This portion of
The History of Columbia and Montour Counties, Pennsylvania
by J. H. Battle, 1887
is made possible through the efforts of
TRANSCRIBER: Cindy Saniter
|CATAWISSA was formed from Augusta in 1785, and originally covered the
triangular area now embraced in the townships of Beaver, Conyngham
Franklin, Locust, Maine Mifflin, Mayberry, in Montour county, and part of
Union, in Schuylkill. Practically, it has been reduced to its present limits by
the formation of Roaringcreek in 1832, Franklin in 1843, and Maine in 1844.
It is the oldest political subdivision of the county, having completed the first
century of its history.
Authorities differ as to the nationality of the aboriginal tribe which con-
ferred upon the mountain, creek and town their beautiful and euphonious
designation. Redmond Conyngham, who has extended his researches into
everything relating to the primitive history of the region, states that "The
Piscatawese, or Gangawese, or Conoys had a wigwam on the Catawese, at Cata
wese, now Catawissa." Stewart Pearce asserts that the Shawanese, after suc-
cessive immigrations from New York to Florida, from there to Wabash,
and from that region to the Susquehanna valley, established a village at Cata-
wissa in 1697, or about that time. The orthography of the word affords no
additional light on the subject. Catawese occurs in the different dialects of
the Shawanese and Delawares, and always with the same meaning,"pure
The first Europeans who visited Catawissa were not interest in attempt-
ing to dissipate the obscurity which involved its primitive history. James Le
Tort, and adventurous Indian trader, found the valley of the Susquehanna a
profitable field for his operations. The provincial authorities frequently
employed him on diplomatic missions to chiefs of the various tribes. In 1728
he bore the governorâs compliments to the celebrated Madame Montour and
several Delaware chieftains, presenting to each a ãstrowd match coatä as an
expression of continued friendship. The communication in which Le Tort
acquainted the executive council with the views of the chiefs, though throwing
no light upon local affairs, still possesses special interest, inasmuch as it con-
tains the first mention of any part of Columbia county. It is herewith
CATAWASSE, May ye 12, 1728.We always thought the governor know nothing of the fight between the Shawaynoa
and the White People. We desire the governor to warn the back Inhabts Not to be so
ready to attack the Indians, as we are Doubtful they were in that unhappy accedent, and
we will use all Endeavaurs to hender and Such Like Proceeding on the part of the
Indians. We Remember very well the League between William Pen and the Indians
which was, that the Indians and white people were one, and hopes that his Brother, the
present Governor, is of the same mind, and that the friendship was to continue for three
Generations; and if the Indians hurt the English, or the English hurt the Indians, itts the
same as if they hurt themselves: as to Governors Desire of meeting him, we Intend
as soon as the Chiefs of the Five Nations Come to meet the governor, we will Come with
them: but if the come not before hereafter, we will to Philadelphia to wain on the Gov-
ernor. We have heard that William Pen Son was come to Philada., which We was very
JAMES LE TORT.
273After the visit of the French leader, the place is not again referred to un-
til 1754, when Conrad Weiser, in a letter from Shamokin, mentions Oskohary,
supposed to be identical with the Catwasse of Le Tort, and the Catawissa of
the present. Lapackpitton, a Delaware chief who figured prominently in the
settlement of disputes at the close of the French war, made his residence at
the village, which was known for some time by his name. Local tradition as-
signs to this dusky warrior the character of "Hunkee Punkee," in J. W. Adlerâs
"Indian Legend." It appears that Minnetunkee, his daughter, was disposed
to encourage the advances of a lover whose prospective position as a member
of the family was not received with complacency by her father. On a summer
evening he followed them to the summit of an eminence known as "Lovers
Leap," and announced his presence in a manner characteristic of Indian nature.
The younger brave, mortally wounded by an arrow, fell over the precipice.
The splash of the river as the body parted its waters had scarcely subsided
when the maiden, with a cry expressive of defiance, triumph and despair,
threw herself from the dizzy height, and followed her lover to a watery grave.
the sequel harmonizes with generally recognized ideas of the succession of
events. The whole tribe removed from a locality rendered to them intolerably
sad by this tragic occurrence.
The region of "pure water" did not long remain unoccupied. A number
of English Quakers from Maiden Creek and Exeter, in Berks county, planted
their homes in the Catawissa valley. Following the route generally traveled from
Reading to Sunbury, and the valley of the "North Branch" from that point,
they finally reached their destination after days of exhausting labor, and nights
of weariness and insecurity. The natural advantages of the locality had been
early recognized by land-jobbers and others who preferred to be proprietors
without being residents. Among those who succeeded the their titles, or estab-
lished claims as warrantees were William Collins, William Hughes, James
Watson, John Lore, John Mears, Isaiah Willits and John Lloyd. It was
between 1774 and 1778 when these persons arrived. Moses Roberts in 1774 built
the first house in the vicinity of Catwissa.
Subsequent additions to their number represented a different nationality.
Some were Germans, but a few were English. They journeyed on horseback
and followed and Indian trail over the Broad, Blue, Locust and Little moun-
tains. Among those who reached Catawissa in 1782 were Michael Geiger,
Joseph McIntyre, John Furry, Thomas Wilkinson, George Huntizinger and
Conrad Wamphole. About this time a party of Indians re-established a wig-
wam at the old site of Lapackpittonâs town, greatly to the annoyance of the
settlers. Thomas Wilkinson incurred their displeasure by interfering with
their fishing operations, and on one occasion was compelled to seek shelter in
the river. He was unable to swim, but waded out into the channel where the
depth was sufficient to cover him. He was obliged to raise his head above the
water in order to breathe, and whenever he did so, became a target for several
practiced Indians who had taken a commanding position on the bluff. Al-
though thus subject to the greatest danger he reached the opposite shore in
safety, much to the chagrin of his foes, who thenceforth believed that he bore a
charmed life. His explanation to the effect that he was only "gauging the
water," created some merriment over the incident, and secure for him the
name of "Tom Gauger."
Another occurrence was more tragic and less jocose in its details and re-
sults. July 26, 1782, a party of Indians made a descent upon the German
settlement, the exposed condition of which invited attack. John Furry had
settled on the west side of the river. His family consisted of two daughters
274and four sons. The three older sons, John, Jonas and Lawrence, were absent,
having gone for flour to the mill at Sunbury. On their return they found their
parents and sisters killed and scalped. Their mangled remains were interred
under an apple tree near the house. The brothers buried their household
goods and farming implements in the ground and returned to Reading. The
panic seeded contagious, for several other families became alarmed and fol-
them. The sequel of this story would seem to verify the old adage that
ãTruth is stranger than fiction.ä Years afterward Jonas and Lawrence Furry
were in Montreal, and there formed the acquaintance of Henry Furry, a pros-
perous trader. The similarity of names was once noticed. Mutual ex-
planations followed: his identity as their brother was readily established.
He described to them the tragic death of their parents and sisters and the
brutal treatment he had received on the journey with his captors to Tioga. At
that place he was ransomed by a Frenchman, and treated by him with kind-
ness and consideration.
Notwithstanding the general the Quakers remained, and in 1787
William Hughes laid out the town of "Hughesburg, alias Catawissey, in the
county of Northumberland, state of Pennsylvania, North America," on the
"bank of the north-east tract of the river Susquehanna near the mouth of the
Catawessey creek, about twenty miles above Sunbury and about one-hundred
and six miles from Philadelphia." William Gray and John Sene were the sur-
veyors. Water, Front, Second, Third and Fourth streets extend east and west,
parallel with the course of the river; Lumber, south, Main and Pine cross
these, and are named in order from the creek. The proprietor provided that
lots were to be disposed of by lottery, and this seems to have been customary, in
order to prevent partiality. It does not appear that this was done, for in 1789
John Mears secured titles to sixty-five lots, and became virtual proprietor. It
is well authenticated that William Henry, by virtue of his warrant for its sur-
vey in 1769, was the original owner of the tract in which the town plot was em-
aced; but Edward and Joseph Shippen were the patentees, and from them
the title was transferred to Hughes. In 1796 James Watson laid out
"Roberts addition," extending Second, Third and Fourth streets, and opening
Walnut and North, parallel with Pine.
The size of the town plot was then considerably in advance of its pop-
ulation or business interests, although the latter were of considerable local im-
portance. In 1780 Isaiah Wilits established a tannery at the corner of Third
and South streets. Knappenberger and Wilits were proprietors of a ferry,
and landed their flat where the bridge approaches have since been constructed.
George Hughes and William Mears were justices of the peace. The Watsons,
Jacksons, Lounts, Lloyds and Hayhursts were familiar to the whole community
as substantial, hospitable farmers. In 1774 the first mill in the county was
built on the site of the Paxton mill on Catawissa creek. It was a primitive
structure and was frequently out of repair; at such time Sunbury was the
nearest million point. In 1789 Jonathan Shoemaker built a grist mill on the
north side of this stream. This was then the only mill in a radius of many miles
and at once received an extensive patronage. In 1799 Christian Brobst erected
a second and larger mill a short distance above Shoemakerâs. It was com-
pleted in 1801, and when a boat began to ply regularly between points on
both branches of the Susquehanna, Catawissa became an important and well
Another circumstance to which this may be attributed was the existence
there of a store, one of the first between Sunbury and Wyoming. Isaiah Hughes
was proprietor. The building occupied by him is still standing on the river
275bank at the foot of South street. The second merchant was Joseph Heister,
whose store was located on Water street several doors below Main. John
Clark was its second proprietor. He was a man of courage and determination
as may be inferred from the following incident: He was making a journey to
Philadelphia on horseback to make his usual purchase of goods when a robber
seized the bridle of his horse and summarily demanded his money. The mer-
chant was unarmed, but his ready wit was equal to the occasion. He drew a
spectacle case from his pocket and opened it. In the darkness the sharp click
of the lid produced the desired effect. The horse plunged forward while the
highwayman was both deceived and nonplused.
At this period the shad fishery was of considerable local importance. Salt
was brought from reading and exchanged for fish which sold for six cents
apiece. The circulating medium was extremely scarce, a result of which was
that nearly all business was transacted by barter. New stores were opened at
irregular intervals, as the growth of population or enterprise of the proprietors
justified it. Among those who will be remembered as merchants during the
early history of the town are Thomas Ellis, Stephen and Christopher Baldy,
David Cleaver, Jacob Dyer and Samuel Brobst. In all of their stores there
was an assortment of every variety of merchandise--dry goods, groceries, hard-
ware, drugs, etc.
