Hyenas are like Africa's trashcan. They clean up anything left by other predators, preventing the spread of diseases. But they aren't only scavengers, but are also brave hunters, killing animals such as gazelles and probably even wildebeest. They have one of Nature's strongest jaw pressure.
An interesting fact about "laughing hyenas"
"Although three species in the family Hyaenidae do not emit any vocalizations that sound anything like laughter, spotted hyaenas often make a sound called a “giggle.” This vocalization sounds very much like high-pitched, hysterical human giggling, and the fact that spotted hyaenas emit this sound has prompted people to refer to them as “laughing hyaenas.” However, when a hyaena giggles, this actually means it is quite nervous about something, not that it thinks something is amusing (see cartoons below). A spotted hyaena most often giggles in response to aggression directed at it by another individual, or when the “laughing” animal has some food that another hyaena wants. Thus the human analogue to a hyaena giggling might be a worried person saying “Please leave me alone!”."
So, what are you thoughts on hyenas? Do you like them or do you despise them? Share here what you thin about this animals.
Other facts about hyenas (or hyeanas)
http://www.hyaenidae.org/hyaena-conservation.htmlA) Why conserve hyaenas?
Hyaenas are worth conserving because they are unique and intelligent animals, but also for a number of other reasons. First, hyaenas merit protection because of the fascinating puzzles they pose for scientists interested in the biology of mammals more generally. Only by investigating the apparent exceptions to each "rule" of mammalian biology, many of which occur in members of the hyaena family, can we ever hope to understand the broader principles governing the ontogenetic and evolutionary development of mammalian morphology, physiology and behavior. Because of their unique attributes, hyaenas have already taught us many important lessons in these domains, and they will undoubtedly teach us many more in future if these wonderful animals are allowed to persist. Furthermore, hyaenas often appear to be able to withstand diseases that kill many sympatric animals, including rabies, canine distemper virus, and anthrax. This suggests that their immune function may have unique properties enabling them to withstand assaults by pathogens that induce mortality in other species. Only if hyaenas are available to study will we be able to unravel the mysteries of their immune responses. Thus even from the standpoint of enhancing human health and welfare, there are important reasons to conserve hyaenas.
Hyaenas also deserve protection because they perform valuable services in the ecosystems they inhabit, and because they are essential indicators of ecosystem health throughout much of their range. Aardwolves consume termites, which can be terribly destructive, and the three species of bone-cracking hyaenas all facilitate energy transfer and cycling of nutrients between biotic and abiotic portions of the ecosystems in which they live. Spotted hyaenas are by far the most abundant large carnivores on the African continent, and they are keystone predators in most of the ecosystems in which they occur (Mills & Hofer 1998). A keystone predator is any animal feeding at the highest trophic level in a particular ecosystem, whose removal from that ecosystem results in a cascade of deleterious events at multiple trophic levels that lead ultimately to habitat destruction. Spotted hyaenas appear to be the large carnivores in Africa with the greatest behavioral plasticity, and they are relatively easy to monitor. Because spotted hyaenas usually occur sympatrically with other members of the hyaena family and many other carnivore species, they offer a protective “umbrella,” under which, if these animals are conserved, then so too will be the other hyaenas living in the same habitats. Spotted hyaenas offer us a very conservative indicator of ecosystem health. That is, because they can survive under conditions no other large carnivore can tolerate, their disappearance from an ecosystem indicates that the habitat has become very severely degraded, perhaps irreversibly. However, in areas where these hyaenas still occur, their behavior and demography can be monitored to reveal warning indications of deleterious trends. If such trends can be identified and quantified, they can potentially be halted or reversed. This is particularly important in Africa, where loss of large carnivores would remove an important incentive for tourists to visit from abroad. Loss of revenues from tourism would thus also remove a key source of foreign exchange for many developing nations in sub-Saharan Africa.
B) Current threats to hyaena conservation
Direct human-induced mortality: Although lions have historically represented the primary source of mortality for hyaenas, this situation is rapidly changing as human population density increases near remaining wilderness areas. In many parts of Africa, humans now kill more hyenas than any other mortality source. They do this by means that are both intentional and unintentional.
Extermination efforts in retaliation for attacks on livestock: In many parts of Africa, both local tribesmen and white ranchers alike commonly retaliate, using one of the methods listed below, against hyaenas that kill or damage livestock. The extent to which this form of direct human-caused mortality also negatively affects hyaena conservation in Asia is not currently known.
Snaring: In many rural parts of Africa, local pastoralists capture hyaenas using wire nooses set at small openings in the fences forming their livestock corrals. If a hyaenas blunders into such a snare, then the tribesmen rush out and kill the captured hyaena using spears or clubs.
Poisoning: To retaliate against incidents of livestock depredation by hyaenas, people in some parts of Africa saturate the carcass of a goat or cow with fast-acting poison, and leave this out for hyaenas to feed on during the night. Such use of poison can result in the deaths, not only of large numbers of hyenas simultaneously, but also in the inadvertent deaths of other sympatric carnivores. Mass poisoning of this sort has been documented for spotted hyaenas living in eastern Africa (Holekamp & Smale 1992), but this source of mortality may also be common in other parts of Africa.
Shooting: Many ranchers keep rifles close at hand and they often use these to kill any hyaenas seen on their property.
Sport hunting: Although this is not a major source of hyaena mortality, some spotted hyaenas are shot each year in various parts of Africa by sport-hunters.
Inadvertent mortality via road kill: Hyaenas of all types are commonly killed on motor-ways. They are sometimes hit while crossing roads, but the threat vehicles pose for hyaenas is exacerbated by the fact that they often attempt to feed on carrion produced by road-kills of other species. Feeding on such carrion commonly puts them directly in the path of oncoming cars.
Inadvertent mortality resulting from war: We have no way to estimate the mortality to striped hyaenas caused inadvertently by explosives, etc, in war-torn parts of the middle east, but this may be considerable. The same is likely to be true of mortality for striped hyaenas and spotted hyaenas in conflict areas in Somalia and Ethiopia.
Inadvertent mortality as a by-product of bush-meat hunting: Members of a number of Africa tribes make their living by capturing herbivores in snare-traps, and then selling the meat harvested from these animals. They usually set their snares along the narrow trails that herbivores take through dense vegetation. As hyaenas often use these same trails, they are often captured inadvertently in snares. Some manage to escape by biting through the wire forming the snare, but others are killed when the bush-meat hunters come by to check their traps. Still other hyaenas cut themselves free but die later as the snare slowly tightens and strangles them.
Hyaenas in the pet trade: Hyaenas are sometimes captured for sale in the pet trade in Africa, but this is most problematic in Asia. Contrary to what you might suspect based on their appearance as infants, hyaenas do not make good pets. They can be highly destructive of furniture and other objects in their immediate environment, and possess teeth and jaws that can also do a great deal of damage to their owners
Left; Nigerian with his pet spotted hyaena; Right: Striped Hyaena cubs kept as pets in Syria.
Habitat loss & anthropogenic activity: Habitat loss is having a major impact on the range size of all four extant members of the hyaena family. Specifically, if the ranges of the four hyaena species are compared between the late 1990s and a few decades earlier, rather shocking range contraction can be observed as more and more habitat becomes unsuitable for hyaena habitation. The 1998 Survival Plan for the Hyaenidae shows exactly how hyaena species ranges have decreased in size in recent decades. Recent work has found that anthropogenic activity has significant effects on the behavior of spotted hyaenas (Boydston et al 2003; Kolowski et al. 2007). It may well be possible to use behavioral changes in monitored hyaena populations to anticipate and avoid population crashes, and research on this possibility is currently under way.
Ignorance and misconceptions: More myths have arisen in regard to hyaenas than perhaps any other animal in Africa (Glickman 1995). They are portrayed in a negative light in Western art and literature, they are mocked and derided by Hollywood producers, and they are feared and hated by many Africans today. This dark public image, born largely of ignorance, currently represents one of the most serious obstacles to the conservation of spotted and other hyenas (Mills & Hofer 1998). Hyaenas are killed to obtain body parts used in aphrodisiacs and medicines unlikely to have any medicinal value at all beyond a minor placebo effect. Young hyaenas are captured for sale as pets when in fact they will generally have to be given up for adoption or euthanized as soon as they reach full size. Most importantly, many people persist in their false belief that hyaenas are “bad” animals, or at least in the belief that hyaenas are not worthy of conservation efforts. Especially given that the four remaining hyaena species represent the last members of a lineage that was once large and diverse, we must attempt to put these false impressions behind us in order to enhance public enthusiasm for protecting these fascinating creatures.
C) What needs to be done to conserve hyaenas?
Education: Members of the Hyaena Specialist Group believe that major efforts must be undertaken to educate people about hyaenas in order to conserve these wonderful animals. Until people come to realize that these animals are both fascinating and unique, we will continue to face an uphill battle as we fight to conserve them.
Research: Before we will be able to effectively conserve members of the hyaena family, there are many things we need to know about their basic biology, as all but the spotted hyaena remain quite poorly understood. The biology of striped hyaenas, in particular, is largely unknown. Although we now know a great deal about the basic biology of the spotted hyaena, our understanding remains poor in regard to the limits of behavioral plasticity in this fascinating species. Most important is the need to assess whether or not this behavioral plasticity is likely to protect them from extinction.
Identification of the factors causing declines in populations of hyena prey species or species with which hyaenas compete for food (contributed by S. M. Dloniak): Among wildlife managers and also among conservaiton biologists interested in protecting species on which hyaenas feed or with which they compete for resources, there is currently a common tendency to assume that culling of hyaenas will protect the prey or competing carnivores. Whereas it is certainly true that hyaenas can and do exert direct and indirect effects on sympatric species, we are unaware of any data demonstrating that hyaenas cause extinction of, or even severe declines in, populations of competing carnivore or herbivore prey species. In some cases hyaenas are used as scapegoats for the decline or poor recruitment in populations of threatened species, when the root causes are more likely to be anthropogenic. In many such cases, management decisions to cull hyenas are not based on data identifying the factors causing declining populations of herbivores or carnivores that compete with hyaenas. Thus hyaenas are often being culled for inappropriate reasons.
D) Ongoing research germane to hyaena conservation
Hyaena biologists Hans Kruuk (1972) and Gus Mills (1990) have performed classic multi-year field studies of the basic behavioral ecology of spotted and brown hyaenas, and presented their findings in books. A substantial number of other biologists have also published highly informative papers on these species, usually based on shorter-term studies. Long-term field studies, both started in the late 1980s, are currently underway on spotted hyaenas in Kenya (based at Michigan State University, USA) and Tanzania (based at the Institute for Zoo and Wildlife Research, Germany), and one major thrust of both these projects is hyaena conservation. Furthermore, research projects are currently underway on Brown hyaenas in southwestern Africa, and on striped hyaenas in both Africa and Asia. More information about these efforts can be found on project web sites and on other pages of this web site.
E) Species-specific information regarding status and conservation
http://www.hyaenidae.org/hyena-myths.htmlHyaenas are misunderstood. Unless we change the way we see these amazing animals, we soon won't see them at all. Therefore here we debunk some common myths about members of the hyaena family.
Myth: Spotted hyaenas are hermaphrodites.
Reality: Hermaphrodites are animals that are simultaneously both male and female. Although there are many creatures in the animal kingdom that are true hermaphrodites, including some fish and many snails and worms, spotted hyaenas are definitely not among them. This myth undoubtedly arose when people noticed that hyaenas with large pendulous udders (indicating they were obviously females) could suddenly develop impressive phallic erections such that they also looked like males. Interestingly, although a female spotted hyaena has a uterus and ovaries internally, externally she does in fact appear to have “masculinized” genitalia. That is, the female’s fossil is enormously elongated to form a fully erectile pseudopenis through which she urinates, copulates, and gives birth. Furthermore, her kitten labia are folded over and filled with connective and fatty tissues to form structures that look very much like the male’s scrotal sac. These male-like external genitalia are obvious even in female spotted hyaena cubs at birth. When spotted hyaenas mate, the male inserts his erect phallus into the female’s flaccid one. The walls of the pseudopenis become relatively thin and elastic late in pregnancy, such that the female can deliver her 1 kg babies without dying in the process. Nevertheless, the posterior surface of the pseudopenis does tear when a female first gives birth, and it is ever after marked by a vertical band of pink scar tissue. Spotted hyaenas of both sexes develop phallic erections when they engage in “greeting ceremonies” with other hyaenas from whom they have been separated for a while.
Myth: It is not possible to distinguish male from female spotted hyaenas without dissecting them.
Reality: It is in fact possible to distinguish male from female spotted hyaenas when they are at least 3 months of age. Although it is virtually impossible to identify an individual’s sex based on its body size, the sex of a spotted hyaena can be distinguished based on the sexually dimorphic glans (tip) of the phallus when the phallus is erect: the glans of the female’s phallus is blunt and rather barrel-shaped whereas the male’s is pointed and has a distinct constriction immediately above the glans. Adult spotted hyaenas can also be sexed based on other morphological and behavioral cues. As adults male spotted hyaenas have distinct testes in their scrotal sacs which can be seen when a male flicks his tail, for example, to whisk away an insect. By comparison, the pseudo-scrotum of the female contains only fat and connective tissue, such that its lobes are very small in comparison to the male’s testicles. Once they start breeding, adult females usually have distinctive teats on the posterior belly, just inside the hind limbs, and these are often very easy to see. Adults can also be sexed based on their body shape; the belly of the adult male curves up in front of his hind limbs when viewed from the side whereas the belly of the adult female has no such upward curvature. Instead, the female often develops something of a ‘paunch’ where her teats protrude such that, if anything, the curvature of her posterior belly is downward. Finally, many of the behaviors exhibited by adult spotted hyaenas is decidedly sexually dimorphic. That is, males tend to act nervous when they are interacting with females (see figure below), and can often be seen tentatively stretching their fore and hind limbs over the face of a dozing female to present their ventral surface and genital region to the female for inspection. Males also can be observed pawing the ground near a sleepy female, or bowing before her and then rubbing their faces on their forelegs as they repeatedly approach and then nervously back away from the female. Male spotted hyaenas mount females from behind when mating, as in other carnivores. In fact, even sexual play-mounting during infancy is usually only exhibited by male cubs.
Myth: Hyaenas only eat carrion.
Reality: Brown and striped hyaenas do eat a fair amount of carrion but they supplement this with small vertebrate prey they catch themselves, as well as fruits and invertebrates. Aardwolves are diminutive, delicate hyaenas that feed exclusively on ants and termites. Although most people imagine spotted hyaenas to be skulking scavengers who feed on the scraps left by more glamorous predators like lions and leopards, they are in fact excellent hunters that feed mainly on large ungulates they kill themselves. An adult spotted hyaena weighs only about 60 kg yet, without help from its group-mates, it can bring down antelope weighing over three times that much, and working together with other hyaenas, it can kill ungulates as large as giraffe and African Cape buffalo. Spotted hyaenas do not use stealth when hunting as do most large felids; instead these hyaenas are endurance hunters who chase the selected prey animal over long distances until the prey is winded; then the hyaenas close in for the kill. Like most members of the dog family, spotted hyaenas kill their prey by disemboweling rather than with a cat-like “killing bite.”
Myth: Hyaenas often drive other large predators from their prey.
Reality: At 35 kg and 45 kg, respectively, striped and brown hyaenas are too small to engage in contests over food with other large carnivores. Aardwolves do not compete for food with other large carnivores because aardwolves eat only insects. Although spotted hyaenas do sometimes steal food from smaller predators like cheetah and wild dogs, the more common scenario in most areas where they have been studied is for spotted hyaenas themselves to kill a large ungulate and then have lions steal it from them.
Myth: Hyaenas are closely related to dogs.
Reality: Although hyaenas look rather dog-like, they are more closely related to cats than to dogs, and their closest living relatives are mongooses and the fossa, a mongoose-like carnivore found only in Madagascar.
Myth: Hyaenas make good pets.
Reality: Although a few people in Africa and Asia find very young hyaenas in nature and raise them as pets, these animals generally appear to be extremely unhappy as “domestic companions” as adults, and must often be kept muzzled at all times so that they do not harm people or property. A muzzle prevents the hyaena from being able to groom itself properly. As spotted hyaenas need several years of practice to become proficient hunters, and as they are deprived of this practice when reared as pets, it is effectively a death sentence for a captive-reared hyaena to be released into the wild. In addition, pet hyaenas cannot be released for fear that they might transfer new pathogens from captive environments into the wild. Upon reaching adulthood, many "pet" hyaenas must therefore be euthanized.
A pet hyena in Nigeria. Note the heavy rope muzzle.
Myth: Hyaenas commonly prey on livestock.
Reality: The favorite food of aardwolves is insects, especially termites which they help to control. Although many people apparently believe that aardwolves prey on young sheep, in reality they do not kill livestock as their digestive system is specialized for coping with insect prey rather than meat or bone, and most of their teeth have been reduced to mere pegs over evolutionary time. Rather than medium- or large-sized mammalian prey, brown and striped hyaenas prefer to dine on carrion, wild fruits, insects and eggs. Small livestock, particularly young animals, can be protected from brown hyaenas and jackals at night by being placed in bush enclosures. Of the four extant members of the hyaena family, only the spotted hyaena is a potential predator on livestock. In many parts of Africa, attacks on sheep, goats and cattle are most frequent during rainy periods when wild prey are widely dispersed away from water holes (e.g., Kolowski et al. 2006). Nevertheless, in most studied populations of spotted hyaenas, livestock seldom occur in the diet of these animals, as indicated by the occurrence of livestock hairs in fecal samples, so they clearly prefer wild ungulates to domestic ones. Furthermore, as with brown hyaenas, spotted hyaenas can be deterred from attacking livestock by herding domestic animals at night into sturdy corrals.
Myth: Spotted hyaenas have magical powers, and witches ride on their backs.
Reality: Although African tribal folklore abounds with myths of this sort, none of the extant hyaenas have any magical powers, nor are any of their body parts effective as aphrodisiacs.
HYAENAS ARE INTERESTING ANIMALS THAT PERFORM ESSENTIAL FUNCTIONS IN THE ECOSYSTEMS IN WHICH THEY LIVE. HYAENAS CAN OFTEN LIVE IN HARMONY WITH PEOPLE, IF WE GIVE THEM A CHANCE.
Unfortunately, movies such as "The Lion King" depict hyenas as coward, nasty, mean scavengers, which obviously isn't true. Spread the Hyena love TODAY!


