China has a thousand-year history, between isolationism, revolutions and an unparalleled economic boom. Today the country plays the card of technological innovation. Could this path get out of hand?
China: a huge nation, with almost a billion and a half people, isolated for millennia behind the Great Wall. A country whose dizzying rise in the last 20 years has led many to think that it could soon become the world’s biggest economic power. Between extraordinary hi-tech drives and a rigid political conservatism, China has found a way to renew its isolationism behind the Great Firewall.
It has not always been like this, however, if we think that China has rarely been what we might today consider a united nation. Even more, if we consider that it had a third-world economic development from the end of the XIX century until the nineties. An economic development that, in the context of a phenomenon known as “The Great Divergence”, saw the exponential explosion of Western countries, leaving the Asian ones at the stake, with only Japan as the faint exception.
China’s history is the history of a complex country, used to be a world leader in science and innovation in general until the XVII century. Innovations such as the four great inventions (the compass, movable type printing, paper, gunpowder), crucial in the subsequent development of Asia and Europe are, in fact, Chinese.
However, if we are to understand at least some of contemporary China, a brief recap of its recent history is needed. Between 1912 and 1950 China remained stuck in a long civil war, between the nationalist party Kuomintang and the Communist party. Before this civil war, China had been governed for millennia by the dynasties, whose political and religious doctrine was enough to justify their existence. However, it took only half a century to change the Chinese political and cultural structure forever, with a transformation from a third world economy to a centralized industrial power.
From the fall of the Qing Empire to Mao’s Socialism
In the nineteenth century, under the Qing dynasty, the English “opened” (euphemism) the way to the East with the two Opium Wars, which effectively forced open the Chinese trade to foreign powers, including the United States and Japan.
Given the inadequacy of the Qing to cope with the situation, some regions became self-sufficient entities locally controlled, effectively weakening the dynasty even further. Others demanded a strengthening and a modernization, something that the Qings were not able to implement anyway.
The fall of the Qing
After the first Sino-Japanese War in 1894, the definitive degradation of the Qing dynasty began. The occupations and looting by the foreign powers, which also participated in Italy, aroused a strong feeling against anything Western sounded, leading to the rebellion of the Boxer. The consequences of this rebellion were dramatic, leading to the occupation and partition of China.
With the rise of the twentieth century, Sun Yat-Sen sought to exploit the weakness of a dynasty led by a newborn, to overthrow the Qing with a revolution based on the principles of nationalism, democracy, and social welfare. Under this banner, a series of revolts broke out across China, revolts that were also joined by the army. The Qing were overthrown, General Yuan Shikai became the president of the new People’s Republic of China. But Yuan Shikai was a soldier, and unfortunately, he failed to have any substantial impact in the unity of the country. When he died, regionalism rose to such an extent that it gave birth to the era of the Warlords, which immobilized China for two decades.
The united fronts and the civil war
The Treaty of Versailles at the end of the First World War did not just plant the seeds of Nazism in Europe. In fact, it assigned the ex-territories of defeated Germany to Japan, triggering a series of revolts of the population demanding the abolition of old traditions, the defeat of Japanese imperialism and the creation of a new united China. This led the nationalist party of Sun Yat-Sen (known as Kuomintang), and the CCP to form the First United Front to defeat the Warlords. Sun’s death, however, did not help the unification process: the united front succeeded in getting rid of the Warlords, but the tensions of two opposing philosophies did not take long to break out.
The nationalists started the “white terror”, with several massacres aimed at the annihilation of the communists. This, in fact, sparked a civil war that lasted more than ten years, forcing the communists to a very long escape of almost 9000 km, known with the name of Long March, led by Mao Zedong. Although with serious losses, the guerrilla tactics carried out by Mao managed to wear down the nationalists, and after the second Sino-Japanese war in 1937, they accepted the constitution of a second united front.
The end of the civil war and the “Great Leap Forward”
The nationalists controlled most of the cities, so it was them who suffered most of the Japanese offensives during the Second World War and Mao took the opportunity to consolidate his popularity. The Kuomintang chased the Soviets out of Manchuria but was later forced to surrender to Mao’s exhausting guerrilla warfare. Once taken Manchuria, the balance had been shifted in favor of the CCP, and on October 1, 1949, Mao proclaimed the birth of the People’s Republic of China in Beijing.
However, Kruschev’s 1956 speech on the cult of personality and the subsequent de-Stalinization of the Soviet Union led Mao to launch the “Great leap forward“, in order to accelerate technological progress, mostly at the expense of agriculture. Unfortunately, the outcomes of a policy that was, to say the least, ill-conceived were catastrophic, leading to an unprecedented famine , and Mao’s role in the party was cut down. To regain control, Mao decided to “purify” the country and the party from the counter-revolutionaries, accusing them of being followers of capitalism and launched the Great Cultural Revolution. What followed was a period of purges and violence, probably one of the bloodiest in all of Chinese history.
The cultural revolution ended in 1976 with the death of Mao, but the consequences of a disastrous economic development remained, generating social frictions that resulted in the incident of June 4th in Tiananmen Square, where thousands of protesting students were massacred by the army. The limitations on the freedom of expression that followed are the basis of the restrictions that lasts to this day.
Isolationism in our day: the Great Firewall
China has a long history of isolationism by the construction of the Great Wall. Today, in the Internet age, things could not be that different, especially under a socialist regime. In contrast to the situation in North Korea, where the internal network is completely disconnected from the rest of the Internet, China implemented the Chinese Great Firewall, which was finally put into operation in 2006 (detailed discussion in the video below).
In fact, all “external” Internet services, such as Facebook or YouTube, are blocked in China. Not only that, after a long period of “whack-a-mole” style pursuits, the government has taken a more radical approach by asking all VPN providers to open their services only to the internal network, starting on February.
This censorship, while on one hand has become increasingly effective in isolating internal content from the global network, also had the side effect of favor the flourishing of a whole set of technologies and platforms, in many ways unique in the world.
In fact, practically all those services have been somewhat replicated in China, while taking a different evolutionary path. For example, instead of Google, China has Baidu as the official search engine, instead of Google Maps there is Baidu Map, Ebay’s place was taken by Alibaba, while Xiaomi would be the Chinese version of Apple (the list goes on).
Not only that, but tools like Weibo, with its more than 300 million microbloggers has become a powerful political tool, and in fact, it is now the reference social media platform. So much so that if something is not mentioned on Weibo, in fact it is like if it did not exist.
The main issue of Chinese digital censorship is not so much the exclusion of foreign technologies, but the government’s effort to maintain data centralization. For this reason, having the servers off-shore was considered unacceptable.
The interesting aspect is that this situation has strongly stimulated the internal market to produce platforms that, although in the spirit copied from American companies, are still developed and maintained in China. These “copied” companies have generated highly innovative products and are becoming points of reference. This phenomenon is spreading so much so that for example Tokopedia, the e-commerce platform no.1 in Indonesia, defines itself “the Indonesian Taobao“, and the Indian Snapdeal is nicknamed “the Alibaba of India”.
Another side effect is that, since all data is centralized in Beijing and accessible only to the central government, local governments can not access it. The consequence is that in case of protests due to poor management, the local governors cannot help but apologize and make adjustments.
From manufacturing to hi-tech: the risks of a new “Leap Forward”
As we have seen, the effects of Mao’s Great Leap Forward were a strong emphasis on the development of manufacturing and heavy industry, which have led to overwhelming environmental damage over time. In the last 30 years, however, the development of manufacturing, together with a very low labor cost, has contributed to the explosive rise of the Chinese economy, generating an exodus from the countryside of almost 200 million peasants with the mirage of a smoother life.
But manufacturing and heavy industry have now exhausted the boost and the Chinese economy has begun to slow down, highlighting the effects of decades of waste. The housing bubble has grown exponentially, along with the national debt, with literally dozens of huge ghost towns, that were built and then abandoned.
A reform law for high-tech
Xi Jinping’s government finally recognized the problem and started a new development plan, abandoning manufacturing and focusing on hi-tech. The program includes investments and development in areas such as precision agriculture, railways and high-tech vessels, biopharmacology, green technologies, aerospace industry. Of course, all of these areas considered also in the context of the applications of Artificial Intelligence.
A “leap forward” towards high technology, therefore, drastically reducing the role of manufacturing and heavy industry, while people who were working in those industries found themselves without work and literally “forgotten” on the sidelines of the society.
Does it sound familiar? Maybe.
Shadow Banking: the struggles of the institutional banks and the explosion of private lenders
Today in China more than 12 thousand start-ups are founded every day: a technological development with a dazzling rhythm, which could disregard loans to privates. The model of state-owned banks, however, designed to support a few state-owned industries and large-scale joint-ventures, was too rigid to keep up.
The solution was to channel funds from private investors through private investment companies, creating a Shadow Banking industry worth 70 trillion dollars.
Not just isolationism: the “gold rush” in Africa
China’s recent history not only speaks of isolation and overbuilding but also of huge investments in Africa, where China is pumping billions in the name of “mutual prosperity”. We can say that China (India is rushing in the business too) is slowly building Africa of the future, and what made the difference compared to 500 years of Western presence, especially in the eyes of Africans, was the partner-like approach rather than a colonialist one.
Where the West has never gone further than the mere shipment of surpluses for basic necessities, China has invested in infrastructure to also help develop the continent. The perception of the Chinese by Africans is evident by looking at the statistics of AfroBarometer.
Technological leadership: not just Baidu and Alibaba
While Baidu and Alibaba are among the most successful names in the Chinese technology industry, there is much more. Below are some prominent examples.
Wechat and mobile payment
Wechat is the icon of the development “caused” by the big firewall we talked about before. It was born as an alternative to applications such as Skype and WhatsApp, it became a container that can handle everything: from chats to payments, from calling a taxi to the reservation of train sit. For payments, it quickly became the reference platform in China, where cash is disappearing and credit cards have never taken root, to the point that even beggars are showing their QR code on the alms jar.
While having everything in hand in the same app is undoubtedly an attractive convenience, on the other hand, an incredible concentration of citizens’ personal data is being created: what they buy, what they read, which places they go, where they live…
It is not difficult to imagine that this model could be a temptation for our own social media, like Facebook or Google. This too could become part of the “reverse shanzhai” phenomenon, that is, the counterculture for which gradually the platforms born as clones in China gradually become reference points which in turn are copied abroad.
Agriculture: Greening the deserts
Israel is not the only country to invest in technologies to work the desertified land. China was the first country to approve, in 2002, a specific law to fight desertification, managing to transform more than 200 hectares of dunes into fertile soil.