The importance of a bridge across the Susquehanna was realized by public
spirited citizens at an early period. The original projectors were Christian
Brobst, Joseph Paxton, Leonard Rupert, Philip Marling, William Baird,
Isaiah N. Wilits and Richard Dennett, of Columbia county; Cadwallader Evans
and Samuel Wetherill of Philadelphia; J. K. Boyer, Lewis Reece and Gabriel
Heister, of Berks county; James Linton and Daniel Seager, of Lehigh; Daniel
Graff and James McFarlin, of Schuylkill, and Samuel Baird, of Montgomery.
The site at first proposed was the present crossing of the Catawissa railroad.
March 15, 1816, the legislature passed an act authorizing the opening of books
to receive subscriptions. It does not appear that flattering progress was made
in organizing the company for eight years later. Thirteen additional commis-
sioners were appointed for that purpose, among whom Columbia county was
represented by David Cleaver, William McKelvy, John Barton, William
Miers, Jacob Rupert, James C. Sproul and John Derr.
With the citizens of the county, the success of the project was a matterof
primary importance; the only bridge within its limits crossed the river at Ber-
wick, a point where it failed to confer material benefit on the large proportions
of the population south of the river. Although disappointed for twelve years,
those most interested at Catawissa continued to present this consideration with
unabated persistence, and finally, in 1828, secured an appropriation of five-
thousand dollars from the treasury of the state. Half of this was to be paid
when the abutments and piers had been constructed, and the remainder when
the entire work had been completed; but no part could be secured until ten-
thousand dollars had been paid by individuals, and an amount additional sub-
scribed sufficient to finish the bridge. George Taylor and Jacob Alter, of
Philadelphia; Philip and John Rebsome, of Muncy; George Keim, George
Getz and Henry Foster, Of Berks, county; John C. Appelman and Samuel
Brooke, of Schuylkill; Benjamin Beaver, Peter Schmick, George H. Willits,
Stacy Margerum, John Barton and william McKelvy, of Columbia, were
appointed to reorganize the company and establish its finances on a firm basis.
The North Branch canal was at this time in course of construction; it was
plainly apparent that the bridge was a necessity if Catawissa was to derive
any benefit from that line of traffic, and this consideration induced many to
276subscribe to the stock of the company. The bridge was finally completed at
a cost of twenty-six-thousand dollars, and opened for travel January 15, 1883.
In view of the inconvenience of reaching the county-seat (then at Danville),
it was not built, as originally proposed, to the mouth of Fishing creek. Sub-
sequently the stock in the bridge held by the state was sold, and proceeds
applied to the construction of a public road on the berme side of the canal
between Rupert and the bridge approach on the north side of the river.
The bridge has repeatedly suffered from the freshets and ice floods which
periodically threaten life and property in the Susquehanna valley. In 1846
five spans were destroyed; they were rebuilt the following year. March 17,
1875, the entire structure was swept away. A Howe truss, thirty feet above low
water mark, was constructed the same summer on the piers of its predecessor.
It was opened fro travel November 22, 1875.
The slowness and vacillation which characterized the bridge scheme did
not prevent Christian Brobst from planning an enterprise, the future develop-
ment of which he scarcely comprehended. He conceived the idea of a rail-
road from Catawissa to Tamaqua, and in 1825 traversed the distance between
the two points on foot, studied the topography of the Quakake valley, and
concluded that the plan was feasible. With Joseph Paxton he interviewed
prominent capitalists of reading and Philadelphia and interested them inthe
scheme. He induced several who seemed favorably impressed with the repre-
sentations to accompany him on horseback over the proposed route. Mon-
cure Robinson, a civil engineer, was one of the party. March 21, 1831, an
act was passed by the legislature authorizing Christian Brobst and Joseph
Paxton, of Catawissa; William McKelvey and Ebenezer Daniel, of Blooms-
burg, and others and Philadelphia and Reading, to receive subscriptions for
the stock of the Little Schuykill and Susquehanna Railroad Company. The
terminal points of the road were to be Catawissa and the Broad mountain
where the Wilkesbarre state road intersected the Little Schuykill. The
mountains were to be avoided by traversing the valleys of Mosserâs run and
Energetic measures were at once taken to execute these plans. Edward
Miller, and experienced engineer, surveyed the line. Contracts were issued for
grading and building bridges. Capital was furnished by the United States
bank of Philadelphia. With the collapse of that institution, in 1838, and of
other corporations dependent upon it for financial support, the projectors of
the railroad were compelled to abandon their enterprise. For fifty years the
unfinished embankments and bridges reminded unfortunate investors of the
alluring prospect which prompted their erection.
March 20, 1849, the original corporation was reorganized under the name
of the Catawissa, Williamsport and Erie railroad Company. During the
succeeding five years, the road was finally completed. The first locomotive
that ever appeared in Catawissa was the ãMassachusetts,ä which was brought
from Philadelphia by canal and transported across the river on a flat. Sunday,
July 16, 1854, the first passenger train entered the town. William Cable was
conductor and John Johnson, engineer.
Unfortunately the new company was not financially prosperous, and in
pursuance of an order from the supreme court of the state, its property was
sold; March 21, 1860, its purchasers were constituted the Catawissa Rail-Road
Company. In November, 1872, the Philadelphia and Reading Rail-Road
Company became lessees. In 1858 the Lackawanna and Bloomsburg Rail-
Road became an available line of transportation from Catawissa. In 1870
a third road, the Danville, Hazelton and Wilkesbarre, was opened through the
277town. The latest acquisition to its commercial facilities was the North and
West Branch Railway, completed in 1882.
It is a matter of surprise that extensive manufacturing industries havenot
been established at a place commanding such advantages. The Penn furnace,
operated by Fincher and Thomas, and a nail factory conducted by Thomas
Hartman on a small scale at the time when a laborious and tedious hand pro-
cess was employed, were formerly of some local importance. The only estab
lishment of any magnitude that now exists, the Catawissa wood-pulp mill, has
had an existence of three-quarters of a century. It was established in 1811 by
Benjamin Sharpless. It appears that he lived near Sunbury, but resolved to
remove to Ohio and settle there. He visited a brother on his journey and
found him amassing wealth manufacturing paper. Returning to Catawissa, he
embarked in a similar business in company with John Clark. The Shoemaker
mill was purchased, and, with small expenses and trifling alterations, adapted
to the prospective industry. Raw material became finished fabric after under-
going a slow and laborious process. The first stage was the reduction of
straw or rags to pulp; this was removed from the vat with a wire sieve and
poured over a felt cloth; when a certain number of alternate strata of pulp and
felt had accumulated, the water was extracted by powerful pressure; the sheets
were then dried, folded and pressed, when they were ready for the trade. Af-
ter passing through different hands, the mill has come into possession of Mc-
Cready Brothers, of Philadelphia. It was completely destroyed by fire in 1882.
In the structure as rebuilt, the manufacture of wood pulp receives exclusive
attention. The general management ins entrusted to E. B. Guie, a gentleman
of extensive business experience and thorough acquaintance with all the details
of the manufacture.
The development of the railroad scheme of Christian Brobst and Joseph
Paxton has been briefly outlined. If the existence of the road is to any extent
due to the sagacity and persistence of Catawissaâs citizens, it is also true that
the town has been amply compensated for their efforts. This is rather a coin-
cidence that the expression of any feelings of gratitude or obligation the rail-
road or its management might be supposed to have entertained. It had not
been operated six months until the superintendent found it impossible to move
the trains south from Catawissa that could be brought to that point from the
northern terminus of the line. This is due to the altitude at which the moun-
tain is crossed, the slope of which begins at the Susquehanna. Arrangements
were therefore made for the general forming of trains at Catawissa, which thus
became the home of nearly all the operatives employed in the freight service of
the company. Extensive repair shops were also established there in 1864.
They have become an important factor in furthering the growth of the town.
The rapid increase of population in consequence created a tendency among
property holders to advance rents, and a demand for homes. Two institutions,
the Catawissa Land and Building company, and the Catawissa Mutual Build-
ing Fund Association, were organized in 1865 and 1870, respectively, to
assist their stock-holders to obtain homes. Although their operations have
been severely criticized, they were, in the main, conducted in the interest of
the class of persons it was proposed to benefit. A result of their existence
was a period of considerable building activity, extending from 1869 to 1873.
The number of dwellings was still inadequate, and in 1882 F. L. Shuman
purchased the Zarr farm, and laid off "Shumantown." Poplar, Shuman,
Zarr and Mill streets extend northwest from the creek. Cemetery street
crosses these at right angles, and is deflected from its course at the cemetery,
where it intersects the public road. There was an immediate extension of the
278town over this addition to its building area. The efforts of citizens in thus
establishing homes is an earnest of an improved condition of society in every
In 1870 the population of the township was one-thousand, six hundred
and fourteen; in 1880 it had increased to two-thousand and four, and at that
time four-fifths of this number were residents of the town. It is estimated
that a census at the present time would show a population of two-thousand
five-hundred. Strenuous efforts have been made for years to secure legal en-
actments for the erection of Catawissa into a borough. Township govern-
ment is notoriously inadequate. It makes no provision fro police regulations
of any kind. When this is recognized and judiciously considered, incorpor-
ation will logically and promptly follow.
Private enterprise, however, has to some extent supplied this deficiency.
Sidewalks have been constructed along the principal streets, and lamp-posts,
erected and supplied at private expense, are found here and there in the town.
Soon after the laying out of the village a market house was erected, but this
fell into disuse and became the resort of the village cows and hogs. Thence
forward it was chiefly noticeable for its fleas, and was generally declared a
nuisance, though there was sufficient influence to save it from destruction.
Sometime after 1820 its demolition was determined upon, and one night a
loud explosion called out the startled inhabitants to find that the market house
had been blown up. Some fruitless attempts were made to discover and pun-
ish the perpetrators, but no immediate effort was made to replace the building.
