CLIMATE CHANGE RESEARCH AT THE MISSOURI BOTANICAL GARDEN
Click on the images below to see a larger image
Nanci Ross and a GLORIA team
census vegetation on a summit
in Nepal overlooking the sacred
The work of Miguel Leal and
collaborators in Gabon and
Equatorial Guinea focusses on
finding the forests most
resilientto climate change. In
the picture above, the team is
measuring tree diversity to test
the hypothesis that the most
persistent and stable forests
will also be among the most
Climate change and overharvest
threaten both the continued
existence of Snow Lotus, and
other alpine medicinal plants,
and the medicinal traditions
they employ them. Work by Jan
Salick and Wayne Law helps us
to understand the threats to
these rare, culturally important
Climate Change and Biodiversity are the global issues of our time. Scientists at the Missouri Botanical Garden are deeply involved in research on Climate Change and conservation efforts to counteract it. Our Climate Change research spans a breadth of issues including its effects on, adaptations of, and mitigations by plants and the people who manage and depend upon them. We inform and collaborate with the scientific community, the public, conservationists, sustainable development workers, and policy makers. We address Climate Change around the world: in Latin America, in Africa, in Asia, in Oceania, and in the United States including our home state of Missouri. We will not address the fundamental evidence for Climate Change well documented by the Inter-governmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC).
Plants are affected by Climate Change in many ways and many of the solutions to Climate Change depend on plants. Most basically, the Climate Change research of the Missouri Botanical Garden monitors the effects of and details solutions for Climate Change. Here, we briefly present our various research efforts by topic and link to projects within the Missouri Botanical Garden and amongst our collaborators.
- Plant distributions and migrations are greatly affected by Climate Change. Locally, in less than two decades, we have seen the USDA hardiness zones of Missouri (and most of the country) bumped up an entire category, meaning that we can now grow plants requiring warmer weather and can no longer grow plants requiring cooler temperatures. Changes of plant species’ distributions and their migrations with Climate Change are modeled at the Missouri Botanical Garden by various researchers and our collaborators (Ozarks, Midwest, Madagascar, Paramo, Himalayas, GLORIA). Our unparalleled plant information database, TROPICOS, is prominently used to model these effects of Climate Change on plant species. In the Himalayas, the Andes, and Africa, we study changes in plant communities and biodiversity with Climate Change as a dominant research theme at the Missouri Botanical Garden and among our collaborators. Unfortunately, among the plants most negatively affected by Climate Change, because of their limited distributions and inability to migrate, are threatened endemic plants (Madagascar, Himalayas, Andes); while those plants that can most easily adapt and migrate are often invasive species and weeds (Midwest, Madagascar, Himalayas). These dramatic changes in plant distributions with Climate Change are altering our living planet as we know it, and understanding these changes is crucial for managing our future.
- Plant phenology and pollination are also altered by Climate Change. The former Director of the Missouri Botanical Garden, Dr. Edgar Anderson, took weekly walks around the Garden and the Shaw Nature Reserve in the 1950s, noting when plant species were in flush, flower, and fruit (called phenology). These data were recollected in the 1970-90s and now again recently. With Climate Change, leaf flush, flowering and fruiting are becoming earlier, while leaf fall is later. Plant pollination is also being affected by these changes linked to Climate Change.
Similar trends are found in other parts of the world. For example, the center of diversity of Rhododendrons is in the eastern Himalayas where species are found at different elevations and flower at different times. With Climate Change these spatial and temporal patterns of Rhododendrons are changing along with their pollination.
- Plant population ecology is altered significantly by Climate Change. Plant populations increase or decline depending on reproduction, germination, growth, and death. All of these factors have been shown to vary with Climate Change meaning that healthy, sustainable plant populations may become threatened as their environments change or that previously threatened populations may now be tipped toward extinction. In the Midwest, the Missouri Botanical Garden is measuring critical plant population variables for threatened species, including seed dormancy, germination, and viability in current and future climates. Will these already threatened species become extinct with Climate Change?
Snow Lotus, a valuable Tibetan medicinal plant, is threatened by both over-harvest and climate change. The Missouri Botanical Garden is studying these conditions and developing sustainable harvest and conservation strategies for these beautiful, endemic, and threatened endemics.
- Adaptation, mitigation and carbon sequestration strategies for Climate Change being developed at the Missouri Botanical Garden dovetail with the Garden’s enduring leadership in conservation of biodiversity. Plants are the one sure carbon negative resource of our planet: plants take up carbon dioxide and emit oxygen. Plants are the solution to conversion of the excess carbon dioxide that causes global warming. The Missouri Botanical Garden is in a unique position to lead the global effort to mitigate Climate Change through plants and to sequester carbon in plants.
Plant conservation and conservation of natural vegetation assure that the carbon sequestered by plants remains in those plants or in the soil organic matter rather than emitted into the atmosphere, which is what happens with deforestation. Tropical rainforests and other biomes store immense quantities of carbon; these biomes are being conserved as part of the mandate of the Missouri Botanical Garden.
With Climate Change, however, often plants are no longer adapted to the areas they now inhabit (see plant distributions and migration above). They must move with their habitats or go extinct. Several projects at the Missouri Botanical Garden are monitoring these plant responses and enabling plant migrations through conservation of corridors of natural vegetation (Midwest, Madagascar). Native plant gardens (Midwest, Costa Rica) also can conserve plants and help extend their ranges.
People too must adapt to Climate Change and plants are one of our primary tools for adaptation.Worldwide plants are the kingpin of human livelihoods. With Climate Change, agriculture and health are adversely affected (Himalayas). People must adapt through uses of plant resources often unfamiliar to them. The Missouri Botanical Garden is in a unique position to provide vast amounts of information on plant resources and to offer leadership in helping people adapt to Climate Change.
- Training and Capacity Building on Climate Change, adaptation, and mitigation are provided locally through Earthways and Education at the Missouri Botanical Garden. Internationally, our scientists work with in-country researchers and collaborators to strengthen scientific and technical capacity and train governmental, non-governmental and local organizations about Climate Change (Madagascar). In many parts of the world people see, feel, and experience drastic effects of Climate Change but have little or no idea of the causes, much less the solutions. The Missouri Botanical Garden takes very seriously our role to promote understanding of Climate Change and of our collective condition on Earth to better address solutions.
- Policy: The Missouri Botanical Garden provides leadership (Raven, Wyse-Jackson) nationally and internationally for environmental policy development, providing scientific advice to inter-governmental organizations, governments and non-governmental organization on Climate Change. For example, the Copenhagen Accord recognizes “the crucial role of reducing emission from deforestation and forest degradation and the need to enhance removals of greenhouse gas emission by forests.” The Missouri Botanical Garden is a leader not only in forming policy to prevent tropical deforestation but also in reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation in developing countries (REDD, Himalayas). With our expertise in plant research and conservation, the Missouri Botanical Garden boasts highly qualified and experienced scientists and unique resources with which to develop science based policy on Climate Change.