[Originally published as Study Demonstrates that Most Animal Species Came Into Existence at the Same Time?]
In a comment on a previous article, a reader informed me of a study that I had not seen. It was published in the journal Human Evolution and its results are consistent with the idea that 90% of all animal species came into being at roughly the same time. This is certainly not what the hypothesis of evolution would predict, so some creationists as well as some intelligent design advocates have presented the study as evidence against evolution. In my reply to the comment, I expressed skepticism, even though I would love for the conclusions of the study to be correct. Now that I have read the study itself, I am even more skeptical.
The authors of the study analyzed the DNA of many different species of animals. However, they did not look at the DNA found in the nucleus of the cell. That DNA, called nuclear DNA, is responsible for most of an organism’s genetically-defined traits. They looked at mitochondrial DNA, which is the small amount of DNA that is found in the mitochondrion, the structure that produces most of the energy that the cell ends up using. To give you an idea of how different mitochondrial DNA is from nuclear DNA, the nuclear DNA of a human being is over 3 billion base pairs long, while human mitochondrial DNA is just over 16,000 base pairs long. You don’t need to know what “base pairs” are to see that there is only a tiny, tiny amount of mitochondrial DNA in a human cell compared to nuclear DNA.
Now even though there isn’t a lot of mitochondrial DNA, some sections of it seem to be very characteristic of the species of animal from which the cell comes. For example, a 2016 study analyzed a section of mitochondrial DNA (called the COX1 gene) among different species of birds. It showed that the COX1 gene alone was enough to separate 94% of the birds into species. Similar studies indicate that the COX1 gene can separate other species of animals, so the sequence of the COX1 gene is often referred to as the DNA barcode of the animal. This is what the authors of the study I am discussing focused on.
The authors analyzed the “DNA barcodes” of many different animal species, looking for a specific kind of mutation: one that doesn’t actually change the product of the gene.
Remember, a gene is a “recipe” that codes for a particular protein. The COX1 gene used in the DNA barcode is the recipe for a protein lovingly called “mitochondrially encoded cytochrome c oxidase I.”
A protein is a string of amino acids linked together, and the DNA “recipe” is just a list of those amino acids and the order in which they need to be strung together. Well, the genetic code has more than one way of indicating an amino acid, and sometimes, a mutation will change part of the DNA, but the resulting change will indicate the same amino acid. This is called a synonymous substitution, because the mutation doesn’t change the recipe for the protein. It just changes the way that recipe reads.
Consider, for example, a recipe for a cake
It might call for two teaspoons of vanilla extract. Suppose you copy that recipe so you can give it to a friend, but instead of writing “two teaspoons of vanilla extract,” you write “2 tsp. vanilla extract.” You have essentially made two synonymous substitutions, substituting a number for the word “two” and an abbreviation for the word “teaspoon.”
A synonymous substitution mutation in DNA is similar. The product of the recipe doesn’t change, but the way the recipe reads changes. As a result, even after the mutation happens, the protein produced by DNA remains the same.
The authors assume that synonymous substitution mutations can happen freely, because they don’t change the proteins being produced and therefore should have no effect on the organism. Because of that, synonymous substitution mutations should not be “weeded out” by natural selection, so the more synonymous substitution mutations, the longer those mutations have been accumulating.
When they compared the number of these mutations among many different animals, they found that 90% of them had the same level of mutations, indicating that they had been experiencing mutations for the same length of time. This is consistent with the idea that 90% of the animals came into being at the same time.
Now, of course, the authors don’t argue for that idea!
It would invalidate the evolutionary hypothesis, and I am sure they don’t want to be considered heretics! As a result, they try to explain around their conclusion by suggesting that there are mechanisms which tend to reduce the genetic diversity among individuals in a species. Because of these mechanisms, most species had uniformity in their mitochondrial DNA at roughly the same time and have just been collecting mutations since then.
As I have said, I am skeptical of their conclusion.
That’s because of their assumption that synonymous substitution mutations don’t affect the organism and are thus not subject to natural selection. They produce some arguments to support that assumption, but they discount the most important argument against their assumption:
the fact that we know synonymous substitutions change the rate at which a gene is turned into a protein.
Since the mitochondrion is the “powerhouse” of the cell, it would make sense to me that its function is highly dependent on the rate at which its genes can be turned into proteins. As a result, I find it highly unlikely that the organism is unaffected by synonymous substitution mutations.
Now while I disagree with the more “sensational” conclusion of their study, they do make one statement that I think is quite important:
The tight clustering of barcodes within species and unfilled sequence space among them are key facts of animal life that evolutionary theory must explain.
In other words, they are saying that there is a lot of discontinuity in mitochondrial DNA of animals. You have a sequence that defines one species, a sequence that defines another species, and nothing in between. If you hope to come up with any kind of plausible mechanism for evolution, you will need to explain that kind of discontinuity.