The first quantum satellite, launched by the University of Science and Technology of China in 2016, managed to complete the first quantum transmission. This could ultimately give rise to the much-hyped hack-proof quantum networks.
From the “Made in China” copies to the innovation commitment
In the last 30 years, “Made in China” has always been synonymous with low-quality economic copies. The lack of innovation is only partly related to the middle class’ low propensity to risk. A BBC survey shows that the Chinese know how to think outside the box as anyone else, even if until now the educational structure and government policies has not been encouraging innovation.
But things are changing rapidly…
 K. Pomeranz: The great divergence. China, Europe and the birth of the modern world economy. [Il Mulino, 2012]
 In reality, more than trade, we can speak of real exploitation.
 Pu-Yi was only two years old when he was crowned emperor in 1908.
 In fact, many farmers were “reconverted” to industrial production to increase production, while the intellectuals were forced to work in the fields to “taste the true reality of China”. The result was industrial machines maneuvered by inexperienced peasants, and fields worked by intellectuals.
 It is estimated that the famine due to the great leap forward caused the death of more than 30 million Chinese.


EU transport policy deals with issues that affect all EU countries - road and air traffic congestion, oil dependency and greenhouse gas emissions. It provides funding to bring transport infrastructure up to the same standard EU-wide. Another concern is enabling Europe's transport sector to compete on the fast-developing global market.
As our societies become ever more mobile, EU policy seeks to help our transport systems meet the major challenges facing them:
New high-speed rail routes across the EU - safe, comfortable & environment-friendly
For an overview of transport statistics, see: Transport scoreboard
Transport infographics:EU transport in figures: statistical pocketbook
Thanks to EU policy, the last 20 years have seen considerable progress in Europe's transport sector:
Road – Lorries can now operate in countries other than their country of origin, and so no longer return empty on international journeys. This new flexibility encourages competition, drives up the quality of both freight and passenger services, cuts costs and makes journeys more efficient, thereby reducing pollution. Uniform technical standards have also improved safety levels.
Air – Flying is becoming easier and cheaper, with new airlines, more routes and hundreds of services connecting large numbers of airports across Europe. The EU's Single European Sky will help that trend continue. "Open skies" agreements allow any EU airline to fly from any EU airport to a city in another country. These agreements also exist with the US, Canada, Israel, the Western Balkans, Morocco, Jordan, Georgia and Moldova – and more are on the way.
Rail – Any licensed rail company can now offer its services anywhere in the EU. The high-speed rail network has expanded rapidly in recent years, saving passengers time and money. Further improvements are on the way.
Maritime – 75% of Europe’s trade with other countries and 40% of freight within Europe is moved by sea, and some 400 million passengers use European waterways every year. Opening up the maritime market has allowed shipping companies to operate and move freely in countries other than their country of origin. In 2014 the Council and the European Parliament agreed to promote by 2025 the development of a core network of liquefied natural gas refuelling points at the key maritime ports making up the trans-European network, plus shore-side electricity supply.
EU travellers' interests are protected by a wide range of passenger rights.
London - the first capital to charge motorists for entering its central district.
The EU supports research and the effective deployment of new green transport technologies. New EU legislation will expand the number of alternative refuelling points across Europe by setting out uniform standards for their design and use, including a standard plug for recharging electric vehicles.
A key aim of the EU's Trans-European Networks policy is to establish a network of different means of transport, thus linking major cities and bringing the EU's western and eastern regions closer together. Other important aims are to help even out gaps in prosperity and limit climate change.
Transport infrastructure is funded by the Connecting Europe Facility (CEF), which has a budget of up to €50 bn for 2014-2020. This will help create efficient, sustainable and properly integrated trans-European networks for transport, energy, broadband, and digital services.
In addition to public funding, we need a new approach to transport charges to create a fair financial environment, reflecting the "polluter pays" and "user pays" principles.
Updated in November 2014
This publication is part of the 'European Union explained' series


To mark Easter I have decided to share some photos of the carvings of the Crucifixion & Resurrection of Christ found on Irish Sculpture dating to the Early and Late Medieval period. This imagery was popular in medieval times, for Christian believers, ‘Christ’s suffering and death brought the promise of redemption a theme emphasised by the crucifixion’ (Stalley 1996, 16).
One of the earliest representations of the Crucifixion is found on a 9th/10th century cross slab on the island of Inishkea North, off the coast of County Mayo. The slab depicts the figure of a triumphant Christ nailed to the cross, with a wide smiling on his face.
Many early medieval High Crosses incorporate scenes of the Crucifixion, usually located at the centre of the cross as at the Durrow High Cross in Co Offaly. The majority depict two soldiers, Stephaton and Longinus, on either side of the Christ figure, one offering vinegar to the dying Christ, the other piercing his side with a lance.
Or Muiredach’s High Cross Monasterboise, Co Louth, created in the 9th/10th century. On both crosses the lance-bearer and sponge-bearer are placed on either side of Christ.
The Crucifixion is also found on the shaft of the 8th century Moone High Cross, Co Kildare. The Christ figure is dressed in a long robe.
Below is the Dysert O’Dea High Cross from Co Clare. It dates to the twelfth century and belongs to the later Romanesque series of crosses dominated by high relief figures of the crucifixion and bishops or patrons. Christ is depicted in a robe with a pleated skirt with his hands out stretched.
Late Medieval Cross at holy wells
One of my favourite crosses dates to the late medieval period and is found at St Ciaran’s holy well at Clonmacnoise Co Offaly. It has a simple figure of Christ and the inscription over head reading ‘Repent and do penance’. It is part of the modern pilgrim stations at the holy well.
Late Medieval Tombs
In late medieval Ireland the Crucifixion often appears on funerary monuments such as chest tombs.
A fine example is found as part of the Creagh Tomb at Ennis Friary. The Creagh Tomb was built in 1843 but it incorporates parts of earlier medieval tombs from the Friary. The Office of Public Works are carrying out conservation work on the Creagh Tomb and part of the Friary. The panels are currently on display at Ennis Friary which is open to the public. I highly recommend a visit to the Friary which is full of many interesting features.
The bottom of the monument incorporates the ‘passion panels’ from the McMahon tomb and depictions of Christ and twelve apostles taken from another royal tomb.
The Betrayal of Christ- the panel depicts the figure of an archbishop alongside a scene depicting the betrayal of Christ. Judas can be seen in the centre of the panel betraying Christ with a kiss. Peter stands on the left sheathing sword. Malchus, a Roman soldier, is on the ground below him holding his left ear with his right hand. According to the Gospels Peter attempted to prevent Christ’s arrest by attacking one of the soldiers and cutting off his ear with a sword. Christ miraculously restored the soldiers ear and condemned the action saying: “All who take the sword will perish by the sword”.
The Flagellation of Christ – Pontius Pilate, the Roman governor of Judea, ordered scourging of Christ before crucifixion. In this depiction, Christ embraces a column with his hands bound. There are four executioners, two on either side of the central figure. Each hold scourges of three knotted lashes.
The Crucifixion the panel shows Christ in the center on a cross surrounded on either side and at the foot of the cross by a host of angels. Roman soldiers appear to the left and right of the panel. The soldier Longinus on the left is piercing Christs side with a spear. At the base of the cross four figures the Blessed Virgin, St John, Mary Magdalene and another male figure. Two angels hold chalices under the hands of Christ and two more kneel at the base of the cross.
The Entombment of Christ – on the evening of the Crucifixion, Joseph of Arimathea asked Pilate for Christ’s body wrapped it in a linen cloth and laid it in a tomb. Some Christian traditions hold that Joseph was Jesus’ uncle – but the gospel of Mark, states that Joseph was not a follower of Jesus, but a pious Jew who wished to ensure that the body was buried in accordance with Jewish law, according to which bodies could not be left exposed overnight. The figure on the left overseeing the entombment is thought to represent Joseph of Aramathea and the tiny figure kneeling holding Christs hand is thought to represent Mary Magdelene.
The Resurrection of Christ – Christ is depicted emerging from the tomb stepping on a sleeping solider. His right hand is held aloft in blessing and in his left hand he holds a cross which has a banner affixed. The Roman soldiers are dressed in medieval armor.
Another very interesting depiction of the Resurrection of Christ is found on a 16th century tomb at St. James Church, Athboy, County Meath. Christ is shown stepping from the tomb on to a sleeping soldier. Two soldiers stand within the tomb on either side of the Christ. The Christ figure holds a cross in his left hand and his right hand is raised in blessing.
A 16th century example of the Crucifixion is found in the North wall of South Chapel of the North Transept of the Cathedral Church at the Rock of Cashel Co Tipperary. Christ with a sorrowful expression is shown nailed to the cross wearing a crown of thorn. Mary stands with clasped hands on the left hand-side of the cross. She is dressed in a pleated dress with an Irish style mantle known as a brat pulled up over her head. St John stands on the right hand side of the cross. He is also wearing pleated garment and mantle, his right hand is raised to his face in a gesture of sorrow.
In the North side of the chancel of Holy Cross Abbey in Co Tipperary, an end slab of a chest tomb is built into the wall under the existing mensa. The scene depicts Christ flanked on either side by St John and Mary within ogee-headed niches. St John has been broken off the panel. Mary stands with her hands joined in prayer with her hair loose over her shoulders.
Have a very Happy Easter everyone.
Hunt, J. Irish Medieval Figure Sculpture. Vol.1. Dublin: Irish University Press.
Stalley, R. 1996. Irish High Crosses. Dublin: County House.
Ennis Friary Facebook page and information boards.
To find out more about Ennis Friary Check out their Facebook Pagehttps://www.facebook.com/ennisfriary?fref=photo


2 edition of Census methods for murres, Uria species found in the catalog.
Census methods for murres, Uria species
T. R. Birkhead
|Statement||T. R. Birkhead; D. N. Nettleship.|
|Series||Canadian Wildlife Service. Occasional paper -- no. 43., Occasional paper (Canadian Wildlife Service) -- no. 43.|
|Contributions||Nettleship, David N.|
|The Physical Object|
|Pagination||25 p. :|
|Number of Pages||25|
The living world Volume 1; containing descriptions of the several races of men, and all species of animals, birds, fishes, insects, etc., etc. With reasoning powers and domestic habits [Arnold, Augustus C. L.] on *FREE* shipping on qualifying offers. The living world Volume 1; containing descriptions of the several races of men, and all species of animals, birds. First, many communities seldom, if ever, attain an equilibrium number of species. Both natural and anthropogenic disturbances like hurricanes, volcanic eruptions, and clear-cutting can remove species and open up habitat. Evolution can add species to either the .
