Ginkgo Is a Unique Herbal Medicine That Is Now Being Used By People All Across the Globe.
Ginkgo has been in use since centuries for the treatment of assorted sorts of ailments.Is it the Oldest Tree Species within the World?Could or not it’s that Ginkgo biloba trees area unit the oldest tree species within the world that are cultivated since nearly two hundred million years in China? These trees area unit capable of growing within the hot sun and even within the most average form of soil.These trees will become older to a hundred and twenty feet and that they area unit extraordinarily immune to infection or pollution. What’s a lot of is that they infrequently suffer from any quite unwellness.Strangely, it’s a awfully rare sight to check these trees being attacked by insects.
Ginkgo Biloba Leaves with black background (Photo credit: Wikipedia)
The Many edges of GinkgoSince several centuries, the Chinese are victimisation the extract of those trees to treat varied sicknesses. And now, in depth analysis is being administered on this herb. Also, it’s currently being employed not simply by the Chinese, however by individuals from all countries, as Associate in Nursing seasoning medication.Since thirty years, this herb has been researched. As a results of these studies, several edges are discovered of the employment of this herb. it’s found to own glorious qualities to induce obviate stress and anxiety. The herb works nice in restoring the energy levels in a very patient and it conjointly helps in enhancing a person’s mood.Good for varied different Ailments TooThis herb is additionally terribly helpful for the relief of coronary arteries that are constricted as a results of sterol. it’s conjointly extraordinarily useful within the treatment of symptom and lightheadedness. in keeping with some clinical trials that are administered on this herb, it’s been found that this herb is additionally sensible for treating folks that area unit tormented by Alzheimer’s unwellness. The herb may be used as a certificatory medication within the treatment of male physiological condition.
This herb is additionally a awfully potent inhibitor and in and of itself it will stop the formation of free radicals within the build. this can be extremely terribly useful as a result of antioxidants area unit chargeable for the protection of the central systema nervosum and also the circulatory system too. As a result, the blood flow to the membrane is improved and this helps in dominant the deterioration of the membrane, yet as overall visual improvement.Positive Impact Seen on the tube-shaped structure SystemThis herb has conjointly been seen to have an effect on the system in a very positive method, as a results of that the system is in a position to figure way more expeditiously by increasing the flow of blood and successively, supply a lot of O to any or all the very important organs, yet because the brain.Quite clearly then, Ginkgo biloba may be a distinctive quite seasoning medication that encompasses a whole host of wondrous edges.
Ginkgo biloba also known as Maidenhair Tree. (Photo credit: Wikipedia)


A painting is a work of art made by applying paint to a surface. While traditionally this surface is paper or canvas, in reality it can be anything from wood, to brick, to a large grass field.
Paintings are a painter's mode of expression and the styles of their work are as numerous as the people who create them. They can be realistic or they can be abstract, or they can be almost anything in between.
While there have been paintings that date back to the days of the cave dwellers, through Egyptian times, Greece, and the Roman Empire, it was Giotto who is credited with bringing in the modern era of painting. Since his death in the 14th century, there have been a lot of great paintings created by the likes of Botticelli, da Vinci, Rembrandt, Vermeer, van Gogh, Picasso, and Dali.
While the traditional materials are still very much in use, painters of the 21st century have, like their photographic brethren, taken to the digital realm. With the use of products like Corel Painter, and the availability of online training, there is no telling what new art trends lie ahead.


Types of articles that can be published in a scientific journal.
Scientific journals consider a range of different types of manuscripts for publication. Familiarizing with the different types of articles will help researchers choose the most suitable type for publishing their study. Though it appears like there exists a variety of types of articles published under various headings, they mostly belong to either of the following types:
Original research presents an original study. The authors conduct a research on a particular topic and report the findings of their study through original research articles. The framework of every original research, be it empirical or theoretical, must include the study objective(s), study design, results, and conclusion(s).
Review articles present thesummary of existing literature on a topic. These articles present a perspective on the state of the field and provide direction for future research. They are often written by experts in the field.
About research methods
Some journals also publish methodological developments made in a particular field,to promote a better understanding of the current and new methodologies and their application in respective fields and research settings.
Case studies and reports
Case studies present specific instances of an interesting phenomenon. They are normally used in the field of medicine to make other researchers aware of the existence of a particular phenomenon.
Opinion articles are those that present the researcher’s original and personal viewpoint on a particular study. They are based on published data. The arguments made in the paper must be backed by evidence and provide constructive criticism about the study.
Some journals also publish policy briefs which are short documents used to present the findings and recommendations of a research project to policy actors. They are also used as a vehicle for presenting evidence-based advice on a policy issue
Video research work
Video articlesare used to present research in a visual rather than written way. The videos must include some or all of the research elements needed to support the findings.
Each type of article serves a specific purpose and has a specific format. Before choosing the type of research article, the prerequisite for publishing the same need to be borne in mind.
“Rehoboth Academic Services”is a premium institute supporting PhD & Master’s Thesis since 2013. We offer editing, proofreading, paper preparation, statistical analysis, formatting and plagiarism checking services. We have helped more than 1000+ research scholars in most of the subjects and universities across the globe in the last seven years. We also conduct Copyediting & Proofreading, Art of thesis writing, Research Paper writing, Statistical Analysis with SPSS Foundation & Advanced workshops. If you need our assistance please call + 91 9731988227, 9741871657.


The South American palm weevil has made its way up to Southern California and that's a big problem.
According to Mark Hoddle, an entomologist at UC Riverside and the director of the Center for Invasive Species Research, they spread efficiently, are difficult to catch and they destroy palm trees from the inside out. All of which means one thing: our palm trees, and our date industry, are in trouble.
Will scientists be able to stop them before they spread further throughout the Golden State?
To hear the full interview, click the blue play button above.


Do you need a good reason to be proud of knowing more than one language? How about 12?
Euro London Appointments has put their thinking caps on to outline what they think are the top reasons for knowing a second language.
- It increases intelligence – Whether you learn a language as a child or later on in life, there is an increasing amount of evidence that being multilingual provides an added advantage in communication, cognition and social interaction than those who can’t speak a second language .
- It increases your understanding of your own language – “Those who know nothing of foreign languages know nothing of their own” – Goethe. This is true! Monolinguals rarely think of how to use a word and congregate a sentence as it seems natural; bilinguals understand the structures of their own language a lot better.
- It increases your enjoyment of culture – Of course you can enjoy culture with only one language, but those of us who can speak a second language usually are able to enjoy it a bit more.
- It increases your resistance to mental illness – There is evidence that knowing a second language may decrease the risk of mental illness. There is also research showing that the ability to speak more than one language may reduce the susceptibility to Alzheimer’s .
- It enables you to stand out from the crowd – Gaining entry to the best colleges and universities is a challenge, aspects of your life have to stand out from the crowd. Knowledge of a second language is a great way to stand out.
- It enables you to study overseas – You may like to enhance your international outlook and take your studies overseas. This will almost certainly mean knowledge of the language you are travelling to will be essential as lectures and seminars will be held in the language of the host country.
- It increases employability – It’s an incredibly competitive job market at the moment, wherever you are. Recruiters are looking for the crème de le crème and they have a lot of applicants to pick from, knowing a second language will make you stand out. It also increases opportunity to roles you wouldn’t have had the option to apply for as they require languages as a must.
- It gives you greater mobility – Thinking about emigrating? Want to work in a new foreign city? Knowing the native tongue will almost certainly be essential. Even if they use English in the office, getting around town, going out in the evening and activities at the weekend will require interaction in that countries native language.
- It allows you to discover entertainment from around the world – You can gain access to a new multitude of cinema, books and music. A whole new media is available to you in your new language.
- It enables travelling – Want to go travelling? Perhaps take a year out or a sabbatical? Knowing a language may not be essential; well trodden back packer routes have some great tourist organisations and companies set up to cater to you. But if you fancy going off the beaten track and exploring somewhere new, not in the tourist brochures; knowledge of the countries language will be of great assistance. You can converse with the locals and really get to know them.“If you talk to a man in a language he understands it will go to his head, if you talk to him in his language it will go to his heart” – Nelson Mandela
- It allows you to engage in business globally – Globalisation has meant that businesses coordinate their efforts all over the world; international organisations need to be able to communicate with each other to function and this means speaking to each other. Unfortunately we don’t all speak the same language, a trait that’s not going to change soon, so knowing different languages helps communication within business.
- It’s just plain sexy – Let be honest, people who speak more than one language are considered more attractive and intelligent. It’s just sexy.