In the children's game of hide-and-seek, it doesn't matter much whether you win or lose. In the animal kingdom, however, the stakes are significantly higher. If you're found, you're food.
And death is not just the end of the individual, it's the end of a lineage. Organisms that die before they can reproduce deny their genes a road to the next generation. In this simple fact lies the engine of change. For example, genes that make a prey more camouflaged will end up increasing their reproductive success, whereas genes that make them more noticeable are not going to get very far. In this way, natural selection is driving prey to become better hiders, and predators to become better seekers.
Nowhere is this evolutionary race more evident than in the case of the peppered moth. This is a species of moth that is found all across England and Ireland. When people first studied them in the early 1800s, almost all the moths looked something like this:
As you can see (if you're looking closely), the white and black speckles are effective camouflage. For ages, these moths have hidden on light colored trees and lichens. Over time, they have evolved this distinctive pattern to help them evade the notice of the birds that prey on them.
But just fifty years later, things were beginning to change. By the 1850s, moths of the same species had stumbled upon a new color. These new moths were called carbonaria after their carbon-black color, to distinguish them from their salt-and-pepper colored relatives with the dull name typica.
By the end of the nineteenth century, the change was drastic. In 1895, a study in Manchester showed that 95% of the peppered moths were now of the black type. So what was going here? What could cause such an incredible change in appearance in just a hundred years?
They key lies in a major event in the history of humanity that took place during the nineteenth century - the Industrial Revolution. During this time, a large number of factories were being built in England, and they burned a mind boggling amount of coal. From 1800 to 1900, annual coal production went up in the UK from about 10 million tonnes to 250 million tonnes.
This had a drastic effect on the environment. The trees in the woods between Manchester and London were covered in soot. And the increased levels of sulphur dioxide was killing the lichen. All of a sudden, the peppered moth was losing its camouflage. It stood out like a sore thumb against the sooty black barks of the trees, while the rare black form of the moth became an instant success.
In a new study in this week's issue of the journal Science, researchers in Liverpool and the Czech Republic were able to trace down the genetic signatures of this extreme evolution. They did this by looking at the variation in letters of DNA between the 2 types of moths.
At the heart of the idea is sex. The genetic role of sex is to shuffle together different genomes in a population. This has the effect of creating more types of genomes, and thus increases diversity.
When the Industrial Revolution comes along, it paints the world of the moth black. Most of the genomes in the population get wiped out as they are no longer fit. A few rare ones contain a gene that protects their possessor by coloring them black. These genomes quickly begin to dominate in the population, and so there are now fewer kinds of genomes around - the diversity begins to plummet (think of 1895, when 95% of these moths were now black). This is known as a selective sweep, where a set of genes rapidly sweep through a population.
Over time, as these moths mate with others, the diversity builds back. __But just as it takes many shuffles to completely randomize the order of cards in a deck, it takes many generations of sexual reproduction before all trace of the past is lost in the genome. By tracing down regions of the genome with unusually low diversity, we can uncover the signals of natural selection that must have acted on our ancestors. __This method of detecting natural selection works best if the selection was strong (so that it wiped out the diversity), and if it happened recently (so that sex hasn't had enough time to bring the diversity back).
This is just what the authors did. They first compared the genomes of 68 typica and 64 carbonaria moths (the offspring of two pairs of parents) and found that a particular region on one of the chromosomes was responsible for the difference in moth color. But this is a coarse-grained picture, as the region that they identified is over a million letters in length. The next step was to probe the diversity at a finer scale.
To do this, they looked at 6 variant letters of DNA that were spread out in this region, and measured how the carboneria and typica moths vary with respect to these letters. At each of these positions, there are 2 possibile letters that any moth can have. So if the genomes were properly shuffled with the maximum level of diversity, there would be 32 64 possible possible 6 letter words that could be formed here. The spotted moths were found with many different words in this region, a sign of diversity. The black moths, on the other hand, all had small variations from just one sequence: CAGGTA. The scientists inferred that this must be the ancestral sequence of the black moths that thrived in the Industrial Revolution.
By comparing our DNA, we are actually looking back in time. We can use these techniques to infer the pressures that our distant ancestors faced. A cool example of this kind of DNA archeology is the story of lactose tolerance in humans.
Here's a counter intuitive fact - mammals typically can not digest milk in adulthood. Of course, all mammals love milk as infants (that's what gives them their name). That's because they can produce a chemical called lactase, which breaks down the lactose in milk. But once infants reach the age of being weaned, the body switches off production of lactase. We all like to think of cats as cute pets that love a saucer of milk, but in realitythis is more likely to give them indigestion and diarrhea. Lactose intolerance is not a disease, it's actually the norm.
This makes sense from an evolutionary point of view. Milk is a nutrient rich food for infants, but it is costly for a mother to produce. At some point, the growing infant needs to move on, or it will become too great a burden for the mother. This digestive 'switch' in mammals ensures that this happens.
So why is it that some us can digest milk? The answer takes us from one cultural revolution to another, to a time 8000 years ago when some of our ancestors had begun to rear cattle. This was happening in the Middle East and in Africa. Through sheer chance, anyone who had a mutation that disabled this lactase switch suddenly had an advantage over their peers. They had access to a reliable and nutrient rich source of food - milk from cattle.
The same process that changed the color of the moths is at work here. As was shown by a team led by Sarah Tishkoff in 2006, cattle herders in Africa and in the Middle East independently evolved different mutations that allowed them to drink milk, an example of what is called convergent evolution . This is why lactose tolerance is very prevalent in Europeans. Many of their ancestors were cattle herders who originated in the Middle East. Similarly, northern Indians are more likely to be able to digest lactose than southern Indians, perhaps due to closer contact with the pastoral Sindhi tribes of north India.
And those of use who can digest milk carry the signs of this cultural revolution in our DNA. To date, the region surrounding the lactase gene has a remarkably low diversity in populations that descended from cattle herders.
We usually think of adaptations as occurring in response to changes from within nature. But I find it fascinating that our culture can also be a driving force of evolution. It has happened time and again, without our explicit knowledge of it. During the dawn of agriculture, we evolved wild grains into harvestable varieties like wheat and rice. In the birth of pastoralism, we modified our cattle to produce more milk, while also evolving ourselves to be able to consume it. And in the Industrial Revolution, our pollutants ended up driving evolution in moths.
As we look further out into space, we learn more about the origins of our universe. But at another extreme, by looking inwards to our DNA, we are also learning more about our place in it. We are unraveling the lives and cultures of our prehistoric ancestors, as well as the effect that we have had and continue to have on our surroundings.
Incidentally, the story of the moth has another surprising twist. Eventually the air quality improved in the UK, and the lichen began to grow back. The trees were restored to their lighter colors. And this meant that the carbonera moths have once again started to get noticed. They are now at a great disadvantage and have become extremely rare. In this way, the ebb and flow of genes are echoing the waves of cultural changes.
The kind of evolutionary genetics discussed in this article is the subject of my research. I have spent the last year and a half working on a project that studies how certain African pastoral tribes have evolved protection to their extreme diets, a case of culture and gene flow being intricately woven together.
 There are 2^6 = 32 64 combinations in all. The reason for there being 2 possible letters at these variant locations and not the usual 4 (A, C, T and G) has to do with biology. The variants arise through mutations (for example, an A gets flipped to a T) in somebody. It is incredibly unlikely that two mutations in the recent past (say, A to T and A to C) will occur at exactly the same place.
 However, if this lactase disabling switch was only useful to the mother, than it wouldn't evolve. But such a switch also benefits her genes, as she can now invest the resources that she gains on caring for her offspring or on rearing more children.
 Incidentally, the peppered moth also occurs in North America, and there are reports that a similar adaptation towards darker moths arose along with the rise in pollution in the nineteenth century. If true, than this is another neat example of convergent evolution.
Van't Hof AE, Edmonds N, Dalíková M, Marec F, & Saccheri IJ (2011). Industrial Melanism in British Peppered Moths Has a Singular and Recent Mutational Origin. Science (New York, N.Y.) PMID: 21493823
Tishkoff SA, Reed FA, Ranciaro A, Voight BF, Babbitt CC, Silverman JS, Powell K, Mortensen HM, Hirbo JB, Osman M, Ibrahim M, Omar SA, Lema G, Nyambo TB, Ghori J, Bumpstead S, Pritchard JK, Wray GA, & Deloukas P (2007).__ Convergent adaptation of human lactase persistence in Africa and Europe.__ Nature genetics, 39 (1), 31-40 PMID: 17159977
Wikimedia Commons Licensed: Light and dark moth (typica and carbonia)


