hours. Do not attempt to move or touch the covering until it's cool again.
6. Call the fire department. Call the fire department. If you can't get the ardour out yourself, you need emergency assistance. Even if you do get the ardour out, you need to contact the fire department got to make sure the flare is perfectly extinguished and there's no chance lingering embers or hot could begin another fire.
Dousing a Clothes Fire( METHODE 2)
1. Wrap someone whose clothes are igniting in the ardour covering. If someone's clothes are on fire, wrap him or her in a ardour covering. Once again, use the edges of the covering to protect your own hands to prevent coming burned. Roll them in the covering until it's securely in place.
2. Have the person or persons stop, sag, and go. Instruct the person in danger to stop, sag, and go. This is a classic refuge procedure used to diminish ardour. A being stop moving, falls to the grind, and reels until the ardour suffocates.
3. Seek medical assistance. Burns caused by ardour should be evaluated by a medical professional as soon as is practicable. Even if you think the blazes search minor, any hurt caused by ardour should be evaluated by a medical professional. Take the person whose clothes were on fire to the ER immediately.


The Transatlantic Slave Trade
Over the course of more than three and a half centuries, the forcible transportation in bondage of at least twelve million men, women, and children from their African homelands to the Americas changed forever the face and character of the modern world. The slave trade was brutal and horrific, and the enslavement of Africans was cruel, exploitative, and dehumanizing. Together, they represent one of the longest and most sustained assaults on the very life, integrity, and dignity of human beings in history.
In the Americas, besides the considerable riches their free labor created for others, the importation and subsequent enslavement of the Africans would be the major factor in the resettlement of the continents following the disastrous decline in their indigenous population. Between 1492 and 1776, an estimated 6.5 million people migrated to and settled in the Western Hemisphere. More than five out of six were Africans. Although victimized and exploited, they created a new, largely African, Creole society and their forced migration resulted in the emergence of the so-called Black Atlantic.
The transatlantic slave trade laid the foundation for modern capitalism, generating immense wealth for business enterprises in America and Europe. The trade contributed to the industrialization of northwestern Europe and created a single Atlantic world that included western Europe, western Africa, the Caribbean islands, and the mainlands of North and South America.
On the other hand, the overwhelming impact on Africa of its involvement in the creation of this modern world was negative. The continent experienced the loss of a significant part of its able-bodied population, which played a part in the social and political weakening of its societies that left them open, in the nineteenth century, to colonial domination and exploitation.
The Development of the Trade
In the mid-fifteenth century, Portuguese ships sailed down the West African coast in a maneuver designed to bypass the Muslim North Africans, who had a virtual monopoly on the trade of sub-Saharan gold, spices, and other commodities that Europe wanted. These voyages resulted in maritime discoveries and advances in shipbuilding that later would make it easier for European vessels to navigate the Atlantic. Over time, the Portuguese vessels added another commodity to their cargo: African men, women, and children.
For the first one hundred years, captives in small numbers were transported to Europe. By the close of the fifteenth century, 10 percent of the population of Lisbon, Portugal, then one of the largest cities in Europe, was of African origin. Other captives were taken to islands off the African shore, including Madeira, Cape Verde, and especially São Tomé, where the Portuguese established sugar plantations using enslaved labor on a scale that foreshadowed the development of plantation slavery in the Americas. Enslaved Africans could also be found in North Africa, the Middle East, Persia, India, the Indian Ocean islands, and in Europe as far as Russia.
English and Dutch ships soon joined Portugal's vessels trading along the African coast. They preyed on the Portuguese ships, while raiding and pillaging the African mainland as well. During this initial period, European interest was particularly concentrated on Senegambia. Culturally and linguistically unified through Islam and in some areas, Manding culture and language, the region and Mali to its east had a long and glorious history, centered on the ancient Kingdom of Ghana and the medieval empires of Mali and Songhay. Its interior regions of Bure and Bambuk were rich in gold. It reached the Mediterranean and hence Europe from Songhay. The slave trade was closely linked to the Europeans' insatiable hunger for gold, and the arrival of the Portuguese on the " Gold Coast" (Ghana) in the 1470s tapped these inland sources.
Later, they developed commercial and political relations with the kingdoms of Benin (in present-day Nigeria) and Kongo. The Kongo state became Christianized and, in the process, was undermined by the spread of the slave trade. Benin, however, restricted Portuguese influence and somewhat limited the trade in human beings.
Starting in 1492, Africans were part of every expedition into the regions that became the American Spanish colonies. By the beginning of the sixteenth century, they were brought as slaves to grow sugar and mine gold on Hispaniola, and were forced to drain the shallow lakes of the Mexican plateau, thereby finalizing the subjugation of the Aztec nation. In a bitter twist, the Africans were often forced to perform tasks that would help advance the genocide that would resolve the vexing "Indian question."
By the middle of the seventeenth century, the slave trade entered its second and most intense phase. The creation of ever-larger sugar plantations and the introduction of other crops such as indigo, rice, tobacco, coffee, cocoa, and cotton would lead to the displacement of an estimated seven million Africans between 1650 and 1807. The demand for labor resulted in numerous innovations, encouraged opportunists and entrepreneurs, and accrued deceptions and barbarities, upon which the slave trade rested. Some slave traders - often well-respected men in their communities - made fortunes for themselves and their descendants. The corresponding impact on Africa was intensified as larger parts of west and central Africa came into the slavers' orbit.
