The open economy
So far, our model for exchange rate determination has been very simple. We have assumed that domestic interest rates are unaffected by foreign interest rates. We begin this chapter by looking more carefully at this assumption (the classical model of exchange rate determination). Then, a more realistic model of exchange rate determination is considered.
Finally, we will discuss the Mundell- Fleming model (MF-model).
The Mundell-Fleming model is a model for an open economy. Such models must consider the determination of the exchange rate and how the exchange rate affects imports and exports. They also typically assume that capital may move freely and that investments will flow to countries where the return is maximized.
The Mundell-Fleming model is probably the simplest among the many macroeconomic models of the open economy. The Mundell-Fleming model is basically an extension of the neo-classical synthesis with a model for the exchange rate that allows for free capital flows.
The rest of the world as one country
Most of the open economy models treat the rest of the world as one country. Focus in these models is on aggregate exports and imports and we are less interested in which particular countries we trade with. The same argument applies to capital flows. In these models, the rest of the world will have a single currency that we call the foreign currency. Therefore, there are only two currencies (the foreign and the domestic) and a single exchange rate.
Exchange rate systems
For an open economy, the particular exchange rate system in use becomes important. In Exchange rate we discussed some possible systems. In simple models, only two systems are considered: a floating or a fixed exchange rate.
- With a floating exchange rate, the exchange rate is determined as any price, that is, by supply and demand. The central bank never intervenes in the market.
- With a fixed exchange rate, the exchange is completely fixed. In reality, most countries with a fixed rate allow the exchange rate to vary within certain limits. These variations are disregarded and the central bank will always intervene to keep the exchange rate at its fixed value.
Also remember the following notation:
Fig. 16.1: Changes in exchange rates.
The classical model of exchange rate determination
The classical model of exchange rate determination is the one we have used so far. This section will consider the foundations of this model
The law of one price
The classical model for exchange rate determination is based on the law of one price. This law claims that there can be only one price for a given product at any given time. Gold, for example, must cost more or less the same wherever you buy it.
If gold was traded for USD 30,000 per kilo in New York and for USD 40,000 per kilo in Chicago, you would be able to make a lot of money by buying gold in New York and selling it in Chicago. There would be opportunities for arbitrage – opportunities to make money with no risk. Gold would be transported from New York to Chicago until the price difference was eliminated.
The law of one price need not apply exactly due to the following reasons:
- Transportation costs : If the price difference is less than the cost of transport, the difference may remain.
- Ease of access . A soda in a convenience store is often more expensive than in a super market. You pay slightly more for the convenience of the ease of access.
- Government intervention . The government may, for example, by subsidizing electricity for firms, create a market with two different prices for the same good.
For non-transportable goods and services, the price difference may be much larger. Even if the price of a haircut is much higher in Chicago than in Boise, Idaho, there are no strong arbitrage possibilities that will remove the price difference.
Purchasing Power Parity (PPP)
If we apply the law of one price to goods in different countries, we can derive the purchasing power parity (PPP). If gold is trade in the U.S. at USD 30,000 per kilo and 1 euro costs USD 1.40, you can be pretty sure that gold will trade for around 30,000/1.4 ≈ 21,400 euro per kilo. If that was not the case, there would again be arbitrage opportunities (unless there are restrictions on transporting gold across borders).If PF is the price of a good in the foreign country, P is the price of the same good in our country and E is the exchange rate (domestic / foreign) then PPP claims that P = PF*E
The Big Mac Index
Based on PPP, the Economist regularly publishes the "Big Mac Index". PF is then the price of a Big Mac in the U.S.. In February of 2009, PF was on average 3.54 USD and E = 1.28 USD / euro. According to PPP, a Big Mac should cost 2.77 euro in the euro area. In reality, it costs on average 3.42 euro. We would need an exchange rate of 3.54 / 3.42 = 1.04 USD / euro for the PPP to be entirely correct for the Big Mac.
According to Big Mac index, the euro is over-valued by about 24% in relation to the USD. The most expensive Big Mac, however, is found in Norway. Here a Big Mac costs USD 5.79 at the current exchange rate making the Norwegian krona overvalued by 63%.