Most interesting, perhaps is the compelling evidence suggesting that Murres/Guillemots (Uria sp.) are hosts for IAV. Research to investigate IAV in murres dates back to the s, and interest in these birds has been renewed with increased sampling effort in the past 10 years. Movements of Common Uria aalge and Brfiunnich's Guillemots U. lomvia breeding in the southern Barents Sea. Fauna Norvegica, Serial C, Cinclus 0yan, H. S. and T. Anker-Nilssen. Allo-cation of growth in food-stressed Atlantic Puffin chicks. Auk Rodway, M. S. and W. A. Montevecchi. Sampling methods for assessing.
A preliminary account of the North American species of Leccinum, sections Luteoscabra and Scabra (Michigan botanist) [Alexander Hanchett Smith] on *FREE* shipping on qualifying offers. Waterbird communities are potential indicators of ecological changes in threatened wetland ecosystems and consequently, a potential object of ecological monitoring programs. Waterbirds often breed in largely inaccessible colonies in flooded habitats, so unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) surveys provide a robust method for estimating their breeding population by: 6.
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Get this Census methods for murres a library. Census methods for murres, Uria species: a unified approach. [T R Birkhead; David N Nettleship]. Click here for more information about the Red List categories and criteria Justification of Red List category This species has an extremely large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence.
Interannual repeatability of eggshell phenotype in individual female Common Murres (Uria aalge) Canadian Journal of Zoology,97(4):Nettleship DN. Census methods for murres Uria species—a unified approach. Can. Wildl. Serv. Occas. Pap. 43 Author: Mark Erno Hauber, Alec Luro, C.
McCarty, Ketti Barateli, Phillip Cassey, Erpur S. Hansen, James D. Book review Full text access Oil-spill chemicals: a bibliography on the nature, application, effects and testing of chemicals used against oil spilled in the marine environment: Prepared by A.
Nelson-Smith, ISBN 0 01 X. International Petroleum Industry. correction factors (k values) when converting counts of individual Common Guillemots Uria aalge to breeding pairs, Bird Study, DOI: / T o link to this article: http.
Census methods for murres Uria species — a unified approach. Canadian Wildlife Service Occas. Paper No. 1– Canadian Wildlife Service Occas. Paper No. 1– Google ScholarCited by: 4. The murres; their distribution, populations and biology; a study of the genus Uria by Tuck, Leslie M., [from old catalog]Pages: Interannual repeatability of eggshell phenotype in individual female Common Murres (Uria aalge) Census methods for murres Uria.
we analyzed images of eggs laid by four alcid species. Publications advanced search. Publication Type. CURRENT LITERATURE1,2 Acid Rainwatch. A newsletter published by the Natl. Clean Air Coalition, 7th St. E., Washington, DC $/yr.
Abstract. Estimating age-specific vital rates and determining which of them have the greatest influence on population trajectory is very useful for conservatioCited by: Census methods for murres, Uria species: a unified approach.
Canadian Wildlife Service Occasional Paper Number 1– Canadian Wildlife Service Occasional Paper Number 1– Google ScholarCited by: 2. Extreme reduction in nutritional value of a key forage fish during the Pacific marine heatwave of – Pacific sand lance Ammodytes personatus are a key forage fish in the North Pacific for many species of salmon, groundfish, seabirds, and marine mammals and have historically been important to predators in relatively warm years.
The number and proportion of people living in urban areas are increasing rapidly (Table ).Between andthere was an increase in urban land area of million ha globally (Seto et al., ).Between andmillion ha was urbanized in China alone (World Bank Group, ).The terms urbanization and urban areas are not necessarily consistently employed with an Cited by: 4.
Extreme mortality and reproductive failure of common murres resulting from the northeast Pacific marine heatwave of Ab dead or dying common murres (Uria aalge), the trophically dominant fish-eating seabird of the North Pacific, washed ashore between summer and spring on beaches from California to Alaska.
This banner text can have markup. web; books; video; audio; software; images; Toggle navigation. BIOLOGY OF HIGHER TROPHIC LEVELS 72 4 Biology of Higher Trophic Levels The Bering Sea contains many bird, mammal, and commercially important fish and invertebrate species.
The Bering Sea ecosystem can be divided into five major regions: the eastern Bering Sea, the Aleutian Islands, the Gulf of Alaska, the Aleutian Basin, and the western Bering Sea. Mass mortality events are increasing in frequency and magnitude, potentially linked with ongoing climate change.
In October through JanuarySt. Paul Island, Bering Sea, Alaska, experienced a mortality event of alcids (family: Alcidae), with over carcasses recovered. Almost three-quarters of the carcasses were unscavenged, a rate much higher than in baseline surveys (17% Cited by: 3.
Hauber ME, Luro A, McCarty CJ, Barateli K, Cassey P, Hansen E, Dale J () Interannual repeatability of eggshell phenotype in individual female Common Murres (Uria aalge).
Canadian Journal of Zoology * "On the Tendency of Species to form Varieties; and on the Perpetuation of Varieties and Species by Natural Means of Selection" is the title of a journal article, comprising and resulting from the joint presentation of two scientific papers to the Linnean Society of London on 1 July On The Tendency of Varieties to Depart Indefinitely from the.
Journal of Wildlife Management publishes on wildlife science such as investigations into the biology/ecology of wildlife that has implications for conservation.Seabird colonies occur exclusively for the purpose of breeding; non-breeding birds will only collect together outside the breeding season in areas where prey species are densely aggregated.
Seabird colonies are highly variable. Individual nesting sites can be widely spaced, as in an albatross colony, or densely packed as with a murre colony. The really hot bird news in the United States is the presence of a White-crested Elaenia on Texas' South Padre Island.
This is the first time this species has been seen in .


The Fourfold Gospel
3:1 Now in the fifteenth year of the reign1 of Tiberius Caesar2, Pontius Pilate3 being governor of Judaea4, and Herod5 being tetrarch6 of Galilee7, and his brother8 Philip9 tetrarch of the region of Ituraea10 and Trachonitis11, and Lysanias12 tetrarch of Abilene13,
JOHN THE BAPTIST'S PERSON AND PREACHING.
(In the wilderness of Judea, and on the banks of the Jordan,
occupying several months, probably A.D. 25 or 26.)
Matthew 3:1-12; Mark 1:1-8; Luke 3:1-18
- Now in the fifteenth year of the reign. Tiberius Caesar, stepson of and successor to Augustus, began to reign as joint ruler with
Augustus in August, A.U.C. 765 (A.D. 11). On August 19, 767, Augustus
died and Tiberius became sole ruler. Luke counts from the beginning of
the joint rule, and his fifteen years bring us to 779. In August, 779,
Tiberius began his fifteenth year, and about December of that year
Jesus would have completed his thirtieth year.
- Of Tiberius Caesar. He was born B.C. 41, died March 16, A.D. 37. As a citizen he distinguished himself as orator, soldier, and public
official. But as emperor he was slothful, self-indulgent, indescribably
licentious, vindictive, and cruel. He was a master of dissimulation and
cunning, and was a veritable scourge to his people. But he still found
flatterers even in Palestine, Caesarea Philippi, and the town Tiberias
being named for him.
- Pontius Pilate. See mention of him in account of our Lord's trial.
- Being governor of Judaea. The province of Judea was subdued by Pompey and brought under Roman control in B.C. 63. Its history from
that date till the governorship of Pilate can be found in Josephus.
- And Herod. Also called Antipas. The ruler who murdered John the Baptist and who assisted at the trial of Jesus.
- Being tetrarch. This word means properly the ruler of a fourth part of a country, but was used loosely for any petty tributary prince.
- Of Galilee. This province lay north of Samaria, and measured about twenty-five miles from north to south, and twenty-seven miles from east
to west. It was a rich and fertile country.
- His brother. His half-brother.
- Philip. He was distinguished by justice and moderation, the one decent man in the Herodian family. He married Salome, who obtained John
the Baptist's head for a dance. He built Caesarea Philippi, and
transformed Bethsaida Julius from a village to a city, and died there
A.D. 44. After his death his domains became part of the Roman province
- Tetrarch of the region of Ituraea. A district thirty miles long by twenty-five broad, lying north of Batanea, east of Mt. Hermon, west
of Trachonitis. It received its name from Jetur, son of Ishmael
(Genesis 25:15). Its Ishmaelite inhabitants were conquered by Aristobulus,
king of Judea, B.C. 100, and forced by him to accept the Jewish faith.
They were marauders, and famous for the use of the bow.
- And Trachonitis. A district about twenty-two miles from north to south by fourteen from east to west. Its name means "rough" or "stony",
and it amply deserves it. It lies between Iturea and the desert, and
has been infested with robbers from the earliest ages. It is called the
Argob in the Old Testament (Deuteronomy 3:4,13,14; 1 Kings 4:13; 2 Kings 15:25),
"an ocean of basaltic rock and boulders, tossed about in the
wildest confusion, and intermingled with fissures and
crevices in every direction."
- And Lysanias. Profane history gives us no account of this man. It tells of a Lysanias, king of Chalcis, under Mt. Lebanon, who was put to
death by Mark Antony, B.C. 36, or sixty-odd years before this, and
another who was tetrarch of Abilene in the reigns of Caligula and
Claudius twenty years after this. He probably was son of the first and
father of the second.
- Tetrarch of Abilene. The city of Abila (which comes from the word "abel", meaning "meadow") is eighteen miles from Damascus and thirty-
eight from Baalbec. The province laying about it is mentioned because
it subsequently formed part of the Jewish territory, being given to
Herod Agrippa I by Emperor Claudius about A.D. 41.
3:2 in the highpriesthood of Annas and Caiaphas1, the word of God came unto John the son of Zacharias2 in the wilderness3.
- In the highpriesthood of Annas and Caiaphas. Annas had been high priest 7-14 A.D., when he was deposed by the procurator, Gratus.
Caiaphas was son-in-law of and successor to Annas. Luke gives both
names, one as the rightful and the other as the acting high priest.
Compare Acts 4:6. Gentile innovations had made sad havoc with the
Jewish law as to this office. In the last 107 years of the temple's
existence there were no less than twenty-eight high priests. Luke is
the only one who fixes the time when Jesus began his ministry. He
locates it by emperor and governor, tetrarch and high priest, as an
even of world-wide importance, and of concern to all the kingdoms of
men. He conceives of it as Paul did (Acts 26:26).
