(Monday to Friday 8.00 AM to 3.30 PM (PST))
Scroll for more categories
A human adult consists of around 206 bones and each bone is connected to each other by several joints which help in the movement of the body and several other vital functions and any damage to these interfere with our day to day activity. Joint pain increases the risk of multiple health issues and can causes severe unbearable pain if not treated on time.
To name a few major health issues are:
Causes and symptoms of common joint related problems
Various joint issues are a result of our dietary and lifestyle pattern while some joint pains occur due to ageing. There are still a few things that you can do to prevent the common joint related issues.
Myth 1 – All joint pain is arthritis.
Fact: Other conditions like tendonitis, bursitis or other soft-tissue injuries can also cause joint pain. Evaluation by a rheumatologist is the best way to know the right diagnosis and treatment.
Myth 2 – Rain and damp weather worsen arthritis.
Fact: Many people believe that a twinge in the knee or knuckle can predict rain, there’s no scientific evidence that dampness or humidity intensifies arthritis symptoms.
Myth 3 – Don’t get panic if your arthritis acts up.
Fact: Regular, sensible exercise helps to deal with arthritis, an arthritic joints requires short period of rest followed by a gradual return to activity. It’s important to maintain your strength and range of motion in your joints. You should consult with your doctor for beneficial exercises that’s gentler on the joints.
Myth 4 – Rum-soaked raisins, grapefruit, and eggplant or other “nightshade” vegetables are dietary cures for arthritis.
Fact: A change in diet has no effect on arthritis. Arthritis has no cure, but medications and lifestyle changes can effectively manage symptoms and permit normal activity.
Myth 5 – Ice is not much helpful than heat for sore joints.
Fact: Cold and heat both are useful for arthritis. Applying ice at night can give you relief with joint inflammation occurring from routine activities. Applying heat in the morning can relax the muscles that move stiff joints.
Myth 6 – Supplements like glucosamine benefit everyone with arthritis.
Fact: Glucosamine has been shown to benefit only a subset of people with osteoarthritis, possibly by stimulating the regrowth of worn-out cartilage. Experts suggest people to take glucosamine with chondroitin for three months to see if it makes any difference. If so, continue using it; if not than probably consult your dietician for taking another supplement.
Most of the disease can be diagnosed by the physician and for certain problems blood test can be done like for gout and arthritis.
Steps to improve health:
Important things to know:
There are a lot of preventive measures that you should take to prevent injuries and deficiency problems to bones. Always exercise under trained supervision. You can trust our website for buying various joint care products online, as they are cheaper and reliable products.
90 Capsule/s - US$23.70


Gang Investigation 101 combines a multitude of tasks and abilities necessary for today’s gang investigator to be successful. These abilities include:
- The ability to identify the signs of gangs at their inception. This includes Colors, Symbols, Graffiti, Gang Clothing, Speech and Terminology, Rituals, Initiations, etc…
- The ability to identify the negative effects of the gang on the community such as a decreased quality of life and community fear.
- The ability to identify all the criminal activities of the gang regardless of how minor they may be.
- The ability to understand ethnic and gang culture. Each gang has their own culture and their own ethnic culture. It is important to learn about both.
- The ability to successfully debrief gang members. Debriefing gang members is an important aspect of gang investigation. Every gang member has information and a good gang investigator takes every opportunity to obtain information.
- The ability to cultivate informants among gang members.
- The ability to successfully Interview and Interrogate gang members. Even though gang members can be some of the lowest human beings you’ll ever meet, they need to be interviewed and interrogated to obtain information and confessions.
- The ability to remain current on gang trends and issues. Training and networking must be a constant endeavor.
- The ability to work in a coordinated (synergy) close relationship with other agencies.
- The ability to work closely with a prosecutor and understand the law.
- The ability to work closely with the community. The community is a wealth of information and can provide resources to help combat gangs.
- The ability to network with other law enforcement officers, investigators, gang investigators, and other regions.
- The ability to train and communicate gang identification to your peers.
- The ability to communicate gang resistance to youth and members of the community.
Gang investigation is not as simplistic as other investigations because gangs involve many members and a constant source of recruits. Every gang investigation must be multifaceted and consider a variety of resources and disciplines to be successful. With the increasing popularity of ‘gangsters’ in the media, all law enforcement agencies must endeavor to combat gangs proactively.


This is an image of Mars.
Click on image for full size
The Climate of Mars
Unlike that of the Earth, the Martian climate is significantly influenced by the eccentricity of the Martian orbit. In spite of the significant influence the orbit plays on Martian climate over the years however, the primary factor determining the climate of Mars, has been the presence of water near the surface, or lack thereof.
On a cold planet, frozen water can be trapped within the ground, like the frozen tundra of the Earth. This ground water can be released in periodic episodes when Mars undergoes changes in climate.
This phenomena may explain the evidence for running water seen on the surface of Mars. In all likelihood, over the history of Mars, water has been continuously drawn from higher underground latitudes to lower underground latitudes. This phenomena has to do with the unusual global geography of Mars, which helps scientists piece together the nature of the Martian cryosphere, or topography of frozen ground.
Shop Windows to the Universe Science Store!
Our online store
includes fun classroom activities
for you and your students. Issues of NESTA's quarterly journal, The Earth Scientist
are also full of classroom activities on different topics in Earth and space science!
You might also be interested in:
The Martian climate is more influenced by the shape of the Martian orbit than the climate of the Earth is influenced by the shape of the Earth's orbit. The orbit of Mars is more elliptical than that of...more
The unusual global geography of Mars helps to explain the fact that water has been drawn from the southern hemisphere to the northern hemisphere of the planet through all of Martian history (that is, from...more
The Martian geography is one of high altitudes at high southern latitudes and low altitudes at low latitudes. The ground is less frozen at low latitudes because it is warmer and water can evaporate. Thus,...more
On this map of Mars, the lightly cratered Tharsis Ridge is shown, as well as the heavily cratered Martian highlands (near the bottom of the picture), and Valles Marineris to the right. The volcanoes are...more
Separate from the Martian outflow channels, or the river valley networks, are large Martian lakes (600 km, or ~1000 miles across) which exhibit evidence of a periodic and catastrophic release of water...more
This is an image of fog in a Martian canyon. The presence of fog provides evidence of water, and a water cycle on Mars. More fog has been seen in images returned by Mars Global Surveyor of the south polar...more
This is an image of a storm moving across the Martian terrain. The camera is looking down upon the storm and the storm front forms a spiral pattern, the same way terrestrial storms are presented on the...more
This is image of a Martian sunset illustrates just how thin the Martian atmosphere is. The terrestrial "blue sky" comes about because molecules of the atmosphere scatter sunlight. In this image, the Martian...more


This winter, the USS Constellation and USS Submarine Torsk were towed from the Inner Harbor and put in dry dock at the Sparrows Point Shipyard for much-needed repairs. The historic vessels are scheduled to return to the water in a few weeks, but before they do we have a chance to visit them and learn about the boats and how historic ships are repaired. Please join us and our tour guide, Mr. Christopher Rowsom, executive director of Historic Ships of Baltimore (which owns these and other historic vessels), on a tour to see the Constellation and Torsk in a way that not many do: from the underside up!
Sparrow’s Point Shipyard, 600 Shipyard Road, Edgemere, MD 21219
Saturday, March 5, 2011 | 9:30 to 11:00 AM
$10 for members; $20 for non-members
Register online today!
The tour is at the shipyard in Edgemere, about ½ hour from downtown. The Sparrows Point Shipyard is not open to the public and we will have to be escorted in through the main gate promptly at 9:30 AM.
With a displacement of 1265 tons and a length of 164 feet, the Constellation is not an easy boat to get out of the water. At 1800 tons and over 300 feet, the Torsk is even more of a challenge. This winter, the Sparrows Point Shipyard did just that, and hauled the two historic ships out of water for vital repairs. Rot and water damage had inflicted the Constellation, which was commissioned in 1855. This ship is actually the second to be called the Constellation, the first lasting from 1798 to 1853 before being dismantled in Virginia. During its 156 year history, this Constellation captured one of the first Confederate vessels in the Civil War, transported exhibits to France for the 1878 Paris Exposition, shipped relief supplies to Ireland in the 1880s, participated in the National Star Spangled Banner Centennial in 1914, and served as the relief flagship for the Atlantic Fleet in World War II. The enormously celebrated ship came to Baltimore in 1955, and after a decade of repairs, opened to the public in the revitalizing Inner Harbor in 1968.
The USS Submarine Torsk, while not as old, also has a storied history. It was commissioned in 1944 for World War II just as the Constellation was ending its active career. The Torsk operated out of the U.S. base at Pearl Harbor as an airplane guard vessel for U.S. bombing operations in Japan. In 1945, the Torsk sank two Japanese vessels in one day, the last enemy warships torpedoed in all of the war. The boat also operated as a training vessel out of the Navy Submarine School in New London Connecticut and then participated in the U.S. blockade of Cuba in 1962. It arrived in Baltimore in 1972 to serve as a museum and a memorial in the Inner Harbor. Both vessels are now part of Historic Ships of Baltimore, a non-profit organization that oversees several historic ships at the Inner Harbor.
Our tour guide, Mr. Christopher Rowsom, is the group’s executive director and is overseeing the current restoration work. Please join us and Mr. Rowsom as we explore the Constellation and Torsk and the craft of repairing extremely large historic vessels. (Historic Ships of Baltimore has pictures and information about the ongoing repairs on their Facebook Page to see more).


