Medium tank – 400 built
The first French tanks
In 1915, the French Army’s Section Technique du Génie (STG) Engineer Technical Section, attempted to improve the cross-country mobility of armored cars by building ten armored tractors on Filtz agricultural tractors. These were intended to crush or cut through barbed wire entanglements, but their combat debut at Verdun in the autumn of 1915 demonstrated their poor mobility in rough terrain.
Tracteur agricole Filtz blindéet armé Section technique du Génie, July 1915. It is just a pre WW1 armoured Fergusion-Fordson type farm tractor. It looks like a like a WW1 Armoured car with tractor wheels.
This was not the answer. The French Army needed a fully tracked vehicle that could cut a path through lines of barbed wire, cross trenches and deal with machine gun posts to enable the infantry to follow and exploit the breakthrough.
Behind the idea of an armored mobile platform for guns and machine-guns are two men on the Allied side. These were Col. Ernest Swinton (United Kingdom) and Col. Estienne (France). Both were strong advocates of the concept, having in regard the stalemate and useless cost of each offensive.
In Britain the Landship Committee, presided by Sir Winston Churchill, backed the entire project. This evolved into the Little Willie, itself later serving as a basis for the development of the “Mother”, the Mark I series and later the Whippet.
On the other side, Col. Estienne’s idea was backed by President Raymond Poincaré and Marshall Joffre. A commission led by General Janin later approved first orders for the Schneider CA-1. Developed on the basis of the Holt tractor, it was the first operational French tank and the second in the world after the Mark I.
Holt type Caterpillar lengthened for trench crossing trials February 1916
A Schneider project
Schneider was a major well-known armament manufacturer in France. It produced guns and ammunition for the army and navy, but also had some armor expertise from their shipbuilding activities. Most French battleships had received Schneider sandwich iron plates since the 1880s. It mirrored Vickers-Armstrong in Britain, but was not of comparable size.
The first French tank the Char Schneider CA-1
Colonel Estienne, “Father of the tank”
Since the beginning of hostilities col. Jean-Baptiste Eugène Estienne was fascinated with the idea of armored transports that could bring infantry safely up to the enemy trenches. Born in 1860, he graduated the renowned Polytechnique school and began his career as an artillery officer, writing a guidance book to correct artillery errors, presented to the Academie des Sciences in Paris. He worked on telemetric and pointing goniometer devices.
Seen as a brilliant pioneering engineer, he was given the development of a newborn Aviation Militaire (Air Force) by general Brun in 1909 at Reims. He worked on several tactical applications and even the first “flying artillery” concept. During WWI, he was attached to general Pétain at the 22nd Artillery Regiment based at Belfort.
Although directing a successful air guided artillery barrage, he nevertheless saw the infantry cut to pieces by machine-gun fire. On the 25th of August he declared in front of his staff and officers “Gentlemen, victory will be owned by the one of any belligerents which could place a 75 mm gun on a car able to move on all terrains”.
He learnt during the summer of 1915 that Eugène Brillié was already working on an armored prototype able to cross barb wire, based on a Holt tractor. After gaining the approval of General Joffre for 400 orders, he gathered a small team in early February to produce the prototype of the CA-1 on the basis of the Schneider chassis, which was ready within two weeks.
After relatively successful tests, Schneider began building the infrastructure for mass-producing the CA-1. This process took quite long. The first units were ready in September. At the same time Estienne was named at the head of the newly formed “Special Artillery” corp.
The initial order of nearly 1000 tanks was cancelled and later reissued for 150 medium CA-1 tanks in February. The first unit was ready for combat in April 1917. Later, for his unwavering support for tank development, Estienne earned the Légion d’Honneur as well as the div. general rank in December 1918.
Eugène Brillié and the development of the CA-1
If Estienne was the tireless supporter and promoter of tanks in France, Eugène Brillié conceived the first operational model, through a subsidiary of the Schneider company, SOMUA. A former railway engineer, he founded, with Gustave Gobron, the Gobron-Brililé car company in 1903.
He then separated and ran his own company, Brillié Automobile, until it was bought off by Schneider. His department developed trucks and utility cars, tractors and military tools. He was first inspired to build a tank after seeing a modified Holt tractor pass through barb wire on difficult terrain at the Royal Engineer Corps during the summer 1915. With the support and ideas of deputy Jules-Louis Breton, he began to work on a machine using this tractor chassis, train and tracks.
The original prototype chassis was ready and made its trials on December, 9, before general Pétain and colonel Estienne. Both associated their ideas and led to the development of the first true CA-1 prototype in early 1915.
The Schneider CA was designed under col. Estienne’s specifications to carry a 75 mm (2.95 in) field gun to deal with bunkers, casemates and other heavy entrenched positions, and softening infantry with machine-gun fire from the ballmounts.
It has to be fitted with a petrol 80 hp (60 kW) engine for a designed speed of 9 km/h (5.59 mph), but finally the Schneider 60 bhp (44.8 kW) engine was retained and placed, with the radiator, at the front. It was based on the well-known American and licence-built Baby Holt chassis, with a massive boxy hull mounted above. However, the first trials at Souain in December 1915, quickly showed that the original chassis was far too short and was unable to pass even relatively narrow trenches.
To find a better engine and longer tracks, the Holt 75 hp (56 kW) engine was chosen instead and the entire plan was redrawn and, at the same time, production was shifted and reorganized at the SOMUA factories near Paris.
To keep the hull compact but allow the crossing of larger trenches, a tail “sabot” was fitted and a track on the front to crush and cut trough barb wire. The sides were flat, lightly armored but later protected by a double sandwich plates arrangement.
The front was sloped, not in order to deal with enemy shells but to clear the view of the driver in the nose and secure large openings for the barbette gun. With its tail and angled prow, this tanks superficially looked like an “armored ship mounted on a caterpillar” as some officers wrote. Joffre himself, whom authorized 400 to be built, called them “land ironclads”, a reminder of the popular British denomination of 1915.
Despite its longer tracks, the final CA was very cramped and access through the rear was difficult. Driving was assumed by three forward and one reverse speed gearbox, plus steering differentials on the rear axle, linked to the engine at the front by a central driveshaft.
First engagement and career
The first batches of CA-1s were ready for action on April, 16, 1917, just in time for the Nivelle Offensive, at Berry-au-Bac (part of the Chemin des Dames general offensive). 132 tanks, almost all models then available, were engaged. But the result was a disaster.
Many found the rough terrain was too much for their tracks and their forward rail acted to overhang the hull, prone to ditch itself in any solid obstacle. The engine was not powerful enough and many broke down at the very beginning. The others advanced in broad daylight and the Germans deployed a lethal artillery barrage, and used field guns at short range in direct fire, firing on flat trajectories against tanks which were designed to only sustain machine-gun and infantry fire.
Eventually the Germans quickly learned to target the exposed forward gasoline reserve and many burst into flames, earning the infamous nickname of “Mobile Crematoriums”.
A total of 57 CA-1s were lost that day. 44 broke down at the start and the remainder managed to reach their objectives, breaking through German first and second lines. However poor coordination meant that the infantry failed to support them and retreated. Only 56 survived. The entire, futile offensive, was a disaster and Nivelle was sacked and replaced by the more cautious Pétain.
Later on, in 1918, available Schneider CAs were reorganized into twenty Artillerie Spéciale units and given to then general Estienne. They participated in some minor offensives, with infantry support, but were progressively phased out to the sole profit of the light FT. As the production ended in August 1918, many were retired into training units or used as supply tanks.
Variants and aftermath
The 400 originally ordered by general Joffre were delivered by Schneider and most later production models were modified following acquired combat experience. Notably, the high up, gravity-feeding gasoline tanks were moved rearwards and armor somewhat increased, overloading even more the engine. The last were unarmed and the free space was used as additional storage (“Char de Ravitaillement”).
They were used to safely supply advanced units in enemy territory. The frontal rail was usually shortened or even removed. Italy, which was interested, bought a single unit, but after trials preferred the more advanced FT 17. After the end of hostilities, some six were sold to the Spanish and served with colonial forces in Morocco, serving actively against local rebellions until 1926.
They were later engaged on the Republican side near Toledo in 1936. They were, by then, hopelessly outdated. No Saint Chamond actually fought outside France, despite some rumors that a handful were sent to the Polish forces fighting against the Soviets in 1919. The sole survivor was sent to the US Aberdeen Ordnance Proving Ground for evaluation and tests after the war. It was given back after a 67 year loan and arrived in France in 1985 along with the Schneider CA that had also been on loan. Both are on display now in the Saumur museum (Musee des Blindes). It is in a running condition tank.
|Dimensions (L x W x H)||6.32m x 2.30m x 2.05m
(20ft 9in x 7ft 6in x 6ft 9in)
|Total weight, battle ready||13.6 tons|
|Propulsion||Schneider 4 cyl petrol, 60 hp (45 Kw)|
|Speed||8 km/h (5 mph)|
|Range on/off road||80/30 km (50/19 mi)|
|Main Armament||1x Schneider 75 mm (2.95 in) blockhaus gun|
|Secondary Armament||2x Hotchkiss M1914 8 mm (0.31 in) machine guns|
|Armor||11 mm + 5.5 mm spaced (0.43+0.21 in)|
One of the first Schneider CA-1 tanks engaged on the front, April 1917, at Berry-Au-Bac, part of the disastrous Nivelle offensives. The olive livery was not a standard one, but it was the standard factory paint. When the first units arrived they were put in combat in such haste that most of them appeared in this livery.
