History, tourist information, and nearby accommodation
HERITAGE HIGHLIGHTS: One of the finest examples of 12th century Norman church architecture in England
The West EndThis is perhaps the finest west front of any medieval parish church in England; a marvel of Norman Romanesque design. At ground level is the magnificent west doorway, flanked by blind arches. The doorway is unusual, in a continental European style rarely seen in England. The innermost section has several rows of chevron mouldings, followed by two orders of beakhead carvings. Like the chevron, beakheads are a typical Norman feature. They were first used in Britain at Reading Abbey, then copied throughout the region, notably in Oxfordshire and Berkshire. The outer ring of carving is quite special; it is a linked chain of symbols, several representing signs of the Zodiac, others the symbols of the Evangelists.
Above this wonderful doorway is a striking circular window, surrounded by more orders of chevrons. I'm tempted to call it a rose window, but technically it is not, for it has no internal tracery. Thus it is what we call an 'occulus' or Eye of God design. This is not the original Norman window, but a Victorian restoration which replaced a 15th century Perpendicular Gothic window. It does however, replicate the style of the original Norman design. Above the occulus is another row of three arched windows in an arcade, separated by columns. Still higher is a small blind arch to top off the facade. Taken as a whole, the west front at Iffley is one of the best examples of Norman architectural style I've ever seen in an English parish church. For comparison, see the delightful church at Barfreston, Kent.
The South DoorThat's the west front, and if that was all there was to see at Iffley then it would still be worth a trip, but there's much more. The north door is a beautifully carved design, but that is overshadowed by the magnificent south doorway. It is hard to make comparisons between two beautifully carved examples of a mason's art, but I'd be tempted to put the south door at Iffley close to the celebrated south door at Kilpeck, Herefordshire. Perhaps the decoration is not quite as detailed here, nor as well preserved, but it is still quite wonderfully carved, better even than the west doorway, leading one to wonder if perhaps the south door was the work of a master mason while the west door was the work of lesser-skilled helpers.
With the south door you enter a world of fantasy, a world of dragons, serpents, lions, centaurs, fabulous birds and beasts, a Green Man, and a Sphinx. It is interesting that the carvings have nothing even remotely [overtly] religious about them; they are a throwback to Saxon or Celtic animal carvings. There are several figures of humans, including a knight on horseback and a king's head (perhaps Henry II). The carvings are in noticeably better condition than the west doorway carvings. This is probably because for many years a porch stood outside the door, and this would have protected the carvings from the worst of the wind and rain. They are also carved of hard Taynton stone, whereas the west front was carved of softer stone.
The bulk of the church is of rubble quarried locally. Though excellent for strong walls, the Iffley stone was not suited to carving. Harder stone from Whatley was used for carved decoration on the west face and the interior arches. The exquisitely formed carvings on the north and south doorway arches required an even harder stone, and this was probably brought down river from the quarry at Taynton.
The style of St Mary's is striking; the church is high, narrow and long, divided into distinct squares and rectangles in a design based upon a mathematical proportion of one to the square root of two. This proportion may have been used to express religious ideas of harmony and perfection in heaven, or simply because it worked from a practical construction viewpoint.
Starting from the west door, the first chamber is a baptistry, where the massive square bulk of the font stands, rather overshadowed by the even bulkier organ. The huge font is of marble from Tournai, in Flanders. The baptistry gives way to the nave, again using the same proportions. The nave windows were added in the 15th century by John de la Pole, lord of Donnington manor, and there is a section of medieval stained glass depicting the De la Pole arms. The beautifully carved nave arch leads to the central tower opening. This arch is supported with black marble pillars from Tournai; the earliest known use of marble pillars in an English parish church. English masons soon found a more economical alternative to Tournai marble with the quarrying of Purbeck marble in Dorset. The nave arch is carved with a band of flowers and fruit decoration. Compare this rather sedate theme with the very pagan-looking themes on the south doorway! On the walls are four round painted shapes, all that is left of a dozen original medieval crosses.
From the tower you proceed through another marvellously carved arch to the choir. This is the smallest of the original chambers, and served as the original chancel. In the 13th century a new chancel was created at the east end, accessed through yet another magnificently carved arch. If you are counting, that's three beautifully carved arches inside the church, where most Norman churches would have had a single carved arch. The chancel is obviously of a later style, but the quadripartite (four piece) vaulting ribs are wonderfully carved, and lead to a central boss showing a serpent shedding its skin, surrounded by four human faces. There is a 13th century sedilia against the south wall and a piscina of the same date.
The 13th century chancel may have been built by an anchoress named Annora. Documentary evidence shows that Annora lived at Iffley from 1232-1241. A blocked door in the north wall may have led to the anchoress's cell, and a 13th century grave outside the chancel may mark Annora's burial place.
The Anchoress of Iffley
Annora, Anchoress of Iffley was born in 1179 to William de Braose, a powerful baron with large estates near the Welsh border. The de Braose family had 16 children, but only 6 survived to adulthood. One brother became Bishop of Hereford, and one sister became Countess of Leicester. Annora herself married Roger Mortimer, another powerful Norman baron, but they had no children. In 1207 her father supported King John but later quarrelled with John. the enraged king outlawed de Braose, and put his wife and son in prison to starve to death. Annora was imprisoned in Bristol Castle with four of her nephews, and was only freed in 1214. Her husband died in 1227. One sister became a religious recluse, and Annora decided to follow her lead and applied to become an anchoress at Iffley. Perhaps she was prompted by the hardships facing a widowed woman, or perhaps she simply wanted a life of contemplation after the turmoil of her earlier life.
What is an anchoress / anchorite?
There are several differences between an anchorite and what we might generically call a hermit. Though both lived simple, often reclusive lives, an anchoress had to actually apply to their bishop for permission to enter a life of contemplation. In what amounted to a form of licensing, the bishop had to assure himself that the applicant had sufficient financial means to support themselves, and, naturally, that they were suited for the committment require. And it was a committment, because unlike a hermit, who could wander wherever they pleased, an anchoress committed to stay in a single cell, alone, never leaving. Cells might be of wood or stone, and most anchorite cells were joined to the body of a church, with an opening in the cell wall to allow the anchorite to view the high altar. There would have been a small window to allow communication with the outside world, though with a curtain to retain some privacy and allow the anchoress to concentrate on her contemplations. Within the simple cell would be an altar for prayer, and, often, a stobe grave slab in the floor to remind the anchorite of their mortal nature. Though a difficult life, the anchoress was not 'roughing it' as much as you might expect. There wwould have been a small chamber beside the cell, where a maid or servant lived, and this servant would look after the mundane tasks like cooking meals, fetching water, and generally doing everything necessary so that the anchoress could concentrate on her religious purpose. The anchorite would never leave the cell, and was expected to live a life devoted to contemplation and prayer, but she might read books of a spiritual nature, and have access to writing material. Obviously it was a life that required great committment and was not something one entered into lightly, and it was also one that only someone fairly well off to start with could seriously consider.
As for Annora, she seems to have taken to the role of anchoress well. It may have been her money that paid for the new chancel, extending the church eastward rom its original format. We know from court records that Henry III thought highly of her, for he sent regular gifts of firewood, food, grain, and clothing. However, after nine years as an anchoress, records of gifts from Henry ceased, and nothing more is heard of Annora. We are left to suppose that around 1241 Annora died and was possibly laid to rest beneath the grave slab that was set in the floor of her cell. This may well be the 13th century grave that we can see today between the chancel wall and the old yew tree in the churchyard.
Taken as a whole, Iffley church is a magnificent example of Norman architecture and style, largely unaltered by later generations. It is well worth a visit.
Note: I owe a debt of gratitude to the excellent church guide by Ruth Nineham for the information about Annora and the history of anchoresses in medieval Britain.
Address: Church Way, Iffley, Oxfordshire, England, OX4 4EJ
Attraction Type: Historic Church
Location: On Church Way, in the centre of Iffley. Limited on road parking. Open most days.
Photo Credit: David Ross and Britain Express
We've 'tagged' this attraction information to help you find related historic attractions and learn more about major time periods mentioned.
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NEARBY HISTORIC ATTRACTIONS
Heritage Rated from 1- 5 (low-exceptional) on historic interest
Bate Collection of Musical Instruments - 1.6 miles (Museum)
Oxford Botanic Garden - 1.6 miles (Garden)
Magdalen College, Oxford - 1.6 miles (Historic Building)
Oxford, Christ Church Cathedral - 1.7 miles (Cathedral)
Christ Church Picture Gallery - 1.7 miles (Museum)
Christ Church College, Oxford - 1.7 miles (Historic Building)
Merton College, Oxford - 1.7 miles (Historic Building)
Oxford, Corpus Christi College - 1.7 miles (Historic Building)
Nearest Accommodation to Iffley:


Just over a year ago, the LCROSS impactor slammed into the surface of the moon. Initial results indicated the presence of water on the moon. This week, researchers unveiled a more detailed picture of lunar composition, with a series of papers published in the journal Science. The lunar soil, a material called regolith, contains many different compounds, including hydroxyl, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, ammonia, free sodium, and even silver. We'll talk about the team's findings and what they mean..
Produced by Charles Bergquist, Director and Contributing Producer


Kanban can be well defined as ‘demand scheduling.’ In processes which are controlled by kanban’s, the manufacturers manufacture products based on the actual usage instead of the estimated usage. The kanban system replaces the usual daily or weekly production schedule. This schedule is substituted with predetermined decision instructions and visual signals which enable the producers to schedule the line. The kanban system gets rid of;
- The day to day scheduling actions needed to operate the manufacturing process.
- The need for the supervisors and the production planner to continually observe the status of the schedule in order to determine which item to run next or the time to change over.
The kanban system helps free up the schedulers, supervisors and material planners thus, improving the manufacturing process. Also, it puts control at the value added and authorizes the production operators to manage the line.
Two Card Kanban System
A two card kanban system (dual card kanban) is usually used for enormous items where flow racks aren’t used. It is a system of the kanban card racks and the kanban board combined together. The two card kanban system makes use of manufacture and withdrawal kanban’s to apply both the material handling and the station blocking by part type.
This is how the two card kanban works;
- Whenever an item is produced or received from a seller, two cards are pulled and filled out from a kanban card rack; one of the kanban cards goes with the item and the other is put in a special FIFO (First- in, First- out)
- Whenever one of the items is needed, the material handler pulls out the bottom card from the FIFO box.