Stoplog Recovery, Claytor Hydroelectric Plant
American Electric Power
A stoplog is used to stop or block the flow of water in front of crest gates so that the gates can be operated, inspected, and repaired with no water head pressure against them. The operator of a gated structure has the ability to control the water level in a channel by adding or removing individual stoplogs. Each log is lowered into a space between two grooved piers referred to as a stoplog check. At the Claytor Hydroelectric Plant, the stoplog assembly consists of nine separate logs vertically stacked. The logs are moved by an overhead gantry crane. During normal moving operations one of the logs became detached from the crane and was presumed to be on the bottom of Claytor Lake. Marine Solutions was contracted to locate and salvage the 35,000-pound steel log from the bottom of the lake and place it back on the dam structure. Marine Solutions mobilized and assembled a 60-foot by 60-foot barge and loaded it with a 150-ton crawler crane capable of recovering the log, along with a dive station with deep-dive capabilities, including a decompression chamber. The log was found using underwater imaging equipment at a depth of 110 feet. Within two days on-site, Marine Solutions had recovered the log and placed it back on the dam with no damage to the log. The log was then placed back into service.


They are inconspicuous and well camouflaged for living on the forest floor, old fields, or wet spring meadows. Their eyes are nearly on the back of their heads, giving them the ability to see not only what is in front of them but what is behind them. Their bills look too long for their body; but this elongated bill helps them eat their weight in earthworms and other small invertebrates like spiders, beetles, and ants each day. And, in spring, males do an incredible “sky dance” at dusk and dawn, a mating display that is a highlight to any evening walk in springtime.
Who are they? They are American woodcock (woodcock), also known as the timberdoodle and Labrador twister. Woodcocks are mourning dove sized birds. They have short necks and tails and large heads and beaks. They are one of the few shore birds that have adapted to living in the forest.
For many people, the mating “dance” of the male woodcock is a sure sign that spring has arrived. The courtship ritual starts at dusk with the male sitting on the ground in an opening in the forest or in a small field. He repeatedly utters a distinctive peent call. Next he takes off from the ground flying in a slow upward spiral. As the wind moves through the wings, a whistling sound can be heard as the bird rises. When he reaches 200-350 feet above the ground, the wing sounds become irregular and then cease as he starts a zig-zag descent. He also chirps as he goes down. He then lands silently next to a female woodcock, if she is present, and resumes peenting. The display starts again and will continue well into dark. He resumes the “dance” near dawn and will continue it until sunrise. Listen for them in the evening in wet meadows or fields in March or April, even before the snow has melted. (Click here to listen to a woodcock.)
After mating, a female woodcocks lays her eggs in shallow depressions on the ground. She usually lays four eggs that take about 21 days to incubate. Once they are hatched out, the young chicks follow their mother, learning what to eat. They grow quickly on their earthworm and insect diet. By the time they are a month old, they are nearly the same size as their mothers.
In mid-fall woodcocks migrate from New York to the southeastern coast. They return to New York once the ground has thawed.
Post by Susan Carver, OPRHP.
Join us for a “Woodcock Walk” at:
Theodore Roosevelt Nature Center, Jones Beach State Park, Wantagh, Adult Ed-ventures, Friday, April 10, 7-8:30 pm, $4/person
American woodcock, Cornell Lab of Ornithology, http://www.allaboutbirds.org/guide/american_woodcock/id
American woodcock, New York State Department of Conservation, http://www.dec.ny.gov/animals/45448.html


