THE DOCTRINE OF KARMA IN JAINA
I. “O Gautma, just as a sprout has a seed for its hetu as there is a hetu for happiness ad misery; since it is a karaya. That hetu is the karman” We find in this life persons, having the same means for enjoying happiness, misery, in this life, is too much of a fact to be ignored. It is also true that there is abundant inequality in the status and experiences of individual men, which is inexplicable by our empirical methods of enquiry. Good men suffer ad the evil prospers like the green banyan trees. It is necessary to explain this provident inequality in the status and development of individuals.
Attempts have been made to refer this inequality to man’s first disobedience and the fruit of that forbidden tree. Others have denied the existence of evil and the consequent inequality; still others would like us to think of this word as training ground for perfection. But life is to a pleasure garden and God a sort of a Sata Cause whose main duty is to please his creatures. It is necessary to find a solution on the basis of autonomous nature of ma and his responsibility to shape his o destiny. The Indian thought has found it in the doctrine of Karma.
II. The doctrine of Karma is one of the most significant tenets of Indian thought. It has profoundly influenced the life and thought of the people in India. it has become the ‘logical pricus of all Indian thought’ It is the basal presupposition of Buddhism, Hinduism and Jainism (of course with minor differences). As a man sows, so does he reap: our actions have their effects. These effects cannot be destroyed. They have to be experienced and exhausted. If we cannot exhaust the effects of our actions in this life, we have to complete the visual of birth ad deaths to ear the fruit for al that we have doe. No ma inherits the good or evil of another man. The doctrine of Karma is, thus closely associate with the transmigration of souls. Every evil deed must be expatiated, and every good deed must receive its reward. If it is not possible to reap the fruits in one single empirical existence, it must be experienced on earth in fresh incarnation. Plato has made a reference to this theory in the Law, perhaps under the influence of orphic mysticism, and refers to ‘the tradition which is firmly believed by many and has been received from those who are learned in the mysteries. In Indian thought, the Jainas have developed the doctrine of Karma o scientific basis.
Karma etymologically whatever is done, any activity. It got associated with the after-effects of actions, both physical ad psychical. Ever Jiva (living being) is constantly active, expressing the activity in the three-fold functions of body, speech and mind. It leaves behind traces of after-effects in the physic and psychic forms. Every action word or thought produces, besides it visible, invisible and transcendent effects. It produces under certain conditions certain potential energies which forge the visible effects in the form of reward or punishment. As in the case of a bond which continues to operate until, but loses it validity on the repayment of the capital sum; so does the invisible effect has disappeared. Actions performed in this life would be the causes of future life, and the present life is the result of actions performed in the precious life. So it’s the chain of life connected in the series of actions and their effects realised. The Karma doctrine involves the idea of a eternal metempsychosis. 5 Kerl potter in his presuppositions of India’s has tried to interpret Karma as a form of habit. Human being faces challenges from many sides which have to be met by birth, social act ion and by the application of scientific techniques in order to be free from the bondage in life. But the more subtle challenges lie underneath the surface, and ‘arise form habits themes, which continues after the conditions that engender them have been removed, and which engender new habits which in turn must be removed somehow. This round of habits breeding habits is a part of what is called in Sanskrit samsara, the wheel of birth, which is governed by Karma, the habits themselves’ 6 Karma is described in the Jaina philosophy as a kind of dirt which accretes to the other wise pure Jiva by virtue of one’s actions. In the bhagaadgita the dirt is described as of three kinds. “one may think of these as types of habits” 7 I have not been abe to understand how potter interprets Karma as a type of habit. One must be steeped in the Indian tradition in order to understand the nature and significance of Karma.
C.J. Jung, while distinguishing, personal and the collective unconscious, hints at the possibility of comparing the archetypes of the collective Unconscious to the Karma in Indian thought the collective unconscious stands for the objective psyche. The personal layer ends at the earliest memories of infancy, but the collective layer comprises the pre-infantile period that is the residue of ancestral life. The force of Karma works implicitly and determines the nature and development of personality. The Karma aspect is essential to the deeper understanding of theatre of an archetype. 8 Although it is possible to say that Karma has essentially a reference4 to individual differences and hence a personal acquisition, yet each India has a common heritage which he shares with the community and which shapes his being. The archetypes refer to the common heritage. To this extent they regret to the Karma aspect.
However, Jung was primarily concerned with and interpretations of dermas and fantasies in presenting his theory of the collective unconscious. He would have reached the doctrine of Karma the store-house of the physical ad psychical effective of the past.
It is difficult say who ans. where the Karma doctrine originated in India. Some have traced the origin of Karma in the principle of Rta. Rta is the socmic principle. It pervades the whole world, and gods and man must obey it. It is the anticipation of the law of Karma. In the revedic hymns the doctrine of Karma is yet in its infancy as Rta. The doctrine does not appear in the old hymns of the Rgeda. The edit seers were mainly interested in the good of this life, and when death came they went the way of their fathers to the world where Yaa, the first to die ruled. The doctrine us have developed against a number of other doctrines about creation. Some regarded time as the determinant factor of creation. Others believed in nature(svabhava)as the prominent factor. There were other theories as well. The Jainas rejected these doctrines and said that even time and svabhava are determined by Karman. 10 Concept of Karma must have existed at least a thousand years before the beginning of the Christian era, and has since become the basis ad center of religious though.11 it is probable that Karama and rebirth must have been pre-Aryan doctrines which were important in the Sramaba culture later assimilated in the Brahman thought by the time the Upanishads were clearly formulated. The India view of Karma was doubtless of on Aryan province, and it was a kind of a natural loaw.12 Transmigration of the soul was perhaps one of the oldest forms in which the belief in the after-life was held. Karma was closely liked with this doctrine. With the gradual emphasis of asceticism under the influence of the sramana culture, came the awareness of one’s responsibility to shape one’s personality here and here-after. However, the doctrine has been widely accepted in ancient Indian thought, except for the Caravaka. In the samnyasa Upanisad we are told that the Jiavas are bound by Kara. 13 and while thus we feted yourselves with the effect of our deeds. In the Mahabharata, the emphasis is on the force of Karma. Of the three kinds of Karma , prarabdha, samcita ad agami mentioned in the Bhagavadgita, agami and samcita can be overcome by knowledge. In Buddhism, as there is no substance as soul, what transmigrates is not a person but his Karma. When the series of mental states which constitutes the self resulting from a chain of acts ends, there would still be some acts and their effects which sontumue; and the vijnana projects into the future duce to the course of the effects of Karma. The Buddihista distinguish acts accompanied by asrava (impure acts) from pure acts which are not accompanied by asrava. Samasara is the effect of Karma. Our present happiness and misery are the fruit of what we have ourselves done in the past. Operation of Karma can be considered as a principle of more life, as force limiting and particularizing personality as as a principle of conservation of energy in physical world.15 but Buddhism maintains that involuntary actions, whether of body, speech and mind do not constitute karma, ad there fore cannot bring about the results accruing to karma. It only means that unwilled actions do not modify characte.16 Karma theory has been expressed in a variety of ways ‘from the most extreme realism which regard Karma as a compledity of arterial particles in fetching the soul to the most extreme idealism where it is a species of newly produced invisible force, it its highest unreal the Jainas give a realistic view of Karma. It has existed from the pre-Buddhist time. The idea of the pollution of the soul due to Karma has been largely allegorical in other religious philosophies in India, while the Jainas ‘have adopted it in the ra sense of the word’ and have worked out into an original system.17 the Jaina conception of Karma must have been completely developed agter a thousand years of Mahavira’s nirvana. The Sthanaaga, Uttaradhayaana- sutra ad the Bhagavatisutra contain genera outline of the doctrine, ad the details have been worked out in the karmagrantha, pancasmgraha and the Karmaprakriti. In working out the details there have been two schools of thought: I) agamiskas and
Jainism is, in a sense, dualistic. The universe is constituted of the two fundamental categories: jiva (living) and ajiva (non-living) sou (jiva) has been decribed from the numeral and the phenomenal points of view, jiva is pure and perfect. It is simple an without parts. It is immaterial and formless. 18 it is characterise but etana. It is pure consciousness. From the phenomenal point of view Jiva is described as possessing four pranas. It is the lord (prabhu,) limited to his body (dehanaatre,) still incorporates and it is ordinarily found with Karma.19 the jiva comes in contact with the external world, alive the Jiva is active, and the activity is expressed in threefold forms-the bodily, in speech and mental . this is called yoga . Yoga brings its after –effects in the form of karmic particles which veil the pure nature of the soul. The souls are contaminated by the Karma which is a foreign element, and are involved in the wheel samsara. This contamination is beginningless, though it his an end. It is difficult to say how and when sould got included in the wheel of samsara. Caught in the where of Samasara the soul forgets it serial nature and the efforts ot reach for the truth are obscured by the passions. The inherent capacity of the soul for self-realization is also obstructed by the veil of Karma.20 It is subjected to the forces of Karma which express themselves first through feelings and emotions, and secondly in the chains of very subtle kinds of matter invisible to the eye and the instruments of science. It is then embodied and is affected by the environment, physical and social and spiritual. We, thus get various types of soul existence.
