The code words often used on the Underground Railroad were: “tracks” (routes fixed by abolitionist sympathizers); “stations” or “depots” (hiding places); “conductors” (guides on the Underground Railroad); “agents” (sympathizers who helped the slaves connect to the Railroad); “station masters” (those who hid slaves in
Who were the station masters on the Underground Railroad?
These eight abolitionists helped enslaved people escape to freedom.
- Isaac Hopper. Abolitionist Isaac Hopper.
- John Brown. Abolitionist John Brown, c.
- Harriet Tubman.
- Thomas Garrett.
- William Still.
- Levi Coffin.
- Elijah Anderson.
- Thaddeus Stevens.
What did the station masters do in the Underground Railroad?
Some, like Harriet Tubman, were “conductors,” who led the rescue missions, while others—John Brown, for example—were “station masters,” hosting fugitives in their homes and arranging safe passage to freedom.
What is a station on the Underground Railroad?
What was a “station” on the Underground Railroad? Using the terminology of the railroad, people’s homes or businesses, where fugitive passengers and conductors could safely hide, were “stations.” Those who went south to find slaves seeking freedom were called “pilots.”
Who helped with the Underground Railroad?
The Underground Railroad had many notable participants, including John Fairfield in Ohio, the son of a slaveholding family, who made many daring rescues, Levi Coffin, a Quaker who assisted more than 3,000 slaves, and Harriet Tubman, who made 19 trips into the South and escorted over 300 slaves to freedom.
What does Station Master mean?
Definition of stationmaster: an official in charge of the operation of a railroad station.
Was there a real railroad in the Underground Railroad?
The escape network was neither literally underground nor a railroad. ( Actual underground railroads did not exist until 1863.) It was known as a railroad, using rail terminology such as stations and conductors, because that was the transportation system in use at the time.
What states were part of the Underground Railroad?
Most of the enslaved people helped by the Underground Railroad escaped border states such as Kentucky, Virginia and Maryland. In the deep South, the Fugitive Slave Act of 1793 made capturing escaped enslaved people a lucrative business, and there were fewer hiding places for them.
How far did the Underground Railroad stretch?
The length of the route to freedom varied but was often 500 to 600 miles. Those who were strong—and lucky—might make it to freedom in as little as two months. For others, the journey could last more than a year. Harriet Tubman was one of the most famous conductors along the Underground Railroad.
What were slaves called on the Underground Railroad?
The free individuals who helped runaway slaves travel toward freedom were called conductors, and the fugitive slaves were referred to as cargo. The safe houses used as hiding places along the lines of the Underground Railroad were called stations.
What happened to Cesar in the Underground Railroad?
While the show doesn’t show us what happens after their encounter, Caesar comes to Cora in a dream later, confirming to viewers that he was killed. In the novel, Caesar faces a similar fate of being killed following his capture, though instead of Ridgeway and Homer, he is killed by an angry mob.
How do I know if my house was on the Underground Railroad?
1) Check the date when the house was built.
- Check the date when the house was built.
- At your county clerk’s office, or wherever historical deeds are stored in your locality, research the property to determine who owned it between the American Revolution and the Civil War (roughly 1790-1860).
Who is the most famous person in the Underground Railroad?
HARRIET TUBMAN – The Best-Known Figure in UGR History Harriet Tubman is perhaps the best-known figure related to the underground railroad. She made by some accounts 19 or more rescue trips to the south and helped more than 300 people escape slavery.
Does the Underground Railroad still exist?
It includes four buildings, two of which were used by Harriet Tubman. Ashtabula County had over thirty known Underground Railroad stations, or safehouses, and many more conductors. Nearly two-thirds of those sites still stand today.
What did Levi Coffin do?
Levi Coffin, (born October 28, 1798, New Garden [now in Greensboro], North Carolina, U.S.—died September 16, 1877, Cincinnati, Ohio), American abolitionist, called the “President of the Underground Railroad,” who assisted thousands of runaway slaves on their flight to freedom.
9 Unsung Heroes of the Underground Railroad
With hundreds of people participating in the Underground Railroad’s operation, which spanned from the Deep South all the way to Canada, it’s hardly surprising that the network of underground pathways and safe homes known as the Underground Railroad was so large in scope. Some, like as Harriet Tubman, served as “conductors,” directing rescue efforts, while others, such as John Brown, served as “station masters,” welcoming fugitives into their houses and facilitating their safe journey to safety after their capture.
1. William Still
William Still, who was born in 1821 to previously enslaved parents in New Jersey, traveled to Philadelphia when he was 23 years old and took up the abolitionist banner in more ways than one. As a result, he learned himself to read and write and obtained employment as a clerk for the Pennsylvania Abolition Society, where he rose through the ranks until he was appointed head of the organization’s new Vigilance Committee in the early 1850s. While in that role, Still administered the region’s network of safe houses, which included his own residence, and generated funds to support important rescue operations, including a number of those undertaken by Harriet Tubman.
The fact that he’s frequently referred to as “the Father of the Underground Railroad” is due to another factor.
Hopefully, the “amazing drive and ambition” displayed in the terrible stories will serve as an inspiration to Black Americans as they continue the fight for civil rights.
2. John P. Parker
When John P. Parker was 8 years old, a trader in Norfolk, Virginia, removed him from his enslaved mother and sold him to a doctor in Mobile, Alabama. John P. Parker was born into slavery. With the assistance of the doctor’s children, Parker worked as an apprentice in an iron foundry, where he also learned to read and write. Having persuaded one of the doctor’s patients to purchase him at the age of 18, he was given the opportunity to gradually reclaim his freedom with the money he earned from his foundry.
- While all of this was going on, Parker was making regular trips over the Ohio River to transport fugitives from Kentucky back to Ripley’s safe homes (one belonged to John Rankin, a prominent white abolitionist who lived less than a mile from Parker).
- He once anticipated that an enslaversuspecteda married couple would seek to flee, so he kidnapped their infant and placed him in his chamber to sleep.
- The enslaver awakened and chased after Parker, firing his gun, but Parker and his family were able to flee across the river and into Canada.
- Gregg during a series of interviews in the 1880s, but the manuscript remained undiscovered in Duke University’s archives until historian Stuart Seeley Sprague unearthed it and published it in 1996.
Parker’s rescues were recounted to journalist Frank M. Gregg during a series of interviews in the 1880s, but the manuscript remained undiscovered in Duke University’s archives until historian Stuart Seeley Sprague unearthed
3. and 4. Harriet Bell Hayden and Lewis Hayden
Lewis Hayden, who was born enslaved in Lexington, Kentucky, in 1812, witnessed enslavers tear his family apart not once, but twice throughout his lifetime. His brothers were sold to a different enslaver at first, and then his wife and son were purchased by Kentucky senator Henry Clay and sold someplace in the Deep South, according to historical records. Hayden never saw them or heard from them again. In the early 1840s, he married an enslaved lady called Harriet Bell, adopted her son, and began preparing their escape from the plantation where they had been held.
- The couple had returned to the United States by 1846, when they had settled in Boston’s Beacon Hill district, where they had founded a clothes business.
- Despite the fact that slavery had been outlawed in Massachusetts since 1783, the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850 declared that enslaved persons who had escaped to free states might still be apprehended and returned to their enslavers in the southern United States.
- Among those who have received considerable notice are Ellen and William Craft, who gained notoriety for their perilous escape from slavery in Georgia, which required Ellen impersonating a white man and William as a Black servant.
- The bounty hunters didn’t take any chances and returned home empty-handed.
- In 1873, he was elected to the Massachusetts General Assembly, where he served until his death in 1904.
- The estate of Harriet Tubman, who died in 1893, was bequeathed to Harvard Medical School for the aim of creating an annual scholarship for Black students, which is still in existence today.
5. Henrietta Bowers Duterte
As an enslaved child, Lewis Hayden witnessed his family torn apart by enslavers not once, but twice while growing up in Lexington, Kentucky, in 1812. His siblings were sold to a different enslaver at first, and subsequently, his wife and son were purchased by Kentucky senator Henry Clay and sold someplace in the Deep South, according to historical records. Their whereabouts are unknown to Hayden. His first marriage was to an enslaved lady called Harriet Bell in the early 1840s, and he shortly after adopted her son and began preparing their escape from slavery.
- The couple had returned to the United States by 1846, when they established a garment business in Boston’s Beacon Hill district.
- The Fugitive Slave Act of 1850 specified that enslaved persons who had escaped to free states may still be tracked down and returned to their enslavers in the South, despite the fact that slavery had been prohibited in Massachusetts since 1783.
- Among those who have received considerable notice is Ellen and William Craft, who gained notoriety for their perilous escape from slavery in Georgia, which required Ellen impersonating a white man and William as a Black servant.
- This time, the bounty hunters did not take a chance and fled with nothing in their possession.
On the occasion of his death, in 1889, the city council of Boston hailed him as “one of our country’s pioneers in its liberation from the burden of slavery.” The estate of Harriet Tubman, who died in 1893, was given to Harvard Medical School for the aim of creating an annual scholarship for Black students, which continues to this day.
6. David Ruggles
David Ruggles, who was born free in Norwich, Connecticut, in 1810, traveled to New York City when he was 17 years old and founded a grocery store, which he operated with liberated African Americans. Ruggles soon expanded his business to include lending and selling abolitionist books, pamphlets, and newspapers as well, making him the first Black bookshop proprietor in the United States. Ruggles and other local abolitionists formed the New York Vigilance Committee in 1835, which was an inter-racial group that, like the Philadelphia Vigilance Committee, assisted people in their attempts to elude slavery.
- Frederick Douglass, who had escaped slavery and arrived in New York in 1838, impoverished and starving, was one of these temporary visitors.
- David Ruggles saved his life, as he revealed in his autobiography published in 1845.
- Ruggles’s alertness, kindness, and tenacity,” he wrote.
- Ruggles gave the couple $5 shortly after their wedding and arranged for them to go by steamer to New Bedford, Massachusetts.
- Ruggles distributed countless anti-slavery publications during his years as an Underground Railroad station master, and he advocated for “practical abolitionism,” which is the idea that each individual should actively participate in the emancipation of African-Americans.
- Not that he was without adversaries: his business was burned down on two occasions, and he was violently attacked on other times.
- Ruggles was able to restore some of his strength by hydrotherapy while he was there, and he subsequently founded his own hydrotherapy facility, where Douglass would frequently pay him a visit.
7. and 8. Harriet Forten Purvis and Robert Purvis
Robert Purvis, the son of a free Black woman and a free white man, was involved in virtually every aspect of Philadelphia’s anti-slavery movement from the 1830s to the Civil War, and he died in the Civil War. His work with prominent abolitionists such as William Lloyd Garrison to establish the American Anti-Slavery Society in 1833 and the Pennsylvania Anti-Slavery Society a few years later resulted in the formation of the Vigilant Association of Philadelphia and its Vigilance Committee, which provided fugitive fugitives with boarding, clothing, medical attention, legal counsel, and northern passage.
- Harriet, like Mott, would go on to become a prominent figure in the women’s suffragist movement.
- Their home on Lombard Street became a well-traveled corridor for fugitives on their way to the United States border with Canada.
- The eighth anniversary of slavery’s abolition in the British West Indies was being celebrated when a mob of Irish people, resentful of their own low social standing, attacked the revelers and began looting and setting fire to Black-owned businesses along the street.
- However, according to reports, a Catholic priest diverted the rioters off their intended route to the Purvises’ home, where Robert was armed and ready to confront them.
Robert estimated that he had assisted in the emancipation of around one person each day between 1831 and 1861 (though it’s probable that this figure includes his larger involvement with other anti-slavery organizations).
9. Samuel D. Burris
Since his birth in 1830 as the son of a free Black woman and a white man, Robert Purvis has been actively involved in virtually every aspect of Philadelphia’s anti-slavery struggle. His work with prominent abolitionists such as William Lloyd Garrison to establish the American Anti-Slavery Society in 1833 and the Pennsylvania Anti-Slavery Society a few years later resulted in the formation of the Vigilant Association of Philadelphia and its Vigilance Committee, which provided fugitives with boarding, clothing, medical attention, legal counsel, and northern passage.
The suffrage movement would see Harriet become a leader as well, following in the footsteps of Mott.
Their home on Lombard Street became a well-traveled path for fugitives on their way to the United States border north.
In August 1842, a parade commemorating the eighth anniversary of the abolition of slavery in the British West Indies descended into violence when an Irish mob, resentful of their own low social status, attacked the revelers and began looting and setting fire to Black-owned businesses along the street.
Later, Robert and Harriet moved their family to a farmhouse in Byberry, a community in Philadelphia’s northeastern suburbs, where they swiftly transformed their new home into another stop on the Underground Railroad.
Station Master on the Underground Railroad: The Life and Letters of Thomas Garrett, rev. ed.: McGowan, James A.: 9780786442409: Amazon.com: Books
On October 12, 2017, a reviewer in the United States stated that they had made a verified purchase. The title on the cover does not match to the content of the book. Thomas Garrett was a station master on the Underground Railroad, and his life and letters are chronicled in this book, which has been revised. The book’s author is identified as James A. McGowan, while the preface is written by William C. Kashatus. However, the title of the book that is included within the cover is “Women in the Civil War: Extraordinary Stories of Soldiers, Spies, Nurses, Doctors, Crusaders, and Others,” and it is published by the University of Illinois Press.
- Eggleston is the author of this piece.
- While “Women in the Civil War” looks to be a high-quality piece of literature, it is not what I expected to receive for the $40.00 and up I spent for it.
- On May 23, 2000, a review was conducted in the United States.
- Which has failed, and I hate to say it, but I believe we should all pack our belongings and go to another country.
- Und some how managed to turn it into a profit in the process.
- Perhaps their corrupt devotion to the capitalist system would lead to those they championed, those they emancipated, and those they loved continuing to live under oppression even after liberation from the system.
You did a fantastic job. They were all the same, albeit they performed far better than the majority of the population. The vast majority of those who died were bastards. Particularly prevalent in the South.
8 Key Contributors to the Underground Railroad
Isaac Hopper, an abolitionist, is shown in this image from the Kean Collection/Getty Images. As early as 1786, George Washington expressed dissatisfaction with a “organization of Quakers, founded for such reasons,” which had sought to free a neighbor’s slave. Quakers were instrumental in the establishment of the Underground Railroad. Slavery was opposed in especially in Philadelphia, where Isaac Hopper, a Quaker who converted to Christianity, created what has been described as “the first working cell of the abolitionist underground.” Hopper not only protected escaped slave hunters in his own house, but he also constructed a network of safe havens and recruited a web of spies in order to get insight into their plans.
Hopper, a friend of Joseph Bonaparte, the exiled brother of the former French emperor, went to New York City in 1829 and established himself as a successful businessman.
READ MORE: The Underground Railroad and Its Operation
2. John Brown
John Brown, an abolitionist, about 1846 GraphicaArtis/Getty Images courtesy of Similar to his father, John Brown actively participated in the Underground Railroad by hosting runaways at his home and warehouse and organizing an anti-slave catcher militia following the adoption of the Fugitive Slave Act in 1850, which he inherited from his father. The next year, he joined several of his sons in the so-called “Bleeding Kansas” war, leading one attack that resulted in the deaths of five pro-slavery settlers in 1856.
Brown’s radicalization continued to grow, and his ultimate act occurred in October 1859, when he and 21 supporters seized the government arsenal in Harpers Ferry, Virginia (now West Virginia), in an effort to incite a large-scale slave uprising.
3. Harriet Tubman
Harriet Tubman was born into slavery on Maryland’s Eastern Shore, where she experienced repeated violent beatings, one of which involving a two-pound lead weight, which left her with seizures and migraines for the rest of her life. Tubman fled bondage in 1849, following the North Star on a 100-mile walk into Pennsylvania, fearing she would be sold and separated from her family. She died in the process. She went on to become the most well-known “conductor” on the Underground Railroad, participating in around 13 rescue missions back into Maryland and rescuing at least 70 enslaved individuals, including several of her siblings.
As a scout, spy, and healer for the Union Army, Tubman maintained her anti-slavery activities during the Civil War, and is believed to have been the first woman in the United States to lead troops into battle. Tubman died in 1865. When Harriet Tubman Led a Civil War Raid, You Should Pay Attention
4. Thomas Garrett
‘Thomas Garrett’ is a fictional character created by author Thomas Garrett. The New York Public Library is a public library in New York City. The Quaker “stationmaster” Thomas Garrett, who claimed to have assisted over 2,750 escaped slaves before the commencement of the Civil War, lived in Wilmington, Delaware, and Tubman frequently stopped there on her route up north. Garret not only gave his guests with a place to stay but also with money, clothing & food. He even personally led them to a more secure area on occasion, arm in arm.
Despite this, he persisted in his efforts.
He also stated that “if any of you know of any poor slave who needs assistance, please send him to me, as I now publicly pledge myself to double my diligence and never miss an opportunity to assist a slave to obtain freedom.”
5. William Still
Mister Garrett is a fictitious character created by author Thomas Garrett. The New York Public Library is a public library located in New York City. The Quaker “stationmaster” Thomas Garrett, who claimed to have assisted over 2,750 escaped slaves before the commencement of the Civil War, lived in Wilmington, Delaware, and Tubman frequently stopped there on her trip north. As well as a place to stay, Garrett offered his guests with money, clothing, and food, and he occasionally physically led them arm-in-arm to a more secure area.
However, he was unafraid to continue.
6. Levi Coffin
Charles T. Webber’s painting The Underground Railroad depicts fleeing slaves Levi Coffin, his wife Catherine, and Hannah Haydock providing assistance to the group of fugitive slaves. Getty Images/Bettina Archive/Getty Images Levi Coffin, often known as the “president of the Underground Railroad,” is said to have been an abolitionist when he was seven years old after witnessing a column of chained slaves people being taken to an auction house. Following a humble beginning delivering food to fugitives holed up on his family’s North Carolina plantation, he rose through the ranks to become a successful trader and prolific “stationmaster,” first in Newport (now Fountain City), Indiana, and subsequently in Cincinnati, Kentucky.
In addition to hosting anti-slavery lectures and abolitionist sewing club meetings, Coffin, like his fellow Quaker Thomas Garrett, stood steadfast when hauled before a court of law.
His writings state that “the dictates of humanity came in direct conflict with the law of the land,” and that “we rejected the law.”
7. Elijah Anderson
An image of Levi Coffin, his wife Catherine, and Hannah Haydock supporting a group of escape slaves appears in The Underground Railroad, a painting by Charles T. Webber. Getty Images/Betty Mann Archive When Levi Coffin was seven years old, he is said to have watched a column of chained enslaved persons being driven to auction, prompting him to become an abolitionist. He is known as the “president of the Underground Railroad.” Following a humble beginning delivering food to fugitives holed up on his family’s North Carolina plantation, he rose through the ranks to become a successful trader and prolific “stationmaster,” first in Newport (now Fountain City), Indiana, and subsequently in Cincinnati, Ohio.
Operating openly, Coffin even organized anti-slavery lectures and abolitionist sewing club gatherings.
His writings said that “the mandates of humanity were in direct conflict with the law of the land,” and that “we rejected the law.”
8. Thaddeus Stevens
Mr. Thaddeus Stevens is an American lawyer and senator. Bettmann Archive courtesy of Getty Images; Matthew Brady/Bettmann Archive Thaddeus Stevens, a representative from Pennsylvania, was outspoken in his opposition to slavery. The 14th and 15th amendments, which guaranteed African-American citizens equal protection under the law and the right to vote, respectively, were among his many accomplishments, and he also advocated for a radical reconstruction of the South, which included the redistribution of land from white plantation owners to former enslaved people.
Despite this, it wasn’t until 2002 that his Underground Railroad activities were brought to light, when archeologists uncovered a hidden hiding hole in the courtyard of his Lancaster house.
Seward, also served as Underground Railroad “stationmasters” during the era.
Underground Railroad Secret Codes : Harriet Tubman
Supporters of the Underground Railroad made use of the following words: Railroad conductors were hired on a daily basis to construct their own code as a secret language in order to assist slaves in escaping. The railroad language was chosen since it was a new mode of transportation at the time, and its communication language was not widely used. Secret code phrases would be used in letters sent to “agents” in order to ensure that if they were intercepted, they would not be apprehended.