The third and final period of the transatlantic slave trade began with the ban on the importation of captives imposed by Britain and the United States in 1807 and lasted until the 1860s. Brazil, Cuba, and Puerto Rico were the principal destinations for Africans, since they could no longer legally be brought into North America, the British or French colonies in the Caribbean, or the independent countries of Spanish America. Despite this restricted market, the numbers of deported Africans did not decline until the late 1840s. Many were smuggled into the United States. At the same time, tens of thousands of Africans rescued from the slave ships were forcibly settled in Sierra Leone, Liberia, and several islands of the Caribbean.
Capture and Enslavement
War, slave raiding, kidnapping, and politico-religious struggle accounted for the vast majority of Africans deported to the Americas. Several important wars resulted in massive enslavement, including the export of prisoners across the Atlantic, the ransoming of others, and the use of enslavement within Africa itself.
The Akan wars of the late seventeenth century and the first half of the eighteenth century were a struggle for power among states in the Gold Coast hinterland. Akwamu, Akyem, Denkyira, Fante, and Asante groups battled for more than half a century for control of the region. By the mid-eighteenth century, Asante emerged as the dominant force.
By 1650, Oyo had become a consolidated imperial power in the interior of the Bight of Benin by defeating the Bariba and Nupe in the north and other Yoruba states to the south. The wars between various Gbe groups resulted in the rise of Dahomey and its victory over Allada in 1724. The winners occupied the port of Whydah three years later but were then forced to pay tribute to the more powerful Oyo. These wars accounted for the deportation of over a million Africans along the Bight of Benin coast.
The sixty-year period of the Kongo civil wars, ending in 1740, was responsible for the capture and enslavement of many. Among them were the followers of the Catholic martyr Beatrice of Kongo, who tried to end the wars through pacifist protest.
The spread of militant Islam across West Africa began in Senegambia during the late seventeenth century. The jihad led to two major political transformations: the emergence in the late eighteenth century of the Muslim states of Futa Jallon in the Guinea highlands and Futa Toro on the Senegal River.
The jihad movement continued into the nineteenth century, especially with the outbreak of war in 1804 in the Hausa states (northern Nigeria) under the leadership of Sheikh Usman dan Fodio. These wars in turn exacerbated political tensions in Oyo, which resulted in a Muslim uprising and the collapse of the Oyo state between 1817 and 1833. New strongholds were created at Ibadan, Abeokuta, and Ijebu, and the conflict intensified over attempts to replace or resurrect the Oyo state.
After 1700, the importation of firearms heightened the intensity of many of the wars and resulted in a great increase in the numbers of enslaved peoples. European forces intervened in some of the localized fighting and in warfare all along the Atlantic coast. They sought to obtain captives directly in battle or as political rewards for having backed the winning side. Working from their permanent colonies at Luanda, Benguela, and other coastal points, the Portuguese conducted joint military ventures into the hinterlands with their African allies.
Africans also became enslaved through non-military means. Judicial and religious sanctions and punishments removed alleged criminals, people accused of witchcraft, and social misfits through enslavement and banishment. Rebellious family members might be expelled from their homes through enslavement. Human pawns, especially children, held as collateral for debt were almost always protected from enslavement by relatives and customary practices. However, debts and the collateral for those debts were sometimes subjected to illegal demands, and pawned individuals, especially children, were sometimes "sold" or otherwise removed from the watchful eyes of the relatives and communities that had tried to safeguard their rights.
Africans were also kidnapped, though kidnapping was a crime in most communities, and sold into slavery. Captives were sometimes ransomed, but this practice often encouraged the taking of prisoners for monetary rewards.
As the slave trade destroyed families and communities, people tried to protect their loved ones. Various governments and communal institutions developed means and policies that limited the trade's impact. Muslims were particularly concerned with protecting the freedom of their co-religionists. Qur'anic law stated that those of the Faith born free must remain free. But this precept was often violated.
Throughout Africa, people of all beliefs tried to safeguard their own. Some offered themselves in exchange for the release of their loved ones. Others tried to have their kin redeemed even after they had been shipped away. Resistance took the form of attacks on slave depots and ships, as well as revolts in the forts, in barracoons, and on slave ships.
But at a higher level, the political fragmentation - many small centralized states and federations governed through secret societies - made it virtually impossible to develop methods of government that could effectively resist the impact of the slave trade. Even the largest states, such as Asante and Oyo, were small by modern standards. Personal gain and the interests of the small commercial elites who dominated trade routes, ports, and secret societies also worked against the freeing of captives, offenders, and displaced children, who could easily end up in the slave trade.
Traders and Trade
Western European countries established distinct national trades. The European port cities most involved in this growth industry were Bristol, Liverpool, and London in England; Amsterdam in Holland; Lisbon, the Portuguese capital; and Nantes, located on the western French coast.
On the African side most captives were traded from only a few ports: Luanda (Angola), Whydah (Bight of Benin), Bonny ( Bight of Biafra); and the adjacent "castles" at Koromantin and Winneba on the Gold Coast accounted for at least a third of the Africans transported to the Americas. Other major ports included Old Calabar (Bight of Biafra), Benguela (Southern Angola), Cabinda (north of the Congo River), and Lagos in the Bight of Benin. These nine ports accounted for at least half of all the Africans deported to the Americas.