Karma , according to the Jainas, is material nature. It is matter I a subtle form and it is a substantive force. It is constituted of finer particles of matter. The kind of matter fit to manifest Karma fills the universe. It has the special property of developing the effects of merit and demerit. By it activity due tot the contact with the physical world, the soul becomes penetrated with the particles of karmic body (karma sarira) which is constantly attached to the soul till it succeeds to be free from it. ‘nowhere has the physical nature of karma been asserted with such stress as in Jinism.21 A more fact produces a psycho-physical quality, a read and not merely a symbolic mark, aggecting the soul in its physical nature this point of view has been worked in detail in the form of in form of mathematical calculations, in the karrmagrantha.
The Jaina tradition distinguishes two aspects: I) the physical aspect (drvya-karman) and ii) the psychic aspect (bhava-karman.) The physicals aspect comprises the particles of Karma (karma-pudgala) accruing into the soul and polluting it. The psychic aspect is primarily the mental states ad events arising out of the activity of mind, body and speech. They are like the mental traces of the actions, as we experience the mnemonic traces long after the conscious states experienced vanish. The physical and the psychic Kara are mutually related to each other as cause and effect.22 The distinction between the physical and the psychic aspects of Karma is psychologically significant, s it presents the interaction of the bodily ad the mental due to the incessant activity of the soul.
This bondage of the soul to karman is of four types according t nature (parkarit ) duration (sthiti) intensity (anubhaga or rasa ) and quantity (pradesa.)23
Karma can be distinguished into eight types: 1) jana carnaiya, that which obscures right knowledge; 2)darsanavara niya that which obscure right intuition: 3) vedaniya, arousing affective states like feelings and emotion: 4) mohaniya, that which deludes right faith: 5) ayus- karman, determining the age of the individual; 6) nama karman, which produces various circumstances collectively making up an individual existence, like the body and other special qualities of individuality; 7) gotra-karman, which determines the family, social standing etc; of the individual; and 8) atarya –karman which obstructs the inborn energy of the sow and prevents the doing of good actions.
Each kind of karma has its limits in time within which it must exhaust itself. The accumulated karma brings a trances dental he or hallo to the soul which is called lesya. There are six Lesyas. These Lesyas have predominantly a moral resultant.
Karma is substantive force. It has the property of developing the eggects of merit and demerit. The Karmic particles build up a special body which is called karma-sarira which does not leae the soul till its emancipation. Karma has its psychic effects also. Bhava-karma is immediate to the Jivas while Dravya-karman belongs to the body. Five classes of Karmic coditions ar mentioned . on account of the rise (udaya), suppression (upasama),annihilation (ksaya), suppression ad annihilation (ksayopasama) and psychological effect (parinama), the soul has ice conditions of thought and existence.24 In the usual course of things, Karma takes effect and produces results. The soul is said to be in audayika state. Karma may be prevented from its operation for sometime. In this stte it is still present, like fire covered by ashes. The soul is in the aupasamika state it is still present, like fire overhead by ashes. The soul is in the aupasamika state. When Karma is annihilated, it is in a kasayika state. The fourth state is the mixed state. The last, unconditioned state leads to moska.
The aim is to seek freedom from the miseries of this life, to seek deliverance. But the path to Mokasa is ling and endless. We have to free ourselves from the Karma that has already been accumulated and to see that no new Karma is added. The soul gets bound by the constant flow of Karma. This is called bundha. Menta states, like passion attachment ad aversion, which prepare the ground for the binding of the soul by Karma are called psychic bondage (bhava- bhandha; and the actual binding by the particles of Karma is called dravya- bhandha. When passions overcome us, the particles get glued to our souls and bind them, just a as heated iron ball when immersed in water, absorbs water. But the first step to the realization of the self is to see that all chancels through which Karma has been flowing have been stopped so that no additional Karma can accumulate. This is samvara. There are two kinds of Sanvara: bhava-samvara which is concerned with mental life, and dravya- sammvara which is concerned with mental life, and dravya samvara which reefers to the removal of Karmic particles. This is possible by self- control ad freedom from attachment. The practice of vows (vrata), carefulness (samiti), self-control (gupti) observance of ten kinds of dharma, reflection (anuprekasa) and removing the various obstacles like hunger and thirst and passion, will stop the inflow of karma and protect us from the impurities of fresh Karma. Here right conduct (caritra) is of help.
The next important task is to remove the Karma that has already accumulated. The destruction of Karma is called nirjara. Nnirjara is of two types : bhava-burhara and dravya nirjara. The karma may exhaust itself it its natural course when the fruits of karma are completely exhausted. This is called savipaka or akama nirjara, where no efforts would be required on one’s part the remaining karma has to be removed by means of penance. This is avipaka nirjara. The soul is like a mirror which looks dim when the dust of karma is deposited on its furface. When the Karma is removed by Nirjara, the soul shines in its pure and transcendent form. It then attains the goal of Moksa. The Ghati karmas are first removed still, to disappear. Last of all is the final ayogi state of kevala.
The influx of karma affects the soul and brings bondage. The soul’s activity ( yoga is due to its inherent energy (virya.) The infinite energy of the soul gets imperfect expression by which karma accumulated and this imperfect expression of energy is responsible for the various processes of the Karmic matter.
Karmic matter undergoes virus processes due to the different types of activity. The pancasamgradha describes eight processes of expression of energy (karma) in its limited form. These processes lead to corresponding Karmic processes. The soul activates Karmic matter at every moment of its worldly existence and assimilates it with different types of karma which express themselves in due course and being the disabilities and defilement of the soul.
The influx of karma (asrava) into the soul and the consequent bondage involve certain processes like I) transformation (samkrmaa) of one type of karma into that of another, ii) edurance of Karma for a certain time (stta), iii) endurance without producing the effect (abadha) ad iv) coming effect (udaya). Transformation is a process by which the soul transforms the nature, duration intensity and extensity of Karma into those of another 25. This transformation is generally restricted to the change of one sub-type of the same kind. For instance, in the vedaniya Karma, soul can transform the Karma producing pain (asata vedaniya) into that producing pleasure (satavedaniya). In the Janavaraniy a karma it can transform caksu- darsana. A person having right intuition (samyamithyatva).26 But two are told any karma cannot be transformed into any other. One cannot transform karma obscuring intuitive experiecnce (darsana moha) with the karma obstructing conduct (caritra-moha) into that of any karma (determining life duration.) This expiation is scientifically plausible and logically acceptable. We find that electrical energy can be transformed into heat or light energy. Transformation of one
Karma into another requires energy and this energy is determined bu the degree of the purity of the foul. A person having perversity of attitude (mithyatva) cannot convert, cannot change the mithyatva karman into the mixed or samyaktva, because the person with wrong belief is not pure and not capable of such transformation. Conversely a person with right belief (samyaktava) cannot easily transform the karma to any of the pure forms.
Transformation of karma may also affect increase (udvartana) decrease (apavartana), duration (sthiti) and intensity of the function ( anubhaga) of karma.27 The Jainas have worked out a scientific and detailed analysis of these processes with a view to explaining the process of the operation of Karma.
Karma may be made to express its effect prematurely by this process the souls attract back the karmic particles which are to fructify later . karma is made to realize it effect prematurely. Through gradual subsidence and destruction of Karma, the soul reaches the state of perfection wherein all the karmas are removed and no additional karma accumulates .The inherent energy of the soul gets perfect expression. It is possible that one who is free from energy-obstructing karma may still continue to act tin this word. The enlighten one is perfect. He may continue to work for the welfare of all creatures. But his is a purely detached activity and therefore free from any contamination ending to the coloration of the soul (lesya)
III. The analysis of karma and the involvement of Jiva in the wheel of Samaras due to the impact of karma on it raises a more fundamental question as to how the soul which is immaterial and simple is affected by the material Karma. Some seem to think that such a contact between contradictory entities is logically difficult to accept. But souls are imperfect because the particles of Karma which are foreign to the nature of the soul enter into the soul and cause great changes in it. The karmic matter produces in the soul certain conditions even as a medical polio given to an individual produces manifold physical and psychic effects.28 In the state of bondage the soul is infected with a kind of susceptibility to some into contact with matter.
This susceptibility finds expression in the affective states. Through the Yoga (kaya-van-manh –karma yogah) the soul puts into motion the material substrata of its activity, and fine particles of matter are dawn to unite themselves to become karma, and enter into union with the Jiva. This mixing up is more intimate than milk and water, than between fire and iron ball.29 The matter once entered into the soul separates itself into a greater number of particles, karma-*prakrti, with varying effects. Their number and character are determined but the conduct of Jiva if the activity is good, Jiva assimilates good karma; if it is bad, there is bondage of Karma.