In 1831 it was proposed to erect a town-hall and market house in Main
street at the intersection of Third, on the site of the old structure. Discus-
sion on this proposition became acrimonious and personal; the project was
defeated, and no attempt to revive it has since been made. A more unfortu-
nate result of this difference of opinion was the dissolution of the only fire
company which has existed in the village. The "Catawissa Fire Company"
was organized May 17, 1827, at Stacy Margerumâs hotel, with Joseph Paxton,
president, and Ezra S. Hayhurst, secretary. The latter, with Christian Brobst,
George Hughes, Stephen Baldy, George H. Willits and Jacob Rupert, was
appointed a committee to "draft and essay of a constitution." Four days later
the "essay" was adopted and signed by fifty-four persons. Meetings were
held quarterly at Margerumâs; an assortment of buckets, ladders, hooks and
chains was secured and distributed so as to be conveniently accessible in an
emergency. The utmost harmony prevailed until the building of a hall was
suggested. In February, 1832, after repeated adjournments the organization
was unceremoniously disbanded.
The volume of business transacted at Catawissa has been constantly aug-
mented since 1864. Large general stores have not yet been superseded by
special and exclusive lines of merchandising. The Catawissa Deposit bank
(originally incorporated May 26, 1871, as The Catawissa Deposit and Savings
bank) has been known by its present name since April 12, 1872. It was or-
ganized in that year with John K. Robbins, president and B. R. Davis, cashier.
The capital stock is fifty-thousand dollars. The Catawissa Water Company,
chartered June 29, 1882, is another prominent business feature of the village.
F. L. Shuman, P. H. Shuman, William H. Rhawn, Gideon E. Meyers and
Reuben Shuman were the first board of directors. The water is obtained
from Catawissa creek and distributed to every part of the town.
Various fraternal and benevolent societies are numerously represented.
279Lieutenant H. H. Hoagland, Post No. 170, Grand Army of the Republic, was
organized in October 1868, with the following members: M. M. Brobst,
Samuel Waters, Daniel Walters, John G. Forborg, Thomas Harder, I. W.
Schmick, George W. Waters, John R. Brobst, and John Reicheldeefer. In
1876 it was disbanded for want of a quorum. June 16, 1880, a reorganization
was effected. M. M. Brobst, D. W. Spalding, G. W. Reifsnyder, I. W. Wil-
lits, John R. Brobst, I. H. Seesholtz, D. W. Walter, John McCoy, J. G. Wa-
ters, B. B. Schmick, Joseph P. Hause, T. E. Harder, Theodore Fox, John
Wostine, Joseph Walter, John Getkin, M. V. B. Kline, Thomas F. Harder,
C. F. Harder, Daniel Gifflin and J. C. Fletcher constituted the membership at
this time. The Post is in a flourishing condition with encouraging prospects
of future usefulness.
Concordia Lodge, No. 50, Independent Order of Odd Fellows, was chartered
September 24, 1838. The first officers were Owen D. Leib, N. G.; John F.
Mann, V. G.; Michael Farnsworth, secretary, Joel E. Bradley, assistant, and
Christian A. Brobst, treasurer. Meetings were held at the house of the latter
on Main Street until April, 1882, when the Pine street school building was oc-
cupied. It was purchased the previous year.
Catawissa Chapter, Holy Royal Arch Masons, No. 178, was instituted Feb-
ruary 19, 1855 with James D. Strawbridge, H. P.; John K. Robbins, K. and
J. Boyd McKelvy, S.
Catawissa Lodge, No. 349, Free and Accepted masons, was granted its
charter by the Grand Lodge of Pennsylvania December 5, 1964. Its first
officers were John Sharpless, W. M. ; W. M. Monroe, S. W., and Walter Scott,
December 8, 1869, the Catawissa Masonic Association was organized by the
following persons, members of the chapter and lodge: I. W. Seisholtz, George
S. Gilbert, M. V. B. Kline, Walter Scott, W. B. Koons, J. B. Knittle, W. H.
Abbot, C. Ellis, I. Monroe, John K. Robbins, C. B. Brockway and John
Thomas. A hall was erected in 1870 at a cost of $15,000. The association
subsequently became involved, financially, , and was obliged to seel its property.
Catawissa council, No. 96, Order of United American Mechanics, received
its charter from the state council October 1, 1866. The following persons
were original members: Simon Raup, Charles Garner, J. Q. A. Brobst, Henry
S. Geiger, Valentine Metz, Jacob Millard, Nathan Northstein, John Getchey,
C. P. Reese, Gideon Haldeman, John M. Gordon, Adry Bowers and Charles
The Catawissa Silver Cornet Band Association became a corporate body
April 7, 1869. The names of Monroe Seitzinger, Jeremiah S. Cornelius,
Allen J. Brandt, Emery Getchey, Charles Schmick, Perry Walters, A. Z.
Lewis, J. M. Walsham, Luther Eyer and F. D. Beringer appear in the list
of its first members.
Washington Camp, No. 132, Patriotic Order of Sons of America, was organ-
ized April 3, 1870, with the following members: W. H. Inhoff, Jacob Cool, J.
K. Rhawn, Harry Yeager, Charles H. Bibby, Samuel H. Young, C. P. Pfah-
ler, C. D. Hart, George L. Kostenbauder, W. K. Russel, P. A. Brown,
Thomas E. Harder, Dennis Waters, William F. Bibby, Jacob Morrison,
Thomas B. Cullihan, A. W. Stadler, Charles D. Cool, W. H. Abbot, O. D.
Kostenbauder and J. Kostenbauder.
Catawissa Grange, No. 216, Patrons of Husbandry, was chartered April 30,
1874. Among its first members were Matthias Hartman, Josiah Roberts, E.
M. Tewksbury, Solomon Helsig, Martin T. Hartman, Samuel Fisher and John
S. Mensch. May 25, 1883, the Catawissa Grange and Hall Association was
281able marriage certificates; and of James Watson, John Lloyd, Joseph Car-
penter, Benjamin Warner, Thomas Eves, Reuben Lundy, Nathan Lee and John
Hughes to care for the Friends burial ground. The meeting thus begun con-
tinued for twelve years. Toward the close of that period the Friends had be-
come so reduced in numbers that this body dissolved December 24, 1808. Since
that time meetings have been held by the few Friends who still reside in the
vicinity, but such occasions are neither frequent nor regular.
The German element of the population also took measures at an early date
to secure fro themselves those religious privileges they had previously enjoyed.
When Christian Brobst entered Catawissa in 1795 he was accompanied by Rev-
erend Seely;, a Lutheran pastor from Berks county. May 1, 1796, a commun-
ion was held at Brobstâs recently built cabin. The following persons partici-
pated: Michael Raup, Michael Hower, Daniel Geiger, Christian Brobst, John
Wirts, Jacob Yocum, Conrad Geiger, Catherine Wirts, Barbara Brobst, Regina
Hartel, Maria Gillihans and Catharine Hower. This is the first service of this
kind held at Catawissa. January 1, 1796, the first baptisms recorded oc-
cured. The subjects were Joseph, Edna, Maria, children, respectively, of
Christian Brobst and Frederick Knittle and Daniel Yocum.
Denominational distinctions were but slightly observed in those days. Rever-
end G. V. Stock became Lutheran pastor in 1802, and Reverend John Dietrich
Adams six years later is mentioned as occupying a similar position over the
Reformed congregation. March 10, 1804, articles of agreement in the joint
ownership and use of a house of worship for both denominations were signed by
Michael Hower, Jacob Yocum and Harmon Yost, elders, Samuel Felter and
Daniel Geiger, deacons. Christian Brobst presented a building site. In
the same year the church building was completed and dedicated. It was a
The furniture and arrangement of the interior conformed to the usual style
of the period in that respect. The galleries extending round three sides, and
the nine-glass pulpit would present a novel appearance if viewed at the pres-
ent day. In 1853 this building was replaced by the brick edifice of which
Saing Johnâs German Lutheran congregation is now exclusive owner. Rever-
end Frederick Plitt succeeded Mr. Steely in 1808; Peter Hall became pastor
in 1817; Peter Kester in 1820; Jeremiah Schindle in 1831; William J. Eyer
in 1838; William Laitzel in 1874; L. Lindenstreuth in 1878; and J. H. Nei-
man in 1881. Mr. Eyerâs pastorate covered a period as long as those of his
At his suggestion June 25, 1845, a meeting was held to devise means for
the organization and government of that portion of the congregation which pre-
ferred English services. Christian Brobst was called to the chair and Charles
Witmer appointed secretary. It was decided to make the proposed division,
and confer upon the new organization the name of Saint Matthewâs English
Lutheran church. William J. Eyer, Stephen Baldy, Joseph Brobst, Jacob
Kreigh, John Hartman and Peter Bodine were directed to prepare a constitu-
tion. July 13, 1845, the draft submitted by them was adopted; and
November 19, 1850 the church became a corporate body. William J. Eyer
remained in charge as pastor until 1851; J. F. Wampole and J. R. Dimm
served in that capacity until 1867, when Daniel Beckner became regular pas-
tor; Sylvanus Curtis followed in 1870; C. F. Coates in 1871; R. F. Kings-
bury in 1872; E. H. Leisenring in 1875: F. P. Manhart in 1878; J. F.
Deiner in 1879; D. M. Henckel in 1882; and U. Myers in 1883. In 1851
a church edifice was erected; in 1884 this was remodeled at a cost of ten-
thousand dollars. The rededication occurred October 14, 1884. Reverends
282Sharrets, Manhart, Schinde. Leisenring, Bodine and resident ministers of
other denominations, assisted the pastor.