What will global warming do here?
To the editor:
The latest assessment of global climate change is quite sobering. Approximately 2,000 volunteer climate scientists appointed by the United Nations have examined 9,200 peer-reviewed studies on the earth’s climate and concluded that the science is 95 to 100-percent certain that humans are causing the earth to warm (www.IPCC.ch).
So what exactly does this mean for Minnesotans? What does this mean for us here in Alexandria? For one thing, it means that our walleye fisheries will be replaced by bass fisheries, and our cold-water fish like lake trout, whitefish, eelpout and cisco will be confined to a handful of lakes in the northeastern corner of the state.
The pine, spruce and fir forests that we’ve enjoyed visiting in northern Minnesota will be replaced with dry oak-savannah by 2100 and our wildlife like lynx, moose and pine martin will be forced further into Canada. It also means that our winter climate will shift to that currently in Illinois and our summers will be like they are in Kansas.
The unique north-like culture of Minnesota will be lost and the pride that we have as Minnesotans will no longer be felt by future generations.
The good news is there’s still time to change. Let’s be part of the solution, not the problem. Support a revenue-neutral carbon tax with proceeds returned to the public. It’s the best and perhaps only way to save our way of life here in Minnesota.
Patty Bracey, Citizen’s Climate Lobby


Pine nuts are the edible seeds of pine trees. Pine Trees grow wild in the forests and they do not need water or fertilizers to grow. The trees can live over 150 years.
The seeds are contained in kernels inside the pine tree cones. When the cones gets dry (sun dried), the kernels are shaken out of the cone and cracked to get the pine nuts. Harvesting the nuts is labor intensive that’s why they are generally more expensive than the other nuts.
Pine nuts have been used in Middle Eastern cuisine for thousands of years. They are either used raw, roasted or pan fried. They are mostly incorporated in stuffings (kebbeh, fatayer etc.), used as a garnish (Hommos with meat), with some drinks (Jellab) and in sauces (pesto sauce). They are also preserved in honey jars.
1.Appetite Suppressant: (Pinoleic acid)
Pine nuts contain “Pinoleic acid” that helps the stomach stimulate a hormone (the hormone is named: CCK) that act as an appetite suppressant (slows down rate of digestion and gives the feeling of full stomach).
2.Cholesterol Reduction: (Oleic acid)
Pine nuts contain “Oleic acid” that is a mono-saturated fat (a good fat, like olive oil) that helps reduce cholesterol and protects the arteries from damage (heart healthy).
3.Rich in Antioxidants
Pine nuts have high concentrations of antioxidants, which help protect the cells from free radical damage.
4.Decrease Muscle Cramps: (Magnesium)
Pine nuts contain “Magnesium” that helps in relieving muscle cramps, fatigue and tension.
Some people may be allergic to pine nuts.


Polyethylene and Polypropylene are so-called Polyolefins. They are produced in large amounts every year. Depending on the process and catalyst used linear or branched polymers can be produced. In case of e. g. Polyethylene there are at least three po more
Polyolefins: Determination of Molecular Weight and Branching Structure by GPC/SECG. Heinzmann, B. Tartsch,
Viscotek, a Malvern Company
Malvern Instruments GmbH
Polyethylene and Polypropylene are so-called Polyolefins. They are produced in large amounts every year. Depending on the process and catalyst used linear or branched polymers can be produced. In case of e. g. Polyethylene there are at least three polymer types: HDPE (High Density Polytheylene), LDPE (Low Density Polyethylene) and LLDPE (Linear Low Density Polytehylene). HDPE and LLDPE are made of linear or only slightly branched macromolecules with a high level of crystallinity. They form a dense structure in the final product. LDPE is made of highly branched molecules that form a final structure with low density due to a low degree of crystallinity. To analyse the different Polyethylene structures a High Temperature GPC/SEC-System is used with Triple Detection (Low Angle Light Scattering, Viscosity Detection and Refractive Index Detection). With such a system the molecular weight distribution and branching structure of polyolefins can be determined. Therefore it can easily be analysed what kind of structure a polyolefin sample has.
Read the complete article in German here .
Dynamic Light Scattering (DLS) is an established technique in the field of protein crystallography. DLS is used to measure hydrodynamic sizes, polydispersities and aggregation effects of protein samples. These are important parameters for the crystal more
Full automation of the Morphologi G3, using Standard Operating Procedures (SOP), eliminates any user bias inherent in manual microscopy methods more
The Morphologi® G3 automated particle characterization system from Malvern® Instruments is a new analytical tool that provides high quality, statistically significant particle size and shape information. New fully automated sample dispersion device A novel fully integrated dry powder disper ... more
A collaboration between Malvern Instruments and Bio-Radhas delivered new analytical tools for the rapid identification of unknown particles. New software to support Malvern’s Morphologi G3-ID, which analyzes particle size, shape and chemical composition, enables the direct comparison of mea ... more
Malvern Instruments has established a new biopharmaceutical applications laboratory in the heart of San Diego’s biotechnology cluster. The new laboratory will enable customers and Malvern applications specialists alike to experience and use Malvern’s range of specialist biophysical characte ... more
Malvern Instruments Ltd has announced that it has completed the acquisition of MicroCal from GE Healthcare Life Sciences and has also purchased the Archimedes particle characterization system from Affinity Biosensors LLC (Santa Barbara, CA). Both of these developments extend Malvern’s portf ... more
Thresholding, dilation, erosion, reporting - these are some of the terms used in image analysis. We'll explain some of the mathematics used in converting an image into size and shape information. more
Gel Permeation Chromatography (GPC), also known as Size Exclusion Chromatography (SEC), is a very popular analytical toll for characterizing natural and synthetic polymers. The introduction of the first differential Viscometer (Viscotek Model H100) back in the early 1980's provided a quantu ... more
Squeeze flow rheometry involves compressing a material between two parallel plates in order to determine its rheological properties. Squeeze flow measurements can be made with a rotational rheometer having suitable axial capabilities (normal force and gap control) such as Kinexus and can of ... more


First of all, I have my mother to thank for this post. Second of all, this post is about illness in children’s literature. My mom has a fever. She’ll recover. Wow, it feels awful to be saying thank you to her when she feels so bad. Well, it’s inspired me, what else can I say?
Everybody gets sick. It’s a sign that the body is not indestructible. Sometimes being sick can be as minor as having a cold, or it could be as serious as being in a coma. In children’s stories, there are several instances where people are sick, however there is always a comforting message and a peaceful resolution in the end: You will get better, or suffering no longer has to happen.
Children are exposed to sickness, and they do get sick, just like adults. They have lowered immune systems and while being sick is no fun; they need care and understanding that everything will be okay, even if they don’t feel great at the moment. “Miss Polly had a dolly” is a song about a doll who is sick. The doctor comes, and tells Miss Polly what to do to take care of it. Books about children being sick can help children understand a lot- once they understand why they get sick, it is a less frightening ordeal to go through.
The story of Madeline deals with being in the hospital. Madeline has to get her appendix taken out. She spends the night in the hospital, which is shown as an amusing place. “On her bed there was a crank, and a crack on the ceiling had the habit of sometimes looking like a rabbit.” (Bemelmans,) It is also seen as a fun experience as she receives visitors and they see what she has. “VISITORS FROM TWO TO FOUR read a sign outside her door. Tiptoeing with solemn face, with some flowers and a vase, in they walked and then said “Ahhh,” when they saw the toys and candy and the dollhouse from Papa. But the biggest surprise by far – on her stomach was a scar!” (Bemelmans,) It is a positive experience, up to the point where the other girls “want [their] appendix out too!” (Bemelmans, )
More common are books about children watching someone else who is sick. In the Magician’s Nephew, Digory defends himself when he is accused of ‘blubbering’, saying that others would cry too “if your mother was ill and was going to…die.” (Lewis, 10) It is acceptable to cry and to be worried and/or scared about the health of someone else. It is a normal reaction. The Magician’s nephew alludes to the story of Genesis in the Bible. Digory is tempted by the witch to give the apple to his mother as she says “One bite of that apple would heal her…Go back to your own world. A minute later you can be at your Mother’s bedside, giving her the fruit. Five minutes later you will see the colour coming back to her face. She will tell you the pain is gone. Soon she will tell you she feels stronger…Next day everyone will be saying how wonderfully she has recovered. Soon she will be quite well again. All will be well again.” (Lewis, 150) The Witch represents the Serpent, and the apple is forbidden. Digory can not save his mother; as he is told by Aslan that the apple “would have healed her; but not to your joy or hers. The day would have come when both you and she would have looked back and said it would have been better to die in that illness.” (Lewis, 163). If he had listened to the witch, his mother’s life would be worse. He has to accept that he is not able to heal his mother, it is up to fate to heal her. He is allowed to save her with the permission of Aslan “What I give you now will bring joy. It will not, in your world, give endless life but it will heal. Go. Pluck her an apple from the tree.'” (Lewis, 163) Aslan tells him that she will eventually die, as everyone has to, but she will get better from the illness she is suffering from at the moment. “There she lay, as he had seen her lie so many other times, propped up on the pillows, with a thin, pale face that would make you cry to look at it. Digory took the Apple of Life out of his pocket.” (Lewis, 166) The Apple is magical. It has power- but it only has power because Aslan has allowed Digory to take it. “The brightness of the apple threw strange lights on the ceiling. Nothing else was worth looking at: indeed you couldn’t look at anything else. And the smell of the Apple of Youth was as if there was a window in the room that opened on Heaven…He peeled it and cut it up and gave it to her piece by piece.” (Lewis, 167) The apple works, as “About a week after this it was quite certain that Digory’s mother was getting better…a month later the whole house had become a different place.” (Lewis, 169) and the doctor says that “It is like a miracle.” (Lewis, 168) Aslan has the power to make Digory’s mother stronger; Digory is able to help his mother though by delivering the apple. He has no control over her illness. He needs help from others to make his mother better.
Other times, the characters in children’s books can heal others. In Anne of Green Gables Anne helps her friend’s little sister. The adults are not at home, so they have to rely on Anne to help. “Minnie May, aged three, was really very sick. She lay on the kitchen sofa, feverish and restless, while her hoarse breathing could be heard all over the house. Young Mary Joe, a buxom, broad-faced French girl from the Creek, whom Mrs. Barry had engaged to stay with the children during her absence, was helpless and bewildered, quite incapable of thinking what to do, or doing it if she thought of it.” (Montgomery, 142) Anne has to take control, because the person who is supposed to be taking care of Minnie May and Diana doesn’t know what to do. Anne has experience looking after sick children, and nurses Minnie May back to health.”Minnie May did not take kindly to the ipecac, but Anne had not brought up three pairs of twins for nothing. Down the ipecac went, not only once, but many times during that long, anxious night when two little girls worked patiently over the suffering Minnie May, and Young Mary Joe, honestly anxious to do all she could, kept on a roaring fire and heated more water than would have been needed for a hospital of croupy babies.” (Montgomery, 143) She takes control, while Mary Joe, stays in the background. She tries to be helpful, but Anne is the only one who can look after Minnie in this situation. As a child, she has more knowledge and experience than an adult, and she is able to do the work, even when “Matthew came with the doctor…the pressing need for assistance was past. Minnie May was much better and was sleeping soundly.” (Montgomery, 143) She has experience and is able to use the experience she has to help Diana. Without Anne there, Minnie May would have died, as the doctor tells the Barry’s later. Even though she is a child, she was able to help when an adult was in a crisis.
Introducing sickness in children’s books can empower children. Once they realize that they can help to make someone sick feel comfortable, or that they may feel better soon if they are sick themselves, it is seen as just a part of life. Everybody gets sick, including children, but there are ways that they can get better, by going to the doctor, by taking care of themselves, and by trusting others who care about them to help them feel better.
(In the process of writing this post my mother recovered. I, however, have been suffering with a hacking cough. Just woke up and it was there. Throat hurts. Rather unfortunate-Well, at least I can follow my own advice and remind myself it will be over soon!)
IMAGES (In order of appearance. Everything else in alphabetical order.)
- Bemelmans, Ludwig. Madeline. [New York]: Puffin, 1977. Print.
- Lewis C.S The Magician’s Nephew Canada: Fontana Lions, 1980
- Montgomery, L. M. Anne of Green Gables. [Toronto]: Seal, 1996.
- Miss Polly Had a Dolly-Wiggles (Nursery Rhymes). Prod. Kids365tv. Perf. The Wiggles.YouTube. YouTube, 18 May 2011. Web. 04 Mar. 2013. <http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AG3EaIeU62Y>.
- Donada, Ryan K. “Genesis and The Magician’s Nephew.” Web log post. The Meta-Kafkasis. WordPress, 7 May 2012. Web. 17 Mar. 2013. <http://metakafkasis.wordpress.com/2012/05/07/genesis-and-the-magicians-nephew/>.