The soul’s embodiment in the wheel of Samsara is an empirical fact; and beginingless nature of this bandage is also a fact, a presupposition as some would like to say. The problem as to how the immaterial soul gets mixed with karma and is involved in the empirical life has been considered from different point of Jew. Schools of philosophy have annualized it on the basis of their metaphysical views. For the Buddhist, soul is namarupa, psycho-physical in nature. Nescience (avidya) is the seed of worldly existence; and nescience is formless like consciousness , for according to the Buddhists the formless acna alsone aggect the formless. The material rupa cannot affect the formless nama. But the Jaina contends that emancipation would not be possible, as the seed for the emancipation would then be within consciousness itself. The Yogacara school avoids the difficulty by making the physical world unreal. But the Jaina is a realist , and he asserts the reality of the material world. He says that it would be consistent to believe that the material would affect the mental, as consciousness would be affected by intoxicating drugs.
The Nyaya-Vaisesika believes that conditions of bondage belong to the soul, and the unseen potency expressing in merit and demerit belongs to the soul. But the Jaina pints out that as passions according to them are equalities of the soul, conditioning its bondage, they must be rooted in something material, for conditions of the passions must be distinct from the qualities of the soul. 30 There is no bondage without the integration between spirit and matter; and there is no interruption without bondage. According to Jaina, the worldly existence is possible in the reaction of identity- cum diffececnce between the spiritual and the material. The Nyaya Vaisesika regard merit and demerit as arising out of the activity of the body and mind, though it does accept any form of dinette between spirit and matter. The Jaina does not understand this situation. The Samkhaya Yoga presents a duality between pursua and prakriti The conscious principle is involved in the evil of the world, though it does not belong to it. The pursue is ever kept aloof from the material and conditions of worldly existence lie in the nature of Prakriti. But the Jaina finds this position and as such presupposes a fall of the principle of consciousness for the venation the world is only empirically true. And karma belongs to the empirical existence and as such an illusion.
The jaina philosopher bases his stand on experience and avoids absolute conceptions of soul and karma. Je ad,ots cmcrete relation between the soul and karma. Soul is affected by the influx of karma. The change effected in the soul is determined by the nature of the Karmic matter, and the nature of Karma is in turn determined by the passions. Similarly, the nature of passions is determined by the nature of karma. This is a reciprocal relation affecting the soul and matter. In this conception, the distinction between the material Karma (dravya-karma) and psychic karma (bhava karman) is very significant. The former is associated with avraa; the latter is associated with dosa (defect.)31 every act brigs with it the after-effects I physical and psychic aspects. The physical aspects of the parches is dravya-karma; while the psychic traces are have karma. The material karma and the psychic counterpart are related as caused as cause and effect.32 In a passage in the karamagrantha, a question regarding the cause of the Karmic influx has been raised. How is it possible that particular particles of Karmic matter entering the soul can transform themselves into various forms of Karma? And we are told that this is possible through the my stories power of the soul and through the peculiar quality of matter itself. We find matter of one form is transformed int another; water is transformed into clouds and rai again .why them cannot matter of karma besmearing the Jiva be transformed into different types of karma? We are then told that all further discussions would not be necessary.35
The discarding of rational argument, in this connection, is justified, because Jainism does not pretend to have attained this doctrine by human ration means.34 It is not through the limited comprehension of an average man that the view has been presented but by revelation of on the authority of a kevalin.
IV. karma theory has been found buy some to be an inadequate explanation for the prevalent inequalities in life. It is suggested that the theory suffers from serious defects.
1.Karma leads to the damping of the spirit and men suffer the ills of life with helpless equanimity of attitude simply because they get the awareness that it is beyond their power to change the course of their life as it is determined by Karma. Karma leaders to fatalism. It does not give any incentive to social service. The general apathy oaf an India towards the natural, social and political Elise is mentioned as an examples of the impact of karma o our life. The famous temple of Samantha was destroyed; and there was no visible resistance because the common man in India was overpowered by the belief that everything that happens is the result of karma.
But this is more an over-statement of a fact, if not a misstatement. It is not true to say that the Karma theory does not give any incentive to social severe. The Upanisads enjoin social service. The Jaina ethics is based on service and sacrifice, although on the highest level one has to trenchant social morality. The five vows to be unsaved by and SciTech and the layman (sravaka) imply the recognition of dignity and equality of life. Schweitzer maintains that the attitude in the Cincinnati Indian thought was that of world and life negation. Still the problem of deviance in the Jaina and the Buddhist thought the purity of conduct, ‘and the soul cleanses itself from the besmirching it has suffered and altogether frees itself from it. What is new then, in Jainism is the importance attained but ethics 35. An it full of significance for the thought of India 36. And Karma is not a mechanical principle, but a spiritual necessity’. It is the counterpart in the moral world of the physical low of uniformity 37. Unfortunately the theory of Karma became confused with fatality in India when man himself grew feeble and was disinclined to do his work 38. Still the importance of karma as after effects of our action and determining the course of life cannot be easily underestimated . karma has to be looked at as aa principle involving explanation of action and reaction. Fatalistic theory of life was presented by Mikhail Fosala, a contemporary of Mahavira. He considered himself a rival of Mahavira. He said that happiness and misery are measured to one as it were in bushels. The duration of life and the transmigration of souls have their fixed forms. No human effort can change them. Mahavira and the Buddha opposed Gosala mose vigorously.
2. It is also said that the karma theory is inconsistent with individual freedom of the wil. It does not guarantee true freedom to the individual which is essential to his moral progress 39. Karma works as the inexorable law of causation, in its essentially mechanical way. And in the background of caste system, the boon of individual inequality becomes a furs; ‘if Karma had not to work with caste, a varnasrama-dharma, a wrong idea of the self and transmigration, we might reconcile Karma with freedom . but as it is, it is not possible. The theory in entirety cannot escape the charge of ‘determinism’ from the point of view of higher morality 40. Older Buddhism ans. Jainism were much concerned to defend self-regulative character of Karma; salvation was essentially through self-reliance: and there was fear of the antinomain tendencies of the notion of reliance on others (e.g. the Lord) 41. The answer to the charge of fatalism was that by our own efforts we can annihilate the existing Karma and neutralise it s effects.
But it is difficult to determine the nature of this objection. We are told that from the point of view of higher morality Karma theory cannot escapee the charge of determinism. Yet’ the objection is determined by and based on the individual’s status in a particular caste. It is more a sting against caste system than a criticism of karma theory. The object appears to confuse the essential from the acquittal. It is a fallacy of Ifnoratio Elenchi.Caste system is a sociolifia problem ad it is not essential for understanding the nature and operation the nature and operation karma. In fact determinism is determined b the past karma, yet the individual is free to act in such a way as to mould his own future by reducing or destroying the existing karma. The present is determined, but ‘the future is only conditioned’ 43. In general, the principle of karma reckons with the material in the context in which each individual is born.45 But the spiritual element in man allows him freedom within the limits of his own nature.44. there is room for the lowliest of men even of animals to rise higher and price his self, Attempts were made to reconcile the law of Karma with freedom of man. Karma is compared to a fire which were can, by one’s own efforts. Grace of Food has no place in Jaina ethics. Self effort in the direction of purification of the soul is the one way towards perfection. A thief for instance, undermines his own character and being every time he commits theft. No amount of prayer and worship will erase the effect that has been accumulated, although it may create mental atmosphere for eliminating such future possibilities Jainas have, therefore given a detail theory of conduct distinguishing it into two grades as that of the mui an ascetic, and of a sravaka, a householder.
3. It has been objected that that Karma theory connects actions and its consequences in a rather mechanical way. In its mechanical aspect. It mistakes the means for the end in this it is presumed that repentance is the end and paying the due penalty is only a means. It is said that Karma theory overemphasis’s the retributive aspect of punishment.
But here again, we find a confusions between end and means. Repentance has its place in life but it is not the end to be achieved. Reentrance does purify the mind and has the effect of a catharsis. This would be a means for the future development of an individual. Even as a means it is not all. The Jaina theory of Karma emphasis’s that but individual efforts at moral and sritiual development we can reduce the intensity of Karma, suppress it effects or even annihilate. We have seen that one can, by suitable efforts, transform the energy of one form of Karma into that of another,45 as we can transform electrical energy in to that of heat or light. Repentance is not to be taken as the final end. It only creates an atmosphere for moral efforts towards self- realization. It is at best a powerful psychological means which would help us in attainment of spiritual perfection. If repentance were sufficient to lead to purification the after –effect of past action cannot be accounted for, not can they by explained away, as that would be contrary to the laws of physical and moral nature.
4. karma doctrine implies that sin is a finite offence that can be made good by private temporary punishment. It presupposes that we can make godour sin which is entirely beyond our power.