- The material handler now goes to the position written on the kanban card to get the particular item for the manufacture operation.
- The material handler now places the two cards in the kanban card racks. This is the schedule signal for record or production.
The two card kanban system allows large items to flow while also managing the product rotation. It works very well, most especially when utilized for items stacked on the floor.
Principles for Two Card Kanban System Implementation
The Preparation Stage
- Review the total workflow. The end to end process has to be reviewed from the initial concept through to the release. Make analysis for all the excessive time pockets and also remember to review the handoff times.
- Make sure to address all bottlenecks. If bottlenecks are identified, including upstream in the engineering phase, do everything possible to break down these bottlenecks and convey their value in small additions.
- Change from repetitions to service level agreement (SLA). Decide on the SLA time-box for every feature. The clock begins whenever the active scheduling on each of the feature begins and stops whenever it is released.
- Create classification by the cost of delay. Classify every feature according to its type. Then, have every of the stakeholders in a gathering and use this classification to assist in prioritizing a limited queue which the team can use. Make updates to this queue as frequent as you want.
- Set the WIP (Work in Progress) limits. The WIP limit for every workflow phases which you want to limit should be decided by both the managers and the team. The WIP limit is the limit of features which can be active at a time. A new feature can only be pulled whenever a slot opens at the end of a feature.
- Make the work evident. You can place a task board where the whole team can view it. The board should display the workflow phases as well as the agreed WIP limits.
- The team should occasionally scope the features which are in the limited queue to see if all will fit in the Service Level Agreement time box. If they do not fit, the stakeholders have to break them down further.
Implementation of the Two Card Kanban System
- The per-feature service level agreement clock begins now.
- Pull the subsequent work item. When there’s availability of capacity, the team picks which feature to pull. The resource considerations in addition to the cost of delay will be considered when trying to choose which feature to pull.
- The team divides the feature into stories when pulled.
- Everybody should obey the WIP limit. Also, beware of bottlenecks. Change the elements or limits as much as needed until a smooth delivery flow is achieved.
- Inspect and adjust. Have periodic demos, retrospectives and daily stand-ups.


The Opportunity rover is dead, at age 15.
After spending over 5,000 Martian days rumbling through the inhospitable red desert planet, NASA acknowledged on Wednesday that its sun-powered exploration rover hasn’t responded to over 800 attempts at contact since June 2018, and is presumed dead.
“I’m standing here with a sense of deep appreciation and gratitude to declare the Opportunity mission as complete,” Thomas Zurbuchen, associate administrator of NASA’s Science Mission Directorate, said from NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena, California.
Deprived of sunlight by a dust storm the size of North America, Opportunity came to rest on Mars in a place known as “Perseverance Valley,” which sits on the edge of the 14-mile wide Endeavor crater. It is here that the 400-pound machine, built by NASA engineers in Southern California, will now spend millennia getting blanketed in red dust, for the Martian winds don’t ever stop blowing. Its batteries, completely bereft of power, will not turn on again.
“The rover isn’t just some hunk of metal on a distant planet,” Bill Nelson, chief of the Opportunity mission’s engineering team at NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory, told us last June after the rover stopped communicating with its home base on Earth.
“It’s like a family member. We don’t talk about it — we talk about her,” Nelson said.
NASA engineers made their last attempt at contacting Opportunity on Feb. 12.
The rover didn’t respond.
Opportunity traveled farther on extraterrestrial land than any vehicle in human history. Before becoming immobilized in June 2018, the rover had traveled 28 miles (45.2 kilometers), passing the record set by the Soviet moon rover Lunokhod 2, which drove 24 miles in 1973.
But Opportunity wasn’t ever expected to travel so far. NASA gave the six-wheeled robot a life-expectancy of 90 days. But after launching from Earth in 2003, Opportunity survived for 14 years on Mars.
Spirit, Opportunity’s sister rover, preceded Opportunity in death, dying after six years of exploration, in 2010. After getting impossibly stuck in the desert soil, Spirit was caught at an unfortunate angle, and the rover no longer absorbed enough sunlight to survive.
“She simply froze to death,” said Nelson.
Opportunity is survived by the Curiosity rover, a larger car-sized robot that began its Martian exploration in the summer of 2012, after a terrifying landing. Another, more advanced rover will soon join Curiosity in 2020. The 2020 rover will fire lasers at the long-frozen Martian rocks as it seeks to find past evidence of primitive life on Mars — should any exist.
In the end, Opportunity’s Martian life ended the way it started, amid a ruthless desert storm.
As Opportunity hurtled through space in 2003, en route to Mars, a suffocating dust storm began to swirl on the red world, eventually encompassing one-fourth of the entire planet.
NASA engineers feared that the dust storm would interfere with the deployment of Opportunity’s parachutes. Shredded parachutes meant certain death for the rover, which would smash into the rusty ground.
Because of the time lapse between Mars and Earth, Nelson had to wait for the signal to arrive from Opportunity — to hear if the machine had survived.
“The mission was either made or destroyed before we heard the first word of it hitting the atmosphere,” said Nelson. “That was scary. The sense of tension was palpable. People were on pins and needles.”
Opportunity went on to spend well over a decade on Mars, taking over 200,000 images, discovering pearly, blueberry-like rocks, and finding convincing signs of Mars’ watery past.
Its longevity can be credited to the summation of over 2,000 human minds, who ensured, among many things, that Opportunity’s wheel motors — some of which have made over 100 million revolutions — would survive the incessantly rocky terrain.
In the end, the rover died not due to poor health, but a lack of sunlight.
The dust storm had turned day to night, and Opportunity went to sleep.


Unconventional superconductivity in magic-angle graphene superlattices
When electricity moves through material some of its energy is lost due to conversion into heat and light. The loss of energy is dependent on the material, and a superconductor is a material where no energy is lost. Superconductivity was initially found by cooling down pure materials (such as mercury and lead) to very low temperatures near absolute zero (i.e. -273°C/-459°F/0°K). Compared to the original superconductivity, unconventional superconductivity has different physical properties, can be a mixture of materials, and may work at higher temperatures. Unconventional superconductivity has been researched for many years, but scientists are still struggling to understand how it works. Therefore, scientists are trying to make new techniques and equipment to study and understand it better.
The authors of “Unconventional superconductivity in magic-angle graphene superlattices” [read original article here] describe a completely new way of generating superconductivity: By placing 2 layers of the material graphene on top of each other, and twisting them at a certain angle. This ‘magic’ angle differs from material to material and for graphene it was found to be 1.1°. Graphene is a simple layer of carbon structured in a manner similar to chicken wire but with 6 corners (hexagons). The twisting offsets the grid a tiny bit, which affects the way electricity travels through the material. The scientists were thereby able to fine-tune their system by simply applying electric currents of various strengths. This is much simpler than previous unconventional superconductivity systems (such as cuprates), which required strong magnetic fields in order to be tuned.
Even though the discovery still requires very low temperatures of -271°C/-457°F/1.7°K, there is hope that it may pave the way for new superconductors that would function at higher temperatures. If scientists are able to find a way to generate superconductors that work at room temperature, they could be used to minimize energy loss in everything using electricity. Research into superconductors is therefore of very high importance for the sustainable future of the world. With the discovery of a user-friendly and easy-to-study system described here, we may soon be getting closer to a solution.
Editorial submission by Jonas N. Søndergaard @thefairjournal. ID: 2019.03.27. Please refer to the original article for more details.


Furniture that is eco-friendly has been made in a way that has a minimum negative impact on the environment. Eco-friendly furniture is also made without using chemicals that may be harmful to the health and well-being of humans. If you are weighing your options, here are a few reasons you should consider buying eco-friendly furniture for your home:
1. Eco-friendly furniture eliminates health concerns
The chemicals found in furniture that is not eco-friendly have been shown to have both short term and long-term negative effects on the health of those who use them. Many composite wood products, plywood, for example, contain formaldehyde. At first, you may notice irritation of the skin, nose, eyes and throat. The long-term effects are more serious.
Formaldehyde is a known carcinogen, and extended exposure may cause certain cancers. Formaldehyde is just one of the many chemicals are used in the manufacturing of furniture that is not eco-friendly.
2. Green furniture is naturally flame retardant
Lots of furniture manufacturers use polyurethane foam as the cushioning in the products. The problem with polyurethane foam is that is it highly flammable. Still, manufacturers continue to use this as it makes their furniture cheaper to manufacture. They will then use chemical flame retardant to reduce the fire risks. These flame retardants pose another challenge as they can be detrimental to your health. Eco-friendly furniture, on the other hand, uses naturally flame-retardant materials such as wool. These untreated natural materials will not cause any harm to you or your family members.
3. Eco-friendly furniture can last a lifetime
Buying green furniture does not mean you will sacrifice on quality. In fact, with eco-friendly furniture, you get a superior product. Green furniture uses only quality natural materials, not composites like those used in other furniture. By investing in eco-friendly furniture, you save more in the long run by getting a product that was built to last.
Eco-friendly furniture in Vancouver
If you are searching for eco-friendly furniture in Vancouver, here are some of the options you will find at the Industrial Revolution:
The Delta Sleeper Furniture Sectional
The Delta Sleeper Furniture Sectional represents a marvel of modern engineering. This sectional feature lumbar support pillows and no-sag springs. It also has a Mortise and Tenon design which can turn it into a high back. This piece of furniture can go from a sectional to a full-sized sleeper with very little effort. The Delta Sleeper Furniture Sectional comes with a storage compartment as well.
The Delta Sleeper Furniture Sectional is made by Luonto—a Scandinavian company whose manufacturing process is green from start to finish. All Luonto products conform to CertiPUR® standards. CertiPUR® is a European programme which requires firms to comply with strict restrictions concerning substances in foam that may be of concern for health or the environment.
The Dolce Vita Italian Mattress
The Dolce Vita is an Italian-made, eco-friendly mattress manufactured by Magniflex. This medium-firm mattress offers ultimate support and comfort. The Dolce Vita boasts a natural viscose cover that can be easily removed for cleaning. The internal components of the mattress are memory foam and Eliofoam which are both breathable to ensure temperature control.
A Conversation Piece Accent Chair
Designed in Denmark by Umage, ‘A Conversation Piece’ is an armchair that provides the perfect spot for relaxation. In this chair, you can unwind and enjoy a conversation with friends or have some quiet time while reading a book. You can use this non-toxic furniture piece in the living room, lounge area or even the bedroom or a nursery.