- The word of God came unto John the son of Zacharias. The divine commission which bade John enter his career as a prophet (Jeremiah 1:2
Ezekiel 6:1). Prophets gave temporary and limited manifestations of God's
will (Hebrews 1:1,2). Jesus is the everlasting and unlimited manifestation
of the divine purpose and of the very Godhead (John 14:9; John 12:45; Colossians 1:15
Hebrews 1:3; 2 Corinthians 4:6).
- In the wilderness. The wilderness of Judea is that almost uninhabitable mass of barren ridges extending the whole length of the
Dead Sea, and a few miles further north. It is from five to ten miles
3:3 And he came1 into all the region round about the Jordan, preaching the baptism of repentance unto remission of sins;
- And he came. He made his public appearance, and, like that of Elijah, it was a sudden one (1 Kings 17:1).
- Into all the country about Jordan. The Jordan valley is called in the Old Testament the Arabah, and by the modern Arabs the Ghor. It is
the deepest valley in the world, its lowest part being about 1,300 feet
below the level of the ocean.
- Preaching the baptism of repentance unto the remission of sins. As a change leading to remission or forgiveness of sins.
3:4 as it is written in the book of the words of Isaiah the prophet1, The voice2 of one crying in the wilderness, Make ye ready the way of the Lord, Make his paths straight.
- Isaiah the prophet. Isaiah flourished from about 759 to 699 B.C.
- The voice, etc. See Mark 1:3.
3:5 Every valley shall be filled1, And every mountain and hill shall be brought low; And the crooked shall become straight, And the rough ways smooth;
- Every valley shall be filled, etc. The literal meaning of this passage is expressed in Isaiah 2:12-17. See also Zechariah 4:7.
Commentators give detailed application of this prophecy, and, following
their example, we may regard the Pharisees and Sadducees as mountains
of self-righteousness, needing to be thrown down, and thereby brought
to meekness and humility; the outcasts and harlots as valleys of
humiliation, needing to be exalted and filled with hope; and the
publicans and soldiers as crooked and rough byways, needing to be
straightened and smoothed with proper details of righteousness. But the
application is general, and not to be limited to such details.
However, civil tyranny, and ecclesiastical pride must be leveled, and
the rights of the common people must be exalted before for kingdom of
God can enter in.
3:6 And all flesh shall see the salvation of God1.
- And all flesh shall see the salvation of God. This last clause of the prophecy is added by Luke alone. He loves to dwell upon the
universality of Christ's Gospel.
3:7 He said therefore to the multitudes1 that went out to be baptized of him, Ye offspring of vipers2, who warned you to flee3 from the wrath to come4?
- He said therefore to the multitudes. See Matthew 3:7.
- Ye offspring of vipers. A metaphor for their "likeness" to vipers-- as like them as if they had been begotten of them. The viper was a
species of serpent from two to five feet in length, and about one inch
thick. Its head is flat, and its body a yellowish color, speckled with
long brown spots. It is extremely poisonous (Acts 28:6). John here
uses the word figuratively, and probably borrows the figure from
(Isaiah 59:5). It means that the Jewish rulers were full of guile
and malice, cunning and venom. With these words John gave them a
vigorous shaking, for only thus could he hope to waken their slumbering
consciences. But only one who has had a vision of "the King in his
beauty" should presume thus to address his fellow-men. The serpent is
an emblem of the devil (Genesis 3:1; Revelation 12:9,14,15), and Jesus not only
repeated John's words (Matthew 12:35; Matthew 23:23,33), but he interpreted the
words, and told them plainly that they were "the children of the devil"
(John 8:44). The Jewish rulers well deserved this name, for they
poisoned the religious principles of the nation, and accomplished the
crucifixion of the Son of God.
- Who warned you to flee. John's baptism, like that of Moses at the Red Sea (1 Corinthians 10:2), was a way of escape from destruction, of rightly
used. Christian baptism is also such a way, and whosoever will may
enter thereby into the safety of the kingdom of Christ, but baptism can
not be used as an easy bit of ritual to charm away evil. It must be
accompanied by all the spiritual changes which the ordinance implies.
- From the wrath to come? Prophecy foretold that Messiah's time would be accompanied with wrath (Isaiah 58:3-6; Daniel 7:10-26); but the Jews were
all of the opinion that this wrath would be meted out upon the Gentiles
and were not prepared to hear John apply the prophecy to themselves. To
all his hearers John preached the coming kingdom; to the impenitent, he
preached the coming wrath. Thus he prepared the way for the first
coming of the Messiah, and those who would prepare the people for his
second coming would do well to follow his example. The Bible has a
voice of warning and denunciation, as well as words of invitation and
love. Whosoever omits the warning of the judgment, speaks but half the
message which God would have him deliver. God's wrath is his resentment
against sin (Matthew 18:34; Matthew 22:7; Mark 3:5).
3:8 Bring forth therefore fruits worthy of repentance1, and begin not to say within yourselves2, We have Abraham to our father: for I say unto you, that God is able of these stones to raise up children unto Abraham.
- Bring forth therefore fruits worthy of repentance, etc. See Matthew 3:8.
- And begin not to say within yourselves, etc. See Matthew 3:9.
3:9 And even now the axe also lieth at the root of the trees1: every tree therefore that bringeth not forth good fruit is hewn down, and cast into the fire.
- And even now the axe also lieth at the root of the trees, etc. See Matthew 3:10.
3:10 And the multitudes asked him, saying, What then must we do1?
- What then must we do? This is the cry of the awakened conscience (Acts 2:37; Acts 16:30; Acts 22:10). John answered it by recommended them to do the
very reverse of what they were doing, which, in their case, was true
fruit of repentance.
3:11 And he answered and said unto them, He that hath two coats1, let him impart to him that hath none2; and he that hath food, let him do likewise.
- He that hath two coats. By coats is meant the tunic, or inner garment, worn next to the skin. It reached to the knees, and sometimes
to the ankles, and generally had sleeves. Two tunics were a luxury in a
land where thousands were too poor to own even one. Wrath was coming,
and he that would obtain mercy from it must show mercy (Matthew 5:7).
- Let him impart to him that hath none. For a like precept given to Christians, see 2 Corinthians 8:13-15; James 2:15-17; 1 John 3:17.
3:12 And there came also publicans to be baptized1, and they said unto him, Teacher, what must we do2?
- And there came also publicans to be baptized. The Roman government did not collect its own taxes. Instead of doing so, it divided the
empire into districts, and sold the privilege of collecting the taxes
in these districts to certain capitalists and men of rank. The
capitalists employed agents to do the actual collecting. These agents
were usually native of the districts in which they lived, and those in
Palestine were called publicans. Their masters urged and encouraged
them to make the most fraudulent and vexatious exactions. They
systematically overcharged the people and often brought false
accusation to obtain money by blackmail. These publicans were justly
regarded by the Jews as apostates and traitors, and were classed with
the lowest and most abandoned characters. The system was bad, but its
practitioners were worse. The Greeks regarded the word "publican" as
synonymous with "plunderer". Suidas pictures the life of a publican as
"unrestrained plunder, unblushing greed, unreasonable
pettifogging, shameless business."
The Turks today collect by this Roman method. Being publicly condemned,
and therefore continually kept conscious of their sin, the publicans
repented more readily than the self-righteous Pharisees. Conscience is
one of God's greatest gifts, and he that destroys it must answer for
it. On publicans, also see Matthew 5:46.
- And they said unto him, Teacher, what must we do? The publicans, though lowest down, gave John the highest title. Self-abnegation is
full of the virtue of reverence, but self-righteousness utterly lacks
3:13 And he said unto them, Extort no more than that which is appointed you1.
- Extort no more than that which is appointed you. Such was their habitual, universal sin. No man should make his calling an excuse for
3:14 And soldiers also asked him, saying, And we, what must we do1? And he said unto them, Extort from no man by violence2, neither accuse [any one] wrongfully3; and be content with your wages4.
- And soldiers also asked him, saying, And we, what must we do? These soldiers were probably Jewish troops in the employ of Herod. Had they
been Romans, John would doubtless have told them to worship God.
- And he said unto them, Extort from no man by violence. The soldiers, poorly paid, often found it convenient to extort money by intimidation.
Strong in their organization, they terrified the weak and enforced
gratuities by acts of violence.
- Neither accuse [any one] wrongfully. John here condemns the custom of blackmailing the rich by acting as informers and false accusers
- And be content with your wages. The term "wages" included rations and money. The soldiers were not to add to their receipts by pillage or
extortion. Soldiers' wages were about three cents a day, so they were
exposed to strong temptation. Yet John did not bid them abandon their
profession, and become ascetics like himself. His teachings was
practical. He allowed war as an act of government. Whether Christianity
sanctions it or not, is another question.
3:15 And as the people were in expectation1, and all men reasoned in their hearts concerning John2, whether haply he were the Christ3;
- And as the people were in expectation. Expecting the Christ. See John 1:19-28.
- And all men reasoned in their hearts concerning John. Prophecy induced a Messianic expectation. The scepter had departed from Judah,
and Caesar's deputies ruled. Tetrarchs and procurators held the whole
civil government. In their hands lay the power of life, and death from
which only Roman citizens could appeal (Acts 25:11). The power of the
Jewish courts was limited to excommunication or scourging. The seventy
weeks of Daniel were now expiring, and other prophecies indicated the
fullness of time. But distress, rather than prophecy, enhanced their
expectation. Tiberius, the most infamous of men, governed the world.
Pontius Pilate, insolent, cruel, was making life irksome and maddening
the people. Herod Antipas, by a course of reckless apostasy and
unbridled lust, grieved even the religious sense of the hypocrite.
Annas and Caiaphas, impersonators of materialism, sat in the chief seat
of spiritual power. Men might well look for a deliverer, and hasten
with joy to hear of a coming King.
- Whether haply he were the Christ. But, nevertheless, we could have no more forceful statement of the deep impression made by John's
ministry than that the people were disposed to take him for the Christ.
3:16 John answered, saying unto them all, I indeed baptize you with water; but there cometh he that is mightier than I, the latchet1 of whose shoes I am not worthy to unloose: he shall baptize you in the Holy Spirit and [in] fire3:
- The latchet. The lace or strap. See John 1:27.
- He shall baptize you with the Holy Spirit. See Mark 1:8.
- And [in] fire. See Matthew 3:11.