Exchange rate determination
In PPP, PF and P denote the domestic and foreign price of a particular good. If we instead let PF and P denoteprice levels, we can derive the classical model of exchange rate determination simply by dividing both sides in PPP by E: E = P/PF
If the UK is our home country and a basket of goods costs 12.0 million UK pounds (GBP) while the exact same basket costs 14.1 million euro in France, the exchange rate, according to the classical model, ought to be 0.851 GBP/EUR or 1.175 EUR/GBP.
The exchange rate that we just calculated is often called the purchasing power adjusted exchange rate. If this was the actual exchange rate, the price levels (in the same currency) in the two countries would be the same. When we compared GDP per capita for various countries in section 3.6, it was the purchasing power adjusted exchange rate that we used to transform GDP into the same currency.
For countries where the GDP per capita is very different, the actual exchange rate is often very far from the purchasing power adjusted exchange rate. The price level in countries with a high GDP per capita is generally higher than the price level in countries with a low GDP per capita (in the same currency). It is often for services and non-transportable goods where prices deviate the most.
If the price level in the home country and the foreign price level do not change, then, according to the classical model of exchange rate determination, E will be constant. The same is true if P and PF increase at the same rate, that is, if the home country has the same inflation as the rest of the world: π = πF, where πF is the rate of inflation abroad.
If, however, π > πF (P increases faster than PF), then E will increase (our currency will depreciate). For example, if π = 8% while πF = 5%, P increases by 8% while the PF increases by 5% over the same period. P/PF will then be 1.08 / 1.05 ≈ 1.03 times larger than the old value, that is, E will increases by about 3%. Our currency will have depreciated by 3% during this period.
If πE is the rate of increase in the exchange rate (rate that our exchange rate depreciates), the classical model predicts: πE ≈ π − π F
The rate of depreciation is (approximately) equal to the differences in inflation between the countries .
In the exercise book, we show that the exact relationship is 1 + πE = (1 + π)/(1 + πF) and the difference between these two results is small if inflation ratess are not too high.
Differences in inflation under fixed exchange rates
Suppose that we have a fixed exchange rate with the foreign country (rest of the world) but that we have different rates of inflation. Say that π F = 0 while π = 10% – our prices increase 10% annually (in our currency) while foreign prices are stable (in their currency).
If the exchange rate is fixed, domestically produced goods will the also increase by 10% per year in the foreign country. As they have stable prices, the demand for our goods will continually decline.
Also, import prices in our country will remain unchanged but since the price of domestic products increase by 10% per year, imported goods will continuously become cheaper and cheaper relative to domestically produced goods and imports will increase. Such a situation is unsustainable in the long run – we will eventually be forced to devaluate our currency. To keep a fixed exchange rate between two countries, it is necessary that these countries have the same inflation.
Differences in inflation under flexible exchange rates
With flexible exchange rates, no such restriction exists – countries may have different rates of inflation and no problem with trade need to occur. To see why, imagine again that πF = 0 while π = 10% (per year) but that πE = 10% as the classical model predicts. Our country has an inflation of 10% and our currency loses 10% of its value each year.
Say that Germany is our home country and that a domestically produced machine costs 10 EUR (in millions or whatever). At the same time, a foreign produced computer costs 4 USD. The exchange rate at this time is 0.711 EUR/USD. The machine will then cost 14.05 USD abroad while the computer will cost 2.85 EUR in Germany.
One year later, the price of the machine has increased to 11 EUR in Germany while the price of the computer has not changed. Also, the euro has lost 10% ( E has increased by 10%) and the new rate is 0.783 EUR/USD. The price of the German machine abroad is still 14.05 USD (11 / 0.783) and exports will not be affected. Further, the price of the foreign-produced computer has increased to 3.13 EUR in Germany, an increase of exactly 10%. Since all other prices increase by 10% in Germany, imports will not change either.
We note that under flexible exchange rates, as long as the exchange rate depreciates at a rate equal to the difference in the rates of inflation, we may assume that exports and imports are unaffected by changes in the price levels and the exchange rate. This is exactly the assumption we have made so far.
The exchange rate
We now includ capital flows between countries. We denotes the foreign currency by the symbol $ while € denotes the domestic currency. Remember that the exchange rate E is the units of € we need to by one unit of $. For example, E = 0.8 €/$ means that $1 costs 0.8€. That in turn means that €1 costs $1.25. Note that if E is the exchange rate in €/$ then 1/E is the exchange rate in $/€.