A form of Underground Railroad code was also utilized in slave songs to allow slaves to communicate with one another without their owners being aware of their activities. The following are the most often used code terms, as well as their meanings:
|Agent||Coordinator, who plotted courses of escape and made contacts.|
|Baggage||Fugitive slaves carried by Underground Railroad workers.|
|Bundles of wood||Fugitives that were expected.|
|Conductor||Person who directly transported slaves|
|Drinking Gourd||Big Dipper and the North Star|
|Flying bondsmen||The number of escaping slaves|
|Forwarding||Taking slaves from station to station|
|Freedom train||The Underground Railroad|
|French leave||Sudden departure|
|Gospel train||The Underground Railroad|
|Stockholder||Those who donated money, food, clothing.|
|Load of potatoes||Escaping slaves hidden under farm produce in a wagon|
|Operator||Person who helped freedom seekers as a conductor or agent|
|Parcel||Fugitives that were expected|
|Patter roller||Bounty hunter hired to capture slaves|
|Preachers||Leaders of and spokespersons for the Underground Railroad|
|River Jordan||Ohio River|
|Shepherds||People who encouraged slaves to escape and escorted them|
|Station||Place of safety and temporary refuge, a safe house|
|Station master||Keeper or owner of a safe house|
Supporters of the Underground Railroad made use of the following phrases: Railroad conductors were hired on a daily basis to construct their own code as a secret language in order to assist slaves in escaping. The railroad language was chosen since the train was a new mode of transportation at the time, and its communication language was not widely understood. Secret code phrases would be used in letters sent to “agents” in order to ensure that if they were intercepted, they would not be identified.
This is a list of the most often used code terms, along with their definitions:
An informal network of secret passageways and safe homes used by fleeing slaves in the United States of America on their trip north to “Free States” or Canada has been known as the Underground Railroad since the 1840s, when the name was first used. In addition to twenty-nine states, Canada, Mexico, and the Caribbean were included in the territory. Along with many others, Quakers played an important role in the event. It was referred to as a “Underground Railroad” because it was kept hidden, and as a “Railroad” because it indicated the route taken by fleeing slaves on their way to freedom.
- “Stockholders” were those who made contributions of money or products to aid the cause.
- “Conductors” were people who planned the routes and who frequently assisted and accompanied the slaves in their quest for freedom on the Underground Railroad.
- Stations were typically between 10 and 20 miles apart, and the travelers either walked between them or hid in covered wagons or carts with false bottoms while traveling between stations.
- The exact date when the Underground Railroad got its inception is unknown.
According to Washington’s letter to Robert Morris, a slave had escaped from one of his neighbours, and “a society of Quakers, organized for such reasons, had sought to liberate him.acting in a manner abhorrent to justice.in my judgment highly impolitic with respect to the State.” Over 3,000 persons were employed by the Underground Railroad by 1850, according to historical records.
African Americans such as Harriet Tubman (a former slave who made 19 journeys to help first her own family and then other slaves) made the most significant contributions, but many others were also involved, including members of Methodist and other evangelical groups, as well as Quakers and other religious groups.
- Among the other Underground Railroad Quaker strongholds were Salem, Iowa; Newport; Alum Creek; Cass County; Farmington; and New Bedford, Massachusetts.
- Thomas Garrett (1789 – 1871), a Quaker, is credited with assisting almost 2,700 slaves in their escape from slavery and was known as the “station master” of the final Underground Railroad station, which was located in Wilmington, Delaware.
- Quaker Levi Coffin (1798 – 1877), who lived in Cincinnati, Ohio, was known as the “President of the Underground Railroad” because of his work on the Underground Railroad.
- Some Quakers, however, did not believe that acting outside the law was justified, despite their empathy for the slaves’ condition.
- By the middle of the nineteenth century, it is believed that over 50,000 slaves had escaped from the slave states of the South through the use of the Underground Railroad.
- It is possible that federal marshals who failed to apprehend an accused runaway slave may be fined $1,000.
The Underground Railroad did not come to an end as a result of the Fugitive Slave Act. With the abolition of slavery at the conclusion of the American Civil War, it came to a logical conclusion (1861-65).
How Harriet Tubman and William Still Helped the Underground Railroad
The Underground Railroad is a word that has been in use since the 1840s to describe an informal network of secret routes and safe homes that escaped slaves in the United States of America used to get north to the “Free States” or Canada. In addition to twenty-nine states, Canada, Mexico, and the Caribbean were included in its scope. A large number of people, including Quakers, were involved in it. A “Railroad” because it traced the route taken by fleeing slaves on their way to freedom, and a “Underground” because it was hidden.
- Investors were those who made monetary or material contributions to the cause.
- “Conductors” were people who planned the routes and who frequently assisted and accompanied the slaves in their quest for freedom aboard the slave ships.
- Stations were typically between 10 and 20 miles apart, and the travelers either walked between them or concealed in covered wagons or carts with false bottoms while traveling between them.
- We don’t know for sure how long the Underground Railroad has been running.
According to Washington’s letter to Robert Morris, a slave had escaped from one of his neighbours, and “a society of Quakers, organized for such reasons, have endeavored to release him.acting in a manner abhorrent to justice.acting, in my view, most impoliticly with regard to the State.” Over 3,000 persons were employed by the Underground Railroad by 1850, according to official records.
Afro-Americans such as Harriet Tubman (a former slave who made 19 journeys to help first her own family and then other slaves) made the most significant contributions, but many others were also involved, including members of Methodist and other evangelical groups, as well as members of the Society of Friends.
- Salem, Iowa, Newport, Indiana, Alum Creek, Ohio, Cass County, Michigan, Farmington, New York, and New Bedford, Massachusetts were among the Underground Railroad Quaker strongholds.
- Over the course of nearly 40 years, he assisted fugitive slaves on the Underground Railroad, despite the fact that he was fined more than $5,400 for doing so.
- It was he and his wife Catherine, who was also a Quaker, who were responsible for the emancipation of around 2,000 slaves.
- In their opinion, it was preferable to work within the confines of the existing legal framework to bring about the abolition of slavery in its entirety, since this would benefit all slaves rather than the few runaways who may be able to gain from their assistance on an individual level.
- Concerned about the number of slaves who were successfully escaping, plantation owners successfully convinced Congress to establish the Fugitive Slave Act in 1850.
- Individuals who assisted the escapees by giving refuge, food, or any other sort of help may be sentenced to six months in jail and a $1,000 fine if they are caught.
The Underground Railroad continued to operate despite the Fugitive Slave Act’s prohibition on slave transportation. When slavery was abolished at the end of the American Civil War, it came to a natural conclusion (1861-65).
Harriet Tubman escaped slavery and guided others to freedom
Tubman, who was born into slavery in Maryland under the name Araminta Harriet Ross, was able to escape to freedom via the use of the Underground Railroad. Throughout her childhood, she was subjected to constant physical assault and torture as a result of her enslavement. In one of the most serious instances, she was struck in the head with an object weighing two pounds, resulting in her suffering from seizures and narcoleptic episodes for the rest of her life. John Tubman was a free black man when she married him in 1844, but nothing is known about their connection other than the fact that she adopted his last name.
- Even though she began the voyage with her brothers, she eventually completed the 90-mile journey on her own in 1849.
- As a result, she crossed the border again in 1850, this time to accompany her niece’s family to Pennsylvania.
- Instead, she was in charge of a gang of fugitive bond agents.
- Her parents and siblings were among those she was able to save.
- Tubman, on the other hand, found a way around the law and directed her Underground Railroad to Canada, where slavery was illegal (there is evidence that one of her destinations on an 1851 voyage was at the house of abolitionist Frederick Douglass).
- “”I was a conductor on the Underground Railroad for eight years, and I can say things that other conductors are unable to express,” she stated with a sense of accomplishment.
William Still helped more than 800 enslaved people escape
In 1852, under the alias Araminta Harriet Ross, Tubman was born into slavery in Maryland and eventually emancipated via a network known as the Underground Railroad. For the most of her childhood, she was subjected to regular physical assault and torture. One of the most serious incidents occurred when a two-pound weight was hurled at her head, leading her to suffer from seizures and narcoleptic episodes for the rest of her days. John Tubman was a free black man when she married him in 1844, but nothing is known about their connection other than the fact that she adopted his surname.
- In 1849, she set out on her trek with her brothers, but she eventually completed the 90-mile route on her own.
- Although Tubman had tasted freedom, she couldn’t take the notion of her family being slaves, so she crossed the border again in 1850, this time to accompany her niece’s family to Pennsylvania.
- Instead, she gathered a band of fugitive bond agents and led them away from the facility.
- Her mom and siblings were among the people she saved.
- Instead of ignoring this, Tubman circumvented it by directing her Underground Railroad to Canada, where slavery was illegal (there is evidence that one of her destinations on an 1851 voyage was at the house of abolitionist Frederick Douglass).
“Her proudly stated, “I was a conductor on the Underground Railroad for eight years, and I can say things that other conductors can’t.” In all my years of railroading, I never drove my train off the track or lost a passenger.” Continue reading Harriet Tubman: A Timeline of Her Life, Underground Rail Service, and Activism for more information.
Tubman made regular stops at Still’s station
Tubman, who was born into slavery in Maryland under the name Araminta Harriet Ross, managed to escape to freedom with the use of the Underground Railroad. Throughout her childhood, she was subjected to constant physical assault and suffering due to her enslavement. A 2-pound weight was hurled at her head, causing her to have seizures and narcoleptic episodes for the rest of her life. She married a free man, John Tubman, in 1844, but nothing is known about their connection other than the fact that she adopted his surname as her own.
- She began the voyage with her brothers, but she eventually completed the 90-mile journey on her own in 1849.
- Her husband was married to another woman at the time, and he had no desire to travel north, so she returned in 1851 to carry him across the border.
- It is estimated that she made between 13 and 19 voyages in all between 1850 and 1860, escorting more than 300 enslaved persons to freedom.
- In 1850, the Fugitive Slave Law was enacted, which stated that runaway slaves who were apprehended in the North might be returned to slavery.
- Her service as a “conductor” (those who escorted enslaved people down the Underground Railroad) earned her the nickname “Moses,” which happened to be the given name of her younger brother.
- “I never had a problem with my train going off the track or losing a passenger.” READ MORE: Harriet Tubman: A Timeline of Her Life, Underground Railroad Service, and Activism
The Jackson Homestead – Station on the Underground Railroad
|The Jackson Family, 1846, from a daguerreotype by Whipple of Boston|
|The Jackson Homestead – Station on the Underground RailroadA Local LegacyIf you were an escaped slave before the Civil War the best way to travel was along the Underground Railroad. This wasn’t a real railroad but a secret system located throughout the Northern states. The system helped escaped slaves from the South reach places of safety in the North or in Canada, often called the “Promised Land,” because U.S. slave laws could not be enforced there. The slaves often wore disguises and traveled in darkness on the “railroad.” Railway terms were used in the secret system: Routes were called “lines,” stopping places were called “stations,” and people who helped escaped slaves along the way were “conductors.” One of the most famous “conductors” on the Underground Railroad was Harriet Tubman (an “Amazing American”), a former slave who escaped from Maryland.William Jackson’s house in Newton, Massachusetts, was a “station” on the Underground Railroad. The Jacksons were abolitionists, people who worked to end slavery. Today, the Jackson House is a museum with a large collection of historical objects and documents that are used for research into Newton’s past.page 1 of 1About Local Legacies|
When describing a network of meeting spots, hidden routes, passages, and safehouses used by slaves in the United States to escape slave-holding states and seek refuge in northern states and Canada, the Underground Railroad was referred to as the Underground Railroad (UR). The underground railroad, which was established in the early 1800s and sponsored by persons active in the Abolitionist Movement, assisted thousands of slaves in their attempts to escape bondage. Between 1810 and 1850, it is estimated that 100,000 slaves escaped from bondage in the southern United States.
A network of safe houses and abolitionists dedicated to emancipating as many slaves as possible assisted them in their escape, despite the fact that such activities were in violation of state laws and the Constitution of the United States.
Facts, information and articles about the Underground Railroad
When describing a network of meeting spots, hidden routes, passages, and safehouses used by slaves in the United States to escape slave-holding states and seek refuge in northern states and Canada, the Underground Railroad was referred to as the Underground Railroad. The underground railroad, which was established in the early 1800s and sponsored by persons active in the Abolitionist Movement, assisted thousands of slaves in their attempts to flee their bonds of slavery. Between 1810 and 1850, it is estimated that 100,000 slaves escaped from slavery in the South.
The beginnings of the American Civil War occurred around the year 1862.
Estimates range between 6,000 and 10,000.
Harriet Tubman is a historical figure. William Still is a well-known author and poet. Levi Coffin is a fictional character created by author Levi Coffin. John Fairfield is a well-known author.
The Story of How Canada Became the Final Station on the Underground Railroad Harriet Tubman’s Legacy as a Freedom Fighter and a Spion is well documented.
The Beginnings Of the Underground Railroad
Even before the nineteenth century, it appears that a mechanism to assist runaways existed. In 1786, George Washington expressed dissatisfaction with the assistance provided to one of his escaped slaves by “a organization of Quakers, founded for such purposes.” The Religious Society of Friends, or Quakers as they are more officially known, were among the first abolitionist organizations to emerge. Their influence may have played a role in Pennsylvania becoming the first state to abolish slavery, which was home to a large number of Quakers.
In recognition of his contributions, Levi is often referred to as the “president of the Underground Railroad.” In Fountain City, Ohio, on Ohio’s western border, the eight-room Indiana home they bought and used as a “station” before they came to Cincinnati has been preserved and is now a National Historic Landmark.
The Underground Railroad Gets Its Name
Owen Brown, the father of radical abolitionist John Brown, was a member of the Underground Railroad in the state of New York during the Civil War. An unconfirmed narrative suggests that “Mammy Sally” designated the house where Abraham Lincoln’s future wife, Mary Todd Lincoln, grew up and served as a safe house where fugitives could receive food, but the account is doubtful. Routes of the Underground Railroad It was not until the early 1830s that the phrase “Underground Railroad” was first used.
Fugitives going by water or on genuine trains were occasionally provided with clothing so that they wouldn’t give themselves away by wearing their worn-out job attire.
Many of them continued on to Canada, where they could not be lawfully reclaimed by their rightful owners.
The slave or slaves were forced to flee from their masters, which was frequently done at night. It was imperative that the runaways maintain their eyes on the North Star at all times; only by keeping that star in front of them could they be certain that they were on their trip north.
Conductors On The Railroad
A “conductor,” who pretended to be a slave, would sometimes accompany fugitives to a plantation in order to lead them on their journey. Harriet Tubman, a former slave who traveled to slave states 19 times and liberated more than 300 people, is one of the most well-known “conductors.” She used her shotgun to threaten death to any captives who lost heart and sought to return to slavery. The Underground Railroad’s operators faced their own set of risks as well. If someone living in the North was convicted of assisting fugitives in their escape, he or she could face fines of hundreds or even thousands of dollars, which was a significant sum at the time; however, in areas where abolitionism was strong, the “secret” railroad was openly operated, and no one was arrested.
His position as the most significant commander of the Underground Railroad in and around Albany grew as time went on.
However, in previous times of American history, the phrase “vigilance committee” generally refers to citizen organizations that took the law into their own hands, prosecuting and hanging those suspected of crimes when there was no local government or when they considered the local authority was corrupt or weak.
White males who were found assisting slaves in their escape were subjected to heavier punishments than white women, but both were likely to face at the very least incarceration.
The Civil War On The Horizon
Events such as the Missouri Compromise and the Dred Scott decision compelled more anti-slavery activists to take an active part in the effort to liberate slaves in the United States. After Abraham Lincoln was elected president, Southern states began to secede in December 1860, putting an end to the Union’s hopes of achieving independence from the United States. Abolitionist newspapers and even some loud abolitionists warned against giving the remaining Southern states an excuse to separate. Lucia Bagbe (later known as Sara Lucy Bagby Johnson) is considered to be the final slave who was returned to bondage as a result of the Fugitive Slave Law.
Her owner hunted her down and arrested her in December 1860.
Even the Cleveland Leader, a Republican weekly that was traditionally anti-slavery and pro-the Fugitive Slave Legislation, warned its readers that allowing the law to run its course “may be oil thrown upon the seas of our nation’s difficulties,” according to the newspaper.
Following her capture, Lucy was carried back to Ohio County, Virginia, and punished, but she was released at some time when Union soldiers took control of the region. In her honor, a Grand Jubilee was celebrated on May 6, 1863, in the city of Cleveland.
The Reverse Underground Railroad
A “reverse Underground Railroad” arose in the northern states surrounding the Ohio River during the Civil War. The black men and women of those states, whether or not they had previously been slaves, were occasionally kidnapped and concealed in homes, barns, and other structures until they could be transported to the South and sold as slaves.
Station Master on the Underground Railroad
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- It received a perfect score because it was outstanding.
- But while Thomas Garrett is often considered to be the greatest Wilmingtonian ever, a daring Quaker station master on the underground railroad and a companion of Harriet Tubman, it has been difficult to learn anything about him from historical records.
- I would have wanted to have seen a film on him starring James Gandolfini, but that never came to be.
- This was found at the Jefferson County Public Library in Colorado, which was previously owned.
- This county, which just re-segregated its schools, would probably prefer if he was never mentioned again.
- This book is likely to contain all of the information available about the subject of the book.
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Station Master on the Underground Railroad – McFarland
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- Colorado’s Jefferson County Public Library had a used copy of this book, which I located and purchased.
- It is likely that this county, which just re-segregated its schools, would prefer if he never existed.
- The information in this book is very likely comprehensive.
- Thomas Garrett is considered to be the greatest Wilmingtonian of all time, a daring Quaker station master on the Underground Railroad and a colleague of Harriet Tubman, yet little is known about him despite his importance to the city.
- The actor James Gandolfini would have been a great choice to appear in a biopic about him.
In addition, I learned that Wilmington was originally known as Willington (which is such a surprise to me that I wonder if it is true), that the streets in Wilmington were hilly and were re-graded every few years in the early nineteenth century so that your house could have its front step below or well above street level, that my home is located along a principal route of the Underground Railroad to Kennett, PA., that my local newspaper was once known as the “Wilmington Star,” and that the local newspaper In spite of the fact that there is no true scientific evidence to support this claim, experience has shown that YA readers are the most voracious readers on the planet.
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Station Master on the Underground Railroad
McFarland & Company, 1 January 2005, 226 pages He was an anti-slavery Quaker who lived in Wilmington, Delaware. Unless forced to defend his strong anti-slavery principles, Thomas Garrett was an upbeat person. Garrett, like free black abolitionists and slaves themselves, understood slavery in extremely personal terms, in contrast to the majority of other white abolitionists, who saw slavery in more abstract and constitutional grounds. He believed so firmly in the Underground Railroad and in the need of assisting slaves in their escape that he resented the Quaker philosophy in nonviolence at a time when force appeared to be the only option to obtain freedom for the slaves he was attempting to assist.
When it was originally released in 1977, Station Master on the Underground Railroad: The Life and Letters of Thomas Garrett was widely regarded as a seminal study in the history of antebellum reform.
With the addition of fresh material about Garrett’s association with Harriet Tubman and abolitionist newspaper editor William Lloyd Garrison, the present edition has been completely rewritten and updated.
The book also provides readers with a fresh perspective on Thomas Garrett, acknowledging both his flaws as well as the uncompromising strength of his Quaker religious beliefs.