A late 1917 CA-1 in February 1918, in a training unit near the front, freshly camouflaged with an unusual pattern of sand, dark brow, khaki green and pale blue over a dark blue-grey basis. Later these took part in the July 1918 offensives launched by Ferdinand Foch, were 350 French tanks were committed.
The last Schneider CA-1s committed in action were the ones participating in the August French counter-offensive under General Gouraud’s command, after the failure of the Ludendorff summer offensive. The livery is the one used in early 1918, with bright colors separated by blacks lines, creating a paving effect to disrupt shapes. But these colors made the tanks even more visible on a uniform grey-brownish battlefield. The French usage of playing card symbols to identify units by their letter stuck until WWII.
A Schneider CA “Char Ravitailleur”. In mid-1918 all early production models which had survived were sent to training duties and, later, most of the late production CA-1 were converted to supply tanks. Their superstructure was altered, they gained extra armor, lost their heavy blockhaus gun which was replaced by a new hatch and also had their machine guns removed.
Original design sketch
WW1 French Schneider CA 1 Char Tank can be found at the French Tank Museum in Saumur
An agricultural caterpillar track system based on the American Holt company’s design was used on the French Schneider CA 1 Char Tank
Replica Char Schneider CA1 tank inside the 1st Infantry Division museum in Cantigny Park, IL, USA
The Moroccan and Spanish Civil War
After defeats against Berber rebels in the Rif War, also called the Second Moroccan War, six Schneider CA1 tanks were sold to Spain on 16th September 1921 as part of a joint French-Spanish effort to subdue the newly independent Rif Republic in Morocco.
The Spanish Army renamed the tank the Carro de Asalto Schneider M16 and modified by the addition of a driver’s visor annex gun port in the front glacis plate. They provided close support fire from the 75mm Blockhaus Schneider gun and 8 mm Hotchkiss M1914 machine guns on 14th March 1922. This was the first time a tank had been used by the Spanish Army.
Spanish Carro de Asalto Schneider M16 (Schneider CA-1) tank in Barcelona
Spain had also purchased some Renault FT light tanks. The Spanish Carro de Asalto Schneider M16 (Schneider CA-1) tank was viewed more as a self-propelled artillery gun rather than a tank and was therefore issued to an artillery assault battery. They returned to Spain in 1929. None of them had been lost in action. These tanks were now nearly 13 years old and had started to show signs of old age and suffered regular mechanical breakdowns. They were down graded from frontline battle ready status and used for training tank crews.
Four were part of the depot of the Regimiento Ligero de Carros de Combate N° 1 at Madrid, a Renault FT unit, the other two were part of the depot strength of RLCC N° 2 at Zaragoza, the other Renault FT unit. When the Spanish Civil War started, the Regimiento Ligero de Carros de Combate N° 1 at Madrid, remained under Republican command. The RLCC N° 2 at Zaragoza took the side of the Nationalist rebels.
French built WW1 Schneider CA1 tank on the streets in Spain during the Spanish Civil War
The Spanish Carro de Asalto Schneider M16 (Schneider CA-1) tanks in Madrid were used in action during the attacks on the Cuartel de la Montaña, the main military barracks of the Madrid. The Zaragoza Carro de Asalto Schneider M16 (Schneider CA-1) tanks participated in the initial fighting. The fate of the tanks is not known.
The Reparto speciale di marcia carri d’assalto, was Italy’s first tank regiment. It was formed in the summer of 1918. It had one French built Scneider CA-1 and three Renault FT tanks. In November 1918 the Schneider was replaced by the first Italian built tank the Fiat 2000.


Reducing Collisions Involving Young Drivers
Type of Problem Being Addressed
Young Driver Crashes
General Description of the Problem
Young drivers are more likely to be involved in a motor vehicle crash than any other age group (Williams, 2003). This is the case whether crashes are measured per population, per licensed driver, or per mile traveled. This greater crash involvement also results in additional injury risks because the youngest drivers tend to carry the largest number of passengers, typically other teens. And this group—drivers and passengers alike—is least likely to wear safety belts, thereby foregoing the best protection against injury in the event of a crash (Fell et al., 2005). Young drivers are a hazard to other road users, as well. A recent analysis showed that the majority of fatalities in crashes involving 15- to 17-year-old drivers are to persons other than the teen driver, including occupants of other vehicles and nonmotorists (American Automobile Association, 2006).
As a consequence of these factors, along with the fact that young people are infrequently affected by fatal diseases, motor vehicle crashes are by far the leading cause of death among teens in the United States, as shown in Exhibit III-1.
In 2003, 6,424 teens between the ages of 15 and 20 were killed in motor vehicle crashes (CDC, 2006). Although 15- to 20-year-olds represented 8.4 percent of the U.S. population and 6.3 percent of licensed drivers, they accounted for 13.6 percent of drivers involved in fatal motor vehicle crashes and 18 percent of drivers in police-reported crashes (NHTSA, 2005). The economic cost of crashes involving young drivers amounts to nearly 41 billion dollars a year (NHTSA, 2004).
The greater involvement of younger drivers in crashes results from a variety of factors. Especially during the first few months of driving, inexperience plays a central role in elevated crash rates. As shown in Exhibit III-2, crash rates for newly licensed drivers are highest during the first 6 months of driving, during which time they rapidly decrease. This suggests that individuals improve their driving relatively quickly. Crash rates for newly licensed drivers are substantially higher than for drivers holding a learner permit, who are only allowed to drive with an adult in the vehicle—very few learners crash while driving with a supervisor.
Cause of Death Among Persons Ages 16–20 in the United States
(U.S. Centers for Disease Control, 2006)
Crash Rates by License Status and Months of Permit/Licensure
(Mayhew, Simpson and Pak, 2003)
This lack of experience partly coincides with, and is partly responsible for, young drivers'; tendency to make poor judgments about hazards in the driving environment and hazardous actions on their own part. Although risk taking is often cited as a problem among young drivers, risky driving is the more appropriate term. Evidence suggests that deliberate risky actions account for only a small proportion of crashes (McKnight and McKnight, 2003), although they play a somewhat larger role in fatal crashes. Most crashes among the youngest drivers result from lack of awareness about what is risky, and many of the unquestionably risky actions that young drivers engage in (e.g., speeding and following too closely) result from motivations other than an explicit desire to drive in a risky manner.
Recently, attention has focused on the possible role of brain development in young driver behavior. Research suggests that the part of the brain responsible for decision making and impulse control does not fully mature until the mid 20s (Giedd, 2004). Although it is currently unknown how brain development may affect the driving behavior of young drivers, researchers are using brain imaging techniques such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) to study teenagers'; brains while they perform simulated driving tasks. These studies may reveal whether teenagers are cognitively able to perceive risks in the same manner as adult drivers.
Specific Attributes of the Problem
When considering strategies to reduce crashes, perhaps the most important feature of young driver crashes to consider is the substantial variation in the nature and extent of this problem within a small age range. The highest crash risk per trip, or per mile driven, is found among the youngest drivers—16-year-olds (Williams, 2003). Crash risk per mile driven declines sharply among 17-year-old drivers and drops again for 18-year-olds, although crash rates remain substantially higher than among the general driving population. The substantial differences represent a combination of factors that change rapidly among young drivers. The youngest drivers are the least experienced and the most prone to errors resulting from poor judgment; they are also the least likely to drive at all and they drive less, yet they are also more likely to carry passengers. Sixteen- and 17-year-old drivers generally live with parents and other adults and have the protections that come with this living situation. By contrast, drivers 18 and older are more likely to live outside the family home. This results in them driving more and having fewer protective constraints on their time and driving. Their crash rates per mile continue downward due to increasing experience, but their crash numbers increase as a result of greater exposure and an increase in dangerous behaviors, of which driving after drinking is perhaps the most obvious example.
One clear example of how the changing developmental stage, social milieu, and living situation contribute to increased crash risks as a teen ages is the situation with alcohol use. Alcohol-involved crashes increase from relatively low rates among 16-year-old drivers to a peak among drivers ages 20 to 24, as shown in Exhibit III-3. Although alcohol-involved crashes remain high among drivers into their mid-30s, impaired driving declines each year as individuals take on more stable jobs, marry, and begin to have children¡Xall of which entail responsibilities that conflict with a carefree lifestyle that is associated with excessive drinking.