Another eco-friendly piece made by Umage is the Audacious Cabinet. The Audacious Eco-Friendly Cabinet is a kidney-shaped piece that is great for displaying all your favourite items. The cabinet comes with tambour doors that allow you to display just as much of the interior as you choose. You can also change the position of the sliding doors to create new displays and uses.
Visit our store today!
To view these and other green furniture pieces, visit our store at 2306 Granville Street in Vancouver, BC!


Urban stormwater retrofits are a major component of many stormwater management efforts. They are a diverse group of practices that provide pollution reduction from existing development that is either currently untreated or is inadequately treated by existing stormwater practices. Examples of retrofits include wet ponds, swales, permeable pavement, and bioretention.
Below, you’ll find a variety of resources on stormwater retrofits, including the Expert Panel report that reviews all of the available science on the pollutant removal performance and runoff reduction capability of the BMPs, and CSN’s Urban Stormwater Retrofits “Fact Sheet” which breaks down the practice and the Expert Panel recommendations into more easily digestible pieces!
Urban Stormwater Retrofits Final Report(s)
The following training resources have been created for explaining the panel recommendations – enjoy!


15¢ Buffalo Bill Cody
Great Americans Series
Issue Date: June 6, 1988
City: Cody, WY
Printed By: Bureau of Engraving and Printing
Printing Method: Engraved
A true Western cowboy, William Frederick Cody participated in gold rushes, rode in the Pony Express, fought Indian wars, and helped build railroads across the new frontier. In 1883, he organized Buffalo Bill's Wild West Show, complete with real cowboys, Indians, horses, and buffalo. Popular in the U.S. as well as Europe, his shows depicted the Wild West as a place for glory and adventure. Cody is pictured on the 15¢ Great Americans stamp.
Issued between 1980 and 1999, the Great Americans definitive series features 63 designs, making it the largest set of face different Regular Issue stamps issued in the 20th century. One stamp honors a couple (Lila and Dewitt Wallace) while the remaining 62 commemorate individuals.
The series is characterized by a standard definitive size, simple design and monochromatic colors. The Bureau of Engraving and Printing produced most of the stamps, but some were printed by private firms. Several stamps saw multiple printings. The result is many different varieties, with tagging being the key to understanding them.


Wilhelm Keitel was one of Adolf Hitler’s leading generals in World War Two. Keitel played an instrumental part in the whole of the war and paid the price for this role when he was sentenced to death at the Nuremberg War Crime Trials.
Keitel was born on September 22nd 1882 near Hanover. His parents were middle-class land owners and it was not surprising that he decided on a career in the army. Keitel joined the army in 1901 when he became a Cadet Officer. He married in 1909 and when World War One started in 1914, Keitel was serving with the 46th Artillery Regiment. In September 1914, Keitel was seriously wounded in the forearm by a shell fragment.
After his recovery from this injury, he became a member of the German General Staff in 1915. He stayed in what was the German Army after the war ended and he initially served as a divisional general staff officer. For two years, Keitel also taught at the Hanover Cavalry School.
In 1924, Keitel was transferred to the Reich Defence Ministry where he served in the Troop Office, which was effectively the army’s General Staff. Keitel became head of this department – a post he held when Hitler came to power in January 1933.
In 1935, such was Keitel’s reputation, that he was promoted to head of the newly created Armed Forces Office. In 1937, Keitel became a full general. In 1938, he became head of the Supreme Command of the Armed Forces (OKW).
Keitel would have been instrumental in the planning for the invasion of Poland in September 1939. The success of this attack, and the success of the attacks on Western Europe in 1940, resulted in Hitler promoting Keitel to field-marshal in 1940.
Keitel rarely stood up to Hitler. He had advised Hitler not to attack Russia in 1941 as he was convinced that ‘Operation Barbarossa’ would be a failure. The overwhelming success of Barbarossa in its initial phase did a great deal to undermine Keitel’s authority in the face of Hitler. Keitel proffered his resignation to Hitler – which was refused. To other senior commanders at OKW, Keitel became nothing more than Hitler’s poodle as he no longer seemed able to stand up to him - if he ever did. He was nicknamed ‘Lakaitel’ which roughly translates as ‘Nodding Ass’.
Keitel’s loyalty to Hitler was shown when he was not one of the senior army figures accused of being associated with the July Bomb Plot of 1944. In fact, he sat on the Army Court of Honour that handed over a number of senior officers to the so-called ‘People’s Court’ under Roland Freisler.
Keitel was also responsible for signing a number of military orders that broke the accepted conventions of warfare. One was that captured French pilots fighting for the Red Army should be shot rather than being treated as POW’s. Keitel also all but allowed Himmler’s SS to do as it wished in Russia. He also signed the 'Commissar Order' which instructed German field commanders to shoot captured Communist Party officials in Russia as opposed to them being taken prisoner.
On May 9th, 1945, Keitel signed Nazi Germany’s surrender to the USSR. On May 13th, he was arrested and charged with crimes against humanity and conspiring to commit crimes against peace. Keitel went on trial at the Nuremberg Trials in 1946 where he claimed that he was simply following orders as any good soldier would. The claim was rejected and he was found guilty on all charges and sentenced to death. Keitel was found guilty of criminal offences as opposed to military ones. That is why his request to be shot was rejected and why he was hanged on October 16th 1946 – a punishment fit for a criminal as opposed to a soldier.
"Wilhelm Keitel". HistoryLearningSite.co.uk. 2014. Web.


The term foo fighter was used by Allied aircraft pilots in World War II to describe various UFOs or mysterious aerial phenomena seen in the skies over both the European and Pacific theaters of operations.
Though “foo fighter” initially described a type of UFO reported and named by the U.S. 415th Night Fighter Squadron, the term was also commonly used to mean any UFO sighting from that period. Formally reported from November 1944 onwards, witnesses often assumed that the foo fighters were secret weapons employed by the enemy.
Were these sightings alien spacecraft? Also, what other weird shit got left behind in the mist of the second world war? Check out these videos to find out.


Help! My Tomatoes Have a HORRIBLE Disease!
About this time of year, lots of people venture out to their gardens to find tomato plants that look something like this:
They find their tomatoes with leaves all curled up, like this tomato in the Demo Garden. It looks like a terrible, tomato-threatening disease, doesn’t it? Not to worry! This is merely a common sydrome of tomato called Physiological Leaf Curl/Roll. It routinely happens when there is a drastic change in the weather – usually from cool and moist to hot and dry. The plants have been growing quickly on top, but the roots have not kept pace. When the weather turns hot, the plant realizes its mistake and curls the leaves so that it won’t lose too much water while the roots catch up in growth. These tomatoes should straighten out again in a week or so!


New security bugs are discovered every day. In order to keep your system secure it is critical that it be kept up to date with recent patches and software upgrades. By applying these patches regularly, you reduce the chances of getting a virus, trojan, or worm as most of these exploit common known security holes in unpatched systems.
Antivirus will catch most viruses as long as the antivirus software is kept up to date. It is absolutely crucial that users run antivirus software on their computers. With that in mind, Tulane University provides any current student, staff, or faculty with a copy of Trend Micro OfficeScan. Visit http://tulane.e-academy.com to download your free copy.
Password enumeration attacks are becoming more common at work and home.
Recent increases in computer hacking and viruses worldwide have caused many systems to become exploited. Hackers often attempt to gain access to a computer by guessing all possible combinations of passwords. Using a modern PC, a hacker can normally break a simple password remotely in less than 60 seconds. Once broken, your password may allow someone to access your files.
A good password should meet the following requirements:
Passphrases are excellent!:
Even if you follow all of these recommendations, it is still possible that a hacker could compromise your computer. In 'a worst case scenario', a hacker's programs or virus will corrupt, infect, or erase your computer files. Or your hard drive could simply fail, causing the loss of all your data. Also it is becoming more common that a computer that has been infected with a virus may need to be formatted and have all of the software reinstalled.
By backing up your files to a burnable CD, DVD, Floppy disk, external hard drive, thumb drive, or a workgroup file server, you can save yourself a lot of trouble if your computer gets a virus.
Technology Services, Tulane University, New Orleans, LA 70118 -- TSNOC: 504-862-8888 -- email@example.com


- Author: Kathy Keatley Garvey
There's gold on them thar roses.
No, not the kind of gold found during the California Gold Rush (1848–1855) that brought some 300,000 folks to the Golden State.
These are gold eggs from the multicolored Asian beetle, Harmonia axyridis, that we found on our Sparkle-and-Shine roses last week. The aphids are sparkling and the lady beetles are shining.
A native of eastern Asia, the multicolored Asian beetle was introduced in California by the U.S. Department of Agriculture in 1916, and in 1964 -1965 for the biological control of pecan aphids. Later, from 1978 through 1982, released beetles took hold in Connecticut, Delaware, Georgia, Louisiana, Maine, Maryland, Mississippi, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and Washington.
The multicolored Asian beetles are tiny, about 7 mm long and 5.5 mm wide. Spots? They range from as many as 19 spots to no spots at all. Color? From red to orange to yellow and (rarely) black. A key identifying characteristic is the black M-shaped mark behind its head.
The beetles, commonly known as ladybugs (but they're beetles, not bugs), are from the family Coccinellidae and they eat lots and lots of aphids and other soft-bodied insects, including scale insects and mites.
Aphids are not your friends. With their piercing mouthparts, they suck the juices right out of your plants, including your favorite roses. Lady beetles are your friends. They have voracious appetites and can gobble up 50 to 75 aphids a day.
Lush new growth often means a gathering of aphids, which means a gathering of lady beetles. Look closely and you might seen a cluster or row of about 20 oval eggs on the leaves.
That's the gold.
And so the cycle continues.
(Note: If you're looking for more roses, the California Center for Urban Horticulture, UC Davis, has just announced its 10th annual Rose Days will be Saturday and Sunday, May 6-7, from 10 a.m. to 4 p.m. at the Foundation Plant Services parking lot, 455 Hopkins Road, UC Davis campus.)


Asthma and exercise
Like it sounds, exercise-induced asthma is asthma that is triggered by vigorous or prolonged exercise or physical exertion. Most people with chronic asthma experience symptoms of asthma during exercise. However, there are many people without chronic asthma who develop symptoms only during exercise.