Usually, electroless nickel processing makes it excellent at achieving a good bond to the titanium, making it widely used to coat titanium as an initial coating. Although not used as the initial layers for metalizing on top of titanium, copper, gold, and silver serve as subsequent plating finishes coated onto the nickel layer. Plating on the titanium offers nearly the same resistance to corrosion as platinum. Not only has that, but it also limits the negative impacts of chemical elements such as hydrochloric acid (HCL), chlorine gas (Cl2), and many organic acids.
Uses for Plating on Titanium
Titanium usage has grown non-stop throughout the next half-century. With countless industrial and manufacturing applications, here are the prime examples.
With wide usage for its lightweight, titanium can be found in several different types of aircraft. Essentially, the metal increases the aircraft’s aerodynamics and improves fuel efficiency. Apart from that, the titanium also has excellent fatigue and great crack and corrosion resistance. Moreover, it can also withstand high temperatures. Besides aircraft, titanium is used to develop and manufacture missiles and spacecraft, as mentioned earlier.
Titanium’s resistance to corrosion from seawater makes it a frequent choice for marine applications and the manufacture of parts used in marine applications. An example of this application is manufacturing underwater devices, such as surveillance cameras on boats and submarines.
The physical properties of titanium, including durability, light-in-weight, and corrosion resistance, make it a frequently opted choice to manufacture designer jewelry and watch cases. Because titanium can be colored effortlessly, it is prevalent in smaller jewelry articles like body piercings.
Ball and socket joints utilized in hip replacements require lightweight and superior strength, undoubtedly achieved through titanium. The metal is one of the few biocompatible materials, making titanium non-toxic and non-hazardous for the human body. Titanium is also used to manufacture crutches, wheelchairs, and surgical instruments.
Titanium’s aerodynamic, lightweight, and super-strength properties, along with its alloys, make them ideal for manufacturing automotive parts, such as race car bodies and other elements.
Need for Titanium Electroplating
Titanium is an excellent metal with extraordinary properties ideal for manufacturing several parts and industrial applications. Nevertheless, there are several reasons for plating on titanium and its alloys. Plating, in general, will further enhance the properties already existing in titanium, thus further enhancing the metal finishing and the metal’s ability to withstand surface fatigue, fretting, and anti-galling properties. Plating on titanium further increases corrosion resistance in hot and acidic environments. Furthermore, it can increase and decrease electrical conductivity, add lubricity, reflect heat, and repair or resize applications.
Issues with Plating on Titanium
The process of plating with titanium has long been considered a complicated process to perfect, if not entirely impossible. It is because titanium remains a highly reactive metal. Titanium essentially reacts with oxygen produced in the plating process to form a passive film on the substrate. This film acts as a hindrance in the bonding of the metal coating during plating, making the process inefficient. The solution is to pick the electroplating process to promote the metal coating and substrate adhesion. The native oxide must be eradicated, isolating it from the rest of the plating process. Without question, it can only be accomplished by employing a plating-on-titanium company to achieve each of these objectives efficiently and cost-effectively.
Surface Preparation Tips
The most initial process is to prepare the titanium substrate surface properly. Several methods can be utilized for the surface preparation process, which usually includes:
- Conventional methods like grinding, vapor degreasing, blasting, and alkaline cleaning.
- Activation by electrochemical etching, without implementing heat treatment.
- Activation via liquid abrasive blasting.
These processes are practical and applicable to titanium metal and several titanium alloys. What’s more, these processes also meet the compliance requirements by fulfilling standards set by the ASTM (American Society for Testing and Materials) International in terms of the promotion of adhesion while plating different metals on titanium.
Nickel Plating on Titanium
Nickel is one of the more commonly used materials for plating on titanium due to its high success rate. Thanks to nickel plating, the titanium underneath becomes more resistive to corrosion and less likely to wear out. The process, in general, contains the following steps:
- Use a solvent to reduce the grease on the substrate.
- Use pumice powder paste to scrub the surface in water.
- Clean the substrate thoroughly with an alkaline cleaner.
- Rinse the substrate by submerging it into a solution of 500ml of HCL with 500ml of water.
- Thoroughly rinse the substrate by immersing it into a solution of 120ml of Hydrofluoric acid (48%), 400ml of Nitric acid, and 1 liter of water.
- Again, thoroughly rinse in a solution of 130ml of Hydrofluoric acid (70%), 830ml of Acetic acid, and 40ml of water for anodic treatment.
- Rinse the substrate while applying a 15-30ASF current density at room temperature.
- Now rinse the substrate thoroughly in a sulfamate nickel plating bath that contains a retaining temperature of 145°F and an electric current density of 1000 ASF.
- Heat-treat in an atmosphere that involves inert gas at 480 degrees centigrade for 2 hours to increase adhesion between titanium and nickel.
Electroless Nickel Plating as Undercoating
Electroless nickel plating is another method, which is often used for plating nickel onto titanium. As the name suggests, in electroless plating, contrary to electroplating, you don’t involve an electric current in the plating bath. In the replacement of the current, you use an autocatalytic chemical reaction in which you deposit an alloy of nickel-phosphorous on the surface of the substrate.
The electroless nickel plating proves advantageous over electroplating as it provides a better uniformity in the thickness and an even coating. When titanium is considered substrate, electroless nickel plating usually is not used for the finishing coat on titanium. Instead of being the finishing coat, it is used as a base coat for other metals to increase their adhesive strength. Other valuable benefits of electroless nickel plating on titanium include better thermal conductivity, improved brazing and soldering, and heightened high-temperature oxidization.
Gold Plating on Titanium
Gold is uncommonly used as a plating material for titanium to improve the substrate’s exterior look and appearance. However, due to the cost of gold being relatively high, only a thin layer of it is used to plate the titanium surface. To succeed in plating gold onto titanium, firstly, you need to remove the titanium dioxide entirely and then start the plating process to guarantee an even, uniform, and continuous coating on the whole surface of the titanium.A general problem with electroplating gold onto titanium is the formation of minor surface flaws and imperfections. These might incorporate cracks or holes forming the substrate’s surface. But then again, this issue can be resolved by first coating the titanium using electroless nickel coating then applying the gold using electroplating over it.
Gold plating over titanium is not only done using electro-deposition. However, some other methods also exist. For example, chemical displacement is a frequently used process in the jewelry industry. In chemical displacement, an element switches positions with another element of a compound during a chemical reaction. Similarly, chemical displacement happens in gold plating. When titanium is kept in a solution containing gold ions, the gold ions start displacing the titanium ions and form a layer of gold on the surface of the titanium.
The bath utilized to envelop the titanium during chemical displacement consists of:
- Fluoride ions for dissolving the titanium oxide (already present as a layer on the titanium).
- Monovalent gold ions for forming a coating over the titanium.
- Citrate ions for complexing of the monovalent gold.
Furthermore, hydrogen ions are added to the batch to acquire the preferred acidic state, and tungsten ions can likewise be implemented to conserve the batch.
The ideal amount of each material mentioned above has been listed below. Suppose the bath is prepared and applied according to these specifications. In that case, it will produce a uniform coating without any faults present on the surface of the substrate.
- Monovalent gold: 25 grams/liter
- Citrate: 50 grams/liter
- Fluoride: 10-20 grams/liter
- Hydrogen: Amount enough to obtain a pH level of 5-6
Copper Plating on Titanium
For increasing titanium’s electrical conductivity, copper can be plated over it. Like gold plating onto titanium, to avoid getting a lousy coating or having defects in the layer, it is advised to first create an electroless nickel coating over the titanium. To further improve the result of the coat, it is also necessary to remove the titanium oxides layer already present on the surface of the titanium. The process commonly used for plating copper onto titanium is as follows:
- Use a solvent to remove grease, debris, and other contaminants from the substrate.
- Clean the substrate using an alkaline solution.
- Rinse the substrate with deionized water.
- With a water abrasive slurry, blast the substrate.
- Again, rinse the substrate with deionized water.
- Perform an electroless nickel coating on the titanium with the optimum thickness.
- Clean the substrate with deionized water.
- Perform electroplating of copper onto titanium in an acid-based copper bath.
- Clean the substrate with deionized water.
Finally, it is suggested to bake during the plating of the copper onto the titanium to increase the adhesive property. In a reducing atmosphere, heat-treating should last about one hour.