Percentage of Drivers Involved in Fatal Crashes Who Had a Blood Alcohol Content (BAC) of 0.08 Percent or Higher by Age, 2004 (NHTSA, 2005)
Young drivers—especially 16- and 17-year-olds—are responsible for a larger number of passenger injuries and fatalities per crash than more experienced drivers. In crashes involving 16- and 17-year-old drivers, more than one-half of all fatalities occur when passengers younger than 20 are present and there is no adult in the vehicle (Williams, 2003). This results from both their greater propensity to transport several passengers and the increased likelihood of a crash that multiple passengers create. Teen passengers can be distracting to a beginning driver and may encourage the driver to take risks. One observational study of approximately 500 teen drivers found that teens drove faster and allowed shorter headways than adult drivers, especially when male teen passengers were present (Simons-Morton et al., 2005). In addition to the risks created for themselves and their passengers, young drivers also constitute a threat to other road users. One-quarter (24.2 percent) of persons killed in crashes involving 15- to 17-year-old drivers are occupants of a vehicle other than the teen';s, and another 7.5 percent are nonmotorists (e.g., a bicyclist or pedestrian) (American Automobile Association, 2006).
Nighttime driving is also associated with increased risk of serious crashes for young drivers. Among 16-year-old drivers, the risk of a fatal crash is about three times higher after 9 p.m. than during the daytime (Williams, 2003). Not all nighttime trips are high risk. Driving to and from work, for example, probably entails little risk for young drivers. However, recreational driving, which typically involves young passengers, is a substantially different—and more risky—undertaking.
Although nighttime driving can be risky, most teen driver crashes (and fatal crashes) occur during the daytime, especially during high-exposure hours just before and after school (7—8 a.m. and 3—4 p.m.). Each year, approximately 450 teens are killed and 78,000 injured in crashes during normal school travel hours (Transportation Research Board, 2002).
Fatigue can play a role in early morning crashes. Recent research on human sleep needs indicates that because of a biologically based sleep phase shift, teens begin to fall asleep later. Consequently, in order to obtain sufficient rest, they need to be asleep during the early morning (e.g., 6 a.m.) (Jenni et al., 2005; National Sleep Foundation, 2000). Later school start times are associated with fewer young driver crashes and improvements in academic performance and behavior (Danner, 2002; National Sleep Foundation, 2000)
Graduated Driver Licensing
Teenagers need driving experience in order to become proficient, savvy drivers, and therefore reasonably safe drivers. Yet the process of obtaining experience initially exposes them to great risk because of their lack of experience. Graduated driver licensing (GDL) systems address this seeming paradox in two ways. First, GDL systems have an extended learner stage, often 6 months or more, which allows beginning drivers to gain experience while driving under supervision. As shown in Exhibit III-2 above, crash rates are extremely low during the learner stage, when an adult supervisor is present. Second, GDL systems restrict newly licensed drivers from driving unsupervised in high-risk conditions, such as at nighttime or with teenage passengers.
The concept of graduated licensing has been around for several decades (Waller, 2003). Although Maryland implemented an early version of a GDL program in 1979, the modern era of graduated licensing in the United States began in 1997 with the introduction of full three-stage licensing systems in Georgia, Michigan and North Carolina. Since that time, most states have implemented a three-tiered licensing system, although the requirements and restrictions vary greatly from state to state. GDL has been highly effective in reducing crashes and fatalities among young drivers. Fatal crashes among 16-year-old drivers in the United States have decreased from a high of 31 per 100,000 population in 1995 to 23 in 2003 (NHTSA, 2005). Although encouraging, it appears the main reason for this decline is that fewer teenagers are obtaining a license while they are 16 (McKnight et al., 2002). That is, it appears that reductions in crashes and fatalities among young drivers are primarily due to decreased exposure rather than improvements in young driver behavior. There is some evidence, however, that young drivers who have been through a GDL program with a lengthy learner period exhibit lower crash rates once they begin driving without an adult supervisor (Mayhew et al., 2003).
Although young driver crashes and fatalities have decreased in recent years, young driver crash rates continue to exceed those of adult drivers. Thus, there is still a great deal of work to be done in improving young driver safety. It would be unrealistic to expect that GDL can accomplish this alone (Mayhew et al., 2006). In general, the reasons for young driver crashes are more complex than those for experienced drivers, rendering their amelioration more difficult. In addition to the factors that contribute to crashes for all drivers, there are issues of inexperience as well as matters of social, emotional, and biological development that uniquely affect young drivers.


Updated: Oct 19, 2022
It's normal to have concerns about your breast size and shape, especially if you are an expecting or a first-time mother. Women with small breasts might worry they will be unable to produce enough milk for their babies. This worry is unwarranted! The size of your breasts is determined by the amount of fatty tissue; smaller breasts have less fatty tissue, while larger breasts have more fatty tissue. Fatty tissue is not involved in the production of breast milk, rather, it is the glandular tissue called lobules that produces breast milk.
When your baby suckles, hormones are released which signals the lobules to begin producing milk and for the muscles in the lobules to contract, squeezing milk out through the milk ducts and out the nipples. Your breast milk supply depends on how much and often your baby feeds. The more milk your baby feeds, the more milk your body will make. Each time your baby feeds, your body knows to make more milk for the next feeding. The amount of milk you make will go up or down depending on how often your baby feeds.
Women with different breast sizes are fully capable of producing a healthy supply of breast milk for their babies. Most pregnant women will experience an increase in their bust size due to hormonal changes in preparation for producing milk. However, not everyone experiences these changes. A lack of breast growth is not an indication of the health of the pregnancy or a woman's ability to produce milk or breastfeed their baby.


Table of Contents
North American Horsemen's Association
Horsepower Helmet Survey
Equestrian Injuries Surveillance at a Rural Medical Center
Horseback Riding-Related Drownings
Girl Scouts Horseback Riding
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by Lauren Douglas Watson
As the senior physical therapist, one of my most challenging patients was a man who wanted to return to calf roping (individual event) after the loss of his left leg above his knee. Physical therapy's primary role is to evaluate and treat physical limitations through exercise, stretching, and conditioning. Return to a past recreational or vocational skill is a common goal for many patients in physical therapy. Pursuits that require refined technical skills or are very physically demanding are an even greater challenge to the physical therapist. In this particular case the patient chose to ride with his prosthesis to enable him to meet the physical requirement of calf roping.
The basic process in returning an individual to previously performed task is first to identify the skills one needs to perform the task. I examined many hours of taped calf roping to identify the physical demands of the event. The patient needed to mount his horse from the right side and stay balanced with one leg effectively hugging the saddle, also needed to dismount while the horse was still in motion and run to the calf on his prosthetic leg. Lastly, he needed to straighten out his left leg wearing, the prosthesis to put the calf over on his back. It is also very important to understand the limitations of the injury and the nature of the disability, if it is chronic, progressive, or permanent. For example, this rodeo rider who wanted to return to the rodeo was amputated an his left leg at the mid thigh, an obvious permanent disability The rodeo rider's major physical limitations from the amputation were: decreased flexibility, limited parameters of a prosthesis that could straddle a horse, decreased strength, endurance, and tolerance to wearing a prosthesis, skill of running, coordination, and balance. Consideration of other past or concurrent medical conditions the individual may have: i.e., diabetes, cardiac conditions, visual changes, and asthma also need to be assessed for impact on reaching the goal. In this case the gentleman had a cardiac condition that had been resolved at the time he began physical therapy.
Specific treatment plans are required of physical therapy in mapping the road to recovery for each patient. At first, physical therapy focused on improving the rodeo riders' physical Limitations by performing daily a stretching and strengthening program, wear time for the prosthetic leg, endurance training, and standing balance tasks. As the rodeo rider gained strength and flexibility in the basic skills of walking, standing, mounting and dismounting more advanced skills of running, balancing on a moving; object and safely falling and recovering where addressed. As any patient progresses through the rehabilitation process, the basic skills are being constantly reinforced and improved such as increasing prosthetic wear time at level of endurance.
The person going through rehabilitation must understand that few or many adaptations may be necessary to reach a goal after an injury. Success is only found if an individual is willing to be flexible with how to reach the end goal and the capacity to which they can perform that goal. This individual who wanted to perform in rodeos again had to be willing to mount the horse on the right and make many adjustments to his saddle, stirrups, and prosthetic leg components. Some can attain all the physical skills needed to ride a horse again but fail to achieve their goal because they are unwilling to modify their environment. Several patients have stated to me over the years that if they cannot perform in the exact manner they had previously they did not want to pursue the activity. Creativity and determination are key factors to accomplishing anything. There is no place for inflexibility here.
Limitations of the individual, environment, and the goal all need to be assessed. The next step is a good game plan with creative ideas to simulate the goal and to decrease the limits of the disability. Unending pursuit with hard work and determination will see you through!