In principle, there are two reasons for selling or buying currency:
- Trade and tourism
- Foreign investment
Trade and tourism
Domestic firms that import goods from abroad must pay for the goods using $. Since they are paid in €, they will continuously need to sell € and buy $. Domestic import firms create a demand for $. People in our country that visits foreign countries will also contribute to this demand.
Foreign firms that import goods from our country must pay in €. They thereby create a demand for €. Whenever there is a demand for €, there will be a simultaneous supply of $. Foreign importers create a supply of $ (foreign tourists also contribute to this supply). Note that even though foreign importers pay in $, the end result will be the same. If domestic exporters receive payments in $, they will contribute to the supply of $ as they have expenses in €.
Imports create a demand for $
Exports create a supply of $
Another factor that contributes to the demand and supply of $ are capital flows. If someone in our country wants to invest abroad, she must first buy $ thereby adding to the demand for $. In the same way, foreigners who want to invest in our country must first buy € and they will contribute to the supply of $.
Domestic investments abroad adds to the demand for $.
Foreign investing in our country adds to the supply of $.
Trade and exchange rate
We begin by analyzing how E affects exports and imports (X and Im). Imagine first that E = 0.8 €/$. A product that costs $100 abroad will cost €80 in our country (ignoring transportation costs and other factors affecting the validity of PPP). A domestic product costing €100 will cost $125 abroad. Say that E increases to 0.9 €/$ (everything else the same). € has depreciated or has been devalued and is now weaker against $. The $100 good now costs €90 in our country.
Foreign-produced goods have become more expensive in our country and imports will decrease . The €100 good will now cost $111 abroad. Domestically produced goods have become cheaper abroad and exports will increase. Depreciation or devaluation (E up = weaker currency): X increases, Im decreases Appreciation or revaluation (E down = stronger currency): X decreases, Im increases
This is true if everything else is the same, an important qualification as we will soon see.
Investment and the exchange rate
When you invest money abroad, the future exchange rate at the time when you want to transfer your funds back to your country is important. Say for example that you invest €1 million in the foreign
country at a 10% interest rate. When you make the investment, E = 0.8 €/$ which means that you invest $1.25 million. After one year, this amount has increased to $1.375 million. If the exchange rate is the same one year later, this amount is equal to €1.1 million and your return is 10%. If, however, our currency has strengthened and E = 0.4 €/$, the amount $1.375 million will only give you €0.55million, and you have lost 45% of your investment! On the other hand, if € has weakened and E = 1.6 €/$ a year later, you will now receive €2.2 million, a nice return of 120%.
From this example, we can figure out how E affects capital flows. Suppose that the expected exchange rate one year from now is 0.8 €/$. If E = 0.8 €/$ today, we expect to neither gain nor loose fromchanges in the exchange rate from investments within the next year.
If E increases to 0.9 €/$ today while the expected exchange rate remains at 0.8 €/$, those who want to invest abroad for one year will expect to make a currency loss (they buy the $ for 0.9€ and can expect to sell it a year later for 0.8€). At the same time, foreigners who invest in our country can expect to profit from the expected change in the exchange rate. When the current E increases (with a fixed future E), investing abroad will be less attractive while investments in our country will be more attractive.
E up = weaker currency: less investments abroad, more investments in our country
E down = stronger currency: more investments abroad, less in our country
Again, this assumes that everything else is the same (in particular, the expected future exchange rate).
Supply and demand for the foreign currency
We denote the supply and demand for the foreign currency by S$ and D$. S$ will depend positively on the E and D$ will depend negatively on E. The reason is as follows:
When E increases (weaker currency) exports will increase, imports will fall, investments abroad will fall and investments in our country will increase.
Increasing export will increase the supply of $ (S$ up)
Decreasing imports will decrease the demand for $ (D$ down)
More investments in our country will increase the supply of $ (S$ up)
Less investments abroad will decrease the demand for $ (D$ down)
With a completely floating exchange rate, the exchange rate is determined in the same way as any other price:
Fig. 16.2 Exchange rate determination.
E * is the equilibrium exchange rate, the exchange rate where S$ is equal to D$. If the currency market is a free market, E will be equal to E*. With a fixed exchange rate, the central bank must be prepared to buy and sell currency at the predetermined exchange rate.