Baltic Sea aquatic life threatened by World War II-era chemical weapons
Finnish researchers said that toxins leaking from World War II-era chemical munitions may be poisoning nearby mussels and codfish. Testing is currently underway to determine the extent of the damage and whether the toxins found in marine life are chemical warfare agents or some other pollutant, according to HS.fi.
"Mussels which have been lying close to the dumping sites of chemical munitions are in a worse condition than those found elsewhere," Anu Lastumäki, a planner at the Finnish Environment Institute, said, HS.fi reports. "The mussels are stressed, in other words they have been in the water containing toxins or pollutants. So far it has not been possible to identify the toxins in question."
Scientists say there is a potentially huge poison bomb lying at the bottom of the Baltic Sea as a result of the tens of thousands of tons of hazardous substances dumped there at the end of the war. Corrosive gasses, arsenic compounds and nerve agent munitions were all sent to the bottom of the sea.
"The dumped munitions included, for example, bombs to be dropped from aircraft, naval mines, and barrels containing chemicals," Director of the Finnish Institute for Verification of the Chemical Weapons Convention Paula Vanninen said, HS.fi reports. "It can be estimated that some of them are leaking at this very moment, while some others will begin to leak in due course."
Some of the chemicals will ultimately decompose in the water or inside the aquatic life, but some can accumulate in the fatty tissue of fish that may ultimately be eaten by humans.


While many of the resources listed here are geared to the elementary classroom, there are also links relevant for college level students. A separate section of links to online essays provides additional materials of interest for the older student. For more ideas, see also the commentaries accompanying the Featured Folktales at this website.
“Animal Inn is an environmental education program designed to inform children and adults about the importance of dead and dying trees located in the forests, parks, and even in their own yards! Dead and dying trees support a wide variety of animals and plants.”
Forests Where We Live
Geared toward building skills in urban forestry. Excellent curriculum materials for all grades, K-12. Includes an accompanying hour long documentary and and a six part series for use in grades 6-12 classrooms.
National Arbor Day Foundation
Educational activites are one aspect of this national organization. Includes an annual poster contest around the theme of “Trees are Terrific, Inside and Out.”
Science of Dencrochronology Website
Comprehensive collection of materials related to tree rings and their study. Links to other tree ring sites, too. High school/college.
In connection with the Environmental Protection Agency, Shelburne Farms has developed some tree-related activities, including winter identification of twigs.
World Community of Old Trees
June Julian’s remarkable “Eco-art Project in Progress” focuses on tree-related art, with selections ranging from art history to contemporary selections. Includes a section for submissions from school children.


St. Kevin’s Kitchen (Church)
St. Kevin’s Church better known as St. Kevin’s Kitchen is a nave-and-chancel church of the 12th century. It is called St Kevin’s kitchen because people believed that the bell tower was a chimney to a kitchen but really no food was ever cooked there. This stone-roofed building originally had a nave only, with entrance at the west end and a small round-headed window in the east gable. The belfry with its conical cap and four small windows rises from the west end of the stone roof in the form of a miniature round tower.


Student’s function over written task is an essential part of the educative procedure.
Essay is not a difficult college student or school operate in comparison to school assignment or thesis. But, after all, producing an essay is an important part in the understanding method. Taking care of the essay, individuals increase abilities to produce more complicated functions. So you should learn to compose an essay effectively.
The abstract – a sort of published reviews, business presentation of tips, united by a typical theme, the systematization of these opinions and information, compilation and evaluation. Based on this classification, it really is obvious that in abstract you can’t just use a single source of information and facts, normally this could be an overview of a guide or article.lit review outline template It requires several sources. And final results of your tests and observations are incredibly encouraged. Main investigation approaches in biology are: nature observation, vacationing, trips, tests, practical operate.
Student’s analysis operate preceding writing of the essay in biology.
When we are discussing biology, the place of doing the tests can get a aviator location with the institution or even the experimental farm of higher and additional educational facilities.
Unfortunately, modern individuals of educational institutions typically are reluctant to work on the experimental plot. And that is wrongly .
Academic and research work together with plants and animals makes it possible to effectively consolidate the theoretical knowledge. On experimental plots plants and flowers are developed and experiments on increasing output are executed, seeking for the very best conditions of increasing, grafting, education, etc. College student who usually spends quite a long time in assorted experience, varieties robust-willed attributes:
- capability to provide the truth for the conclusion;
- to blame for his own commitments.
However it is challenging to obtain outcome of experience of biological experiments. This can be constantly an incredibly long method. And will also be more valuable if, even so, the result of practical experience was from your own experimental function. To present a good example of this kind of expertise in the abstract – is an extremely huge as well as to value of this function.
As for issues for biology papers, there is an huge industry of process. You may already know, biology will be the frequent good name for a number of smaller sized Sciences. Biology contains these portions:
- human anatomy;
- ecology and environment security.
Biology is exciting to anyone, simply because it’s subject matter of examine – all living issues and man himself.
Each of these sections symbolizes a separate scientific research, and all together produce a intriquing, notable and diverse scientific research biology. If subject matter in the essay is not really particularly established through the trainer, college student can discover numerous related issues that he or she would like to learn and check out in detail and blog about this in essay.
Fascination with the niche that examined is an important part of successful producing of the essay. Without it one particular seldom can create an essay that may fascination individuals and are entitled to appreciation from trainer.
Continue to it really is necessary to say couple of words and phrases with regards to a used literature. The most convenient and most pleasant approach to collection of places – the Internet. But we have to look for not only information on a given topic, but finding electrical versions of textbooks and content articles from scientific magazines. These kinds of info is going to be truly authentic. In addition, it is important that these details is going to be clean and appropriate. You should observe the 12 months of distribution of textbooks along with the particular date of distribution of articles which are supposed to be quoted and applied like a source of details.