The European countries attempted, though not successfully, to regulate the trade by chartering various national companies established under royal decree or parliamentary order. But these efforts to create monopolies, such as England's Royal African Company (RAC), were soon undermined by private merchant companies and pirates who opened up new markets in the Bight of Biafra and the northern Angola coast, and challenged the RAC on the Gold Coast and in the Gambia.
Each of the nations and their slave ports experimented with innovative marketing and trading techniques. Sometimes this competition required the maintenance of trading depots and forts - the slave "castles" or factories - as was the case in the Gold Coast and the Bight of Benin, as well as in lesser ports along the Upper Guinea Coast, Senegambia, and Angola.
The trade was propelled by credit flowing outward from Europe and used by merchants to purchase men, women, and children in West Africa. They advanced goods on credit in lieu of payment in captives. The wares sent to Africa in exchange for captives included those that could be used as money: cowry shells, strips of cloth (often imported from India), iron bars, copper bracelets ( manillas), silver coins, and gold. These goods also had value as commodities: cloth could be turned into clothing, iron into hoes and other tools. Consumer goods included textiles, alcohol, and jewelry. Their importation supplemented but did not replace the local production of these items. Alcohol was regarded as a luxury, except in Muslim communities, where it was prohibited.
Military goods, principally firearms, were also exchanged for captives. They were instrumental in the eighteenth-century Gold Coast wars that enslaved multitudes and led to the Asante people's political ascendancy in the region. With the exception of the Gold Coast wars, guns played little role at first in local conflicts, due in part to the difficulty of keeping powder dry in tropical regions. For example, the rise of Oyo, which became the dominant slaving power in the interior of the Bight of Benin, was mostly effected by the use of cavalry.
Merchants experimented with various trading methods. In some places, such as Old Calabar and the minor ports of the Upper Guinea Coast, individuals who were often the relatives of local merchants and officials were accepted by ship captains as collateral for credit. These individuals were human pawns who could be enslaved if debts were not paid.
In Angola and Senegambia, European merchants married or otherwise cohabited with local women, and these women sometimes amassed considerable fortunes as agents and merchants in their own right. Their mixed offspring became an intermediate class of merchants along the coast, but especially concentrated along the Upper Guinea Coast as far as Senegambia, and in Luanda, Benguela, and their commercial outposts in the interior of Angola.
The trade was a high-risk enterprise. The commodity was people; they could escape, be murdered, commit suicide, or fall victim to epidemics or natural disasters. Local traders could disappear with their payment and never produce the captives stipulated in the contract. Since the slave trade went across political and cultural frontiers, there was little recourse to courts and governments in the event of commercial dishonesty. No international court or judicial system existed to handle the extraordinary violations of human rights that defined every aspect of the slave trade.
The slave trade was driven by both demand and greed. The customers in the Americas who could afford it desperately needed labor and did not care how it was obtained. Traders could benefit immensely from theft, plunder, kidnapping, ransoming, and the sale of human beings as commodities. These slavers took advantage of African political troubles, religious differences, legal technicalities, economic crises, and outright callousness to exploit helpless individuals.
The Middle Passage
On the first leg of their three-part journey, often called the Triangular Trade, European ships brought manufactured goods to Africa; on the second, they transported African men, women, and children to the Americas; and on the third leg, they exported to Europe the sugar, rum, cotton, and tobacco produced by the enslaved labor force. There was also a direct trade between Brazil and Angola that did not include the European leg. Traders referred to the Africa-Americas part of the voyage as the " Middle Passage" and the term has survived to denote the Africans' ordeal.
Well over 30,000 voyages from Africa to the Americas have been documented. But numbers and statistics alone cannot convey the horror of the experience. However, the records provide detailed information on some aspects of this tragedy.
The dreadful Middle Passage could last from one to three months and epitomized the role of violence in the trade. Based on regulations, ships could transport only about 350 people, but some carried more than 800 men, women, and children. Branded, stripped naked for the duration of the voyage, lying down amidst filth, enduring almost unbearable heat, compelled by the lash to dance on deck to straighten their limbs, all captives went through a frightening, incredibly brutal and dehumanizing experience.
Men were shackled under deck, and all Africans were subjected to abuse and punishment.
Some people tried to starve themselves to death, but the crew forced them to take food by whipping them, torturing them with hot coal, or forcing their mouths open by using special instruments or by breaking their teeth.
The personal identity of the captives was denied. Women and boys were often used for the pleasure of the crew. Ottobah Cugoano, who endured the Middle Passage in the eighteenth century, recalled: "it was common for the dirty filthy sailors to take the African women and lie upon their bodies."
Mortality brought about by malnutrition, dysentery, smallpox, and other diseases was very high. Depending on the times, upwards of 20 percent died from various epidemics or committed suicide. Venture Smith, describing his ordeal, wrote: "After an ordinary passage, except great mortality by the small pox, which broke out on board, we arrived at the island of Barbadoes: but when we reached it, there were found out of the two hundred and sixty that sailed from Africa, not more than two hundred alive." It was not unusual for captains and crew to toss the sick overboard; and some even disposed of an entire cargo for insurance purposes.