Factors affecting E *
A large number of factors may affect E*. Some examples:
- Higher growth in domestic productivity. This would make domestic products cheaper and the demand for € would increase. This would increase the supply of $ and E* would fall (stronger currency).
- Higher domestic inflation. This would make domestic products more expensive and the domestic currency would depreciate.
- Higher domestic interest rates. This would increase the demand for € and the currency would strengthen.
One of the main assumptions in the Mundell-Fleming model is the assumption of interest rate parity. We begin by explaining this assumption.
Interest rates within in the same currency area
A currency area is a geographic area where the same currency is used. United Kingdom is one example of a currency area and all the countries using the euro is another (France, for example, is not a currency area, as they use the euro).
Within a currency area, at a certain point in time, there can be no significant differences in the interest rate geographically. With large differences, there would be arbitrage possibilities (the argument is similar to that of the law of one price). If it was possible to borrow / lend at interest rates 6% / 5% in Paris and at the interest rates 4% / 3% in Athens, you could become very wealthy.
Interest rates between currency areas
Between currency areas, it is not as simple. Even if you can borrow at 4% in one area and lend at 5% in another, you cannot be sure that you will make a profit. The reason, of course, is that the exchange rate may change and what you gain from the interest rate differential, you lose from changes in the exchange rate.
However, if you somehow knew that the exchange rate would be the same in the future, then the interest rates would have to be the same. But even with fixed exchange rates, you cannot know this for sure as exchange rates may be devalued or revalued.
To figure out the relationship between the domestic interest rate R and the foreign interest rate RU we introduce the concept expected depreciation: πE e. The expected depreciation indicates how much investors expect the domestic currency to lose against the foreign currency within a given period. For example, if E = 0.8 €/$ today and it is expected that E = 1 €/$ in one year, the expected depreciation is equal to 25%, πEe = 0.25. If you expect an appreciation of say 10%, we write πEe = –0.1.
Interest rate parity
An important assumption in the Mundell-Fleming model is the assumption of interest rate parity: R ≈ RU + πEe The domestic interest rate should be approximately equal to the foreign rate plus the expected depreciation. If the foreign one-year interest rate is 3% and you expect our currency to lose 2% to the foreign currency, then, according to the interest rate parity, the domestic one-year interest rate should be approximately 5%. The exact result is 1 + R = (1 + RU)(1 + πEe) or R = 5.06%.
Interest rate parity can be justified using arbitrage arguments. If interest rate parity holds, the expected return abroad will be the same as the domestic return and there will be no major flows of capital ineither direction.
Say again that R = 5%, RU = 3%, πEe = 2% and E = 0.8 €/$ initially. If you invest 1000 in the euro area, you have 1050 after 1 year. If you invest them abroad, you invest $1250. At 3%, you have $1287.5 a year later. If the actual depreciation is equal to the expected, E = 0.816 one year later. $1287.5 at the rate 0.816 €/$ is approximately equal to 1050.
Note that the actual rate of return may differ between countries if the actual epreciation differs from the expected depreciation. However, as long as expected returns are the same, there will be no major movements affecting the current exchange rate.
Modeling expected depreciation
Fully extending the neoclassical synthesis to an open economy is not simple. The main reason for this is that we need a model for how expectations on the exchange rate are formed. A simple solution to this problem is to assume that expectations are exogenous. In more advanced models, expectations are endogenous. Fortunately, a simple model with exogenous expectations leads to results that are similar to more complex models with endogenous expectations.
We assume that πEe = 0 if the exchange rate is fixed. In practice, this means that we do not expect any devaluations or revaluations. With πEe = 0, R = RF.
We assume that πEe = π − πF in the long run if the exchange rate is flexible. If the domestic inflation is 4% above the rest of the world, we expect a 4% depreciation of the exchange rate. In the short run, πEe is assumed to be fixed (and equal to the inflation differentials in the last period).
If our country is small in relation to the rest of the world (the foreign country), it is reasonable to assume that RF is determined as if the foreign "country" was a closed economy while our interest rate R is affected by RF. With fixed exchange rates, our interest rate is simply equal to the world interest rate. With a flexible exchange rate, our interest rate is equal to the world interest rate plus or minus a given constant (πEe).
The IS-LM model under fixed exchange rates
With fixed exchange rates, R is given. We can illustrate this by drawing a new curve in the IS-LM diagram called the FE-curve (FE for Foreign Exchange).
Fig. 16.3: IS-LM-FE.