It is also said that the domination impression that one gets of the Karma doctrine is that the individual is in the grip so power, which heedless of his own wishes, is working out a burden of an immemorial past 46. Pringle-pattison shows that the whole emphasis of the karma theory is on retribution. There is nothing redemptive in its operation, and the process becomes ans endless one, leading t no goal of ultimate release. He quotes Deussen and says that expiation involves further action which in turn involves expiation and thus the process is endless. The clock work of requital, in running down, always winds itself up again, and s in perpetuity 47. Accumulation of merit may ease a future life , but it would not suffice to effect a release from the wheel of life . even when a new world follows after the deluge in the cycle of worlds, it does not start with a Sean balance-sheet, as the operation of will proceeds from the point where it was suspended 48. Karma only perpetuates the curse of existence 49. So the karma doctrine ‘seems open to the criticism to which the vindictive theory of punishment has been subjected in modern times 50. To conceive this universe as primarily a place for doling out punishment is to degrade it to the level of a glorified police – court 51.
The dominate note in the objection is that to make good our sin is beyond our power and the emphasis on the reributue element in the doctrine of Karma makes this world frightful and miserable’ as a glorified police-court but this is far from truth. It is not beyond our power as we said earlier, to improve our states of existence. The Jainas have shown that self-effort can shape the future the present is with us and the further is in our hands.
Retributive theory is a more consistent theory of action and reaction and not merely of p8unishment, that Reformative theory. Man gets what he martins to get; and to with hold it would be injustice to him unless he makes his won efforts to modify the effects of his own efforts modify the effects of his actions. Reformative theory may be full of noble and soft sentiments, it may be comforting to be told that by the grace of God, we would be better. But that destroys the individuality and dignity oaf an individual and he destroys the individuality and dignity oaf an individual and he would become a too in the hands of a higher power or his agent I this world. We refuse to be treated as things. Moreover , it is good to tell men, though it is unpleasant to do so that they are alone responsible for their present state. To put the responsibility on the individual is hard truth. And Radhakrishanan says that karma is not so stomach a principle f retribution as one of continuity 52.
5.Some have said that the doctrine of karma leads to unbridled individualism. It fails to see that we all belong to community, that there is what is called joint Karma’ corporate sin or guilt. It allows the fortunate ones it boast of their self merited happiness 53. Explanation for the inequality is referred to the vicarious suffering’. The ethical justice is to be found in the crucification of Christ; and the Cross is a symbol of taking over the sufferings of man upon oneself so as to lighten the suffering of man.
But according to the Jainas , as also in other Indian thought, except in the Carvaka, self-realization is t be attained through a moral effect which is essentially social it contain. We have seen that the Jaina ethics is essentially social in its significance. Moksa is to be attained through the practice of goodness, charity compassion and humility, although the Moksa is attained but one who practices the virtues and the three-fold noble path. It is, therefor, more accurate to say that Karma theory awakens an man to his responsib9ilities to himself and to others, and does not make him isolated and self- centered.
We may also add that Karma does not imply a hedonistic outlook on life. Reward for pleasure is snot a life of pleasure nor is the punishment for is pain. The theory is not to be confused with hedonistic or a judicial theory of rewards and punishments 54. Pleasure and pain are determinants of animal experience, but for human life the end to be attained is nothing short of perfection. His efforts are to be directed to the attainment of this highest end. The universe is , in the words of Tennyson, a vale of soul-making’ and not a pleasure garden.
v. Therefore the karma there is an explanation of the moral justice in the universe. It is the conception of an all controlling law of natural retribution which links together the successive earth lives of each individual soul. It satisfied my sense of justice and threw light on the problem of unmerited suffering’ 55. For the modern European verities of karma theory’ it is not the mechanical idea of an identical soul- substance passing form body t body, the mystical idea of suffering with and for other’, that forms the real attraction of doctrine. And perhaps that may be the rue explanation of its ascendancy in the East as wee 56.
Judged by the historic standards, the Karma theory did much to raise man’s status and to wean him from caxing gods through sacrifice and pryer. It insisted on individual expiation, and emphasized the moral continuity of life here and here after 57.
Karma is in fact a striking answer to the ‘fathomlessijnustie to the nature of thing’ and it appeals ‘to the overpowering sense of the necessity of justice’. The conception of an all contorting law of natural retribution which links together the successive earth lies of each individual soul, both satisfied my sense of justice and threw light on the problem of seemingly unmerited suffering 58.
Having discussed the arguments and counter arguments of the logical justification of the docritne of Karma, we may say that, from the real point of view (niscaua-naya) logical justification of the doctrine is not possible not necessary. It is the expressio of the highest knowledge and expression of the highest knowledge and experience of the seers. We must accept it as authority. When the ascetic, named Kaladecala saw the newborn Siddhartha Gautama he was at one delighted and sad. Delighted because he saw vision of Siddhartha as one to be the Buddha, and sad because he saw that he sould not live to see that glorious day. This need not be taken as mere fable. It has a great significance in presenting the experience of a seer. The story is told of Pythagorean remonstrating with a ma who was beating a dog, because in the howling of the animal he recognised the voice of a departed friend. The spice of malice in this anecdote is perhaps misplaced. And, “Oh, agnibhuti Karma is pratyaksa to me, the omniscinecent being, just as your doubt is pratyaksa to me.’59.
VI. we may add here a note on the much discussed doctrie of Lesya.
We have seen that the perfect soul may continue to work for the welfare off all creatures. But he is detached from all activity and is free from any creatures. But he is detached from all activity and is free from any contamination which leads to the coloration of hallo for the soul (lesya).
1. According to the Jaias, the soul is a substance distice from matter. Matter and soul influence each other, yet are quite distance from one another .The soul is a spiritual monad From the nominal point of view , the soul is pure and perfect. It is pure consciousness. It is characterised by upayoga ad is formless . Upayoga is the hormic force. But the purity of the soul is defied but the influx of karma. It gets entangled I the wheel of samasara and emoodied through the operation of Karma. This entanglement is beginningless, though it has an end. It is subjected ot the forces of karma through feelings, emotions and activity (yoga ) . The soul is associated with Karma and forms a subtle body called the Karma-sarira comparable to the linga-sarira of the Samkhya school. The immediate presence of the Karmic matter in the soul throws reflection, as it were on the soul, as a colored flower does in a mirror or a crystal.60 The subtle Karmic is invisible ot the eye and to the instruments of Science. The influx of Karma effects the soul in various forms and produces certain type of ‘aura’ or coloration about it. This coloration or hallo is the lesya. But this coloration does not affect the soul in tis pure nature. The color of the revelation does not belong to the soul. When the soul becomes free from Karmi matter ad reaches the Siddhahood, it becomes free from this foreign element of coloration.
2. Lesya is of two kinds:- dravyalesya ad bhava lesya. Drya Lesya refers to the karmic material affectig the organism. Bhava lesya refers to the psychic conditions affecting organism and thereby radiating the colour which may alled than scedental coloration. Thus, the effect of darma in matters affecting the nature of the organism though it an not be said that Lesya refers to the colour of the body. We are told that the denizens of hello are black in colour. Celestial beings get difference colors on the basis of the pact of a different karma. So is the case with human begins 61. This distinction may be referred to the racia colors and innumerable distinctions I the individual shades of color . Bhava Lesya refers to the psychic conditions affecting the individual in verging an auraroung the organism. The psychic conditions create reflexes and they, in turn may give rise through some form of radiation to some kinds of cloration round the organism. This may not be ordinarily visible to the eye, but only to persons disciplined in yoga further distinctions are made I lesya six types of primary colours are suggested three of them refer to egilminded persons. The remainging are attributed to morally good persons. The six Lesyas are: 1) black (krshana), 2) blue (nila),3)dovegrey (kepota), 4) yellow (pita, 5) oink (padma), 6) white (sukla.). For instance, a man who is wicked ad cruel gets the black lesya. A man who has affected by anger and envy and who loves pleasure get was the biue lesaya. One who is base an dsishonest has gray. On the contrary, a weldisciplined man develops the red lesya. One who has subdued the passions has yellow. One who is engrossed in mediation of the Dhrama and truth has the white lese. but the fully liberated souls have no lesya at all 62. The ethical or moral significance of this doctrine has been emphasized in this distinction. The lesyas are treated as an index of temperament and character. Lesyas have a moral bearing. 63 The Jainas give the example of six travelers in the forest. They see a tree full of fruits. The ma with a black Lesya intends to uproot the tree; that with a blue to cut the trunk; that with a grey to cut the breaches; that with a yellow, to take the twigs only; the ma with the pink Lesya intends to pluck the fruits, while the one who has a pure white lesya is content to take whatever fruits have fallen on the ground. 64
There are degrees of expression of Lesya in terms of time and intensity. We are told that in the case of black Lesya the duration varies from half a muhurta to thirty- three sagaropamas. The effect of the blue Lesya varies from half a Muhurta to ten Sagaropamas plus one Palyoama and a part of an asamkhyeya. So is the variation in the duration of other Lesyas . 65 The Jaias have given a fabulous mathematical calculation of the effects ad the generation Lesya 66 I think they were fond of such arithmetical formulations.