On board slave ships, in the midst of their oppression, the Africans, who were often as much strangers to each other as to their European captors, forged the first links with their new American identities. Relationships established during the Middle Passage frequently resulted in revolts and other forms of resistance that bound them in new social and political alliances. Ottobah Cugoano described the attempted revolt organized on the ship that took him from the Gold Coast to Grenada: "when we found ourselves at last taken away, death was more preferable than life; and a plan was concerted amongst us, that we might burn and blow up the ship, and to perish all together in the flames . . . . It was the women and boys which were to burn the ship, with the approbation and groans of the rest; though that was prevented, the discovery was likewise a cruel bloody scene."
The special relations created on the ship lasted a lifetime and were regarded by the deported Africans, torn from their loved ones, as strongly as kinship. They had special names for those who had shared their ordeal. They were called bâtiments in Creole (from the French for ship), sippi in Surinam (from ship), and shipmate in Jamaica.
Far from wiping out all traces of their cultural, social, and personal past, the Middle Passage experience provided Africans with opportunities to draw on their collective heritage to make themselves a new people.
Africans in America
Of the estimated ten million men, women, and children who survived the Middle Passage, approximately 450,000 Africans disembarked on North America's shores. They thus represented only a fraction - 5 percent-- of those transported during the 350-year history of the international slave trade. Brazil and the Caribbean each received about nine times as many Africans.
The labor of enslaved Africans proved crucial in the development of South Carolina, Georgia, Virginia, and Maryland and contributed indirectly through commerce to the fortunes of New York, Massachusetts, and Pennsylvania. Though the enforced destination of Africans was primarily to plantations and farms for work in cash crop agriculture, they were also used in mining and servicing the commercial economy. They were placed in towns and port cities as domestic servants; and many urban residents performed essential commercial duties working as porters, teamsters, and craftsmen.
In eighteenth-century America, Africans were concentrated in the agricultural lowlands of South Carolina and Georgia, especially in the Sea Islands, where they grew rice, cotton, indigo, and other crops. In Louisiana, they labored on sugarcane plantations. They were employed on tobacco farms in the tidewater region of Virginia and Maryland. The tidewater, together with the Georgia and South Carolina lowlands, accounted for at least two-thirds of the Africans brought into North America prior to the end of legal importation in 1807.
Ethnicities in the United States
The largest number of Africans in the lowlands (34 percent) came from Bantu-speaking regions of west-central Africa. Twenty percent were transported from Senegambia, while the Gold Coast and Sierra Leone each accounted for about 15 percent of the total number. Others came from the Bight of Biafra and the Windward Coast.
The enslaved population of Virginia/Maryland was composed mostly of Africans from the Bight of Biafra, some 39 percent. Senegambia accounted for 21 percent of the Africans in this region. Another 17 percent were of Bantu origin, and 10 percent were originally from the Gold Coast.
Therefore, nearly 90 percent of the Africans in these two major regions came from only four zones in Africa. Most came from the west-central area of Angola and Congo where languages - Kikongo, Kimbundu and culture (often referred to as Bantu) were closely related. Many more ended up in the tidewater than in the lowlands, but they comprised nearly a third of all migrants in both sectors.
The Senegambians were much more prominent in North America than in South America and the Caribbean. Senegambia was strongly influenced by Islam, to a greater degree than any other coastal region where enslaved Africans originated. More Muslims were enslaved in North America - except for Brazil - than anywhere else in the New World. Their presence was especially pronounced in Louisiana, to which many Manding people - almost all males - had been transported. This state also had a large presence of non-Muslim Bambara from Mali.
The Upper South had a considerable population of people from the Bight of Biafra, as did lowland South Carolina and Georgia. In all probability, a large number of the many Africans whose origins are not known actually came from this area. These Igbo and Ibibio people would develop a distinct subculture. Women made up a relatively high number among those groups. They gave birth to a new generation, ensuring some transmission of their cultural values and beliefs.
Men and women from Sierra Leone and the adjacent Windward Coast were heavily concentrated in the low country, and most were involved in cultivating rice.
Noticeably absent from North America's African population were substantial numbers of people from the Slave Coast ( Togo, Benin, and western Nigeria). Contrary to Brazil and Cuba, the United States received very few Yoruba.
The Suppression of the Slave Trade
Article I, Section 9, Clause 1 of the U.S. Constitution (1787) stipulated that "The Migration or Importation of such Persons as any of the States now existing shall think proper to admit, shall not be prohibited by the Congress prior to the Year one thousand eight hundred and eight, but a Tax or duty may be imposed on such Importation, not exceeding ten dollars for each Person."
In consequence, the United States abolished its slave trade from Africa, effective January 1, 1808. But slave trading, now illegal, continued unabated until 1860.
The U.S. Slave Trade Act, enacted by a vote of 63 in favor and 49 against in February 1807, was a half victory for the slavers because it specified that the Africans illegally brought to slaveholding states would still be sold and enslaved. Penalties merely consisted of fines. With the authorities turning a blind eye and refusing to enforce their own law, the illegal slave trade flourished for several decades, particularly in Texas (Spanish until 1821), Florida (Spanish until 1818), Louisiana, and South Carolina.
Africans were sold with little secrecy. As recounted by a slave smuggler, it was an easy task: "I soon learned how readily, and at what profits, the Florida negroes were sold into the neighboring American States. The kaffle [ coffle] . . . [was to] cross the boundary into Georgia, where some of our wild Africans were mixed with various squads of native blacks, and driven inland, till sold off, singly or by couples, on the road."