3:17 whose fan is in his hand1, thoroughly to cleanse his threshing-floor, and to gather the wheat into his garner; but the chaff he will burn up with unquenchable fire.
- Whose fan is in his hand, etc. See Matthew 3:12.
3:18 With many other exhortations1 therefore preached he good tidings unto the people2;
- With many other exhortations. The sermon here given is in the nature of a summary. It embodies the substance of John's preaching. Afterwards
John preached Christ more directly (John 1:29-36).
- Therefore preached he good tidings unto the people. But, like the good tidings of the angel at Bethlehem, it was good only tot hose who,
by repentance, made themselves well pleasing to God.
3:19 but Herod the tetrarch1, being reproved by him2 for Herodias his brother's wife, and for all the evil things which Herod had done3,
JESUS SETS OUT FROM JUDEA FOR GALILEE.
A. REASONS FOR RETIRING TO GALILEE.
Matthew 4:12; Mark 1:14; Luke 3:19,20; John 4:1-4
- But Herod the tetrarch. The son of Herod the Great, and tetrarch, or governor, of Galilee.
- Being reproved by him. That is, by John the Baptist.
- For Herodias his brother's wife, and for all the evil things which Herod had done. A full account of the sin of Herod and persecution
of John will be found at Matthew 14:1-2; Mark 6:14-29. John had spoken the
truth to Herod as fearlessly as to the Pharisees, publicans, and
3:20 added this also to them all1, that he shut up John in prison2.
- Added this also to them all. The sins of Herod, as a ruler, already outweighed his virtues; compare Daniel 5:27. But, with reckless abandon,
Herod went on, adding to the weighty reasons which justified his
- That he shut up John in prison. In the fortress at Machaerus, east of the Dead Sea, as we learn from Josephus. The duration of the
ministry of John the Baptist is variously estimated at from fourteen to
3:21 Now it came to pass, when all the people were baptized, that, Jesus also having been baptized1, and praying2, the heaven was opened3,
JESUS BAPTIZED BY JOHN IN THE JORDAN.
(Jordan east of Jericho, Spring of A.D. 27.)
Matthew 3:13-17; Mark 1:9-11; Luke 3:21,22
- Now it came to pass, when all the people were baptized, that, Jesus also having been baptized. This may mean that, on the day of his
baptism, Jesus was the last candidate, and hence his baptism was the
most conspicuous of all; but it more probably means that Jesus was
baptized in the midst of John's work--at the period when his baptism
was in greatest favor.
- And praying. All divine ordinances should be accompanied by prayer. Luke frequently notes the times when Jesus prayed. Here, at the
entrance of his ministry, he prayed, and at the last moment of it he
also prayed (Luke 23:46). In his highest exultation at the
transfiguration (Luke 9:29), and in the lowest depths of humiliation
in Gethsemane (Luke 22:41), he prayed. He prayed for his apostles
whom he chose (Luke 6:12), and for his murderers by whom he was
rejected (Luke 23:34), He prayed before Peter confessed him
(Luke 9:18), and also before Peter denied him (Luke 22:32).
- The heaven was opened. See Mark 1:10.
3:22 and the Holy Spirit descended in a bodily form1, as a dove2, upon him, and a voice came out of heaven3, Thou art my beloved Son; in thee I am well pleased.
- And the Holy Spirit descended in a bodily form. Lightfoot suggests that the Spirit thus descended that he might be revealed to be a
personal substance and not merely an operation of the Godhead, and
might thus make a sensible demonstration as to his proper place in the
- As a dove. The descent of the Spirit upon Jesus was in accordance with prophecy (Isaiah 11:2; Isaiah 41:1). The dove shape suggests purity,
gentleness, peace, etc. Jesus makes the dove a symbol of harmlessness
(Matthew 10:15). In fact, the nature of this bird makes it a fit emblem
of the Spirit, for it comports well with the fruits of the Spirit
(Galatians 5:22,23). The nations of the earth emblazon eagles upon their
banners and lions upon their shields, but He who shall gather all
nations into his kingdom, appeared as a Lamb, and his Spirit appeared
under the symbol of a dove. Verily his kingdom is not of this world. It
is a kingdom of peace and love, not of bloodshed and ambition. Noah's
dove bore the olive branch, the symbol of peace, and the Holy Spirit
manifested Jesus, God's olive branch of peace sent into this world
(Psalms 72:7; Luke 2:14; John 14:27; Ephesians 2:11-18).
- And a voice came out of heaven, etc. See Mark 1:11.
3:23 And Jesus himself, when he began [to teach]1, was about thirty years of age, 2being the son (as was supposed) of Joseph, the [son] of Heli3,
GENEALOGY ACCORDING TO LUKE.
- And Jesus himself, when he began [to teach]. Luke has been speaking about John the Baptist, he now turns to speak of Jesus himself.
- Was about thirty years of age, About thirty years of age
- . The age when a Levite entered upon God's service (Numbers 4:46,47); at which
Joseph stood before Pharaoh (Genesis 41:46); at which David began to
reign (2 Samuel 5:4). Canon Cook fixes the date of Christ's baptism in
the spring A.U.C. 780. Wiseler in the summer of that year, and Ellicott
in the winter of that year.
- Being the son (as was supposed) of Joseph, the [son] of Heli. This may mean that Jesus was grandson of Heli, or that Joseph was counted as
a son of Heli because he was his son-in-law.
3:27 the [son] of Joanan, the [son] of Rhesa, the [son] of Zerubbabel, the [son] of Shealtiel, the [son] of Neri1,
- Shealtiel, the [son] of Neri. Matthew called Shealtiel the son of Jechoniah. Jechoniah may have been the natural, and Neri the father of
Shealtiel (Deuteronomy 25:5-10; Matthew 22:24).
3:32 the [son] of Jesse, the [son] of Obed, the [son] of Boaz, the [son] of Salmon1, the [son] of Nahshon2,
- Salmon. He was probably one of the two spies who were sent to Jericho by Joshua (Judges 2:1-4).
- Nahshon. He was prince of the tribe of Judah during the wanderings in the wilderness (Numbers 1:4-7; Numbers 10:14).
3:35 the [son] of Serug, the [son] of Reu, the [son] of Peleg, the [son] of Eber1, the [son] of Shelah
- Eber. It is thought that the name "Hebrew" comes from this name (Genesis 10:21; Genesis 40:15; Exodus 2:6).
3:36 the [son] of Cainan, the [son] of Arphaxad, the [son] of Shem, the [son] of Noah1, the [son] of Lamech,
- Noah. The hero of the flood (Genesis 7:6).
3:37 the [son] of Methuselah1, the [son] of Enoch, the [son] of Jared, the [son] of Mahalaleel, the [son] of Cainan,
- Methuselah. Who lived to be the oldest man on record, dying when 969 years old (Genesis 5:27).
3:38 the [son] of Enos, the [son] of Seth1, the [son] of Adam, the [son] of God.
- Seth. The third son of Adam (Genesis 4:25).
- Adam, the son of God. Adam was the son of God, being not merely a creature, but a creature made in God's image and likeness


Top ten rules in the Quran that oppress women
November 13, 2005 James Arlandson
Islam in its purest form honors and elevates women, we are often told. But does it?
All too often, textual reality (the Quran) matches up with the historical reality of seventh—century Arabia. Gender inequality and oppression in the Quran reflect the culture of seventh century desert nomads. If Allah and Muhammad improved on this patriarchy, then they did not go far enough for a religion with a claim to universality.
Here are the top ten rules in the Quran that oppress and insult women.
10. A husband has sex with his wife, as a plow goes into a field.
The Quran in Sura (Chapter) 2:223 says:
We should make no mistake about this verse. It includes sexual positions. In a footnote to this verse, Haleem says that Muslims in Medina heard from the Jews that 'a child born from a woman approached from behind would have a squint.'
The hadith are the reports of Muhammad's words and actions outside of the Quran. Two reliable hadith collectors and editors are Bukhari (d. 870), Muslim (d. 875). The hadith come only second in importance and sacredness among the vast majority of Muslims around the world. Since the hadith is explicit, the readers are invited to click here and read for themselves, at their own discretion: Muslim nos. 3363—3365. See these parallel hadith here and here.
We should have no doubt that the husband controlled their sex life. If a woman does not want to have sex, then angels curse her.
9. Husbands are a degree above their wives.
The Quran in Sura 2:228 says:
Gender inequality shows up in a theological context. This hadith shows that the majority of the inhabitants of hell are women.
This parallel hadith explains that the majority of the inhabitants of hell are women because they are ungrateful and harsh towards their husbands. There is no word about the husbands' ingratitude and harshness. See this article for details on women in Islamic hell.
8. A male gets a double share of the inheritance over that of a female.
The Quran in Sura 4:11 says:
Malik (d. 795) is a founder of a major school of law. He composed a law book that is also considered a collection of reliable hadith: Al—Muwatta of Imam Malik ibn Anas: The First Formation of Islamic Law (rev. trans. Aisha Bewley, Inverness, Scotland: Madina Press, 1989, 2001). Malik writes:
This Islamic law is regressive. In the US, for example, inheritance is divided equally among all siblings, regardless of the gender. No religious law prohibits this from happening. So American secular law fits into a modern context better, where women have more economic opportunities and freedom. This online booklet has a short explanation on women's inheritance 'rights.' Click on Chapter 15.
7. A woman's testimony counts half of a man's testimony.
The Quran in Sura 2:282 says:
The foundational reason for having two women witnesses is that one of the women may 'forget' something. This verse goes to the nature of womankind, and implies that a woman's mind is weak.
This hadith removes any ambiguity about women's abilities in Sura 2:282:
6. A wife may remarry her ex—husband if and only if she marries another man, they have sex, and then this second man divorces her.
The Quran in Sura 2:230 says:
The finally and absolutely divorced couple is not permitted to remarry each other unless she marries another man, they have sex, and he divorces her. Sura 2:230 engenders a divorce on the road to a possible reconciliation. Why have the intervening step of a second marriage and divorce before the first couple can work out their differences and get back together?
To see this tragedy in real life, go to this question and answer feature at a traditional Muslim fatwa website. Apparently, a Muslim husband pronounced divorce three times, the divorce is final, and now he regrets his decision made in haste and anger. The cleric or scholar says that they are allowed to reconcile only if she follows the Quranic steps of her marrying someone else, consummating that marriage, and then his divorcing her. As for divorce generally,
This article analyzes the ethics behind Quranic divorce procedures and contrasts them with the New Testament. This very short article at a Muslim website shows concern for the divorce rate in Islam. This short page at a Muslim website explains divorce. This short article at a Muslim website also gives an overview on divorce, under the larger section on women.