Lauren Douglas Watson
Vanderbilt Capers Avenue
2201 Capers Avenue
Nashville, TN 37212
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The North American Horsemen's Association (NAHA) of Minnesota was founded as a grass roots organization in 1987 by Linda Liestman, President of Ark International Group. Its mission was to provide difficult-to-find services related to safety, insurability, equine tort law reform, strength, unity and promotion of the horse industry
The first goal accomplished in 1987 was the development of risk reduction programs for an insurance company which was starting a group equine liability insurance program during the mid-80's insurance crisis. During this time of crisis there was inadequate, little, or no coverage available for riding instruction, pack and trail operations, horse drawn vehicle rides and pony rides. Some insurers of lower risk activities, such as boarding, breeding, training stables and personal horse owners, could cover liability for the horse, but for riding horses. Available insurance carried premiums which grew to double or triple overnight, making them unaffordable, unattainable, and impossible to budget for many. The insurance crisis situation was forcing shut-down of higher risk horse businesses across the country in 1985-1986, many of which would not restart once coverage was again available two years later.
Lack of reinsurance and decrease in insurer surplus due to soft market underwriting and poor investment strategies was the major cause of the crisis. The horse industry insurers were afraid of claim potential due to escalating litigation trends. In addition the equine liability market was relatively small compared to large traditional markets, such as auto, homeowners, and restaurant insurance. Insurers lacked equine/insurance/claims experts with the right mix of skills to develop a program and make it successful. These factors, combined with minimum cost of $75,000 for an insurer to start a new program and three years to see results, make equine liability an unattractive market to enter.
The federal government responded to the crisis by enacting the 1986 Risk Retention Law, which made it illegal for state insurance divisions to discriminate against affinity groups, such as horsemen's associations, whose included seeking of a group commercial liability program.
This law made the climate right for some insurers to provide insurance at a reasonable "group" price if operators could meet them part way by forming or using an existing "affinity" group "and agreeing to develop and meet certain minimum safety standards. The operators had the advantage of king able to participate in writing Its own risk reduction programs. To do this, however required insurance expertise and writing skills.
After a lifetime of horse experience, 11 years experience training horses, teaching instruction independently at the university level, a published author and training course developer, Linda Liestman, then 28 years old, had entered the equine insurance service field in 1978 founding the Ark Agency Animal Insurance Services. Two years into her insurance career Liestman was told by an insurance company executive that if she would form a "safety control" liability insurance group for horsemen, it could benefit the industry by stabilizing insurance availability and rates. The idea became real at the enactment of the 1986 law, seven years later, when Liestman received a call from an insurance company asking her to develop such a program.
Upon implementation of the risk reduction programs in 1987, the first operators insured under the program did not care to have standards imposed upon them, yet knew that it was necessary for their survival. Most agreed that the industry could do better and they wanted to be part of the process.
Today, in 1996, the risk reduction programs are well accepted, well- known, and sought by both NAHA member insured and non-insured across the county. The programs have been requested from organizations and individuals in Canada, England, Japan, New Zealand, and other foreign countries. Organizations, insurance companies. libraries, colleges, schools and state, provincial, and local governments regularly request the standards for review and/or implementation. Much content, such as NAHA's description of the nature of the horse, quickly became a model for standard wording within the industry.
NAHA administrators developed the original standards according to insurance statistics on file from 1978 to 1987 and a common sense approach. The intention was to develop reasonable standards which, when applied consistently, could reduce and maybe even eliminate common types of accident occurrences and reduce severity of accidents and injuries. Where administrators lacked expertise, horse industry experts were consulted. Since 1987 risk reduction standards have been updated at least every two years by a panel of five NAHA administrators. Insurance incident reports, industry trends, common national and regional standards, and changes in law are considered. Horse business operators' concerns and suggestions are all carefully evaluated. At the annual NAHA conference the most critical proposed changes are discussed and debated with operators across the county. Finally, legal input is sought. If it is possible to make standards easier or less expensive by the insured, NAHA endeavors to do so.
The work would be worthless if not effective. NAHA risk reduction standards have had nine years of testing by the industry and have proven highly effective, both as a tool for industry education and in reducing frequency and severity of accidents.
A few examples: NAHA statistics show a 4% head injury rate compared to the national rate of 21% to 22%. NAHA frequency numbers and severity of horse drawn vehicle ride accidents dropped by 80% after Risk Reduction Program use. One minor pony ride handler incident took place over the NAHA 9 years period, compared to frequent serious rider/handler injuries prior to that time. One personal horse owner-handler fatality and no rider fatalities were reported for the NAHA's nine year period, compared with the statistics of a similar new program started by a competitor in 1984 that used no risk reduction standards and collapsed in two years. The latter program with one third the number of insured had three horse rental and pony ride fatalities reported in only one year 1984.
Other NAHA services. NAHA full benefit members receive an annual membership kit containing risk reduction programs, contracts and agreements which apply to their businesses, a book containing all NAHA risk reduction programs and business contracts, stable sign pack, education and horse industry promotion materials. Whether insured with NAHA or not, a member may participate in the annual safety award program which commends operators and clubs for their excellent proven accident records. Members receive the NAHA Yearbook of News, which provides 70 to 80 pages of cutting edge information. Horseman, Horsewoman, Equine Artist and Equine Law Practitioner of Distinction are nominated and recognized each year. Surveys, grant programs, equine law practitioner and expert witness lists, and special projects are all part of NAHA focus.
In 1994 NAHA spearheaded the formation of cross-horse industry tier committees to research and develop standards and a manual for cross-industry application of the Americans With Disabilities Act (ADA). NAHA is joining forces with the Association for Horsemanship Safety and Education CHA and North American Riding for the Handicapped Association to begin the two year project in 1997. It is hoped this project will also assist in unifying horse industry factions.
The NAHA conference is held annually. Over 100 members and nonmembers attend from across the industry for three days . Prepared by Linda Liestman For more information, write or call: NAHA PO Box 223 Paynesville, MN 56362 Toll Free: 1-800-328-8894
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HORSEPOWER, a magazine for young riders, published in Aurora, Ontario, Canada, conducted a Helmet Safety Survey of its readers. The results were published in the April/May issue. Over 100 readers responded, all under 18 years of age. This is an edited summary of their findings and recommendations.
Of the English riders who answered, 100% said they wear their helmets all the time. However they said that only 70% of their friends do the same. Of the respondents, 98% admit to having fallen off or had some other sort of riding accident at some time.
Only 25% of the young Western riders wear a hardhat all the time. Another 10% don one for lessons at shows, while a staggering 65% never wear an approved hardhat while riding! Most of their friends 85% rarely or never wear helmets.
English and Western Riders
A final category was created for some riders who fall into English/Western casual/pleasure riding category. Some of these youth possibly do not show or even ride very often - which explains the 93% accident rate among this group.
Most of these riders rode strictly on the trails (80%), dabbled in Western Pleasure (53%) or Hunter/Jumper (43%) activities, while the rest were involved with Pony Club, Dressage, Western Gaming, Eventing, Driving or Long Distance Riding (Competitive Trail Riding, Ride 'N Tie, Endurance Racing.)
Of this group of riders, 77% said they wore a helmet all the time, while 13% strapped one on only for lessons or shows. A total of 10% admitted to never wearing a hardhat for any reason. One third (33%) said their friends always wore a helmet, while 79% said their riding companions sometimes did, and 20% never wore a hardhat.
The HORSEPOWER editor stated that she was startled that so many youths ride without a helmet despite knowing the risks. The editor further states: "What is even more frightening is that there are parents and riding instructors in the horse world who still allow their children/students to ride without proper head protection. Hardhats are constantly being redesigned to look more sleek and less geeky, if that is what the youth and their parents are worried about. Even if riding Western, there are specially designed safety helmets which fit under your Western hat. It is time for the Western divisions at all horse shows to get tough and insist that all juniors have proper headgear to be able to compete. If you do not wear an approved riding helmet when you mount, please reconsider. Do yourself a favor and watch the video, 'Every Time, Every Ride.'"
Susan Stafford, Editor
PO Box 670
Aurora, Ontario L4G4J9, Canada
Edited by Doris Bixby Hammett, MD
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Previous equestrian injury studies have focused largely on horseback riding injuries treated in hospitals and emergency departments (ED). A review of the literature reveals that information regarding non-riding injuries and injuries treated in non-ED outpatient settings is limited, National Electronic Injury Surveillance System (NEISS) estimates of injury rates for the United States population have been based on ED surveillance of riding injuries.
This two year prospective study describes horse-related injuries (riding and non-riding) sustained by persons who received inpatient or out-patient care at a large rural medical center.
Case reports were submitted by the hospital ED and selected outpatient departments of the multi-speciality clinic in a large rural medical center. Monthly E code reports generated by the medical records department were used for additional case finding. Care was taken in using all possible E code ranges for capturing horse and animal-related injury.
Injury event, diagnostic, and risk factor data were obtained through chart abstraction and patient interview. Cases who resided within a 14 zip code epidemiologic surveillance area (total population of 56.869) were used to determine population-based horse-related injury rates, as well. as horseback riding injury rates that could be compared with those determined through use of NEISS data.
Results reported here are based on preliminary results from 22 of the 24 months of surveillance. An interview was completed by 88 of 93 (95%) of the total patients. An outpatient non-ED setting was the location in which 19 (21%) patients were treated. Patients' age ranged from 1 to 75 years, with 39 (42%) under 19 years of age.