Cutting emissions in a world already experiencing climate change has been one of the key topics last year as world powers met in Paris to talk measures aimed at curbing global warming of more than 2°C. Even though shipping has been left out of the Paris Agreement, there is a mounting pressure on the industry players to shift to more environmentally-friendly solutions. Adoption of liquefied natural gas (LNG) as marine fuel has been one of the most common solutions for ship owners, and 2015 has seen numerous industry-firsts and industry records, such as the largest LNG-powered containership.
World Maritime News spoke with Patrick Janssens, Vice President of Global Gas Solutions, American Bureau of Shipping (ABS) to learn more about the challenges of construction and classification of such ships, along with the prospects for investments in LNG across the board in 2016.
WMN: In light of the recently held COP21 summit in Paris, and the exclusion of shipping from the agreement reached, the shipping industry nonetheless expects to decrease CO2 emissions. What role is LNG as marine fuel expected to play in this initiative?
Janssens: LNG as a marine fuel has a central role in reducing the overall CO2 emissions inventory from shipping, and it will become increasingly attractive as shipping and its regulators work to further reduce the industry’s contribution to climate change.
WMN: We have seen various maritime sectors venture into LNG as marine fuel, the latest one being cruise ships. What domain remains unexplored? What industry-first could we see next?
Janssens: The area that, if not unexplored, certainly is not fully exploited, is the main fleet of bulk carriers and tankers. ABS has classed LNG Ready product tankers and is collaborating on an LNG Ready bulk carrier design, but these are the sectors that have yet to fully embrace the concept. The reasons are numerous: the low bunker price, the number of sailing days spent within an Emission Control Area (ECA), the availability of low sulphur fuel and alternative compliance options. In addition, the tramp trading patterns of many bulk carriers and tankers increase the challenge of sourcing LNG fuel in multiple locations. But just as with containerships, it seems likely that more and more owners will consider this option in the future.
WMN: What are the key things/challenges to have in mind when performing a classification of an LNG-powered ship? Could you describe us the process in a few points?
Janssens: Using LNG as fuel is not new – LNG carriers have used boil-off gas from cargo as fuel since the launch of the first LNG carrier entered service in 1964; so the technical challenges are generally well known and understood. What is new in applying LNG as fuel to cargo ships is understanding how the arrangement of the cargo tanks, fueling system and main engine impact cargo capacity and ship operations. For LNG bunkering vessels, the process is closer to existing principles, but in both cases, a critical challenge is ensuring crew training and competence that reflect the differences between conventional fuel and LNG as fuel.
WMN: ABS took part in construction of TOTE Maritime’s Isla Bella, the largest containership powered by LNG. What were the key challenges during the design/construction process? Could we see more of such or bigger ships join the global fleet any time soon?
Janssens: The most fundamental challenge was supervising the construction of an LNG-powered containership at a shipyard that had no previous experience building this type of vessel. This meant that co-ordination among owner, designer, shipyard, class society and regulator had to be closer than ever to deliver the required level of quality and safety. TOTE Maritime’s Marlin-class ships – just like those for Nordic Hamburg – were built for specific trades and capacities, but the interest shown in LNG Ready designs suggests it is only a matter of time before we see larger LNG-powered containerships.
WMN: How would you asses the capability of US shipbuilders to build these complex ships? Percentage-wise, how many of them have the necessary know-how and what can be done to increase this number to bring the production from Korean yards to the US?
Janssens: The US shipbuilding market has proven itself able to take on the challenge of these new ship types, and their knowledge is increasing as they successfully complete small and large newbuilding projects as well as evaluating conversions. One of the big challenges in building LNG carriers and LNG-fueled ships is that new yards in new locations want to get into these markets; so the task of ABS is to provide the guidance and support to help them do so safely and sustainably.
WMN: Seeing that the shipping industry is sailing through a challenging period, especially the containership and dry bulk shipping segments, how do you think this might affect investments in LNG-powered/LNG-ready newbuilds? What is the feedback from the market?
Janssens: Containership operators – especially those with heavy ECA operations or those for whom adopting cleaner fuel is important to their clients –have already begun making the investment, but as always, the business case will need to be balanced across a number of factors. The ship finance climate in 2016 will be tight, but there is no doubt that investors of all kinds realise that together with operational efficiency, the potential for cleaner operations from using LNG as fuel will be attractive in certain markets.
WMN: Speaking of the US shipping companies and investments in LNG-powered ships, do you see demand for these ships picking up? What are the obstacles for more companies to order this type of ships, and what could be done to remove these obstacles?
Janssens: The North American shipping market probably has the fewest number of obstacles to adopting LNG as fuel because it has a coastal trading fleet that needs to comply with ECA regulations. Regulation remains the strongest driver – just as it does in Europe’s Sulphur Emission Control Areas – because the economic and environmental arguments merge.
WMN: Are the existing safety regulations considered sufficient to prevent major incidents on LNG-powered vessels?
Janssens: With the IGF Code adopted in 2015 together with associated amendments to SOLAS and STCW Convention and Code, the industry has a platform on which to build for the future. The Code contains mandatory provisions for the arrangement, installation, control and monitoring of machinery, equipment and systems using low-flashpoint fuels and is intended to minimise the risk to the ship, its crew and the environment. Together with the technical requirements, it is important to consider the necessary training, certification and competence of personnel serving on gas-fueled ships as a part of the overall package.
WMN: 2015 is over, how would you assess the year and what can we expect from ABS in 2016?
Janssens: 2016 will be a challenging year for many sectors of the shipping industry. An uncertain economic outlook, the low oil price, pressure on earnings, the costs of compliance and the desire for operational efficiency will be the key drivers to owners seeking sustainable operations. For ABS, our mission does not waver – we will continue to provide best in class classification services that support the industry and protect life, property and the environment.
World Maritime News Staff; Image Courtesy: ABS


It is hard to walk through Venice, Italy without wondering how the place was built, its architecture rising inexplicably out of the dark water below, or how water, power and internet traverse its myriad canals. The Rialto Bridge is a great place to begin unpacking these mysteries.
Making this bridge possible is a forest of over 12,000 tree trunks burrowing below the surface. Dating back centuries, these foundations are embedded through loose soil below the waterline and into solid clay below, and support over 10,000 tons worth of structure above.
The whole city sits on over 10,000,000 tree trunks. The wood doesn’t rot because the poles are protected by surrounding mud, away from oxygen that would lead to decay.
Meanwhile, bridges like the Rialto serve a function beyond just connecting people — they also help water and utilities flow around the city, without needing to burrow underground or displace space in shallow canals.
The city still faces threats from structural decay, sinking structures and rising water levels, but perhaps the most amazing thing is that it is still standing at all hundreds of years after it was built.


I. THE BACKGROUND OF THE COVENANT WITH NOAH
1. The BIG PICTURE of Genesis 1-9:
It's good to remember that there were two absolutely cataclysmic changes that took place on the earth in the early chapters of Genesis: the fall of Adam; and the flood during the time of Noah.1
A) The FALL: Before the fall, mankind was sinless and creation was untouched by the effects of sin. But when Adam fell, it wasn't just mankind that was cursed, but the earth itself (Genesis 3:17; 5:29).
B) The FLOOD: This was the second cataclysmic change. After the fall of man, the earth became cursed. But the flood that came upon the world also resulted in catastrophic effects on the earth.2
2. The TRANSITION PERIOD of Genesis 3-5:
A) The Emergence of Two Lines:
One of the things we learned from Genesis 3:15 was that the Lord was going to put enmity between the seed of the woman and the seed of the serpent, that is, between the children of God and the children of the Devil; between those who would trust in the coming Messiah and those who wouldn't. In Genesis 4-5 we begin to see the fulfillment of these words. We begin to discern who are the seed of the serpent and who are the seed of God, and we begin to see the hostility between them that the Lord had spoken of. In Genesis 4, Cain shows himself to be of the seed of the serpent, and in the murder of his innocent brother Abel, we are pointed back to the enmity the Lord had spoken of in Genesis 3:15. After the death of Abel, Eve gives birth to Seth (4:25).3
After the account of Cain and Abel, we begin to see the emergence of two distinct family lines through the genealogies recorded in Genesis 4-5: the line of Cain (4:16-24), and the line of Seth (5:1-32). We also begin to understand that these two family lines represent two very different responses to the Lord. The physical seed represents spiritual seed. Those of the line of Cain show themselves to be the offspring of the serpent, children of the devil; those of the line of Seth show themselves to be the offspring of the woman, true children of God.4 So, again, we see:
I) The UNGODLY Line: Cain and his offspring (Genesis 4:16-24). The outcome of CAIN's line: Seven generations from Adam is LAMECH, the epitome of rebellion; a man totally hardened in heart towards marriage, life, and God (4:23-24).
II) The GODLY Line: Seth and his offspring (Genesis 5:1-32). The outcome of SETH's line: Seven generations from Adam came ENOCH (“dedicated”), a godly man who was taken home to the Lord (5:21-24).
III) The Biblical STORY Line: By the way, these two family lines representing two responses to the Lord don't stop with Lamech or Enoch. We see this reality continue to be played out throughout Genesis, and really, throughout the whole of the Scriptures. Noah, you remember, had three sons; one of them—Ham—showed himself to be of the seed of the serpent, while Shem inherits the blessing as a child of God. Abraham would later come from the line of Shem, and his sons Isaac and Ishmael would typify the same realities; Ishmael is called a child of the flesh, he persecutes Isaac, and he is cast out (Galatians 4:29); but Isaac is called the child of promise, and proves to be of the seed of God. Isaac likewise had two sons, Jacob and Esau; Esau is not a child of God; he doesn't know God, he doesn't love God; but Jacob shows himself to be of the seed of the woman; a true child of God. Many years later, Jesus would also use this same language when He told the Jews, “You are of your father the devil,” (John 8:44).
B) The Effects of Sin and the Grace of God (Genesis 5:1-32):
In the midst of these two distinct lines running through Genesis 3-5, we are also constantly confronted with two pervasive realities: SIN and GRACE. In particular, we see:
I) The EFFECTS of SIN: In studying the godly line of Seth in Genesis 5 we are confronted with the devastating effects of sin. Throughout Genesis 5, we read over and over and over again, “...and he died.” And remember—Genesis 5 was the godly line—these were believers. What we see here is that even the godly continue to be affected by the curse that came through Adam's sin. They're not exempt from the temporal effects of sin in this life (and neither are we).
II) The GRACE of GOD: We see God's grace, first, in preserving the line of Seth. Later, we'll talk more in depth about how God's covenant promises extend not only to believers, but also to their children. Well, that's exactly what we see in Genesis 5: God is preserving the line of this covenant family for generations. Enoch was a man who walked with God (5:21-24). And Noah's father, Lamech, named his son what he did through faith in the promise that God had given to Adam and Eve (5:29). So, we see that God deals with entire families in the covenant—not just with individuals. God has made promises, not just to us, but to our entire covenant line after us.
We also see God displaying His grace in another way. In Genesis 4:26 we read, “Then men began to call upon the name of the Lord.” This took place during the days of Enosh the son of Seth (4:26). Evidently, God began to pour out His Spirit in remarkable ways during the days of Enosh. Jonathan Edwards takes this to be a description of the first recorded revival in the history of the world—an outpouring of the Spirit that drew multitudes to faith in the coming Messiah.5
3. The IMMEDIATE CONTEXT of Genesis 5-6:
A) The Lineage of Noah and the Preface to the Flood (Genesis 5): It's good to remember that even though Genesis 5 is a short chapter, it covers the span of over 1,500 years. Let that sink in a bit. It's easy to think of Noah coming right after Adam, but even if we assume there are no gaps in the Genesis 5 genealogy,6 the flood came 1,656 years after God had created Adam. So, Genesis 5 is a short chapter in our Bible but covers a great deal of time.
I) METHUSELAH (5:25): Yes, he was the oldest man recorded in Scripture, living 969 years; but there is more here. His name means, “When he is dead it shall be sent.” And when does he die? Add 187 (5:25) + 182 (5:28) + 600 (age of Noah at the flood; 7:6) = 969. Pretty amazing!7
II) LAMECH (5:28): “Overthrower,” probably an allusion to Genesis 3:15 and the promise of the Coming One who would overthrow the work of the serpent. It's also pretty amazing to note that Lamech was 56 years old when Adam died. Adam died 126 years before Noah was born.
III) NOAH (5:29): “Rest.” Noah's name reflects the Sabbath rest that God would give His people in salvation. Noah himself would be a picture of that rest in several ways, as we'll see.8
B) The Sons of God and the Daughters of Men (Genesis 6:1-4): Bible interpreters have been baffled by Genesis 6:1-2. What in the world are these verses talking about? Who are the “sons of God” and the “daughters of men” described in this passage?9
I) UNLIKELY Interpretations:
a) Fallen angels who had sexual relations with women. Some take this position because the language of “sons of God” is used in the Old Testament to refer solely to angels (Job 1:6).10
b) Tyrannical kings who kept large harems. Others take this position, largely because civil magistrates are sometimes called elohim (“gods”) in the Old Testament (Psalm 82:6).11
II) LIKELY Interpretation:
c) The believing line of Seth intermingling in marriage with the unbelieving line of Cain: There are three main arguments for this view: First, the concept of a godly line and of an ungodly line has been established in the immediate context of Genesis 4-5. The line of Seth and the line of Cain are deliberately traced. Secondly, the concept of sonship based on divine election is an important Old Testament theme. Scripture calls believers the children of God (1 John 3:1); God is our Father. So when the language “sons of God” is used, it refers to those who are a part of the line of promise—the seed of the woman. Third, there are warnings about marriages between believers and unbelievers throughout the Pentateuch and the Old Testament Scriptures in general.12 So it makes sense why Moses would include this in the Genesis account: it's not just a piece of random information—he's giving us a warning.13
II. AN OVERVIEW OF THE COVENANT WITH NOAH
The covenant with Noah is the first manifestation of the Covenant of Grace after the gospel promise God had given to Adam and Eve in Genesis 3:15. To review, here's where we are in redemptive history:
I. The Covenant of Works with Adam
II. The Genesis 3:15 promise of a Redeemer:
A) The Noahic Covenant
B) The Abrahamic Covenant
C) The Mosaic Covenant
D) The Davidic Covenant
E) The New Covenant