Physical exercise and daily recreation are very important for the growth and development of asthmatic children. One of the major goals in the treatment of asthmatic children is to help patients master EIA. EIA is a complex pathophysiological phenomenon, and therapeutic responses are difficult to predict. Normal or better-than-normal lung function (i.e., in trained athletes) does not guarantee the absence of severe EIA. Weather conditions, air quality, personal fitness, physical effort, the duration of symptoms and the underlying bronchial hyper reactivity all influence the development of EIA.
Non – pharmacologic Treatment
The first step of non-pharmacologic treatment of EIA involves :
- Advising the patient about the types of exercise that are least likely to induce an asthma attack, such as swimming, intermittent exercise, team games and exercise in warm and humid air.
- Thus, patients should try to avoid exercising in cold weather or on high-pollen days, which could worsen their condition.
- When patients are at rest, inspired air is warm and humidified, particularly in the nose and trachea. As the rate of ventilation increases, air is conditioned predominantly in the intrathoracic airways.
- During exercise in cold environments, breathing through the nose rather than the mouth, or wearing a mask, reduces the loss of heat and moisture and has been shown to minimize EIA.
- Symptoms of EIA usually occur after a few minutes of exercise, and some patients find that warm-up activities prevent significant episodes of EIA. It has been shown that between 40% and 50% of asthmatic patients experience refractory periods. Although the effects of warming up are variable, some patients can be refractory to an exercise task performed within 2 hours of a warm-up activity.For this reason, prolonged warm-up activities that include brief periods of intense activity are beneficial for subjects with EIA.
- A gradual cooling-off period rather than sudden cessation of exercise reduces the rate of re-warming in airways and protects against bronchospasm.Recently, regular exercise training was reported to decrease BHR in children with asthma, which may be due to its anti-inflammatory effect, suggesting that it may exert beneficial effects on EIA.
- Use a short-acting inhaler, 15 minutes prior to exercise. This will help ease asthma exacerbations and lasts between four to six hours.
- Warm-up for six to ten minutes before beginning a full exercise program.
- Breath through nose during exercise.
- Stop exercising if symptoms arise.
- Cool down at the end of your exercise.
- Medications Used to Treat EIA – Acute Control
Short Acting Beta2 agonists
How to give : By inhaler, frequently with a spacer, used shortly before exercise (or as close to exercise as possible).
Effects : Rapidly relieve bronchospasm, may be helpful for 2 to 3 hours.
Side-Effects : Tremors, nervousness, rapid heart beat.
- Medications for Long Term Control
- Inhaled corticosteroids
How to give : By inhaler, daily.
Effects : No rapid action; work long-term to relieve inflammation.
Side-Effects : Sore throat, yeast infections in the mouth or esophagus.
- Leukotriene inhibitors
How to give : By tablet, once a day.
Effects: No rapid action; work long-term to relieve inflammation.
Side-Effects: May not work for all patients.
If you experience symptoms of exercise induced asthma during activity, You should :
- Stop exercising
- Follow your asthma action plan. If you do not have a plan, take four puffs of your reliever medication (such as Asthalin, or Ventolin). This medication should be taken one puff at a time via a spacer with six breaths taken from the spacer after each puff of medication (ten breaths for each puff for children below two years old).
- Only resume to exercise or activity if you are free of symptoms.
- If the symptoms don’t go away, or if they recur while you’re exercising, use your reliever as before. Do not return to any exercise or activity for the rest of the day and see your doctor.
A ‘spacer’ is a special device shaped like a clear plastic tube through which aerosol inhaler (not dry powder inhaler) medications are inhaled. Medication must come in a metered dose inhaler (puffer) to be used with a spacer.
|Last Reviewed||:||22 October 2013|
|Writer||:||Dr. Noor Hafiza Noordin|
|Reviewer||Dr. Rus Anida Awang|


Given the peak value of sine wave, calculate corresponding peak value of square wave, if both have same RMS voltage.
I think the answers in the test suite may be incorrect. Regardless, please make the test suite more robust.
I think the answers in your test suite are incorrect. If "peak value of a sine wave" (X) and "peak value of a square wave" (Y) are understood to be defined consistently, then (given equal RMS voltage) Y should be found as "X divided by sqrt(2)", not as "X multiplied by sqrt(2)".
Remove any row in which a NaN appears
Find common elements in matrix rows
Get the length of a given vector
Area of an equilateral triangle
Deleting an element in a matrix
Calculate distance run, given radius and rotations
Calculate value of capacitor
Create incrementing array
Average of square wave
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is a profound irony to the relationship between Freemasonry and the Middle East.
No world organization owes more to the region in the way of its motifs, its
symbols, and its rituals. But no organization in the course of its presence in
the Middle East has encountered more criticism, more disapproval, and more
outright government persecution.
Masons are aware, although perhaps only vaguely, that Islamic countries in
general, and the religion of Islam in particular, have a problem with
Freemasonry. However few, one suspects, are aware of the reasons for this, or of
the historical and current situations. The purpose of this paper is to examine
the causes of Islamic antipathy towards the Craft, locate them within an
historical perspective, and discuss the surrounding issues. The focus will be on
Arabic countries, but reference will be made to other Islamic countries.
Overview of North Africa and the Middle East
established the first lodge erected in the Middle East, at Aden in 1850. A lodge
in Palestine followed it in 1873. However, most Masonic development was spawned
in this century, beginning with English lodges located in Iraq shortly after the
First World War. Unfortunately, the lot of the Craft in the Middle East has not
generally been a happy one. Only in Israel, which possesses a mainstream Grand
Lodge, and to a lesser extent in Lebanon, has Masonry flourished in recent
of Israel and Lebanon, only one mainstream and two Prince Hall lodges remain –
a Scottish lodge in Jordan, Lodge Jordan #1339, dating from 1925; and James R.
Jones Military Lodge #172 and Pernell Cooper Military Lodge #177, under the
Prince Hall Grand Lodge of Oklahoma, which meet on US military bases in the
Persian Gulf. British-warranted lodges that formerly existed in Iraq, South
Yemen (Aden), and elsewhere on the Arabian Peninsula have all been extinguished
as the result of political/religious pressure. A few German lodges are warranted
for Saudi Arabia, but these effectively do not meet, and their longer-term
future must be uncertain. In Iran, which has lately had a regular Grand Lodge,
Freemasonry has been destroyed, almost literally, and this occurrence must rate
as one of the greatest tragedies in Masonic history.
Africa has seen an analogous Masonry history. Freemasonry arrived in Morocco in
the 1860s. A Scottish lodge was formed in the country in 1902, and an English
lodge in 1927. Both subsequently moved to Gibraltar. A self-constituted Grand
Lodge was erected in Morocco in 1967, but within a few years it seemingly
disappeared. Somewhat surprisingly, the Grande Loge Nationale Française (GLNF)
chartered three lodges in Morocco on 30 June 1997 – at Casablanca,
Rabat, and Marrakech. The
GLNF obtained permission of the Moroccan Government to erect lodges because this
French Masonic grand body, the only one generally recognized by mainstream Grand
Lodges, strictly prohibits political and religious discussion in its lodges. The
three lodges were constituted by the GLNF into the Grand Lodge of the Kingdom of
Morocco (Grande Loge du Royaume du Maroc) on 15 June 2000, in Marrakech.
Libya and Tunisia all had lodges during their French or Italian colonial
periods, and Egypt once possessed an active Grand Lodge, together with many
lodges under the home Grand Lodges. Popular opinion has it that no lodges
operate in these countries, but that is not entirely the case.
Masonic history of Egypt, in terms of influence on prevailing Arab/Moslem
opinion towards freemasonry, is pivotal. A brief resumé will be offered here,
although certain aspects will be revisited shortly. Lodges began appearing in
Egypt in the early 19th century, with the first warrants coming from France and
Germany. In the 1860s, England, Scotland, and the Grand Orient of Italy all
chartered a number of lodges in the country. In the period immediately following
the Second World War, Scotland had three lodges under charter, and England had
fourteen lodges—the oldest of which, Bulwer Lodge of Cairo #1068 EC, was
chartered in 1865—under a District Grand Lodge formed in 1899.
story of the non-British lodges is one of schism and confusion, with several
Grand Orients rising and falling, combined with heavy influences from Supreme
Councils and other ‘higher’ degrees and rites. A National Grand Lodge of
Egypt was the predominant body, and it had an uneasy relationship with the
British Grand Lodges. Its lodges worked variously in Arabic, Greek, French,
Italian, Hebrew, and German. As will become clear shortly, it is not unlikely
that general Arab opposition to Masonry stems from perceptions of this period.
rise of the Nationalist Movement in Egypt and the assumption of power by
President Nasser led to Freemasonry being suppressed in the mid-1950s. All
British lodges were subsequently closed, with most English lodges being formally
erased from the United Grand Lodge of England’s Roll
of Lodges in 1965. Similarly, Nasser closed Egyptian-chartered lodges.[ii]
the lot of the Craft in Islamic countries in general, and Arab countries in
particular, has not been a happy one. The question is why?
Masons will be aware of various Papal Bulls issued, historically, by the Roman
Catholic Church against Freemasonry, as it understood (or more correctly,
misunderstood) it. In reviewing Islamic attitudes towards Masonry, it must be
first observed that this religion has no personage analogous to the Pope.
However, most Islamic countries do have an official legal/religious consultant.
A number of articles have been written on the subject, dating back as far as the
the most influential body in promulgating and interpreting Islamic Law is the
Islamic Jurisdictional College (IJC). At its meeting on 15 July 1978, it issued
an opinion concerning ‘The Freemasons Organization’.[iii]
The SAJS declared:[iv]
complete research concerning this organization, based on written accounts from
many sources, we have determined:
Freemasonry is a clandestine organization, which conceals or reveals its system,
depending on the circumstances. Its actual principles are hidden from members,
except for chosen members of its higher degrees.
The members of the organisation, worldwide, are drawn from men without
preference for their religion, faith or sect.
The organization attracts members on the basis of providing personal benefits.
It traps men into being politically active, and its aims are unjust.
New members participate in ceremonies of different names and symbols, and who
are frightened from disobeying its regulations and orders.
Preferred members are free to practice their religion, but only members who are
atheist are promoted to its higher degrees, based on how much they are willing
to serve its dangerous principles and plans.
It is a political organization. It has served all revolutions, military and
politically transformations, and in all dangerous changes a relation to this
organization appears either exposed or veiled.