Reverends Diefenbach, Knable, Tobias, Fursch, Steeley, Daniels, Moore,
Dechant and Derr successively followed Mr. Adams as pastor of the Reformed
congregation. During Mr. Dechantâs pastorate the joint ownership of Saint
Johnâs union church was dissolved. May 18, 1882, the corner-stone of a new
Saint Johnâs was laid. The building operations were directed by Mr. Dechant,
who was entrusted with entire supervision over the work, financial and other-
wise. May 6, 1883, the completed edifice was dedicated. The pastor was as-
sisted by Reverends O. H. Strunch of Bloomsburg, and William C. Scheaffer
The history of Methodism in Catawissa is different from that of the denom-
inations mentioned. The latter owe their existence to emigration from local-
ities where they were already established; the former dates it origin from a
visit of Bishop Asbury, the founder of that religious body in America. Tradi-
tion asserts that he stopped at Joseph McIntyreâs on a journey from Sunbury
to Wyoming; that he held services there which resulted in the conversion of that
family and others; and formed a class, which in course of time became a regu-
lar appointment. Asbury was followed by other itinerant missionaries--
Nathaniel Mills, James Paynter and Benjamin Abbot. Services were held in
McIntyreâs house and barn, where E. M. Tewksbury lives. In 1828 a church
building was erected; July 4, 1869, a second structure was dedicated. At
that time it formed part of Elysburg circuit, but has since been transferred to
In the town of Catawissa Methodism has been represented since 1834 by a
church building; the second structure was built in 1854, and a third in 1884. At
an adjourned Quarterly Conference held November 4, 1883, the following action
was taken--"Resolved, that it is the judgment of this Quarterly Conference
that we enter at once upon the work of building a new church; and that a
committee be appointed to take subscriptions for that purpose." Pursuant to
which, Reverend R. E. Wilson, J. M. Smith, L. B. Kline, H. F. Clark and
C. C. Sharpless were authorized to solicit subscriptions. February 16, 1884
a building committee was appointed composed of R. E. Wilson, H. F. Clark
W. W. Perry, J. M. Smith, C. C. Sharpless, Jesse Mensch and L. B. Kline.
Saturday, July 12, 1884, the corner-stone was laid. Sunday February 15,
1885, Doctors Vincent and Upham dedicated the structure in the presence of
a large concourse of people.
The services of the Protestant Episcopal church were first held in Cata-
wissa in 1860 by the Reverend E. N. Lightner, rector of Christ church, Dan-
ville. Some years later the Reverend T. H. Cullen, rector of Saint Paulâs
church, Bloomsburg, held services monthly, and administered baptism to few
adults and infants at various times. In 1879 his successor, the Reverend John
Hewitt, conducted bi-monthly services in Masonic hall, alternating with the
Reverend J. M. Peck of Danville. During this time the Right Reverend
William B. Stevens, bishop of the diocese, officiated at two confirmations.
In May, 1871, Saint Johnâs parish was formed. George S. Gilbert, Walter
Scott, Isaac H. Seesholtz, William H. Abbott, W. B. Parkins and--Jones were
elected wardens and vestrymen. They immediately applied to the convention
of the diocese of Pennsylvania for a charter, but for some reason failed to
secure it. Catawissa being geographically within the limits of the Central
Pennsylvania diocese, that body at its first annual convention received the
parish into union with itself June 12, 1872. A short time previous, the Rev-
erend Joseph L. Colton was called to the rectorship. April 2, 1872, he
283entered upon his duties, and opened a parochial school. In January of this
year, the church purchased the property of the Catawissa Seminary Company,
but worshiped in Masonic hall until the necessary alterations had been made
in its interior furnishing. The communion was first celebrated in the town
agreeably to the ritual of the Protestant Episcopal church the first Sunday in
June, 1872. Two weeks later the congregation worshiped in its own building.
July 21, 1878, Mr. Coltonâs connection with the parish ceased with his resig-
nation. December 31, 1881, Reverend Charles E. Fessenden resigned after
a rectorship of six months. The Reverend L. Zahner. Of Bloomsburg, has
conducted occasional services then.
The educational history of Catawissa, as well as it religious record, was
begun by the society of Friends June 24, 1797. John Mears informed the
monthly meeting that a sum of money raised by general subscriptions among
Philadelphia Friends had been placed in his hands, for the purpose of establish-
ing a school at Catawissa, "for the education of children in useful learning," and
that he had expended part of it in the purchase of a lot of ground, the title to
which was held in trust by John Lloyd, Robert Field, Charles Chapman and
Ellis Hughes. The following year the gratifying announcement was made that
John Pemberton, a prominent citizen of Philadelphia, had bequeathed the
sum of twenty pounds toward the encouragement and support of the school,
to be applied to the instruction of children of members of our society in use-
ful and necessary school learning.ä The school thus begun in 1797 was con-
tinued with satisfactory results until the dissolution of the monthly meeting.
The Germans also manifested a degree of interest in establishing and main-
taining schools. In 1800 Martin Stuck, of Hamburg, Berks county, opened a
school in Michael Geigerâs dwelling near McIntyreâs. The following year
he removed to a building erected for school purposes nearer Catawissa creek.
He was employed by Peter Fornwald, Archibald Hower, Frederick Knittle,
Thomas Fester and others. In 1804 Mrs. Mary Paxton opened a school in
her house in Catawissa. In addition to the usual branches, she taught the
girls to sew and knit. Elijah Barger and Ellis Hughes were teachers about
this time in the Friendsâ school. Messrs. Kent and Ely, of New York, suc-
ceeded to the patronage of Mrs. Paxtonâs school when she closed it. In 1818
Thomas Barger established the most extensive educational institution that had
yet existed. His scholars came from Mainsville and other points as well as
the immediate vicinity. The "institution" was conducted on the second
floor of a spring-house.
The year 1838 marks the beginning of a new era in the school history of
Catawissa. The advent of the new regime is thus explained:
CATAWISSA, March 16, 1838.To the School Board of Catawissa Township:
GENTLEMEN: At a meeting of the qualified electors of said district, held this day at
the house of Stacy Margerum in pursuance of an act of assembly entitled: "An act to
consolidate and amend the several acts relative to a general system of education by com-
mon schools," passed the 13th day of June, 1836, they, the said electors, determined by a
majority of those then and there present and voting on the question, to accept of the sys-
tem of common schools as established by said act, of which you will take notice, and
govern yourselves accordingly. Witness our hands the date above mentioned.
EZRA S. HAYHURST,
William Clayton, Isaiah John, Ezra S. Hayhurst, Caspar Hartman, Christian
A. Brobst and Milton Boone constituted this first board of directors. They
were called to order by Casper Hartman, who nominated Christian A. Brobst
for president, and Ezra S. Hayhurst for secretary. Both were elected unani-
mously. A code of resolutions, fourteen in number, was presented by the
secretary and adopted as rules of order. Messrs. Clayton, Boone, Hartman
and John, agreeable to instructions from the board, divided the township into
ten sub-districts. Provision was made for the erection of ten house, the
amounts paid ranging from one-hundred and eighty-five to two-hundred and ten
dollars. More than four-thousand dollars were expended the first year. The
taxation necessary to provide for this was regarded by many as onerous and
unnecessary. At an election held March 19, 1841, the continuance of the sys-
tem was sustained by a small majority. It was again submitted May 5, 1846,
and this time there were but four dissenting votes.
Although the system gave general satisfaction, there were those who de-
sired better educational advantages than it could confer. After mature delib-
eration on the part of those most interested, it was decided to establish a
school "for the promotion of education, both in the ordinary and higher
branches of English literature and science, and in the ancient and modern
languages." To accomplish this, they secured a charter for "Catawissa
Seminary." February 9, 1866, George H. Willits, Charles W. McKelvy,
Samuel B. Diemer, George Scott, Isaiah John, Henry Hollingshead, David
Clark and John K. Robbins were its first trustees. Professors Lance, For-
syth and Case were among the teachers. The general results of the school
were satisfactory and beneficial; but on account of the limited patronagere-
ceived, it was closed before completing the first decade of its history.
Although not apparently a fortunate occurrence, this circumstance has in-
directly advanced the educational interests of the community in general.
When the seminary closed, intelligent and public spirited citizens began to
direct their attention to the improvement of the common schools, which had
retrograded from the high standard established by Joel E. Bradley in 1838.
The question of replacing the dilapidated school-house with a structure of ade-
quate size, and of lengthening the term, was agitated with energy and per-
sistence. A director of pronounced views in favor of both changes was elected
in 1877. The movement gained strength, and in 1879 its supporters had a
controlling influence in the board. The ideas which actuated their policy of
improvement are tangibly expressed in the imposing structure which Catawissa
has dedicated to the cause of education.
It is pleasantly located at the head of Main street and commands a view of
the most picturesque section of the Susquehanna valley. The surroundings
are eminently adapted to exert that unconscious influence on pliant minds
which creates in them aspirations for what is beautiful, true and good in char-
acter. The location is healthful, salubrious and agreeable. The building pre-
sents an attractive, symmetrical and substantial appearance. A marble block
in the wall is inscribed with the names of E. B. Guie, B. R. Davis, G.
W. Reifsnyder, J. B. Yetter, L. Eyer and Dr. W. Walter, directors; W.
W. Perry, architect, and Charles King, contractor. The interior is con-
veniently and judiciously arranged. It was first occupied for school pur-
poses in April, 1882. Charles H. Albert was principal and E. B. Guie
first assistant. A library of well selected books, to which pupils have con-
stant access, and a cabinet of philosophical and chemical apparatus add
interest to every study embraced in the curriculum. The establishment of this
institution, and its successful operation under the management of competent
teachers and enterprising directors, reflect credit on the intelligence of the en-
tire body of citizens.


The water level of the Dead Sea has been dropping rapidly for the past 50 years or so. This drop in water level is due to the development of agriculture north of the Dead Sea. (reasons why)
Right now (in 2015), the Dead Sea is dropping a over 1 meter (~3 + feet) per year.
As the Dead Sea level has dropped, much of what was formerly underwater has been exposed and subject to erosion. Because the Dead Sea bottom sediments are relatively soft, they erode quickly leaving many gullies and sinkholes on the shores. These gullies and sinkholes give Geologists direct access to sediments deposited thousands of years ago.
The exposed sediments contain a wealth of information about the climate and earthquake history of the region and have been studied by Geologists.
Three sites on the Western shores of the Dead Sea have been studied in detail. These sites are Ein Gedi, Nahal Ze’elim and Ein Feshka. (map)
In each case, the Geologists first went in and examined samples of burnt pieces of wood found in the section to engage in Carbon Dating. The Carbon Dating gives us our first crude understanding of the age of the sediments from the top to the bottom of the outcrop. After doing carbon dating, we find anchor earthquakes.
Anchor earthquakes are historically documented earthquakes that deformed the sediments in the Dead Sea. The historical documentation means we know the date when the earthquakes occurred. Three very useful anchor earthquakes in the outcrops are the Josephus quake of early spring in 31 BC, an earthquake on May 2, 1212 AD, and an earthquake in January 1293 AD. If these anchor earthquakes are successfully identified in a section, we have a precise indication of time at the top of the deformed layer.