The introduction of African captives took such proportions that President Madison wrote to Congress: "it appears that American citizens are instrumental in carrying on a traffic in enslaved Africans, equally in violation of the laws of humanity, and in defiance of those of their own country."
Congress passed a tougher law in 1820 making international slave trading an act of piracy punishable by death. Even though the traffic went on, only one American was ever executed for this crime. In addition, American slavers, particularly from New York and Rhode Island, shipped Africans to Cuba, Puerto Rico, and Brazil, where the slave trade was still legal.
More than 3.3 million Africans were transported between 1801 and 1867, the vast majority to Brazil and Cuba. Half came from west-central Africa, and more than 40 percent were originally from the Bights of Benin and Biafra, and Southeast Africa - Mozambique and Madagascar.
In the 1850s, a movement developed in the South to re-open the international slave trade. It was defeated, but the illegal importation of Africans increased between 1850 and 1860, even though the African Squadron, established by the U.S. government in 1843 patrolled the harbors of the African coast.
Although their respective countries had officially outlawed the transatlantic slave trade, American and British slavers and traders continued to be openly involved in it, and their activities brought money and work to shipbuilders, crews, insurance companies, and manufacturers of various trade goods, guns, and shackles. Slave ships brought Africans until the Civil War. The Clotilda landed more than a hundred men, women, and children from Benin and Nigeria in the summer of 1860 at Mobile, Alabama. The Wanderer had discharged several hundred people from the Congo on Jekyll Island, Georgia, in November 1858. In both cases, the Africans were sold and enslaved. As a testimony to the persistence of the illegal slave trade, the 1870 Census reveals the presence, in the United States, of numerous men and women born in Africa well after 1808.
Impact of the Slave Trade on Africa
The negative impact of the international slave trade on Africa was immense. It can be seen on the personal, family, communal, and continental levels. In addition to the millions of able-bodied individuals captured and transported, the death toll and the economic and environmental destruction resulting from wars and slave raids were startlingly high. In the famines that followed military actions, the old and very young were often killed or left to starve.
Forced marches of the captives over long distances claimed many lives. A large number of the enslaved were destined to remain in Africa - many were transported across the Sahara to the north - which heightened the impact of the slave trade on the continent. It is estimated that the population of Africa remained stagnant until the end of the nineteenth century.
Besides its demographic toll, the slave trade, and the Africans' resistance to it, led to profound social and political changes. Social relations were restructured and traditional values were subverted. The slave trade resulted in the development of predatory regimes, as well as stagnation or regression. Many communities relocated as far from the slavers' route as possible. In the process, their technological and economic development was hindered as they devoted their energy to hiding and defending themselves.
The disruption was immense: the relationships between kingdoms, ethnic groups, religious communities, castes, rulers and subjects, peasants and soldiers, the enslaved and the free, were transformed. In some decentralized societies, people evolved new styles of leadership that led to more rigid, hierarchical structures, thought to better ensure protection.
In addition, European powers intervened in the political process to prevent the rise of the African centralized states that would have hampered their operations.
In the end, the slave trade left the continent underdeveloped, disorganized, and vulnerable to the next phase of European hegemony: colonialism.
Legacies in America
The slave trade and slavery left a legacy of violence. Brutality, often of near-bestial proportions, was the principal condition shaping the character of the enforced migration, whether along a trade route, on board ship, or laboring on an American plantation. The degree of power concentrated in the hands of North American slave owners, interested only in maximizing their profits, allowed excessive levels of physical punishment and the perpetuation of sexual abuse and exploitation that have marked in many ways the development of the African-American community.
There was a marked sexual component to the assaults: rape was common. Kinship was disregarded, particularly the paternity of children. Their status reflected the enslaved status of their mothers, no matter who their father might have been. Slave owners treated their unpaid, overworked labor forces as mere chattel.
Avoiding and resisting violence were determining characteristics of the responses of the Africans to their forced migration experience. Individuals attempted to evade physical abuse through strategies of accommodation, escape, and on several occasions, violent rebellion. The preservation and adaptation of African cultural forms to respond to the new needs of the enslaved population was also an act of resistance to the imposition of European norms.
Unlike earlier slave systems, in the Americas racial distinctions were used to keep the enslaved population in bondage. Contrary to what happened in Latin America, where racial stratification was more complex, in North America, any person of identifiable African descent, no matter the degree of "white" ancestry, was classified as colored, Negro, or black. A racial caste system was established, and as a result racialized attitudes and racism became an inherent and lasting part of North American culture.
Though enslaved individuals came from widely different backgrounds and the number of ethnic groups and markers of identity were extensive, certain ethnicities, cultural forms, and languages - usually in pidgin and creolized forms - as well as religions proved sustainable and were maintained, sometimes exaggerated and manipulated during the process of adjusting to enslavement in the Americas.
The overarching result of African migration during the slavery era was an "American" culture, neither "European" nor "African," created in a political and economic context of inequality and oppression. The African contribution to this new culture was a towering legacy, hugely impacting on language, religion, music, dance, art, and cuisine. Most importantly, an enduring sense of African-American community developed in the face of white racism.