It is a Jewish Organization in its roots. Its secret higher international
administrative board are Jews and it promotes Zionist activities.
Its primary objectives are the distraction of all religions and it distracts
Muslims from Islam.
It tries to recruit influential financial, political, social, or scientific
people to utilize them. It does not consider applicants it cannot utilize. It
recruits kings, prime ministers, high government officials and similar
It has branches under different names as a camouflage so people cannot trace its
activities, especially if the name of ‘Freemasonry’ has opposition. These
hidden branches are known are Lions, Rotary and others. They have wicked
principles that completely contradict the rules of Islam. There is a clear
relationship between Freemasonry, Judaism, and International Zionism. It has
controlled the activities of high Arab Officials in the Palestinian Problem. It
has limited their duties, obligations and activities for the benefit of the
Judaism and International Zionism.
that Freemasonry involves itself in dangerous activities, it is a great hazard,
with wicked objectives, the Jurisdictional Synod determines that Freemasonry is
a dangerous, destructive organization. Any Muslim who affiliates with it,
knowing the truth of its objectives, is an infidel to Islam.
we would see many of the assertions in this ten-point pronouncement as absurd,
or at best inaccurate. But it does give us several clues as to the reasons
behind Arab/Islamic antipathy toward the Craft. This would be seem to be based
largely on political considerations, with religion used as its justification.
Arab Attitudes to Freemasonry
terms of the Arab world, an interesting article recently appeared in Cairo’s Egyptian
Gazette, under the title: ‘FREEMASONRY
IN EGYPT. Is it still around?’[v]
Authored by Samir Raafat, it is quoted here in full:
Egypt, arguments levelled against Freemasonry were selectively derived from the
writings of George Zaidan and Shaheen Makarius—turn of the century writers and
freemasons. Both had commended contemporary businessmen and entrepreneurs, many
of them Jewish, for their active role in reviving Egypt’s capitalistic
economy. Six decades later their statements were being salaciously
re-interpreted so that the businessmen and entrepreneurs of yonder were
portrayed as eager tools of a Judeo-Zionist collusion bent on dominating the
regional economy. In his 660-page volume entitled Freemasonry in the Arab
World, Hussein Omar Hamada dedicates much of his book juggling to Masonic
the predominant conspiracy hypothesis takes credence in the Near East, the
legality of Freemasonry is questioned and subsequently tabled on the Arab
League's agenda. In any case, with the post-1952 departure of Egypt’s haute
khawagerie, lodges and Masonic Temples were rapidly losing their members.
Some freemasons, whether out of fear or self-interest, simply stopped turning up
at the meetings so that even the all-Egyptian Star of the East Lodge had a hard
time supporting itself.
4 April 1964, the Masonic Temple on Alexandria’s Toussoun Street was shut down
by order of the Ministry of Social Affairs. ‘Associations with undeclared
agendas were incompatible with rules covering non profit organizations.’
Further disturbing evidence for the State concerning Freemasonry’s political
goals would turn up the following year in Damascus when master spy Eli Cohen (an
Egyptian freemason) was apprehended.
Jordan and I believe in other parts of the Middle East, the obligation is taken
on the Holy Quran, the Bible or the Old Testament when Jews were members of a
lodge. The perception of ‘What Freemasonry is?’ is the problem. We can’t
promote something people know nothing about. There are too many myths that are
allowed to continue.
is noteworthy that Raafat in this article poses the proposition that Rotary and
Lions clubs are a front for Masonic lodges. Interestingly, this fanciful
assertion, in Egyptian terms, gains even less credence given that Mrs. Susan
Mubarak, the wife of Egypt’s current President, is a strong supporter of
Rotary and plays a prominent role in its international activities. Nonetheless,
it does indicate, again, a measure of paranoia within Arabic opinion.
authors have tackled the subject. Mustufa El-Amin, in his book Freemasonry,
Ancient Egypt and the Islamic Destiny,[vi] compares the symbolism of the Ancient Egyptian
mysteries, and Islamic scriptures, with those of the Craft. He draws on
comparisons made by several authors, including C W Leadbeater,[vii]
who asserts ‘Although our modern Freemasonic rites and symbols are derived
from Egypt…they have reached us for the most part through the Jews…the
wisdom of Egypt was handed down in the secret lodges of Masonry’. While the
veracity of Leadbeater’s thesis is open to question, it undoubtedly has its
uses for anti-Masonists, particularly those with an Islamic perspective.
study is rational and studied, rather than sensational, and not rabidly
anti-Masonic. He concedes that the purpose of Masonry is to seek truth. He
states: ‘I have observed through my research that there are some aspects of
Freemasonry that point in the direction of the Islamic destiny’. However, he
stops short of pronouncing on the compatibility of Islam and the Craft.
Expectedly, he asserts that truth is to be found through the revelations of the
Prophet Mohammad. In addition, he does take exception to a number of aspects of
Freemasonry from his religious position. He is particularly unhappy with the
American ‘Masonic’ order of the Shriners. ‘It should be noted that The
Shriner’s ritual and initiation pertaining to the ‘Kissing of the Black
Stone’ [an allusion to the Kaaba at Mecca] is ridiculous, offensive and
disgraceful. It is a direct mockery of that solemn tradition in the life of
author addresses the ‘problem’ of Masonry ‘mocking the Moslem Faith’.
Dr. Paul Rich states:[ix]
prohibition of Masonry in the Muslim countries of the Middle East is partly
because there are aspects of Masonry which religious people feel verge on
mocking their faith. An example of Masonic ritual which offends some, and that
shows the gulf between believers and Masons, is the resemblance between the
assassination and exhumation of the candidate in the third or Master Mason
degree and religious accounts of resurrection. Almost nothing can be said to
correct their common interpretation of the third degree that the Mason is saved
by Freemasonry, and not by religion.
studied work of El-Amin contrasts with widespread sensationalist anti-Masonic
propaganda, much of which the regular Mason would find incredible. An article in
the American New Solidarity newspaper
in 1983 is a case in point. Under the banner heading ‘British Masons Push Mid
East Holy Wars’, the author states that ‘The Duke of Kent, controller of the
international Mafia from his position as Grand Master of Freemasonry, arrived
last week in Saudi Arabia…(as) the flag-bearer in a widespread effort to
destabilise the Middle East.’ As ridiculous as such assertions may be, they do
not enhance the image of Masonry amongst the unwitting body of the Islamic
overriding impression of Freemasonry in the Arab world is that of a pro-Zionist,
anti-Islamic organisation; involved in conspiracies to undermine their
political-religious status quo. Religious antipathy, based upon the perception
that Masonry mocks the Islamic faith, is certainly a relevant factor. However,
it can be argued that the larger problem lies in the fact that Arab governments,
in looking for someone to blame for their colonized past, saw Freemasonry as a
convenient victim. As a result, Zionism and Freemasonry are largely seen as the
same thing. On the other side, the ‘side of the defence’ if one will, there
is little doubt that indigenous Freemasons in Arab countries have remained
silent for fear of persecution. It is noteworthy that, officially at least,
Islam recognizes and respects both the Jewish and Christian faiths. Thus, while
religion is a factor, politics would seem to be more so. El-Amin draws a clear
distinction when he states: ‘There is a difference between Arab nationalism
and Islam. Arab nationalism oppresses…enslaves…denies women their
rights…is racist. Islam is universal; it is not nationalist.’[xi]
problem for regular, mainstream Freemasonry, even in Western countries, has been
the anti-clerical and atheistic attitudes of the Grand Orient of France and its
minions. To the uninformed, regular Freemasonry and irregular ‘Freemasonry’
are indistinguishable. The Grand Orient of France has historically been very
active in the Middle East. On 14 September 1877, the Grand Orient voted to
eliminate reference to the existence of God from its Constitution, and
subsequently altered its rituals accordingly. As a result, The Grand Orient, as
far as regular Grand Lodges were concerned, ceased to be ‘Masonic’.
split in Freemasonry into two ‘camps’ was certainly felt in the Middle East.
The Grand Orient of Egypt was the mother of several lodges and Grand Lodges
across the area. Initially widely recognized by other mainstream Grand Lodges,
it effectively followed the Grand Orient of France into irregularity. One
suspects that subsequently it was convenient for Arab governments and Islamic
religious authorities, even if they had the knowledge to differentiate between
regular and irregular Freemasonry, to tar the Craft with the anti-religious
the Egyptian Masonic experience is probably the basis for much of the Islamic
antipathy towards the Craft, it is useful to consider Egyptian Masonry in more
depth. The degree to which Freemasonry permeated Egyptian society prior to its
banning in 1964 is not particularly clear. Gerard Galtier suggests that the
Craft, especially the ‘Egyptian’ Order of Memphis and Misraim, enjoyed
‘immense success’ among the high society of various nationalities and
religious groups until at least the reign of King Farouk in 1952. Subsequent to
the demise of the Egyptian monarchy, lodges were viewed with considerable
suspicion and began to fade away.[xii]
the 1956 Suez War, Egypt’s first president, Gamal Nasser, expelled most
resident foreigners, which included many Masons. As a result, lodges lost
members, and those remaining undoubtedly became very circumspect, given the new
regime. According to Galtier, in 1964, after a huge scandal involving the
Israeli master spy Eli Cohen, who reportedly belonged to an Egyptian lodge,
‘the Egyptian government banned Freemasonry from Egyptian soil altogether’.[xiii]
article of Samir Raafat, if nothing else, does reflect the extreme sensitivity
with which Masonry is viewed in the Arab world. In his discourse on Freemasonry
in Egypt, particularly during the formative years of the modern Egyptian state,
author Karim Wissa, a civil servant in the Egyptian Foreign Affairs Ministry,
makes a number of accusations concerning the Craft. In summary, Wissa’s
hypothesis is that early Egyptian political parties, which served as the
backbone of the country’s 1952 revolutionary movement, were either
pseudo-Masonic organisations or, at least, highly influenced by Masonic
principles and ideals. Unlike many other Arabic researchers, Wissa does seem to
recognise the difference (‘strong rivalry’, in his terms) between French and
British Masonic groupings. He noted that the British brand of Freemasonry,
regulated in Egypt by the United Grand Lodge of England, was traditionalist in
style, and practiced religious tolerance with no political overtones. The French
brand, regulated by the Grand Orient of France (and to a lesser extent by the
Orders of Memphis and Misraim), was definitely ‘anti-clerical’ and
‘anti-monarchy’ with extremely political overtones, especially in the
spreading of ideals of revolution and republicanism. He asserts, not without
proof, that this French brand of Masonry infiltrated the Egyptian new
elite – those people who played a prominent part in the revolution to
his evidence, Wissa identifies a wide assortment of important Egyptian
personalities who were directly involved with Masonic lodges in Egypt prior to
its outlawing in 1964. These included several members of the Royal Family, from
Ismail Pasha (known to the West as the ‘Khedive’) to the last monarch of
Egypt, the exiled King Farouk. Wissa also identifies the Masonic affiliations of
Egyptian political leaders such as Ahmad Orabi, who headed the failed coup
against Tewfik Pasha in 1882, and Mohamad Farid and Saad Zaghloul, who headed
the influential National and Wafd Party which started the popular uprising
against British rule in Egypt. After Nasser’s revolution, the tide turned
sharply against the Egyptian Masonry, with the new Order looking upon it with
suspicion, and accusing it, conveniently, of strong Zionist tendencies.[xv]
is an interesting aside that, although Masonry is banned in Egypt, the American
Rosicrucian Order (AMORC)—not to be confused with the Masonic Rosicrucian
order (SRIA in England, SRIS in Scotland)—is tolerated in Egypt today. AMORC
does possess ritualistic aspects that are imitative of Freemasonry being,
arguably, a hybrid of Hermeticism and Gnosticism. Reportedly, it has even been
permitted to perform its rituals and ceremonies inside ancient Egyptian
monuments, including the Great Pyramid.[xvi]
the political-religious-social history of the Arab world, it is possible to
comprehend the causes of Arabic-Islamic antipathy towards Freemasonry, as
Moslems have been led to understand it (or more correctly, mostly, misunderstand
it). If regular Freemasonry is to address the issues and problems involved in
the future, it is necessary that we have this understanding. That said, it is
nonetheless difficult to see Islamic anti-Masonic attitudes being arrested
there is some hope. The re-introduction of regular Freemasonry into Morocco,
with government permission, would seem to indicate that at least in that
country, an understanding of the issues has been achieved. However, given the
unresolved Arab-Israeli dispute, and the rising tide of religious fundamentalism
in the Arab world, it would appear that general Masonic prospects in the Islamic
world do not look widely positive, at least in the short term.