In the case of the Jerusalem Quake Seismite of ~31 AD Earthquake , the anchor earthquake is the Josephus earthquake of early Spring in 31 BC. This earthquake can be observed throughout the Dead Sea including at the three well studied sites of Ein Feshka, Ein Gedi, and Nahal Ze’elim. The Jerusalem Quake seismite is also present at all three sites.
So, the challenge is to use what we know about the date of the Crucifixion (Easter between 26 and 36 AD) with what we can read from sediments to determine if the earthquake in the sediments corresponds to the “earthquake of the crucifixion” … or something else.
And this leads to a discussion of 06 Varves …..


We have all heard horror stories about the damage a computer virus can do to your computer and many of those stories are true.
The good news is that you can protect your computer with a little thought and preparation.
The first thing to be aware of is that there are people out there that rejoice at the idea of causing as much trouble, inconvenience and damage as possible. Which means that you need a good anti virus program. There are the big names that you pay for initially and think you have the best and they do come pre installed on new machines. I have noticed that many people didn’t realize that they only got free updates for a limited time. After that you were only protected up to the time the software expired and any new virus that came out after that date was a threat. You could subscribe to the updates and pay the fee of course and stay protected.
There are other programs out there. The one I like and use myself is AVG AntiVirus. The software has a free version for personal use and one you pay for. The free one has worked very well for me and I update it almost daily and even though I haven’t purchased a copy I would feel comfortable with it if I did.
The next thing is understanding how a virus is spread! The most common is via an email attachment: Be aware of what you are opening! If the email comes from someone you don’t know it’s a potential threat! Even if you know the sender be careful, a virus will send itself out from an infected machine to addresses in the address book on that machine and it may fake a from email address the same way. Many times when a virus is sending itself out it will put something in the subject field that won’t be the way the person in the from field would express themselves, if you know them you should catch that. Bottom line is that I delete more emails than I read because I’d rather be safe than sorry. When I do open an attachment I save it to disk first, AVG scans it when you save it so I know it’s virus free.
Another common way for a virus or spy ware to spread is by piggybacking on other software that you download. If you just can’t resist the latest toolbar, file-sharing gizmo, coupon dispenser or email enhancer, you may be at risk. Often these and other downloads come with malware, free of charge. Running a good anti-spy ware program will reduce your risk.
Next would be when you are on a website and a window pops up telling you to install and run something. Unless you are at a site like Microsoft doing updates or something similar the best advice is to click NO. I have personally been caught like that myself so I KNOW it happens and believe me it can be a mess.
Next would be sharing your drive on a network. If you don’t have to DON’T. The reason being that you can never speak for someone else and you don’t know if they practice safe computing or not.
Finally there is all that removable media, floppy disks, cd’s, usb hard drives etc. Any file on any one of them could be infected. Keeping your Anti virus software enabled and updated should protect you but YOU make the difference.
One other thing that can help protect you is to do an online scan. The problem there is it takes some time especially on a dial up connection. The one I like the best is at Trend Micro.


Context: A recent systematic review found that use of an immunization information system (IIS) is an effective intervention to increase vaccination rates. The purpose of this review was to evaluate costs and benefits associated with implementing, operating, and participating with an IIS. The speed of technology change has had an effect on costs and benefits of IIS and is considered in this review.
Evidence Acquisition: An economic evaluation for IIS was conducted using methods developed for Community Guide systematic reviews. The literature search covered the period from January 1994 to March 2012 and identified 12 published articles and 2 government reports.
Evidence Synthesis: Most studies involving cost data evaluated (1) system costs of building an IIS and (2) cost of exchanging immunization data; most economic benefits focused on administrative efficiency.
Conclusions: A major challenge to evaluating a technology-based intervention is the evolution that comes with technology improvements and advancements. Although the cost and benefit data may be less applicable today due to changes in system technology, data exchange methods, availability of vendor support, system functionalities, and scope of IIS, it is likely that more up-to-date estimates and comprehensive estimates of benefits would support the findings of cost savings in this review. More research is needed to update and address limitations in the available evidence and to enable assessment of economic costs and benefits of present-day IIS.


Whārangi 1: Biography
Goldminer, mariner, castaway
I tuhia tēnei haurongo e Mary Louise Ormsby, ā, i tāngia tuatahitia ki Ngā Tāngata Taumata Rau i te 1993.
James Teer was born in Newcastle, County Down, Ireland, probably in 1826 or 1827. His father was Thomas Teer, a fisherman; his mother's name is not known. The family earned their living in a poverty-stricken fishing community, and from an early age James was familiar with the sea and with deprivation. He left Ireland for Australia at the age of 18.
Tall and strong, he suited the frontier environment and for 20 years worked in Australia and New Zealand as a goldminer and mariner in isolated situations. He joined the West Coast goldrush in the early 1860s and in December 1864 came to public attention when he piloted a ship across the bar of the Hokitika River. He returned to Australia in 1865 and, having had some success as a goldminer, decided to take his savings to Ireland.
On 3 May 1866 Teer left Melbourne to sail to London via Cape Horn on the General Grant. On board were 83 people and a cargo which included about £10,000 worth of gold. On 14 May the ship, off course and becalmed, was washed into a cavern on the west side of Auckland Island where it sank. Teer was among the 15 survivors and, in spite of the presence of a ship's officer, he immediately emerged as leader.
He knew, from accounts of earlier wrecks, that it was possible to survive the harsh sub-antarctic conditions and that there was water, wildlife and vegetation on the islands. One of his companions later said that Teer roused them from despair during the two days they struggled in lifeboats along the coast searching for shelter. They found a suitable landing at Port Ross and Teer's position as leader was reinforced when he produced matches. Only one ignited and the fire it started was kept burning for 18 months.
Teer had a 'wonderful mechanical talent' and was able to find a use for any object. Under his direction the group built shelter, explored the terrain and learned to survive on natural resources and the remains of earlier settlements and camps. Teer fashioned needles from albatross bone, thread from flax and devised a way to soften sealskin. With these materials he and Mary Ann Jewell, the only woman survivor, made shoes and clothing. A hook on the end of a pole, devised by Teer, enabled them to catch goats and pigs. He kept a diary scratched on dried sealskin, and organised a roster of duties.
Teer settled disputes, sometimes using force. On one occasion he is said to have disciplined a man who harassed Mary Ann Jewell. When the party became inert with scurvy he forced them into activity, at least once with an improvised whip. In times of disappointment and depression it was Teer who persuaded the group to persist with their daily and seasonal routine. On 8 March 1867 he organised a move to Enderby Island where seals, their staple diet, were plentiful. From here they kept a daily watch for passing ships. On 21 November 1867 they attracted the attention of the Amherst and were rescued.
They landed at Invercargill on 13 January 1868 where Teer was nominated as spokesman. He is said to have declined an offer to replace his lost savings as it was not extended to his companions. By 16 March he was back in the Auckland Islands advising a group hoping to salvage the cargo and gold from the General Grant. Teer identified the location where the ship went down but bad weather prevented any attempt to dive. Although he did not return to the islands after this, Teer was able to sell his notes and diagrams to a number of salvage ventures.
He returned to the West Coast where, dressed in his sealskin clothes, he gave lectures in mining communities on life as a castaway. In 1874 he worked as a boatman on the Hokitika River but in 1875 settled at Arawata, an isolated area near Jackson Bay. Here he came into conflict with Duncan Macfarlane, the resident agent for the Jackson's Bay Special Settlement, for killing seals – now his preferred diet – out of season. He had never married. He died on 30 April 1887 and at his burial, in a customary West Coast gesture of admiration, a bottle of whisky was poured over his coffin.


In further reflection on the Center for the American Republic's recent program, "The Education of the Founding Fathers," as well as in anticipation of the Center's upcoming program on Dawson's The Crisis of Western Education, I wanted to offer some thoughts and encourage discussion on the question of whether education in general and a liberal arts education, in particular, can or should teach persons to be virtuous. Both Blessed Cardinal John Henry Newman in his Idea of a University, as well as, Russell Kirk, in an essay entitled "Can Virtue Be Taught?" offer what might be considered surprising answers.
For Newman, liberal education as the acquisition of systematic knowledge of the whole of reality for its own sake, or in the case of physical activity, the enjoyment of the activity itself and in its excellent execution, does not aim at anything beyond itself - not at wealth, health, fortune, or fame. Similarly, that which makes education liberal is not the acquisition of virtue, for that would subordinate such education to some extrinsic good, and the essential characteristic of an education that makes it liberal is precisely its intrinsic good, the fact that its value does not depend on some good outside itself. Consequently, while liberal education may very well provide one with the knowledge and discipline that makes virtue possible, its essence and worth does not depend on making students virtuous. For this reason, Newman concludes:
Knowledge is one thing, virtue is another; good sense is not conscience, refinement is not humility, nor is largeness and justness of view of faith. Philosophy, however, enlightened, however, profound, give no command over the passions, no influential motives, no vivifying principles. Liberal Education makes not the Christian, not the Catholic, but the gentleman. It is well to be a gentleman, it is well to have a cultivated intellect, a delicate taste, a candid, equitable, dispassionate mind, a noble and courteous bearing in the conduct of life; -- these are the connatural qualities of a large knowledge...they are the objects...I am advocating; I shal illustrate and insist upon them; but still, I repeat, they are no guarantee for sanctity or even for conscientiousness, they may attach to the man of the world, to the profligate, to the heartless....(The Idea of a University 91, Blessed Cardinal John Henry Newman)
Now the advantage Newman sees in clearly delineating what a liberal arts education is in its essence from the aim of cultivating virtue is twofold. First, by clarifying that a liberal arts education is a good in itself, we are able to see exactly why medicine, law, engineering and other such applied bodies of knowledge do not constitute the liberal arts. They all aim at some practical good, some good other than knowledge for its own sake, and Newman wants to emphasize that there is such a thing as knowledge for its own sake, that knowing is a good in itself. Second, by uncovering what the nature of a liberal arts education is, he is able to preserve it from the criticism that it often fails to make men better. For some would argue that if its alleged purpose is to make men better and, in practice, it actually fails to achieve this goal, then it has no value and, therefore, there is no reason to pursue a liberal arts education. Newman concedes that examples abound to support the contention that liberally education persons are not always virtuous. But by denying that making men good is the principle good of a liberal arts education and affirming that it's a good in itself, its failure to cultivate virtue is no reason to abandoning its pursuit. But that raises the question as to whether a liberal arts education, or any type of education, for that matter, can educate students in virtue, even if that's not its primary purpose.