This news report says that problems emerge in the modern world during the Islamic divorce proceedings. This news report says that Malaysia permits 'text messaging' divorce. At this Muslim website an Islamic scholar answers the question of a Muslim who wrote in about divorce. Here is a fatwa (legal decree) on divorce from a Muslim website.
These links can yield only one conclusion: Islamic divorce favors the man.
5. Slave—girls are sexual property for their male owners.
The Quran in Sura 4:24 says:
Sayyid Maududi (d. 1979), a highly respected traditional commentator and scholar, says in his comment on the verse that is it lawful for Muslim holy warriors to marry women prisoners of war even when their husbands are still alive. But what happens if the husbands are captured with their wives? Maududi cites a school of law that says Muslims may not marry them, but two other schools say that the marriage between the captive husbands and wives is broken (note 44). But why would a debate over this cruelty emerge in the first place? No marriage should take place between prisoners of war and their captives, married or not. In fact, no sex should take place between women captives and their Muslim overlords.
Islam allows deep immorality with women who are in their most helpless condition. This crime is reprehensible, but Allah wills it nonetheless—the Quran says so. For more information on this Quran—inspired immorality, see this short article. See also Suras 4:3; 23:5—6; 33:50; 70:22—30, all of which permit male slave—owners to have sex with their slave—girls. Suras 23:5—6 and 70:22—230 allow men to have sex with them in the Meccan period, during times of peace before Muhammad initiated his skirmishes and wars in Medina.
The hadith demonstrate that Muslims jihadists actually have sex with the captured women, whether or not they are married. In the following hadith passage, Khumus is one—fifth of the spoils of war.
Ali, Muhammad's cousin and son—in—law, had just finished a relaxing bath. Why?
What was Muhammad's response to the person who hated Ali for this sexual act?
This hadith shows that Muhammad was intimate with his slave—girls.
Moreover, jihadists may not practice coitus interruptus with the women they capture, but not for the reason that the reader may expect. While on a military campaign and away from their wives, Muslim jihadists 'received captives from among the Arab captives and we desired women and celibacy became hard on us and we loved to do coitus interruptus.' They asked the Prophet about this, and it is important to note what he did not say. He did not scold them or prohibit any kind of sex whatsoever. Rather, he invoked the murky, quirky doctrine of fate:
That is, these enquiring Muslims should stop doing coitus interruptus, but instead go all the way with the enslaved sex objects. Fate controls who should be born.
It is one thing for some soldiers in any army to strike out on their own and rape women. All armies have criminal soldiers who commit this wrong act. But it is quite another to codify rape in a sacred text.
This article quotes the Quran and many hadith passages on sex with prisoners of war. It also analyzes modern Islamic scholars on the topic. They support this practice. In Appendix One, the author answers a Muslim charge that the Old Testament allows this practice. This article provides further details on Muhammad's encouragement to his soldiers to 'just do it.' In addition to the two previous links, more information can be found here and here.
4. A man may be polygamous with up to four wives.
The Quran in Sura 4:3 says:
The clause 'marry those who have fallen in your possession' means slave—girls who were captured after a war. Men may 'marry' them because slaves do not incur very much expense, not as much as free women do. This means that the limit on four wives is artificial. Men could have sex with as many slave—girls as they wanted.
Maududi paraphrases the verse: 'If you need more than one [wife] but are afraid that you might not be able to do justice to your wives from among the free people, you may turn to slave girls because in that case you will be burdened with less responsibilities' (note 6) (See Sura 4:24).
Muhammad's special marriage privileges
Moreover, it seems that Allah gave Muhammad special permission to marry as many women as he desired or take them as slaves or concubines, just as in the pre—Islamic days of ignorance.
The Quran in Sura 33:50, a lengthy verse, grants Muhammad wide latitude in his marriages:
This verse says that besides those women whose dowery Muhammad paid, he may marry slave—girls—that is, he may have sex with them (see this article and this one for more information on this Quran—inspired immorality). Maududi references three slave—girls taken during raids, and Mary the Copt, a gift from an Egyptian ruler. Muhammad had sex with her, and there does not seem to be a political need for this. Second, Muhammad may marry his first cousins, and Maududi cites a case in which this happened. Third, if a believing woman offers herself to Muhammad, and he desires her, then he may marry her (Maududi vol. 4, note 88).
This hadith shows that Muhammad was intimate with his slave—girls.
But the capstone of these 'special' marriages occurs when Muhammad also marries the ex—wife (Zainab) of his adopted son (Zaid). His son—in—law divorced her with the Prophet standing in the background. In fact, early Islamic sources say that Muhammad catches a glimpse of his daughter—in—law in a state of undress, so he desired her. Once the divorce is final, Allah conveniently reveals to him that this marriage between father—in—law and daughter—in—law is legal and moral in Sura 33:36—44.
This hadith says that Muhammad used to visit nine (or eleven) wives in one night. See the parallel hadith here, here, and here. This article explains why Christians do not accept polygamy. This page in an online index explains polygamy. For a more thorough analysis of polygamy in the Quran, go to this online booklet and click on Chapter 12.
See this article on the number of wives and human sexual property Muhammad allowed himself. Here is yet another article. At the end, it links to more articles on the marriage and divorce of Zainab and Muhammad.
3. A husband may simply get rid of one of his undesirable wives.
The Quran in Sura 4:129 says:
Maududi provides an interpretation of the verse (vol. 1, pp. 383—84, note 161). He writes:
This means that wives are the source of a man's inability to treat all of them equally. One is beautiful, while another is ugly. How can Allah demand from a husband super—human strength under changing circumstances in his wives?
Maududi says here that the wife should not be suspended between marriage and divorce. If the husband stays with the no—longer desirable wife, then he should treat her fairly and provide for her.
More detail can be found here. This article (see 'the unpleasant truth behind divorce in Sura 4:130') demonstrates that Muhammad wanted to divorce one of his wives because she was overweight and old. Instead of a divorce, she gave up her turn'in the 'rotation'with the Prophet, who gladly agreed with her proposal. See these three hadith here, here and here
2. Husbands may hit their wives even if the husbands merely fear highhandedness in their wives (quite apart from whether they actually are highhanded).
The Quran in Sura 4:34 says:
The hadith says that Muslim women in the time of Muhammad were suffering from domestic violence in the context of confusing marriage laws:
This hadith shows Muhammad hitting his girl—bride, Aisha (see rule no. 1, below), daughter of Abu Bakr, his right—hand Companion:
See this article for fuller details on wife—beating. It clarifies many translations of the verse. At the end, it has many links to modern interpretations of Sura 4:34 and to arguments for wife—beating today. This article is a shorter version. This article, though long, offers a clear analysis of wife—beating, examining the hadith and other early source documents, as well as refuting modern Muslim polemics.
This mid—length article answers a Muslim defense. This article is a superb analysis of the subject, giving various translations of Sura 4:34. It cites the hadith and classical commentaries and refutes modern defenses. Finally, this article is thorough in examining the Quran and hadith and Muslim polemics.
1. Mature men are allowed to marry prepubescent girls.
The Quran in Sura 65:1, 4 says:
Maududi correctly interprets the plain meaning of verse 4, which appears in the context of divorce:
Divorcing prepubescent girls implies marriage to them. So the fathers of prepubescent girls may give them away, and their new husbands may consummate their marriage with them. If Islam ever spread around the world, no one should be surprised if Quran—believing Muslims lowered the marriage age of girls to nine years old.
This is precisely what happened in Iran after the religious revolution of Ayatollah Khomeini. A girl's marriage age was lowered to nine years.
Why should this surprise us? After all, Muhammad was betrothed to Aisha when she was six, and he consummated their union when she was only nine.
The hadith says:
This hadith demonstrates that Muhammad pursued Aisha when she was a little girl.
This hadith recounts the fifty—plus—year—old Muhammad's and the nine—year—old Aisha's first sexual encounter. She was playing on her swing set with her girlfriends when she got the call.
This hadith describes Muhammad counseling a Muslim man to marry a young virgin for the extra thrill it gives him to fondle her, and she him.
This hadith describes Muhammad's and Aisha's ill—timed sexual encounters:
For more evidence on this most outlandish of Muhammad's domestic acts even for seventh—century Arabia, readers should refer to this article. This article responds to Muslim defenses of this indefensible Quranic permission. This summary of a news reports reveals Pakistan lowering the marriage age to twelve for a girl.
The nightmare must end for women in Islamic countries.
But the political and legal hierarchies in the Islamic world do not seem ready to reform on women's rights. Here is a 1998 interview with Shirin Ebadi, one of the first female judges in Iran. She correctly sees abuses in Iranian law, which favors men. However, what has been done about these abuses?
Zohreh Arshadi 'was a practising lawyer in Iran prior to her forced exile to Europe. She is currently an advocate in France and is active in human rights and especially of the rights of women. She has been especially active in defence of the rights of women in Iran.' She reports on the inequities in Iranian law as it pertains to women:
Though these two examples come from Iran, they could multiply throughout the Islamic world. However, the legal hierarchies understand the cost of reform: abandoning many verses in the Quran and many passages in the hadith, and this they cannot do.
A sign of hope? The Iraqi Constitution, so far, says that 25% of the seats in the Parliament are specified for women. So maybe reform can be strongly encouraged in a fledgling democracy.
But if Islamic nations, especially those who follow sharia (Islamic law) closely, refuse to reform, then the second best strategy must be played out. Islam must never be allowed to impose its sharia system of 'justice' anywhere in the West and around the world. No sharia courts should be permitted outside of the Islamic world. The Quran—the ultimate source of sharia—oppresses women and people generally.
The Islamic holy book is too patriarchal and culture—bound to be relevant to the new millennium.
James M. Arlandson may be reached at firstname.lastname@example.org
Readers may go to these three sites for other translations of the Quran: this one has multiple translations; this one has three; and this conservative translation is subsidized by the Saudi royal family.
Here is the website for the online hadith.
A good online resource for the historical context of a sura is here, where Maududi provides excellent background material.
If readers would like to see many links to women's issues, they should go to this article and scroll down to the end. It has modern views in the Islamic world on wife—beating. This webpage has a number of links to women's issues, as well. This is a superb overview of the Quran and hadith on women's inferior status in Islam. This online booklet explores the differing ideas in Islam and Christianity on the place of women.
http://www.americanthinker.com/2005/11/top_ten_rules_in_the_quran_tha.html at October 13, 2009 - 01:44:22 PM EDT


A testicle lump is swelling or a growth (mass) in one or both testicles.