historical synopsis of each country in the Arab/Islamic world, which follows,
provides a useful background to the subject. They are detailed alphabetically.
introduction of Freemasonry into Algeria, a former French colony, goes back to
1831 with the creation of the French military lodge ‘Cirrus’ followed by
lodge ‘Bélisaire’ and lodge ‘Ismaël’ in 1833. All three were erected
under the Grand Orient of France. A major step towards the acceptance of
non-Europeans in colonial Algeria was achieved with the initiation in 1864 of
Emir Abd-el-Kader, who had led the war against the French conquest from 1832 to
1847. However, this breakthrough was short-lived and few Muslims subsequently
joined Freemasonry in Algeria, evidently because they could generally not share
the anti-religious views of the Grand Orient of France Masons.
1939, just before WWII, Algeria possessed eleven lodges under the Grand Lodge of
France and twenty-one lodges under the Grand Orient of France, plus a couple of
lodges under Le Droit Humain and a lodge of Memphis-Misraïm. After 1945
Freemasonry did not regain its former importance and with the independence of
Algeria in 1963 it disappeared altogether, following the repatriation of most
French nationals back to France. Freemasonry is today prohibited.[xvii]
oil-rich Arab State on the Persian Gulf has until relatively recently possessed
several lodges. Its first lodge was St. Andrew of Bahrain, erected in 1949 under
the Grand Lodge of Scotland. It first met in an aerodrome, and then in a church
hall, prior to building its own temple in the desert. The then Emir of Bahrain
gave the lodge the land on a ninety-nine year lease at nominal rent. In 1954, St
George Bahrain #7389, was founded under the English Constitution. Both lodges
largely consisted of British oil workers. Plainly, to this point the Bahrain
government was decidedly not anti-Masonic. However, by the 1970s it had become
so, and both lodges ceased operations in the country. Why this change occurred
is unclear, although the reasons can be surmised. The Scottish lodge was
subsequently erased, while St George Bahrain Lodge moved to Ashford, England,
where it continues to meet.[xviii]
fate of the Craft in Iran forms the greatest Masonic catastrophe since the
Second World War. The discovery of oil in Persia brought many British workers
and traders, a percentage of whom were Masons. Scotland was the most active in
issuing warrants, beginning with Lodge Light in Iran #1191 at Shiraz in 1919,
which later moved to Teheran. Three other Scottish lodges followed prior to
World War Two. England weighed in with St George Abadan Lodge #6058 at Abadan in
1945. French (GLNF) and German lodges were also erected in the country after the
the growth of the Craft in Iran led to moves to form a Grand Lodge, and this was
achieved with Scottish sponsorship in 1969. By 1978, the Grand Lodge of Iran had
43 lodges and 1,035 members. That was the last year of its existence in Iran.
The Islamic Revolutionary Government took control of Iran in that year,
whereupon the Islamic Revolution Guards immediately raided all Masonic Temples
and confiscated the property of all lodges. They reportedly found a list of 700
members in the residence of the Grand Master, Ja’afar Sherif Emami, who was
formerly Prime Minister to the Shah. The Islamic Revolution in Iran saw
Freemasonry swept away rapidly, and it appears that a number of Masons suffered
execution at its hands. Whether these deaths were occasioned for political or
anti-Masonic reasons will probably never be known, and the fate of many Iranian
Masons may equally remain a mystery.
Iranian Masons, however, escaped to the USA, where they formed the Grand Lodge
of Iran in exile. A reasonable number of American Grand Lodges, in particular,
accord fraternal recognition to the Grand Lodge of Iran in exile, which
maintains an office in California.[xix]
first lodge, Mesopotamia Lodge #3820 EC, was established in 1917. The first
lodge in Baghdad was Baghdad Lodge #4022 EC, erected in 1919. By the 1950s, Iraq
possessed nine lodges under an English District Grand Lodge. A Scottish lodge,
Lodge Faiha #1311, was erected at Baghdad in 1923. However, the coming of Iraqi
independence, and the subsequent left-wing government attained by that country,
made the continuance of Masonry impossible. All lodges in the country were
forced to close their doors in 1965.[xx]
the land of the legendary birthplace of Freemasonry, the Craft has flourished,
particularly since the Second World War. The first symbolic lodge (Royal Solomon
Mother Lodge) was established under charter from the Grand Lodge of Canada about
1873. It was comprised mostly of North American Masons who had come to Palestine
expecting to establish an agricultural settlement. Their colony floundered and
so did the lodge. However, some of their members then applied to the Misraim
Rite then active in Egypt, and established Port of Solomon’s Temple Lodge
in Jaffa. Shortly afterwards this lodge received a large contingent of French
engineers who had come to build the Jaffa–Jerusalem railroad. In 1906 the
lodge changed affiliation to the Grand Orient of France and became Barkai Lodge.
Today, it meets at Tel Aviv as Barkai #17, within the Grand Lodge of Israel.
Lodge Barkai admitted many prominent Turkish, Arabic and Jewish citizens of
Jaffa, and later Tel Aviv.
several lodges were established in the Holy Land by the then widely-recognised
National Grand Lodge of Egypt, which in turn formed themselves into the National
Grand Lodge of Palestine in 1933. In the years between 1930 and 1940, the United
Grand Lodge of England warranted three lodges in the area, and Scotland
chartered eleven in the same period. In addition, German Masons who had fled the
Nazi tyranny established five German lodges in the 1930s.
1948, the British mandate over Palestine ended and all English lodges withdrew
from the Holy Land. A general desire for administrative and fraternal unity
among lodges in what was now the State of Israel was felt at this time. In 1953,
the Grand Lodge of the State of Israel came into being, largely under Scottish
sponsorship. Its thirty founding lodges consisted of all those in Israel holding
Scottish charters, those under the National Grand Lodge of Palestine, and the
five German lodges. Rarely in the formation of a new grand body has such
unanimity of purpose been seen, as it was in Israel, and it has since expanded
seal of the Grand Lodge of Israel is of particular interest. It is unique in
design and includes the square and compasses, together with the emblems of the
three great faiths to which the great majority of members belong: the Star of
David of the Jews, the Crescent of the Muslims, and the Cross of the Christians.
1948 about 200,000 Arabs remained in the Palestinian sections of what became
Israel, comprising 20% of the total population. Of the thirty lodges that formed
the Grand Lodge of the State of Israel, ten worked in the Tel Aviv/Jaffa area,
five in Jerusalem, four in Haifa and one lodge in Tiberius. Arabic, Hebrew and
English were the working languages for most of the lodges. The majority that
worked in Arabic subsequently changed their language to Hebrew. Interestingly,
in 1981, Brother Jamil Shalhoub, from Nazareth, was the first Arab who was
elected as Grand Master. He was re-elected in 1982.
four lodges work in Arabic in Israel, as follows: Akko Lodge #36 and Haddar
Lodge #45 at Acre; Torch Lodge #65 at Jerusalem; and Nazareth Lodge #71 at
and the West Bank
lodges remained working in the Palestinian territories of West Bank and Gaza
after 1967. After the Oslo Accords of 1996, some members of the Arab ‘Orient
Lodge’ of Jericho tried to revive lodges to work in Jerusalem, Jericho and
Nablus, but they were unsuccessful.
formerly the British protectorate of Trans-Jordan, is an independent Monarchy.
It would seem that Jordan, based on its present boundaries, has never possessed
many lodges. The first lodge in Trans-Jordan was Lodge Quraish founded by an
Egyptian Freemason in 1923. The lodge subsequently changed its affiliation and
name to Lodge Al-Naser (‘Victory’). In 1956 it united with another four
lodges that were working in Palestine prior to 1948 on the West Bank of Jordan,
to form Beit Al-Maqdes (Jerusalem) Lodge.