Russell Kirk, in a short essay, “Can Virtue Be Taught?”, published most recently in a collection of essays entitled Redeeming the Time also addresses the relationship between education, including a liberal arts education that instructs students in the virtues, and the formation students in the actual practice of virtue. Kirk reminds us that for Socrates, as we understand him through Plato, virtue and wisdom are basically identical. When one fails to act virtuously it is because he fails to understand in what virtue consists, the good at which it aims and the specific good sought in relation to a broader range and hierarchy of goods. Kirk is skeptical of the ability of schools and schoolmasters to teach students to be virtuous through an education in “intellectual virtue,” Kirk’s shorthand for learning to act virtuously through learning what virtue is. He therefore, agrees with Aristophanes, gadfly of Socrates, the famous gadfly of Athens, who thought the possessors of virtue in Ancient Athens were not “some presumptuous elite of young men trailing effeminately after some sophist or other...[but] the men of old families, reared to righteousness and courage, brought up in good moral habits, from their earliest years accustomed to discipline and duty.”
Kirk points to the situation of ancient Athens and Rome as proof that “the sprig of virtue”, as he says, “is nurtured in the soil of sound prejudice,” an intuitive sense and habit of virtuous activity one acquires very early on through the example and education one receives from one’s family. He notes that just as in Athens, so in Rome, as the mores majorum, the traditional, ancestral manners, habits and customs, diminished, speculative ethics spread, along with education in intellectual virtue. But, as we know, in both cases, efforts to make the youth virtuous through the philosophical study of ethics, at least in the absence of a strong familial and cultural foundation in virtue, could not prevent the collapse of these two great civilizations.
Of course, one need not strain to see that America is suffering the demise of its mores majorum like the ancient Greek and Roman societies before it. But it’s also clear that there’s little hope for America if the social order depends on a virtuous citizenry, but families aren’t teaching virtue and schools can’t do it. While that’s the general tenor and direction of Kirk’s conclusion, he always seems to walk to the very edge of the precipice of hopelessness without stepping off, and manages to find a small ray of sunshine breaking through the bleak clouds of despondency.
Kirk admits that the Church, for example, must continue “to offer a pattern for ordering the soul of the believer; and to open a window upon the transcendent realm of being.” Such exhortation will enable the occasional individual to live the virtues, producing great saints and heroes. His point though is that without the family, mentor or local community, this will be more the exception than the rule and, as such, there won’t be the widespread thriving of virtue in society necessary to sustain our civilization. Though he doesn’t explicitly say so, one can reasonably infer that, like the Church, just because schools cannot by themselves ensure a virtuous society, they should nonetheless teach virtue, both for the occasional individual who might benefit, but for the preservation of a civilization’s knowledge, if not the practice, of virtue. At least, then, the small remnant that remains after its collapse will have the resources to fortify and understand the virtues they are attempting to practice.
One may also plausibly (and cheerfully) draw another conclusion from Kirk’s remarks. Although we cannot expect schools to make virtuous people merely by teaching them about virtue, schools and education in general do have a role to play in assisting the family in training their children in virtue. He remarks that the classical education of the American founders and the English public schools imparted intellectual virtue that, on the whole materialized in a high level private and public virtue. Through studying the ancient Greek and Roman classics, read in their original languages, the founders and English public school students encountered examples of men of actual virtue and came to understand such virtues as Virgil’s labor, pietas and fatum (the dignity and value of work, piety - or duty to the divine, family, community and state, and cooperation with one’s providential purpose in life). In both cases, this education fostered their lives of active virtue, but whether with the founders or English school boys, this would not have had the effect it did without having first been inculcated in a good deal of virtue within their own families. “For”, as Kirk says, “the study and reflection necessary for the attainment of intellectual virtue cannot unaided put flesh upon virtue’s dry bones.”
But if schools and, by extension, education in general has a role to play in the cultivation of active virtue in student’s lives, can such education bear fruit when the contemporary family is in such disarray? Kirk gives us a hint when he says that its the "family exemplar or mentor" that is needed. Suppose a school could make full use of the sources Kirk says are indispensable for a child’s acquisition of the virtues. That school might, for example, consist of carefully chosen faculty capable of modeling virtue by striving to live virtuous lives. It might also include college and high school interns, who in assisting teachers teachers, exemplify to the students what the pursuit of virtue looks like when the students reach the next stage of their development and education. In addition to teaching a life of virtue through example, however, it might also provides one-on-one mentoring, the kind of mentoring Kirk thinks essential to the practice of virtue. Each student could meet regularly with the same teacher over the course of his time at the school to forge an intimate mentoring relationship, aimed at getting to know the student fully, including his/her personality, interests, dislikes, strengths, weaknesses, virtues and vices. Through this close, personal relationship, the teacher would then be able to advise, assist and challenge the student in his/her full development as a person, including his/her practice of virtue. Because this mentoring is done in close collaboration with the parents, the family remains integral part of the student’s moral formation. The school might also support the family in this endeavor by providing adult instruction in the knowledge and practice of the same virtues the school strives to develop in its students.
In conclusion, I propose that should a school implement such a program it would be fulfilling the unique role schools can and should play in a student’s moral education by nurturing the culture of virtue that Kirk believes must grow organically from family, mentor and local community if a young person’s education in virtue is to blossom into its actual practice. Admittedly, this does not address the question of how the subjects studied in such a school would also be important to teaching virtue, but I'll leave that question for a second post on the importance of what Kirk calls the moral imagination.


Admit it or not, you binge drink at least once in your life. Binge drinking often happens to young adults who only “enjoy life.”
Binge drinking is a person’s consumption of alcohol during an occasion. For men, it is binge drinking when they consume five or more alcoholic drinks, and for women, four or more drinks.
Binge drinking is not considered an alcohol use disorder. But, there are risk factors in binge drinking. Also, it can be the first step in your alcohol use disorder or alcohol addiction.
The Effects of Binge Drinking
Four or five alcoholic drinks may sound average, but having this number of drinks within two hours can cause severe consequences. For example:
- Getting into a car accident
- Getting injuries
- Committing violent acts such as sexual assault, domestic violence, suicide, or homicide
- Acquiring sexually-transmitted diseases
- Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders
- Sudden infant death syndrome
- Chronic diseases like high blood pressure, stroke, heart disease, and liver disease
- Learning difficulties
- Alcohol Abuse
When Does Binge Drinking Become Alcohol Addiction
While it is true that people who binge drink do not always have an alcohol addiction, binge drinking can raise the chance of having an alcohol addiction.
Alcohol addiction is diagnosed by professionals using criteria. These diagnostic criteria include:
- Strong cravings for alcohol
- Cannot cut down alcohol use
- Drinking causes incomplete tasks at home, school, and work
- Keeping away from social, work, and other activities due to drinking
- Drinking in unsafe situations like driving
- Drinking despite having health or psychological issues
- Alcohol tolerance
- Withdrawal symptoms when one attempts to stop using alcohol
You can manage your binge drinking at home. You still have a chance to control the amount of alcohol you consume. You can cut or stop your binge drinking habit before it becomes an alcohol addiction.
What To Do When Binge Drinking Becomes An Addiction?
While binge drinking can be controlled at home, alcohol addiction is not recommended to treat yourself.
Mallard Lake Detox Center in Dallas, Texas, can help you battle alcohol addiction from binge drinking. Addiction in the early stages is the fastest to treat.
If you want to start your healing journey now, call us today!


For years, a major obstacle has dashed the hopes of creating “replacement parts” for the human body: the lack of an internal, nourishing blood system in engineered tissues. Without it, thicker tissues can’t thrive, which has confined tissue engineering’s practical application to thin skin, which can recruit blood vessels from underlying tissue.
Now, researchers in Institute Professor Robert Langer’s lab at MIT have used a novel cocktail of cells to coax muscle tissue to develop its own vascular network, a process called pre-vascularization. When implanted in living mice and rats, these tissues integrated more robustly with the body’s own tissues than similar implants without blood vessels.
“What’s even more exciting than being able to make skeletal muscles for reconstructive surgery or to repair congenitally defective muscles, for instance, is that this a generic approach that can be applied towards making other complex tissues. It could allow us to do really wonderful things,” says collaborator Daniel Kohane, an affiliate at MIT and assistant professor of pediatrics at Harvard Medical School.
The researchers published their work in Nature Biotechnology, available online in advance on June 19, 2005. An accompanying News and Views commentary says this “landmark paper” provides “a compelling demonstration of the benefits of pre-vascularization for engineering larger pieces of tissue.”
“When I came to work with Bob Langer for my postdoc, it was my dream to vascularize a tissue,” recalls first author Shulamit Levenberg, who is now on the faculty of the biomedical engineering department at Technion in Haifa, Israel where she completed these studies. She chose to tackle muscles, since they depend on blood vessels interspersed with muscle fibers and also serve as a model for highly vascularized organs such as the liver, heart, and lung.
Levenberg theorized she needed to combine three cell types: myoblasts that form muscle fibers; endothelial cells that independently self-organize into vessel tubes; and fibroblasts that are the precursors for the smooth muscle cells that stabilize the vessel amidst the tissue’s gooey extracellular matrix. “No one had tried a 3-D tri-culture scaffold before. It’s hard enough to work with one cell type, let alone three!” explains senior author Langer, who is a pioneer in tissue engineering.
In vitro experiments validated Levenberg’s hypothesis: “The endothelial cells formed vessels, recruited the fibroblasts, and differentiated them into smooth muscle cells,” she says. “The differentiated fibroblasts expressed the angiogenic growth factor, VEGF, which further stimulated vessel growth.” The constructs measured 5mm by 5mm by 1mm.
For implantation in living animals, the lab used immunodeficient mice and rats that would not reject the human-derived endothelial cells. At the beginning of the project, Levenberg had isolated endothelial cells from human embryonic stem cells – a first. Human derivation is key for clinical use to avoid an immune rejection.