The market in which the organization operates may be growing, making growth in output relatively easy to achieve. In addition, in a rapidly growing market, if an organization were to maintain a constant output, its market share would be falling. Development may be considered not so much a luxury as a necessity if it is to maintain its position in the market place. This could be particularly important for industries where economies of scale are an important consideration. (Palmer, A; Hartley, B 2005)
Some organizations may develop by acquiring competitors in order to limit the amount competition in a market where this is considered to be wasteful competition.
Define Organization Development:
With the changing of technology, market and environment faster and faster, an organization has to change the members’ attitude, knowledge and its own framework in order to adapt the various challenges. Organization development is a process that promotes the changes. The process of these changes can be considered as organization development.
Organization development is a main technology which can change the quality of working relationship among the workers.
The organization is an approach which believes people at all levels in an organization. In many cases, staffs are under-utilized and are capable, if given the opportunity, of taking on more responsibility for the work they do and of contributing further to the achievement of objectives. (Barbara Senior, 2002)
Organization development (OD) is a top-management-supported, long-range effort to improve an organization’s problem-solving and renewal processes, particularly through a more effective and collaborative diagnosis and management of organization culture-with the assistance of a consultant-facilitator and the use of the theory and technology of applied behavioral science, including action research (French & Bell, 1990).
Organization development is a process by which behavioral knowledge and practices are used to help organizations achieve greater effectiveness, including improved quality of life, increased productivity, and improved product and service quality. The focus is on improving the organization’s ability to assess and to solve its own problems. Moreover, OD is oriented to improving the total system-the organization and its parts in the context of the larger environment that impacts upon them. (Cumming and Worley, 1997)
The aim of OD is to update and maintain organization so that the company can keep development in such a competitive environment. It is a manner of reeducate in order to carry out the changing strategy with an effective planning. It is not only the changes of knowledge and information, but also in changes of attitude, technology, human relationship and culture. Some of OD theories consider that it can lead the organizational members built a new behavior via organization development process and reeducate, consequently, the strategically goal can be carried out.
Organization development has a clear goal and planning. It has top management support. The activities in OD process are all for making and carrying out the goals and planning. An advantage of a clear and idiographic goal is that it will motive the productivity better. We cannot emphasize the importance of confirming a clear goal too much. It exerts potential of technology and human. According to above ideas, a very important factor for OD must be confirming a long-range learning objective and operates the working skills.
The OD process
OD has three major steps: diagnosis, intervention and evaluation (French & Bell 1978; Huse & Cummings 1985; Mohrman, Mohrman, Ledford, Cummings, Lawler & Associates 1989).
It can be described as the following figure:
It is not an easy job for administrators to manage the process of OD. A very important reason is OD will change the recent framework. Learning is a effective manner which impetus the change for an organization.
The first step, it contains two steps. They are collect and analyze data. The manner of collecting data many methods, such as interviews, questionnaires. Then analyze the collected data in order to confirm both strengthens and weaknesses of organization. The significance of diagnosis can be divided into two factors: one is identifying the problem; the other is make sure the reason that cased the problem. It is clear that development is necessary when the efficiency is worse than before. However, the problem is that whether the point is clear or not. Managers should wake up to there is a problem that must be solved, if not, it would be caused other problems in the beginning of OD.
Intervention is the second step. The intervention technology which adapted in this step is directed feedback according to the diagnose result. It can be divided private level, group level and clear up the impact inside the group, and any other levels.
OD interventions or change strategies, are designed and implemented with the help of the change agent.
For the reason of planning is very important for keeping performance in an organization effectively, managers must develop the effectively techniques which are required for organization development.
There are many OD change strategies; four techniques of OD are given as below :( French & Bell 1978; Huse & Cummings 1985)
It watches the group, identifying any problems in communication partners and decision making. The purpose is to help develop members’ skills in identifying and resolving issues of group dynamics. (Bartol K, Martin D, Matthews G & Tein M, 2005)
Managers will know whether the conditions that OD process all right or not via watch the group. it will develop the members’ skills so that they will abet the development because there would be no serious for them to fair their would be dismiss in the new word condition or new technology.
It helps work groups develop effective task accomplishment. Like process consultation, it has OD consultant feedback on communication and conflict resolution. The consultant also helps assess group tasks, member roles, and work-task achievement strategies. (Bartol K, Martin D, Matthews G & Tein M, 2005)
It can be explained as a team work. Every members of organization play an important rule in a team work.
Working in groups gives each member a chance to express one’s own attitudes about the development.
It intervenes helps people, groups or departments resolve serious conflicts on specific work issues or caused by poor interpersonal relations. The OD consultant helps parties resolve difficulties by problem solving, bargaining and conciliation. (Bartol K, Martin D, Matthews G & Tein M, 2005)
Facing the organization development, some members including manage levels would oppose the changes. Some common reasons are they have not made sure that they will fit the work conditions after the development. Third-party helps organization solves these problems by negotiating with these members.
Technostructural is an application of science to achieve objectives related to the way parts are arranged to form a whole and intervention is the process of coming in between the original state and redirect toward the desired state.
Simply stated: “Technostructural interventions focus on improving an organization's technology and structure” (Cummings and Worley, 2001, p.149).
The activities help improve work technology and organizational structure. In this approach, the consultant helps members increase performance by showing them how to evaluate and make changes in task design and organization structure. (Bartol K, Martin D, Matthews G & Tein M, 2005)
Evaluation is the last step. It is better for organization that performs this step by third-party. The reason why it is difficult that do a highly evaluation in OD because of it is hard to find a standard to compare. However, the evaluation step is very important, because during the process of OD, do an effective evaluation will know the result of activities.
Managers can evaluate the results of OD by watching the changes before, such as profits. A manner of comparing with other firms can be used, for example, in 1990s, Motorola have some operation problems, during the development period, they compare with some firms like Texas Instruments, do some deeply research and imitation in order to increase the performance.
With the changes, OD efforts’ effectiveness must be checked. The ability to evaluate OD intervention effects depends on how well the diagnosis stage identified areas needing change, and specified results desired. (Bartol K, Martin D, Matthews G & Tein M, 2005)
In fact, OD impacts all the components in an organization. It contains the structure, culture, strategy; control system, group and human resource system of organization, others like communication, motivation and leading are all influenced by OD process.
Key organizational change components
Significant change or innovation usually means changing one or more of the key components of structure, technology, culture and human resources. (Leavitt 1964; Huse & Cummings 1985).
The components which will implement the change (Leavitt, in Cooper, Leavitt, & Shelly 1964)
Four key components for implementing change:
Organizational culture concerns the social and behavioral manifestation of a whole set of values which are shared by members of the organization and can be defined as ‘some underlying structure of meaning that persists over time, constraining people’s perception, interpretation and behavior’ (Jelinek et al., 1983)
“Culture consists in patterned ways of thinking, feeling and reacting, acquired and transmitted mainly by symbols, constituting the distinctive achievements of human groups, including their embodiment in artifacts; the distinctive achievements of human groups, including their embodiment in artifacts; the essential core of culture consists of traditional ideas and especially their attached values” (Kroeber and Kluckhohn, 1952).
Another definition is that of given as followings, which is:
Culture is the collective programming of the human mind that distinguishes the members of one human group from those of another. Culture in this sense is a system of collectively held values. (Hofstede, 1981)
Organizational culture is the assumptions, shared values, beliefs and norms linking members. (Sathe 1983; Smirchich 1983; Kilmann, Sexton & Serpa 1986).
The characteristics of culture are given as followings:
norms of behavior
beliefs, values and attitudes
language in the form of jokes, metaphors, stories, myths and legends
Major organization change needs culture change.
In order to bring about any kind of significant organizational change, the organization’s culture must be managed accordingly. However, changing an organization’s culture is not easy.
The word ‘technology’ can be easily misunderstood as simply being about computers and hi-tech industries such as aerospace. In fact, technology has a much broader meaning and influences our everyday lives. Technology is defined in the Longman Modern English Dictionary, as ‘the science of technical processes in a wide, though related, field of knowledge’.
Technology can be defined as ‘as the knowledge of how to accomplish tasks and goals’ (Dibb et al 1997)
Technology therefore embraces mechanics, electrics, electronics, physics, chemistry and biology and all the derivatives and combinations of them.
Technology is the knowledge, tools, equipment and work techniques an organization uses to deliver products or services. Technological changes come in new products and services. Technological innovations change work methods. Thus, word-processors and personal computers mean documents need not be retyped after correction. Technological change is very important for international competitions. (Bartol K, Martin D, Matthews G & Tein M, 2005)
Technology may drive change by requiring new work methods and providing competitive edge.
Technological development allows new goods and services to be offered to consumers and allows for new methods of distributing goods and services. New technology can allow existing products to be made more cheaply, thereby lowering their price. “Travel China” is a travel service company which has used information technology to develop databases to target potential customers and to maintain a dialogue with established customers.
Over the OD one of the difficulties is forecasting technological developments. These firms who are first to develop a technological lead will grow, as the technology is embedded in new industries and products. For example: a small restaurant want to improve its service in order to make the orders faster than before, by using Palm computer, they connect the Palm computer with a mainframe computer and printer. The costumer’s orders are all input and transformed and output by the computer. It is saved about 80% time than writing by hand.
‘The established pattern of relationships between the component parts of an organization, outlining both communication, control and authority patterns. Structure distinguishes the parts of an organization and delineates the relationship between them.’ (Wilson & Rosenfeld, 1990)
Another definition of organization is: ‘the formal pattern of interactions and coordination designed by management to link the task of individuals and groups in achieving organizational goals’. (Bartol & Martin, 1994)
These two definitions of structure taken together give a sense of the objectives which any structure must serve as well as the process through which these objectives can be met.
Organizations also have what has become known as ‘informal’ structures which are not designed by management but are the outcomes of friendship and interest groupings as well as those which serve political purposes, sometimes not related to the organization’s goals. (Palmer, A; Hartley, B 2005)
Structural transformation at Nestle
During the 1980s, the Swiss food giant Nestle operated a 1600-person head office controlling operations in over 100 countries. By the start of the 1990s, Nestle undertook to reorganize to make it slimmer, faster and more innovative.
Its head office and some of its national companies were originally organized on the basis of strong functional departments. Such specialists previously held tight control over decisions in these areas in the operating companies. Seven new strategic business units (SBU) were formed to cover Nestlé’s main product markets. One SBU had a worldwide strategic, as opposed to operational, responsibility for product-management decisions in the main functional areas like production and finance. Tow hundred head office jobs were cut. Regional management units were given more control over the companies in the regions than they previously had and the principle of ‘business asymmetry’ was employed, meaning that SBUs can be organized differently depending upon their particular needs as dictated by market conditions and production technologies.
Nestlé’s changes were not new to the business world and had been adopted by their competitors long before. (Lorenz, C 1992)
Nestlé’s clearly saw advantages in restructuring on a product combined with a location basis.
Human resource is the vehicle for changing knowledge, skills, perceptions & behaviors needed for a job. (Bartol K, Martin D, Matthews G & Tein M, 2005)
Human resource is one of the most important resources in all organizations. It is the activities that makes by managers in order to make sure there are will be fetch, keep and effectively use human resource. There are five major components of human resource system: recruitment, interview, selection, training/development, and performance appraisal and performance feedback.
These four major components impact each other. The other three may change while one changes.
Organization development is a main technology which can change the quality of working relationship among the workers.
OD impacts all the components in an organization. It contains the structure, culture, strategy; control system, group and human resource system of organization, others like communication, motivation and leading are all influenced by OD process. We had discussed the four components: structure, culture, and human resource and technology.
In order to manage the OD process well, managers must do well in controlling among the steps of OD process. They are diagnosis, intervention and evaluation.
1. Bartol K, Martin D, Matthews G & Tein M, 2005, Management, A Pacific Rim Focus, 4 edn, McGraw-Hill, Hong Kong.
2. French, W. L. & Bell, C. H., Jr 1990, Organization Development, Behavioral Science Interventions for Organization Improvement, Englewood Cliffs, Nj, Prentice Hall.
3. George J & Jones G, 2004, Essentials of Contemporary Management (Chinese Version), 1st edn, McGraw-Hill Education (Asia) Co. & China Posts & Telecom Press, Beijing.
4. McConkie, M. L., 1993, Organization Development in the public sector, in Cummings, T. G. and Worley, C. G., Organization Development and Change, 5th edn, St. Paul, MN, West Publishing Company.
5. Palmer A, Hartley B, 2002, The Business Environment, 4th edn, Ashford Colour Press, Gosport, Hants, London.
6. Paton, R. A. & McCalman, J. 2000, Change Management. A guide to Effective Implementation, London.
7. Robbins, S.P., 2001, Organizational Behavior, 9th edn, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, Prentice Hall, pp. 510-11.
8. Senior B, 2002, Organizational Change, 2nd edn, Ashford Colour Press, London.
9. Vroom, V. H. & Jago, A. G. 1988, The New Leadership: Managing Participation in Organizations, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs.
(The pics can not be pasted on the website)
Copyright 2005 Li Siyi Mail to: email@example.com