We have drawn the diagram such that the IS curve intersects the LM curve at exactly the "correct" interest rate R = RU. This is no coincidence – we will describe why the IS curve must intersect the LM curve at exactly this interest rate. Let us begin by analyzing what will happen when MS increases when we are initially in equilibrium (with say πM = π = 0).
- The LM curve shifts outwards from LM1 to LM2. We move from A to B.
- Y falls and R falls. Now R < RF and the demand for foreign currency increases.
- Our currency will depreciate and the central bank must intervene. They will sell foreign currency and buy the domestic currency which will reduce foreign exchange reserves.
- When they buy the domestic currency, Ms will fall. LM2 shifts back towards LM1 and the process will continue until R again is equal to RF, LM2 is back to LM1 and we are back at point A.
Monetary policy has no effect when the exchange rate is fixed according to the Mundell-Fleming model. However, as we shall see in the exercise book, fiscal policy will work. Fiscal policy will actually work better in the open economy than in the closed economy. In reality, results are not so black and white. Instead, you should conclude that monetary policy is less effective with a fixed exchange rate – not that it is completely ineffective.
The IS-LM model with flexible exchange rates
With flexible exchange rates we must also consider the expected depreciation, R = RF + πEe. Since πEe is assumed to be exogenous, the FE curve is still horizontal.
Fig. 16.4: IS-LM-FE.
In this case, we analyze what happens when G increases from an initial equilibrium (again, πM = π = 0).
- The IS curve shifts outwards from IS1 to IS2. We move from A to B.
- Y increases and R increases. Now R > RF + πE e and the supply of foreign currency increases (foreigners will want to buy our currency and invest in our country).
- Since we have a flexible exchange rate, the central bank will not intervene and the domestic currency will appreciate.
- When the domestic currency appreciates, exports will fall while imports will increase. This will shift the IS2 curve back towards IS1. The exchange rate will continue to appreciate as long as R > RF + πEe and the trade balance will continue to deteriorate until R again is equal to RF +πEe and IS2 is back to IS1.
Fiscal policy has no effect under flexible exchange rates according to the Mundell-Fleming model. Any attempt to stimulate the domestic economy will only succeed in stimulating the foreign economy. However, as we shall see in the exercise book, monetary policy will work (and in this case better than in the closed economy)


95 thesis and martin luther
In 1517, martin luther drafted a document known as the 95 theses, and its publication is used to date the beginning of the protestant reformation the recent 500th. What are the 95 theses (thesis) of martin luther why did martin luther write the ninety five theses. Educational travel lesson plans protestant reformation: understand and be able to explain the basic outlines of martin luther’s 95 theses. Legend says martin luther was inspired to launch the protestant reformation while seated comfortably on the chamber pot that cannot be confirmed, but in 2004. Martin luther, however, wanted to one thought to “10 interesting facts about the 95 theses of martin luther” history lists proudly powered by wordpress.
On oct 31, 1517, martin luther nailed a list of grievances against the catholic church onto the door of a chapel in wittenberg, germany his “ninety. Long before twitter, martin luther was a media pioneer the 500th anniversary of luther’s 95 theses is being celebrated at institutions across the. Disputation of doctor martin luther on the power and efficacy of indulgences by dr martin luther, 1517 earthquake victims in haiti need your help 95 and thus. Luther martin 95 thesis we work exceptionally with native english speaking writers from us, uk, canada and australia that have degrees in different academic fields.
The 95 theses in many ways started the protestant reformation luther nailed the 95 theses to the church door of wittenberg, and the catholic church later. Martin luthers 95 theses (9780875525570) by martin luther hear about sales, receive special offers & more you can unsubscribe at any time martin luthers 95 theses. Martin luthers 95 thesis martin luther 95 theses free shipping on qualified ordersto combat abuses in the church of his day, the young german monk drafted nearly. 1517 luther posts the 95 theses an the 33-year-old martin luther posted theses on the door of the castle church in wittenberg.
(1) on oct 31, 1517, martin luther mailed the 95 theses to local bishops that they might take action against indulgences according to luther's co-worker, philipp. Martin luther's 95 thesis was an outspoken opposition against the immoral activities of the catholic church these were times when the church was steeped in.