Fifty-two (54%) of the injuries were sustained while riding; 36 (41%) While engaged in other horse-related activities. Seventeen (18.3%) were admitted to the hospital and 41 (44.1%) returned home with need for bed rest or observation. The most frequently recorded injury diagnosis (47 patients, 50.5%) was contusion or abrasion. Fracture occurred in 30 (32.3%) and head injuries in 13 (14%). Head injuries were sustained by 10 children under 19 years of age (23% of youth injured).
Fifty patients resided within the 14 zip code epidemiologic surveillance area. Overall horse-related injury rates for this population were 4.92 (95% confidence limits 3.65, 6.48) per 10,000 person years. The latter compares with a rate of 0.95 determined by using NEISS data for the United States population. Horse-related injury rates for children (<19 years) in this study were 6.86 (4.19, 10.59) per 10,000 person years; the adult rate was 4.14 (2.79, 5.91).
Farm was the place of residence for 37 (42%) of the patients; 36 (41'%) rural, non- farm. Nine (10.3%) of the injured persons had never been involved with horse-related activities before the event; 18 (20.6%) had been involved for more than five years.
In a typical week, 15 (17.4%) of the injured patients did not spend time around horses; 24 (29.9%) spent an average of less than seven hours; 23 (26.7%) spent from 7 to 13.9 hours, and the remaining 23 (26.7%) reported spending 14 or more hours per week.
Riding safety instruction within the past two years was reported by 12 (14.68%) of the injured children and 7 (14.3%) of the adults. While mounted, a certified helmet was "always" worn by 12 (14.6%) of the patients who had previous riding experience.
A significant proportion of the injuries noted in this study were sustained in non-riding activities and were serious in nature. Case finding efforts were strengthened by inclusion of outpatient departments and E code reports. One-fifth of the patients in this study were seen for treatment in a non-ED outpatient setting. This has implications for future surveillance efforts.
To our knowledge, populations-based incidence of horse-related injury rates have not been published previously. Rates for riding injuries noted in this study are more than two times those estimated by the United States population.
Factors that may contribute to horse-related injuries should be explored further. Future surveillance and intervention efforts should recognize the special injury potential for children involved with all horse-related activities.
National Farm Medicine Center
1000 North Oak Avenue
MarshfieId, WI 54449
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Horseback riding as a recreational activity is growing in popularity. Over 30 million people in the United States ride horses. Fifteen million of these riders are over the age of 12 and ride on a regular basis. There are an estimated 8.3 million horses in the United States and 80% are kept for recreational use. In Oklahoma, there are an estimated 325,000 horses and 40,000 owners.
The National Electronic Injury Surveillance System (NEISS) reported 92,763 emergency room visits for horseback riding injuries in 1987-1988. According to Oklahoma Vital Statistics data, 41 animal-related deaths occurred in the state during the period 1990-1994; 17 occurred while the person was riding an animal. A national review of state medical examiners' data from 27 states documented 205 riding fatalities from 1978-1987; 60% of the fatalities resulted from head injuries, 14% from abdominal and trunk injuries, 9% from chest injuries, 5% from drownings, 4% from spine and neck injuries, 3% from multiple injuries, and 1% from injuries to the extremities. Another 4% of fatalities resulted from other causes such as being struck by lightning, strangulation, and exposure.
According to Oklahoma statewide submersion injury surveillance data, eight horseback riding deaths due to drowning occurred from 1988-1994. This update focuses on the epidemiology of horseback riding-related drownings.
All persons were male, 75% (6/8) were 20-29 years of age. Four persons were white, two Hispanic, one black, and one Native American. Fifty percent (4/8) of persons were involved in cattle ranching activities at the time the drowning occurred.
TABLE AGE GENDER RACE MONTH TIME LOCATION ACTIVITY29 M W Apr 8:30 PM Flooded pasture Moving cattle 22 M H May 6:00 PM River Moving cattle 44 M NA May 1:00 PM Creek Trail ride 22 M B Jun 12:10 PM Creek Riding /w friends 26 M W Jul 12:10 PM Pond Breaking a horse 42 M W Aug Unknown Pond Unknown 25 M W Aug 9:30 AM Pond Chased bull in pond 20 M H Aug 12:50 PM Pond Chasing coyotes
In 38% (3/8) of the cases, weather conditions of rain/flood were a contributing factor. Four of the eight drownings occurred in a farm pond, two in a creek, one in a river, and one in a flooded pasture. All of the drownings occurred during the months of April through August. All but one drowning occurred during the daylight hours; 5 occurred between 9:00 a.m. and 1 p.m. In all but two cases, the decedent was with a friend, co-worker, or family member at the time of the drowning.
In two cases, the horses were wearing tie-downs. (A tie-down is a leather strap that attaches to the bridle underneath the chin and runs underneath to the girth. It prevents the horse from rearing its head. A horse cannot swim while wearing a tie-down.)
Horseback riding can be a dangerous activity. Properly trained riders should be aware of the inherent dangers and exercise the actions necessary to avoid injury and death. Hired cowboys are usually asked to provide their own horses as terms of employment, probably to insure an appropriate level of experience. However some cattle operations have learned that requiring their employees to ride company horses may reduce employee injuries.
Drowning while riding a horse is a relatively rare event; however some common factors emerge from this case series. Four of the riders who drowned could not swim; in two cases flooding was a contributory factor, and in two other cases the horse wore equipment that was a contributory factor (i.e, tie-down). Riders may take the following precautions to prevent this type of event from occurring.
All riders should know how to swim.
Know the proper use of equipment around water (e.g., loosen or remove a horse's tie-down).
Avoid muddy bogs or dangerous terrain (especially around water) that might interfere with the horse's footing.
Avoid riding horses in heavy rains or flood conditions as (Oklahoma) landscapes are scattered with ditches, ravines, and rolling terrain. Dangerous "drop-offs" may underlie seemingly shallow water.
Crossing a road with an unknown death of water flowing over its surface is dangerous and should be avoided.
"Swimming a horse," although a common practice for experienced riders, is dangerous. It should never be attempted by an inexperienced rider, or any rider who cannot swim as the rider may be separated from the horse.
Sheryll Shariat, M. P. H.
Injury Prevention Service
Oklahoma State Dept. of Health
1000 NE 10th Street
Oklahoma City, OK 73117-1299
from INJURY UPDATE May 31, 1996
During the years covered by these figures (1988-1994) Oklahoma had 23 deaths riding/driving animals, 2 animal pedestrian deaths, and three unspecified animal related deaths for a total of 28 animal related deaths.
We do not know how many of the animal deaths were horse related (i.e. rodeo bull riding) but we feel few would be from camels, elephants (circus). or llamas. Nor do we know if the horse related drowning deaths were listed under animal riding deaths or as drowning deaths, but using these figures both ways (8/28, 8/36) the percent of horse related drownings were between 22% and 29%; far above the 1985 median [medical] examiner figure of 5%.
It may be that many of these deaths are coded (listed) under drownings and are lost in the statistics. We encourage others to study horse related drownings in their state. Many more may be occurring than available records show.
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To participate in riding, girls must possess physical coordination and balance. They must be old enough to understand and practice safety procedures and to use good judgment in reacting to situations. Girls must be mature enough to take responsibility for themselves and their horses.
Planning and Supervision
All riding instructors must be adults currently certified by an accredited horsemanship instructor training organization or have documented proof of a minimum of three year's experience successfully instructing in a general horseback riding program.
All assistant riding instructors must be 16 years or older and be currently certified by an accredited horsemanship instructor training organization or have documented proof of one year's experience successfully instructing a general horseback riding program.
Riders must be supervised by instructors or assistant instructors at all times when in the proximity of horses, whether mounted or not.
Each rider must be tested and classified according to her riding ability.
The horse and riding area must be assigned according to the rider's ability.
Beginning riders must attend an introductory safety lesson, including information on horse psychology and behavior, and approaching, handling, and leading a horse.
A beginning rider must ride only in a ring or corral; a rider must feel confident and demonstrate basic skills in controlling the horse and maintaining proper distance before trail riding.
A safety check by an instructor of each rider's clothing, the horse's tack, and the riding area must be made before each riding session.
Only one rider is allowed on a horse at any time.
Eating or drinking is not permitted while riding.
Additional Checkpoints for Ring or Corral Riding
A minimum of one instructor and one assistant instructor must supervise any group of 10 or fewer riders, with one additional instructor or assistant instructor for every five additional riders.
A pre-ride demonstration must be given to all first time riders, including mounting, dismounting starting, stopping, steering, and balanced body position.
Each horse and rider must be under the observation of one of the instructors at all times.
Additional Checkpoints for Trail Riding
No more than 10 girls to a group, excluding an instructor and assistant instructor. For beginning riders or younger girls, adult supervision may need to be increased.
Prior to the trail ride, a brief warm-up must take place in a ring or corral to ensure that riders are well suited to their horses and can control all of the gaits and functions required during the trail rider
The group must ride single file, one full horse length apart, with the assistant instructor at the head, the least experienced riders in the front, and the instructor at the rear.
Distances between horses must be increased when the horses' speed increases.