This is a fully resources assessment lesson designed to assess learning for the Research Methods section of the GCSE Sociology course. The assessment is comprised of a 25 question multiple choice quiz and 10 exam questions. An answer sheet is included: students should aim to complete the test and peer-assess one another's work by the end of the lesson.
This is the ninth of ten lessons comprising our 'Research Methods' Unit for the new GCSE Sociology specifications (designed for AQA but useful to WJEC/EDUQAS).
Browse complete units for KS4 Sociology on Tes using this link: https://goo.gl/NfTNky
This download includes:
-A detailed lesson plan: highlighting differentiation, AfL, key-words, SMSC and a timeline of learning activities (.pdf)
-A premium quality PowerPoint presentation (fully animated) that covers the entire lesson.
-2 x A4 Assessment Worksheets:
(1 x Multiple-Choice Quiz)
(1 x Exam Questions Sheet)
-Teacher's Answer Sheet
-A Homework worksheet (practice exam question)
We take considerable time making our resources to the highest possible standard, positive reviews are greatly appreciated.
PS: 'GCSE Sociology Teachers' Facebook Group here: https://www.facebook.com/groups/1786443641643898/
Check out our great website to help you find our other GCSE Sociology resources: http://ks4sociology.wordpress.com
Minimum system requirements: 512MB RAM, 1.5ghz processor. Microsoft Office.
Download Complete GCSE Sociology Units (for KS4 / Middle School)
Introduction to Sociology (12 Lessons) [view]
Research Methods (10 Lessons) [view]
The Sociology of Education (20 Lessons) [view]
The Sociology of Family (20 Lessons) [view]
The Sociology of Crime & Deviance (20 Lessons) [view]
Social Stratification (20 Lessons) [view]
Free Demo Lesson [download]