By Bret Sumner, 4th Virginia
Federal Canteens
As we all know, the Federal army was perhaps the most efficient quartermaster for the Army of Northern Virginia. There are numerous first person accounts of Confederate soldiers utilizing federal equipment, taken after a battle from yanks who no longer needed it. I recently read a first person account about a Confederate private who, while a battle was still raging, rushed in front of his own line to obtain the haversack of a dead federal soldier. (Several of us may remember the SWB’s very own Sgt. “Dusty” Chapman of the 27th VA – doing something similar this year during the Wilderness Campaign at Sanders Field – to obtain some yankee brogans!).
There were two basic patterns of canteens issued to the Federal army during the War Between the States: (1) the “smoothside” pattern (aka 1858 pattern); and (2) corrugated canteens (aka “bullseye” canteens; aka 1862 pattern). “Smoothside” canteens were manufactured by a variety of Federal contractors and were issued or produced from the federal depots in New York, Philadelphia, Cincinnati, and St. Louis. The “Pattern of 1858” was described as a “oblate spheroid tinned sheet iron” canteen, which in modern parlance, translates to “smoothside.” The corrugated canteens were first produced around July of 1862 by the Philadelphia Depot. Corrugated canteens generally had either 5, 7, or 11 rings on the sides, as opposed to being smoothside, hence the modern parlance “bullseye” canteen.
The New York Depot issued only the smoothside canteen (1858 Pattern), it did not have manufacturing capability and therefore only received and shipped lots of “complete” canteens received from its contractors. New York Depot canteens had the following characteristics:
- The “body” of the canteen was made of “oblate spheroid tinned sheet iron” (translation = smoothside tin).
- A spout of white metal (not tin), occasionally mounted on the canteen with large spout “shoulder” reinforcement that bulged out from the canteen.
- The Stopper (cork with wire loop) was attached with a jack chain, with a hole punched in a tin strap keeper to hold the chain.
- New York Depot canteens had leather slings until mid-1862, and then cotton, linen, or cloth slings thereafter.
- Most canteen covers were made of course gray wool jean cloth. Some of this jean cloth may have been dyed with logwood, which would have faded with exposure to the sun into a brownish color.
The Philadelphia Depot issued smoothside canteens until July, 1862 and thereafter issued the “bullseye” pattern canteen. The bullseye pattern canteen had the following characteristics:
- Corrugated sides with generally either 5 or 7 rings. 11-ring varieties were also produced.
- A spout of white metal (not tin).
- The Stopper was attached with a string or cord. No hole was punched into the tin strap holder. Note: Only the New York Depot produced jack chains for canteens. Also, jack chains were not produced by any Confederate state – jack chain manufacturers were only located in the North.
- Leather slings – until approximately, July 1862. By mid-8162, canteen straps were made of one-inch white cotton herring bone webbing.
- Canteen covers were made of either (1) cheap kersey; (2) cheap sky-blue or gray satinet; (3) any other material available, such as material from old blankets, discarded overcoats, and upholstery material.
General Characteristics of Federal Canteens
Up until mid-1862, most federal canteen sling was made of leather, with a tin buckle and protector (which was a “lip” of leather underneath the tin buckle, apparently made to protect the uniform or clothing from rust or staining). After mid-1862, all federal depots manufactured canteen slings were made of cotton, linen, or cloth. The cloth straps had folded and machine-sewn edges, or “four-panel, double chevron” weave one-inch wide web. In regard to non-leather canteen slings, its interesting to note that numerous surviving originals indicate that the soldiers modified their canteen slings by shortening them and then re-stitching the ends together. This personal modification makes sense – individual soldiers modified their slings to fit their size, in an effort to keep their canteen riding high on their body to avoid the canteen banging against their legs or hip.
As mentioned above, only the New York Depot produced canteens with jack chain stopper (cork) attachments. Generally, all other Federal depots attached the canteen stopper with approximately 20 inches of stout cotton or linen cord. The cord was tied in a loop and passed through itself, first through the stopper loop, and then through the sling keeper loop.
As mentioned above, the most common material used for canteen covers was cheap, course grey jean cloth or wool. This material would oxidize with time and develop into almost a “camel” color brown. Other types of tan, brown, or gray jean cloth were also used for covers. Importantly, federal canteens with sky blue covers were extremely rare, and dark blue wool covers were non-existent. Unfortunately, there is a prevalence of dark blue or sky blue canteen covers in re-enacting today. Dark blue wool was not used for canteen covers because it was fairly expensive and usually reserved for the making of frock coats and sack coats. Jean cloth was very inexpensive, yet durable, material – and therefore more practical for the construction of canteen covers.
I did not have time to conduct much research regarding the issuance of canteens produced by the Southern States and issued to the Army of Northern Virginia. I have not yet found any real documentation or reliable secondary source material. Obviously, there was a wide variety of canteens worn by Confederate soldiers, including a variety of wooden canteens (most prominent in the Western Theatre), tin drum canteens (please consult Echos of Glory for representative examples), and Federal canteens. I do know that Confederate produced tin drum canteens were issued to many ANV regiments in 1861 and early 1862. For example, I know that some companies of the 4th Virginia had tin drum canteens at First Manassas. I also recently examined an extremely detailed inventory of quartermaster and ordnance records for the 4th Texas Vol. Infantry – Hood’s Texans (Longstreet’s Corps) and, interestingly, there are no records for the issuance of canteens after December 31, 1862. (I am in the process of writing another article to discuss and analyze these quartermaster records – they are amazing).
Based upon examination of pictures of Confederate prisoners (i.e. the famous picture of Spotsylvania prisoners at “The Punch Bowl” and the picture of prisoners at White House Landing), it seems that many of the Confederates with federal canteens did not have any cover on them whatsoever. It may be inferred from these pictures that Confederate soldiers would have “canabalized” their canteen covers in order to use the materials for patching worn clothing.
General Recommendations for Fine-Tuning your impression:
(Remember – these recommendations are just well-meaning advice from a pard, – and should not be taken as directive or mandatory requirement.)
- Disregard sky blue or dark blue wool canteen covers and replace with grey wool or grey or brown jean cloth.
- For late war impressions, the absence of canteen covers and the utilization of cloth or linen slings, as opposed to leather slings would make sense.
- Only smoothside (New York Depot) canteens should have jack chain stopper attachments. All other canteens should have cord/string attaching the cork to the canteen or no attachment at all.
- Non-leather canteen slings should be shortened to “ride high” on your body – resting just above your hip. Extra holes can be punched in leather slings to allow for further shortening.
- If you are doing an 1861-62 impression and have a leather sling, you may wish to consider purchasing a correctly construct sling that has a “protector” (leather lip) underneath the tin buckle. (Unfortunately, there are very few people who make correct reproductions – see below)
Modern Sutlers – Sources for Correct Canteens:
[Admin’s Note: This is an older article we are reprinting and so cannot confirm the following sutlers remain in business or that prices remain as noted below]
- Confederate Wooden Canteens: The best source is Fort Branch Supply Co. – the owner, Ken Bucher, makes an exact reproduction of a Gardner pattern Confederate wooden canteen, made of juniper. This reproduction canteen is copied from an original issued out of the Raleigh Depot in North Carolina. Every detail of this original canteen is reproduced, including the depot stamp on the sling, coopering the staves, applying the banding, and sealing the inside with bees’ wax. These canteens are so authentic that the National Park system and several antique dealers requested that the reproduction canteens be signed and numbered to prevent one from being passed off as an original. The cost is $64.95 (which includes shipping). Contact Information: Fort Branch Supply Co., P.O. Box 190 Windsor, NC 27983; Phone: (919) 794-5400; e-mail: email@example.com
- Federal Smoothside or Bullseye Canteens: The most correct source is C&D Jarnigan – yes, I said Jarnigan. However, when ordering be sure to request a tin (not stainless steel) canteen, with a canvas sling and no cover. Jarnigan only offers sky blue or dark blue canteen covers. Contact: C&D Jarnigan – phone: 601-287-4977; e-mail firstname.lastname@example.org; web-site: www.jarnaginco.com
- Correct Canteen Covers: Charlie Childs offers a simple canteen cover kit for $6.00. Contact: County Cloth, 13797-C Georgetown St. NE, Paris, Ohio 44669; phone: (330) 862-3307. You can choose the material from his current selection of jean and then he will send you a kit, with the necessary markings and directions to assist you in sewing the cover. Making your own canteen cover is relatively simple.
- Correct Canteen Slings:
Cotton Web Straps: Leighton Young, 1601 Wingate Way Dunwoody, GA 30350; phone (770) 901-9048.
Correct Leather Slings (with tin buckle “protector”): James Owens – Silver Spring, Maryland; phone (301) 681-7462. Or Historic Clothiers, P.O. Box 28, Butler N.J. 07405; e-mail HistCloth@aol.com; Website: www.HistCloth.com
 Sources: “The Federal Canteen” by Robert A. Braun (33rd Wisconsin); “The Civil War Issue Canteen: Patterns of 1858 and 1862” by Earl J. Coats; “Oblate Spheroid Canteen 1858-1916: A Standard Recognition Guide” by William Phillips and Carter Rila.


According to the National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA), electric motors account for nearly 40% of total electricity consumption in the US, especially in the industrial and commercial sectors. Improving motor efficiency throughout the country represents a significant opportunity to save energy, so NEMA launched the first version of its Premium Efficiency standard for motors in 2001.
Our electrical engineers can select the most efficient motors for your building systems.
The US Department of Energy estimated that the program could yield the following economic and environmental benefits during the decade after its launch:
- Saving 5,800 gigawatt-hours of electricity for US homes and businesses.
- Preventing the emission of 80 million metric tons of carbon, which is equivalent to removing 16 million cars from circulation.
NEMA Premium Efficiency motors exceed the minimum efficiency legally required by the Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 (EISA), and the program covers motors with the following characteristics:
- Rated capacity from 1 hp to 500 hp
- Three-phase, low-voltage power supply
- NEMA Design A and B
- General, special and definite purpose motors
Although motors below 1 hp are not covered by the standard, it is possible to achieve similar efficiency levels with electronically-commutated motors (ECM), which are better suited for fractional horsepower applications. ECMs also feature built-in speed control, which means they do not require a variable frequency drive (VFD) to operate below rated speed.
What is the Efficiency of NEMA Premium Motors?
It is important to note that motor efficiency normally varies depending on horsepower and load percentage, so there is no single efficiency value that applies for all NEMA Premium Efficiency motors. However, NEMA Premium is the highest motor efficiency tier in US standards, surpassing both NEMA Energy Efficient motors (intermediate tier) and NEMA Standard Efficiency motors (low tier). In general, efficiency levels become higher as motor horsepower increases, as shown in the following table from NEMA:
Standard Efficiency (%)
Energy Efficient (%)
Premium Efficiency (%)
This table is for motors operating at full-load. However, NEMA Premium Efficiency motors can normally operate at high efficiency for all load values above 50%, reaching their peak efficiency at around 80% load.
Although efficiency gains may seem small when upgrading to a higher motor class, consider that the power loss reduction is significant. To exemplify this, assume a standard 100-hp motor will be upgraded to a NEMA Premium version.
- The standard motor draws 80.8 kW, while the NEMA Premium version draws 78.2 kW.
- A reduction of 2.6 kW may seem small compared with the motor’s rated power, but it yields 20,800 kWh in savings assuming 8,000 hours of use per year.
- With an electricity cost of $0.10/kWh, this translates into yearly savings of $2,080.
Motor efficiency gains between classes seem small when viewed as percentages, but the benefits are evident once percentage gains are translated to kilowatts and power bill savings.
Recommendations for NEMA Premium Motors
Like with any energy efficiency upgrade, it is important to carry out a detailed technical and financial assessment before purchasing NEMA Premium Efficiency motors. Consider the following recommendations before proceeding with a purchase:
- NEMA Premium Efficiency motors are an excellent choice in new constructions, where there is already a baseline cost dedicated to motor purchases. In these cases, the efficiency gains of a NEMA Premium motor are weighed against its incremental price, not its full price. There are also many cases where replacing an existing motor is financially attractive, but the highest return on investment is achieved in new installations.
- Upgrading to a NEMA Premium motor yields a higher return on investment when the operating schedule is long. Keep in mind that energy savings are the product of power savings and hours of operation. Upgrading a 15 hp motor that operates 8,000 hours/year will yield twice as much energy savings as replacing one of the same capacity that only operates 4,000 hours/year.
- Consider that percentage efficiency gains are higher for smaller motors. For example, NEMA estimates yearly savings at $126 when upgrading a 10 hp motor from Energy Efficient to Premium Efficiency, and at $278 when upgrading a 100 hp motor, assuming both operate for 8,000 hours/year. If a company must choose between multiple small motors or a few larger ones, due to budget constraints, the return per dollar invested in typically higher for smaller motors. An energy audit is recommended nevertheless, since there are always exceptions.
- Before purchasing NEMA Premium motors, it is recommended that your company reviews local incentive programs. For example, Con Edison customers who upgrade to NEMA Premium motors in New York City can apply for an incentive of $0.16 per kWh saved, which can cover up to 50% of project costs or $1,000,000, whichever is lower.
- Extra savings can be achieved by upgrading electric motors located inside air-conditioned spaces, which is common in commercial settings. NEMA Premium motors dissipate less heat than motors of the same horsepower and lower efficiency, and this heat is subtracted from the load on AC equipment.
Electric motors built according to International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) standards also have efficiency classes, which are comparable to those of NEMA motors. IE1 is equivalent to standard efficiency, IE2 is equivalent to NEMA Energy Efficient, and IE3 is equivalent to NEMA Premium Efficiency. The IEC also introduces class IE4, which is typically marketed as “Enhanced NEMA Premium” or “Above NEMA Premium” in the US.
Note that efficiency values are comparable between NEMA and IEC motor classes, but not identical. IEC efficiency classes cover motors from 0.75 kW (slightly above 1 hp) to 375 kW (503 hp), with a rated voltage of 1,000 V or less. Motors can have 2, 4 or 6 poles, and can be designed to operate at 50 Hz or 60 Hz.
NEMA Premium Efficiency motors can yield thousands of dollars in yearly savings when deployed in commercial and industrial facilities, and even higher savings are available if they are complemented with a variable frequency drive (VFD). However, keep in mind motors must also be a good match for their application to guarantee efficient operation and a long service life, so professional guidance is highly recommended before any motor upgrade.