Nanotechnology today is advancing very rapidly and has tremendous applications in almost everything we do. From medicines to the chemicals also long shelf batteries nanotech is been implemented.
Nanotechnology products are revolutionary, materials and applications. Most of the products that are on the market today are mostly improved products using evolutionary nanotechnology, where some form of Nano-enabled materials such as carbon nanotubes, nanocomposite structures or nanoparticles of a substance is used in the manufacturing process. Today even primary research and development that is happening in laboratories all over the world are mostly on Nanotech which helps build products way beyond your imagination.
What is Nanotechnology?
“Nanotechnology is the understanding and control of matter at dimensions between approximately 1 and 100 nanometres, where unique phenomena enable innovative applications. Utilizing nanoscale science, engineering, and technology, nanotechnology involves imaging, measuring, modelling, and manipulating matter at this length scale."
We at mPhase, are focusing on commercializing its first Smart Surface enabled product for military and commercial applications: The Smart Nano Battery providing Power on Command. A Battery with chemicals isolated from the electrode by Nano grass when the battery is not in use.
By applying nanotechnology in the manufacture of batteries a few benefits arise:
mPhase has demonstrated it is possible to fabricate nanotech-based “smart” batteries, which stores reserve power for decades and generate electric current virtually on demand. And henceforth using Nanotechnology for manufacturing batteries is helping advance the functionality, reduce costs and usage of conventional batteries which gives less battery life.