Riders must have control of their horses and maintain the spacing between horses.
The length of the trail ride and the gait of the horses must be geared to the ability of the least experienced rider.
Supervision must be increased far inexperienced riders or difficult trails.
Riding trails must have good footing and be free from dangerous obstructions, such as low-hanging branches.
Trails must be marked, mapped, regularly inspected and maintained.
Gates must be left as found, open or shut.
Public roads and highways must be avoided whenever possible. (If a group must cross a road, the instructors must first halt the group in a line well before the road, check for traffic, and then signal the group to cross. At the signal, all horses are turned to face the highway and all cross at the same time.)
Horses must be walked up and down hills and should be walked for the final 10 minutes of any riding period.
Equipment for a hail ride must include.
Gear must be tied to the saddle or packed in saddle-bags. Backpacks, day packs, fanny packs, etc,, are not to be worn by any riders.
In case of other horseback riding situations, such as open range riding, horse shows, led pony rides, etc., a written safety management plan specific to the activity must be prepared.
Some programs, such as riding for girls with disabilities, vaulting, pack trips, driving and games may require special equipment, as well as horses and instructors with specialized training.
Long pants and appropriate protective clothing must be worn.
Clothing must be snug to prevent becoming tangled with the saddle.
Jewelry, especially loop earrings, heavy pendants, and bracelets, must not be worn.
Boots or shoes with a least a half-inch heel must be worn to prevent feet from sliding through the stirrups.
Riders may not ride in hiking hoots with lug soles, tennis shoes, sandals, or barefoot.
Riders may wear well-fitting gloves to protect hands from blisters, rope burns and cuts.
Properly fitting protective headgear, with a correctly adjusted safety harness that meets the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) F-1163-88 requirements, displaying the Safety Equipment Institute (SEI) seal, must be worn by girls and adults, including all instructors, wranglers, stable hands, etc., when around horses, whether-mounted or not.
All equipment must he in good condition, checked regularly for wear and repaired as necessary.
Records of repair requests and completion of repairs must be maintained and kept.
All equipment must be properly adjusted for each rider and horse.
The saddle size must be appropriate for each rider.
All girth straps must be fitted properly and checked by the instructor prior to mounting.
Stirrup lengths must be adjusted for each rider.
Council approval must be obtained when selecting a non-Girl Scout riding facility.
The stable operator must provide evidence of liability insurance and references from other youth group users of the stable.
The stable area must be inspected prior to use by council staff.
The following applies to both Girl Scout council and non-Girl Scout riding facilities:
The riding area must be away from outside distractions and free of debris.
The barn and riding areas must not have exposed barbed wire fencing.
The instructional rings, corrals, paddocks and stables must have clearly posted rules and regulations.
The horses must be properly cared for and the stables, corrals, barns, etc., must be kept dean and uncluttered.
Tack (saddles, bridles, etc.) must be clean and in good condition.
Weather conditions must be suitable for riding. The ground must be firm and free of ice.
Riding should be done during daylight hours only. Any riding at night must be in an enclosed, well-lighted area.
Permission and any necessary permits must be obtained before riding on public or private lands.
Emergency Procedures and First Aid
An adult with current first-aid training must be present in the ring or on the trail.
A first-aid kit must be available in the ring or on the trail.
An emergency vehicle must be readily available.
Plans for emergency communication with the police, hospitals, and park or fire officials must be arranged in advance and known by each instructor.
Plans for response in ease of an emergency such as a fire, severe weather, injured rider injured or loose horse, etc., must be known by all participants and instructors.
For extended trips, the itinerary must be left with a contact person. The person must be called upon departure and return.
At Girl Scout facilities, a method of communications between the riding area and the site director or health-car personnel must be available.
In stable and ring areas telephone numbers for the fire department, local hospital or emergency ambulance service, and veterinarian must be conspicuously posted, and the location of the fire alarm must be known to all girls and adults.
Reprinted by permission from Safety-Wise,
copyright 1993, Girl Scouts of the United States of America.
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They enable you to simplify sentences where the same general idea is expressed two or more times.
- On their wedding day Jhon gave Mary a gold ring and Mary gave Jhon a gold ring.
* Using the reciprocal pronoun, "each other", this could be rewritten:
=> On their wedding day Mary and Jhon gave each other gold rings.
- Peter and Mary kissed each other.
* In this example "each other" indicates that both people involved in the action of "kissing" got the result, kisses, at the same time.
If you need to refer to more than two people, say the students in a classroom, then we could use the reciprocal pronoun, "one another".
- The students in this classroom cooperate with one another.
- The teachers gathered to congratulate one another on the year's conclusion.


Chronic urticaria is a common condition encountered in general practice and a frequent
source of referral to the clinical immunologist, allergist and dermatologist.
This article discusses the assessment and management of chronic urticaria in the
general practice setting.
Chronic urticaria is defined as the occurrence of transient wheals lasting more than
6 weeks in duration. In 80% of cases, a cause is not identified and this is classified
as chronic idiopathic urticaria. A physical trigger, vasculitis or systemic disease
account for a smaller proportion of cases. Allergic causes are rarely responsible. A
detailed history provides the most useful information in determining the presence
of chronic urticaria and a possible aetiology. Apart from thyroid function tests and
thyroid autoantibodies, other investigations should only be performed if clinically
indicated. Second generation antihistamines are the mainstay of treatment and usually
twice daily regimens are required for adequate control. H2 antagonists, doxepin and
immunomodulation may be necessary in some patients.
Urticaria is characterised by the rapid appearance of transient, pruritic skin swellings (wheals) of variable size surrounded by reflex erythema lasting less than 24 hours and leaving no residual skin changes (Figure 1). Urticaria is a common condition, affecting up to 20% of the population.1 It is broadly classified into acute and chronic forms. Acute urticaria is defined as episodes of less than 6 weeks duration and accounts for over two-thirds of cases. An allergic or infectious trigger is sometimes identified (Table 1). Chronic urticaria (CU) is defined as episodes extending beyond 6 weeks and accounts for 30% of cases.
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The effectiveness of technology use in the classroom has become a controversial issue. While many teachers and students feel that it’s best to use technology because it enhances teaching many others feel that it causes too many challenges and that it is a waste of time. If technology is as effective in the classroom as many teachers believe it to be; why do some students dislike it so much?
In order to objectively respond to this question, 3 articles were examined. 2 out of the 3 relate how the use of technology in the classroom frustrates students while the last one translates the thoughts of students who feel that technology in the classroom has responded to their need. So the issue is not that technology is not effective but rather that some teachers need to be mindful about technology use in the classroom and others need to be trained in order to properly use technology to teach so that students do not view technology as obstruction learning but as an enhancing tool.
After summarizing the 3 articles that have been reviewed we will be able to prove that there are 2 groups of students who claim to dislike technology in the classroom: Those who are improperly exposed to it by their teacher and those who did not give themselves enough time to familiarize themselves with it. We will then be able to get to the logical conclusion that those same students would appreciate the value of technology in the classroom if their teachers used it properly. Let us first summarize the articles that we are referring to.
The article “When good technology means bad teaching related that many students feel that teachers and professor use technology as a way to show off. Students complain of technology making their teachers “less effective than they would be if they stuck to a lecture at the chalkboard” (Young) other problems related by students include teachers wasting class time to teach about a web tool or to flab with a projector or software. When teachers are unfamiliar with the technological tools, they are likely to waist more time trying to use them the technological software that is used the most according to students is PowerPoint. Students complain that teachers use it instead of their lesson plan. Many students explain that it makes understanding more difficult “I call it PowerPoint abuse” (Young). Professors also post their PowerPoint Presentation to the school board before and after class and this encourages students to miss more classes.
Another problem reported in the article with the use of technology in the classrooms is that many schools spend time to train their staff about how to use a particular technology but it does not train them on “strategies to use them well” (Young). The writer believed that schools should also give small monetary incentives to teachers and professors to attend workshops.
In an interview made with 13 students, “some gave their teacher a failing when it came to using Power Point, Course Management systems and other classroom technology” (Young ) some of the complains were again about the misuse of PowerPoint’s and the fact that instructors use it to recite what’s on the scale. Another complaint was that teachers who are unfamiliar with technology often waste class time as they spend more time troubleshooting than teaching. The last complain mentioned is that some teachers require students to comment on online chat rooms weekly but that they do not monitor the outcome or never make reference to the discussion in class.
Similarly, the article “I’m not a computer person” (Lohnes 2013) speaks to the fact that students expectations as far as technology is concerned is very different. In a study done with 34 undergraduate university students, they advise that technology is an integral part of a university students life because they have to do must everything online from applying for college or university, searching and registering for classes, pay tuition and that in addition to being integrated in the administration, etc. technology is also widely used to teach and is valued by higher education.