Infectious Disease Detection, Prevention and Elimination
Infectious diseases are caused by pathogenic microorganisms and can spread from person to person. They include zoonotic diseases, which are infectious diseases in animals that can cause illness when transmitted to humans.
Over the course of TEPHINET history we have supported disease-specific projects that reflect global health priorities in a given year. Recently, our work has included support for eliminating hepatitis, ending polio transmission, strengthening surveillance for Zika and influenza, and controlling healthcare-associated infections (HAI) and antimicrobial resistance (AMR).
Our work in these areas includes providing technical and logistical support for trainings, hiring and supervising research field teams, and administering disease-specific mini-grants to FETP trainees and graduates (for example, to conduct Zika detection and control activities).


When weighing the pluses and minuses of your skin add this to the plus column: Your skin – like that of all vertebrates – is remarkably resistant to tearing. Now, a collaboration of researchers at the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE)’s Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (Berkeley Lab) and the University of California (UC) San Diego has shown why.
Making good use of the X-ray beams at Berkeley Lab’s Advanced Light Source (ALS), the collaboration made the first direct observations of the micro-scale mechanisms behind the ability of skin to resist tearing. They identified four specific mechanisms in collagen, the main structural protein in skin tissue, that act synergistically to diminish the effects of stress.
“Collagen fibrils and fibers rotate, straighten, stretch and slide to carry load and reduce the stresses at the tip of any tear in the skin,” says Robert Ritchie of Berkeley Lab’s Materials Sciences Division, co-leader of this study along with UC San Diego’s Marc Meyers. “The movement of the collagen acts to effectively diminish stress concentrations associated with any hole, notch or tear.”
Ritchie and Meyers are the corresponding authors of a paper in Nature Communications that describes this study. The paper is titled “On the tear resistance of skin.” The other authors are Wen Yang, Vincent Sherman, Bernd Gludovatz, Eric Schaible and Polite Stewart.
Who among us does not pay close attention to the condition of our skin? While our main concern might be appearance, skin serves a multitude of vital purposes including protection from the environment, temperature regulation and thermal energy collection. The skin also serves as a host for embedded sensors.
Skin consists of three layers – the epidermis, dermis and endodermis. Mechanical properties are largely determined in the dermis, which is the thickest layer and is made up primarily of collagen and elastin proteins. Collagen provides for mechanical resistance to extension, while elastin allows for deformation in response to low strains.
Studies of the skin’s mechanical properties date back to 1831 when a physician investigated stabbing wounds that the victim claimed were self-inflicted. This eventually led to scientists characterizing skin as a nonlinear-elastic material with low strain-rate sensitivity. In recent years research has focused on collagen deformation but with little attention paid to tearing even though skin has superior tear-resistance to other natural materials.
“Our study is the first to model and directly observe in real time the micro-scale behavior of the collagen fibrils associated with the skin’s remarkable tear resistance,” Ritchie says.
Ritchie, Meyers and their colleagues performed mechanical and structural characterizations during in situ tension-loading in the dermis. They did this through a combination of images obtained via ultrahigh-resolution scanning and transmission electron microscopy, and small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) at ALS beamline 7.3.3.
“The method of SAXS that can be done at ALS beamline 7.3.3 is ideal for identifying strains in the collagen fibrils and watching how they move,” Ritchie says.
The research team began their work by establishing that a tear in the skin does not propagate or induce fracture, as does damage to bone or tooth dentin, which are comprised of mineralized collagen fibrils. What they demonstrated instead is that the tearing or notching of skin triggers structural changes in the collagen fibrils of the dermis layer to reduce the stress concentration. Initially, these collagen fibrils are curvy and highly disordered. However, in response to a tear they rearrange themselves towards the tensile-loading direction, with rotation, straightening, stretching, sliding and delamination prior to fracturing.
“The rotation mechanisms recruit collagen fibrils into alignment with the tension axis at which they are maximally strong or can accommodate shape change,” says Meyers. “Straightening and stretching allow the uptake of strain without much stress increase, and sliding allows more energy dissipation during inelastic deformation. This reorganization of the fibrils is responsible for blunting the stress at the tips of tears and notches.”
This new study of the skin is part of an on-going collaboration between Ritchie and Meyers to examine how nature achieves specific properties through architecture and structure.
“Natural inspiration is a powerful motivation to develop new synthetic materials with unique properties,” Ritchie says. “For example, the mechanistic understanding we’ve identified in skin could be applied to the improvement of artificial skin, or to the development of thin film polymers for applications such as flexible electronics.”
This research was primarily supported by the Air Force Office of Scientific Research. Berkeley Lab’s Advanced Light Source is a DOE Office of Science User Facility.
For more about the research of Robert Ritchie go here
For more about the research of Marc Meyers go here
For more about ALS Beamline 7.3.3 go here
# # #
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory addresses the world’s most urgent scientific challenges by advancing sustainable energy, protecting human health, creating new materials, and revealing the origin and fate of the universe. Founded in 1931, Berkeley Lab’s scientific expertise has been recognized with 13 Nobel prizes. The University of California manages Berkeley Lab for the U.S. Department of Energy’s Office of Science. For more, visit www.lbl.gov.
DOE’s Office of Science is the single largest supporter of basic research in the physical sciences in the United States, and is working to address some of the most pressing challenges of our time. For more information, please visit the Office of Science website at science.energy.gov/.


What Is Restless Leg Syndrome?
Restless leg syndrome (RLS), also known as nocturnal myoclonus, is a type of sleep disorder characterized by uncomfortable sensations in the legs and an uncontrollable desire to move the legs. These abnormal sensations usually occur in the lower legs shortly after going to bed. During the early stages of sleep, these episodes of leg movement often last up to an hour.
The abnormal sensations of RLS are quite variable. They have been described as a crawling, creeping, pulling, drawing, tingling, pins and needles, or prickly discomfort. They are not cramping in character.
Sometimes these sensations occur in the feet, thighs or even arms. Although RLS is considered to be a sleep disorder, some people also experience these sensations during the day, particularly when lying down.
The most important feature of RLS is an overwhelming need to move the legs. Moving the legs provides temporary relief but the abnormal sensations start all over again and the cycle repeats itself.
While the cause of RLS is unknown, it does tend to occur in association with a number of chronic conditions including iron deficiency anemia, obesity, diabetes, diseases of the peripheral nerves, and kidney failure. However, many persons with RLS will not have any identifiable predisposing disease or condition.
RLS is most common in middle-aged and older adults and is worse during periods of psychological stress. The use of some prescription drugs -- for example, the antidepressant Elavil (amitriptyline) and stomach acid blockers such as Zantac or Tagamet -- has been associated with RLS. Caffeine, alcohol, and tobacco use may also trigger RLS.
There is no known cure for RLS. Treatment is directed toward any condition underlying RLS. Avoidance of caffeine and alcohol can sometimes help.
Your doctor may prescribe medication, if your RLS is severe. A number of different types of drugs, including opioids, tranquilizers, anti-Parkinson drugs, and anticonvulsants, have been found effective. Stress management and relaxation training have also been found to prevent episodes of RLS.
RLS is thought to be more common in women than men. It can cause insomnia with daytime fatigue and associated discomfort. As the years go on, the symptoms of RLS may occur more frequently and for longer periods of time.
Last Editorial Review: 11/7/2006