3. There has been a controversy regarding the antiquity and the nature of Lesya . leumann found a resemblance between the six lesyas and Gosal’s division of mankind into six classes 67. Jacobi was perplexed but the resemblance and though it difficult tot bring the lesya doctrine into harmony with there rest of their creed’ 68.
However, as Dr . upadhye pints out, these early scholar on Jinism were misled but their supposition that the Lesyas represent that colors of the soul. Tradition neversays that thesoul itself has colour 69. Colour and sense qualities are associated with Karma throws a reflection on the soul, as a colored flower does on crystal. The colour does not form part of the crysta; so Lesya is not part of the soul. It may also be noted that the liberated soul is free from Karmic matter and also from any of esyas. Thus, the conception of esya is closely associated with the karma theory.
In Buddhism too, Karma is classified according to colours: 1) black, 2)white, 3) black and white, and 4)not black and not white 71. The same classification was adopted in the yoga school. But these systems do not accept the material nature of karma. Therefore, Dasgupta suggests that the idea of the black and white Karma in the Yoga philosophy was probably suggested by the Jaina view 72.
4. The problem of interpreting the Lesya theory in terms of modern psychology, especially para- psychology has been engaging my attention for some time past the bhava-lesya has a psychological significance. It is an aura created round the soul due to psychic effects and yoga. It is dependent on the activity of the mind. The six primary colours are effects of Karmic influx arising out of the mental states and events. Every psychosis brings some after-effects which are both physical and psychic; it is possible to show, by proper analysis and investigation, that such psychic phenomena exist and are detectable. The effects of psychic states are transformed through some for of radiation into the ‘aura’ of colour spreading round the organism, like the halo supposed it surround a prophet. We have heard that the gods and the prophets like Jesus, Mhahavira and Buddha, had ahalo round them. The Jainas have said that three enlightened ones still living in this world get a white halo around them. But those who are liberated are without any Lesya or coloration. They are alesyi. Such aura or coloration may not be visible to the eye, not detectable by the ordinary instruments of science. But men disciplined in the Yoga and those who have developed an extrasensory capacity may see it. We may perhaps find some methods pertinent to para-psychology by which we may discover the possibility and existence of such phenomena .It would therefore, be a problem for the para-psychologist’s research.
I have recently read an autobiographical not by Lama Managalabjong Rama, who states that he could see, owing to the Yogic discipline he had undergone, the ‘aura of colour round an individual . It varied with individual difference in the mental states at the moment. He once saw blue rays of light emanating from a Chinese delegation which had gone to see the Dalai Lama. He then appealed to the Dalai Lama not to take the delegation at their word, as they were full for read.
It would not therefore, be a presumption to suggest that the Lesya phenomena should be investigated by the methods of parapsychology.
I may also point out that some have suggested a resemblance between the Lesya doctrie and the theosophical view of the transcendental colours in the individual 73. We may refer here to the theosophical writing of Mrs. Besat.74 The Jainas say that the soul is immaterial; consciousness and its states are also immaterial and colorless. Colour is in matter; and matter certainly acts ad reacts on the soul by the inflow and bondage (bandha) of the Karmaic matter due to passions and modifications in the mental states.


For a website to be accessible through a web browser, it needs to communicate and facilitate information transfer following a set of standardized rules and instructions governing the process. This transfer method is known as HTTP or HyperText Transfer Protocol. In this age of widespread and more sophisticated hacking methods, ensuring security over these information transfers is paramount. There is a need for websites to migrate from the traditional HTTP process to a more secure HTTPS format, in which all data and communication between user’s web browsers and your website are encrypted to ensure an added layer of security. Because sharing personal information across numerous websites and in various online accounts is inevitable these days, HTTPS technology offers site-builders and end users more peace of mind that their data exchanges are safe.
It has always been Google’s goal and vision to provide users more secure web experiences. Time and again, the leading search engine finds new ways to encourage tighter security for websites by declaring HTTPS as a ranking signal, marking HTTP sites that carry sensitive data to be “non-secure” in Chrome, prioritizing HTTPS pages during indexing, and showing how moving to HTTPS is now easier and cheaper than ever. While HTTPS is still considered a lightweight ranking signal, it will not be surprising to see it as a major requirement for search engine optimization in the near future, especially as security threats come more and more sophisticated.
HTTPS offers additional layers of protection for both website owners and website users. It ensures data encryption, website integrity, and website authenticity. Authentication prevents middle-man attacks by providing a guarantee that a user is communicating with the right or intended website he or she wants/needs to access. Encryption offers another layer of privacy by transforming exchanged data into hard to decipher formats. This way, it will be extra difficult to eavesdrop on conversations and/or steal/gain access to sensitive information. Ensuring data integrity prevents data from getting corrupted or being unnoticeably modified during transfer.
Migrating to a more secure site keeps users’ online experiences secure and private, helping you maintain their trust and confidence. Upgrading to HTTPS also has many site optimization benefits like increased speed in some browsers as well as a boot in your rankings, especially since Google is increasingly placing a greater weight on HTTPS as a ranking signal.
This said, there are many things that can potentially go wrong during a switch from HTTP to HTTPS, which is why it is crucial to plan each step toward a more secure site thoroughly. To ensure a smooth landing, follow the proper steps and make it a point to perform tests and checks to avoid disastrous outcomes. When migrating HTTPS make sure to:
- Choose and install the right SSL certificate.
- Once installed, check to see if the site is properly displaying and working on all browsers (mobile and desktop) as some site elements may break after the migration. Some common elements to keep an eye on include maps, forms, and images—and any issue must be fixed urgently to ensure a smooth transition and maintain good UX.
- Verify correct SSL certificate installation. If your site doesn’t display as secure in the browser, you can check issues that need fixing at https://www.whynopadlock.com/
- Make sure that all HTTP URLs redirect properly to their respective HTTPs URL.
- Update your XML sitemap to include all the new HTTPS URLs.
- Verify Google Search Console with the HTTPs version of your site and submit the updated XML sitemap.
- Set targeted country in Google Search Console for HTTPs version of your site.
- Once you have verified your new account for the secure version of your site, upload the updated/latest disavow file for the site.
- Manually submit critical site pages for indexing into GWT.
- Monitor the number of impressions/clicks in GWT for the new HTTPS version and compare it with your previous HTTP version. Any significant difference should be reported immediately to your SSL certificate provider/SEO service provider.
Moving your website from HTTP to HTTPS is not easy—it’s a job best left in the hands of experts. SEOValley team has the skills to do it right, contact us today to know more about our services.


From Ohio History Central
A portrait of Major General Andrew Jackson (1767-1845), ca. 1812. Jackson was a lawyer by education, and became one of the wealthiest men in Tennessee. During the War of 1812, he led 2,000 white men against the Creek Indians. He famously defended the city of New Orleans from British attack in 1815, and also contributed to expanding the borders of the United States during the war. He eventually won the U.S. presidency in 1828, an election which ushered in an age of "Jacksonian Democracy."
The Ohio History Connection SC 2960
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A five-mile run first thing in the morning, rain or shine. A low-fat vegan diet. Hot yoga. Counting calories.
What could possibly go wrong with routines and habits that are intended to keep you healthy?
Plenty, according to Scripps psychologist, Tarane Sondoozi, PhD, if that habit turns into an obsession, compulsion or addiction. “Any habit has the potential to become problematic, including something as simple as a personalized cup of coffee,” she says. “If this beverage becomes so central to my lifestyle that I can’t function without it; if my mood or sense of physical well-being is contingent on having my special coffee; or if I cannot live or function without my must-have drink, then it’s affecting my life and those around me. It’s become an addiction.”
While too much rigidity in one’s daily routines may not cause much harm beyond emotional reliance, other healthy habits can be destructive. Rigid control of caloric intake can become a full-fledged eating disorder. Working out in excess can lead to exhaustion, depression, injuries and even permanent damage. Stringent dietary rules can lead to malnutrition or metabolic disorders.
The key to keeping healthy habits genuinely healthy is moderation and balance, Dr. Sondoozi says. “Habits, obsessive-compulsive behaviors, and addiction all lie on a continuum. If you’re running so much you’re neglecting your relationships — that’s probably crossed the line. If you feel you can’t go out with your friends because they’re congregating at a place that serves food cooked with trans fat, you might have a problem that needs addressing.”
Addiction happens when people use a substance or engage in activity to alter their mental or emotional state and they feel compelled to engage in the behavior at any cost. It may initially be pleasurable, but eventually it becomes a source of anxiety, fear, uneasiness or worry. At that stage, the emotional investment in the behavior has the earmarks of obsessive-compulsive disorder.