As of 1987 the Soviet Union had more than 9,000 strategic SAM launchers, nearly 5,000 tactical SAM launchers (excluding handheld), and some 10,000 air defense radars. These strategic surface-to-air missiles provide low-to-high altitude barrier, area, and terminal defenses under all weather conditions. Five systems are now operational: SA-2, and SA-3, and the more capable SA-5, SA-10 and SA-12. Over the years, the Soviets continued to deploy the long-range SA-5 and have repeatedly modified this system, while the SA-1 was finally phased out in the mid-1980s.
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The National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI) launched a public research consortium named ENCODE, the Encyclopedia Of DNA Elements, in September 2003, to carry out a project to identify all functional elements in the human genome sequence.
The pilot phase tested and compared existing methods to rigorously analyze a defined portion of the human genome sequence. It was organized as an open consortium (See: ENCODE Pilot Project: Participants and Projects) and brought together investigators with diverse backgrounds and expertise to evaluate the relative merits of each of a diverse set of techniques, technologies and strategies. The concurrent technology development phase of the project aimed to develop new high throughput methods to identify functional elements. The goal of these efforts was to identify a suite of approaches that would allow the comprehensive identification of all the functional elements in the human genome. Through the ENCODE pilot, NHGRI assessed the abilities of different approaches to be scaled up for an effort to analyze the entire human genome and to find gaps in the ability to identify functional elements in genomic sequence.
The ENCODE Pilot Project process involved close interactions between computational and experimental scientists to evaluate a number of methods for annotating the human genome. A set of regions (See: ENCODE Pilot Project: Target Selection) representing approximately 1 percent (30 Mb) of the human genome was selected as the target for the pilot project and was analyzed by all ENCODE Pilot Project investigators. All data generated by ENCODE participants on these regions was rapidly released into public databases. The ENCODE Pilot Project Consortium was open to all academic, government and private sector scientists interested in participating in an open process to facilitate the comprehensive interpretation of the human genome sequence and who agreed to the criteria for participation for the project.
National Human Genome Research Institute
National Institutes of Health
5635 Fishers Lane
Suite 4076, MSC 9305
Bethesda, MD 20892-9305
Phone: (301) 496-7531
Fax: (301) 480-2770
Last Updated: October 18, 2012


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- I am about to take a rapid review of the history of the French Revolution, which began the era of new societies in Europe, as the English Revolution had begun the era of new governments. This revolution not only modified the political power, but it entirely changed the internal existence of the nation. The forms of the society of the Middle Ages still remained. The land was divided into hostile provinces, the population into rival classes. The nobility had lost all their powers, but still retained all their distinctions: the people had no rights, royalty no limits; France was in an utter confusion of arbitrary administration, of class legislation and special privileges to special bodies. For these abuses the revolution substituted a system more conformable with justice, and better suited to our times. It substituted law in the place of arbitrary will, equality in that of privilege; delivered men from the distinctions of classes, the land from the barriers of provinces, trade from the shackles of corporations and fellowships, agriculture from feudal subjection and the oppression of tithes, property from the impediment of entails, and brought everything to the condition of one state, one system of law, one people.
- History of the French Revolution from 1789 to 1814, Introduction


English: One Language for Everybody
As time goes on, the world is becoming more globalized. Learning English is a requirement in most countries and it is affecting how information is spread in the world. What this means for current students is that, most likely, English will become a part of their career at one point or another. When we think about all the companies in the world and how they have spread globally, employers are looking for talented multi-lingual more than ever.
This post was written by our TEFL certification graduate Sirat B. Please note that this blog post might not necessarily represent the beliefs or opinions of ITTT.
Access to information has become more prominent in the world and for one to holster more knowledge, they need to understand it through English. English will influence a student’s career by preparing them for the upcoming competition in the globalized world. It is a teacher’s responsibility to make sure their students have access to this information.
Also Read: How do I choose a TEFL course?
English has already started to appear in most aspects of daily life in non-English speaking countries. English is on billboards, notices, road signs and more. It will affect someone’s career when trying to become a prospective employee because employees that are efficient in English are first sought out. Even knowing English will make one a better fast food server, a better café barista, a better salesperson, etc. It is creeping into daily life and the better one can understand it, the easier it will be for them. Even if one does not deal in globalized sales, international trade, and or dabbles in a career where English is prominent, somewhere along the span of their career they will encounter and deal with English is some form or another. What this means for teachers is that they have to prepare students for English in the world today by using authentic texts in class and teaching common terminology so that they may succeed in any field.
As for companies that do work internationally and have a global reach, they are looking for skilled employees that can speak two or more languages, but especially English. As English is decidedly the global language of business and tourism, English skills are highly needed. For example, if a clothing company wants to ship items internationally, they need to be able to communicate with prospective buyers in a language that is globally known.
Another aspect of a company that needs English speaking employees is research companies that need to be able to understand and conduct experiments based on research conducted by other companies. That information is important to make global progress and companies will hire people who can access that information. It will highly affect someone’s career if they can speak English and it will allow someone to have a leg up in the competition to get high paying and esteemed jobs. A way a teacher can help those in the business field is to cater to their needs by teaching English phrases that are appropriate for their line of work. For example, a teacher could use a research paper by a similar company and teach about the terminology in that paper.
As mentioned above, information is needed and wanted. In our world today, we have access to information at our fingertips. However, a lot that information is in English. If one wants to enhance their career and bring that information to their workplace, it will benefit the company and the employee to know English. An employee who can comb through English essays on economics and trade will highly benefit a trading company. A researcher at an environmental engineering firm that can understand the procedure taken by another company to clean radioactive particles from the soil will be highly sought out.
Companies need to access information and they need people who can easily understand what the information is and how it can be applied. A teacher must be very aware of this because a teacher needs to take the appropriate steps to teach their students. The students need to understand what the information means. For example, if an article says, “I have been working on this experiment for three months” they need to understand that the writer has already experimented for three months, not that they will soon be working on the experiment for three months. They can’t understand it well if they don’t know the difference between the present continuous form and present perfect continuous form.
Do you want to teach English abroad? Take a TEFL course!
To conclude, in the world today there is a lot of competition to get employment and prospective employees need to be better than ever. Students need to be prepared by teachers for the upcoming English needs that will eventually cross their paths. Teachers need to make students skilled to stand out from the rest and give companies what is needed. Students need to be able to access information that is not already translated into their native tongue. Students need to compete with others and that competition will bring English to the forefront and affect their career indefinitely. A teacher’s job is to help a student access global information and help them succeed in English.
Speak with an ITTT advisor today to put together your personal plan for teaching English abroad.
Send us an email or call us toll-free at 1-800-490-0531 to speak with an ITTT advisor today.
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Mixed venous oxygen saturation (Svo2) can provide useful information regarding a patient’s clinical condition. As such, there continues to be an interest in this value as a clinical predictor of outcomes. Svo2 is measured at the level of the pulmonary artery. It reflects the oxygen saturation of the blood returning from the body to the heart. To obtain a true measurement, a blood sample is drawn from the distal tip of a pulmonary artery catheter. This allows the blood to be a true mixture of superior and inferior vena cava as well as coronary sinus blood (venous return from all parts of the body). More sophisticated monitoring exists whereby mixed venous oxygenation is displayed continuously via specialized pulmonary artery catheters. This technology allows for early changes in clinical status to be detected, though it has not been proven to be superior to periodic measurement via a standard pulmonary artery catheter.
Normal Svo2 is 70%, with a range of 60%-80%. The absolute number is an indicator of the percentage of reduced hemoglobin left after the body’s organs and tissues have extracted oxygen.
The Fick equation is vital to understanding mixed venous oxygen saturation. It states that:
Svo2 = Sao2 − Vo2/(CO × 1.34 × Hb)
In this equation, Svo2 is the mixed venous oxygen saturation, Sao2 the arterial oxygen saturation, Vo2 the oxygen consumption, CO the cardiac output, and Hb the hemoglobin. This equation shows that Svo2 decreases as oxygen utilization increases. If tissues extract or utilize more oxygen, less is returned to the heart, thus a lower Svo2. If Svo2 is low due to increased tissue utilization of oxygen, one must increase oxygen delivery to meet the body’s needs. Oxygen delivery is dependent on CO and oxygen content of blood. The oxygen content of blood is largely determined by hemoglobin level and oxygen saturation of arterial blood. To improve oxygen delivery, one must either improve CO, correct anemia, or improve oxygen saturation. Alternatively, a high Svo2 may indicate problems as well. High Svo2 can signify a decrease in tissue oxygen delivery (inadequate CO) or a decrease in tissue oxygen extraction (adequate CO) (Figure 161-1).
Common physiologic, pathologic, and therapeutic factors that influence venous oxygen saturation during the perioperative period. (Reproduced with permission from Shepherd S, Pearse, Rupert M. Role of central and mixed venous oxygen saturation measurement in perioperative care, Anesthesiology. 2009;111(3):649-656.)
Svo2 is a value obtained from the entire body’s venous return, and hence can be misleading. This number does not indicate the status of specific organ perfusion. Intracardiac shunting, liver failure, severe sepsis, or focal ischemia (any etiology where blood is shunted) may ...