Genetically Engineered Spider Toxin Becomes A Vaccine
Researchers have come up with an ingenious solution to the nuisance caused by spiders and their toxic venom.
By genetically modifying the spider toxin, researchers have now developed a vaccine. Since the genetically engineered version consists of three proteins, it is expected to provide protection against more than one type of toxin. Further, the new product does not have any side effects on the immunized animal which produces the vaccine. It is also supposed to be more effective than the crude venom from spiders. Tests on rabbits showed immune response similar to the entire toxin, but without any of the toxic side effects. The engineered version was protective against the poison from the L. intermedia and L. gaucho sub-species. The immunized rabbits showed protective effect after being tested with the Peruvian spider Loxosceles laeta venom (PLlv) and L. laeta venom from Brazil (BLlv). "In vitro assays with horse anti-loxoscelic antivenoms produced in Brazil and Peru demonstrated that these commercial antivenoms were efficient to inhibit the sphingomyelinase activity of PLlv and BLlv, " the investigators led by Dr. Chávez-Olortegui of the Departamento de Bioquímica e Imunologia, at the Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais (Brazil) write.
"It's not easy taking venom from a spider, a snake or any other kind of venomous animal," said Chávez-Olortegui, in his interview with Eureka News. "With our new method, we would be able to engineer the proteins in the lab without having to isolate whole toxins from venom. This makes the whole process much safer."
"Existing anti-venoms are made of the pure toxins and can be harmful to people who take them. We wanted to develop a new way of protecting people from the effects of these spider bites, without having to suffer from side-effects."
The research is an advance over the current practice of using animals to generate the vaccines: administering the venom to animals, and taking the resulting antibodies for the serum. The genetic engineering approach obviates the need for animal experimentation and the consequent toxic effects animals are subjected to.
By identifying unique proteins or peptides and raising antibodies the researchers are able to neutralize some of the biological effects induced by crude spider venom, demonstrating a protection against the venom. The research paves the way for the development of therapeutic vaccines against spider venom, on a larger scale. Using similar genetic engineering approaches, the researchers led by Chávez-Olortegui have previously developed Peruvian anti-bothropic anti-venom against Bothrops andianus snake venom, and is currently in pre-clinical stages.


Lymphomas may develop in the lymph nodes, spleen, bone marrow, and blood and affect the lymphocytes, a type of white blood cells. The lymphocytes multiplying and growing at a fast rate eventually form a tumor.
Lymphomas can be lethal as they can affect the entire body if the cancerous lymphocytes migrate from the affected area to other parts of the body in the lymphatic system and blood. Effective diagnosis and treatment becomes all the more important as the symptoms might even show in the areas away from the affected one. The disease is of two types: Hodgkin’s disease and Non-Hodgkin’s Lymphoma, the latter being more common.
Cancer of the lymph nodes, such as Hodgkin’s disease or Non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma, can often involve multiple lymph node regions and occasionally other (extra nodal) sites. Optimal treatment often involves chemotherapy, and radiation therapy is frequently used to treat involved or bulky sites, often using large fields of treatment to cover multiple lymph node bearing regions. Although the effective doses are low and can usually be given in 3-4 weeks, sometimes large volumes of lung or small intestine can be at risk for damage. Tomotherapy can do a good job of limiting dosage to these normal structures, and by using CT image guidance, the uncertainty of reproducing treatment positioning for large fields of treatment can be reduced.
Fortunately, cancer is rare in children; however, solid tumors (not leukemia) can often grow rapidly and to a large size before they are detected. If possible, surgical removal is recommended unless the danger or disability to the child prohibits this. Many childhood cancers also respond to chemotherapy, but a number of tumors will also require radiation therapy. Radiation delivery is especially challenging in children because the bones and hormone producing glands are still growing and are sensitive to the effects of radiation. Since Tomotherapy can precisely target such tumors, while relatively sparing adjacent structures, it is possible to limit the dosage to growing bones and glands while treating inoperable cancers to effective doses. It is even possible to treat the entire brain and spinal cord to effective doses, while protecting the bones of the spine and head enough to permit relatively normal growth. Some institutions are even treating the entire bone marrow instead of the entire body in preparation for bone marrow transplantation.
With conventional radiation, even with IMRT, children must sometimes be positioned lying on their stomach or even standing (for total body treatment). Since the Tomotherapy beam rotates around the child like a CT scanner, all children can be treated comfortably lying on their back.
Lymphomas Cancer Diagnosis and Treatment
We at Grado Clinics try our best to diagnose the cancer early for effective and the best possible lymphomas treatment. Our team of efficient and empathetic doctors and assistants are always there to help the patient with the best of medical treatment. We make sure that the treatment is paired with care and compassion for better end early healing.
At Grado Clinics, we all strive to provide the most advanced and effective treatment for lymphomas. We give utmost importance to early diagnosis of the cancer, as timely detection helps in the effective treatment of the disease. Grado Clinics employs the latest technology and a competent team of doctors for correct diagnosis of the lymphomas cancer in the initial stage.
Cancer, being a serious ailment, needs timely and effective medical treatment along with consistent support of the family and friends. We not only ensure the best medical treatment but also an amiable surrounding for a more positive healing process. At Grado Clinics, family and friends become a part of the treatment to extend the much needed support, care, and concern to the patients.
Tomotherapy for Lymphomas Cancer
With the modern Tomotherapy treatment devices, we now provide the facility of the latest radiation oncology treatment for cancer in any part of the body. CT images are used on a daily basis for giving the best of the medication as planned. For lymphomas cancer treatment, we resort to the state-of-the-art medical treatment with a dedicated and an experienced team that endeavors to make it effective and easy for the patients.
As Lymphomas cancer has the tendency to affect the other parts of the body, we aim at detecting it as soon as possible to impede its growth. Every symptom is dealt with attention and seriousness for precise diagnosis to treat it early and to stop its development further. Our team at the lymphomas treatment center works relentlessly for treating patients with the most advanced medical procedure that includes latest technology, top-quality diagnostic techniques, modern devices, and a caring approach towards the ailing patients.
We at Grado Clinics, make sure to be present to help you anytime. You can contact us online as well with your queries or problems. We would be glad to help you at the earliest. We treat every case of cancer with high accuracy, consideration, dedication, and care. Besides the medical treatment, we extend emotional and mental support to our patients to deal with the ailment more strongly. Our practical and sympathetic approach towards the lymphomas patients makes us one of the best lymphomas treatment clinics.


It seems that the medical community has gone vaccine crazy! First Gardasil. Then the Shingles vaccine. Then the H1N1 vaccine. What’s next? A vaccine for pimples?
I sound paranoid, I know. But I’ve got my guard up, especially after reading that researchers at the University of Michigan have been busy developing a vaccine to prevent urinary tract infections!
To be clear, I’m entirely against using a vaccine to prevent something the body can (and should!) fight off on its own. Case in point: urinary tract infections. Your body should ward off these nagging infections on its own. (Sometimes, you may need a little extra help to get rid of chronic infections. Keep reading and I’ll give you some tips for conquering UTIs without antibiotics or a vaccine!)
But proponents of the UTI vaccine say: think of all the benefits, especially for women prone to recurrent infections. No more antibiotics, no more agonizing pain, no more doctor visits. Plus, look at all the money it could save! According to one report, UTIs cost Americans $2.4 billion in doctor’s visits, hospitalizations, and lost work time.
Forget cranberry juice! Just vaccinate young girls and boys and they’ll never have to worry about another urinary tract infection again. I have my doubts whether this vaccine will really prevent UTIs as well as real concerns about what these new — and in my book unnecessary — vaccines will do to the delicate immune system.
Still, let’s take a look at how the vaccine is supposed to work…
The building blocks of infection
Most UTIs are caused by E. coli bacteria in the urinary tract. The E. coli bacteria start causing trouble when they track down tiny receptors in the body called bacterial proteins. The bacteria attach themselves to these proteins, like two Legos snapping together.
The bacterial proteins help the E. coli to find iron circulating in the body. The E. coli feed on the iron, using it to grow. Eventually, the E. coli multiply out of control and cause an infection.
Outsmarting the bacteria?
The University of Michigan researchers figured if they could find the proteins that E. coli attach to, they could stop the bacteria from multiplying.
They analyzed 5,000 different protein molecules taken from a patient infected with E. coli. After this exhaustive search, UM researchers hit the jackpot. They found three proteins that E. coli use to set off their chain reaction and cause infection in the body.
Researchers sprayed these proteins into the noses of test mice. Then they exposed the mice to a strain of E. coli. And what do you know…the mice didn’t get UTIs!
Evidently, by exposing the mice to these bacterial proteins, their immune systems became “primed” and ready to fight E. coli the next time around. Hurray for the mice…but what will this kind of vaccine do to a 60-year-old woman prone to UTIs? Say she’s already gotten the shingles vaccine, gets the flu vaccine every fall, and this year will get the H1N1 vaccine. Plus, she’s already had a bout of breast cancer. Think her immune system has gone a bit off track? Instead of knowing how to fight real invaders (metastic cancer cells), her immune system wants to sit back and relax and wait for the vaccine to jump start things.
More on the way…
The UM team is currently testing the vaccine against more strains of E. coli. The team hopes to move forward in the near future and test the vaccine in human trials. If all goes as planned, the vaccine could reach the market in a few years!
I’m sure that would be a windfall for the drug company that purchases the rights to this vaccine. I can see the ad campaign now, targeting women prone to UTIs. But here’s the thing…UTIs are entirely preventable. And, say you do get stuck with a UTI from time to time, you don’t need a vaccine to get rid of it!
Here’s what you should be doing if you’re prone to urinary tract infections:
1. Avoid any UTI vaccine!
2. Drink more water.
3. Take cranberry extract daily to help prevent recurring UTIs. In one study published in the Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy, cranberry extract works nearly as well as antibiotics in preventing urinary tract infections. The antioxidants in cranberries prevent bacteria from sticking to the walls of your urinary tract.
4. Take probiotics daily. These “good” bacteria help keep harmful bacteria like E. coli in check. Take your capsules before meals and at bedtime. Look for a capsule with billions of units of these healthy bacteria.
5. As a general rule, you’ll want to limit sugar and refined sugar products. This will help clear the infection and make you less prone to a recurrence.
That’s all well and good for preventing infections. But what about if you’ve already got a UTI?
Before panicking and calling your doc for antibiotics, consider giving D-mannose a try. It’s the natural ingredient in cranberries responsible for fighting off infections. It will take care of just about any bladder infection caused by E. coli.
Every two to three hours, you’ll need to take 1/2 to 1 teaspoonful of D-mannose dissolved in water. Try this route for a day or two and see if you don’t get some relief. Though, not all urinary tract infections respond to D-mannose. So if your symptoms don’t improve within 48 hours, see your doctor.
In closing, if you’re watching the nightly news and you hear about the latest and greatest vaccine that will protect you against UTIs (or pimples!), just turn it off! You know better. And your body knows better too.
Dr. Allan Spreen
Nationally acclaimed as America’s “Nutrition Physician,” Dr. Spreen has been helping people stay healthy and disease-free as a private doctor, published author, and noted researcher.
In addition to his role as a Senior Member of the prestigious Health Sciences Institute Advisory Panel in Baltimore, MD, Dr. Spreen also coaches diving at the international and Olympic levels. NorthStar Nutritionals is proud to have Dr. Spreen as their Chief Research Advisor.
Latest posts by Dr. Allan Spreen (see all)
- Harness hypertension with this belly secret - February 3, 2016
- Could drinking red wine protect your hearing? - January 25, 2016
- Kill cancer and shrink tumors with a common vitamin! - January 15, 2016