As the substance or activity begins to negatively impact the individual, it interferes with life, relationships and the responsibilities of daily living. When an individual is unable to stop, despite damage being caused by the behavior, they have developed an addiction.
Surprisingly, people who have developed a dysfunctional relationship with a once-healthy habit may not even be aware that they are out of control. They may deny that their behavior is interfering with life. Psychologists have even developed an exercise addiction screening tool that can help people understand whether their habit is beneficial or harmful; it may be helpful in an assessment of other habits as well.
Extreme habits may initially stem from a desire to gain control and cope with anxiety and stress, but paradoxically, they end up out of control. “If you exercise to live better and be well, you are creating and maintaining healthy habits,” Dr. Sondoozi says. “If you live to exercise, there may be a problem. You may need help getting back to a more balanced place.”
Denial is one of the main characteristics of addiction, so the first step to recovery is the awareness and admission that there is a problem. “You’re addicted when you know at some level that what you’re doing is harmful, either to yourself or to others, but you can’t or won’t stop,” says Dr. Sondoozi. “Once you acknowledge that, you can start your path to recovery.”
At this point, a primary care physician or a behavioral health professional can help identify tools and resources to help bring a problem habit back under control.


If your cat has a tooth that is damaged beyond repair, an extraction may be required. Here, our Everett vets share some info about what you can expect from your cat's tooth extraction surgery.
Tooth Extractions in Cats
A cat tooth extraction is when your cat's tooth is surgically removed by a veterinarian. Extractions can go as deep as the roots or might stop at removing the dental crown (the part of the tooth which is visible above the gums)
Why a Tooth May Require Extraction
When a tooth is damaged beyond repair, it is important to remove it to prevent infection and pain caused by the dead tooth. In most situations, this decay is caused by periodontal (gum) disease.
Gum disease is caused by a build-up of plaque on your cat's teeth that eventually hardens into a substance called calculus or tartar. When not removed, the hardened tartar will cause pockets of infection between the gum line and the teeth, leading to gum erosion and tooth decay. You can help prevent gum disease with at-home dental care and regularly scheduled professional dental appointments.
Cats are also susceptible to a condition called feline tooth resorption. Feline tooth resorption is when painful erosions develop on a cat's tooth or teeth and begin breaking down the structures that form the tooth. Unfortunately, there is no way to prevent feline tooth resorption and the teeth experiencing resorption almost always need to be extracted.
The Tooth Extraction Process
When you bring your cat in for an extraction they will be given general anesthesia. Cat veterinary dentists do this to ensure the safety and comfort of your cat. Before the procedure takes place, your vet will likely recommend the appropriate diagnostic tests to ensure they are healthy enough to undergo anesthesia. These tests may include bloodwork, X-rays, or an EKG.
During the surgery, your cat will be continuously monitored by a veterinary technician who will administer pain medication and ensure your cat's vitals remain stable.
Depending on the teeth that are being removed, including their size and location, there is a variety of techniques that your vet may use for the extraction.
Your Cat's Recovery
After a tooth extraction surgery, it is normal for your cat to feel some sensitivity for anywhere from 1 - 2 weeks. For more complex procedures, pain relief medication may be prescribed by your vet for a few days following the surgery.
Cats typically don't "chew" their food the same way humans do. Their teeth are mainly for ripping apart pieces of meat and when it comes to kibble it's not unusual for them to swallow whole pieces. So while you don't need to worry about your cat eating in the long run, you should still soften their kibble with warm water or switch to canned, wet food for a few days after surgery as their mouth will be sore.
Complications are rare after veterinary dental surgery, but that doesn't mean you shouldn't monitor your kitty's mouth. Keep an eye out for any signs of excess bleeding, swelling, or infection. Infection may be characterized by redness, pus, or a bad odor.
Your vet will likely want to schedule a follow-up appointment with you to ensure everything is healing as it should. Talk to your vet about any other special care requirements your cat may need.
Note: The advice provided in this post is intended for informational purposes and does not constitute medical advice regarding pets. For an accurate diagnosis of your pet's condition, please make an appointment with your vet.


Global study shows that 84% of the organization had implemented Big Data projects. Hadoop is altering the way to handle Big Data because of its capability to process and store extremely big data sets. Here are few basic questions which give an overview of Hadoop technology:
What is The Hadoop Framework?
The Hadoop, developed by Apache Software Company, is an open source Java-based programming framework. It is used to process and store extremely big data sets in a dispersed computing environment. Hadoop supports computational capabilities and distributed storage. It is mainly used to analyse large volumes of data.
What is HDFS?
HDFS is a Java based file system, which provides reliable and scalable storage of data. It is designed to accommodate huge amount of servers. HDFS is demonstrated to scale 200 PB of data storage in a cluster of 4500 servers.
What is Map Reduce?
It is a model of programming which is associated for generating and processing very large data sets in a distributed, parallel or cluster system. Map Reduce splits the input sets into small chunks, which are processed parallel way in a clustered system.
Hadoop Read and Write Operation?
In Hadoop, Read and Write operation consists of single master and multiple slaves. The name node is the master and data nodes are the slave. Information is stored in name node and data is stored in data node.
Read Operation – To read a file from Hadoop, the client need to interact with the master as name node, which is the centrepiece metadata (data about the data)? Name code checks whether the client has the authority to access the data. If permitted, client can access the respective data nodes to read files.
Write Operation – Name node need to be accessed to write a file in HDFS. Client can directly write files to data nodes, which will create data line pipelines. The 1st data node will copy the file to the 2nd data node, which intern copies to 3rd data node. Once replicas are created, an acknowledgement is send.
What is Gateway or Edge Nodes?
Gateway or Edge Nodes are used to run client application and cluster administration tools. They are actually acted as a staging area where a data is transferred into Hadoop cluster.
What is Apache YARN?
YARN (Yet Another Resource Negotiator) in Apache Hadoop in a cluster management technology. It is one of the key features of this open source distributed processing framework. This improves Map Reduce implementation and supports varied processing approaches.
How does Secondary Name Node Complement Name Node?
Name node manages file system tree and all the metadata. The information is stored in local drive in two files, i.e., namespace image and edit log. The secondary name node basically helps to improve the latency by taking responsibility of collaborating edit logs with image from the name node.
What is Resource Manager (RM)?
Job tracker acts as a both history server and resource manager, which puts a restriction of scalability. RM is the master application which joins all the clustered resources and helps to manage spread applications running on the system.
More questions in Part 2….


Free program Folding@Home has nothing to do with laundry, even though that's the only kind of folding most of us ever do at home. Instead, it has to do with health and medical research. Folding@Home helps scientists gain a better understanding a wide range of illnesses including Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, Huntington's, cystic fibrosis, and other serious diseases.
"Folding" is something proteins do. In a nutshell, it's a process whereby the protein transforms from a random-looking string into a functional three-dimensional structure. Sometimes proteins can fold incorrectly, and this leads to a host of degenerative diseases. If this description sounds a bit fuzzy, it's not just because it was written by a computer scientist trying to explain biology: It's also because it's an incredibly complex process, which has not yet been fully understood.
One way to understand protein folding (and misfolding) is to simulate it. Such as simulation is a virtually unlimited computing problem: The more processing power you have, the more complex your simulation can be. And this is where your humble computer (or awesome gaming rig) enters the picture.
Rather than invest in a huge supercomputer, Folding@Home harnesses the collective computing power of Windows, Mac, and Linux computers, as well as Playstation consoles. Each of these platforms has a Folding@Home client.
I evaluated the Windows client. On the surface, it looks like a screensaver with a simple configuration interface. It gets a small chunk of work from the central Folding@Home server, crunches away at the problem, submits the result and then gets a new chunk of work to do. Multiply this by over 460,000 active clients, and you've got one impressive supercomputer.
One thing I like about Folding@Home is that you constantly see results. The project has been active since October 2000, and since that time, over 70 research papers have been published using its data. On a more playful or personal level, you can set a username for yourself and track your own personal contribution over time using the project's website. You can even join a team and compete against other teams from around the world. The teams page shows some formidable work done by various computer enthusiast groups and overclocking forums.
You may think having an application use your processing time would slow down your system, but Folding@Home was built to be extra-considerate. It uses the lowest possible processing priority, so whatever other task your computer has to perform is considered more important. In my testing, I could feel no slowdown at all, despite the Folding@Home client utilizing 41-46% of my CPU time while I was working.
Since Folding@Home does make use of your CPU, it can cause some increase in power consumption. When your computer is running on main power, this should not be a concern. It may become an issue when you're working on a laptop in battery mode and every extra minute of battery life counts. Fortunately, the client can be configured to pause work while on battery power. Note that this is not enabled by default, and the client will keep computing even while on battery power if you don't set it to pause.