1956, a Grand Lodge of Jordan was self-constituted, with all its lodges on the
West Bank. The origin of these lodges is obscure. These lodges (now in the area
politically under the Palestinian National Authority), then numbering five,
ceased operation after the annexation of the West Bank by Israel in 1967. It
would appear the Palestinian lodges were subsequently revived, but ceased
operation in 1994 in the face of political opposition. In 1995, there were
evidently attempts to revive the West Bank lodges, but the result is unknown,
although anecdotal evidence suggests at least some are operating.
only remaining mainstream lodge is Lodge Jordan #1339 SC. The Grand Lodge of
Scotland originally chartered it in 1925 at Jaffa (Tel-Aviv), but it moved to
Amman in 1952, where it has worked since. Lodge Jordan now has the unhappy
distinction of being the only British-warranted lodge still working anywhere in
the Middle East, and effectively the only mainstream lodge operating in this
area outside Israel and Lebanon. It has had something of a beleaguered history.
In very recent years it was forced to close through political pressure. It is
again operating, but understandably keeps a low profile. It works in Arabic,
using a Scottish ritual.[xxii]
small Arab State bordering the Persian Gulf, oil-rich Kuwait had, until
recently, two English lodges. These were Kuwait Lodge #6810, and the Rowland
Chadwick Lodge #7472. The former was erected in 1949, the latter in 1956. Strong
opposition from the Kuwait Government saw both these lodges become dormant, and
sadly, neither re-appeared on the English Roll of Lodges in 1982. Members of
various Prince Hall jurisdictions commenced a Masonic study club in 1999,
meeting every Saturday on a US military base, with Masons of all Prince Hall and
mainstream jurisdictions welcome to attend. However, as personnel are rotated
every few months, this does not enhance the club’s chances of longevity.[xxiii]
has an unparalleled Masonic history. It has been the Grand Lodge of Scotland
and, somewhat surprisingly, the Grand Lodge of New York that have been
responsible for most of the regular lodges located in this country. The first
Scottish lodge was formed at Beirut in 1862, working in French. After several
dormant periods, it ceased operation in 1895. Four other Scottish lodges were
erected in Lebanon up until the time of the First World War, but only some of
these revived thereafter. The Grand Orient of France was next into Lebanon,
forming a lodge in 1869, working in Arabic. Two further lodges followed. None
survived the First World War.
new lodges formed before the Great War were a lodge at Beirut under the Ottoman
Grand Lodge (later the Grand Lodge of Turkey), and a lodge under the National
Grand Lodge of Egypt, erected about 1914. A number of other Egyptian-warranted
lodges were chartered thereafter, and after the First World War these were
formed into a District Grand Lodge. By the end of World War Two, it would seem
these lodges were extinct, merged, or hived off into various spurious
‘Masonic’ bodies. An exception would appear to be a ‘Grand Lodge of
Lebanon’, which was founded in 1936, probably descended from Egyptian lodges,
which stills exists today, and with relative success.
recent years, five Scottish lodges had survived in Lebanon, with a few others
being less fortunate. The three lodges in Beirut met at the aptly named Peace
Lodge Building, in Beshara Street, Beirut. With the arrival of the Lebanese
Civil War in 1975, the Scottish lodges found continuance impossible and all five
became dormant. The Peace Lodge Building was badly damaged in the war, and has
not yet been restored.
first New York-chartered lodge was the Syrio-American Lodge #1, formed in 1924
by returning American-Lebanese immigrants. Several further lodges were erected
prior to World War Two, and subsequently. With the exception of one lodge
originally erected in Syria, all New York chartered lodges in its Syria-Lebanon
District (ten in total) have operated in recent times. During the Lebanese Civil
War, most lodges became dormant, although at least Syrio-American lodge
continued to meet intermittently. Since the cessation of the civil war, only
three of the five Scottish lodges has re-commenced work, though it is hoped the
two still remaining dormant will be restored in the future. All the New York
lodges revived subsequent to the civil war, although some are still experiencing
meeting difficulties. Presently, six of the New York lodges are working, but in
due course it is expected that all ten will again be operating. One further
mainstream lodge has been previously chartered in Lebanon. This is Fraternità
Italo-Libanse, erected at Jounieh in 1989 under the Grand Orient of Italy.
However, it is reported as not meeting currently.
large range of other lodges and Grand Lodges operate in Lebanon. The Grand
Orient of France has two lodges in Beirut. Over the years a large number of
spurious and/or self-constituted Grand Lodges have been erected in Lebanon.
Aside from the Grand Lodge of Lebanon, already mentioned, others include the
Lebanese Grand Lodge, the Federal Grand Lodge of Lebanon, the United Grand Lodge
for Lebanon, the United Lebanese Grand Lodge, and about twenty other so-called
Masonic bodies. Many of these ‘Grand Lodges’ have one constituent lodge and
a ‘Grand Master for Life’. Not a few sell Masonic degrees for profit. The
existence of these spurious and disreputable ‘Grand Lodges’ does nothing to
enhance the public profile of Masonry in Lebanon, or the wider Arab world.[xxiv]
former French and Spanish colony has an interesting Masonic history. From 1860
onwards a small number of ‘colonial-type’ lodges were created, mainly in
Tangier, under the Grand Orient of France, the Grand Lodge of France, the Grand
Orient of Spain, the Grand Lodge of Spain and even the Grand Lodge Lusitania of
1902, Lodge Coronation #934 was established with a Scottish charter, and in 1927
England warranted New Friendship Lodge #4997. These two British lodges started
their lives in Tangier, but both soon moved to Gibraltar. New Friendship Lodge
later changed its named to Gibraltar Lodge.
period between the two World Wars was one of further development of Freemasonry
in Morocco, but also one of increasing leftist political and anti-religious
involvement of the French Masonic grand bodies. In 1925 a radical member of the
Grand Orient of France was appointed Resident-General of French Morocco.
In 1936 the Fascists took over in Spain, and as a result Freemasonry was
brutally suppressed in Spanish Morocco.
to Moroccan independence in 1956, all Masonic lodges disappeared from public
view from 1958 onwards, as a result of a law banning all ‘foreign inspired
organizations’. After a difficult period in semi-clandestine operation, the
Grand Lodge ‘Atlas’ of Morocco was erected at Casablanca ‘by three lodges
under the aegis of the Grand Lodge of Switzerland’ on 24 July 1967, three
years after the first of these lodges was formed.
would seem that the original lodge in Casablanca (erected in 1964) was
‘self-constituted’, although its members largely hailed from mainstream
lodges in Switzerland. Swiss Masons sponsored it, but it was not actually placed
on the Roll of the Swiss Grand Lodge, it being ‘totally independent of
Switzerland’. The reason for this is that the Constitution of the Grand Lodge
‘Alpina’ of Switzerland does not permit it to charter lodges outside
would appear likely that the original ‘self-constituted’ lodge split itself
into three in order to form a Grand Lodge. It is noteworthy that it was twelve
months after the Grand Lodge ‘Atlas’ was formed that ‘Alpina’ recognized
it. Had ‘Alpina’ sponsored/constituted ‘Atlas’, it would probably have
recognized it immediately. Given that ‘Atlas’ was, in fact,
self-constituted, this would almost certainly explain why it was never
recognized by any other mainstream Grand Lodge.
1971 and 1974, some members under the Grand Lodge ‘Atlas’ broke away in
order to create a rival Grande Loge du Maroc. Subsequently, Moroccan Government
authorities became highly suspicious of the assumed leftist anti-religious and
anti-royalist activities of Grand Orient Masons and effectively forced all
existing lodges to cease functioning. In would appear that a few remaining
Moroccan Masons continued to work although, not surprisingly, little or nothing
was heard of them either inside or outside the country.
a change has taken place since 1997, with the official constitution of three
lodges in Morocco by the Grande Loge Nationale Française (GLNF). The GLNF
obtained permission of the Moroccan Government to erect lodges because this
French Masonic grand body, the only one generally recognized by mainstream Grand
Lodges, strictly prohibits political and religious discussion in its lodges. It
is unclear whether any ‘remnant’ Masons from the defunct Grand Lodge
‘Atlas’, or Grande Loge du Maroc, became founders of these three lodges.
three GLNF lodges were consecrated on 30 June 1997. These are Loge el
Andalouss #1081, which works in Casablanca in both French and English; Loge
Ahl al Kitab #1082, which works in Rabat in Arabic; and Loge al Hikmat
#1083, which works in Marrakech, in both Arabic and French. These
three lodges were constituted by the GLNF into the Grand Lodge of the Kingdom of
Morocco (Grande Loge du Royaume du Maroc) on 15 June 2000, in Marrakech.[xxv]
would suspect that Saudi Arabia, being a very traditional Islamic Monarchy,
would be devoid of Masonic lodges. Indeed, that was the case until 1962, when
the American Canadian Grand Lodge (within the United Grand Lodges of Germany)
erected Arabian Lodge #882. It was followed by four others. All these lodges
were formed to cater for foreigners in the country, mainly North American and
British Masons in Saudi Arabia as a result of its oil. However, following
successive crackdowns by the Saudi police, none of these lodges are effectively
operating, except as casual fraternal groups.[xxvi]
British Counsel to the Ottoman Empire, Sir Alexander Drummond, opened a lodge in
Aleppo (now in modern Syria) on the 3 February 1748, but it would appear to have
been short-lived. It has been claimed that Drummond was appointed District Grand
Master (EC) for the Orient in 1747. There are also claims that a Syrian prince,
who was initiated in Egypt, introduced Masonry into Syria in the 1860s, but
evidence appears scant. The Grand Orients of Italy and France established lodges
at Damascus in Syria (then part of the Turkish Ottoman Empire) in the 1860s, but
details of both are sparse. The French lodge, Loge le Liban, in
particular, seems to have involved itself in political activities. The Italian
and French lodges appear to have to expired by the turn of the century, although
there are also suggestions that Egyptian and Turkish-chartered lodges were
working in Damascus by the time.
is evidence of a lodge being formed in Damascus under the National Grand Lodge
of Egypt in late 1936. This lodge appears to have promptly split itself into
three, whereupon they then formed a Grand Lodge of Syria, under Egyptian
patronage, although it may have only been a District Grand Lodge under
Egypt—the available documentation being ambiguous. Either way, these
indigenous lodges seem to have remained active, although they appear to have
remained unrecognised outside the country, until the Craft was banned in Syria
by decree, on 9 August 1965.
chartered Lodge Light in Damascus #1058, in 1909; and the Grand Lodge of New
York had Ibrahim el Khalil Lodge #4, formed in 1924, at the same location, under
its District of Syria-Lebanon. Subsequent to the Second World War and Syrian
Independence, as with the unrecognised lodges, these also were closed in 1965.