Select quotes from martin luther's 95 theses - 1517 ad - church history it was the eve of all saints day— october 31st the year was 1517, and a man named martin. On this day in 1517, the priest and scholar martin luther approaches the door of the castle church in wittenberg, germany martin luther posts his 95 theses. Martin luthers 95 thesis martin luthers 95 thesis english translation of martin luthers 95 theses luther nailed his ninety-five theses to the church door at. Read luther's 95 theses online christian church doctrine written by martin luther for christianity and faith free bible study tools.
Martin luther's 95 theses are often considered a charter, a bold declaration of independence for the protestant church but when he wrote nearly 100 points of debate.
Read martin luther's 95 theses by and more articles about church history and church on christianitycom. Amazoncom: martin luther 95 theses the 95 thesis of martin luther: concerning christian liberty aug 18, 2012 by martin luther and tom thomas paperback. Did martin luther wield his hammer on the wittenberg church door on october 31, 1517 did he even post the ninety-five theses at all this collection of documents.
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What was once a rare jellyfish, black jellies may be forcing Southern Californians to become accustomed to their increasing presence.
The Orange County Register reported some Fourth of July swimmers came ashore with dark membranes clinging to their bodies as the jellyfish broke up in the surf in Laguna Beach. Tentacles on the black jellyfish can grow up to 30 feet long. The black sea nettle, as they also are formally known, can grow 3 feet wide.
Editor's Note: Do You Support Obamacare? Vote in Urgent National Poll
The sting of black jellies is nasty but not lethal, according to Nigella Hillgarth, executive director of Birch Aquarium at Scripps Institution of Oceanography.
The exotic species, which began washing up on San Diego County beaches as far back as 2010, was not officially described in scientific literature until 1997, according to a report in The San Diego Union-Tribune.
Hillgarth said scientists don't fully understand the creature’s life cycle or why the animal is being spotted more frequently.
Just 20 years ago, the species was seen infrequently off the Southern California Coast. But since 2005, they have been reported several times. Hillgarth told the Union-Tribune the trend could be attributed to shifting currents, warming ocean waters, or changes in the availability of plankton.
Dr. Brian Joseph of Chula Vista Nature Center told CBS that "jellyfish tend to come into areas where the water quality is decreasing.
Regardless how long the species has been in Southern California, the issue was the hot topic on social networking sites this morning.
Not all of the remarks were serious.
“If I saw a jellyfish in ocean: 6% not care. 14%: swim away. 80%: ‘You shall be my squishy’” tweeted @WillFerrell, who, says on his bio that he is not the real Will Ferrell.
“Just read news about rare black jellyfish stinging swimmers,” tweeted @DRUNKHULK. "It sad that media focus so much on race.”
Editor's Note: Get the Navy SEALs Cap – Celebrate Our Heroes
Jellyfish Ends Australian’s US-Cuba Swim Attempt
Beware Of These Common Beach Hazards
© 2015 Newsmax. All rights reserved.


Photo Credit: Photo by NATALIJA GORMALOVA/AFP via Getty Images
'Year Of Return' Activities Bring $1.9 Billion Into Ghana's Economy
If you didn’t know, 2019 marks 400 years since the first enslaved Africans were taken from Ghana. Throughout the course of the year, there have been several programs, activities, and special ceremonies held to commemorate the event.
Many of the events have been held in Ghana and travelers from the Diaspora have made it their priority to head to the country during this time.
More than 200,000 travelers arrived in Ghana in 2019, and because of this Ghana has now been established as a preferred destination for people of the African Diaspora.
This large influx of tourists allowed the country to see a boost of $1.9 billion into its economy, according to the Minister of Tourism, Arts and Culture, Mrs. Barbara Oteng-Gyasi.
In addition to the monetary boost, the President of Ghana granted citizenship to more than 200 people of the African diaspora and land was offered to others as a way to encourage them to make the country their new home.
“There has been tremendous community involvement which has stimulated the local economy including hoteliering, tour operating and other related businesses,” she said.
This monumental occasion has also helped to improve relations between Ghana and those from the Diaspora. There has been more positive international media coverage centered around the country, which also led to a few high profile visits.
The country’s tourism authority has plans to continue to implement more programming and to develop more historical sites to keep the momentum going.