Boulder’s Controversial Holiday Decoration: Flagstaff Star
If you’ve spent an evening in Boulder since November 11, then you have noticed the giant, lighted star outline on the western face of the Flatirons. What you might not know is how one simple holiday tradition became a hotly contested issue for Boulder citizens, and a medium of political commentary.
The Flagstaff Star was originally displayed in 1947 but the Boulder Chamber of Commerce, who still own the start to this day. It was meant as a simply Christmas decoration aimed at uniting Boulder in the spirit of the holiday. The next year, the star began to transform. Shifting between a Christmas star and a Cross for Easter each year for two decades.
The shenanigans continued with the first case of vandalism. In 1951, Colorado A&M (now CSU) rearranged the Boulder star into a letter “A” as a prank. This was later followed but the Colorado School of Mines’ students changing the star into a letter “M” in 1958. Luckily, these pranks were harmless.
The conflict centering around the start grew in the 1960s. Several times the incandescent bulbs of the star were painted red by the hands of “suspected communists”. The star and the bright red color are obvious communist symbols (China’s national flag is a great example). And in the post-McCarthy USA, where Communism was considered diabolical, this was a serious political play by those suspected communists. Luckily, it now takes far more than painted lightbulbs to make a “victory” for any political party.
In 1969 the string of lights was changed into a peace sign by the Chamber of Commerce, which was a nice break from the alternating Star and Cross arrangements. But that year a complaint was filed to the Boulder Human Relations Commission that the Star and Cross were overt symbols of Christianity. Displaying such signs on public land was a violation of the separation of church and state. The debate continued for two years until the Cross was permanently discontinued. But Boulderites could not let the star go because it was a unifying symbol for Boulder throughout the holiday season. (Plus a star isn’t only a Christian symbol).
The 1980s saw more action surrounding the star. As a sign of respect and acknowledgement to the American hostages being held captive in Iran, the Flagstaff Star remained lit into the month of February. Local environmentalists soon removed the bulbs from the string of lights and slashed the wires connecting them. They claimed the incandescent bulbs were disturbing local wildlife and wasting energy. Inspired by this well-intentioned, (hyperbolic) vandalism, the Boulder Chamber has replaced the original 365 incandescent bulbs with low-energy LED bulbs and ensures that the electricity needed for the star is harnessed from wind-power.
We hope this surprisingly turbulent history of the Flagstaff Star has intrigued you today. During the holidays, with all their glitz and glamour, it’s good to remember that the simple and beautiful things in our lives can have complex stories behind them. If you liked this article, or have your own ideas for an article, drop us a comment below. Happy Holidays Boulder!


Music-Making in the Classical Era: The Importance of the _____
A look at the importance of the _____ in music-making during the classical era.
The Classical Era
The Classical Era was a period of time in which music was greatly praised and celebrated. Many famous composers, such as Mozart and Beethoven, emerged during this time. The music of the Classical Era is characterized by its balance, beauty, and orderliness.
The definition of the Classical Era
In music history, the Classical Era is the period of time between the end of the Baroque period and the beginning of the Romantic period. It is generally considered to have started around 1750 and ended around 1830. This time period includes the music of Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven. The music of these composers is often described as either homophonic or polyphonic. Homophonic means that there is one melody line with accompaniment, while polyphonic means that there are multiple melody lines. The Classical Era was a time when many composers were experimenting with new ways to combine these two types of textures in their music.
The major composers of the Classical Era
The Classical Era of music is generally said to span the years from 1750 to 1830. This concise period saw the development of new ideas in music, and the rise of some of the most famous composers in history.
The early years of the Classical Era saw the rise of Haydn and Mozart, two men who would come to dominate the field. Both were prolific composers, and their works spanned a wide range of genres. Haydn was particularly known for his string quartets, while Mozart was revered for his operas.
The late Classical Era saw the emergence of Beethoven, one of the most important and influential composers in all of music history. His works were marked by a new level of intensity and emotion, and he helped to push the boundaries of what was possible in music.
While Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven are the most well-known composers of the Classical Era, there were many other important figures as well. These include Johann Sebastian Bach, Palestrina, Vivaldi,and Handel. Each composer made their own unique contribution to the musical landscape of the era.
The music of the Classical Era
The Classical Era is considered to be the period of music history from about 1750 to 1820. This era follows the Baroque Era and precedes the Romantic Era. The Classical Era is often referred to as the “Age of Reason” because of the intellectual and cultural developments of the time. Many of the great works of Western literature, art, and philosophy were created during this period.
One of the most important developments in music during the Classical Era was the development of public concerts. Prior to this time, music was mainly heard in private settings such as homes and churches. Concerts Provided an opportunity for composers to showcase their work to a wider audience, and helped to create a new audience for their music.
Another important development during the Classical Era was therise of professional musicians. Prior to this time, most musicians were amateurs who played for their own enjoyment or for the enjoyment of their friends and families. The rise of professional musicians led to a new level of musical achievement and allowed composers to create more complex and ambitious works.
The Classical Era was also a time when many new musical genres were created, including opera, symphony, and concerto. These new genres helped to define what we think of as “classical” music today.
The Importance of the _____
Music-making in the Classical era was a complex process that involved many different people. The most important part of this process was the _____. This person was responsible for _____. Without the _____, the music of the Classical era would not have been possible.
The _____ in the Classical Era
The _____ was an important factor in music-making during the Classical era. This was a time when composers were beginning to experiment with different ways of creating and performing music, and the _____ helped to shape the sound of the era.
The _____ is a musical instrument that is played by plucking or strumming the strings with the fingers. It evolved from earlier stringed instruments such as the lute, and became popular in Europe during the Renaissance period. By the Classical era, it was one of the most commonly used instruments in orchestral and chamber music.
The _____ played a vital role in shaping the sound of Classical-era music. The instrument’s distinctive timbre added a new dimension to music, and its melodic and harmonic capabilities allowed composers to experiment with new ideas and textures. The _____ also helped to create a more intimate atmosphere in smaller ensembles, such as the string quartet.
Despite its importance, the _____ was not always well-regarded by Classical-era composers. Some felt that it was too elegant for serious music-making, and preferred instead to focus on other instruments such as the piano or violin. However, others saw great potential in the _____, and it continued to be used throughout the Classical period.
The _____ in music
The _____ was a stringed instrument of the baroque era. It is similar to the modern violin, except that it is held between the legs like a cello, and has a fretted neck. The _____ was an important instrument in the development of classical music, because it allowed for greater expressive range than the earlier violins.
The _____ was first developed in Italy in the early 1600s. It quickly became popular among Italian composers, who wrote many pieces for the instrument. The _____ became an important part of the orchestra in the late 1700s, when symphonies began to be written for large ensembles of instruments. Many famous composers, including Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart and Ludwig van Beethoven, wrote works for the _____ .
The _____ continued to be an important part of classical music in the 1800s. As composers began to write more expressive music, they made use of the _____ ‘s wide range of emotions that could be conveyed through its sound. The _____ remained an essential part of classical music into the twentieth century.
The _____ in the modern world
The _____ (Music-Making in the Classical Era: The Importance of the _____) is a vital and important part of music education in the contemporary world. First and foremost, the _____ provides students with an opportunity to learn about and experience music from a different era. Additionally, the _____ offers students a chance to explore the workings of music theory and hone their skills in performance and composition.
The skills that students develop through their involvement in the _____ are invaluable in today’s ever-changing, fast-paced world. As our society becomes increasingly reliant on technology, it is more important than ever for young people to have a strong foundation in the arts. The _____ gives students a chance to explore their creativity and develop their own musical voices. In addition, the study of music from other cultures can help students to understand and appreciate the diversity of our world.
The _____ is also an important tool for developing critical thinking skills. Students who engage with the material on a deep level are able to ask probing questions, make connections between different concepts, and develop well-thought-out interpretations. These are skills that will serve students well in any number of future endeavors.
It is clear that the _____ plays a vital role in music education today. By providing students with opportunities to learn about other eras, hone their performance skills, develop their compositional voices, and engage in critical thinking, the _____ helps them to become well-rounded musicians and critical thinkers who are prepared to thrive in our ever-changing world.