The animal studies progressed in stages. First, the researchers implanted a muscle construct under the skin, then inserted one within a leg muscle, and finally replaced a piece of a rat’s abdominal muscle with a construct, simulating a situation applicable to trauma victims, for instance. Later tissue staining showed that the implants’ vessels grew into the host tissue and the host’s vessels grew into the constructs.
But what good are blood vessels if they don’t deliver the goods – blood? Using two non-invasive live imaging techniques (labeled lectin injected into the tail vein and a luminescent luciferase-based system), the researchers could watch the host’s blood flow into the engineered vessels. About 41% of the constructed vessels became perfused with the hosts’ blood, meaning they functioned in the living body. “That’s pretty good for a first try,” Levenberg asserts.
Importantly, twice as many of the cells survived in the tri-culture implants compared to implants without endothelial cells. “The myoblasts also became even longer tubes when implanted, and they began to align themselves with the host’s muscle fibers,” Levenberg recounts.
“This tri-culture system shows a whole new way of creating a vascular network in the tissue,” summarizes Langer. “We’ve also demonstrated another powerful use of human embryonic stem cells.”
In addition to Kohane, Levenberg and Langer collaborated with Patricia D’Amore and Diane Darland at The Schepens Eye Research Institute, Evan Garfein at Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Robert Martin of MIT’s Division of Comparative Medicine, Richard Mulligan of Children’s Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Clemens van Blitterswijk at Twente University in the Netherlands, and present and former MIT graduate students Mara Macdonald Jeroen Rouwkema.


Report on Nevado del Ruiz (Colombia) — August 2012
Bulletin of the Global Volcanism Network, vol. 37, no. 8 (August 2012)
Managing Editor: Richard Wunderman. Edited by Julie A. Herrick.
Nevado del Ruiz (Colombia) Several years of escalating seismicity followed by ash explosions
Please cite this report as:
Global Volcanism Program, 2012. Report on Nevado del Ruiz (Colombia) (Herrick, J.A., and Wunderman, R., eds.). Bulletin of the Global Volcanism Network, 37:8. Smithsonian Institution. https://doi.org/10.5479/si.GVP.BGVN201208-351020.
Nevado del Ruiz
4.892°N, 75.324°W; summit elev. 5279 m
All times are local (unless otherwise noted)
Our last report on Nevado del Ruiz (BGVN 37:07) summarized monitoring efforts by the Instituto Colombiano de Geología y Minería (INGEOMINAS) volcano observatory based in Manizales, highlighting the long records of geophysical and radon-gas data starting in 1988 and continuing through 2006. Here we follow up on volcanic activity from 2007 to 2012, including an escalation leading to explosions in February 2012. Elevated seismicity, wide-spread ashfall, and very high SO2 fluxes (~30,000 tons/day) resulted in a Level I Red Alert announcement (on a scale from IV to I, Alert Level I is the highest, "Red Alert") in June 2012 and public notices of evacuations. Activity subsided in July 2012 and remained low through the remainder of this reporting period ending 9 September 2012.
Seismicity from 2007-August 2010. From 2007 to August 2010, INGEOMINAS reported numerous volcano-tectonic (VT) and long-period (LP) events originating at depths of 1-12 km below Nevado del Ruiz. Rare hybrid and tremor earthquakes were detected, and seismic swarms occurred intermittently (19-78 events per swarm; figure 54). Seismicity was frequently concentrated within the crater and to the SE, S, SW, and W (table 3).
Geodesy, 2007-August 2010. Deformation monitoring expanded in late 2007 when INGEOMINAS installed additional electronic tilt stations, augmenting their dry tilt datasets. Dry tilt measurements had been recorded since at least 1986 (see the station distribution map, figure 10 in BGVN 37:07). While the term "dry tilt" is pervasive in volcano monitoring literature, this can cause confusion as it was originally adopted to differentiate measurements made with water leveling techniques (Yamashita, 1992). Alternative terms are "single-setup leveling" or "tilt leveling" however, the term "inclinómetro seco," has been used consistently throughout INGEOMINAS monthly technical reports since March 2006. Tilt measurements collected with site occupation techniques are manually intensive, requiring extensive field time, reliable benchmark pairs, a spirit level, and leveling rods. In August 2010, dry tilt values were available from three stations and electronic tilt values were available from five operating stations; results were reported in the INGEOMINAS technical bulletin (available online).
In August 2008, electronic distance meter (EDM) base stations and reflectors were installed on the W flank of the volcano. Site occupations at Olleta and Refugio recorded stable conditions from September 2008 through August 2010.
Gas emissions, 2007-August 2010. Frequent steam plumes were visible reaching 50-850 m above the crater from January 2007 through August 2010. On 17 July 2010, the Washington Volcanic Ash Advisory Center (VAAC) was alerted to a spike in seismicity detected at Nevado del Ruiz. Several aviation alerts were released; however, no volcanic ash was detected in satellite imagery and advisories were canceled that same day. Several peaks in diffuse soil CO2 emissions were detected in mid-2008 from two geochemical stations, Gualí and Cajones (N and S of the summit, respectively).
Radon-gas emissions measured at Gualí and Cajones also showed peaks in early 2010. INGEOMINAS had maintained emission records since 1995 and was investigating links between radon emissions and earthquakes (Garzón and others, 2003). Radon hazard investigations had been conducted in Manizales (located ~30 km NW of the volcano) by INGEOMINAS that determined water supply and household levels of radon (Salazar and others, 2003). This baseline data was mapped for SE Manizales and showed low levels of radon in water supplies and also low levels at the 43 indoor sites where passive sampling detected an average of 1.9 pCi/L.
During fieldwork on 30 November-1 December 2009, INGEOMINAS installed two scanning Differential Optical Absorption Spectrometer (DOAS) systems within 5 km W of the edifice. Stations Bruma and Alfombrales were telemetered to send SO2 flux data to the Manizales observatory where results were analyzed with NOVAC software. The Network for Observation of Volcanic and Atmospheric Change (NOVAC), designed by the European Commission's Sixth Framework Program, supported this installation. Colombia was one of seven countries participating in the program that sought to monitor and assess SO2 emissions from active volcanoes (Galle and others, 2009). During 2-29 December, SO2 flux ranged 195-554 t/d at Bruma and 41-140 t/d at Alfombrales.
Escalating seismicity from September 2010 to 2011. Seismicity notably increased in September 2010 and prompted authorities to raise the alert to Level III (Yellow, on the four-level scale) on 30 September (table 3). Within four months, pseudo-tornillo earthquakes (figure 55) and possible explosive signatures appeared in the seismic record. From September 2010 through December 2011, an average of more than 890 VT earthquakes per month were recorded, almost eight times as many events as recorded during the previous 12 months. A similar increase in LP events was also observed during this time period; however, epicenters were clustered in the same regions as previous years: within the crater, to the SE, S, SW, and W (as in figure 54).
A type of earthquake classified as "multi-event" began to appear in February 2011 (see ME events in table 3). These events frequently occurred from February through August and were attributed to small explosions and degassing (figure 56). Tremor and tornillo earthquakes were recorded in March of 2011 and, over the next six months, occurred more frequently with time.
Geodesy, September 2010-2011. During September 2010-2011, INGEOMINAS recorded stable conditions with minor fluctuations from the EDM stations Refugio and Olleta. Both stations were surveyed in February, October, and November 2011, and only Refugio was surveyed in September and December.
INGEOMINAS noted an increasing trend at the electronic tilt station LISA that began in October 2010 and continued through 2011; the two components registered a cumulative increase of 20 µrad. RECIO had been recording stable conditions until May 2011; from May through December 2011, the N component increased by 23 µrad and the E component decreased by 10 µrad. Corrective measures had been taken to protect the BIS and REFUGIO tilt stations from thermal effects, however, cyclical changes persisted in their datasets. By December 2011, seven electronic tilt stations were online and were recording minor fluctuations primarily due to temperature change.
Permanent GPS stations Gualí and Nereidas were installed on the lower W flanks between May and August 2011 and a third station, Olletas, was online by November 2011. GPS instrumentation and continuous data processing were part of a collaborative effort between INGEOMINAS and the University of Wisconsin, Madison.
SO2 emissions, 2010-2012. Since installation of the two scanning DOAS stations in late 2009, background levels of SO2 were rarely higher than 1,000 t/d until September 2010. INGEOMINAS recorded increased SO2 emissions in late 2010 (figure 57), while plumes rose to heights of 220-1,000 m above the crater (averaging ~700 m) through 2011. An increase was observed from November 2010 through much of 2011; maximum daily values of SO2 flux frequently exceeded 1,500 t/d. Occasional peaks above 3,000 t/d were recorded from November 2010 to January 2011 (a), June-July 2011 (b), and November 2011 to February 2012 (c). Beginning in February 2012, emissions dramatically increased during a period of escalated seismicity (table 3). SO2 flux peaked during May and June; the three strongest peaks were greater than 33,000 t/d. By late June, emissions were declining.
Explosive activity in 2012. In late January 2012, while SO2 flux began to increase dramatically (figure 57), explosion signatures (also described as strong degassing events) and multi-events continued to appear in the seismic records. On 8 March an overflight of the summit provided INGEOMINAS scientists a view of ash-covered snow on the E flank and near the crater rim (figure 58); in their monthly report, INGEOMINAS suggested this ash may have fallen during an explosion detected on 22 February 2012.
On 29 March authorities raised the alert to Level II (Orange) when LP seismicity underwent a ~100-fold increase and banded tremor persisted (table 3).
Based in part on information captured by webcameras around the volcano (including one in Manizales located 30 km NW of Nevado del Ruiz), INGEOMINAS reported that plume heights had increased significantly in March 2012 (figure 59). Reports from local populations around the volcano also alerted INGEOMINAS of sulfur odors. Residents smelled these odors during March; April, May, and August reports were from Manizales, Lebanon, Palocabildo, and Chinchiná.
The national park surrounding the volcano, Los Nevados National Park, closed in April 2012 due to possible ashfall and lahar hazards. The rainy season (March-June) had begun and mass wasting on the steep slopes, especially of remobilized ash, was a major concern. "Most lahars are initiated as dilute, subcritical flows high on volcanic slopes, but quickly increase their volumes as they incorporate sediment along travel paths (Lockwood and Hazlett, 2010)."
On 16 and 19 April 2012, INGEOMINAS observed ash emissions from the summit and on 22 April, Washington VAAC announced possible ash in the steam plume. Volcanic ash was detected later with satellite imagery, spreading ~110 km NE of the summit on 29 May.