(March 24, 2011) China Dialogue recently ran this article arguing that damming the Nu could have earth shattering consequences.
At fault on the Nu River
China Dialogue, March 22, 2011
As China gears up for a hydropower push in its earthquake-prone south-west, it should pause to consider events in Japan, two geologists tell Liu Jianqiang on World Water Day.
“You could say Japan is on the side of a knife, while the Nu River is on the blade.”
With the ongoing crisis at its earthquake-damaged Fukushima nuclear plant, Japan is paying a heavy price for ignoring “large-scale environmental evaluations”. This is the assessment of two prominent Chinese geologists, Xu Daoyi and Sun Wenpeng, who told chinadialogue that the incident holds important lessons for China.
The two experts argue that the Japanese authorities underestimated the potential impact of deep-ocean faults and earthquakes on power plants. As a result, they failed to locate their atomic energy facilities on the country’s less vulnerable west coast and, ultimately, to avoid the radiation crisis the world has watched unfold over the past week.
There are worrying parallels in China, said Xu and Sun. But rather than focusing on the nuclear industry, their gripe is with their country’s hydropower sector – and, more specifically, the controversial plans to build a cascade of dams on the Nu River, China’s last great waterway without large-scale hydropower and the focus of an animated public campaign.


Accessible tourism is about making it easy for everyone to enjoy tourism experiences. Making tourism more accessible is not only a social responsibility – there is also a compelling business case for improving accessibility as it can boost the competitiveness of tourism in Europe.
Evidence shows that making basic adjustments to a facility, providing accurate information, and understanding the needs of disabled people can result in increased visitor numbers.
Improving the accessibility of tourism services increases their quality and the enjoyment of all tourists. It also improves the quality of life in local communities.
The European Commission is committed to increasing accessibility in tourism through a number of actions.
The EU is co-funding projects related to the design, implementation, and marketing of accessible tourism itineraries.
The main aims are to:
The second call for proposals for accessible tourism itineraries was published in April 2015. 8 projects were selected for funding.
A call for proposals for fostering accessible tourism entrepreneurship and management was published in August 2014. 3 projects were selected for funding.
A call for proposals was launched in 2013 to give potential projects the opportunity to apply for funding.
8 projects were selected for funding.
According to the UN, an estimated 650 million people in the world live with disabilities. Together with their families, this means that approximately 2 billion people – a third of the global population – are directly affected by disability.
Many people have access needs, whether related to a physical condition (e.g. wheelchair users, visual or hearing impairments, allergies) or for other reasons. For example, older and less mobile people, or people with pushchairs have access needs that can become a huge obstacle when going on holiday.
For those people, travelling can be a real challenge. Finding information on accessible services, checking luggage on a plane, or booking a room with special access needs often proves to be difficult, costly, and time consuming.