Dr G Srinivaulu MD(Hom)
Adoption of p.b.l. concept for holistic learning
“If I hear I forget, if I see I may remember, if I do all by myself with involvement & interaction I will remember it forever” – Chinese Educationist.
The art of learning is as old as the human civilization. Every era has witnessed a steady growth in the field of education at different levels. The primary, secondary and tertiary (higher) education is the three-tier method of imparting education all over the world. Now-a-days education is starting with the womb and ending with the tomb.
This continuous process of education is leading to quantitative expansion at the expense of quality. Medical education in particular seems to have begun during the Hippocrates Era and has passed thorough several centuries and attained a scientific outlook in the present Human Genome Era (HGE). There is a tremendous growth in the infrastructure of education, research and health care delivery system, each one influencing the other in the development of medicine.
MEDICAL EDUCATION: NEW TRENDS: Learning the smart way:
In order to prepare a student for a definite purpose of prevention, promotion, cure and rehabilitation of the sick, a holistic module of training is needed. This is the aim of our earliest medical teachers from the Stone age to the present Space age. The Science & Art of medical education has fascinated several people in incorporating some techniques in this field. One among such new technique is the problem based learning (PB.L Medical teachers are well ware of the patient oriented teaching (P.O.T) at the bed side on the lines of teachings of Hippocrates. But in the present era we have to blend traditional methods with the new concepts for better results.
EDINBURG DECLARATION : Aims of Medical Education:
The later part of 20 Century has witnessed enormous growth & development in the fields of Science, Technology and Medicine. Medical Education has been considered as a top priority in the 218t Century. The Edinburgh Declaration of August 1998 includes improvements within the medical schools to “Train teachers as Educators, not sole experts in content, and reward educational excellence as fully as excellence in biomedical research or clinical practice.”
1.The primary aim of the undergraduate courses is for the student to acquire understanding of health and disease, and of the prevention and management of the latter, in the context of the whole individual in his or her places in the family and in society.
2.The second main aim is to develop an attitude to learning i.e., based on curiosity and the exploration of knowledge rather than its passive acquisition.
3.Reduction of the excessive burden of information in the existing undergraduate course.
4.Introduction of substantial component of problem based learning.
5.A clinical component in which students have direct contact with patients and with the analysis of their problems through out the five and half years of the course
6.An understanding of the basic research methodology.
HOMOEOPATHIC EDUCATION: NEW HORIZONS:
Medical Education Technology (M.E.T) has contributed a lot towards improving medical education in India. The Central Council of Homoeopathy (C.C.H) emphatically stated that “Teachers’ training is emerging as a powerful and efficient tool for improving the quality of education & it is committed to support all initiatives to usher quality into homoeopathic education’
The concept of teacher training has gained ground in the medical education field in general and Homoeopathy in particular, during the past few years. There is a great need to incorporate the new Anthological techniques (Adult learning) being adopted and implemented by mainstream medicine into our medicine. Training the teachers in the practice of higher education & sensitizing them to transform practices for the needs of learner benefit is a task that needs to be accorded a high priority.
QUALITY EDUCATION Several Steps away:
Quality of education at higher levels is more important than mere quantitative expansion. It is often said that quality of higher education in the country is deteriorating with quantitative expansion. The quality of education of a student depends on various factors like the teaching to which he is exposed, the educational facilities and environment available in the institution of his study and his own temperament and approach to studies. So to determine the quality of education of a student the factors mentioned above have to be considered. The teachers’ have to grow beyond the traditional concept of chalk & talk method of teaching.
MODERNIZING HOMOEOPATHIC EDUCATION: P.B.L. WAY:
The objectives of the Teaching Learning Process (T.L.P) is to bring about definite changes in the behavior of the learner which are indicative of his achievement. To elaborate this point, learning is said to have taken place only when the learner is able to perform certain (may be choosing a drug, inserting a catheter, applying bandage,problem solving etc.,) which hé could not do prior to the instructional process. Many method innovative techniques have been evolved with the passage of time towards realising this single objective: learner centered approach; individualized instructions, tutorials, seminar methods, small and large group discussions and interactions; team teachings; question-answer techniques; creative objects; computer assisted learning; computer managed instructions; syndicate sessions; plenary sessions and so on. Each technique has a scope in one particular area of education or the other.
P.B.L. – A HOLISTIC CONCEPT IN EDUCATION: a tool and technique
The Problem Based Learning is one among the techniques devised by psycho – logists and educationists to realise the goals of education. The P.B.L. Concept in medical education is known to every medical teacher unconsciously and has never made a conscious attempt in making this technique as a chief tool in imparting clinical skills to his student. If this new tool and technique is imparted in a systematic way one can certainly witness a paradigm shift in the quality of medial education in general and Homoeopathy in particular.
HISTORY OF P.B.L EXPLOSION:
The use of problem-based learning in medical education and other educational settings has escalated. What once was considered a “fringe” innovation has become much more main stream. Problem-based learning (PBL) in medical education began with the Faculty of Medicine at McMaster University in Canada in the mid 1960’s. Soon after, three other medical schools – the University of Limburg at Maastricht in the Netherlands, the University of Newcastle in Australia, and the University of New Mexico in the United States – adapted the McMaster model of problem-based learning and developed their own spheres of influence in addition to the “mecca” at McMaster A variation of problem-based learning at Michigan State University called “focal problems” antedated some of these efforts, but did not develop “followers” as did the McMaster model From these four institutions sprang one of the more important educational movements of this century.
The educational significance is that, unlike other important innovations, such as organ-based” curricula or “interdisciplinary” courses, the use of problem-based learning in medical school incorporated goals for students that are much broader than the acquisition & application of content. Indeed, PBL is expected to influence the “whole” student, or, at least, many aspects of the students’ learning experience. There is so much that is different about a PBL curriculum as contrasted with the curriculum model of the previous decades that any real movement to PBL would have to be considered a paradigm shift”, implying a very different way of providing, medical education.
From the origin at McMaster thirty years ago where the model for student-centered, problem-based, small-group learning took shape, adoption of PBL at other medical schools experienced a slow, though gradual increase through the 1970’s and 1980’s. Now, however, we are seeing an explosion in the use of PBL in its various adaptations. Today, most US medical schools and many in almost every country of the world are implementing (or are planning to implement) PBL in their curricula to a greater or lesser extent
Health University : Healthy Trends in Medical Education
The premier N.T.R. University of Health Sciences, A.P., had organized an international conference on Medical Education & Technology from 18-20, January, 200 at Hyderabad, in collaboration with South Illinois University school of medicine, US, W.H.O & Medical Council of India. Eminent speakers have reiterated the need ft introduction of P.B.L. method in medical education. Several studies have shown significant increase in the quality of skills, long-term memory and pass percentages etc., All these studies have validated PBL as an effective and thought providing educational method. It is high time that the Central Council of Homoeopathy (C.C.H sees the potential of PBL and seriously considers its implementation.
WHAT IS P.B.L? Learning through doing:
P.B.L.is an approach to learning and instruction in which students tackle problems in small groups under the supervision of a teacher/tutor. Most problems consist of a description of a set of phenomena or events that can be perceived in reality. These phenomena have to be explained by the tutorial group in terms of their underlying principles, mechanisms or processes. This approach is considered a systematic approach or attempt to apply findings of cognitive psychology to educational practice This also indicates that competence is fostered not primarily by teaching to import knowledge, but through encouraging an inquisitive style of learning. This style of learning is assumed to foster increased retention of knowledge, improve students’ general problem solving skills, enhance integration of basic science concepts into clinical problems, booster the development of self-directed learning and skills strengthening students’ intrinsic motivation.
Therefore, PBL as an instructional approach can be characterized as a collection of carefully constructed problems presented to small groups of students. These problems usually consists of a description of a set of real-life phenomena that are in need of some kind of explanation.
Thus, PBL, by virtue of its nature brings about student or learner-centered activity which emphasizes on “strategic enquiry”. It facilitates “self directed learning”. It also brings in an integrated approach to learning and internal motivation. Many educational institutions have blended PBL with their traditional curriculum as science & art are blended for better results.
AIMS & OBJECTIVES OF P.B.L:
I .To make Medical Education more relevant to the needs of society.
2. To integrate Basic Science Teaching & Clinical Education for Clinical problem solving.
3. To make teachers as facilitators rather than spoon-feeders.
4. To enable students to achieve problem solving skills.
5. To make teaching-learning a two way active phenomena.
P.B.L. Remedies for maladies of Medical Education:
I. Enhances clinical reasoning: Doubts lead to Discoveries:
The traditional didactic teaching emphasizes knowledge accumulation while assuming that clinical reasoning is a skill which the student must acquire on his own. PBL becomes an effective method of enhancing the students critical deductive skills and applying basic science knowledge to clinical reasoning.
2.Knowledge Acquisition: Teacher as a Catalyst:
Today’s teacher has to evolve into an information manager than information provider. They should use methods to promote active learning faced with an information explosion the medical curriculum is ever expanding its knowledge base. To convey Entire information through teachers is not feasible. It becomes important that the student is taught the skills of knowledge acquisition and self directed learning. PBL helps students to identify their learning needs and how best the information can be acquired.
Small group environment also provides scope for informal peer evaluation & improving communication skills. However farther our medical researchers proceed, whatever sophisticated approach we adopt in medical field, one day or other the common student and his environment is to be cared & viewed.
CRITICISM & SKEPTICISM: Deviating from the traditional methods of teaching?
What is the change? Why should there be a change? How to change? Whom to change? How fast can we change? Is it practicable? Can it be the persistent change? Will it work in my field of Organon of Medicine/Materia Medica / Medicine etc., Is it worth making an attempt? All questions either with curiosity or contempt for new concepts. All genuine doubts lead to discoveries and inventions. So is the case with education. The best way is Hahnemann’s technique of self experimentation or Human Pathogenic Trials (H.P.T or Proving). The results will decide the course of action. Perhaps the best way to answer all our queries on P.B.L. is proving it on our pupils for its positive effects.
PBL is an innovation which has definitely caught on in medical schools in Canada, USA, Pakistan, Nepal & in India in certain universities & in numerous settings. This androgogical technique would be tremendously useful in imparting Homoeopathic Medical Education. This logical and wholistic tool can be better utilized for better understanding of our system The interrelationship and intricacies of MAN, MALADY and MEDICINE can be better correlated and comprehended through PBL way of Medical Education
Michael de Mantaigne says, “whenever a discovery is reported to the scientific world, they say first, it is probably not true. There after when the truth of the new proposition has been demonstrated beyond question, they say, yes it may be true, but I. it is not important, finally, when significant time has elapsed to fully evidence its importance, they say, yes, surely it is important, but it is no longer new’. This is what exactly is happening to the principles of Homoeopathy & Homoeopathic Medical Education. For want of scientific in formation we ignore several important things in our life. It is the science which has to evolve to reconfirm the truth but not the other way.
Teaching is a noble job, for the teacher has to give more than he receives & what he gives is priceless. “Education is not filling up a pail, but is very definitely lighting up a candle in a dark room.
May Homoeopathic Educationists keep their heart & mind open for new concepts, techniques, and methods and implement them for the advancement of Homoeopathic Education. May Homoeopathic Medical Education flourish & grow from good to better and better to best in terms of quality and meet the challenges of the 21St Century in the field of medicine.
The National Homoeopathic Postgraduates Scientific conference would open a new chapter in the history of Homoeopathic Medical Education by setting new goals and in redefining the purpose & plan of postgraduate homoeopathic medical education. May Homoeopathic Medical Education grow from strength to strength and preserve the Hahnemann’s legacy, dreams and aspirations in its pristine purity.
I .Ananthanarayanan, RH., Problem – Based Learning, Medical Education Principles & Practice, 2000.
2.Gwendie Camp, Problem Based Learning: A paradigm shift or a passing fad? The University of Texas Medical Branch Bulletin, Oct’2002.
3.Pragna Rao, Problem Based Learning in Medical Education Time to make a beginning, Proceedings of International Conference on Medical Education & Technology Jan 2002, Hyderabad.
4.Munir Ahmed , Exploring Homoeopathic Education, Sept,2002.
5.Lalit Verma, Exploring Homoeopathic Education, Sept2002.
6.Sastry, G.LN, Tryst with destiny, 1999, Hyderabad.
7.Prasant, N.S. Guidelines for Qualitative Education and N.A.A.C. Accreditation, August 2000
8.K. Subramanyam, Quality Control in Higher Learning, The HINDU speaks on education, pages 76-81.
9.Naik, S.R. Better Scientific Communication, New Delhi, 1988.
I0.Eswar Das, Future Trends in Homoeopathic Education, Homoeopathic Teachers’ Seminar, Sep 2002, New Delhi
All rights reserved @ similima