As a client, this is not a very exciting application: You can get it to display a cool-looking 3D molecule on your screen, and that's about it. The excitement comes later, when medical advances fend off life-threatening diseases--and you know that you helped find the cure.
This story, "Fight deadly diseases in your PC's spare time" was originally published by PCWorld.
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News in Brief: A National Roundup
Federal Study Documents Rates of Autism Disorders in 14 States
Data from 14 states participating in a federal project to study autism-spectrum disorders show that about six of every 1,000 children had the developmental disabilities, the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention reported last week.
The findings, from the first and largest summary of data on the prevalence of the disorders in multiple communities in the United States, were based on reports on 8-year-olds, since by that time the majority of children with ASDs have been identified.
The findings translate to one in every 150 children in the communities studied having disorders such as autism, pervasive developmental disorder (not otherwise specified), or Asperger’s syndrome.
The study did not provide a national estimate for the prevalence of the disorders.
Previous estimates had indicated that between one in 500 children and one in 166 have an autism-spectrum disorder, federal health officials said.
Those developmental disabilities are defined by children’s impairments in social interaction and communication and by the presence of unusual behaviors or interests. They can be diagnosed as early as 18 months of age, the Atlanta-based CDC said, and most parents reported developmental concerns before age 3.
“Our estimates are becoming better and more consistent, though we can’t yet tell if there is a true increase in ASDs or if the changes are the result of our better studies,” CDC Director Dr. Julie Gerberding said in a statement. “We do know, however, that these disorders are affecting too many children.”
The study includes findings from six states in 2000 and 14 states in 2002.
Vol. 26, Issue 23, Page 6Published in Print: February 14, 2007, as Federal Study Documents Rates of Autism Disorders in 14 States


The Locally Grown Food Diet is one which requires that all food ingested by the dieter is grown within a 100-mile area of where she lives. An amazing amount of energy, especially fossil fuel, is conserved by not transporting food over long distances to deliver to the various regions around the country. Vitamins and minerals are also far better conserved with locally grown products because they are eaten in such a timely manner; they don’t sit on a delivery dock waiting to get to the market.
Some locally grown foods should be avoided on this plan. There are no “bad” locally grown foods; the products to avoid are based on processing and seasonal timing rather than specific food items. Here are four foods to stay away from while on this diet plan:
1. Processed Food
Processed food can contain specific ingredients that are not found locally but are included in a locally made food. This breaks the
basic Locally Grown Food Diet rule. Be sure that any processed food that is eaten contains only local ingredients and that the product is made locally.
2. Out-of-Season Produce
Produce that is “out-of-season” should be avoided. If it is not “in season,” it has been shipped into the area and is not
“locally grown.” If you reside in New England, strawberries and zucchini in December are absolutely not locally grown. On the
other hand, if you live in southern California, go ahead and indulge in a fresh fruit salad in February. Shop at a local farmer’s
market to be sure the dietary rules are followed.
So called “exotic” foods are rarely grown locally, unless it is a greenhouse growing situation for these foods. Bananas and pineapples do not typically grow in New England but can be harvested in a climate controlled greenhouse to keep them “local.”
4. Boxed Items
Avoid mass produced, boxed and packaged items such as processed cookies, crackers, dairy products, coffee and chocolate. The bottom line about foods to avoid on this particular diet is simple; if it isn’t wholly grown within 100 miles of where you live, do not eat it.
While the Locally Grown Food Diet does provide healthy food choices because processed, sugary choices are eliminated, it can be a challenge to keep food choices interesting. Remember, where you live determines your dietary choices. Avoid the above foods, and you will be in compliance with the plan.


(PLSC 114) This course is intended as an introduction to political philosophy as seen through an examination of some of the major texts and thinkers of the Western political tradition. Three broad themes that are central to understanding political life are focused upon: the polis experience (Plato, Aristotle), the sovereign state (Machiavelli, Hobbes), constitutional government (Locke), and democracy (Rousseau, Tocqueville). The way in which different political philosophies have given expression to various forms of political institutions and our ways of life are examined throughout the course.
This class was recorded in Fall 2006.
01 - Introduction: What is Political Philosophy?
Professor Smith discusses the nature and scope of "political philosophy." The oldest of the social sciences, the study of political philosophy must begin with the works of Plato and Aristotle, and examine in depth the fundamental concepts and categories of the study of politics. The questions "which regimes are best?" and "what constitutes good citizenship?" are posed and discussed in the context of Plato's Apology.
02 - Socratic Citizenship: Plato, Apology
The lecture begins with an explanation of why Plato's Apology is the best introductory text to the study of political philosophy. The focus remains on the Apology as a symbol for the violation of free expression, with Socrates justifying his way of life as a philosopher and defending the utility of philosophy for political life.
03 - Socratic Citizenship: Plato, Crito
In the Apology, Socrates proposes a new kind of citizenship in opposition to the traditional one that was based on the poetic conception of Homer. Socrates' is a philosophical citizenship, relying on one's own powers of independent reason and judgment. The Crito, a dialogue taking place in Socrates' prison cell, is about civil obedience, piety, and the duty of every citizen to respect and live by the laws of the community.
04 - Philosophers and Kings: Plato, Republic, I-II
Lecture 4 introduces Plato's Republic and its many meanings in the context of moral psychology, justice, the power of poetry and myth, and metaphysics. The Republic is also discussed as a utopia, presenting an extreme vision of a polis--Kallipolis--Plato's ideal city.
05 - Philosophers and Kings: Plato, Republic, III-IV
The discussion of the Republic continues. An account is given of the various figures, their role in the dialogue and what they represent in the work overall. Socrates challenges Polemarchus' argument on justice, questions the distinction between a friend and an enemy, and asserts his famous thesis that all virtues require knowledge and reflection at their basis.
06 - Philosophers and Kings: Plato, Republic, V
In this last session on the Republic, the emphasis is on the idea of self-control, as put forward by Adeimantus in his speech. Socrates asserts that the most powerful passion one needs to learn how to tame is what he calls thumos. Used to denote "spiritedness" and "desire," it is associated with ambitions for public life that both virtuous statesmen as well as great tyrants may pursue. The lecture ends with the platonic idea of justice as harmony in the city and the soul.


It is impossible to go through your life without ever once experiencing stress. Regardless of the cause, or the severity, stress is inescapable. Your job, family, relationships, can all contribute to everyday anxieties, and if left unchecked, it won’t take long for this constant stress to take a toll on your health.
The only sure-fire way to reduce or eliminate stress in your life is to remove yourself from stressful situations, even if it’s only temporary. Allowing yourself to take a break, and finding time to relax is crucial to maintaining a healthy life. Let’s take a look at how relaxation benefits your mental, physical, and emotional health.
- Experiencing one source of stress can often trigger a mental domino effect; making you feel stressed about other, smaller issues. This can cause a sense of being overwhelmed when faced with the slightest questions or problems.
- It is theorized that stress hormones, known as cortisol, will actually limit the number of functioning neurons in the brain; making it more difficult for you to learn new things, focus, and even solve problems.
- Relaxation reduces fatigue, which in turn reduces irritability and anger.
- A rested and relaxed mind will experience better focus, concentration, and ability to think positively.
- Focusing on your own self-care can put you back on a path to better mental health.
- Of all the physical health issues that can be caused by an abundance of stress, heart disease is the most serious.
- In the US, every 1 in 4 deaths is related to heart disease. It is the leading cause of death for both women and men in the US.
- Stress often causes us to make choices that can lead to poor heart health. Whether it’s eating unhealthy foods, drinking too much alcohol, or skipping your daily exercise routine, these reactions can put additional strain on your heart health.
- Prioritizing relaxation helps lower your blood pressure, and slows your heart rate, and reduces inflammation; thereby decreasing your risk of heart disease.
- Discover more about heart health with this helpful graphic as well as checking out Health Net’s facebook page for more information on how you can take care of your heart health.
- We’ve already mentioned how the stress hormone can affect your cognitive functions, but cortisol can also reduce your dopamine and serotonin levels. This sort of deficiency has often been linked to depression.
- Serotonin and dopamine are responsible for controlling your body’s emotions, energy levels, and sleep, among other things.
- Over 16 million US adults have experienced at least one depressive episode in a given year.
- Relaxation allows for your body to recover your levels of these neurotransmitters, making it possible for you to avoid triggering a depressive episode.
In our fast-paced world, relaxation is too-often sidelined in favor of what we perceive to be increased productivity. But no amount of productivity is worth your health. If you find yourself experiencing constant stress, consider taking some time to focus on relaxation. Whether that means going for a run, sleeping in, enjoying a hobby, or getting a spa treatment, you will find the outcome to be much better than the alternative.


As more and more aspects of our lives go online, how can we make sure that our personal information remains secure, and that our conversations remain private? Here are five simple steps you can take to improve your online safety.