Abington Township School District v. Schempp:
The Day God Was Kicked Out of School
Cale L. Corbett
Dr. Lynn W. Turner Prize
Phi Alpha Theta
June 26, 1995
In February 1963, the Supreme Court of the United States heard a First Amendment case which would forever change the way Americans viewed the Court and the value given religion by the highest magistrate in the land. In fact, this case is vilified as one that "kicked God and prayer out of the schools."  With its watershed decision in June of that year, the Court found for an Abington Township Unitarian who pursued litigation to purge a 1949 Pennsylvania state law providing for mandatory devotional Bible reading in public schools statewide.
After losing at the federal district court level, Pennsylvania lawmakers added a provision to the statute allowing students, with parental consent, to opt out of the religious exercises in hopes of placating Edward Schempp. Not satisfied, Mr. Schempp took the case to court again, charging the alteration did not change the unconstitutional nature of a measure which promoted Christianity at state expense. Again the lower court found for Schempp. Consequently, Abington Township School District appealed to the Supreme Court. Consolidated with a similar Maryland case launched by renowned atheist Madalyn Murray, the Supreme Court handed down a controversial 8-1 decision in favor of Schempp (and Murray).
Although certainly not the first case involving religious expression to reach the Supreme Court, Abington Township School District v. Schempp was the impetus of perhaps the most vituperative debate regarding religion and its place in our school system up to that time. This case raised thorny constitutional and social issues like no other case preceding it.
In jurisprudence spanning the previous two decades, the Supreme Court increasingly applied greater portions of the Bill of Rights to the states in light of the Fourteenth Amendment's Due Process Clause. Seminal church-state cases like Cantwell v. Connecticut, Everson v. Board of Education and McCollum v. Board of Education comprised important precedents drawn on by the majority in reaching a decision in Abington v. Schempp.
Schempp's very questioning of prayer in school illuminated the metamorphosis society was undergoing. Although many must have disagreed with local school districts conducting organized prayers and Bible readings, a surprisingly small number expressed objection in an obtrusive manner until well into the twentieth century. Most were convinced, or at least ignorant of information to the contrary, that the United States was a nation founded on Christian principles. Yet, as early as 1890, many states were rolling back mandates of state sponsored devotional exercises in the classroom.
Like four other states, Pennsylvania introduced a statute compelling school districts to perform Bible readings in the mornings before class. Twenty-five states had laws allowing "optional" Bible reading, with the remainder having no laws supporting or rejecting Bible reading. In eleven of those states with laws supportive of Bible reading or state-sponsored prayer, courts had declared them unconstitutional.
In the case of Pennsylvania's treatment of the issue, at least ten Bible verses were to be read daily by teachers or students in each public school classroom statewide. Any translation or version was appropriate, yet Abington Township consistently utilized the King James Version. Joint recitation of the Lord's Prayer followed the reading in that district's public schools. A particularly authoritarian facet of the law was the provision for termination of any teacher refusing to conduct or participate in the mandated Bible reading. For Maryland, statutes provided for the daily reading of a chapter from the Bible and recitation of the Lord's Prayer in that state's tax-funded schools.
No matter the impact this case would have on national church-state relations in the future and the sensationalism attached to it by both sides of the debate, the issues raised in Abington v. Schempp were of paramount importance to those involved. It is evident from the suit he launched that Schempp was truly concerned about the spiritual and social impact of state-supported Bible reading and prayer on his children. For a Unitarian, the "religious doctrines purveyed by a literal reading of the Bible [were at the very least] contrary to [his] religious beliefs. . ."  Evidently Mr. Schempp was concerned as to the amount of control the school system was exerting over the religious aspect of the children's lives.
The case would bounce from the district court level to the Supreme Court and back again between 1963 and the time when Mr. Schempp originally brought suit in 1958.  In its first iteration, Schempp's complaint alleged the state-sponsored Bible reading and accompanying recitation of the Lord's Prayer were unconstitutional establishments of religion which prohibited the free exercise thereof for both him and his children.
At the time, Edward's son, Ellory Schempp was still a student in the school system. In the original litigation, he testified that he did not believe in the divinity of Jesus Christ, his immaculate conception, or the Christian doctrine of the Trinity. However, he affirmed that such ideas contrary to his own beliefs were presented to him during his years of attendance at Abington High School. Further, the boy was subject to disciplinary action for his refusal to stand at attention during the recitation of the Lord's Prayer and his request to be excused during the exercise was summarily denied.
Also of value to the plaintiff in the first trial was the testimony of Rabbi Dr. Solomon Grayzel who outlined the harm that could come from sectarian presentation of religious works in a school environment.  As an example of the implicit sectarian nature of Pennsylvania's prescribed biblical reading, he pointed out that the New Testament's readily apparent anti-Semitism would not bring any real psychological harm to Jewish children if the context of that document was explained. However, if read without comment or question as it was in Pennsylvania schools, Dr. Grayzel testified to the grievous psychological harm he had seen the New Testament produce in Jewish children during similar applications in other venues.
His testimony produced two main points. First, it was safe to assume that if Jewish children could be offended by Bible reading sanctioned by public schools, it was equally safe to suggest that Schempp's children could be detrimentally affected as well. Second, to a Unitarian rejecting the doctrine of the Trinity and the divinity of Jesus, reading of the New Testament in particular would seem practically blasphemous. This effectively dismissed the defense's contention that the Bible was a common source of morality for all students.
Assertions of the defense were "diametrically opposite" to those of the plaintiffs. For instance, the defense held that "in substance, . . . reading without comment of ten verses of the Holy Bible at the opening of each school day does not effect, favor or establish a religion or prohibit the free exercise thereof, that freedom of religion or of conscience does not include a right to practice one's beliefs or disbeliefs . . . by preventing others from hearing it read in public schools. Further, they contended that such reading was an invaluable aid in the development of the minds and morals of school children that the State had a constitutional right to employ."
In defense of forced recitation of the Lord's Prayer, it was felt that such practice did not establish preference for religion or violate the "religious conscience of pupils or parents." The defense also stated that children were free to interpret the bible readings any way they saw fit, if at all, due to the absence of comment. Finally, the defense testified that the plaintiffs were in no way pressed into compulsion in respect to the religious observances, and failed to show any deprivation of constitutional rights.
Among those appearing in witness for the school district during the first round of litigation was Dr. Luther Weigle, an expert in the origins of the New Testament, who testified that the Bible was non-sectarian. In cross-examination, however, Dr. Weigle bolstered Edward Schempp's case when he was forced to concede that the Bible could only be construed as such when viewed from within Christian faiths and that the New Testament "conveyed the message of Christians."
In its decision, the United States District Court of Pennsylvania outlined several salient principles worth further examination. Foremost was the refutation of the defense's implicit claim that the Bible was not an inherently religious work:
Inasmuch as the verses of the Bible address themselves to, or are premised upon a recognition of God, the Bible is essentially a religious work, . . . and to refuse to admit its essential character as a religious document would seem to us to be unrealistic. If study of the Bible as an artistic work, a treasury of moral truths, or historical text can be separated from the espousal of doctrinal matters and religiousness, we should find no objection. The daily reading of the Bible . . . required by the legislative fiat .. . buttressed with the authority of the State and, more importantly to the children, backed with the authority of their teachers, can hardly do less than inculcate . . . various religious doctrines in childish minds. Thus, the practice required by the statute amounts to religious instruction [and] . . . it makes no difference that a religious sense of religion may not be instilled.
Secondly, the bench took to task the defense's assertion that children were not forced to participate in the morning religious exercises. Immediately evident to the court was the difference in attitude demanded of the students when the Bible was being read and the Lord's Prayer recited from when normal classroom instruction took place. Additionally, children could not ask to be excused from the proceedings, and faced disciplinary action if they did engage in any real protest of the exercises. Further, counsel for the plaintiff pointed out that the defense ignored the reality of compulsory school attendance required by Pennsylvania state law. This mandatory school attendance placed the students "[directly] in the path of compulsion."  The bench was equally unconvinced of any true freedom enjoyed by the children to interpret the Bible readings as they saw fit. Citing the testimony of Dr. Grayzel and the Schempps, the court noted that a broad "spectrum of meanings . . . beginning with literal acceptance. . . [to] vague philosophical generalities condemned by fundamentalists" could result.
In the opinion delivered, the Pennsylvania District Court found the state law sanctioning the reading of the Bible in public schools to be "within the proscription of the First Amendment." Due to the interference with the rights of parents to religiously instruct their children (if at all) and the religious character of the morning exercises in Abington Township schools, the court declared both the statute and the attending practices unconstitutional under both the Establishment and Free Exercise Clauses of the First Amendment as applied to the states by the Fourteenth Amendment.
As would be expected, Abington Township appealed to the Supreme Court which remanded the case back to district court levels for further proceedings.  In the second round of litigation, the school district countered with an amendment to the statute. The modification allowed students to be excused from participation in the Bible reading and prayer, and repealed the mandate for dismissal of teachers who also refused to participate.
During the school district's appeal, Edward Schempp testified that after careful consideration, he decided not to have his children excused from attendance at the morning ceremonies. He feared his children would be seen as "odd balls" by their teachers and classmates. In addition, standing outside one's homeroom carried with it a stigma of punishment for bad behavior.
The District Court did not take the time to review the evidence, nor repeat the facts from the first case. Thus, the second round of litigation was a great deal shorter than the first. Instead, the justices examined the case considering the school district's amendment allowing students the option of non-participation. With legal tactics reminiscent of Hollywood, the defense again attempted to deny the harm found to be imparted upon the Schempps by the Bible reading statute. In addition, the defense called into question the very jurisdiction the federal level court claimed over the case, arguing as it had in the first case, that this was a state issue only.
The court was not moved to overturn its previous decision. They again held that the statute, even as amended, was unconstitutional and violative of the First Amendment, finding it no more defensible than before its amendment.
Thus, after years of trial, the case Edward Schempp had actuated against the school district of Abington Township made its way to the nation's highest judicial body. On the school district's appeal of the tribunal's second ruling, the case would be heard by the Supreme Court as Abington v. Schempp . The Supreme Court apparently agreed to hear the case for one compelling reason: to settle once and for all the persistent and vigorous protests resulting from its previous decision in Engel v. Vitale regarding religion in schools.
The Supreme Court upheld the District Court's decision and found the Pennsylvania prayer statute unconstitutional by virtue of the facts in the case, as well as the clear line of precedent established by the Court. In writing the opinion of the Court, Justice Thomas Clark stated, "This Court has decisively settled that the First Amendment's mandate [in the Establishment Clause] has been made wholly applicable to the States by the Fourteenth Amendment . . . in a series of cases since Cantwell."
What was unexpected, however, were the ideas expressed in the second portion of Justice Clark's opinion written for the majority. The Court's recognition of religious ideals as valuable to our culture in that opinion are generally not cited by either side of the church-state debate, either by ignorance or purposeful omission, when discussing the case and the impact it had on the nation. His opening thoughts explicitly spelled out that view in past jurisprudence with cases similar to Abington v. Schempp .
It is true that religion has been closely identified with our history and government. As we said in Engel v. Vitale . . . , "The history of man is inseparable from the history of religion. And . . . since the beginning of that history many people have devoutly believed that [m]ore things are wrought by prayer than this world dreams of and we are a religious people whose institutions presuppose a Supreme Being." . . . Indeed, only last year an official survey of the country indicated that 64% of our people have church membership. . . while less than 3% profess no religion whatever . . . therefore, . . . as in the beginning, our national life reflects a religious people. . . . In addition, it might be well said that one's education is not complete without a study of comparative religion or the history of religion and its relationship to the advancement of civilization. This is not to say, however, that religion has been so identified with out history and government that religious freedom is not likewise as strongly embedded in our public and private [lives]. This freedom to worship [as we please, or not at all, is] indispensable in a country whose people come from the four quarters of the earth and brought with them a diversity of religious opinion.
Even so, Clark continued that the Court was of the feeling that no matter the religious nature of the citizenry, the government at all levels, as required by the Constitution, must remain neutral in matters of religion "while protecting all, prefer[ring] none, and disparag[ing] none."  The Court had clearly rejected the contention by many that the Establishment Clause forbade only governmental preference of one faith over another.
Citing Justice Hugo Black in Torcaso v. Watkins, Justice Clark added, "We repeat and again reaffirm that neither a State nor the Federal Government can constitutionally force a person 'to profess a belief or disbelief in any religion.' Neither can constitutionally pass laws or impose requirements which aid all religions as against non-believers, and neither can aid those religions based on a belief in the existence of God as against those religions founded on different beliefs."  Such prohibited behavior was that self-evident in the Pennsylvania law requiring Bible reading (and allowing recitation of the Lord's Prayer) in its public schools. The Court recognized the value of such ideal neutrality from lessons of history when government and religion were either fully fused or cooperative with one another and religious liberty was nonexistent or seriously curtailed.
Justice Brennan filed the only lengthy and truly historically significant concurrence in this case. The esteemed Justice took seventy-three pages to elaborate his ideas about what the Framers intended in the formation of the First and Fourteenth Amendments, gauge the value of religion in our culture, review past precedents, and suggest a course for future church-state cases. Scholars have noted that his concurrence suggested "a willingness to engage in historical analysis" on the part of the Court.  He professed to be aware of the "ambiguities in the historical record" and felt a modern-day interpretation of the First Amendment was warranted.36 In defense of that approach, Brennan stated:
Whatever Jefferson or Madison would have thought of Bible reading or the recital of the Lord's Prayer in . . . public schools, .. . our use of the history . . . must limit itself to broad purposes, not specific practices. . . . [T]he Baltimore and Abington schools offend the First Amendment because they sufficiently threaten in our day those substantive evils the fear of which called forth the Establishment Clause. . . . [O]ur interpretation of the First Amendment must necessarily be responsive to the much more highly charged nature of religious questions in contemporary society. A too literal quest for the advice of the Founding Fathers upon the issues of these cases seems to me futile and misdirected.
In answer to critics of a broad interpretation of the prohibitions against government in the realm of religion, Brennan said, ".. . [N]othing in the text of the Establishment Clause supports the view that the prevention of the setting up of an official church was meant to be the full extent of the prohibitions against official involvements in religion."
In the third section of his exhaustive concurrence, Justice Brennan charted the course that led to the incorporation of the First Amendment's religion clauses by way of answering the charge of Abington Township's counsel that Pennsylvania's Bible reading statute was a state issue, outside the purvue of the federal court system, including that of the Supreme Court.  He labeled the daily recitals of the Lord's Prayer and reading of the Bible as "quite [clear] breaches of the command of the Establishment Clause."  He noted the long history of such practices, even before the "founding of our Republic." Additionally, he did not neglect to mention that most of those who demanded reading of the Bible and prayer in schools were hoping to serve "broader goals than compelling formal worship of God or fostering church attendance." They looked also to foster "the noblest principles of virtue, morality, patriotism, and good order."
Justice Brennan took great pains to also show that many states, like South Dakota, New Hampshire, Wisconsin, Ohio and Massachusetts had already enacted and revoked laws similar to Pennsylvania's by the first half of the twentieth century. In addition, many political leaders including attorneys general and presidents like Ulysses S. Grant and Theodore Roosevelt insisted that "matters of religion be left to family altars, churches and private schools" and "[It] is not our business to have the Protestant Bible or the Catholic Vulgate or the Talmud read in [public] schools."  He added that the amendment allowing for excusal from participation did not have any relevance to the question of establishment of religion, since it was found that the practices were essentially religious and made use of public school buildings during school days.
One final point worthy of examination in Brennan's concurrence was his recognition of the plurality of religious thought in the nation as basis enough for restriction of church and state relations. He cited this lack of appreciation of that pluralism as the "basic flaw" of Pennsylvania's Bible reading statute and Abington Township's defense of it:
There are persons in every community--often deeply devout--to whom any version of the Judaeo-Christian Bible is offensive. There are others whose reverence for the Holy Scriptures demands private study or reflection and to whom public reading or recitation is sacrilegious.
. . . To such persons it is not the fact of using the Bible in the public schools, nor the content of any particular version, that is offensive, but the manner in which it is used.
In a rather vehement tone, Justice Potter Stewart filed the only dissent in the case.
In it, he was critical not only of the lower court opinions, but also the decision the Supreme Court had reached regarding them. It is clear he wished to remand the case to lower courts for further proceedings. He immediately declared the cases "so fundamentally deficient as to make impossible an informed or responsible determination of the constitutional issues presented, [thus it is difficult to] say that the Establishment Clauses has been violated."  As to the intent and scope of the First Amendment and Fourteenth Amendments (and their Establishment Clauses):
It is, I think, a fallacious oversimplification to regard the [religion clauses] as establishing a single constitutional standard of "separation of church and state," which can be applied in every case to delineate the required boundaries between government and religion. . . . As a matter of history, the First Amendment was adopted solely as a limitation upon the newly created National Government . . . to insure that Congress not only would be powerless to establish a national church, but would also be unable to interfere with existing state establishments. . . . So matters stood until the adoption of the Fourteenth Amendment, or more accurately, until this Court's decision in Cantwell.
He stated his agreement with the doctrine of the Fourteenth Amendment's embrace and application of the Bill of Rights, but pointed out the irony of such an amendment "designed to leave the States free to go their own way should now have become a restriction upon their autonomy."  Other critics of the Court's findings in Abington v. Schempp often quote the following excerpt from Justice Stewart's opinion:
. . . If religious exercises are held to be an impermissible activity in schools, religion is placed in an artificial and state-created disadvantage. . . . And a refusal to permit religious exercises thus is seen, not as the realization of state neutrality, but rather as the establishment of a religion of secularism, or at least, as governmental support of the beliefs of those who think that religious exercises should be conducted only in private.
Just as there was a clear spectrum of opinion in the Court on these cases, so too was the public divided in reaction to the Court's decision. Newspapers were no exception. The Washington Evening Star was indeed rather critical of the Court's decision. Disparaging the decision reached by Clark and the majority, and all but granting sainthood to the lone dissenter Stewart, that newspaper declared that "God and religion have all but been driven from the public schools. What remains? Will the baccalaureate service and Christmas carols be the next to go? Don't bet against it."  In contrast, the New York Times was more accepting of the Court's ruling. Significant portions of the opinions were printed and no real comment supportive or critical.
As would be expected, the views of various Christian entities on the decision of the Court were equally diverse. As an example of the conservative Protestant perspective, the Reverend Dr. Billy Graham said, "In my opinion . . . the Supreme Court . . . is wrong. . . . Eighty percent of the American people want Bible reading and prayer in the schools. Why should a majority be so severely penalized . . .?"  The mainline denominations, with the exception of Catholics, registered less critical opinions of the verdict, in fact seeing it as a boon to religious freedom by its very limiting of governmental authority in the sphere of public schools.
The reaction from Congress could best be described as strident. Almost overnight, bills designed to overturn the decision by amending the Constitution were proposed. By April 1964, over one hundred-fifty such amendments had been proposed.  Calls continue after some thirty-two years, from mostly conservative Republican and Religious Right activists, for an amendment to the Constitution to allow students to pray or read the Bible. This springs from the erroneous belief, on the part of school districts, parents, and concerned religious groups, that Abington v. Schempp prohibited such activity, when in reality it merely restrained the government from interfering either to promote or prohibit such activity.
The need for such an amendment is clear, say its proponents, as evidenced by the several hundred percent rise in incidents of campus crime, unwanted pregnancies, suicides, murder and lower aptitude test scores seen since the "banning of prayer and Bible reading" in the 1960s.  Critics of this view label it as "simplistic and ignorant of complex socio-economic realities" that have surfaced since the early 1960s.
Regardless of the social debate, Abington v. Schempp was found to be invaluable as precedent for similar cases like Board of Education v. Allen and Lemon v. Kurtzman in the decades that followed. In fact, the well-known, and oft-used, three part Lemon test, had its basis in the jurisprudence of Abington v. Schempp. In it, a given church-state law is subjected to three criteria: sponsorship, financial support, and active involvement of the government in religious activity. Failure in any one of those realms allow the measure to be declared unconstitutional.
It is unclear how this decision, and those based in whole or part upon it, will fare with the decidedly conservative shift of membership in the Supreme Court seen in the past decade. Although the Court was in the past, and currently is, supportive of the doctrine outlined in Abington v. Schempp, the remarkable rise of conservative (and religious) thought witnessed in 1994, may spell the end of support for the Lemon test and Abington v. Schempp-style church-state separation.
 Peter McWilliams, Ain't Nobody's Business If You Do: The Absurdity of Consensual Crimes in a Free Society (Los Angeles: Prelude Press, 1993), 170.
 177 F. Supp 398 (1959). The statute read as follows: "At least ten verses from the Holy Bible shall be read, or caused to be read, without comment, at the opening of each public school on each school day, by the teacher in charge . . . If any teacher, whose duty it shall be to read the Holy Bible, or cause it to be read, shall fail or omit so to do, said school teacher shall, upon charges preferred for each failure or omission, and proof of the same, before the board of school directors of the school district, be discharged."
 Robert Boston, Why the Religious Right Is Wrong: About Separation of Church and State (Buffalo: Prometheus Books, 1993), 106.
 Ibid., 106. In recruitment efforts for their atheist organizations, supporters of Madalyn Murray (O'Hair) insist to this day that she single-handedly got Bible reading and prayer kicked out of the schools. Surprisingly, although false and misleading, many Christians and non-believers bought into her embellished claim.
 374 U.S. 215 (1963).
 Boston, Why the Religious Right Is Wrong, 105.
 Ibid., 101.
 177 F. Supp 399.
 374 U.S. 211. Note that Maryland's law differed from that of Pennsylvania in that it required recitation of the Lord's Prayer in conjunction with reading of the Bible.
 Ibid., 208.
 364 U.S. 298 (1960).
 177 F. Supp 399. The recitation of the Lord's Prayer was a peculiar addition of the Abington Township School District and was not called for in the Pennsylvania statute. Edward Schempp clearly intended to show that the practices protested in this case not only directly harmed his children, but many other children in the school district (and arguably the state) as well.
 Ibid., 401. The boy's testimony would be instrumental in refuting the defense's argument that no harm had befallen the Schempps or other children as a direct result of the statute.
 Ibid., 401. Dr. Grayzel was a graduate from the City College of New York and Columbia University. He received a Doctorate of Philosophy from Dropsie College of Philadelphia, an institute of rabbinical, Semitic, and Hebrew studies. As the editor of the Jewish Publication Society, Dr. Grayzel testified to his familiarity with the King James, Revised Standard, and both Douay and Knox Catholic Versions of the Holy Bible. The Court deemed him qualified as an expert witness.
 Ibid., 401.
 Ibid.,402. Also broached by the defense was the supposition that in the absence of Christian religion, a 'secular humanist' religion would instead fill the void.
 Ibid., 402. By today's judicial and social standards, such blatant denial of the undeniably sectarian nature of such exercises would not be greeted with much credulity. In fact, such free admittance to the religious nature of the observances would be enough in itself to show a deprivation of constitutional rights. Lemon v. Kurtzman, 402 U.S. 602 (1971).
 374 U.S. 210. The superintendent and several principals of the school district's various participating institutions testified that other than the protest launched by the Schempp family, none other had ever been leveled at the practices in question.
 177 F. Supp, 405. The court cited Everson v. Board of Education, 330 U.S. 1 (1947) and that court's reading of the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment.
 Ibid., 401, 406.
 Ibid., 405.
 Ibid., 406. Specifically, the opinion read, "The right of the parent to teach his own faith to his child, or to teach him no religion at all is one of the foundations of our way of life and enjoys full constitutional protection."
 364 U.S. 298.
 201 F. Supp 817 (1962). That amendment, known as Pennsylvania General Assembly Act No. 700, enacted the following revision to the original provision: "Any child shall be excused from such Bible reading, or attending such Bible reading, upon the written request of his parent or guardian."
 Ibid., 818; Norman L. and Emily S. Rosenberg, In Our Times (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1991), 47. At the height of the Cold War, those appearing not to believe in God were likely to be labeled as atheists, unpatriotic or communist.
 Ibid., 818. The defense's argument of unproven harm was one easily dismissed by a cursory review of the first case's evidence and testimony. The bench established its jurisdiction with a simple declaration that there was nothing to indicate the state courts would litigate on what this court deemed to be important issues or religious freedom.
 Ibid., 819.
 Ronald C. White and Albright G. Zimmerman, eds., An Unsettled Arena: Religion and the Bill of Rights (Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1990), 70.
 Terry Eastland, ed., Religious Liberty in the Supreme Court (Washington: Ethics and Public Policy Center, 1993), 151; Derek Davis, Original Intent: Chief Justice Rehnquist and the Course of American Church-State Relations (Buffalo: Prometheus Books, 1991), 91. The judicial doctrine of incorporation had its beginning with Gitlow v. New York, in which the Court held that the First Amendment freedoms of speech and press were among those protected by the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. The Free Exercise and Establishment Clauses were similarly incorporated into restriction of the states in 1940 and 1947 respectively.
 374 U.S. 213, 225.
 374 U.S. 215. This was as demanded by the Establishment Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment as applied to the states in clear predecent from 1940's Cantwell v. Connecticut onward.
 Eastland, Religious Liberty, 59. Justices Frankfurter, Rutledge, Jackson, and Burton took the idea one step further in Everson v. Board of Education, 330 U.S. 1 (1947). In it they declared, "The [First] Amendment's purpose was not to strike merely at the official establishment of a single sect, creed or religion, . . . [but] to create a complete and permanent separation of the spheres of religious activity and civil authority by comprehensively forbidding every form of public aid or support for religion."
 374 U.S. 220.
 Ibid., 222.
 Derek Davis, Original Intent, 77.
 Ibid., 77.
 Ibid., 77; 374 U.S. 237.
 374 U.S. 233.
 Ibid., 253-56.
 Ibid., 267.
 Ibid., 271.
 Ibid., 273.
 Ibid., 288.
 Ibid., 284-85. In the original District Court proceeding, Rabbi Grayzel testified that, as an example, in Judaism the Bible is to be studied and not merely read. In the case of Ellory Schempp (and his siblings), the very reading itself was offensive.
 Eastland, Religious Liberty, 164.
 Ibid., 164.
 Ibid., 164-65.
 Ibid., 165.
 Ibid., 165. The text notes this as the first suggestion by a Court member to such a thing as a "religion of secularism" and refusal to permit religious exercises in public schools as an "establishment" of it.
 Ibid., 167.
 Anthony Lewis, "Government Must Be Neutral in Religion, Majority Asserts," New York Times, 18 June 1963, p. 16.
 "Billy Graham Voices Shock Over Decision," New York Times, 18 June 1963, p. 17.
 George Dugan, "Churches Divided, With Most in Favor," New York Times, 18 June 1963, p. 18.
 Madalyn Murray Hair, Freedom Under Siege (Los Angeles: J.P. Tarcher, Inc., 1974), 55.
 Boston, Why the Religious Right Is Wrong, 227. The Framers probably thought they were being crystal clear in drafting the First Amendment's religion clauses: "Congress shall make no law respecting an establishing of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof." What could be simpler? Government may neither advance nor inhibit the exercise of religion, and therefore need only remain neutral to abide by the religion clauses' dictates. If viewed clearly, the First Amendment is all that is necessary to protect both the rights of those who wish to pray and those who do not. No other amendment should be necessary. In fact, a surprisingly large number of religious groups, to include the National Council of Churches applaud Abington v. Schempp as increasing religious freedom, rather than retarding it.
 Carman Licciardello, Raising the Standard: Reclaiming Our World for God (Nashville: Sparrow Press, 1994), 81.
 Boston, Why the Religious Right Is Wrong, 228.
 Eastland, Religious Liberty, 215.
 New Jersey Law Journal, 6 July 1992, p. 19.
Abraham, Henry J. and Barbara A. Perry. Freedom and the Court: Civil Rights and Liberties in the United States. New York: Oxford University Press, 1994.
Alley, Robert S. The Supreme Court on Church and State . New York: Oxford University Press, 1988.
Boston, Robert. Why the Religious Right Is Wrong about Separation of Church and State. Buffalo: Prometheus Books, 1993.
Cox, Archibald. The Court and the Constitution. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1987.
Davis, Derek. Original Intent: Chief Justice Rehnquist and the Course of American Church-State Relations . Buffalo: Prometheus Books, 1991.
Drakeman, Donald L. Church and State in American History . Boston: Beacon Press, 1987.
Eastland, Terry, ed. Religious Liberty in the Supreme Court. Washington: Ethics and Public Policy Center, 1993.
Federal Supplement. Volume 177.
Federal Supplement. Volume 201.
Green, Steven K. "State Funding Subverts Religion's Special Role." Insight on the News. (January 1995): 20-22.
Levy, Leonard W. Original Intent and the Framers' Constitution. New York: Macmillan Publishing Co., 1988.
Licciardello, Carman. Raising the Standard: Reclaiming Our World for God. Nashville: Sparrow Press, 1994.
McWilliams, Peter. Ain't Nobody's Business If You Do: The Absurdity of Consensual Crimes in a Free Society. Los Angeles: Prelude Press, 1993.
New Jersey Law Journal. "First Amendment - Religion." 6 July 1992.
New York Times. 18 June 1963.
Noll, Mark A., ed. Religion and American Politics: From the Colonial Period to the 1980s. New York: Oxford University Press, 1990.
O'Hair, Madalyn Murray. Freedom Under Siege . Los Angeles: J.P. Tarcher, Inc., 1974.
Rosenberg, Norman L. and Emily S. In Our Times. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1991.
United States Reports. Volume 364.
United States Reports. Volume 374.
White, Ronald C. and Albright G. Zimmerman, eds. An Unsettled Arena: Religion and the Bill of Rights. Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1990