A testicle lump that does not hurt may be a sign of cancer. Most cases of testicular cancer occur in men ages 15 to 40. It can also occur at older or younger ages.
Possible causes of a painful scrotal mass include:
- A cyst-like lump in the scrotum that contains fluid and dead sperm cells (spermatocele). (This condition sometimes does not cause pain.)
- Infection of the scrotal sac.
- Injury or trauma.
- Orchitis (testicular infection).
- Testicular torsion.
- Testicular cancer.
Possible causes if the scrotal mass is not painful:
Starting in puberty, men at risk for testicular cancer may be taught to do regular exams of their testicles. This includes men with:
- A family history of testicular cancer
- A past tumor of the testicle
- An undescended testicle, even if the testicle on the other side has descended
If you have a lump in your testicle, tell your health care provider right away. A lump on the testicle may be the first sign of testicular cancer. Many men with testicular cancer have been given a wrong diagnosis. Therefore, it is important to go back to your provider if you have a lump that doesn't go away.
When to Contact a Medical Professional
Call your provider right away if you notice any unexplained lumps or any other changes in your testicles.
What to Expect at Your Office Visit
- When did you notice the lump?
- Have you had any previous lumps?
- Do you have any pain? Does the lump change in size?
- Exactly where on the testicle is the lump? Is only one testicle involved?
- Have you had any recent injuries or infections? Have you ever had surgery on your testicles or in the area?
- What other symptoms do you have?
- Is there scrotal swelling?
- Do you have abdominal pain or lumps or swelling anywhere else?
- Were you born with both testicles in the scrotum?
Tests and treatments depend on the results of the physical exam.
Lump in the testicle; Scrotal mass
Elder JS. Disorders and anomalies of the scrotal contents. In: Kliegman RM, Stanton BF, St. Geme JW, Schor NF, eds. Nelson Textbook of Pediatrics. 20th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier; 2016:chap 545.
Palmer LS, Palmer JS. Management of abnormalities of the external genitalia in boys. In: Wein AJ, Kavoussi LR, Partin AW, Peters CA, eds. Campbell-Walsh Urology. 11th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier; 2016:chap 146.
Stephenson AJ. Gilligan TD. Neoplasms of the testis. In: Wein AJ, Kavoussi LR, Partin AW, Peters CA, eds. Campbell-Walsh Urology. 11th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier; 2016:chap 34.
US Preventive Services Task Force. Screening for testicular cancer: US Preventive Services Task Force reaffirmation recommendation statement. Ann Intern Med. 2011;154(7):483-486. PMID: 21464350 www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21464350.
Review Date 1/30/2017
Updated by: Jennifer Sobol, DO, urologist with the Michigan Institute of Urology, West Bloomfield, MI. Review provided by VeriMed Healthcare Network. Also reviewed by David Zieve, MD, MHA, Medical Director, Brenda Conaway, Editorial Director, and the A.D.A.M. Editorial team.


Promising a new, transparent, scientifically rigorous look at UFOs, NASA said Thursday it had appointed a director of research on the subject — and then kept the director’s name secret for nearly seven hours.
The new position is part of NASA’s response to recommendations made by an independent study group convened by the agency. The panel looked at how to better gather and study information about “unidentified anomalous phenomena,” or UAP – the modern term for UFOs.
The panel report, released Thursday, doesn’t attempt to provide a definitive answer on whether galaxy-trotting extraterrestrials have zipped through Earth’s skies. But it suggests a bigger role for NASA in tackling the question.
“NASA will make this very clear,” Bill Nelson, NASA’s administrator, said at a news conference Thursday morning at the agency’s headquarters in Washington, DC, discussing the report.
During the news conference, Mr. Nelson first talked about NASA’s Perseverance rover on Mars, which is collecting rock samples that may contain hints of life that lived there billions of years ago. Then he turned to the James Webb Space Telescope, which was studying planets around distant stars for clues that they might be inhabited or even inhabited by life.
UAP’s work, he said, follows a similar desire to learn about the possibilities of life elsewhere in the universe. “This is the first time that NASA has taken concrete action to take a serious look at UAP.” said mr. Nelson.
Nicola Fox, the associate administrator for NASA’s science mission directorate, said the person serving as the new UAP research director has been in that role “for a while now,” but declined to be identified. “We will not give his name,” he said.
On Thursday night, the agency identified the director as Mark McInerney in an updated news release. He previously served as NASA’s liaison to the Defense Department for UAP issues. In the news release, NASA said he also worked in various positions at NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center in Maryland, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration and the National Hurricane Center.
In a post on Xthe social network formerly known as Twitter, writes Dr. Fox, “As we continue to dig into the study team’s report and findings, treat him with respect in this very important role to help us better scientifically understand UAP”
NASA officials said that part of the reason for the initial secrecy of Mr. McInerney was the harassment experienced during the study by some of the 16 members of the independent panel, which included university professors, space industry officials and a science journalist.
“Some of them have actually risen to actual threats,” said Daniel Evans, assistant deputy associate administrator for research in NASA’s science mission directorate. “And yes, that’s part of why we don’t say our new director’s name there, because science has to be free.”
The federal government’s knowledge of UAPs has recently been the subject of proposed federal legislation. At a House oversight subcommittee hearing in July, lawmakers questioned a former intelligence official who claimed knowledge of the government’s cover-up of extraterrestrial technology.
UAPs often appear to be innocuous objects, like weather balloons. Most experts consider alien spacecraft an unlikely explanation for any of the events. But it is possible that some of those observed may be undiscovered atmospheric phenomena or tests of advanced weapons systems.
“One of the main goals of what we’re trying to do here now is to move speculation and conspiracy toward science and sanity,” said Dr. Evans. “And you do that with data.”
The panel recommended that NASA use its Earth observing instruments to collect environmental data to coincide with the UAP reports and enlist members of the public to transmit a wider range of observations, perhaps through a smartphone app.
“It always comes back to the data you feed into your analysis,” said David Spergel, an astrophysicist who is president of the Simons Foundation and served as chair of the UAP panel. “If you don’t have good data, you can’t learn things.”
Smartphones can take sharp pictures, record specific locations, magnetic fields and record sounds. “There’s a lot of data that a cellphone captures,” said Dr. Spergel. “If you see something you don’t understand, collect data. We aggregate the data and we learn from it.”
Greater data collection could also reduce the stigma and stigma that many people fear if they talk about something they’ve seen. “Stigma has limited reporting by pilots, both civilian and military,” said Dr. Spergel.
The panel also suggested using sophisticated computer algorithms, including artificial intelligence and machine learning, to look for subtle patterns in UAP reports that could help identify underlying phenomena.
Some of the inquiries veered towards the strange and surreal. A journalist asked about the ufologist who on Tuesday showed the Mexican Congress what he described as two corpses of aliens.
“Has NASA been in contact with Mexican authorities regarding the rather gruesome revelations earlier this week of two alleged non-human corpses?” said the journalist. “And what, if any, significance do you attach to these discoveries?”
Dr. answered. Spergel, “It’s something I know I just saw on Twitter.”
He provided analogies of the moon rocks collected by NASA during the Apollo moon landing 50 years ago, which are available for study to scientists around the world.
“If you have something unusual, make samples available to the scientific community and we’ll see what’s there,” said Dr. Spergel.
The UAP study was announced in June last year by Thomas Zurbuchen, then the associate administrator of the science mission directorate.
said Dr. Zurbuchen that the analysis of UFO reports may be “high-risk, high-impact type of research,” possibly turning up some completely new scientific phenomenon, or possibly nothing new or interesting.
At a public hearing in May, the panel tried to explain some of the material that has gripped the public. It uses some (it’s a bit confusing) high school geometry to explain how the object was captured in a video by a Navy plane in 2015, known as “HURRY UP” is not moving fast but only at 40 miles per hour by illustrating how the vantage point on an object can be a visual trick.


It is absolutely certain that both the spiritual leaders of Jewry and the masses of uneducated Jews (or at least the majority of these) before, during and after the talmudic period believed that the shofar, the ram’s horn, was blown on the holiday of Rosh Hashanah in order to confuse Satan and his demonic cohorts. The widely held belief was that the blowing of the shofar would stop Satan from approaching God at a crucial moment, keeping him from indicting Jews for past sins in a heavenly judicial proceeding in which God decides the future of each Jew.
People are people first and Jews only second. Demons played a part in individual’s lives since ancient times – present when they were awake or asleep, at joyous and sad occasions. And since they saw demons stalking around them, the people were convinced, as J. R. R. Tolkien wrote, that, “It does not do to leave a dragon out of your calculations, if you live near him.” The frightful term “nightmare,” for example, is derived from the ancient Saxon word mara, which means “demon.”
Thus, it is no surprise that the Jewish masses believed in demons until the era of the enlightenment in the nineteenth century and that this mistaken notion affected and twisted their understanding of Jewish holidays and their behavior on these days. It should also surprise no one that the rabbis, who assumed the duty of weaning their congregants from superstition toward a true understanding of Judaism, were frequently unsuccessful, especially when the irrational conception held by their coreligionists was accepted by virtually all of their non-Jewish neighbors.
Many of these rabbis, themselves human, were also affected by and accepted illogical, frequently heathenish opinions and nonsensical and useless customs. Other rabbis, who felt that these practices were based on falsehoods, felt compelled to allow the practice of the Jewish religion as the masses understood it, even though the rituals were wrong-headed. These rabbis attempted to rationalize and elevate the superstitious observances by giving them a Jewish explanation and coloring. The use of the shofar on Rosh Hashanah is an example of this phenomenon.
- What is Yom Teruah, the day that was later called Rosh Hashanah?
- Why was Yom Teruah called Rosh Hashanah during the post-biblical period?
- Does the Torah require the blowing of the shofar on Yom Teruah?
- Does the Torah give even a hint of a reason for making a sound on Yom Teruah?
- How did the ancient Jews use the shofar?
- What reason did the talmudic rabbis give for the shofar-blowing?
- What did Maimonides say on the subject?
What is Yom Teruah?
Scripture proclaims a Yom Teruah, literally a “Day of Shouting” in Numbers 29:1. It takes place on the first day of the seventh month.