There was no change in this situation in the 1990s.[xxvii]
came to Tunisia in the 19th century, with a number of lodges being chartered by
the Grand Orient of France. In 1879, eight French lodges formed the Grand Orient
of Tunisia, under a warrant from the Grand Orient of Italy. Lodges were still
reported to be working in Tunisia after the Second World War, but they did not
survive Tunisian independence in 1956 and the subsequent proclamation of Islam
as the state religion.
in 1998, a lodge was formed in Tunisia under the recently formed Italian
‘Grand Lodge of the Union’ (Gran Loggia dell’ Unione). This is Loggia
Italia #16. It meets quarterly at the Oriental Hotel, Tunis. The legal position
of this lodge is unclear.[xxviii]
oil-based Persian Gulf country is made up of several small Arab Emirates, which
used to be referred to collectively as Trucial Oman. England erected its first
and only lodge, at Sharjah, in 1967. This was Trucial Lodge #8160, and it
largely serviced Masons who were British oil workers. However, this lodge had
become dormant by the early 1980s, and was later erased.[xxix]
located at the base of the Arabian Peninsula, consisted of two separate
countries, North Yemen and South Yemen, until they were politically united in
1990. South Yemen was formerly known simply as ‘Aden’, or more correctly,
the British Protectorate of South Arabia. Aden had the honour of receiving the
first charter for a lodge in the Middle East. The Grand Lodge of Scotland
granted this in 1850 to Lodge Felix #335. Lodge Centenary #1449, was erected
under the same authority in 1900. England stepped in with Lodge Light in Arabia
#3870, in 1918. This lodge now works at Croydon, England. After World War Two, a
third Scottish lodge was established in Aden, Lodge Pioneer #1305. The Scottish
lodges ‘went into darkness’, but two of them have since been resurrected as
research lodges meeting in Scotland. The Independence of South Yemen brought it
under the control of a totalitarian government, which made the conditions for
Freemasonry untenable. North Yemen appears to have never had a lodge.[xxx]
other Islamic countries that are not Arabic are also useful to consider
comparatively. They are Indonesia, Malaysia and Turkey.
no longer exists in Indonesia, having been banned by the Indonesian Government
in 1965. England had established a lodge at Sumatra as early as 1765, but it
later expired. By the 1950s, the Grand East of the Netherlands has four lodges
in Sumatra and nineteen in Java. In April 1955, four lodges in Djakarta combined
to form a Grand Lodge (called Timur Agung Indonesia). President Soekarno dissolved
it in 1965. One Dutch lodge, De Ster in het Oosten #14 (Star of
the East), dating from 1759, moved back to the Netherlands where it still meets
at Bilthoven. There are occasional reports concerning a Grand Lodge working in
Indonesia, but if it does operate, the politics of the country would suggest an underground
existence. It is certainly not recognised outside Indonesia by any mainstream
Grand Lodge. That stated, Co-Masonry (Le Droit Humain) still has at least
one lodge in Indonesia, Lodge Hermes at Bandung, although there may be
others. Co-Masonry was evidently not banned, as its membership includes women,
and thus ‘could not be involved in political activity’.[xxxi]
is a South East Asian country consisting of the former British colonies of
Malaya (now East Malaysia), and North Borneo (Sarawak and Sabah, now West
Malaysia). Masonry in this area is controlled by District Grand Lodges under
England and Scotland. The first lodge in the country then known as Malaya was
established at Penang in 1809. This was an English lodge warranted by the Antients,
but it subsequently expired. It was not until 1875 that Malaya received a lodge
that was to survive. This was the English lodge, Royal Prince of Wales #1555,
which still works happily at Penang. Scotland’s earliest surviving lodge also
works at Penang, Lodge Scotia #1003, warranted in 1906. Currently, twenty-nine
regular lodges work in the country.
recent decades, the Malaysian Government has taken an interest in the Craft
within its boundaries. The Government’s Societies Act requires that
Masonic lodges regularly disclose their membership and certain other details to
the Registrar of Societies. However, this statute does not appear to have
been directed against Freemasonry in particular, although the Craft has in the
past been discussed in the Malaysian Parliament. Nevertheless, satisfactory
relations between Craft authorities and the Government have been maintained, and
there appears to be no reason to suspect that this relationship will not be
continued in the future. It is interesting to note that Malaysia does have a
substantial ethnic Chinese minority, and that membership of the Craft is largely
drawn from that quarter, rather than from the Malays who are mostly Moslem.[xxxii]
is not an Arabic country, but it is people are overwhelmingly Moslem. The
difference is that, unlike Arabic countries, Islam is not the State religion,
thanks to the founder of modern Turkey, Kemal Ataturk, who constructed a
strictly secular state.
is documented reference to the existence of lodges in Turkey in 1738. These
lodges appear to have emanated from various European sources. In 1748 Sultan
Mahmud I used the pretext of Pope Clement XII’s Bull, ‘In Eminenti’ (April
1738), to ban Freemasonry by royal edict, but the edict was never put into
force. By the end of the 18th century many lodges were operating and they
flourished after the French Revolution and during Napoleon’s reign. On 15/16
June 1826, in order to reform the army, Sultan Mahmud II abolished the corrupt
military order of the Janissaries in a bloodbath. The Janissaries were mostly
members of the Bektachi sect, which was also abolished. Freemasonry was closed
with the pretext that it was a kind of ‘Bektachism’ and many Freemasons were
sent into exile.
the political climate eventually changed, and the Craft was re-introduced during
the Crimean War, in 1856. In that year an English-warranted lodge, Oriental
#988, was formed in Constantinople (later Instanbul), with Lord Bulwer, the
British Ambassador, as Foundation Master. After an irregular Grand Lodge was
created by an Irish officer (Captain Atkinson) in the British contingent during
the Crimean War, the United Grand Lodge of England decided to create its own
District Grand Lodge in the area, with Bulwer as District Grand Master. The
District Grand Lodge was consecrated on the 24 June 1862 in the British Embassy.
Ten English lodges were established in Turkey between 1860 and 1870. Ireland,
Scotland and several other Grand Lodges/Grand Orients issued charters in Turkey
during this period. Italy had fourteen lodges, Germany five, France three,
Poland two, Spain two, Greece two, Hungary one and Egypt one.[xxxiii]
expansion of the Craft was slow, as various Ottoman Sultans issued edicts
suppressing Freemasonry. However, during the reign of Sultan Abdülhamid II
(1876–1909), the position changed. Abdülhamid favoured Anglo-Saxon
Freemasonry, and even donated money towards its balls and charities. On the
other hand, he considered Freemasons working under lodges chartered by the Grand
Orients of France and Italy to be politically suspect, and he had them closely
watched by his police. His fears were to prove justified. Members of these
lodges favoured the overthrow Abdülhamid’s rule and the establishment of a
constitutional monarchy. This ‘politically-active Freemasonry’ achieved its
goal through the ‘Unity and Progress’ political party, which organized its
political and subversive activities in Masonic lodges under the Italian, French
and Spanish jurisdictions. In 1908 a constitutional monarchy was declared and a
committee of deputies deposed Abdülhamid, all of whom were Freemasons.
Turkish Supreme Council had been founded in Istanbul in 1861 by Prince Abdülhalim
Pasha, brother of the Khedive of Egypt (who was also District Grand Master for
Egypt, EC). This Supreme Council became dormant in the 1880s but was revived on
3 March 1909 and immediately formed the Grand Lodge of the Ottoman Empire (13
July 1909). The new Grand Orient attracted the allegiance of most lodges under
non-British foreign jurisdictions. It initially consisted of fourteen lodges
then holding French, Italian or Spanish charters. It modelled its constitution
on that of the Grand Orient of France. The Grand Lodge of the Ottoman Empire
(later re-named the Grand Orient of Turkey) enjoyed a period of sustained
expansion, erecting 65 lodges prior to 1935. However, the political climate in
Turkey had been deteriorating, and the Grand Orient became dormant in 1935.[xxxiv]
Turkish Supreme Council revived in 1948, and controlled Turkish Craft lodges
until it divested control to the Grand Lodge of Turkey, founded in 1956 and
formed by 29 Craft lodges. The Grand Lodge of Scotland consecrated the ‘new’
Grand Lodge in April 1965, and Turkish lodges at this time largely adopted the
Craft ritual of the Grand Lodge of Scotland, although still exhibiting a
Continental heritage, particularly French. The Grand Lodge also adopted,
largely, the rules and regulations of the Grand Lodge of Scotland. The Grand
Lodge of Turkey was recognised by England and Ireland in 1970, and today enjoys
fraternal relations with most mainstream Grand Lodges around the world.
total, the secular nature of the Turkish body politic, combined with its
Freemasonry adopting regularity despite doubtful antecedents, has created a most
successful Masonic establishment.[xxxv]
Rich, Dr. Paul, Masonry and The Middle
East. See: http://www.paulrich.net/papers/mideastmasons.html
Henderson, K W & Pope T, Freemasonry Universal: a new guide to the
Masonic World, vol 2, Global Masonic Publications, Melbourne 2000.
‘The Curse of Freemasonry’
in Questions of Faith, Saudi Gazette, 13 January 1995.
This is an edited summary.
Raafat, Samir, ‘Freemasonry in
Egypt. Is it still around?’ in Egyptian Gazette, Cairo 1 March
El-Amin, Mustafa, Freemasonry, Ancient Egypt, and the Islamic Destiny,
New Mind Productions, New Jersey, USA 1988.
Leadbeater, Charles W, Ancient Mystic
Rites, Theosophical Publishing House, 1986.
El-Amin, op cit, p 123.
Rich, Dr. Paul, op cit.
White, Christopher, ‘British Masons
Push Mid East Holy War’ in New Solidarity, USA, vol XIV #6, 25
March 1983, p 1 ff.
El-Amin, op cit, p 155.
Galtier, G, Maçonnerie Egyptienne, Rose Croix and Neo-Chevalerie, Ed Do Rocher,
1989, p 36 ff.
Wissa, Karim, Freemasonry in Egypt from Bonaparte to Zaghloul, Turica Tome xxiv,
Bauvel, R, Secret Chamber, Century,
1999, pp 150–155.
Henderson, K W & Pope T, op cit, p 15.
Layiktez, Celil, The History of Freemasonry in Turkey, vol 1 – The
Beginning, 1721–1956, Grand Lodge of Turkey, 1999.
Henderson, K W & Pope T, op cit, p 280–284.