“Standing by the cross of Jesus was his mother,” says John the Evangelist. The symbolic representation that the author, Father Ángel Vicente Cerró took of an old picture of the German abbey of Maria Laach – shows her close to her crucified son, gathering the blood from his side in a chalice. In Father Kentenich’s words, “She is ‘the permanent Helpmate and Companion in his mission to redeem mankind’ ”. (Fr. Benjamin Pereira, The Unity Cross Comes to the Original Shrine, p.7)
The Unity Cross has become one of the most characteristic symbols of the Schoenstatt Movement. Three symbols can be seen on it: the image of Christ, the image of Mary and the Father Symbol. The Unity Cross expresses the bi-unity that Schoenstatt wants to proclaim: Christ is inseparable from Mary and Mary is inseparable from Christ. The Father Symbol at the cusp of the cross illuminates everything: Christ and Mary rest in the Father, in the cross that the Father has determined in his plan of love, as the way of redemption. Moreover, Christ and Mary have a unique posture: they are alive and they are mutually looking at one another in a profound dialogue of Mother and Son. The blood that Mary gathers with his chalice emanates from Christ’s side. The fact that they are alive is not only symbolic; rather, it further makes a truth of faith evident: On the cross, Christ and Mary, as well as in reality, are presently alive in a glorious body.
The Unity Cross is the image itself of the ‘Christ of attachments’, whose most profound desire is that “all may be one,” as He and the Father are one. It shows Christ, the Son, deeply and intimately attached to Mary his Mother, permanent Helpmate and Companion in his mission to redeem mankind. It is the Christ of Unity, in the strength of his sacrifice and giving of self, extending his arms widely, uniting heaven with earth and earth with heaven.
Why was the “Unity Cross” designed?
This cross was conceived as a symbol of the first generation of Chilean priests, who studied in Brazil and Switzerland. Between 1958 and 1959, when the first Pallottine seminarians were about to be ordained as priests, they wanted to give something to the Shrine of Bellavista, which had given birth to and nurtured their faith, a cross that would express the image of the “priestly Christ.” This is how the idea emerged to represent Christ in the “Christ of Attachments”, that is the power of the Holy Spirit which is profoundly and intimately attached to the Father as a Son, and also to Mary, his Mother as permanent Helpmate and Companion in his mission to redeem mankind. It is the “Christ of Unity” who unites heaven and earth; it is “Christ, the Good Shepherd” who, reflecting the Father’s love unites man with God and man with fellowman making them sons and daughters of the same Father. (Fr. Benjamin Pereira, The Unity Cross Comes to the Original Shrine, p.7). The original cross is a Trinitarian Cross: as well as the symbols of the Father and the Son, the background is red, symbolizing the Holy Spirit.
On the back of the cross there are three phrases in Latin that express ideals and reality:
“Unum in sanguine”: One in the blood (of Christ)
“Tua res agitur”: It is your redeeming task.
“Clarifica te”: Glorify yourself (in our smallness and helplessness) (Ibid)
The first image is installed
The Unity Cross was born at a time of great tensions in Bellavista, when mistrust and mis- understanding reigned among the members of the Movement. Father Humberto Anwandter placed the original Unity Cross in the Shrine of Bellavista on Christmas of 1960. This event was called the “Miracle of Unity”, beginning a new period of unity in the Schoenstatt Family in Chile, after a time that had been marked by difficulties in the internal relationships.
Father Kentenich receives the Unity Cross
On November 16, 1965, when Father celebrated his 80th birthday in Rome, the children from Bellavista gave him the original Cross as a present, with the desire that it would be returned to the Chilean Shrine. Father Kentenich already knew it because a wooden replica had accompanied him for almost five years in Milwaukee. When he received the “original” one and the intention was manifested, he asked: “Is it a present or not?”, and when an affirmative response was given, he said: “A present is a present,” and he in turn gave it to the Province of the Institute of Our Lady of Schoenstatt in Stuttgart, Germany.
The Unity Cross for the Original Shrine arrived as a gift from the international Schoenstatt Family in 1997, during the “Year of Christ”, after it had traveled to the shrines on the five continents, gathering the life that flourished in them.
A Schoenstatt missionary cross
Without intending it, the Unity Cross spread throughout the entire Church. The cross that began with a handful of priests became a cross for the entire Family and it was extended throughout the world. In the Movement outside of Chile, it was first called the Cross from Chile. It is found on the grounds and on the altar of many Schoenstatt shrines, in wayside shrines and in home shrines.
A Schoenstatt missionary cross
Later, because of the depth of its symbolism, Christ and Mary, it began to appear on the pectoral cross of cardinals, bishops, archbishops, priests and religious communities. This was the case of Mother Teresa of Calcutta, who decided that her entire congregation would wear it. In this way, many communities and many people in the entire world assumed it.
The Unity Cross is present in many circles of the Church as a great announcement of the image that Father Kentenich gave departing from the Covenant of Love with Mary. For Schoenstatt, it is a constant call to the mission of taking Jesus and Mary, in covenant, to the world.
Along with the Pilgrim MTA, the Unity Cross, as a missionary cross, is the symbol of the Year of the Missionary Current in preparation of Jubilee 2014 and the jubilee itself.
Carmen Roger, María Elena Vilches
English translation: Celina M. Garza, San Antonio, USA


The Schiaparelli Mars lander got very close to the red planet before something went wrong. It entered the planet's atmosphere, managed not to burn up as it hurtled down and unfurled its parachute. It's unclear what happened in the final minute of descent, but it wasn't what the European and Russian space agencies had planned.
Scientists working on the ExoMars mission say the lander let go of its parachute early. Then, the thrusters that were supposed to help slow its descent — from a crazy-fast speed of 13,000 mph to 0 mph in just six minutes — appear to have turned off too soon.
"Mars exploration is hard, and that's one reason why we do it," David Parker of the European Space Agency told reporters Thursday.
The scientists are still sifting through data from sensors on the lander to try to figure out what happened. But they aren't totally distraught, because there was a second spacecraft involved in the mission and it's doing just fine.
In fact, the Trace Gas Orbiter is ready to collect information that could help answer a long-standing mystery about Mars: What is spitting out methane on the planet?
There are two main options: either it's some chemical reaction happening underground or it's a sign of something that is — or was — alive.
On Earth, microbes emit methane. Think cow farts. In goes grass, out comes methane, thanks to microbes that sit in the animals' guts and help them digest.
These days, Mars is barren, dry and exposed to harsh radiation. But about 3.5 billion years ago, the planet used to be a lot warmer and wetter, like the young planet Earth.
Any methane that makes it to Mars' surface would get obliterated by ultraviolet light after a few hundred years. But a few years ago, astronomers looking at infrared images found that methane was released from certain locations on the planet, and that it mostly happened during the warm summer months. In 2013, NASA's Curiosity rover also detected bursts of methane. So, scientists reason, something is actively releasing methane.
It could be some chemical reaction happening underground — like water reacting with a certain kind of rock, or an underground volcanic process. But it could also be a sign of microbes that lived, or live, deep underground.
The Trace Gas Orbiter will spend the next few years mapping out methane on Mars. In theory, it should be able to tell the difference between methane originating from a biological source and methane from a geological source. (Methane from geologic sources should be a little bit heavier.)
"The TGO is now ready for science," said Jan Woerner, director general of the European Space Agency. "We are now in full control of the spacecraft."
If all goes as planned, the orbiter will also relay messages during the second piece of the ExoMars mission, a plan to send a rover to Mars in 2020.