The site to which the effector binds is termed the allosteric site or regulatory site. Allosteric sites allow effectors to bind to the protein, often resulting in a conformational change involving protein dynamics. Effectors that enhance the protein's activity are referred to as allosteric activators, whereas those that decrease the protein's activity are called allosteric inhibitors.
Allosteric regulations are a natural example of control loops, such as feedback from downstream products or feedforward from upstream substrates. Long-range allostery is especially important in cell signaling. Allosteric regulation is also particularly important in the cell's ability to adjust enzyme activity.
The term allostery comes from the Ancient Greek allos (ἄλλος), "other", and stereos (στερεὀς), "solid (object)". This is in reference to the fact that the regulatory site of an allosteric protein is physically distinct from its active site.
Many allosteric effects can be explained by the concerted MWC model put forth by Monod, Wyman, and Changeux, or by the sequential model described by Koshland, Nemethy, and Filmer. Both postulate that protein subunits exist in one of two conformations, tensed (T) or relaxed (R), and that relaxed subunits bind substrate more readily than those in the tense state. The two models differ most in their assumptions about subunit interaction and the preexistence of both states. For proteins in which subunits exist in more than two conformations, the allostery landscape model described by Cuendet, Weinstein, and LeVine, can be used.
The concerted model of allostery, also referred to as the symmetry model or MWC model, postulates that enzyme subunits are connected in such a way that a conformational change in one subunit is necessarily conferred to all other subunits. Thus, all subunits must exist in the same conformation. The model further holds that, in the absence of any ligand (substrate or otherwise), the equilibrium favors one of the conformational states, T or R. The equilibrium can be shifted to the R or T state through the binding of one ligand (the allosteric effector or ligand) to a site that is different from the active site (the allosteric site).
The sequential model of allosteric regulation holds that subunits are not connected in such a way that a conformational change in one induces a similar change in the others. Thus, all enzyme subunits do not necessitate the same conformation. Moreover, the sequential model dictates that molecules of a substrate bind via an induced fit protocol. While such an induced fit converts a subunit from the tensed state to relaxed state, it does not propagate the conformational change to adjacent subunits. Instead, substrate-binding at one subunit only slightly alters the structure of other subunits so that their binding sites are more receptive to substrate. To summarize:
- subunits need not exist in the same conformation
- molecules of substrate bind via induced-fit protocol
- conformational changes are not propagated to all subunits
A morpheein is a homo-oligomeric structure that can exist as an ensemble of physiologically significant and functionally different alternate quaternary assemblies. Transitions between alternate morpheein assemblies involve oligomer dissociation, conformational change in the dissociated state, and reassembly to a different oligomer. The required oligomer disassembly step differentiates the morpheein model for allosteric regulation from the classic MWC and KNF models.
Porphobilinogen synthase (PBGS) is the prototype morpheein.
Ensemble models of allosteric regulation enumerate an allosteric system's statistical ensemble as a function of its potential energy function, and then relate specific statistical measurements of allostery to specific energy terms in the energy function (such as an intermolecular salt bridge between two domains). Ensemble models like the ensemble allosteric model and allosteric Ising model assume that each domain of the system can adopt two states similar to the MWC model. The allostery landscape model introduced by Cuendet, Weinstein, and LeVine allows for the domains to have any number of states and the contribution of a specific molecular interaction to a given allosteric coupling can be estimated using a rigorous set of rules. Molecular dynamics simulations can be used to estimate a system's statistical ensemble so that it can be analyzed with the allostery landscape model.
Allosteric modulation is used to alter the activity of molecules and enzymes in biochemistry and pharmacology. For comparison, a typical drug is made to bind to the active site of an enzyme which thus prohibits binding of a substrate to that enzyme causing a decrease in enzyme activity. Allosteric modulation occurs when an effector binds to an allosteric site (also known as a regulatory site) of an enzyme and alters the enzyme activity. Allosteric modulators are designed to fit the allosteric site to cause a conformational change of the enzyme, in particular a change in the shape of the active site, which then causes a change in its activity. In contrast to typical drugs, modulators are not competitive inhibitors. They can be positive (activating) causing an increase of the enzyme activity or negative (inhibiting) causing a decrease of the enzyme activity. The use of allosteric modulation allows the control of the effects of specific enzyme activities; as a result, allosteric modulators are very effective in pharmacology. In a biological system, allosteric modulation can be difficult to distinguish from modulation by substrate presentation.
Energy sensing model
An example of this model is seen with the Mycobacterium tuberculosis, a bacterium that is perfectly suited to adapt to living in the macrophages of humans. The enzyme's sites serve as a communication between different substrates. Specifically between AMP and G6P. Sites like these also serve as a sensing mechanism for the enzyme's performance.
Positive allosteric modulation (also known as allosteric activation) occurs when the binding of one ligand enhances the attraction between substrate molecules and other binding sites. An example is the binding of oxygen molecules to hemoglobin, where oxygen is effectively both the substrate and the effector. The allosteric, or "other", site is the active site of an adjoining protein subunit. The binding of oxygen to one subunit induces a conformational change in that subunit that interacts with the remaining active sites to enhance their oxygen affinity. Another example of allosteric activation is seen in cytosolic IMP-GMP specific 5'-nucleotidase II (cN-II), where the affinity for substrate GMP increases upon GTP binding at the dimer interface.
Negative allosteric modulation (also known as allosteric inhibition) occurs when the binding of one ligand decreases the affinity for substrate at other active sites. For example, when 2,3-BPG binds to an allosteric site on hemoglobin, the affinity for oxygen of all subunits decreases. This is when a regulator is absent from the binding site.
Another example is strychnine, a convulsant poison, which acts as an allosteric inhibitor of the glycine receptor. Glycine is a major post-synaptic inhibitory neurotransmitter in mammalian spinal cord and brain stem. Strychnine acts at a separate binding site on the glycine receptor in an allosteric manner; i.e., its binding lowers the affinity of the glycine receptor for glycine. Thus, strychnine inhibits the action of an inhibitory transmitter, leading to convulsions.
Another instance in which negative allosteric modulation can be seen is between ATP and the enzyme phosphofructokinase within the negative feedback loop that regulates glycolysis. Phosphofructokinase (generally referred to as PFK) is an enzyme that catalyses the third step of glycolysis: the phosphorylation of fructose-6-phosphate into fructose 1,6-bisphosphate. PFK can be allosterically inhibited by high levels of ATP within the cell. When ATP levels are high, ATP will bind to an allosteoric site on phosphofructokinase, causing a change in the enzyme's three-dimensional shape. This change causes its affinity for substrate (fructose-6-phosphate and ATP) at the active site to decrease, and the enzyme is deemed inactive. This causes glycolysis to cease when ATP levels are high, thus conserving the body's glucose and maintaining balanced levels of cellular ATP. In this way, ATP serves as a negative allosteric modulator for PFK, despite the fact that it is also a substrate of the enzyme.
A homotropic allosteric modulator is a substrate for its target enzyme, as well as a regulatory molecule of the enzyme's activity. It is typically an activator of the enzyme. For example, O2 and CO are homotropic allosteric modulators of hemoglobin. Likewise, in IMP/GMP specific 5' nucleotidase, binding of one GMP molecule to a single subunit of the tetrameric enzyme leads to increased affinity for GMP by the subsequent subunits as revealed by sigmoidal substrate versus velocity plots.
A heterotropic allosteric modulator is a regulatory molecule that is not the enzyme's substrate. It may be either an activator or an inhibitor of the enzyme. For example, H+, CO2, and 2,3-bisphosphoglycerate are heterotropic allosteric modulators of hemoglobin. Once again, in IMP/GMP specific 5' nucleotidase, binding of GTP molecule at the dimer interface in the tetrameric enzyme leads to increased affinity for substrate GMP at the active site indicating towards K-type heterotropic allosteric activation.
As has been amply highlighted above, some allosteric proteins can be regulated by both their substrates and other molecules. Such proteins are capable of both homotropic and heterotropic interactions.
Some allosteric activators are referred to as "essential", or "obligate" activators, in the sense that in their absence, the activity of their target enzyme activity is very low or negligible, as is the case with N-acetylglutamate's activity on carbamoyl phosphate synthetase I, for example.
A non-regulatory allosteric site is any non-regulatory component of an enzyme (or any protein), that is not itself an amino acid. For instance, many enzymes require sodium binding to ensure proper function. However, the sodium does not necessarily act as a regulatory subunit; the sodium is always present and there are no known biological processes to add/remove sodium to regulate enzyme activity. Non-regulatory allostery could comprise any other ions besides sodium (calcium, magnesium, zinc), as well as other chemicals and possibly vitamins.
Allosteric modulation of a receptor results from the binding of allosteric modulators at a different site (a "regulatory site") from that of the endogenous ligand (an "active site") and enhances or inhibits the effects of the endogenous ligand. Under normal circumstances, it acts by causing a conformational change in a receptor molecule, which results in a change in the binding affinity of the ligand. In this way, an allosteric ligand modulates the receptor's activation by its primary orthosteric ligand, and can be thought to act like a dimmer switch in an electrical circuit, adjusting the intensity of the response.
For example, the GABAA receptor has two active sites that the neurotransmitter gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) binds, but also has benzodiazepine and general anaesthetic agent regulatory binding sites. These regulatory sites can each produce positive allosteric modulation, potentiating the activity of GABA. Diazepam is an positive allosteric modulator at the benzodiazepine regulatory site, and its antidote flumazenil is an antagonist.
Allosteric sites as drug targets
Allosteric sites may represent a novel drug target. There are a number of advantages in using allosteric modulators as preferred therapeutic agents over classic orthosteric ligands. For example, G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) allosteric binding sites have not faced the same evolutionary pressure as orthosteric sites to accommodate an endogenous ligand, so are more diverse. Therefore, greater GPCR selectivity may be obtained by targeting allosteric sites. This is particularly useful for GPCRs where selective orthosteric therapy has been difficult because of sequence conservation of the orthosteric site across receptor subtypes. Also, these modulators have a decreased potential for toxic effects, since modulators with limited co-operativity will have a ceiling level to their effect, irrespective of the administered dose. Another type of pharmacological selectivity that is unique to allosteric modulators is based on co-operativity. An allosteric modulator may display neutral co-operativity with an orthosteric ligand at all subtypes of a given receptor except the subtype of interest, which is termed "absolute subtype selectivity". If an allosteric modulator does not possess appreciable efficacy, it can provide another powerful therapeutic advantage over orthosteric ligands, namely the ability to selectively tune up or down tissue responses only when the endogenous agonist is present. Oligomer-specific small molecule binding sites are drug targets for medically relevant morpheeins.