In the store-room they should be kept dry, well-aired and apart from each other.
Its surroundings should be as clean and well-aired as possible.
When, at last, he turned into well-aired sheets he found that he could not sleep.
Good physical condition and warmth in a well-watered, well-aired soil enable the grape to search far and wide for its food.
It was early days then: the world was not well-aired enough for us: we have no inclination to have been up and stirring.
The right way is to sleep in a well-aired bed in a properly ventilated room.
Lady Goodman, ever ready to second a kind feeling, praised the merits of a well-aired bed to each of the gentlemen.
The large and well-aired hall within was occupied by a series of tables placed at convenient distances from each other.
Keep the patient's room quiet, well-aired, and clean as possible.
He should sleep alone on a hard bed in a well-aired room with light covering.
c.1300, "invisible gases that make up the atmosphere," from Old French air "atmosphere, breeze, weather" (12c.), from Latin aerem (nominative aer) "air, lower atmosphere, sky," from Greek aer (genitive aeros) "air" (related to aenai "to blow, breathe"), of unknown origin, possibly from a base *awer- and thus related to aeirein "to raise" and arteria "windpipe, artery" (see aorta) on notion of "lifting, that which rises." In Homer mostly "thick air, mist;" later "air" as one of the four elements.
Words for "air" in Indo-European languages tend to be associated with wind, brightness, sky. In English, air Replaced native lyft, luft (see loft (n.)). To be in the air "in general awareness" is from 1875; up in the air "uncertain, doubtful" is from 1752. To build castles in the air is from 1590s (in 17c. English had airmonger "one preoccupied with visionary projects"). Broadcasting sense (e.g. on the air) first recorded 1927. To give (someone) the air "dismiss" is from 1900. Air pollution is attested by 1870.
1590s, "manner, appearance" (e.g. an air of mystery); 1650s, "assumed manner, affected appearance" (especially in phrase put on airs, 1781), from French air "look, appearance, mien, bearing, tone" (Old French aire "reality, essence, nature, descent, extraction," 12c.; cf. debonair), from Latin ager "place, field" (see acre) on notion of "place of origin."
But some French sources connect this Old French word with the source of air (n.1), and it also is possible these senses in English developed from or were influenced by air (n.1); cf. sense development of atmosphere and Latin spiritus "breath, breeze," also "high spirit, pride," and the extended senses of anima.
"melody, tune," 1580s, from Italian aria (see aria).
A colorless, odorless, tasteless, gaseous mixture, approximately 78 percent nitrogen and approximately 21 percent oxygen with lesser amounts of argon, carbon dioxide, hydrogen, neon, helium, and other gases.
This mixture, with varying amounts of moisture and particulate matter, enveloping Earth; the atmosphere.
Any of various respiratory gases. No longer in technical use.
The colorless, odorless, tasteless mixture of gases that surrounds the Earth. Air consists of about 78 percent nitrogen and 21 percent oxygen, with the remaining part made up mainly of argon, carbon dioxide, neon, helium, methane, and krypton in decreasing order of volume. Air also contains varying amounts of water vapor, particulate matter such as dust and soot, and chemical pollutants.
the atmosphere, as opposed to the higher regions of the sky (1 Thess. 4:17; Rev. 9:2; 16:17). This word occurs once as the rendering of the Hebrew _ruah_ (Job 41:16); elsewhere it is the rendering of _shamaiyim_, usually translated "heavens." The expression "to speak into the air" (1 Cor. 14:9) is a proverb denoting to speak in vain, as to "beat the air" (1 Cor. 9:26) denotes to labour in vain.