Bluefield Daily Telelgraph
Saltville service will remember Civil War tragedy
By Bill Archer of the Daily Telegraph staff
SALTVILLE, Va. -- The so-called "Saltville Massacre," continues to evoke strong reactions from people, although it has been almost 135 years since the last musket was fired in anger by either side in the American Civil War.
A large force of Yankee soldiers from Indiana commanded by Gen. Stephen Burbridge were being pushed on by the string of Union Army successes that started in Gettysburg in July of 1863, and continued through 1864, were primed and ready to break the back of the Confederate Army in Southwest Virginia.
On Oct. 2, Burbridge's 5,000 soldiers engaged in a day-long battle with a much smaller force of Confederate defenders commanded by Gen. John S. Williams. The Confederate forces were well-entrenched on the hillside north of Saltville's important salt furnaces, and although they were outnumbered, they managed to hold their position.
On the morning of Oct. 3, 1864, the Confederate forces arose to discover that Burbridge had withdrawn from the field, but had left the soldiers wounded in the fighting in field hospitals or on the battlefield. Most of the wounded were African-American soldiers, many of whom were recruited straight out of slavery only weeks before and with little training, led the line of battle up an a heavily-fortified enemy position. Accounts of the battle by both sides indicate the black troops fought with great courage and discipline.
In the early morning fog of Oct. 3, 1864, Confederate soldiers went into the battlefield and executed an undetermined number of wounded soldiers from the 5th and 6th USCC. Estimates of the carnage range from "a dozen or more" to as many as 155 soldiers executed. At the time, Confederate soldiers were under orders to execute any blacks they captured in Union Army uniform, on charges of committing "servile insurrection."
The legend of the "Saltville Massacre" had been passed from generation to generation, but mostly through the oral tradition. One Confederate officer, Champ Ferguson, was tried for war crimes and hanged on Oct. 20, 1865. Although Ferguson was charged with personally committing 53 murders, he was only convicted of killing one white Union officer. Ferguson and notorious Andersonville Prison Camp Commandant, Henry Wirtz, were the only Confederates executed for war crimes committed during the entire Civil War.
With the approval of the Saltville Town Council, several individuals combined their efforts to hold a "Memorial and Remembrance" service on Oct. 2, 1998, dedicated to the men of the 5th and 6th US Colored Cavalry who made the supreme sacrifice in the fight for freedom. During last year's service, children of a youth group at Bluefield's Scott Street Baptist Church placed 155 luminaries on the hillside of the Battlefield Overlook. An hour-long service of consecration was held and included prayers, songs, a poem presentation, the reading of the names of the men of the 5th and 6th USCC, wreath placement and taps.
Cpl. Charles Rawlins of the 54th Massachusetts Reenactors posted the 54th Regimental Colors during the ceremony in 1998. The 54th Massachusetts was an African-American regiment that was featured in a recent movie, "Glory."
In addition to Rawlins, David Brown, great-great-grandson of battle survivor, Samuel Truehart, participated last year. He spoke briefly during the service, and at its conclusion, he initiated the plan to hold the service again this year, and asked that a second service be scheduled for the morning of Oct. 3, 1999, specifically to honor the soldiers who were victims of the massacre.
With the approval of Mayor Frank "T-bone" Lewis, and the Saltville Town Council, there will be two services this year honoring the men of the 5th and 6th USCC at the Saltville Battlefield Overlook. The second annual "Memorial and Remembrance Service" will be held at 7 p.m., Saturday, Oct. 2, 1999, and will include essentially the same activities as the inaugural service. Deacon Samuel Johnson will read the names of the men still listed as missing in action and Daniel wells will play "Taps."
At sunrise (6:30 a.m.) on Oct. 3, 1999, a service in memory of the massacred troops will be held. Among others on the dais, U.S. Rep. Frederick C. "Rick" Boucher, D-Va., will be the keynote speaker.
For additional information about the event, contact this newspaper at (304) 327-2811, Alcesta Wells at (304) 327-3948, or Joseph Bundy at (304) 325-7945.


Question 1 Why sodium and potassium are stored under kerosene oil?
Question 2 Give equation for reaction of sodium with oxygen?
Question 3 Give equation for reaction of potassium with oxygen?
Question 4 What happens when sodium oxide reacts with water?
Question 5 What happens when potassium oxide reacts with water?
Question 6 What are amphoteric oxides?
Reaction of metals with oxygen
When metals are burnt in air,they react with oxygen of air to form metal oxide.
Metal oxides are basic in nature.They turn red litmus to blue.
Sodium and potassium metal are stored under kerosene oil to prevent their reaction with the oxygen,moisture and carbon dioxide of air.They are so reactive that they react vigorously with oxygen.They catch fire and start burning when kept open in the air.
4Na(s) + O2 (g) —>2 Na2O (s)
4K(s) + + O2 (g) —>2 K20 (s)
Most of the metal oxides are insoluble in water except sodium oxide and potassium oxide.
Na2O (s) + H20 (l) —> 2NaOH (aq)
K20 (s) + + H20 (l) —–>2 KOH(aq)
2 Mg(s) + O2 (g) —–> 2MgO(s)
4Al(s) + 3 O2 (g) —-> 2 Al2O3 (s)
There are certain metal oxides which are basic as well as acidic.Those metal oxides which show acidic and basic behaviour are called as amphoteric oxides.
For Ex:Al and Zn metal form Al2O3 and ZnO..They are amphoteric in nature.
Al2O3 (s) +6 HCl —->2 AlCl3 (aq) +3 H20 (l)
Al2O3 (s) + 2NaOH —–> 2 Na2ZnO2 + H20 (l)
ZnO(s) + 2HCl (aq) —–> ZnCl2 (aq) + H20 (l)
ZnO(s) + 2NaOH (aq) —-> Na2ZnO2 (aq) + H20 (l)
3Fe(s) + O2 (g)—–> Fe2O3 (s)
2Cu(s) + + O2 (g) —–> 2CuO(s)
Gold and silver do not react with oxygen even at high temperature.


Natural corn borer control - With ichneumon wasps against the European corn borer
Average reading time: 4 minutes
It is and still remains one of the most important pests in maize: the European corn borer. Due to climatic changes, it is spreading more and more also in Germany and causes holes, broken plants and perhaps even damage to the maize cobs. To minimise yield and quality losses, the pest can be controlled at different stages chemically, mechanically or biologically. For example, with ichneumon wasps (Trichogramma), the natural enemies of the European corn borer.
But before we talk about corn borer control, let's understand the pest itself.
European corn borer (Ostrinia nubilalis)
The European corn borer is a small butterfly. However, it is not the butterfly that causes the damage to maize, but its caterpillars. They perforate the stalks and cobs. The result are weak spots. Damages caused by the caterpillars of the European corn borer are:
- Broken maize stalks, especially in the lower area.
- Disturbed water and nutrient supply
- Potential infection spot for fungal diseases and bacteria
Infestation begins with the migration of the moths from the maize population of the previous year. Depending on the region, it starts in June and is most intense in July. Once in the population, the females lay their eggs preferably on the lower side of the leaves. One to two weeks later, the larvae of the corn borer hatch and begin to spread to the neighbouring plants and bore into the upper part. In the course of vegetation, the caterpillars eat their way through the inside of the stem from top to bottom.
After the harvest, they remain at the base of the stalk and can overwinter in the maize stubbles that remain in the field. The following May, pupation takes place. Thus, the cycle and also the spreading starts anew.
One of the most important ways of combating the European corn borer, thus, is the effective damage of the maize stubbles during stubble cultivation, e.g. by means of a knife roller. This prevents the larvae from overwintering.
Distribution of the corn borer
It is with good reason that it is called the European corn borer. The origin of the European corn borer is in Southern and Central Europe. Later, it was introduced into North America and, in the meantime, has spread all over the world.
The distribution is encouraged by the following points:
- Good adaptability of the pest
- Increase of maize cultivation areas
- Good climatic conditions favoured by climate change
Ichneumon wasps against the corn borer
The parasitic wasps (Trichogramma) which are approx. 1 mm in size are so-called egg parasites. This means that they lay their eggs into the eggs of other parasites. In this case, into the eggs of the European corn borer. When the wasps hatch, the corn borer egg is destroyed, and the spreading of the harmful larvae is contained. The ichneumon wasps spread in the population, multiply and parasitise more corn borer eggs.
For a successful parasitisation by the ichneumon wasps, the right time of application of the beneficial insects is important. The start of the migration and the time of egg deposition are decisive. In order to choose the right time, official advisory institutions help to monitor the stages of the corn borer for different regions and give corresponding recommendations with regard to the application of the Trichogramma.
Bringing the ichneumon wasps into the population
There are various methods and devices to do so. One of them is the application by means of small capsules.
Inside the capsules, there are ichneumon wasps in four different stages of development. After the capsules have landed on the surface of the population, the ichneumon wasps leave the capsules through a small slot. Afterwards, they start searching for the eggs of the corn borers. The different development stages guarantee that the control of the corn borer takes place over a longer period of time.
The capsules are made of maize starch or cellulose, so they are biodegradable.
The capsules can be applied by hand or, in case of large areas, with drones or vehicles with sufficient ground clearance. For example, also with a distribution technology mounted on the boom of a Leeb self-propelled sprayer.
Important information about the corn borer and its control at a glance:
- Most important pest in maize
- Widespread all over the world
- Causes yield and quality losses
- Can be controlled chemically, mechanically or biologically
Ichneumon wasps as a natural method of control:
- Prevent hatching of the harmful aphid larvae
- The right time of application is important
- Can be applied in small capsules