Synthetic allosteric systems
There are many synthetic compounds containing several noncovalent binding sites, which exhibit conformational changes upon occupation of one site. Cooperativity between single binding contributions in such supramolecular systems is positive if occupation of one binding site enhances the affinity ΔG at a second site, and negative if the affinity isn't highered. Most synthetic allosteric complexes rely on conformational reorganization upon the binding of one effector ligand which then leads to either enhanced or weakened association of second ligand at another binding site. Conformational coupling between several binding sites is in artificial systems usually much larger than in proteins with their usually larger flexibility. The parameter which determines the efficiency (as measured by the ratio of equilibrium constants Krel = KA(E)/KA in presence and absence of an effector E ) is the conformational energy needed to adopt a closed or strained conformation for the binding of a ligand A.
In many multivalent supramolecular systems direct interaction between bound ligands can occur, which can lead to large cooperativities. Most common is such a direct interaction between ions in receptors for ion-pairs. This cooperatitiy is often also referred to as allostery, even though conformational changes here are not necessarily triggering binding events.
Allostery is a direct and efficient means for regulation of biological macromolecule function, produced by the binding of a ligand at an allosteric site topographically distinct from the orthosteric site. Due to the often high receptor selectivity and lower target-based toxicity, allosteric regulation is also expected to play an increasing role in drug discovery and bioengineering. The AlloSteric Database (ASD, http://mdl.shsmu.edu.cn/ASD) provides a central resource for the display, search and analysis of the structure, function and related annotation for allosteric molecules. Currently, ASD contains allosteric proteins from more than 100 species and modulators in three categories (activators, inhibitors, and regulators). Each protein is annotated with detailed description of allostery, biological process and related diseases, and each modulator with binding affinity, physicochemical properties and therapeutic area. Integrating the information of allosteric proteins in ASD should allow the prediction of allostery for unknown proteins, to be followed with experimental validation. In addition, modulators curated in ASD can be used to investigate potential allosteric targets for a query compound, and can help chemists to implement structure modifications for novel allosteric drug design.
Allosteric residues and their prediction
Not all protein residues play equally important roles in allosteric regulation. The identification of residues that are essential to allostery (so-called “allosteric residues”) has been the focus of many studies, especially within the last decade. In part, this growing interest is a result of their general importance in protein science, but also because allosteric residues may be exploited in biomedical contexts. Pharmacologically important proteins with difficult-to-target sites may yield to approaches in which one alternatively targets easier-to-reach residues that are capable of allosterically regulating the primary site of interest. These residues can broadly be classified as surface- and interior-allosteric amino acids. Allosteric sites at the surface generally play regulatory roles that are fundamentally distinct from those within the interior; surface residues may serve as receptors or effector sites in allosteric signal transmission, whereas those within the interior may act to transmit such signals.
- ASD database
- Competitive inhibition
- Cooperative binding
- Enzyme kinetics
- Protein dynamics
- Receptor theory
- Srinivasan B, Forouhar F, Shukla A, Sampangi C, Kulkarni S, Abashidze M, Seetharaman J, Lew S, Mao L, Acton TB, Xiao R, Everett JK, Montelione GT, Tong L, Balaram H (March 2014). "Allosteric regulation and substrate activation in cytosolic nucleotidase II from Legionella pneumophila". The FEBS Journal. 281 (6): 1613–1628. doi:10.1111/febs.12727. PMC 3982195. PMID 24456211.
- Bu Z, Callaway DJ (2011). "Proteins move! Protein dynamics and long-range allostery in cell signaling". Protein Structure and Diseases. Advances in Protein Chemistry and Structural Biology. 83. pp. 163–221. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-381262-9.00005-7. ISBN 9780123812629. PMID 21570668.
- Monod J, Wyman J, Changeux JP (May 1965). "On the nature of allosteric transitions:A plausible model". Journal of Molecular Biology. 12: 88–118. doi:10.1016/s0022-2836(65)80285-6. PMID 14343300.
- Koshland DE, Némethy G, Filmer D (January 1966). "Comparison of experimental binding data and theoretical models in proteins containing subunits". Biochemistry. 5 (1): 365–85. doi:10.1021/bi00865a047. PMID 5938952.
- Cuendet MA, Weinstein H, LeVine MV (December 2016). "The Allostery Landscape: Quantifying Thermodynamic Couplings in Biomolecular Systems". Journal of Chemical Theory and Computation. 12 (12): 5758–5767. doi:10.1021/acs.jctc.6b00841. PMC 5156960. PMID 27766843.
- Jaffe EK (September 2005). "Morpheeins--a new structural paradigm for allosteric regulation". Trends in Biochemical Sciences. 30 (9): 490–7. doi:10.1016/j.tibs.2005.07.003. PMID 16023348.
- Motlagh HN, Wrabl JO, Li J, Hilser VJ (April 2014). "The ensemble nature of allostery". Nature. 508 (7496): 331–9. doi:10.1038/nature13001. PMC 4224315. PMID 24740064.
- Hilser VJ, Wrabl JO, Motlagh HN (2012). "Structural and energetic basis of allostery". Annual Review of Biophysics. 41: 585–609. doi:10.1146/annurev-biophys-050511-102319. PMC 3935618. PMID 22577828.
- LeVine MV, Weinstein H (May 2015). "AIM for Allostery: Using the Ising Model to Understand Information Processing and Transmission in Allosteric Biomolecular Systems". Entropy. 17 (5): 2895–2918. doi:10.3390/e17052895. PMC 4652859. PMID 26594108.
- Abdel-Magid AF (February 2015). "Allosteric modulators: an emerging concept in drug discovery". ACS Medicinal Chemistry Letters. 6 (2): 104–7. doi:10.1021/ml5005365. PMC 4329591. PMID 25699154.
- Allosteric pyruvate kinase-based "logic gate" synergistically senses energy and sugar levels in Mycobacterium tuberculosis Wenhe Zhong, Liang Cui, Boon Chong Goh, Qixu Cai, Peiying Ho, Yok Hian Chionh, Meng Yuan, Abbas El Sahili, Linda A. Fothergill-Gilmore, Malcolm D. Walkinshaw, Julien Lescar & Peter C. Dedon http://rdcu.be/A44I
- Edelstein SJ (1975). "Cooperative interactions of hemoglobin". Annual Review of Biochemistry. 44: 209–32. doi:10.1146/annurev.bi.44.070175.001233. PMID 237460.
- Shi D, Allewell NM, Tuchman M (June 2015). "The N-Acetylglutamate Synthase Family: Structures, Function and Mechanisms". International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 16 (6): 13004–22. doi:10.3390/ijms160613004. PMC 4490483. PMID 26068232.
- de Cima S, Polo LM, Díez-Fernández C, Martínez AI, Cervera J, Fita I, Rubio V (November 2015). "Structure of human carbamoyl phosphate synthetase: deciphering the on/off switch of human ureagenesis". Scientific Reports. 5 (1): 16950. doi:10.1038/srep16950. PMC 4655335. PMID 26592762.
- A. Christopoulos, L.T. May, V.A. Avlani and P.M. Sexton (2004) G protein-coupled receptor allosterism:the promise and the problem(s). Biochemical Society Transactions Volume 32, part 5
- May LT, Leach K, Sexton PM, Christopoulos A (2007). "Allosteric modulation of G protein-coupled receptors". Annual Review of Pharmacology and Toxicology. 47: 1–51. doi:10.1146/annurev.pharmtox.47.120505.105159. PMID 17009927.
- Jaffe EK (2010). "Morpheeins – A New Pathway for Allosteric Drug Discovery~!2010-02-12~!2010-05-21~!2010-06-08~!". The Open Conference Proceedings Journal. 1: 1–6. doi:10.2174/2210289201001010001. PMC 3107518. PMID 21643557.
- Takeuchi M, Ikeda M, Sugasaki A, Shinkai S (November 2001). "Molecular design of artificial molecular and ion recognition systems with allosteric guest responses". Accounts of Chemical Research. 34 (11): 865–73. doi:10.1021/ar0000410. PMID 11714258.
- Kremer C, Lützen A (May 2013). "Artificial allosteric receptors". Chemistry. 19 (20): 6162–96. doi:10.1002/chem.201203814. PMID 23463705.
- Kovbasyuk L, Krämer R (June 2004). "Allosteric supramolecular receptors and catalysts". Chemical Reviews. 104 (6): 3161–87. doi:10.1021/cr030673a. PMID 15186190.
- Schneider HJ (September 2016). "Efficiency parameters in artificial allosteric systems". Organic & Biomolecular Chemistry. 14 (34): 7994–8001. doi:10.1039/c6ob01303a. PMID 27431438.
- Badjić JD, Nelson A, Cantrill SJ, Turnbull WB, Stoddart JF (September 2005). "Multivalency and cooperativity in supramolecular chemistry". Accounts of Chemical Research. 38 (9): 723–32. doi:10.1021/ar040223k. PMID 16171315.
- Kim SK, Sessler JL (October 2010). "Ion pair receptors". Chemical Society Reviews. 39 (10): 3784–809. doi:10.1039/c002694h. PMC 3016456. PMID 20737073.
- McConnell AJ, Beer PD (May 2012). "Heteroditopic receptors for ion-pair recognition". Angewandte Chemie. 51 (21): 5052–61. doi:10.1002/anie.201107244. PMID 22419667.
- Huang Z, Zhu L, Cao Y, Wu G, Liu X, Chen Y, Wang Q, Shi T, Zhao Y, Wang Y, Li W, Li Y, Chen H, Chen G, Zhang J (January 2011). "ASD: a comprehensive database of allosteric proteins and modulators". Nucleic Acids Research. 39 (Database issue): D663–9. doi:10.1093/nar/gkq1022. PMC 3013650. PMID 21051350.
- Panjkovich A, Daura X (October 2012). "Exploiting protein flexibility to predict the location of allosteric sites". BMC Bioinformatics. 13: 273. doi:10.1186/1471-2105-13-273. PMC 3562710. PMID 23095452.
- Süel GM, Lockless SW, Wall MA, Ranganathan R (January 2003). "Evolutionarily conserved networks of residues mediate allosteric communication in proteins". Nature Structural Biology. 10 (1): 59–69. doi:10.1038/nsb881. PMID 12483203.
- Mitternacht S, Berezovsky IN (September 2011). "Binding leverage as a molecular basis for allosteric regulation". PLOS Computational Biology. 7 (9): e1002148. doi:10.1371/journal.pcbi.1002148. PMC 3174156. PMID 21935347.
- Gasper PM, Fuglestad B, Komives EA, Markwick PR, McCammon JA (December 2012). "Allosteric networks in thrombin distinguish procoagulant vs. anticoagulant activities". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 109 (52): 21216–22. doi:10.1073/pnas.1218414109. PMC 3535651. PMID 23197839.
- Ghosh A, Vishveshwara S (November 2008). "Variations in clique and community patterns in protein structures during allosteric communication: investigation of dynamically equilibrated structures of methionyl tRNA synthetase complexes". Biochemistry. 47 (44): 11398–407. doi:10.1021/bi8007559. PMID 18842003.
- Sethi A, Eargle J, Black AA, Luthey-Schulten Z (April 2009). "Dynamical networks in tRNA:protein complexes". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 106 (16): 6620–5. doi:10.1073/pnas.0810961106. PMC 2672494. PMID 19351898.
- Vanwart AT, Eargle J, Luthey-Schulten Z, Amaro RE (August 2012). "Exploring residue component contributions to dynamical network models of allostery". Journal of Chemical Theory and Computation. 8 (8): 2949–2961. doi:10.1021/ct300377a. PMC 3489502. PMID 23139645.
- Rivalta I, Sultan MM, Lee NS, Manley GA, Loria JP, Batista VS (May 2012). "Allosteric pathways in imidazole glycerol phosphate synthase". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 109 (22): E1428–36. doi:10.1073/pnas.1120536109. PMC 3365145. PMID 22586084.
- Christian F. A. Negre, Uriel N. Morzan, Heidi P. Hendrickson, Rhitankar Pal, George P. Lisi, J. Patrick Loria, Ivan Rivalta, Junming Ho, Victor S. Batista. (2018). "Eigenvector centrality for characterization of protein allosteric pathways". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 115 (52): E12201–E12208. doi:10.1073/pnas.1810452115. PMC 6310864. PMID 30530700.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
- Clarke D, Sethi A, Li S, Kumar S, Chang RW, Chen J, Gerstein M (May 2016). "Identifying Allosteric Hotspots with Dynamics: Application to Inter- and Intra-species Conservation". Structure. 24 (5): 826–837. doi:10.1016/j.str.2016.03.008. PMC 4883016. PMID 27066750.