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Lovejoy, Paul E. "Biography as Source Material: Towards a Biographical Archive of Enslaved Africans," in R. Law, ed. Source Material for Studying the Slave Trade and the African Diaspora. (Stirling: Centre for Commonwealth Studies , 1997)
Lovejoy, Paul E. "Background to Rebellion: The Origins of Muslim Slaves in Bahia," Slavery and Abolition 15 (1994): 151-80
Lovejoy, Paul E. "The Impact of the Atlantic Slave Trade on Africa: A Review of the Literature," Journal of African History, 30 (1989): 365-94
Lovejoy, Paul E., ed. Africans in Bondage (Madison: African Studies Program , 1986)
Lovejoy, Paul E., ed. The Ideology of Slavery in Africa (Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage Publications , 1981)
Lovejoy, Paul E., ed., Slavery on the Frontiers of Islam (Princeton: Markus Wiener Publisher , 2004)
Lovejoy, P.E. and Hogendorn, J.S. 1979, "Slave Marketing in West Africa," in H.A Gemery and J.S. Hogendorn (eds.), The Uncommon Market: Essays in the Economic History of the Atlantic Slave Trade (New York: Academic Press , 1979), 213-35
Lovejoy, Paul E. and Richardson, David. "The Initial Crisis of Adaptation: The Impact of British Abolition on the Atlantic Slave Trade in West Africa, 1808-1820," in R. Law, ed. From Slave Trade to "Legitimate" Commerce: The Commercial Transition in Nineteenth-Century West Africa (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press , 1995)
Lovejoy, Paul E. and Richardson, David. "Competing Markets for Male and Female Slaves: Slave Prices in the Interior of West Africa, 1780-1850," International Journal of African Historical Studies 28:2 (1995)
Lovejoy, P.E. and Trotman, David V., eds. Trans-Atlantic Dimensions of Ethnicity in the African Diaspora (London: Continuum , 2003)
Lovejoy, Paul E. and Trotman, David V. "Enslaved Africans and their Expectations of Slave Life in the Americas: Towards a Reconsideration of Models of Creolisaton," in Verene A. Shepherd and Glen L. Richards (eds.), Questioning Creole: Creolisaton Discourses in Caribbean Culture (Kingston: Ian Randal, Publishers , 2002), 67-91
Manning, Patrick, Slavery and African Life. Occidental, Oriental and African Slave Trades (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press , 1990)
Miers, Suzanne, Britain and the Ending of the Slave Trade (New York, 1975)
Miers, S. and Kopytoff, I. (eds.), Slavery in Africa: Historical and Anthropological Perspective (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press , 1977)
Miers, Suzanne and Roberts, Richard (eds.). 1988. The End of Slavery in Africa. Madison
Miller, Joseph C. "Central Africa During the Era of the Slave Trade, c. 1490s-1850s," in Linda Heywood, ed., Central Africans and Cultural Transformations in the American Diaspora (New York: Cambridge University Press , 2001), 21-69.
Miller, Joseph C. "History and Africa/Africa and History," American Historical Review 104, 1 (1999): 1-32.
Miller, Joseph C., Way of Death. Merchant Capitalism and the Angolan Slave Trade, 1730-1830 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Perss , 1988)
Miller, Joseph C. 1999. Slavery and Slaving in World History. A Bibliography, 1900-1996 (Armon, NY. 2nd edition., 1999), 2 vols.
Mintz, Sidney W. and Price, Richard. An Anthropological Perspective to the Afro-American Past: A Caribbean Perspective (Philadelphia: Institute for the Study of Human Issues , 1976)
Morgan, Philip. "The Cultural Implications of the Atlantic Slave Trade: African Regional Origins, American Destinations and New World Developments," Slavery and Abolition, 18:1 (1997)
Morgan, Philip, Slave Counterpoint - full details needed
Northrup, David, Trade Without Rulers: pre-Colonial Economic Development in South-Eastern Nigeria (Oxford: Clarendon , 1978)
Palmer, Colin A. "From Africa to the Americas: Ethnicity in the Early Black Communities of the Americas" Journal of World History, 6:2 (1995), 223-237.
Pavy, David. "The Provenience of Columbian Negroes." Journal of Negro History, 52 (1967), 35-58.
Price, Richard. "Resistance to Slavery in the Americas: Maroons and Their Communities" Indian Historical Review, 15:1/2, (1988-89), 71-95
Rodney, Walter. "Upper Guinea and the Significance of the Origins of Africans Enslaved in the New World." The Journal of Negro History, 1969,Vol. 54, No. 4.
Rodney, Walter, "Slavery and other forms of social oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the context of the Atlantic slave trade," Journal of African History, 7, 4 (1966), 431-43
Sweet, James H. Recreating Africa: Culture, Kinship and Religion in the African-Portuguese World, 1441-1770. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press , 2003.
Thornton, John, Africa and Africans in the Making of the Atlantic World, 1400-1800 (Cambridge: Cambridge University , 2nd ed., 1998)
Thornton, John K. "African Dimensions of the Stono Rebellion" American Historical Review, 1991, 1101-1113.
Thornton, John K., "I Am the King of Congo: African Political Ideology and the Haitia Revolution," Journal of World History, 4:2 (1993),181-214
Trouillot, Michel-Rolph. " Culture on the Edges: Creolization in the Plantation Context." Plantation Society in the Americas, 5:1 (1998),. 8-28
Warner-Lewis, Maureen, "Posited Kikoongo origins of some Portuguese and Spanish words from the slave era," América Negra, 7:13 (1997), 83-97
Warner-Lewis, Maureen, The History of the Congo Peoples in the Caribbean [correct title]
Wilks, Ivor. Forests of Gold: Essays on the Akan and the Kingdom of Asante (Athens: Ohio University Press , 1993)
This website is produced by the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York and is part of their "Timeline of Art History" project. It features in-depth information and analysis on history and art.