People who donate a kidney to a stranger hold the welfare of strangers in higher regard than the general population does, reports a paper published online this week in Nature Human Behaviour. The study provides insight into the underpinnings of such extraordinary altruism, and suggests a psychological mechanism for possibly extending costly altruism beyond just friends and family, to strangers.
Donating a kidney to a stranger is painful, costly, non-normative, and exceedingly rare: a prime example of costly altruism. What motivates humans’ altruistic tendencies, and whether that generosity is driven by genuine empathic concern for others or selfish motivations, remains unclear.
Kruti Vekaria and colleagues asked 21 people who donated kidneys to strangers and 39 matched control participants to rank the closeness of 100 people they knew, as either relatives, friends, acquaintances or strangers. The participants then performed a money allocation task in which they chose how much to keep and how much to give to each of these ranked individuals. This allowed the authors to measure the participants’ perception of how closely related they are to others (social distancing) and the value they place on others’ welfare (social discounting). The authors find that extraordinary altruists (those who donated kidneys to strangers) rank social distance in the same way as controls, but allocate more money to distant others. The authors suggest that, rather than holding misguided perceptions of social distance, extraordinary altruists value the welfare of strangers more than the general population does. The findings contrast with the idea that altruism is motivated by a desire to help close relatives or by reciprocity.
In an accompanying News & Views, Tobias Kalenscher writes that: “In today’s Zeitgeist of nationalist protectionism and populist individualism, this news inspires hope for the future.”
Cancer: A blood test may detect cancer at early stagesNature Communications