People who exercise regularly are more likely keep their thinking and memory skills as they age. In general, exercise means aerobic activity that increases your heart rate and breathing – this might be brisk walking, cycling, swimming, or vigorous cleaning and gardening. You should aim for moderate aerobic exercise for 20 to 30 minutes a day for five days per week1. If you jog, fast swim or cycle up hill, 15 minutes per day for five days will give you the same benefit1.
The findings of 15 studies show that exercise reduces the risk of poor brain health2, although there is no evidence yet that it improves brain health. It is likely that exercise helps prevent dementia by reducing the risks from obesity, high blood-pressure and heart disease 3 4 which are all linked to dementia.
In addition to aerobic exercise, it is important to build your strength – this might be digging in the garden or weight exercises, twice a week. The NHS has published some helpful national guidelines: https://www.nhs.uk/live-well/exercise. Always consider your level of health when planning your exercise routine – ask your GP if you have any concerns.


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Anchor Lede: We all fear having to use dirty public toilets. So three recently-graduated Purdue University engineering students have invented a toilet seat washing machine.
Randy Atkins: When you lower the lid it’s enveloped by a tightly sealed barrier. Then small amounts of the clean water from each flush are diverted into spinning lawn sprinkler-like blades.
Dimitri Sogomonyan: And that builds up a lot of momentum and that’s how the blades clean up the entire seat and we have wipers attached to that same mechanism and the wipers dry off the seat.
Randy Atkins: Dimitri Sogomonyan, a co-inventor of the Poseidon Seat, says it works even without soap or added chemicals…
Dimitri Sogomonyan: We’ve covered the seat with jelly, ground beef, sauce, we’re trying peanut butter now, and the seat gets cleaned in an instant because you have all of that water pressure.
Randy Atkins: Sogomonyan says, with no need for regular maintenance or electricity, its cost per use should be very low. With the National Academy of Engineering, Randy Atkins, WTOP News.


Outbreak Brief 16: COVID-19 Pandemic – 5 May 2020
Outbreak Update: Since the last brief (28 April 2020), 558,891 new confirmed coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) cases and 40,877 new deaths have been reported globally. This is a 19% increase in cases reported between 28 April – 5 May 2020 compared to a 24% increase in cases reported between 21-28 April 2020. To date, a total of 3,438,403 COVID-19 cases and 239,587 (CFR: 6.9%) related deaths have been reported worldwide. This week two new countries including one from Africa, are reporting cases, and two new countries are reporting deaths for the first time. Worldwide, a total of 215 countries and territories have reported COVID-19 cases. The distribution of cumulative cases (proportion of global cases %) from the WHO reporting regions (excluding Africa) are as follows: Eastern Mediterranean Region 191,423 (6%), European Region 1,543,875 (45%), Region of the Americas 1,433,756 (42%), South-East Asia Region 67,673 (2%) and Western Pacific Region 153,485 (4%). For more detailed information on cases and deaths being reported outside of Africa, refer to the WHO daily situation reports.
As of 9 am EAT 05 May 2020, a total of 47,118 COVID-19 cases and 1,843 (CFR: 4%) deaths have been reported in 53 African countries. Since the last brief, the number of COVID-19 cases has increased by 42% (13,845 cases).


Following well-publicized dog attacks, many communities rush to declare select breeds as "dangerous dogs." These discriminatory practices target physical characteristics – often muscular pups with blocky heads – rather than address problem behaviors. Thankfully the state of California identifies a dangerous dog by its deeds, and not its breed.
California's Dangerous Dog Statutes
In 1989, to protect the safety and welfare of its citizens, California's legislature enacted statutes defining and regulating dangerous dogs. The statute defines two levels of dangerous dogs: "potentially dangerous" or "vicious." Potentially dangerous dogs engage in less problematic behaviors, such as requiring a person take defensive action or attacking other dogs or livestock. Vicious dogs engage in far more serious behavior, such as attacking and seriously injuring a human being or continuing behavior previously labeled potentially dangerous. These rules and regulations target problem dogs of any breed, along with their irresponsible owners.
Breed Specific Legislation
A number of communities across the United States have adopted laws that regulate or restrict specific breeds of dogs – a practice referred to as breed specific legislation, or BSL. Opponents of BSL argue that these faulty and discriminatory practices target physical characteristics rather than address problem behaviors. Both the American Veterinary Medical Association and the Centers for Disease Control acknowledge that research does not support policy-making decisions based on specific breeds. Recognizing the failure of targeted legislation to solve their dog-related challenges, a number of communities have repealed breed specific laws, among them Topeka, Kansas and Cleveland, Ohio.