Trevewas and Livermore clearly take the view that the loss of autonomy for poorer farmers associated with purchasing patented GM seeds is justified by a number of claimed benefits.
However, in practice, GM farming is in crisis as resistant weeds have become widespread in response to the use of glyphosate-resistant GM crops and secondary and resistant pests are causing increasing difficulties for farmers growing insect-resistant GM crops.
Despite decades of investment and research, other products have not been delivered or have failed to reach the market place, due to poor performance and technical difficulties.
GM farming in the United States has not out-performed non-GM farming in Europe (Heinemann et al. 2013, Hilbeck et al. 2013). In the US, yields are falling behind and are more variable, pesticide use is higher, the number of farms is decreasing and there is greater monopoly control over inputs.
The implication that US farmers grow GM through choice because it is superior is questionable as seed catalogues show that the diversity of seeds on the market in the US has reduced significantly as a result of takeovers in the industry, with many varieties only available in combination with GM traits. In addition, the capacity to innovate on farm has reduced significantly.
Although Trevewas and Livermore describe GM as a “cutting edge technology”, conventional breeding, in some cases enhanced by new technologies such as market assisted selection (MAS), has in fact delivered more crop improvements much faster and more cheaply, despite a significant diversion of resources away from conventional breeding towards GM research (Goodman, 2002; Knight, 2003; Jiang, 2013).
Organic and resource-conserving agriculture can improve farmers’ livelihoods, without creating dependency on patented GM seeds and associated chemicals (Bennett & Franzel, 2013).
However, research investment in these areas is relatively limited. Over-optimism about what GM can deliver has led to significant opportunity costs as other areas of research have been neglected.
The authors describe glyphosate, which is blanket sprayed on the market-leading GM crops which are tolerant to glyphosate, as “innocuous to human health” and “environmentally benign”.
This claim is not consistent with evidence in the scientific literature which suggests a number of mechanisms through which glyphosate and its common commercial formulation RoundUp may damage human health (see, for example: Koller et al. 2012; Mañas et al. 2009; Paganelli et al. 2010; Romano et al. 2010; Samsel & Seneff 2013; Thongprakaisang et al. 2013).
Glyphosate accumulates in glyphosate-resistant GM soybeans (Bøhn et al. 2013). Regarding environmental impacts, there are particular concerns about impacts on amphibians (Relyea & Jones 2009; Wagner et al. 2013).
Disturbingly, Trevewas and Livermore downplay the negative effects on wildlife of habitat loss due to blanket spraying, including impacts on iconic species such as the Monarch butterfly.
Whilst it is clear that other factors (e.g. deforestation) play a role in the Monarch’s decline it is surprising to see the role of the expansion of GM herbicide-resistant crops dismissed when it is widely acknowledged in the literature (Brower et al. 2012).
In addition to the negative impacts of blanket spraying GM crops with glyphosate, further milkweed habitat has been lost due to the large areas of grassland and rangeland that have been converted to biofuel crops, especially GM maize.
Studies have confirmed the link between milkweed habitat loss and glyphosate-treated fields (Harzler 2010, Pleasants and Oberhauser 2013) and the negative impact on the butterflies has been modelled, providing a convincing link between the decimation of habitat and loss of fecundity (Zalucki & Lammers 2010).
Messan and Smith (2011) conclude that herbicide has a large effect and that a reduction of herbicidal spraying is needed to stabilize the monarch butterfly population.
Trevewas and Livermore fail to acknowledge the seriousness of the problem of herbicide tolerant weeds (‘superweeds’) and the harm to farmers, or the problems associated with proposed responses.
The spread of glyphosate-resistant weeds in the United States is causing severe weed management problems, with nearly half of US farms affected (Fraser 2013).
The dramatic increase in glyphosate use that caused this would not have been possible without glyphosate-resistant GM crops.
The proposed response includes new GM crops tolerant to more toxic herbicides such as 2,4-D and dicamba, which will inevitably exacerbate the environmental problems associated with blanket spraying and create a new cycle of resistant weeds (Mortensen et al. 2012).
Trevewas and Livermore also claim that widespread resistance has not developed to the Bt toxins expressed by insect-resistant GM crops.
However, reduced efficacy of Bt crops caused by field-evolved resistance has been reported now for some populations of 5 of 13 major pest species examined, compared with resistant populations of only one pest species in 2005 (Tabashnik et al. 2013; Van den Berg et al. 2013; Jin et al. 2013).
Whilst they concede that Bt crops were never intended to give complete protection against pests, Trevewas and Livermore ignore the impact on farmers of a number of documented increases in secondary pests, which can increase significantly in numbers when targeted pests decrease (e.g. Zhao et al. 2011; Tay et al. 2013).
As a response to these problems, Trevewas and Livermore highlight research on the use of double-stranded RNA to switch off the expression of specific genes, as a new means of pest-control.
However, the use of RNA interference can give rise to unintended off-target effects and its efficacy and safety is far from being established (Heinemann et al. 2013; Lundgren et al. 2013).
There is no scientific consensus on the safety of GM crops (ENSSER 2013) and there are limitations to all rat feeding studies conducted on both sides of the debate (Meyer & Hilbeck 2013).
There is also evidence of commercial bias in the literature (Diels et al. 2011). Even if there were no such scientific disagreements, consumers have a right to choose to avoid GM crops for health, environmental or other reasons, such as objections to the patenting of seeds.
If consumer choice is to be maintained, the introduction of GM farming to a country or region adds the costs of segregation to the food supply chain, increasing costs across the board.
Failure to plant what consumers demand or to effectively segregate supplies means that US farmers have lost markets due to GM farming as exports elsewhere have been reduced (EuropaBio and BIO, 2012).
Whilst the industry argues that the answer is to weaken regulation, the alternative route of not planting GM food crops at all still remains open to most developing countries.
For example, India and China, despite growing GM cotton, are still rightly hesitant over planting crops such as GM brinjal (aubergine) or GM rice. Food security and trade issues are a big part of the debate, as countries seek to avoid dependency on imported GM seeds and associated chemicals.
Bennett M, Franzel S (2013) Can organic and resource-conserving agriculture improve livelihoods? A synthesis. International Journal of Agricultural Sustainability. 2013;11(3):193–215.
Bøhn T, Cuhra M, Traavik T, Sanden M, Fagan J, Primicerio R (2013) Compositional differences in soybeans on the market: glyphosate accumulates in Roundup Ready GM soybeans. Food Chemistry. doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2013.12.054.
Brower LP, Taylor OR, Williams EH, Slayback DA, Zubieta RR, Ramírez MI (2012) Decline of monarch butterflies overwintering in Mexico: is the migratory phenomenon at risk? Insect Conservation and Diversity 5(2):95–100.
Catangui MA, Berg RK (2006) Western Bean Cutworm, Striacosta albicosta (Smith) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), as a Potential Pest of Transgenic Cry1Ab Bacillus thuringiensis Corn Hybrids in South Dakota. Environmental Entomology 35:1439–1452.
Diels J, Cunha M, Manaia C, Sabugosa-Madeira B, Silva M (2011) Association of financial or professional conflict of interest to research outcomes on health risks or nutritional assessment studies of genetically modified products. Food Policy 36(2):197–203. doi:10.1016/j.foodpol.2010.11.016.
ENSSER (European Network of Scientists for Social and Environmental Responsibility) Statement: No scientific consensus on GMO safety. 21st October 2013. http://www.ensser.org/increasing-public-information/no-scientific-consensus-on-gmo-safety/
EuropaBio and BIO (2012) EU-U.S. High Level Working Group on Jobs and Growth: Response to Consultation by EuropaBio and BIO. http://ec.europa.eu/enterprise/policies/international/cooperating-governments/usa/jobs-growth/files/consultation/regulation/15-europabio-bio_en.pdf
Fraser K (2013) Glyphosate Resistant Weeds – Intensifying. Stratus Research. 25th January 2013. http://www.stratusresearch.com/blog07.htm
Goodman M (2002) New sources of germplasm: lines, transgenes and breeders. In: Memoria congresso nacional de fitogenetica. Saltillo, Coah., Mexico: Univ. Autonimo Agr. Antonio Narro. 28–41.
Hartzler RG (2010) Reduction in common milkweed (Asclepias syriaca) occurrence in Iowa cropland from 1999 to 2009. Crop Protection 29(12):1542–1544.
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In the 1960s and 1970s there were a number of proposals regarding how planetary alignments might influence the Sun and explain variations in Sunspot numbers. Actually the tidal proposal was made as early as the 1800s but seems to have been totally forgotten about. These proposals fall into three main categories and I give one main reference for each category.
- The tidal hypothesis:
We know that on Earth the moon and sun cause tides and that we get bigger tides at new moon and full moon when the sun and moon come together to cause the largest tides, so tides are reasonably well understood things. It is important to remember that there are two tides raised, on on the same side as the body and one on the opposite side. That is why the tides forming from two bodies are maximal both when they come together and when they are opposite each other. When it comes to the Sun, the planets which create the largest tides are Jupiter and Venus, with Earth and Mercury not to far back. However we can study the tidal effects due to any pair of planets by looking at the number of sunspots as a function of the position in the synodic cycle of those two planets. Because the inner planets plus Jupiter have the biggest tidal effects, the shorter periods predominate in the tidal hypothesis, although a study of syzygys will show that more complex nearly repeating configurations get many things right about the sunspot cycle. The syzygy proposal has a number of successes because it predicts that the average sunspot period will be 11.07 years and it is actually 11.08, and that the distribution will be bimodal with periods clustered near 10.4 and 12.0 years which is also correct. These studies are based on correlations, and although we know how to calculate tides, we do not know what mechanisms might get from tides to sunspots.
Note: An approximate syzygy of Jupiter, Venus and Earth occurs every 1.6 years, but good syzygys occur at intervals averaging 11.07 years although they are clustered around 10.38 and 12.00 years. There is definitely something in the tidal hypothesis.
- Sun's Centre of Mass: The Sun's motion relative to the COM (Centre of Mass) of the solar system has been proposed as an explanation of sunspots or at least of longer term sunspot modulations of the order of 180 years and others. Although it is perfectly true that the Sun does do loops in space as a result of the outer planet motions, it was never clear to me what physical effect this was supposed to have. Recently however I saw this described as the Sun moving through its own magnetic field which does sound plausible. The Sun does move about by distances of the order of its own size. This proposal has been popular with those studying climate cycles in the hundred to few thousand year range. The main planets in order of effect are Jupiter, Saturn, Neptune and Uranus.
- Jupiter's activity based on its Moons: The third mechanism was proposed by Bigg who also gave explanations for Jupiter's activity based on its moons. As I remember it (not very well) his proposal depended on torques which set up convection currents.
- My proposal is that a previously ignored GR effect by planets on radiation and relativistic matter in the Sun's core causes slight convection cells in the solar interior leading to a varying amount of heat reaching the surface and to the production of magnetic fields.
Note in response to questions on this: If you accept that there is a doubling (or 5/3 times) effect of gravity on radiation (which was proven in the Eclipse experiments) then the central part of the Sun experiences a different rate of acceleration from what the surface experiences. Because of rapid mixing of momentum between radiation and matter, this acceleration applies to the matter there. Additionally, there is an argument that this increased acceleration also applies to the relativistic content of ordinary matter as well as to light. This was all explained by G D Birkhoff in 1927.
It was proven in the Eclipse observations that light was bent twice as much as expected in Newtonian theory. That bending is an acceleration and a change in momentum. That momentum is being transfered to matter at every interaction between radiation and matter in the solar interior.
I will deal with the treatment of this GR effect mathematically in a following post, simply outlining the general flow of effects in this post.
When Einstein first worked out GR, one early prediction that was proven correct and helped lead to GR being accepted was that light from stars that passed very close to the Sun (and could be observed during a Solar eclipse) would be bent twice as much as predicted by the Newtonian theory. The fact that radiation is more strongly affected by gravity than ordinary matter at non-relativistic velocities is the basis of my proposal. I will show that actually over all random directions of motion of radiation in the solar core, the average effect is 5/3 times. For now, I will make the assumption that radiation in the solar core (as an ensemble of mass) is accelerated by 5/3 times as much as non-relativistic matter and that there is a similar effect on the relativistic component of matter in the Sun also. I think that there may be some controversy over this part of the proposal, but the rest follows in a manner that is much less likely to be debated. Even if you reject what I have just stated here, I ask you to consider the rest of the proposal. If you find that it does lead to interesting results then you might want to come back and see whether there is something in this part after all.
What would the consequence of such acceleration be?
Because there is a greater proportion of radiation and relativistic matter in the solar core than in the Sun's outer layers, any acceleration by the outer planets would be trying to move the core relative to the outside of the the sun. Naturally various factors would prevent the middle of the sun coming loose in this way, but at least a convection pattern would be set up with the central region traveling towards the accelerating object and the outer layers traveling away (relatively speaking). Of course the effect is quite a small one, but remember that the sun does move about due to planetary forces by about its own size, so that the radiation part would be trying to move about twice as much. Because the radiation and relativistic mass content is quite a small proportion of the sun's mass, the effect is correspondingly reduced.
When I first did the calculations for this I made the assumption that the most important forces were in the plane of the planets orbits and ignore the "z axis" or direction towards the poles. That was a big mistake which I realized after a year or so. To make sense of that mistake it is necessary to know that the sun's poles are tilted about 7 degrees to the main plane of the planets orbits. The planets are constantly pulling on the suns interior at a different rate to the outside, but this effect is being undone by the sun rotating. After 13 days or so, the forces are pulling that radiation that was pulled outwards back toward the centre again. Or are they? Allowing for the tilt of the sun's axis, all the components of the acceleration get canceled out by rotation except the component in the polar direction. That component continues to build up into a convection current that flows (at one time) northward in the interior and southward on the outside, and then reverses at some future time.
The important thing in this proposal is not the direction of the planets relative to the Sun, but how far they are north or south of the Sun's equator.
I have calculated the magnitude of this current taking account of the planets motions over several hundreds of years. A cycles analysis of those results shows that a number of specific periods are present generally being the same periods as in the COM hypothesis. Not only that but the total force is actually remarkably similar to the COM hypothesis due to several amazing coincidences, but there is also a difference.
First the coincidences. The four major planets have orbits near the same plane. That means that when they are at their greatest distance north of the sun's equator, they are all near the same longitude, and likewise for south. So we think alignment is important but it actually N-S distance relative to the Sun.
Second coincidence. The dependency of this effect is quite different to the COM dependency, but it turns out to be equivalent when Kepler's law about period and distance is applied! However it has one big difference here. If the planets align when they are at the N or S extremes of their orbits relative to the sun's equator then there is a strong effect, however if they align when they are on the suns equator then there is no effect at all. I explained this to a climatologist once who was working with 20, 60 and 180 year cycles (intimately connected with Jupiter and Saturn and other outer planets alignments) and said that it would mean that all those cycles are modulated by a 2300 year cycle relating to where the alignments happen. He told me that the 2300 year cycle (already known as a climate cycle) did indeed modulate these cycles and he could never work out why because he thought the COM was right.
Anyway I digressed, but it is important to establish which of these causes has effects in which cycle period ranges and how important each is.
The cycles periods that I predicted did match the cycles periods found in the sun over a similar period of time. However there was one big difference between the two and that was the amplitudes calculated and observed. The amplitudes of cycles near 10.5 years was high but those far from that period were low, with a typical resonance response curve easily fitted to the ratio of observed to expected amplitudes.
Clearly this means that this proposal works only if the Sun has some natural resonance of 10.5 years and all of these forces are activating that resonance. Based on that further assumption, I could calculate sunspot numbers over several centuries with a correlation of r=0.66 from the planetary forces.
Such a model can also explain such events as the Maunder minimum if the planetary forces happen to bring the resonance to almost a standstill. However it is clear that this is an unusual condition.
I think that this is long enough for my opening statement. I will post two additional explanations in the near future. One will be the table of planets periods and the sizes of their effects according to the various different proposals. The other will be how to calculate the GR effect of the planets on the Sun.
Incidentally this effect does not apply only to the Sun. All bodies are affected in similar ways if their interior is warmer than their exterior because there is then some relativistic mass content variation with depth. Because electrons generally move faster than other stuff (except radiation) they will be especially affected, and we might even consider that this is an explanation for the whole cause of magnetic fields.
In the case of the Earth, the magnetic field is generally stated to not have any periodicity present in the reversals. However that is misleading because we need to look at the amplitude of the field as well, and it is clear that there are two long periods that are easily visible in the Earth's magnetic field reversals, 1.11 million years and 9 million years.
For the Earth the proportion of time that the planets spend north and south of our equator is important. That depends on the relative motion of the orientation of the Earth' ellipse in space (as we spend more time at the far end of the ellipse from the Sun) with respect to the nodes of the orbital inclination relative to the invariant plane of the solar system.
Adequate accuracy exists in the earth's orbital calculations to now test this hypothesis. Calculations over 23 million years of the orbits of the solar system are now used for dating geological deposits based on the ~400,000 year Milankovich cycle. I do know that other long term calculations show a 1.11 million year cycle of energy exchange between Jupiter and Neptune, so it would not be at all surprising if that period should show up in the earth's orbital elements and be responsible for the Earth magnetic field reversal.
^ Wood, R. M. & Wood, K. D. (1965) Nature 208, pp.129-131
^ Jose, P. D. (1965) Astr. J. 70, pp.193-200
^Bigg, E. K. (1967) Astr. J. 72, pp.463-466
^ Jean-Pierre Desmoulins Sunspot cycles are they caused by Venus, Earth and Jupiter syzygies?
Why is this theory not mainstream? Ray: Any person who depends on getting their income from their scientific work is never going to look seriously at planetary alignments and sunspots. Why? Because it sounds like astrology. Most people will run a mile before they get associated with that. The main reason that serious papers were published in the 1960s was that NASA needed to be sure that they were not sending astronauts to the moon to get fried by solar flares. So some serious effort went in and as I understand it the only thing that they found that was useful was planetary alignments.
A syzygy is not wysiwyg's sister. According to Miriam Webster
, A syzygy is the nearly straight-line configuration of three celestial bodies (as the sun, moon, and earth during a solar or lunar eclipse) in a gravitational system
Origin of SYZYGY: Late Latin syzygia conjunction, from Greek, from syzygos yoked together, from syn- + zygon yoke - more at yoke. First Known Use: circa 1847
This is not meant to be an alternative to existing theories. It should be complimentary. I would hope that standard treatment can explain a natural resonance in the sun's magnetic field with a period of 10.5 years (well maybe 21 years really).
Compiled from Ray Tomes' posts.
Main Astrology News Page. Information, stories, theories and facts. |
Index to past articles Over 50 articles relating to astrology.
Why it is no longer acceptable to say astrology is rubbish on a scientific basis.|
||How Wikipedia has been hijacked by 'guerrilla skeptics' who push an anti-astrology agenda.|
||Was CSICOP scientific and is CSI truly skeptical?|
||Philosophers who refused to look through Galileo's Telescope|
||Problems with testing astrological practice under strict scientific conditions |
||Illusionists are for entertainment, not to feign or undermine science.|
||U-Turn in Carlson's Double-Blind Astrology Experiment|
||How and why Astrology became an outcast from the mainstream|
||Scepticism can be used to justify institutional bias even among respected scientists and journals.|
||How the Signs of the Tropical Zodiac differ from the constellations of the Astronomical Zodiac and why there are 12 signs.|
||Sunday Times article on Percy Seymour's new Book Scientific Proof of Astrology|
||Is there a known mechanism for astrology and if not can it be dismissed?|
||Was astronomer and mathematician, Johannes Kepler a sceptic or an astrologer or both? |
||Secrets behind a Test of Astrology by illusionist Derren Brown|