As we move into winter it's time to rug up, keep warm and pay particular attention to our health. According to traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), winter is the season associated with the Kidneys, the energy system which holds our body’s most basic and fundamental energy. It is also believed that by harmonising oneself with the seasons you can stay healthier and prevent disease, so winter is a good time to strengthen the kidneys. It is also a good time to look inward, reflecting on ourselves with meditation, writing, or other inward practices such as Tai Chi and Qi Gong. These practices help us to connect to our inner selves and help to support kidney energy. They are very helpful to relax the mind, calm our emotions and raise the spirit.
The body part associated with the kidneys are the bones, so it is important to pay close attention to the bones in the winter months making sure to tonify and heal any problems in this area. This is also why winter is a time when Chinese medicine prescribes bone broths as nutritional therapy, as they are warming, nourishing and especially good for the bones and kidney energy. Bone broths are also powerful Jing tonics, as Jing is produced by the bones. Jing is depleted by activities such as extreme and prolonged stress, lack of quality sleep, working long hours and excess consumption of alcohol and recreational drugs. Winter is the best time to supplement the body’s Jing supply, and bone broth is ideal to do just that.
There are many foods that are beneficial for us to eat during winter. These foods are the ones that naturally grow in this season - pumpkin, potatoes, root vegetables, winter greens, carrots, cabbage, mushrooms, apples and pears. In winter, our bodies need warming foods like soups made with hearty vegetables, and rich stocks cooked with animal bones are best. Foods that specifically nourish and warm the kidneys are: black beans, kidney beans, broths cooked with bones, lamb, chicken, walnuts, chestnuts, black sesame seeds and dark leafy greens.
A small amount of unrefined sea salt is also helpful as the taste associated with the kidneys organ is salty, but remember, moderation in all things is important and too much salt can damage the kidneys. Cooking should be for longer periods with low heat and less water. This infuses foods with heat that helps to keep the body warm in the cold winter months. Hearty soups, whole grains and roasted nuts are good on cold days and offer nourishment to feed the body and tonify the kidneys in cold winter months.
The principle of harmony between what we eat and the season we eat it in is based on hundreds of years of practical experience. Chinese nutritional therapy is an important component of Chinese medicine and there is a long held understanding that food that we consume has a profound effect on the body, affecting our health and wellbeing.
Sally has a Bachelor of Health Science in Traditional Chinese Medicine (Acupuncture and Herbal Medicine) from the University of Technology Sydney and a Diploma of Health Science in Eastern Massage therapy (Shiatsu and Tuina) from the Canberra Institute of Technology.