Xcel Energy announced the results of a six-month study related to plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) and how an increase in their popularity may affect Colorado. The study found that PHEVs may result in a reduction of the overall expense of owning a vehicle and, with the help of smart-grid technologies, eliminate harmful vehicle emissions by up to 50 percent.
NREL’s program was able to simulate adding vehicles to the roads in large increments, under real driving conditions, simulating an increase in the market penetration of these vehicles. The study revealed that these cars, each equipped with a 9 kilowatt-hour battery, could reduce overall CO2 vehicles emissions by half. They could also save owners more than $450 in fuel costs each year compared to a traditional combustion engine vehicle.


In Surfer, you can load a BLN file as a base map, reshape the polygon and then use the updated polygon or BLN file to assign a NoData value to areas inside or outside the polygon.
To reshape the BLN:
- Click Home | New Map | Base | Base, select the BLN file and click Open. The BLN file is imported as a base map.
- In the Contents window, expand the Base layer group and select a polygon in the BLN file.
- If you'd like to enter the exact coordinates of where the vertex should be:
- Select the object in the Contents or Plot window.
- In the Properties, click the Coordinates tab.
- Click in the fields to delete and enter new coordinates. Press enter or click out of the field for the changes to take effect.
- Note: Use the Features | Edit Features | Reshape tool to see each vertex and select individually.
- If you'd like to drag the vertex to a specific location, click Features | Edit Features | Reshape.
- Click and drag a vertex to reshape the polygon. Press DELETE on your keyboard to delete a vertex and press CTRL and click to add a new vertex.
- Press ESC on the keyboard when you are done reshaping the polygon.
The edited BLN polygon can now be used as is in the base layer or saved for future use to assign NoData values to an existing grid or, you can use the polyon to Assign Nodata as you create a grid. See all options below.
To save the edited BLN polygon for later use:
- Uncheck the boxes next to each of the four axes in the Contents window.
- Click File | Export.
- In the Export dialog, set the Save as type to BLN Golden Software Blanking (*.bln), give your file a name, and verify Show options dialog is checked. Click Save.
- In the Export Options dialog, set the Scaling source to your Map on the Scaling tab.
- On the BLN Options page, choose whether to assign no data Inside or Outside of your polygon in the NoData areas section.
- Click OK to create the file.
Assign NoData to an existing grid:
- Click Grids | Edit | Assign NoData.
- In the Assign NoData to Grid dialog, click in the Input Grid field and select the map layer containing the desired grid or click Browse to select a grid file.
- Click in the NoData Polygon Boundary field and select the Base layer containing the BLN polygon.
- Toggle NoData Outside or the desired no data option.
- Uncheck the box next to Add grid as layer to, if desired, and then click OK.
Assign NoData as you create the grid:
- Click Home | Grid Data | Grid Data.
- In the Grid Data - Select Data dialog, select the data file you will use to create your grid, select the appropriate XYZ data columns, your gridding method, and click Skip to End.
- Fill out the dialog as normal.
- In the NoData Polygon Boundary section, either click None and load the polygon from the base layer, or click Browse and navigate to the BLN file.
- Click OK to create the grid.
Updated November 1, 2021
Please sign in to leave a comment.


A study comparing pairs of identical twins has highlighted potential genes that may explain the common – but poorly understood – link between migraines and PTSD. The two conditions often co-occur, but researchers have historically known little about how or why.
The new study, published in Frontiers in Neuroscience, compared identical twins among whom one twin lives with PTSD or migraines, and the other does not. The team found common genes that may play a role in both conditions.
The researchers link the co-occurrence of PTSD and migraines to epigenetics – the process by which environmental factors or experiences can alter the expression of certain genes. Because identical twins have identical DNA, any genetic differences can be attributed to epigenetic factors caused by experiences and influences from the external world.
The team compared six sets of twins who had all experienced traumatic events – but only one in each pair had developed PTSD – to see which genetic changes co-existed in those suffering from PTSD.
They also enrolled fifteen pairs of twins within whom one in each pair suffered migraines, and similarly compared genetic changes occurring in migraine sufferers. By cross-comparing these changes, they were able to identify key genes implicated in the development of both conditions.
“Our results suggest that common genes and signalling pathways are involved in PTSD and migraine and this might explain why PTSD and migraine can co-occur frequently,” explains Divya Mehta of the Queensland University of Technology, senior author on the study. “This might further imply that common environmental risk factors for both PTSD and migraine might be acting on these genes.”
According to the Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, 12% of Australians will experience PTSD at some point in their lifetime, and around 20% of Aussies will experience migraines. This research may inform future therapies for both conditions, with the authors noting that epigenetic changes can be targeted and reversed using certain drugs.
“These results may have implications for treatments, as one medicine or therapy might only be effective for a single disorder,” said Mehta. “For co-occurring disorders such as PTSD and migraine, once we know which common genes are implicated in both disorders, we can develop new therapeutics to target these, thereby reducing symptoms and curing both.”
The authors note the small sample size as a necessary consequence of using identical twins with such particular sets of features.
Amalyah Hart has a BA (Hons) in Archaeology and Anthropology from the University of Oxford and an MA in Journalism from the University of Melbourne.
Read science facts, not fiction...
There’s never been a more important time to explain the facts, cherish evidence-based knowledge and to showcase the latest scientific, technological and engineering breakthroughs. Cosmos is published by The Royal Institution of Australia, a charity dedicated to connecting people with the world of science. Financial contributions, however big or small, help us provide access to trusted science information at a time when the world needs it most. Please support us by making a donation or purchasing a subscription today.