Slave Forts and Castles
Site of UNESCO World Heritage List. Click on Benin, Ghana, and Senegal to see sites related to the transatlantic slave trade.
Pictorial Images of the Transatlantic Slave Trade
African societies and cultures, and the transatlantic slave trade. Information, pictures, illustrations, portraits of African victims of the slave trade.
Slaves and the Courts, 1740-1860
This Library of Congress sites contains over a hundred pamphlets and books. Search by keywords or browse the subject index.
The African-American Pamphlet Collection, 1822-1909
This Library of Congress site offers complete page images of the 396 titles in the African American Pamphlet Collection, as well as searchable electronic texts and bibliographic records. Use keywords such as slave trade or Africa; or browse the subject index.
Breaking the Silence: Learning About the Transatlantic Slave Trade
This is one of the most complete sites for teachers on the subject of the transatlantic slave trade available. The site aims to help teachers and educators to "Break the Silence" that continues to surround the story of the enslavement of Africa that began over 500 years ago. Links to maps of the trade routes and to class plans for teaching this emotional yet pertinent subject are also available.
This University of Calgary informative site contains a lengthy history of the transatlantic slave trade, illustrations, and maps.
Africans in America: America's Journey Through Slavery
Interviews of historians, illustrations, excerpts of Africans' autobiographies.
African History Sourcebook
Autobiographies of African victims of the slave trade, and Europeans' descriptions of the slave trade.
Listing of links to pages about the Amistad.
Timeline, narrative, biographies and portraits of the people involved in the Amistad story.
Slave Trade and Slavery
The Gilder Lehrman Center for the Study of Slavery, Resistance and Abolition at Yale maintains a site on various topics including the Amistad, and numerous documents relating to slavery. Calendar of conferences.
Bristol and Slavery
Documentation on the role of Bristol in the transatlantic slave trade, and on the slave trade in general.
This Mariners' Museum site examines the maritime aspects of the transatlantic slave trade, along with the origins and legacies of race-based slavery.
The Transatlantic Slave Trade
Web story about the transatlantic slave trade and the enslaved Africans who came from hundreds of ethnic groups whose languages and cultures were 'creolised' into one identity. Information about genetic studies reclaiming the lost roots of the descendents of those enslaved is featured.
The Slave Route Newsletter
An in-depth newsletter chronicling the development of UNESCO's Slave Route project. Images, maps of transatlantic slave trade routes, statistical data, critical analysis, and educational resources are available
The Middle Passage
Images and accounts of the Middle Passage and several links to similar pages.
The story better known as "Myth of the Flying Africans", based on the arrival of Igbo from Nigeria on St. Simons Island in 1803.


Today, we meet the grandmother of Frankenstein. The
University of Houston's College of Engineering
presents this series about the machines that make
our civilization run, and the people whose
ingenuity created them.
Mary Wollstonecraft was born
in England in 1759. She was raised by an abusive
father and a put-upon mother. Early in life she set
out to support herself -- first as companion to a
wealthy lady, then as a teacher, and later as a
governess. Finally, in 1787, she settled in London
to earn her living as a writer.
There she joined an astonishing intellectual circle
that met in rooms over a bookstore. The poet
William Blake was a member. So was Joseph
Priestley. He was the dissident minister and
scientist who first isolated oxygen. The American
Thomas Paine was a member. His pamphlet,
Common Sense, had fueled the American
Revolution. These were primary theorists of
Mary Wollstonecraft began writing on the role of
women, but in fairly guarded terms. She wrote a
novel. She wrote a book on educating young women.
Then, in 1792, she burst forth with a searing
manifesto that became a primary feminist source,
right down to this very day. She titled it
Vindication of the Rights of Woman.
That was probably a play on Thomas Paine's title,
The Rights of Man.
All the elements of today's women's rights movement
were there. Her call to "expand our faculties" was
today's idea of "consciousness-raising." She hated
the way middle-class women of her age sold
themselves into an idle life. She always returned
to the importance of education and self-sufficiency
An angry public met the work with cries of horror
-- both then, and for the next 200 years. She'd
written it rapidly and not too carefully. Some of
her arguments sidetrack. But the arguments are
compelling, and their intent quite clear enough. In
fact, every one has become familiar today.
A few years later, she and another member of the
circle took up together. He was William Godwin, a
noted writer on political revolution. When she
became pregnant in 1797, they married, even though
they'd both railed against marriage. In the end,
she bore a daughter but died giving her birth.
William Godwin passed Mary's legacy on to his
daughter. He even named her Mary. In his grief he
wrote the biography of this lady he'd obiously
loved so much. Years later, young Mary went to
Switzerland with her lover, Percy Shelley, and Lord
Byron. There she wrote her own powerful and lasting
commentary on dangers she saw abroad in the land.
She wrote Frankenstein.
Her mother had torn directly into male dominance,
but in Frankenstein, young Mary
attacked something just as basic. She tore into the
willful, masculine animal that drove 19th-century
technology and thinking then, and all too often
still does today.