Seismicity decreased in early May 2012 to levels observed before the escalation began in February, and fewer explosions and multi-events were recorded. On 3 May authorities lowered the alert to Level III (Yellow). Conditions at Nevado del Ruiz continued to change, however, and when seismicity abruptly increased, the Alert Level was raised to Level II (Orange) on 29 May (table 3, figure 60). That day, explosions from the crater generated ash plumes that dispersed over more than 20 communities located to the WNW, NW, and NNW. Washington VAAC released four notices on 29 May describing ash up to 11 km altitude. News media reported that three primary airports in the region (Manizales, Pereira, and Armenian) collectively canceled ~20 flights that affected ~700 passengers on 29 May.
Widespread ashfall in early June 2012 required field maintenance by INGEOMINAS to clear ash from solar panels and equipment (figure 61). Imagery captured by the NASA satellite EO-1 revealed a two-toned summit disclosing partial ash cover over the white summit glacier (figure 62). The seismic station INDERENA, acoustic flow station MOLINOS, and the radio repeater that served Nevado del Ruiz, Tolima, and Santa Izabel volcanoes were disabled due to ash cover. Washington VAAC released advisories regularly until 24 June; ash reached altitudes in the range of ~5.5-7.6 km. Plumes tended to drift N, NW, WNW, and W; however, an ash plume on 8 June drifted ~28 km SE. The range of plume lengths was 28-110 km until a period of quiescence during 25 June-2 July.
On 30 June 2012, seismicity increased and large plumes of ash vented from the summit (figure 63). At 1700 that day, authorities raised the alert to Level I (Red). Local news media reported the preventative evacuation notice provided by the Emergency Committee of Caldas; Caldas is the department of Colombia encompassing Nevado del Ruiz and six districts, 27 municipalities, and the capital, Manizales. An estimated 300 families were ordered to evacuate from the rural zones of districts Chinchiná (30 km WNW), Villamaría (28 km NW), Palestina (40 km WNW), and Manizales (30 km NW) due to both escalated explosions and also the potential for flooding along the rivers Chinchiná and Río Claro. In the Department of Tolima, located S of Caldas there was a recommendation to evacuate 1,500 families in risk zones in eight municipalities.
On 2 July 2012, Washington VAAC announced a 7.5-km-wide plume visible in satellite imagery that had drifted ~75 km W. Seismicity was decreasing, however, and that same day, authorities lowered the Alert Level to II (Orange). Airborne ash remained visible in satellite images until 8 July and continued to be observed at low elevations based on webcamera images. Ashfall was reported in Pereira (40 km WSW) on 11 July, and on 31 July a plume of ash and gas was observed rising 300 m above the crater.
Low levels of tremor had been detected in late July and throughout much of August 2012. Seismic swarms were detected on 12 and 13 August (table 3) with ~140 low-magnitude events under 5 km deep concentrated WSW of the Arenas Crater. On 6 August, ashfall was reported in Manizales and Chinchiná; on 12 August there were reports of ash in Manizales and Brisas (50 km SW). Through the end of August, plumes (ranging 200-800 m above the crater) were visible from the summit. Field measurements by INGEOMINAS and remote sensing with OMI determined that SO2 emissions remained high (figure 64) through August and early September. On 5 September 2012 authorities reduced the Alert Level to III (Yellow).
Recalling 1985 and additional hazard mitigation efforts. Nevado del Ruiz's most deadly natural disaster was a lahar that, on 13 November 1985, scoured the Lagunillas River (E flank drainage system) and suddenly flooded the towns of Armero, Chinchiná, Mariquita, and Honda (figure 65). Armero was completely destroyed and more than 23,000 residents died. Light ashfall had been reported that day and a seismic network was in place, but no early warning system had been established to initiate evacuations (Lockwood and Hazlett, 2010).
Since 1985, realtime geophysical monitoring greatly increased, including acoustic flow sensors designed to detect impulsive flooding in local drainages. Other advances included mobile gas monitoring (mini-DOAS) that augmented routine geochemical sampling at Nevado del Ruiz and recent hazard map revisions that emphasized inundation scenarios with zoning that clearly communicates areas at highest risk (figure 65). International collaborations with universities and agencies (for example, the University of Wisconsin and the European Union mentioned previously) have focused on mitigation efforts through training and technical resources.
Following the disastrous 1985 lahars, the USGS and the U.S. Office of Foreign Disaster Assistance (OFDA) developed the Volcano Disaster Assistance Program (VDAP) to respond to selected volcanic crises around the world (Ewert and others, 1997). The VDAP mission is to work with international counterparts to reduce fatalities and economic losses in those countries experiencing a volcano emergency. The VDAP website states that "Between crises, VDAP scientists focus on building and improving volcano monitoring systems and conduct joint activities to reduce volcanic risk by improving understanding of volcanic hazards [figure 66]."
|Figure 66. The USGS/OFDA Volcano Disaster Assistance Program sent a team of scientists to aid INGEOMINAS and local authorities mitigating risk at Nevado del Ruiz on 28 May 2012. Courtesy of The Columbian.|
References. Ewert, J.W., Miller, C.D., Hendley, J.W., and Stauffer, P.H., 1997. Mobile Response Team Saves Lives in Volcano Crises, USGS Fact Sheet: 064-97.
Galle, B. and the NOVAC Team, 2009. NOVAC - A global network for volcanic gas monitoring, 6th Alexander von Humboldt International Conference, Abstract AvH6-34-1, 2010.
Garzón, G., Serna, D., Diago, J., and Morán, C., 2003. Radon soil increases before volcano-tectonic earthquakes in Colombia, Proceedings of ICGG7: 6-7.
Lockwood, J.P., and Hazlett, R.W., 2010. Volcanoes: Global Perspectives, Wiley-Blackwell, Hoboken, NJ, ix, p.539.
Narváez, L.M., Torres, R.A., Gómez, D.M., Cortez, G.P., Cepeda, H.V., and Stix, J., 1997. 'Tornillo'-type seismic signals at Galeras volcano, Colombia, 1992-1993, Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, 77: 159-171.
Salazar, S., Carvajal, C., and Garzón, G., 2003. Radiological geohazard survey in the south east of Manizales city (Colombia), Proceedings of ICGG7: 3-5.
Yamashita, K.M., 1992. Single-Setup Leveling Used to Monitor Vertical Displacement (Tilt) on Cascades Volcanoes, in Ewert, J. and Swanson, D. (Eds.), Monitoring volcanoes; techniques and strategies used by the staff of the Cascades Volcano Observatory, 1980-90, U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 1966, pp. 143-149.
Geologic Background. Nevado del Ruiz is a broad, glacier-covered volcano in central Colombia that covers more than 200 km2. Three major edifices, composed of andesitic and dacitic lavas and andesitic pyroclastics, have been constructed since the beginning of the Pleistocene. The modern cone consists of a broad cluster of lava domes built within the caldera of an older edifice. The 1-km-wide, 240-m-deep Arenas crater occupies the summit. The prominent La Olleta pyroclastic cone located on the SW flank may also have been active in historical time. Steep headwalls of massive landslides cut the flanks. Melting of its summit icecap during historical eruptions, which date back to the 16th century, has resulted in devastating lahars, including one in 1985 that was South America's deadliest eruption.
Information Contacts: Instituto Colombiano de Geologia y Mineria (INGEOMINAS), Volcanological and Seismological Observatory, Avenida 12 Octubre 15-47, Manizales, Colombia (URL: https://www2.sgc.gov.co/volcanes/index.html); Washington Volcanic Ash Advisory Center (VAAC), Satellite Analysis Branch (SAB), NOAA/NESDIS E/SP23, NOAA Science Center Room 401, 5200 Auth Rd, Camp Springs, MD 20746, USA (URL: http://www.ospo.noaa.gov/Products/atmosphere/vaac/); Ozone Monitoring Instrument (OMI), Sulfur Dioxide Group, Joint Center for Earth Systems Technology, University of Maryland Baltimore County (UMBC), 1000 Hilltop Circle, Baltimore, MD 21250, USA (URL: https://so2.gsfc.nasa.gov/); El Colombiano (URL: http://www.elcolombiano.com/); The Columbian (URL: http://www.columbian.com/).


A New Kind Of Robot: Soft-Bots
Robots may most readily be associated with images like Forbidden Planet‘s Robbie the Robot and The Terminator, but George M Whitesides says robots don’t need to be the cold, unyielding machines they have been traditionally. Whitesides is the Woodford L and Ann A Flowers University Professor at Harvard University and he has been doing work in “soft robots”. This new breed of robot draws its inspiration from creatures like squid and starfish and may have important real-world applications in areas from disaster relief to the medical field.
Whiteside and his team recognized that many robots are based on the human form (think assembly plant mechanical “arms”), but realized that there are “all kinds of animals […] that do things in very different ways”. These animals had been overlooked as potential robotic muses because we’ve had a kind of tunnel vision regarding robot form and function. The team first looked to squid and starfish for inspiration, developing “gripper” robots that could perform such delicate tasks as picking up an egg without damaging the shell.
They weren’t satisfied with this somewhat novelty application of their ideas, though. The researchers have gone on to create robots ranging form a “four-legged platform to one that resembles the animated character Gumby.” The Gumby bot looks a bit silly – especially when the air cylinders that move it by inflating and deflating its parts get going – but Whitehead says these kinds of designs have some fantastic possible uses. They are soft and light enough to be used by surgeons to hold instruments or secure delicate tissue during procedures, and their flexibility could allow them entry to disaster areas inaccessible to humans and other robots:
“Using multiple air cylinders that open and close in sequence, researchers are able to make such designs walk or crawl through spaces as small as three quarters of an inch.
Such flexibility would be critical in search and rescue operations, one of the major areas where Whitesides sees the robots being used. A variety of sensors, from cameras to chemical detectors, could be mounted on a robot and used to pinpoint the locations of survivors, survey the damage from a disaster, or take chemical and radiation readings, all without endangering the lives of rescue workers.”
If all that isn’t cool enough, the robots are actually made using 3D printers. So, basically, you’ve got super light, flexible robots that look like Gumby and could help us better rescue people from disasters and perform surgery….and those robots are created by replicators. The Future is so cool.