What is Motion/Animation
Above, left and right are sample ideas of Motion/Animation.
Motion/Animation graphics are pieces of digital footage or animation which create the illusion of motion or rotation, and are usually combined with audio for use in multimedia projects.
Your entry can be animated as a movie, photos,
shapes, even illustrations.
You can include sound and wording to create a story
or a hidden message.


Thomas Lowry was one of the most influential and admired men in Minneapolis at the time of his death in 1909. Streetcars, railroads, libraries, and many other endeavors benefited from his involvement.
Thomas Lowry was born on February 27, 1843, on a small farm in Logan County, Illinois. He spent his childhood there, attending country schools. At age seventeen, he left home to study at Lombard University in Galesburg, Illinois, but he had to leave the college at age twenty because of tuberculosis.
Lowry spent a year traveling along the Missouri River before returning to Illinois to finish his education. He read law at the office of Judge John C. Bagby in Rushville, and after passing the bar in 1867, Lowry left Illinois for Minneapolis. He arrived in the city in July with few possessions and little money, but his fortunes quickly improved.
Within two years he entered into a law partnership with Austin H. Young, who became Judge of the Court of Common Pleas for Hennepin County in 1871. Around the same time, Lowry married Beatrice Goodrich and began investing in real estate. He guessed correctly that Minneapolis was a growing community and that land would become valuable.
Gradually Lowry's business shifted from law to real estate investments. During the 1870s, more than one-third of the property that is now Minneapolis passed through Lowry's hands. He built his family's home in the Minneapolis neighborhood still known as Lowry Hill, then at the edge of the city.
Lowry became interested in streetcars as a way to drive the development of his outlying real estate holdings. In 1875, he became part of the revived Minneapolis Street Railway Company along with Colonel William S. King and out-of-state investors. King ran the company at first, but in 1878, Lowry became president. He held the position for the rest of his life and made the streetcar company his primary business.
Lowry led Minneapolis Street Railway Company through the boom years of the 1880s and the rough times following the Panic of 1893. The company, which merged with the Lowry-controlled St. Paul City Railway Company in 1891, finally became profitable in the twentieth century as Twin City Rapid Transit Company. Lowry almost went bankrupt in the process, but he kept the company afloat and growing through personal charm and an international network of contacts and investors.
Lowry was an unfailing booster of Minneapolis. In addition to his streetcar business, he was a founding member and later president of the Minneapolis, St. Paul and Sault Ste. Marie Railroad Company, better known as the Soo Line Railway. He worked with William de la Barre and Charles Alfred Pillsbury on the Lower Dam Hydro Plant, just below St. Anthony Falls, and his Twin City Rapid Transit Company used all the power the plant produced as soon as it was finished in 1897.
Lowry helped get the West Hotel built, and he was instrumental in bringing the Republican National Convention of 1892 to Minneapolis. He was a founding member of the Minneapolis Library Board and a sponsor of the city's 1887 Industrial Exposition. He also donated large tracts of land to the city for public parks. On January 11, 1892, Lowry's contemporaries honored him with a public banquet at the West Hotel, in recognition of all he had done for the region.
During the last four years of his life, Lowry again battled tuberculosis. He gradually withdrew from public life and spent the winter months in Arizona and Texas for his health. He died at home on February 4, 1909, with his wife and two of his three children in attendance. His passing made front page news in the local papers and many columns were dedicated to remembrances of him.
In 1915, a memorial with a life-size bronze statue of Lowry was created by sculptor Karl Bitter. It was erected at the intersection of Hennepin and Lyndale avenues. With the construction of I-94 in 1966, the memorial was moved a few blocks to 24th Street and Hennepin Avenue.
Atwater, Isaac, ed. History of the City of Minneapolis, Minnesota. Vol. 1. New York: Munsell and Company, Publishers, 1893.
Bray, Martha C. "The Minnesota Academy of Natural Sciences." Minnesota History 39, no.3 (Fall 1964): 111–122.
"Bronze Memorial to Thomas Lowry, Unveiled Before Throng of Friends, Officials and Citizens, is Presented to Minneapolis." Minneapolis Journal, August 18, 1915.
Burke, Evelyn. "The Lowry Family." Northwest Life 17, no. 7 (July 1944): 23–24.
"Complimentary Banquet to Thomas Lowry." Minneapolis Tribune, January 12, 1892.
Lanegran, David A., with the assistance of Carol L. Urness. Minnesota on the Map. St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Society Press, 2008.
Lowry, Goodrich. Streetcar Man. Minneapolis: Lerner Publications Company, 1979.
Pearson, Marjorie and Penny A. Petersen, Hess, Roise and Company. Rapids, Reins, Rails: Transportation on the Minneapolis Riverfront. Prepared for The Saint Anthony Falls Heritage Board, May 2009.
"The Rapid Transit Question." Minneapolis Tribune, July 19, 1889.
Shutter, Marion D. History of Minneapolis: Gateway to the Northwest. Vols. 1 and 2. Chicago: The S.J. Clarke Publishing Company, 1923.
Staples, Loring M. The West Hotel Story. Minneapolis: Carlson Printing Company, 1979.
"Thomas Lowry, Distinguished and Well Beloved Citizen, is Dead." Minneapolis Tribune, February 5, 1909.
"Thomas Lowry is Dead After Long Illness." Minneapolis Journal, February 4, 1909.
"Thos. Lowry's Life is Ended." St. Paul Dispatch, February 4, 1909.
In 1878, Thomas Lowry becomes president of Minneapolis Street Railway Company, later Twin City Rapid Transit Company. In this role, he helps Minneapolis grow and develop.
Thomas Lowry is born on February 27 on a small farm in Logan County, Illinois.
Lowry passes the bar, leaves Illinois, and arrives in Minneapolis in July.
Lowry becomes president of Minneapolis Street Railway Company, later Twin City Rapid Transit Company.
In January, Lowry's contemporaries honor him with a public banquet at the West Hotel.
Lowry dies at home on February 4. His passing is front page news in the local papers.
A memorial is erected in Lowry’s honor in Minneapolis at Hennepin and Lyndale avenues.