Arguably, the original significance of this special day was simply that it was the first day of the seventh month. The seventh day is the Sabbath that recalls that there is a God, that God created the world and that God communicated the divine will (when God informed the Israelites of ceasing creating on the Sabbath day and that they must therefore also rest on this day). The number seven is repeated frequently in Jewish practices to remind Jews of these three fundamental ideas. The holidays of Passover and Sukkoth are seven days long. The holiday of Shavuot is seven weeks after Passover. The seventh year, the Sabbatical year, is a year of rest for the ground. The seventh Sabbatical year is the Jubilee Year. Thus the seventh month was also highlighted as Yom Teruah. The day was also called Yom Zikaron Teruah in Leviticus 23:24, the “Day of Remembering Through Shouting.” “Remembering” what? Remembering the significance of seven.
Why is the Day Called Rosh Hashanah?
The Bible does not indicate a date when the year begins. The Talmud records two opinions on the subject. One position is that it is the first day of the month of spring, the first month Nissan, the same month in which the holiday of Passover occurs. This is the month that the Torah calls the “first of the months” because it recalls the Exodus from Egypt. The second idea, which became the accepted view, is that the year begins on the first day of the fall, in the seventh month Tishrei. More specifically, this opinion states that the sixth day of creation, the day on which humans were created, was the first day of the seventh month, and that the new year begins with this sixth day of creation. Once this non-biblical idea – that the first of Tishrei is the beginning of the new year – was accepted by Jews, Yom Teruah gained the name Rosh Hashanah, “New Year,” in the popular mind, although it retains its biblical name Yom Teruah in the holiday prayer book.
Was the Shofar Blown on Yom Teruah?
One of the most significant ceremonies during Rosh Hashanah is the blowing of the shofar one hundred times during the services. Yet most people do not realize that there is no scriptural verse requiring that the shofar be blown on this day. Searching for some biblical source, the Midrash Sifra refers to Leviticus 25:9, which states that on the Jubilee year, once in forty-nine years, the Israelites are commanded: ta’aviru shofar, “sound the shofar,” on the “tenth day of the seventh month on Yom Hakippurim (later called Yom Kippur).” The Babylonian Talmud, Rosh Hashanah 34a, in contrast, derives the requirement from the obscure verse in Psalms 81:4, “Blow the shofar vachodesh [meaning, “during the month” or “on the new moon”] bakeseh [a word that is given various interpretations, including “when it [the moon] is hidden”], l’yom chageinu [which could mean: “to proclaim a day of holiday”].”
The lack of any clear mandate to blow the shofar on Rosh Hashanah and the reliance on somewhat speculative and tentative unrelated verses highlights the non-biblical origin of the practice and suggests that the blowing of the shofar on this day was started by the masses and was later justified by the rabbis using the two cited verses.
The Ancient Use of the Shofar
Anthropologists and other social scientists have recognized that ancient people used a shocking sound like the shofar blast to attract or repel. Sir James G. Frazer (1854–1941), in his Golden Bough, in the chapter on “The Scapegoat,” states that primitive people usually sounded loud noises on New Year’s Day to expel demons; today’s noisemaking on New Year’s Day is a relic of this ancient practice. It seems likely that this was also the original purpose for the shofar blasts; surprisingly, this is the view of the Talmud.
The Talmud Relates the Shofar-Blowing to Satan
The original reason for blowing the shofar on the New Year, to frighten and expel satanic forces that may persuade an influenceable God that the Jew is a sinner and should be punished and perhaps even killed during the upcoming year, is explicitly reported in the Babylonian Talmud, Rosh Hashanah 16b. The Talmud states that the shofar is blown “to confound Satan” and to prevent him from approaching God and accusing Jewish people of past sins.
Long after the practice of shofar blowing began, the Talmud mentions that there are two series of synagogue shofar blowings, one during the Amidah – or standing – prayer and one before it. One of these series – the rabbis differ as to which one – is an integral part of the way that Rosh Hashanah came to be understood, while the other, the more ancient practice, the Talmud says, is designed to confuse Satan.
One series reflects a more advanced spiritual concept of the shofar. The other retains the ancient primitive superstitious fear of demons and the notion that Satan is involved in divine judgments and has the power to influence God’s decision about the future of a Jew’s life and that humans, in turn, have the somewhat supernatural ability to confuse Satan, a heavenly being, and restrain him from carrying out his diabolical scheme to harm Jews.
The Superstitious Origin Recognized in Many Sources
This notion is present not only in the Talmud but also in various legal codes and commentaries, such as Nathan ben Jechiel’s Arukh (1035–1106) and David Abudarham’s book on prayer Perush haberakhot v’hatefilot (fourteenth century).
The Babylonian Talmud, Hullin 105b, and Rashi’s commentary to Rosh Hashanah 28a repeat that the shofar was used to scare demons and upset their plans. The talmudic rabbis question whether a Jew fulfills his obligation to blow the shofar on Rosh Hashanah if he blows it only to confound or repel demons. Curiously, the Talmud answers that the obligation to blow the shofar is fulfilled.
Maimonides’ Recognition That No Rational Basis for Using the Shofar Exists
In his Mishneh Torah, Hilchot Teshuvah 3:7, Maimonides rationalizes the blowing of the shofar on Rosh Hashanah. He writes that it is a way of calling the people to awaken from their slumbers, search their deeds and change their ways. Yet he admits that he knows no reason why the ram’s horn, and not another instrument, was chosen to perform this act.
Another Practice Designed to Confuse Satan on Rosh Hashanah
It is a widespread Jewish custom to announce the date of the new moon at the morning synagogue service on the Shabbat before the onset of the new month. This takes place each month except for the Shabbat preceding Ellul, the month in which the holiday of Rosh Hashanah occurs. The commentators explain that the practice originated, like the shofar soundings, to confuse Satan. The fearful masses persuaded themselves that when they did not publicly announce the date of the new moon, Satan, whom they must have thought attended Shabbat services and paid attention to announcements, would not know on which date Ellul would begin, and he would thus be kept from traveling to heaven and prosecuting Jews before the heavenly court.
Possible Biblical Support for the Use of the Shofar to Repel Evil
Needless to say, those who held these superstitious notions did not need biblical support for the rituals that assuaged their fears. Yet, it is possible that some Jews may have supported and rationalized their beliefs by recalling that the Bible frequently mentions the use of the shofar in association with war and fighting, such as in II Samuel 18:16 and 20:22, and to frighten those who heard the sound, as in Amos 2:2 and 3:6. The superstitious ancients may have seen a basis in these passages concerning human reactions for their view that the shofar can frighten and repel satanic forces.
How Did Other Rabbis Interpret the Use of the Shofar?
Although many rabbis bought into the superstitious rationale for the blowing of the shofar, other rabbis developed a loftier spiritual reason for it. They, like Maimonides, mentioned above, teach that the shofar is sounded to awaken the Jew’s attention to consider past misdeeds and correct them.
These rabbis also point out that the Bible states that the shofar was sounded to announce the inauguration of kings, as in II Samuel 15:10 and I Kings 1:34, 39. Thus, the Rosh Hashanah shofar blowing is a proclamation or recognition of divine rule.
Furthermore, these rabbis note that Scripture records that the shofar is used to warn people of danger, as in Hosea 5:8 and 8:1. Thus, the shofar soundings also warn people of the danger of improper self-destructive conduct.
They also cite verses such as II Samuel 6:15, where the shofar is blown when David returns the captured ark to Jerusalem with great joy. They refer to Psalms 150:3 where the psalmist states that it is used to praise God. They suggest that Jews blow the shofar one hundred times because this count corresponds to the number of berakhot (blessings) that the rabbis encouraged Jews to recite daily. Thus the shofar reminds its listener of the joy of the holiday, praising God and filling the world with blessings.
The shofar is blown one hundred times on Rosh Hashanah as a significant part of this holiday’s service. Yet the Torah does not mention that the shofar should be sounded on this day.
The first of the seventh month (later called Tishrei) is not the New Year holiday in the Bible. The day is called Yom Teruah, “Day of Shouting,” and its significance was most likely to highlight the number seven that was an integral part of many holidays and ceremonies because the number seven reminded Jews of the original seven, the Sabbath, and its lessons that there is a God, that God created the world and revealed commandments.
Ancient people had a primal fear of the presence of destructive demons during New Year’s Day. The Jews were no different. The Talmud records that the shofar was sounded on New Year’s Day to confound Satan and stop him from approaching God and accusing Jews for past sins. The people were convinced that God, like them, could be persuaded by demons and would accept the demon’s accusations, and that, as a result of Satan’s accusations, they would be punished with sickness, poverty and other evils, including death.
The use of the shofar is not the only means that the Jews used to combat Satan and his demonic cohorts. They did not rely on one single stratagem in their battle against the demons. Several other rites are performed before and during the holiday, including curtailing the announcement of the date of the new month before the month in which Rosh Hashanah appears. The ancient uneducated populace apparently thought that Satan learned the date of the new month from the synagogue announcement of humans, and did not remember from year to year over the centuries that he was repeatedly tricked; thus he would not know the date of Rosh Hashanah and when to journey to the heavenly court to carry out his plan to condemn the Jews.
While, as the Talmud attests, Satan provoked the use of the shofar, the rabbis rationalized the ceremony and elevated it to a spiritual level. They emphasized that it teaches Jews to turn their attention to God, cease acting improperly, and fill the world with blessings. Maimonides, ever opposed to superstitions, took this approach, maintaining that the shofar’s sound was a call to awaken Jews to consider the impact of their past behavior and to improve it.
 It is possible that in earlier times the tenth of Tishrei, the Day of Yom Kippur, was the New Year holiday. Ezekiel 40:1 states, “In the twenty-fifth year of our exile on the new year on the tenth of the month….”
 This reason only appears in the Babylonian Talmud, but not in the earlier Jerusalem Talmud. It also does not appear in the earlier Mishna which mentions the malchiyot and zichronot prayers. Thus, it is possible that the Satan association may have been a Babylonian later influence. See http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/demons.html subheading- “In the Talmud.” However, in view of other sources mentioned in this essay and our knowledge that Jews in Israel were also very superstitious, this absence of mention of Satan in these early sources does not prove the Jews in Israel did not believe the shofar blasts chased Satan away.
 Religious people prefer to use ancient or at least older objects in their rituals. Thus, for example, while an electric light is permissible for Shabbat candles, virtually all Jews use the ancient candles. In all likelihood, it is for this reason that the ancient ram’s horn that preceded the trumpet is mandated for Rosh Hashanah.