Some kids have trouble saying certain sounds or words. This can be frustrating
because others may have trouble understanding what they're trying to say.
The good news is that kids can go to a special kind of therapist for help —
speech therapists (also called speech-language pathologists).
What Do Speech Therapists Help With?
Speech therapists help people of all ages with different speech and language disorders.
Here are some of them:
articulation (say: ar-tik-yuh-LAY-shun) disorders:
This when a kid has trouble saying certain sounds or saying words correctly. "Run"
might come out as "won." Or "say" may sound like "thay." Lisps are considered articulation
fluency (say: FLOO-en-see) disorders:
If a kid repeats certain sounds and has trouble saying the complete word, he or she
may have fluency disorder. For example, a kid trying to say "story" might get stuck
on the "st" and say "st-st-st-story." Or he or she might draw out certain sounds and
say "ssssssstory." A stutter is a fluency disorder.
resonance (say: REZ-uh-nuhns) or voice
disorders: A kid might have a voice disorder if people have trouble understanding
him or her. The kids might start a sentence loud and clear, but it's quiet and mumbling
by the end. Sometimes these kids sound like they have a cold or like they're talking
through their noses.
language disorders: A kid who has trouble understanding people
or has trouble putting words together to express thoughts might have a language disorder.
Who Needs Speech Therapy?
Lots of kids see speech therapists. It's a great way to learn to speak more clearly.
Sometimes a kid has a medical condition that makes speaking harder. Here are some
A kid visiting a speech therapist for the first time will take a speaking test.
Don't worry, it's not like a test in school that's going to affect your report card.
This test is a way of finding out what types of speech problems a kid has.
The kid will be asked to say certain sounds and words. These may be recorded and
the therapist might write some stuff down during the test. The test will help the
therapist figure out the kid's needs and decide what treatments are best.
The "treatment" for speech problems is practice. If kids have trouble with articulation
or fluency, the therapist will spend time showing them how to make the proper sounds.
The therapist will demonstrate the sounds and ask the kid to try to copy them. That
means copying the way the therapist moves the lips, mouth, and tongue
to make the right sound.
Mirrors can be helpful here. The therapist might ask a kid to make these sounds
while looking in the mirror. Some therapists use games to make this practice more
If your therapist is helping you with a language disorder, your sessions may seem
a little like school. He or she will help you with grammar — how to put words
together properly to form clear statements and thoughts. If you have trouble understanding
what you hear, you may play games that work on these skills, such as Simon Says.
How Long Will Treatment Last?
Some treatments are short and others are longer. It depends on the problem a kid
is working on. Kids might see a speech therapist once a week or a few times a week.
Treatment can take a few weeks, a few months, or a few years.
If you have speech problem, the best advice is to practice, practice, practice.
Find time to work on the skills the therapist has shown you. Maybe spend some time
before bed practicing in front of a mirror. Ask your parent to work with you.
Just like practicing your foul shot or memorizing your multiplication tables, hard
work pays off!


One of the best ways to promote hygiene for little or no cost in elementary schools is to have each student construct a grooming kit to use in the classroom. Provide them with boxes or bags that they can decorate, and have them bring in items such as individual-sized mouth rinse, small combs, facial tissues, paper towels, liquid hand soap and alcohol-based hand sanitizer. Giving your students the opportunity to practice good personal hygiene reduces the risk of illness and keeps children in school.
Dental Hygiene Practices
Impress upon your students the importance of brushing their teeth twice a day and rinsing between meals. Provide an opportunity for the students to rinse after lunch. Have a dentist or dental hygienist come in to speak to your class about dental health, and ask if she can provide samples for each student. Have the children include mouth rinse in each of their grooming kits.
Hair Hygiene Practices
Hair should be kept neat and combed throughout the day. Talk with your students about the importance of washing their hair on a regular basis to keep it free of dirt and germs, and not sharing items that touch the hair such as combs, brushes or hats. Having each child include a comb in his hygiene kit eliminates the need for sharing, and will aid the students in remaining mindful of their appearance.
Hand Washing Practices
Provide either a hand washing station inside the classroom or opportunities to wash hands before and after lunch, after sneezing or coughing, and after recess. Stress the importance of hand washing after using the restroom by creating signs in the washing stations of the restroom or classroom. Make sure the children wash their hands with soap for 15-20 seconds. Having each child stock his hygiene kit with liquid soap, paper towels and individual-sized alcohol-based sanitizer to the class will eliminate the cost of this necessary practice.
Cold and Allergy Hygiene Practices
Typically, children pick up six to 10 colds a year, most of them during the school year. Proper hygiene practices in school and at home can greatly reduce those numbers. Make sure that children are using a tissue or the crook of their elbows when coughing or sneezing. After they cough or sneeze, make sure they thoroughly wash their hands with soap and water or an alcohol-based sanitizer.
- child image by Cora Reed from Fotolia.com


Playing It Safe-Safety for Kindergarten Science
Lesson 4 of 4
Objective: Students will be able to describe important safety rules that will be used during scientific investigations.
For the opening of this lesson, you will need your classroom rules. You will also need a copy of your science rules. I have included my science rules that can be printed for this lesson. I use a colored printer and laminate for durability. I use the rules to begin a discussion about science safety. I want the students to make important connections between the overall classroom rules and rules that we follow for science. This background knowledge will help the students to better internalize the science rules that will be covered in this lesson.
I gather the students around my big chair and begin the lesson with a discussion. I post the chart with our classroom rules so the students can see them. I say to the students, Do you remember what these are? That's right. They are our classroom rules. Can anyone tell me why we have rules (solicit responses from the students)? That's right. We have rules so we can all stay safe and have fun learning together. Our classroom rules are important all day long. But, there are some extra rules that we need to follow when we are learning about science. These are the rules that we will be following when we are in science class.
I display a copy of the science rules for the students and I read each one aloud as I point to them.
1. We listen carefully to directions.
2. We do not touch without permission.
3. We do not eat, drink or smell anything without permission.
4. We use the correct science tools.
5. We clean up our area when we are done.
These rules are very important. Let's move over to the Smartboard and find out why it is so important to follow these science rules.
For this portion of the lesson, I use my SmartBoard. If you have a SmartBoard, the file Science Safety can easily be downloaded and opened. If you have a different type of interactive whiteboard, you can still use this lesson by opening the file in Smart Notebook Express. Click here to download. There is also a PDF of the slides so you can recreate this part of the lesson. Click here to access the PDF: Science Safety Slides.
I gather my students in front of the Smartboard. I have cards with each student's name printed on. These cards are used for selecting who will come up to the Smartboard. This helps my spread response opportunities across my entire classroom and eliminates any unintentional bias.
I open the first slide (SmartBoard Slide 1) with the lesson objective written in "student friendly" terms. There is a content objective and a language objective to help focus on vocabulary expansion for my English Learners (ELs) to be congruent with SIOP instructional techniques (Click here to learn more about SIOP). I read these objectives aloud for my students.
I can talk about our science rules and why they are important.
I can tell a friend why it is important to follow a certain science rule.
Slide 2: Science can be a lot of fun! Let's learn more about our rules!
Slide 3: We listen carefully to directions. It is important that we hear what we need to do so we don't make a mistake that could be dangerous, like mixing the wrong things. Can you circle the picture of the student that is listening? I call up a student to circle the correct picture. We discuss why it is the correct picture. We also discuss how an experiment might not turn out properly if we do not listen to and follow directions.
Slide 4: We do not touch without permission. We might work with things that could hurt us if we touch with our fingers instead of using science tools. Some things we work with might be fragile and touching them might hurt or damage them. Circle the picture of the student who is following our science rule. I give some specific examples from experiments that we will be doing and the impact of touching something that shouldn't be touched might have.
Slide 5: We do not eat, drink or smell anything without permission. Some of the things we work with might look like food, but may not really be food. Some things that are food might be unsafe because they are not clean or they might be old. You might get sick from tasting these things. Smelling things without permission might make us sick or hurt our nose or lungs. In this science class they are working with cookies. Circle the student who is following the science rules. Again, we talk about some of the things we may be using during our experiments like dish detergent that we would not want to eat.
Slide 6: When we have permission to smell something, there is a special way we smell. It is called, "Our Science Sniff". We don't take a big smell, we do something called "wafting". Let's watch a video to learn what it is. The link takes us to a very short video that shows the proper way to smell. After the video, I have the entire class practice "wafting" by pretending to sniff something.
Slide 7: We use correct science tools. It is important that we use the correct tools to do our science jobs. If we don't, we might ruin the tools or get hurt. Circle the picture that shows tools we may use in science class. After a student circles the correct picture. We discuss what tools might get ruined or what tool could be very dangerous in the picture.
Slide 8: We clean up our area when we are done. It is important that we clean up our area. This helps to keep us safe by preventing spills. Equipment won't get broken if it is put away and science is more fun if everyone helps!! Circle the table that shows the students who followed the science rules. We talk about how it is not fun to clean up others' messes or how accidents can happen because of a spill.
Slide 9: It is now Turn and Talk Time. Turn and Talk gives my students a chance to practice and expand their academic language. The students have assigned Turn and Talk partners. I ask them to hold hands with their partners and raise them high in the air. This allows me to check that everyone has a partner. I then say to them, What science rule is not being followed? Why is it important to follow this rule? I give them time to talk to their partner and when it is obvious that they have completed their discussion, I call on student to share their response. We discuss how the student is smelling something. We talk about how it is important to use the Science Sniff when smelling.
We then move to our seats for guided practice.
For this portion of the lesson, you will need the Thinking About Science Safety book included as a PDF with this lesson. I print the book on a colored printer, laminate the pages for durability and bind it with a comb binding machine.
I partner up the students for this part of the lesson. I like to partner a student with developing language skills with students who are more established with their language skills. The important modeling of language by peers is an influential factor in language development.
After the students are partnered, I say to them, We have been learning about science safety. Now it's time to show what you know about being safe during science class. I am going to read a story to you. This story is all about science safety. The title of the story is Thinking about Science Safety. This book wants you to really think about what we need to do to stay safe during science and why our science rules are important. So, put on your thinking caps. (model putting on my "thinking cap"). I will ask you some different questions while I am reading this book and I want you and your partner to think about and discuss the answer together. After everyone has had a chance to talk with their partner, I will call on students to share.
I begin reading the book to the students. After each page, I give the students a chance to discuss the questions on the page and then I ask students to share. This time is really about the students thinking critically and developing skills that will help them "think like a scientist".
After we have discussed the entire book, the students return to their seats.
I believe it is important for students to take their learning home to share with their families. To wrap up this lesson, the students will be given the charge of explaining their science rules to their parents. If you want your students to reinforce their learning at home, you can print out a copy of Our Science Rules Home Version included as a PDF with this lesson.
I pass the sheet out to the students as I say to them, Our science rules are very important. They are so important that I want you to share them with your family. You will take this sheet home and have an adult read the rules to you. You will then tell them why each rule is important. Don't worry, if there is no one is able to read the rules to you at home, bring the sheet back and I will read them to you and you can explain them to me.
I then have the students put the sheet in their mailboxes. I check to see who returned the rules and have the students who were not able to do this activity at home do it with me or better yet, another adult in the classroom like a paraprofessional or a volunteer. It is important that the students understand these rules. They are very basic, but they are the foundation for science learning that will happen throughout the elementary years. The rules will be built upon and expanded as the students move on to middle school and high school. The critical thinking and reflection of WHY each rule is important help develop the students as science thinkers.