The utility that manages Lake Murray thinks it is time to add more weed-eating fish to the lake. But South Carolina wildlife officials think it isn't time to put more carp in the largest lake in the Midlands.
Carp are the main way weeds are controlled on Lake Murray, according to The State newspaper (http://bit.ly/16fBD7f).
A study commissioned by South Carolina Electric & Gas found that weeds other than hydrilla are starting to pop up under water, which is a first sign that there aren't enough carp in the lake to keep the weeds in check, according to aquatic weed expert Steve de Kozlowski, who did the study.
But Chris Page, who manages aquatic weed control for the Department of Natural Resources said his agency doesn't think it is time to put more carp in the lake.
"We haven't seen anything yet that makes us think we're going to have an issue," Page said.
Hydrilla isn't native to the lake, but the aggressively growing weed was found in the water in 1993, likely introduced by fisherman who wanted to provide more plant life for fish to eat. Within five years, the hydrilla became so thick it was entangling boat propellers and choking off other life in the lake.
So in 2003, state officials put 64,500 carp into Lake Murray, squirting the fish from a tanker truck through a giant hose into the water. But carp are sterile and their numbers have dwindles to less than 5,000, according to the study that recommends adding 1,100 carp into the lake next year at a cost of about $8,000.
Information from: The State, http://www.thestate.com


This book presents the basic concepts of adaptive signal processing and adaptive filtering in a concise and straightforward manner. The main classes of adaptive filtering algorithms are presented in a unifed framework using clear notations that facilitate actual implementation. The main algorithms are described in tables which are detailed enough to allow the reader to verify the learned concepts. Many examples address problems drawn from actual applications. This book covers the family of LMS and algorithms as well as set-membership, sub-band, blind, IIR adaptive filtering, and more. Several problems are included at the end of chapters and some of these problems address applications. A user-friendly MATLAB package is provided where the reader can easily solve new problems and test all of the algorithms in a fast manner. Additionally, the book provides easy access to working algorithms for practicing engineers.The book has a solutions manual that is available from the publisher for instructors. Another resource for instructors is a set of master transparencies as a MATLAB Package including the MATLAB codes for all the algorithms described in the text which is available from the author. The author also has a webpage for the book.


Resistance Movement Definition - MilitaryDictionary.org
1.) An organized effort by some portion of the civil population of a country to resist the legally established government or an occupying power and to disrupt civil order and stability.
In the United States, military vocabulary is standardized by the Department of Defence. These terms are used by the United States Army, Navy, Air Force, and Marine Corps.
Term Classification: operations
Random Military Term


A paved garden path is almost indispensable in the front yard, and at least extremely useful in the garden behind the house – because who likes to carry mud into the house after heavy rain. Gardening can also be simplified if you don’t always have to trudge through the earth. This allows homeowners to plan and create garden paths.
The ornamental fish pond ripples in the back of the garden, the amaryllises unfold their splendor diagonally and the rock garden is hidden behind the tall rhododendrons. With a garden path, proud gardeners can guide their visitors along their personal garden highlights at will. If you want to create a garden path, you need not only enough power to carry stones, but also the right material – and a good plan.
Plan the garden path
Who wants to create a garden path faces two questions:
– What is it used for?
– How long should it be?
At first it sounds like a truism that paths serve primarily practical purposes. You want to cross your garden with clean shoes, handle a wheelbarrow, be able to shovel some snow when necessary and not wade in the mud when it rains. There are also corners that you have to go to again and again, be it the compost, the rain barrel, the tool shed, the terrace or any other favorite spot. Without a garden path, there would be real trails that are neither practical nor beautiful.
So a way has to be found – and of course it should also look nice. Anyone building new has one advantage: they can start from scratch and divide the garden according to their needs. The paths then represent the division axes and connect, for example, beds, sitting area, pool, arbor, terrace, carport, playground and lawn.
Rules of thumb for garden planning
1. A width of about 60 cm is sufficient for a simple garden path.
2. On the other hand, if the path leads from the property entrance to the front door, it should be at least 1.20 m wide so that two people can use it side by side.
3. Since each type of path divides a garden, a slightly curved route is preferable to the straight line. Otherwise, the entire garden should be strictly geometrical.
4. If you have an eye-catcher in the garden, for example a small pond, you should create at least one line of sight. One way can accomplish this function.
5. If you want to create a horticultural highlight, you are well advised to use a rondel. In its center, for example, a circular bed could be created or a pavilion. Paths can end or cross here.
6. Those who have completed their garden planning can create permanent paths. Robust and also expensive materials that last for decades are used for them. On the other hand, if you like to bring some variety into the garden, we recommend loose fabrics that are easy to remove.
Building materials for garden paths
Pavement, stepping stones or bulk goods? There are many ways to design the garden path. Decisive are visual preferences and the function that the path should fulfill.
Grit: It consists of roughly crushed rock in grain sizes of a few millimeters. Especially dolomite, quartz, marble, granite and basalt are used. Hardware stores keep them either in bulk, in large bags (so-called big bags) or in small packages.
Advantages: very colourfast, weatherproof, rot-proof, easy to process.
Disadvantages: heavy, susceptible to contamination.
Gravel: It basically consists of sieved sand. Its grain sizes vary a lot. Fine gravel consists of stones of one to four millimeters; the coarse Rhine gravel is made up of pebbles between 20 and 40 millimeters. Even larger stones are not suitable for sidewalks.
Advantages: a variety of colors, very high durability, easy processing.
Disadvantages: tend to form lanes, shift with time when walking.
Chopped wood, wood chips: DIY and garden centers usually carry them packaged in paper bags that hold 40 to 50 liters. They also offer recycling companies in bulk for self-collection. In addition to the natural colors, there are colored wood chips.
Advantages: natural appearance, easy to transport and process,
Disadvantages: rot after a few years, sometimes fade, are easily washed away in heavy rain or flood.
Bark mulch: When shopping, it should smell pleasantly of essential oils, not be moldy and not be strewn with branches or chopped pieces. Otherwise resembles wood chips.
Ashtray and Saxon path cover: what used to be found on sports fields can also be used in the garden. The heaped up path consists of frost-resistant gravel, lavalite and stone powder. The layers are each rolled or stamped.
Advantages: the paths are simple and inexpensive to manufacture; they last for years.
Disadvantages: they sometimes have to be repaired on the surface; the Saxon product is persistent, but not exactly cheap.
Natural stone pavement: The cubic stones usually consist of granite or basalt. Basically, three sizes and thus edge lengths are distinguished: mosaic plasters, in which the stones are 50 to 60 millimeters in size, small plasters between 70 and 100 millimeters, and large plasters, in which the stones have an edge length of 100 to approximately 300 millimeters.
Advantages: very stable and durable
Disadvantages: high price, mossy stones quite slippery
Concrete paving: The hardware stores offer an almost unmanageable variety of shapes and colors, so that this material can meet almost any design requirement.
Advantages: a variety of laying patterns are possible, the paths are very long-lasting, comparatively easy to lay.
Disadvantages: the surfaces of concrete paving can fade; After several years, cleaning with a pressurized water jet is recommended.
Pavement slabs / patio slabs: There are several materials that can be used for slab paths: plain concrete slabs, colored slabs, slabs with a decorative top layer, or washed concrete slabs covered with pebbles. The edge lengths for square panels are 30, 40 or 50 centimeters.
Advantages: stable, easy to lay
Disadvantages: suitable as a garden path only to a limited extent, downhill paths cannot be laid very well.
Pavers: They are basically hard-fired clay bricks. The trade offers a lot of formats and colors. They range from delicate pastel tones to very dark shades.
Advantage: a variety of laying patterns and colors are possible, the clinker bricks are very hard and therefore resilient and weatherproof.
Disadvantages: The stones have to be laid exactly, the workload is high.
Stepping stones: They are simply placed on the bare floor. Before that, only a little topsoil has to be removed and the ground leveled. The trade usually offers round, rough-hewn granite slabs.
Advantage: quick, uncomplicated installation.
Disadvantage: the position has to be corrected at larger intervals, usually only suitable for paths in beds.
Quarry stone slabs: Flat fragments of natural stone, so-called polygonal slabs, offer a completely different picture. Hardly any piece is the same here, which results in a very lively laying pattern. The most common types of stone are slate, porphyry, basalt, gneiss, granite, travertine, sandstone and quartzite.
Advantages: natural effect, variety of colors.
Disadvantage: in the case of heavily used surfaces, attention should be paid to the degree of hardness of the stone, laying is complex and takes a lot of time
Grass pavers: The heavy concrete blocks are available in the dimensions 40 by 60 centimeters and have a height of about eight centimeters. Their square cutouts can be filled with soil to sow lawn there. So you get a combination of grass and concrete path that is very resilient.
Advantage: quick installation, inexpensive, durable. The cut-outs can be greened or filled with colored concrete cubes.
Disadvantage: high transport weight, long-term colonization with algae and lichens possible.
Wooden pavement: Either cuboids or pieces of uniform length from trunks of different thicknesses can be used for this. Round logs of different sizes result in a very lively laying pattern and the wood grain also ensures play of colors.
Advantages: Do-it-yourselfers can cut the pavement themselves, it is ideal for natural gardens and forms varied patterns.
Disadvantages: a water-draining substructure is unavoidable, only comparatively expensive hardwoods last a long time, for all others it is hardly worth the effort.
Taxiways / billet dam: Two versions are common: short boards, which are usually connected with plastic straps, and logs, which are tightly bound together with wire. The width of the boards is usually 30 to 40 centimeters, while the billets can be up to one meter long.
Advantage: The taxiways can be bought ready-made or made from decking yourself, all that is required for quick installation is a level earth track.
Disadvantage: softwood should be impregnated free of harmful substances so that it does not rot too quickly, even hardwood is not up to the ground in the long run.
Planks / planks: While taxiways lie directly on the ground, planks have a substructure made of load-bearing slats. These in turn are stored on concrete slabs or a chipped bed. The entire structure corresponds to that of a wooden terrace. The most common materials are Douglas fir, Siberian larch, WPC boards or bamboo.
Advantages: even appearance, wide range of planks and accessories, easy to install, durability with high-quality materials.
Disadvantages: comparatively expensive, additional effort for curved paths.
Bed plates: They usually consist of weather-resistant plastic or recycling material and are available ready for installation. The dimensions are as different as the offers. Although they are primarily designed for beds, they can be easily put together from short distances.
Advantages: inexpensive, quick and easy to install.
Disadvantages: not necessarily suitable as permanent paths
Plastic grids: Just like grass pavers, your large spaces can be filled with soil on which lawn is sown. The grilles are quite resilient and can also be used to fasten paths. Once the grass has grown, you can hardly see them. The grids prevent the grass path from becoming denser over time.
Advantages: Such routes look attractive when they wind their way through the garden as a green, lively ribbon.
Disadvantages: But grass has to be watered, fertilized and cut constantly.
Quarry stones: With these materials, the ceiling of the path is put together like a mosaic. The trick is to skillfully arrange all kinds of suitable stones, such as bricks, clinker, cobblestones, broken slabs and coarse pebbles. They can be glued to a concrete strip or shaken into a chipped bed.
Advantages: creative, eye-catching ways possible.
Disadvantages: In both cases patience and the will to design are required.
Create a garden path
If you want to create a solid garden promenade made of sophisticated materials, you cannot avoid tried and tested work steps. They are similar, regardless of whether natural stones, clinker, paving or terrace slabs are to be laid.
1. Determine the final position of the path, mark the course with rods or knitting.
2. Grass scars or topsoil are removed; a total of about 35 to 40 centimeters is dug. If you cannot use the excavation, you have to let it go. The sole is then leveled so that a uniformly deep trench is created. You orient yourself on the upper edge of the terrain, so you follow slight differences in height. Alternatively, you can also use a spirit level. The sole is leveled and tapped.
3. After this preparatory work, the lowest layer can be brought in. It serves for drainage and consists of coarse bulk material, for example large-grained gravel, crushed stone or procter. Since the material is inexpensive, you should not save on the layer thickness and plan around 20 centimeters for it. This layer is also smoothed, but in such a way that a slope of about two to three centimeters per meter is created to the side. Finally, compress the layer with a tamper or motor shaker.
4. Now it is the turn of the border. Its purpose is to keep grass and plantings at a distance. It also gives the path an appealing frame and makes it easier to lay because the top covering can be aligned with it. Lawn edging stones are suitable for the edge, but round or square palisades and metal strips are also possible. Edges made of stone and concrete are best placed on a strip of cement mortar, which is pulled up slightly on the right and left to fix the stones. If you don’t want to wait until the mortar has set, you have to make sure that the curbs cannot move.
5. The best suited as a middle layer is grit, which is the cheapest to buy in the big bag. But medium-fine gravel can also be used. The bed of grit or gravel is heaped up at least three to five centimeters and smoothed out evenly with a pull-off gauge or a straight board. The height of the middle class should be meticulously calculated and adhered to – from the future top edge. The more precisely it is aligned, the more precisely paving stones or path slabs lie. Because the pavement will be shaken later, you have to plan the middle layer so that the stones protrude about one centimeter from the edge.
6. Now the slabs or paving stones are placed on the middle layer in the planned pattern. You have to be careful when inserting and should never enter the bed. The stones must not collide with each other, but must be placed three to five millimeters apart.
7. Finally, the joints are filled. There are special joint sands that are sprinkled dry on the pavement and swept in with a broom. Only then is it shaken. On longer journeys it is worth renting a motorized vibrator. With short, narrow paths, you may also be able to do this by hand, using a tamper or a heavy hammer with rubber protection. After the stones have been tapped, joint sand must usually be strewn again. It and the shaking only give the top layer its strength.
Special situations in the garden
Areas with slopes or many bumps do not have to be a nuisance if you make a virtue of necessity. This means, for example, creating a terrace-like garden. Admittedly, it is time-consuming to draw little walls and build stairs in the paths. The sections of the terrace are then horizontal, which makes watering and gardening much easier.
The alternative concept is that the paths cross the area like a serpentine. You can only reach slight inclines, do without steps and can easily handle the wheelbarrow. Such rises and falls in the garden area are always a design challenge. The effort for planning and construction is significantly higher. But a successful result makes every gardener’s heart beat faster.
Create a garden path – again explained step by step:
– Mark the course with string and wooden sticks. Also consider the width of the curbs. Pierce the edges along the cord with a spade and remove the soil about 10 cm deep.
– Compensate for unevenness, it is best to fill the troughs with gravel. Compact the soil with a roller.
– If larger stones or root remains appear, they must be removed.
– Dig a trench on both sides of the path that should be slightly wider than the curbs.
– Fill the ditch with sand. The position of the stones can be corrected later up or down later.
– The stones must be laid carefully until they lie exactly in a line. Then tap the sand.
– The edge to the topsoil supports the stones. Fill any gaps that may have arisen with sand.
– Spread the mulch a little higher than the edge. Only with loamy soils does gravel come as drainage.
– The roller then presses the mulch below the height of the curbs. Renew the mulch approximately every two years.