Exploring the Significance of Bidirectional Learning for Global Health Education
The value of bidirectional learning is emphasized both in global health and local community engagement. Conceptualizations of bidirectional learning for global health education are discussed, including implications when it is defined as mutual learning, codevelopment, or academic partnerships. Additionally, we review the relationship of bidirectional learning to different learning theories. Case studies from the field offer examples of how bidirectional learning can occur in the classroom, through academic partnerships, or both. Finally, recommendations are offered to facilitate bidirectional learning in global health education, including in identifying challenges faced by educators in lower-resourced settings who wish to offer bidirectional learning to their students through partnership with higher-resourced academic institutions.
Martin, A. N.,
den Hartog, J.,
& Dillingham, R.
(2016). Exploring the Significance of Bidirectional Learning for Global Health Education. Annals of Global Health, 82 (6), 955-963.


Mathematics excitement looks exactly the same for the struggling 11-year olds as it does for the high-flying students in top universities - it combines curiosity, connection making, challenge and creativity, and usually involves collaboration. These for me are the 5 C's of mathematics engagement.
Dr Jo Boaler
Maths Intent Statement
At St Vincent’s Catholic Primary School, we have designed our maths curriculum to maximise the development of every child’s ability and academic achievement. All lessons are taught with the express purpose of developing the whole child, ensuring that they become confident and resilient learners when faced with challenging concepts and problems. Mathematics is about the processes, not solely the answers obtained, therefore teaching the significance of logic, reasoning, problem solving and critical thinking skills are of the utmost importance. By providing opportunities for children to see that maths is a universal language that is used across many disciplines, we aim for students to become more confident in applying their knowledge across the curriculum and working collaboratively to find solutions. Mathematics is all around us and we want our children to confidently apply what they have learnt in real-life situations, be comfortable enough to make mistakes and then challenge themselves to find the correct process that will have a successful outcome.
Monday 19 July 2021 London Maths Week June 28th to July 2 was London Maths week. We kicked off the week by to coming school dressed as either robots or rock stars and competed against other schools in London on Times Tables Rock Stars and Numbots. Throughout the week, the children explored some areas of maths that made them rethink the importance of maths in everyday activities. Some activities were also sent home via our home learning platform so families could take part in these activities as well. Children were extremely engaged in all aspects of maths and they thoroughly enjoyed the event.


Allen Rubin, Ph.D.
This project involved ongoing randomized experimental evaluations of the effectiveness of Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR), a cognitive-behavioral intervention developed initially for victims of trauma.
In one investigation, children being served in a Child Guidance Center were randomly assigned to one of two conditions: 1) Routine Child Guidance Center services (such as play therapy and group and family therapy); or 2) Routine services plus EMDR. Outcome was measured using the parent version of the Behavior Problem scales of the Child Behavior Checklist, which is widely regarded as one of the best behavioral rating scales for assessing emotional and behavioral disorders in children, based on its breadth and diversity of items, standardization and norms, and reliability and validity. Results showed that the moderate differences between the two groups were not statistically significant. However, this may have been a function of a Type II error due to the small sample size. The written report is currently near completion and will be submitted for publication.
In the second of the two investigations, 60 adult female survivors of childhood sexual abuse were randomly assigned to either: 1) Six sessions of EMDR treatment; or 2) Six sessions of eclectic therapy. (The original study also utilized a wait-list control group, but they were not included in the follow-up.) Outcome was measured using the following standardized instruments: State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (State Form); Impact of Event Scale; and the Beck Depression Inventory. Posttest results showed that both EMDR and eclectic therapy were significantly better than no therapy. EMDR descriptively had better posttest data than eclectic therapy, but most of the EMDR-eclectic differences were not statistically significant. However, all these differences either became statistically significant or approached statistical significance in a three- month follow up.
Results of an 18-month follow-up with women who received the EMDR or eclectic treatment showed that EMDR effects continued to be beneficial at the 18-month follow-up point.
Austin Child Guidance Center, Austin, TX
Lois and Samuel Silberman Fund
Keywords: health care