I'm John Lienhard, at the University of Houston,
where we're interested in the way inventive minds


FOLLOWING FOOD ITEMS SHOULD BE AVOIDED FOR A BETTER DIGESTIVE SYSTEM:
- DAIRY PRODUCTS
Milk and other dairy products are hard to digest because they contain sugar known as lactose. This sugar creates problems in the large intestine. One can go for yogurt, hard cheese and lactose free milk.
- ACIDIC FOODS
Carbonated drinks, tomato sauce and citrus fruits, such as lemons, limes, oranges, and grapefruit, are acidic and can irritate the stomach lining, causing digestive problems.
- FATTY AND FRIED FOODS
Food items that contain fats like butter, ice cream, red meat, and cheese should be avoided. These fatty foods slow down the emptying of stomach and hence worsen constipation. Too much of oil interrupts the digestion process.
- SPICY FOOD
More of spicy food disturbs the stomach lining and hence causes stomach ache and indigestion. It is different for every individual, as some individuals have good tolerance to spicy food and their body is use to it and vice versa.
Caffeine increases the amount of acid in your stomach and may cause heartburn or upset stomach.
Alcohol is toxic to the stomach lining and changes liver metabolism. Drinking too much can cause indigestion, among other health problems.
- ARTIFICIAL SWEETNER AND PROCESSED FOODS
Known as the hard-to-digest sugar, is present in peaches. Also used in processed food items. Hence it is advisable to avoid processed food as it contains artificial sweetner, spices and lots of oil, which leads to digestion issues.
FOLLOWING FOOD ITEMS SHOULD BE CONSUMED FOR A BETTER DIGESTIVE SYSTEM:
Fruits like apples, banana, blueberry, kiwi, papaya, cantaloupe and avocado & vegetables like tomato, carrot, cucumber, beetroot and sweet potato are high in fibre, contain vitamins, nutrients, minerals and have digestive properties. Hence, consumption of these fruits help in restoring a good digestive health and ensuring a proper functioning of the intestines.
- WHOLE GRAINS
These include brown rice, oats and whole grain or whole wheat bread. They are rich in fibre and hence help is solving digestive problems.
Ginger acts as one of the most effective ingredient that helps in digestion and helps to cure motion sickness, nausea, vomiting, gas and loss of appetite. Include ginger in the food on a daily basis. Consume 2-3 grams of ginger. Excess consumption will lead to heartburn.
- HOT WATER
After waking up, drinking one glass of hot water every morning helps to ease the digestion process. Hot water can be consumed at any time through out the day.
- LEMON WATER
As mentioned above, lemon water helps in the same way and also detoxifies the body.


What’s the reason for using hearing aids? Because you want to enhance your ability to hear, right? Naturally, that will be the majority of people’s response. A hearing aid is manufactured to aid your hearing.
But that’s not the actual reason we wear them. How about staying in touch with people in our lives…so that we can actually get involved in discussions around us not only hear them. Our favorite music, the punchline of a joke or the key lines an important show are all things which hearing aids help us enjoy.
In other words, there are a variety of advantages, overlooked advantages, that that you will get if you wear hearing aids. And you will probably wear your hearing aids every day as opposed to keeping them put away because of these boons. So we can be certain that these benefits deserve to be highlighted.
Your hearing aids don’t simply raise the volume of sounds. Sounds become crisper also. The reason for this is that hearing loss doesn’t happen uniformly in both ears: certain frequencies go first. So a hearing aid can make the sounds near you crisper and easier to understand.
Depending on the room your in and its natural sound characteristics, contemporary hearing aids can be adjusted or even self-adjust to compensate. Hearing aids don’t only make everything louder, they focus on enhancing the right sounds so that you can hear more clearly overall.
A More Lively Social Life
If the sounds around you are easier to comprehend, you’re more inclined to engage in social activity and that’s a real boost. Just contemplate this, you’re not as likely to jump in with a witty joke at a packed restaurant if you can’t hear the flow of conversation. But you will know exactly when to spring your funny retort when your hearing is nice and crisp and so are the voices around you.
Social situation are difficult when you don’t have to ask people to repeat themselves and voices are crisper and clearer; Instead, enjoying social interaction is something you can do once again.
Being Able to Concentrate Better
A huge part of your mental resources are spent trying to make sense of the chaos when you are struggling to hear. You will need to divert such a large amount of your brainpower towards making sense of jumbled or incomplete audio information that your overall concentration takes a dip. Whether you’re are listening to TV, reading the news, or doing your taxes, your concentration will be much better if you are using hearing aids that are functioning correctly.
You Will be Safer
A greater risk of falling down is reported in individuals who suffer with untreated loss of hearing. Hearing aids help safeguard you against a fall in two ways. Stopping falls from the beginning is the initial one. When you are able to focus better (and, thus, you’re not as mentally fatigued), it’s less difficult to move your feet around without stumbling over something. The next example is when a user has a fall, the automated technology in the hearing aid activates. This technology can be simply set up to contact friends, family, or emergency services in the event of a fall.
It’s not just your attention that improves when you wear your hearing aids. Your overall mental health gets better, also. When you begin to segregate yourself because you have a tough time hearing, a complex process of brain degeneration starts to occur. Your mood, self esteem, and general mental health will be significantly improved by wearing a hearing aid.
Get The Benefits Now Rather Than Later
So if you’ve noticed that your hearing has begun to diminish, there’s not much to gain from waiting. Both instant and also long lasting benefits are given by hearing aids. So contact our hearing care specialists and schedule a hearing examination right away.