practical knowledge which are required for qualified electrical engineers. Electrical Engineering courses are developed in laboratories with state-of-the-art technology equipment, such as Laboratory of Power Distribution Systems and Electronic Equipment, Laboratory of Communication and Signal Processing, Laboratory of Electrical and Electronic Measurement and Automation Laboratory and FPGA under continuous monitoring of academic staff. Electrical engineers can work with networks of microchips, computers, signal processing, microwaves, telecommunications, biomedical networks or even robotics.
They can also work in the fields of transport, lighting, heating, ventilation, power generation and distribution systems, production and construction. Electrical engineers gain skills and are responsible for drafting project plans, evaluating project timelines and costs, managing technical work, and so on.


Future astrophysics and planetary experiments are expected to require large focal plane arrays with thousands of detectors. Feedhorns have excellent performance, but their mass, size, fabrication challenges, and expense become prohibitive for very large focal plane arrays. Most planar antenna designs produce broad beam patterns, and therefore require additional elements for efficient coupling to the telescope optics, such as substrate lenses or micromachined horns.
An antenna array with integrated silicon microlenses that can be fabricated photolithographically effectively addresses these issues. This approach eliminates manual assembly of arrays of lenses and reduces assembly errors and tolerances. Moreover, an antenna array without metallic horns will reduce mass of any planetary instrument significantly. The design has a monolithic array of lens-coupled, leaky-wave antennas operating in the millimeter- and submillimeter-wave frequencies. Electromagnetic simulations show that the electromagnetic fields in such lens-coupled antennas are mostly confined in approximately 12–15°. This means that one needs to design a small-angle sector lens that is much easier to fabricate using standard lithographic techniques, instead of a full hyper-hemispherical lens. Moreover, this small-angle sector lens can be easily integrated with the antennas in an array for multi-pixel imager and receiver implementation. The leaky antenna is designed using double-slot irises and fed with TE10 waveguide mode. The lens implementation starts with a silicon substrate. Photoresist with appropriate thickness (optimized for the lens size) is spun on the substrate and then reflowed to get the desired lens structure.
An antenna array integrated with individual lenses for higher directivity and excellent beam profile will go a long way in realizing multi-pixel arrays and imagers. This technology will enable a new generation of compact, low-mass, and highly efficient antenna arrays for use in multi-pixel receivers and imagers for future planetary and astronomical instruments. These antenna arrays can also be used in radars and imagers for contraband detection at stand-off distances.
This will be enabling technology for future balloon-borne, smaller explorer class mission (SMEX), and other missions, and for a wide range of proposed planetary sounders and radars for planetary bodies.
In accordance with Public Law 96-517, the contractor has elected to retain title to this invention. Inquiries concerning rights for its commercial use should be addressed to:
Innovative Technology Assets Management JPL
Mail Stop 202-233
4800 Oak Grove Drive
Pasadena, CA 91109-8099


Once you have surfed the Internet or your corporate Intranet a little, you may wonder why some pages look really good and some look just awful. There are three reasons: HTML, choice of browser software, and your computer's basic display settings.
The source for all Web pages, Internet or Intranet, is HyperText Markup Language (HTML)--basically ASCII text with some embedded codes that represent instructions for displaying text and graphics or linking. HTML uses a limited hierarchical set of heading tags for text, and was not originally intended to display pages in the way designers now use it. As a result of limitations in HTML itself, designers must often "cheat" to get the displays to look the way they want them, and some browsers can't display the "cheats" properly.
More importantly to you, *every* browser (Netscape, Spry Mosaic, Internet Explorer, Netcruiser, AOL, etc.) interprets the HTML code in its own way. An heading code may look very big and bold on an older AOL browser, and only moderately large in Internet Explorer. There is no standardization among browsers as to how to display HTML code, which means the same page will look different depending on what browser you use. And older browsers do not recognize some widely used HTML codes, such as tables or font colors. (TIP: Upgrade your browser every 3 months to the most current version. It's usually free.)
The other thing that controls the display is your own computer's settings. If you have your basic screen font set large, all your Web pages will also display larger. This means you will have different line breaks and page lengths on your screen than someone with a smaller font setting.
By, Kaye Vivian, ABC, http://www.cloud9.net/~kvivian


World Toilet Day: Crappy holiday shines spotlight on serious issue
Launched in 2001, World Toilet Day raises awareness about serious global sanitation issues. Today, most of us are able to do our business in private. But did you know one in three people around the world do not have access to a clean, safe and private toilet?
It wasn’t all that long ago when the backyard outhouse served as the family toilet. Can you imagine having to get bundled up in the middle of the night, in all kinds of inclement weather, walking (or running) to the outhouse by the light of the moon? Plus, you’d never know what kind of critters lurked in the dark! Then you’d have to crawl back into bed and try to get back to sleep?
But despite all the advances in technology and modern conveniences, over 2 billion people around the world still do not have access to toilets. More than 1 billion people defecate out in the open! Lack of adequate sanitation is not only humiliating, it is a serious health issue that causes thousands of deaths every day.
Diarrhea is the second leading cause of death for children under 5 which is attributed to the lack of accessible toilets. 1 child dies every 20 seconds. World Toilet Day helps shine the spotlight on the urgent need for safe toilets around the globe.
The next time you flush, remember the people around the world that do not have the same luxury! November 19 is also International Men's Day and Have a Bad Day Day.


Discover Special Right Triangles Use Pythagorean Theorem to calculate x in each of the problems. Use the lines provided to answer the following questions? Be prepared to present your findings to the class. 1.) Do you notice any patterns between the legs and hypotenuse of the triangles? 2.) Can you write a formula to describe the length of the ...
How to Use this Worksheet. In this sixth grade 2d geometry worksheet, students are required to find the area and perimeter of 2d-shapes such as circle, right angle triangle, rectangle, square, trapezoid, pentagon and rhombus by applying the appropriate input values in corresponding formulas.
Finding the missing side of a right triangle is a pretty simple matter if two sides are known. Just square the sides, add them, and then take the square root. Here's an example: Since we are given that the two legs of the triangle are 3 and 4, plug those into the Pythagorean equation and solve for the...
Again, this right triangle calculator works when you fill in 2 fields in the triangle angles, or the triangle sides. Angle C and angle 3 cannot be entered. In case you need them, here are the Trig Triangle Formula Tables, the Triangle Angle Calculator is also available for angle only calculations.
Find the missing angle for the intersecting lines, worksheet #2. Word Doc PDF Find the missing angle in the triangles and the covex quadrilaterals, worksheet #1.
Special Right Triangles and the Unit Circle 3 February 20, 2009 Feb 1910:25 AM There are three more functions, but ... 5.2 A worksheet #'s: 714, 1535 odds. Title:
Special Right Triangles Extra Practice Find the missing side lengths. Leave your answers as radicals in simplest form. 1) m 3 6 n 30° 2) x 3 y 45° 3) u v 3 5 45° 4) m 2 2 n 45° 5) x 10 y 45° 6) 2 x y 60° 7) x y 4 30° 8) x 7 3 2 y 60° 9) 485 x y 45° 10) x 264 y 45°