Those students, however, feel that technology poses a barrier to success as they struggle to align with the ways in which the institution values technology.” A student explains that technology is used in her freshman year to turn in assignments, participate in discussion boards and blogs, emailing the professor, viewing grades and for a wide range of other administrative task including tracking the next school bus. This particular student whose name is Nichole says that she does not own a laptop but shares a family computer. She has a younger brother who also uses the computer to complete his school work so she consequently has to stay up late to complete assignments. She states “technology and I? We never had that connection” (Lohnes). Nichole dislikes the fact that her college requests that she had more contact with technology than she is conformable with. Nonetheless, she explains that as she started doing those school online assignments so frequently she came to realize that they were not that bad.
One of her issues though with technology is that she had come from Puerto Rico about a year prior entering college and that she never had to use the computer so much there. The articles relates that other college students like Nichole have admitted that they are “reluctant technology users” (Lohnes) The article wants to explain, in essence, that although most people would expect that college students prefer technology and are already familiar with it,” that assumption is faulty” (Lohnes).
On the other hand, the article “What Screenagers Say About… ” High school age students were asked about what they thought of technology but most expressed liking it. One of them said about PowerPoint: “My history teacher did a good job with Power Points. He would put them online, which made for really great reviews.” (Screneagers, 2011) Others expressed how technology was really who they are and that teachers should understand for example that when they text in class, they are not being rude but that they have gotten used to multi tasking. Another student invites teachers to not be afraid of technology “Teachers shouldn’t be afraid of technology. Understand that it’s how we live our lives. So don’t just push it out. Learn to cope with us and how we work.” (Screenagers, 2011)
Another student however, expressed how she prefers simpler technology that her teacher is comfortable with rather than high tech that the teacher does not manipulate well “The most important thing for teachers is to be comfortable with what they’re using. It doesn’t have to be super high tech. My math teacher used a projector, and it was one of my favorite classes. Then I would go to this other class where the teacher used Power Points and the SMART board, but I didn’t get any more out of it because she wasn’t comfortable with the technology” (Screenagers, 2011) Students spoke about their appreciation for virtually all types of technology used in the classroom. Another said “One of my teachers used Skype. That’s face-to-face interaction. If I had a problem with some math problem I was working on, I could take a picture of it and put it on the Skype screen. She could see where I was making my mistake. It really helped.” (Screenagers, 2011) The bottom line is that those high school students wanted to let teachers know that they really like technology and that it is already a great part of their daily routine but that it had to be used properly in order for them to enjoy it.
Similarly, they summarize a few things that they dislike as well. Among the list, they said: reading on the computer, paying a lot for an online textbook and the fact that they often forget everything else when they get caught up with using technology.
Nonetheless, they had much more positive things they liked in technology like for example that some teachers would text a question for them to think about before class, so if they do not know they answer, they would communicate with classmates to discuss the possibility for the answer before class. This allows them to go to class prepared. They also like using Skype, emailing their teachers instead of going to speak to them in person. They also enjoy discussion boards. The advice they would like to convey to their teachers is to make sure that they are comfortable with whatever technological tools they are using, to give them more freedom to use the good sites and those in the middle range when they are surfing the net using school computers and to understand that technology is part of their lives.
After summarizing those articles, we can see that the students mentioned in Youngs, 2004 dislike technology because their experience with it was not satisfactory. In other terms, a group of students dislike technology because some teachers are not mindful about technology use or they need additional training. For example, some students are frustrated because they feel that instructors waist their time when they are not properly trained to use the technological tools. Others disliked the fact that some teachers had PowerPoint presentations which were either not meaningful or they would just read whatever they wrote and add no additional comments. Those examples are called “bad teaching (Young, 2004) and they are in fact terrible examples that teachers should not follow because technology is not meant to help teachers do the least work or to adopt poor teaching practices. Somme students related that PowerPoint was widely used by teachers so they even call it PowerPoint abuse.
I can relate to what is being expressed by those students. I observed a Teaching Assistant teach a grammar class recently. He purchased a device to allow him to monitor the screen without touching the computer. He was able to walk throughout the class while changing slides. It all looked so impressive but despite all of this show, students were left so confused at the end of the lesson. When they asked questions, he went back to the slide that had the grammar rule and read it over to the class. The PowerPoint was a duplication of the textbook chapter. The same examples of the book were used. At the end of the course, he felt that he had done a great PowerPoint when in fact, it was not meaningful. It was a copy/paste project from the text book to the screen. This example shows that we need to use common sense when using technology. When teaching grammar, a teacher has to be able to come up with examples other than those in the book, you have to write on the board, have student practice what they have learned. PowerPoint use was a real bad idea, in my opinion, for teaching this course. It was just not the right technological tool for the lesson.
Students in that class may decide that they hate Power Points because it confuses them more while the issue is not with the use of PowerPoint but instead with the teacher’s poor choice of technology. The point I also want to make here is that teachers may sometimes be unaware of their improper use of technology. This is why, as educators, we sometimes need to ask students for their feedback so we may make corrections where needed.
We can then conclude that those students dislike technology as a result of improper technological use by teachers, and also because many teachers do not attend workshops or training sessions to help them obtain a broader knowledge of technology since they are so busy. Like suggest (Youngs, 2004) and (Lohnes, 2012), those same busy teachers would have attended those trainings if there were given an incentive. In the article “Technology Standards in a Third-Grade Classroom” (Kovalik, 2001), it is related how a study done on a 3rd grade class of 25 showed that students were properly using technology. There is no indication that those students dislike using technology. The article also mentioned how the teachers were highly trained because the Ohio board pays incentive to teachers to participate in technology training which teaching them not only how to use technology by teaches them strategies on when to use them.
Boards from other states should consider doing the same thing to ensure that their teachers are responding to the technological need of their students and that they are teaching them according to the standards. The Ohio school mentioned above met the standards as far as technology is concerned because of the technology coaching received by the teachers. If teachers learn how to properly use technology in the classroom, it will be a less frustrating experience for them and for the student who will less likely dislike technology since it will meet its purpose to enhance teaching.
The other groups of students who dislike technology are those who were not exposed to it for long enough. The College Freshman, Nichole advises that she was not exposed to so much technology while she was in high school in her home country; consequently, it seemed to be a burden to her to have to need a computer to complete most of her school assignments but also to interact with her classmate via a discussion board. What is interesting though is that even though she claimed to dislike technology so much, she advised that once she started to spend so much time using it, she realizes that it is not so bad. Even though it is likely that some people do not like the telephone and texting so much, the computer and some website have become part of most people daily routine. In Nichole’s case, she does not own a laptop and has to wait for her turn to use the family computer which means that she has no attachment to this media because her use of it is controlled. However, once she gets to own her own computer, it is a guaranteed that her view of technology will change.
I returned to school after about 12 years. When I was in college the 1st time around, nothing was electronic but when I contacted USF to apply, they told me that everything was online. At first, I asked why everything was online but once I got used to it, I started to understand the value of having the convenience to do a lot of things without having to live my home.
Therefore, Nichole will certainly not continue to dislike technology that much once she gets more familiar and more attached to it. The fact is that she stated that she started to realize that it was not that bad once she started doing so many assignments. She came to the conclusion that the computer was not yet a friend but that it was no longer an enemy; it became to her an acquaintance.
With this understanding, depending on the background of some ELL students and depending on whether or not they were exposed to technology in their home country, they may not like technology at first but this should not be a sign that they will never come to appreciated it. As teacher, we will need to allow them time to familiarize themselves with it while we continue to properly use it so that we do not advocate against it or involuntary send missed information about its true value.
On the other hand, the last article testifies to the fact that the new generation is technology driven and that when used properly, they benefits from it in the classroom, there are several examples of how teachers originally used technology to teach which are appreciated by students. What should the conclusion be then?
We have proven that technology use is effective in the classroom but that teachers need to take some actions in order to make this tool useful to students. It is necessary that they received some training if they lack it, and like a student suggested in the Screenager article, they should refrain from using complicated tools if they are not sure about how to use them. It’s best to properly use something much simpler that they are familiar with like a high school student suggested.
In addition, it is important for teachers to screen the countless technological tools and to research them before introducing them to their teaching. Should they test some that do not work well, they have to stop using them and seek one that is more appropriate. Most importantly, technology is not always the answer this is why teachers should be balanced when using it. If it is required that we use the board and chalks to help students better understand, this is what we should do. Doing so, we will ensure that more students appreciate the use of technology in the classroom for what it is worth.


Welcome to the ITVS Community Classroom lesson plans for COPYRIGHT CRIMINALS, an innovative and dynamic documentary that explores the origins of sampling culture in hip-hop music, copyright, creativity, and technological change. The film explores how hip-hop rose from the streets of New York to become a multibillion-dollar industry, and what happened when record company lawyers got involved and everything changed. Students will develop not only a deeper historical understanding of “remix” culture, but also contemplate where it is headed. Featured artists include Public Enemy, De La Soul, and George Clinton, as well as several prominent entertainment lawyers and media scholars.
These resources examine copyright law in the history of “borrowing” sounds in music, and raise provocative questions about what is creative and what is criminal. These lessons are directed toward grades 9 through 12, and college students for use in the following subject areas: media studies, media literacy, social studies, history, sociology, media production, music and language arts, business, and legal studies.