About the author
Gijs Roeffen, Director IT & Security at EclecticIQ.
1. Create new, unique passwords for your online accounts
It may seem basic, but creating strong, unique passwords for all of your critical accounts is the best way to keep your personal and financial information safe. Reusing the same password across your online accounts means that if one account is compromised, all of your accounts are compromised. The majority of accounts are identified by your email address, which means that if hackers have that data, they already have half of your login information. There are also tools available to perform “password-spraying” against popular sites to see if your stolen username and password combination works, and if it does, your accounts are wide open.
Many browsers, such as Google Chrome and Mozilla Firefox, now come with built-in password managers which generate complex password suggestions for you, so it’s worth taking their recommendation and steering away from generic, repeated passwords. It’s also worth checking to see if your online accounts offer multi-factor authentication to verify your identity.
2. Protect your SMS messages
Attacks on SMS are often very targeted, since intercepting SMS codes requires specialist knowledge and hardware. While it is possible to intercept SMS messages over the air, it requires multiple factors to be aligned to be successful.
Using a two-factor authentication is an effective means of defence against account takeover, so be sure to check your SMS is protected. Alternatively, look into using an encrypted messaging service. Encryption jumbles the content of a message into random data until it is received on the other end, meaning that if a hacker intercepts the message, they won’t be able to view it in full. Apple’s iMessage service uses encryption, as does WhatsApp, which works across both Android and iPhone devices.
3. Keep your security questions (and answers) under wraps
Designed as a last-resort account recovery feature, security questions have proved to be deeply inadequate contingency mechanisms for passwords. It may be that if you forget your password, you will likely remember the name of your first school or the city you were born in, but by relying on factual data that was never meant to be kept secret in the first place, a quick web or social media search can lead criminals right to the answer.
Unfortunately, threats don’t just come from the outside, they can come from the inside, too. All too often the safety of personal accounts are compromised by people we know, whether a disgruntled former colleague or ex-partner, putting your online security at risk. If there is no other security option, make sure you’re using very personal questions which only you know the answers to, or make up the answers!
4. Ditch PIN codes and opt for biometric security
The truth is that when it comes to passwords and PIN codes, people are lazy. Not only do people use the same password across their online accounts, they will also use the same PIN for both their bank card and their phone, or they will use a generic PIN number. In fact, Tarah Wheeler, a cybersecurity executive who serves as the senior director of Data trust, Threat, and Vulnerability Management at Splunk, recently shared the most common PINs used by smartphone users to secure their devices. She got the list from an InfoSec expert via the SANS Institute. The most common PIN number? 1234.
Passcodes and PIN numbers can easily be obtained from looking over someone’s shoulder, or even photographed or filmed from another mobile device. Biometrics, such as finger prints, iris and facial recognition, can’t be captured in either of these ways and so, in general use-cases, are safer then passwords and PINs.
5. Secure your smart speakers
Users of smart speakers will be well aware of the joy and conveniences of playing what to want to hear, when you want to hear it, all through voice command. It’s likely, however, that you have also heard a few rumblings about the security of these devices. Firstly, ensure you purchase speakers from a reputable vendor with a culture of security auditing, such as Google or Amazon. While these devices do offer online storage for data, they do provide an option to delete it, if you wish to.
Ensure you create a new account when setting up your device, so as it does not have access to your calendar or address book, and disable any services or skills that you do not use. Protecting your account with two-factor authentication and ensuring you only connect to the internet via secure Wi-Fi networks will also help minimise risk of interception.
- Keep safe online with the best antivirus.


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|man pages section 3: Extended Library Functions, Volume 2 Oracle Solaris 11 Information Library|
- tangent function
c99 [ flag... ] file... -lm [ library... ] #include <math.h> double tan(double x);
float tanf(float x);
long double tanl(long double x);
These functions compute the tangent of their argument x, measured in radians.
Upon successful completion, these functions return the tangent of x.
If x is NaN, a NaN is returned.
If x is ±0, x is returned.
If x is ±Inf, a domain error occurs and a NaN is returned.
These functions will fail if:
The value of x is ±Inf.
If the integer expression (math_errhandling & MATH_ERREXCEPT) is non-zero, the invalid floating-point exception is raised.
There are no known floating-point representations such that for a normal argument, tan(x) is either overflow or underflow.
An application wanting to check for exceptions should call feclearexcept(FE_ALL_EXCEPT) before calling these functions. On return, if fetestexcept(FE_INVALID | FE_DIVBYZERO | FE_OVERFLOW | FE_UNDERFLOW) is non-zero, an exception has been raised. An application should either examine the return value or check the floating point exception flags to detect exceptions.
See attributes(5) for descriptions of the following attributes:


Origins of the North Korean Garrison State
The People’s Army and the Korean War
This book investigates the origins of the North Korean garrison state by examining the development of the Korean People’s Army and the legacies of the Korean War.
Despite its significance, there are very few books on the Korean People’s Army with North Korean primary sources being difficult to access. This book, however, draws on North Korean documents and North Korean veterans’ testimonies, and demonstrates how the Korean People’s Army and the Korean War shaped North Korea into a closed, militarized and xenophobic garrison state and made North Korea seek Juche (Self Reliance) ideology and weapons of mass destruction. This book maintains that the youth and lower classes in North Korea considered the Korean People’s Army as a positive opportunity for upward social mobility. As a result, the North Korean regime secured its legitimacy by establishing a new class of social elites wherein they offered career advancements for persons who had little standing and few opportunities under the preceding Japanese dominated regime. These new elites from poor working and peasant families became the core supporters of the North Korean regime today. In addition, this book argues that, in the aftermath of the Korean War, a culture of victimization was established among North Koreans which allowed Kim Il Sung to use this culture of fear to build and maintain the garrison state. Thus, this work illustrates how the North Korean regime has garnered popular support for the continuation of a militarized state, despite the great hardships the people are suffering.
This book will be of much interest to students of North Korea, the Korean War, Asian politics, Cold War Studies, military and strategic studies, and international history.
Table of Contents
Preface: The Korean People's Army and the North Korean Garrison State
PART 1: Origins of the Korean People's Army
1. Introduction: The Korean People's Army's Invasion of South
2. Three Core Groups of the Korean People's Army
3. The Origins of the Korean People's Army: Kim Il Sung's Vision for the Korean People's Army
4. The Origins of the Korean People's Army: The Soviet Union in the North Korean Society
5. The Origins of the Korean People's Army: The Formation of the Korean People's Army and Initiator Kim Il Sung
6. The Origins of the Korean People's Army: China
PART 2: The Korean People's Army at War and the Legacy of the Korean War
7. The Leadership of the Korean People's Army: The Party-Military Relations and Generalship of the Korean People's Army
8. The Korean People's Army's Performance and the Legacy of the War: The Rise and Fall of the Korean People's Army and the Making of the Garrison State
Conclusion: The Making of the Garrison State
Youngjun Kim is Professor of National Security at the Korea National Defense University and has a PhD in History from the University of Kansas, USA.
'As the actions and threats of the North Korean military continue to be a cause of global concern, Youngjun Kim gives us an unprecedented and detailed glimpse into the origins and formative years of the Korean People's Army. More than a military history, Origins of the North Korean Garrison State offers a social and cultural context that explains how the North Korean military emerged as the key institution of North Korean society. The "garrison state" created in the late 1940s and early 1950s is in many ways still the North Korea of today. A timely and important book.' -- Charles Armstrong, Columbia University, USA
'Youngjun Kim’s richly detailed examination of the creation and early development of the Korean People’s Army significantly advances our understanding of the formation of the garrison state in North Korea. Drawing on documentary evidence, memoirs, and scholarly literature in multiple languages, Kim presents the KPA as a hybrid of Korean, Soviet, and Chinese elements.' -- Kathryn Weathersby, Korea University, Republic of Korea
'This book is the most comprehensive, authoritative, single-volume work currently available on the making of the Korean People’s Army (KPA) and the regime of Kim IL Sung. It is required reading for anyone who wants to understand the foundation of the North Korean regime, the outbreak of the Korean War, the incredible performance of the KPA against ROK Army and U.S. Army in the initial phases of the war, and the continued existence of the hereditary rulers of North Korea. Youngjun Kim’s book enhances our understanding of the nature of the problem we face today with a nuclear armed North Korea. I highly recommend this book.' -- Adrian R. Lewis, University of Kansas, USA
'The military has long been the most important institution in North Korea. It has been the basis of the Kim family’s rule since 1945, it is the 4th largest army in the world (at 1.3 million it is just behind the American military, which is 3rd), and it is the core of the world’s most amazing garrison state. Yet we have had very little scholarly work on it until Youngjun Kim’s new book. Deeply researched, cogent and fascinating, this book will be a standard work for years to come.' -- Bruce Cumings, University of Chicago, USA