This The Laws of the Land lesson plan also includes:
Learners examine state quarters and discuss how national and state agencies worked together to create them. They examine state laws and national laws to see how they differ. They explore the process for making a law.
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First evidence of a leatherback turtle along Pakistan’s coastline
WWF-Pakistan staff helped in the rescue and release of this turtle. This rescue, along with the recent location of a large population of olive Ridley turtles from offshore waters previously thought to be extinct from the area, is a positive sign for the marine biodiversity of Pakistan.
Along the coast of Pakistan five species of marine turtles are reported to occur which include green, olive Ridley, hawksbill, loggerhead and leatherback turtles. Of these, leatherback is considered to be the rarest species occurring along the area and indeed globally; they are one of the most endangered species of marine turtles.
Previously there were a number of reports about occurrence of leatherback from Pakistan including a dead leatherback turtle recorded from Pushukan near Gwadar in 2002 but no living turtle was recorded from the country before.
Muhammad Moazzam Khan, Technical Adviser in marine fisheries for WWF-Pakistan pointed out that since leatherback turtles feed only jellyfish, their occurrence in the country may be on account of a recurrence of jellyfish blooms in the coastal areas. He pointed out that the global population of this species was estimated to be 115,000 adult females in 1982. By 1996 this had been revised down to about 30-40,000.
Leatherback populations in the Indian Ocean have undergone dramatic declines in the past forty years. The nesting colony at Terengganu, Malaysia went from more than 3,000 females in 1968, to 20 in 1993, to just 2 recorded recently with no signs of recovery.
WWF-Pakistan with the support of provincial wildlife departments has been involved in turtle conservation and awareness programmes along Sindh and Balochistan coasts for almost two decades. With the establishment and strengthening of sanctuaries and wildlife refuges as well as awareness raising activities, local communities are now better equipped to protect turtles and their nests and reduce bycatch in fishing gears as evidence from the recent finds show.


# It's Raining, It's Pouring
19th century England
It's raining, it's pouring,
The old man is snoring,
He bumped his head and went to bed,
And couldn't get up in the morning.
# History and Meaning
This was first published in the US in 1912, though the use of the phrase "it's pouring" leads us to believe it came from England some time before, perhaps in the 19th century.
# What happened to the old man?
We don't have a clear explanation of what happened to the unfortunate old man. It is possible he had slipped in the wet weather and hit his head quite hard. He could have been running to get out of heavy rainfall and lost balance, or slid on a flat surface slick with water. Afterwards, thinking he could just sleep it off he went to bed. The last line makes us think that the man had underestimated how bad the injury was - perhaps he suffered a concussion which led to serious physical impairment or even death.


In the world of industrial manufacturing, even the smallest components play a pivotal role in ensuring the efficiency, safety, and durability of the machinery. Among these small yet essential components are industrial hinges. Now, you might wonder: “What sets an industrial hinge apart?”
A high-quality industrial hinge is designed specifically to withstand the rigorous demands of industrial applications, offering a blend of strength, longevity, and reliable performance.
While the market is flooded with a multitude of hinge options, how do you discern which ones truly fit the bill for industrial standards? Let’s deep dive into the essential features that a top-tier industrial hinge must possess.
1. High-quality Industrial Hinges with Robust Material Composition
Material choice is paramount. An industrial hinge should be made from materials that resist corrosion, wear, and tear. Stainless steel, brass, and certain types of reinforced plastics are popular choices. Each of these materials boasts specific qualities, like stainless steel’s renowned durability or brass’s natural resistance to corrosion, making them ideal for challenging industrial environments.
2. High-quality Industrial Hinges With High Load Capacity
The ability of the hinge to support weight without deforming or breaking is essential. Depending on the application, a hinge may need to support several tons of weight. A well-engineered hinge should not only bear weight but also distribute it effectively, ensuring balanced operations and mitigating undue stresses on adjoining structures.
3. High-quality Industrial Hinges With Temperature Resilience
Certain industrial environments expose machinery to extreme temperatures, both high and low. The hinge should maintain its functionality and structural integrity under these conditions. For instance, hinges used in cold storage facilities should resist brittleness at sub-zero temperatures, while those in foundries must tolerate intense heat without losing shape.
4. High-quality Industrial Hinges With Good Chemical Properties
Industrial settings often involve the use of aggressive chemicals. Whether it’s cleaning agents, lubricants, or processed materials, hinges should resist chemical reactions. This feature ensures that hinges do not degrade prematurely or become a point of weakness due to chemical exposure.
5. Maintenance Ease
Industrial processes can’t afford frequent downtimes. Hinges requiring minimal maintenance are invaluable. But beyond that, when maintenance is essential, the hinge design should facilitate easy servicing or replacement, minimizing disruptions to the operational flow.
6. Precision in Manufacturing
Precision ensures that the hinge fits perfectly into the machinery and operates without glitches. This precision means minimal play and wiggle room. When hinges are precisely manufactured, they minimize errors in alignment, reducing wear and tear, and contributing to the machinery’s optimal performance.
7. Lifecycle and Durability
Longevity is a hallmark of quality. A good industrial hinge should offer an extended lifecycle, meaning fewer replacements over time. This durability is not only about the hinge itself but also its contribution to the entire machine’s lifespan, by ensuring consistent movement and reduced strain on adjoining parts.
8. Security Features
For applications where security is paramount, hinges might need in-built locking mechanisms. These hinges should not only prevent unauthorized access but also signal tampering attempts. Additionally, the design should be robust enough to withstand forceful interventions, making the machinery more secure.
9. Range of Motion
Not all industrial applications require a full 180-degree swing. Depending on the use-case, there might be a need for hinges with limited or extended range. Beyond the range itself, it’s crucial that the hinge movement is smooth and consistent, ensuring predictable and precise operations at every angle.
10. Customizability and Adaptability
In the diverse world of industrial manufacturing, one-size-fits-all rarely works. While standard hinge sizes and designs cater to a broad range of applications, specific machinery might demand custom dimensions or specifications. Manufacturers who can adapt and provide custom solutions offer an edge in ensuring seamless integration and optimal performance.
Selecting the right hinge for industrial applications goes beyond mere aesthetics or basic functionality. The features mentioned above are vital in ensuring that the hinge not only fits seamlessly into the machinery but also enhances its efficiency, safety, and longevity. When in doubt, always prioritize quality and suitability to the specific demands of your industrial process.
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Story kiosk location
- Northwest corner of Elgin and Nepean
- In June 1981 the first “Lesbian march” was held in Ottawa. The first Dyke March took place in July 2004.
What happened here?
- The earliest LGBTQ+ marches were a response to increasing violence against the community.


Conditions that Cause Hair Loss in Men
For individuals experiencing hair loss or are worried about losing hair, ‘the causes of hair loss’ stands out as one of the most challenging topics. For the purposes of this article, we will addressing the actual causes behind hair loss as well as shed some light on a few rumors that have been generated.
Why Do Men Experience Hair Loss?
Male pattern baldness also referred as androgenetic alopecia or genetic hair loss, is one of the common forms of hair loss depicted in men. Men are naturally prone to thinning hair any time after puberty. Among men in their 20’s, approximately 20% experience male pattern baldness. Whereas men in their 40’s face a 40% rate of occurance and a 50% rate of occurance in their 50’s.
Male pattern baldness is a genetic condition that is generally inherited from the parents.
Hair loss can also be triggered by Dihydrotestosterone or DHT, a breakdown product of the hormone testosterone that is caused by the enzyme 5-alpha reductase, converting testosterone into DHT. Hair follicle exposed to DHT begin to shrink and the growth stage becomes shorter. The end result is thinner and shorter hair strands. Over a period of time, hair follicles will reach to a phase where they are no longer capable of producing hair. Men experience hair loss when more than half of the hair follicles within a particular area of their scalp are exposed to DHT.
There are also some myths on the causes of hair loss that have been put forward; Here are some of those myths;
1.Wearing a Hat
Normally wearing a hat, unless it is too tight or causing friction, will not give rise to hair loss.
2. Poor Scalp Hygiene
This theory is not supported by any scientific evidence. If this was true then people living in societies with limited water supplies and therefore unable to take a bath should have all been bald.
3. Frequent washing makes hair fall out:
The act of washing dislodges hairs that have already become detached and are ready to come out.
A majority of hair dye products contain chemicals that may cause hair breakage. However they rarely cause hair loss.
Using styling products such as hair jel, hair spray or wax
Styling products like hair jel, foams or wax, if not used as required, can be harmful to your scalp or can damage the hair. It is advised to apply these products only to the hair and avoid direct contact to the scalp. Additionally, cosmetic products do not damage the hair follicles and cause hair loss.
Stress can lead to temporary hair loss. However, hair will likely grow back once the source of stress is eliminated. Generally, the cause of hair loss in men is not due to stress.
You now have a solid understanding of the leading causes of hair loss in men. If you or someone close to you has started to experience hair loss, we encourage you to see a doctor to find the right diagnosis and best treatment plan. If you would like to consult Dr. Serkan Aygın and undergo a medical examination, you can reach us through the contact information on our website and schedule an appointment.
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