TeachMeFinance.com - explain shaded relief
shaded relief 'shaded relief' is an military term meaning '(DOD,NATO) A cartographic technique that provides an apparent three-dimensional configuration of the terrain on maps and charts by the use of graded shadows that would be cast by high ground if light were shining from the northwest. Shaded relief is usually used in combination with contours. See also hill shading'.
About the author
Copyright © 2005-2011 by Mark McCracken, All Rights Reserved.
TeachMeFinance.com is an informational website, and should not be used as a
substitute for professional medical, legal or financial advice. Information presented at
TeachMeFinance.com is provided on an "AS-IS" basis.
Please read the disclaimer for details.
Author: Mark McCracken is a corporate trainer and author living in Higashi Osaka, Japan. He is the author of thousands of online articles as well as the Business English textbook, "25 Business Skills in English".


Researchers at the University of Pennsylvania claim to have bridged a major obstruction in the creation of nanoscale electronics by developing a method of creating tiny gaps between electrodes.
SAN JOSE, Calif. Researchers at the University of Pennsylvania claim that they have bridged a major obstruction in the creation of nanoscale electronics by developing a method of creating tiny gaps between electrodes.
The development of so-called "nanogaps" will make it possible to make electrical contact to structures in the nanoscale world. The advent of “nanogaps” could have applications such as electronics, quantum computing and gene reading. In addition, nanoscale electronics could be used to create faster storage devices, semiconductors and microprocessor chips.
Researchers have already used “nanogaps” to measure electrical charge through several coupled nanocrystals, which are also referred to as quantum dots.
This research was funded through grants from the National Science Foundation (NSF), the Office of Naval Research and the American Chemical Society.
"A number of people have proposed nanoelectronic devices that use nanogaps, but nobody has been able to create nanogaps reliably in practice," said Marija Drndic, an assistant professor in Penn's Department of Physics and Astronomy in the School of Arts and Sciences, in a statement.
"For the first time, we were able to make the world's smallest and cleanest nanometer gaps that can be imaged directly with atomic resolution,” Drndic said. “These nanogaps can be used to electrically connect small objects, such as an individual molecule."
To create these gaps, the university used electron-beam lithography. Their research succeeded where previous efforts failed because of the type of surface they used, that is, thin layers of silicon nitride.
"Electon beam lithography works on small scale, but it is limited down to about 10 nanometers." Drndic said. "It is not like drawing a line on a page; as an electron beam hits a material the electrons tend to scatter forward and backward, which makes it difficult to create tiny lines."
While other researchers focused on breaking small wires to create nanogaps, similar to how a fuse can be popped open, the Penn researchers went the opposite route, making the gaps directly.
How Enterprises Are Attacking the IT Security EnterpriseTo learn more about what organizations are doing to tackle attacks and threats we surveyed a group of 300 IT and infosec professionals to find out what their biggest IT security challenges are and what they're doing to defend against today's threats. Download the report to see what they're saying.
Infographic: The State of DevOps in 2017Is DevOps helping organizations reduce costs and time-to-market for software releases? What's getting in the way of DevOps adoption? Find out in this InformationWeek and Interop ITX infographic on the state of DevOps in 2017.
IT Strategies to Conquer the CloudChances are your organization is adopting cloud computing in one way or another -- or in multiple ways. Understanding the skills you need and how cloud affects IT operations and networking will help you adapt.