1. Hip-Hop and the Birth of Sampling (5:28)
This module explains what sampling is, and how it came to be widely used in the early days of hip-hop music. It also explores the socio-economic conditions that gave rise to hip-hop as a form of cultural expression, and introduces the seminal work of the rap group Public Enemy.
2. Can You Own a Sound? (5:18)
This module examines the basic foundations of copyright law and how the music industry began to respond legally to sampling as hip-hop grew in popularity in the 1990s.
3. Hip Hop Sampling: Theft or Tribute? (5:45)
This module introduces students to the musical legacies of Clyde Stubblefield and George Clinton, two of the most heavily sampled musicians in hip-hop music.
4. Sampling in Other Forms of Media and Industry (4:43)
This module explores how other art forms such as the blues and Walt Disney movies have “borrowed” from the work of other artists, and introduces some of the artists at the front of the “remix” culture that has emerged in the 21st century.
ITVS Community Classroom is an educational resource providing new documentary film content and accompanying curricular materials, lesson plans, and homework assignments to high school and community college instructors and youth-serving community-based organizations. Content is grouped into subject-specific segments that correspond to lesson plans and educational activities. All classroom materials are designed with key education standards in mind.
Educational content was developed with guidance from the ITVS Classroom National Advisors: PBS Teachers, National Council for the Social Studies, National Association of Media Literacy Education, National Council of Teachers of English, Bay Area Video Coalition, ConnectEd: The California Center for College and Career, KQED Education Network, and National Teachers of the Year Association.
COPYRIGHT CRIMINALS is a production of Copyright Criminals, LLC in association with Changing Images, LLC and ITVS, with funding provided by the Corporation for Public Broadcasting.
ITVS Community Classroom is a product of the Independent Television Service with support from the Corporation for Public Broadcasting.


Here's some fodder for the crowd that scoffs at global warming: Antarctic ice has grown more solid over the last 20 years.
So says a video report by BBC science editor David Shukman, who notes that in Antarctica, "The bulk of the ice sheet is largely unchanged, or even getting slightly thicker."
But before the jeering gets too loud: The overall condition of all polar ice, is, you guessed it, melting. That takes into account considerable thawing in the Arctic, as well as in coastal areas of western Antarctica that buck the continent's hardening trend.
Shukman's report notes that scientists now definitely know the extent to which the polar ice melt has contributed to sea level rises - 11 millimeters (0.43 inches) over the last 20 years. And they can also say for certain that the melting is accelerating.
Why are they all of a sudden so sure? Because the latest numbers pool the findings of 10 satellites from different countries. They also draw on 20 different polar research teams who collaboratively reported in Science.
"People have been a little bit confused in the past because there have been different messages over different time periods," says lead author Professor Andrew Shepherd of Leeds University in the video report, which includes spectacular footage of Greenland glaciers crashing to the ocean (the BBC won't let me embed, but click on the link above to view).
"What we find is sometimes the ice sheets grow, and sometimes they shrink," he says. "You need to measure them over 20 years to be able to see the true story. And the true story is that the ice losses have increased."
Dr. Hamish Pritchard of the British Antarctic Survey adds, "The next big challenge is to predict what will happen over, say, the next century. And that is going to be a tough challenge. There are lots of difficult processes to understand going on in there."
The 0.43-inch rise might not sound like a lot. But as Shukman notes, "It could be very serious if the trend continues."
Anyone who lost their home to Hurricane Sandy last month or to the recent floods in a country that I now call Lake England should know what he means.
Photo: Vincent van Zeijst via Wikimedia.
More ice slides on SmartPlanet:


Tables are our friends. They allow us to show large amounts of information in a small space, but when designing tables for print or the web there are a number of guidelines you should keep in mind. The main aim when creating a table of data is to make it easy to digest what otherwise could be a large chunk of textual information. It’s the designer’s job to choose suitable backgrounds, borders, typography and images that go into a table to make it eye-catching and informative.
1. Breathing Space. Make sure the data in the table cell has some padding around it so that the information is easy to read.
3. Color Coding. You can use colors to catch the eye and also to group related information together. In the Wufoo example below the color used for the name of each of their plans is repeated in the Sign Up call to action button within the table.
Colors can also be used to highlight individual rows or columns in a table. Designers frequently alternate a background color in every second row of a horizontal table because it makes the information easier to read across the page. If you want to highlight information going down the page, use alternating colors for each column backdrop.
4. Images and Icons. A picture tells a thousand words as the saying goes and you may find your table benefits from adding an image or an icon. The Squarespace table below uses some fairly generic looking icons but they do add visual interest and break up what could otherwise be a very “wordy” table.
5. Background Images. You can use images in the background of your table to add visual interest but always make sure the information is legible. Avoid using backdrops that compete visually or thematically with the content which overlays it. In the example below, InGloss use a simple yellow gradient which helps the “Silver” service stand out while keeping the information easy to read.
Most of these tables shown here are used to provide pricing information for their services but the concepts are the same regardless of the type of information you want to convey. While many of these tables are colorful, there is also a consistency between them and the web sites they’re on.
What other guidelines would you add when designing tables for the web?


Platelets are the tiny cell fragments that circulate in the blood and bind together when recognizes damaged blood vessels. Their role is to help your body form clots to stop bleeding when there is a site of damage or an injury to the body. When they are low, serious or life-threatening bleeding can occur.
The process of spreading across the surface due to inflammation or injury to stop bleeding is called adhesion. Platelets are also called as thrombocytes and when it is circulated in the blood stream, it lives for 7-10 days.
Under a microscope, a platelet looks like a small colorless disc shape cell fragment without the nucleus. Platelets are originated in the bone marrow from very large bone marrow cells called megakaryocytes along with white and red blood cells. They are neither smooth nor round. The reason we don’t bleed to death every time if there is a cut is largely due to particles in our blood platelet.
Few facts about platelet
- A normal platelet count ranges from 150,000 to 450,000 platelets per microliter of blood.
- Thrombocytopenia is a condition in which you have less than 150,000 platelets. It causes severe bleeding under the skin as bruising in case of any damage. Thrombocytopenia causes due to many medical conditions like kidney disease, infections, pregnancy, cancer and abnormal immune system.
- Thrombocytosis is a condition in which you have more than 450, 000 platelets. More platelet count varies from 500,000 to more than 1 million.
- Platelet transfusion help patients undergoing bone marrow transplants, major surgeries, severe trauma, and cancers.
- It have a shelf life of about 5 days and there is no substitute for it.
- After whole blood donation, platelet separates using machines.
- Donating platelets takes longer time than blood donation. Usually, it takes a half to two hours depending on platelet count.
- Platelet donation can perform for every two weeks
- Platelet donation makes an immediate impact
Prerequisites for platelets donation:
- You must be in a good health
- Already be a whole blood donor
- Must have good veins
- You have to be blood group A or O
- Must have platelet count of 250 or higher
Process of Platelets Donation
Platelet donation is slightly different from whole blood donation. In case of platelet donation, the blood collects and separates platelet using machines. These platelets stores in a container as whole blood. Chills and tingling are the mild side effects of platelet donation. The interested platelet donars must avoid aspirin before donation, consume extra fluids and calcium and avoid heavy lifting.


Job hunting is a challenge for most people—but for ex-convicts transitioning back into everyday life, finding a job can be nearly impossible. Data suggests that over half of the men and women who return home after being released from prison are unemployed for up to a year. Many of the formerly incarcerated see self-employment as one of the only routes to earn a steady income without resorting to low-wage employment.
Dr. Charlotte Ren, a Fox School associate professor in the Strategic Management department, saw the challenges the formerly incarcerated face and created an integrated course that provides entrepreneurial skills to this underserved population. This year, Ren’s course, “The Social Entrepreneurial Approach to Community Reintegration,” was identified by the Academy of Management as one of the finest innovations in the area of entrepreneurship education and received the 2017 Innovation in Entrepreneurship Pedagogy Award.
Ren’s course is part of a larger, on-going initiative called the Penn Restorative Entrepreneurship Program (PREP), an initiative she founded in 2014. “At the core of this course [and PREP] is the idea of addressing societal challenges and transforming lives through knowledge creation and sharing by bringing together college students and members of disadvantaged populations,” said Ren.
The ten-week accelerated program brings together students from multiple disciplines and formerly incarcerated individuals for intensive training on the many ways of starting and running small businesses and social enterprises.
After completing the course, students from both the university and the judicial system will be able to understand major theories of entrepreneurship, acquire skills involved in designing and implementing social entrepreneurship programs, and also understand the nature and scope of community reintegration problems
The economic benefits of re-entry programs like Ren’s have been projected to make a significant impact. According to the Center for Economic and Policy Research, the U.S. economy lost between $57 and $65 billion in 2008 alone due to unemployed or underemployed ex-convicts. Through her course, Ren is helping to create opportunities for the formerly incarcerated to contribute to society and our economy in a meaningful way.
“I hope my course will inspire more faculty members,” Ren said, “both at the Fox School and across other schools and universities, to develop courses that apply their research and teaching expertise into addressing some of the pressing social issues in society.”


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