Breed Specific Spay/Neuter
In 2005, the state of California adopted a law allowing municipalities to enact breed-specific ordinances pertaining to mandatory spay or neuter programs or breeding requirements, "provided that no specific dog breed, or mixed breed, shall be declared potentially dangerous or vicious under those ordinances." The state argues that rather than blaming the breeds, the law directly addresses problems caused by irresponsible breeding, notably pet overpopulation, inhumane treatment and the production of "defective animals that present a public safety risk." Jurisdictions that implement breed-specific regulations must measure effectiveness of their programs by compiling statistical data on dog bites in their communities and supplying this information to the state veterinarian.
Tips to Protect Your Pit Bull
BADRAP, an Oakland-based pit bull advocacy group, suggests pit bull owners practice “defensive driving” to avoid trouble and protect their beloved pooches from haters. The group suggests that when in public places, always keep your pit bull on a leash, 6-feet long or less. As long as you obey leash laws, both you and your charge are less likely to take the blame if a ruckus starts. To this end, avoid nose-to-nose meetings with strange dogs. This is not speed dating. For canines, rushed greetings are very challenging and tend to set dogs up for failure. Above all, train your pup; better yet, obtain a Canine Good Citizen Certificate, or CGC. A well-behaved pit bull can lessen public scrutiny, not only towards your pooch, but also the breed as a whole.
Averting a Dangerous Dog Label
If you receive notice that a petition for a dangerous dog hearing has been made against your beloved pooch, research your local dangerous dog statutes. Many cities and counties have adopted significantly different versions of California’s statewide dangerous dog law. Prior to the hearing, voluntarily offer to take steps to prevent future problems, such as installing a taller or stronger fence, attending obedience classes, sterilizing your pup and obtaining insurance. If the case goes to hearing, seek advice from an attorney who practices animal law.
- Animal Legal & Historical Center: California Dangerous Dog Provisions
- DePaul Law Review: Pit Bull Bans and the Human Factors Affecting Canine Behavior
- Official California Legislative Information: Health and Safety Code Section 122330-122331
- National Canine Research Council: AVMA & CDC Statement
- BADRAP: Dog Law
- Dan Kitwood/Getty Images News/Getty Images


Key: "S:" = Show Synset (semantic) relations, "W:" = Show Word (lexical) relations
Display options for sense: (gloss) "an example sentence"
- S: (n) spot, speckle, dapple, patch, fleck, maculation (a small contrasting part of something) "a bald spot"; "a leopard's spots"; "a patch of clouds"; "patches of thin ice"; "a fleck of red"
- S: (v) stipple, speckle (produce a mottled effect) "The sunlight stippled the trees"
- S: (v) speckle, bespeckle (mark with small spots) "speckle the wall with tiny yellow spots"


Vermouth is a pre-dinner drink made from wine fortified with a spirit that is then flavoured with an infusion of herbs and spices. Some European vermouths have been awarded ‘protected designation of origin’ status.
Turin - the birthplace of vermouth
The cities of Chambéry and Turin have been jostling for the title of the birthplace of vermouth for a long time now, following the division of the Duchy of Savoy between France and Italy in the 19th century. Yet the name ‘vermouth’ was most definitely first used in Turin, invented in 1786 by Antonio Benedetto Carpano based on a German aperitif made from wine and Wermut (‘absinthe’ in German). King Carlo Alberto’s coronation as ruler of the Duchy in 1831 elevated Turin to the status of official international capital of vermouth.
In a prosperous and influential city like Turin, vermouth quickly became a popular drink, mainly enjoyed at the end of the day at ‘aperitivo’ time. As a direct consequence of its success, an aristocracy of Turin-based vermouth manufacturers emerged.
The vermouth barons from Italy to France
A number of well-established and reputable Italian families began to distribute their own vermouth, including the Cinzano family. Once the family had established their company in Turin, they quickly developed a network of salesmen to expand their vermouth sales to France, where the aperitif was widely emulated. In 1813 for example, French liqueur and absinthe manufacturer Joseph Noilly introduced his recipe for a dry vermouth, made from the white wines of Languedoc. His son Louis took over the company in 1829, and began exporting his absinthe, liqueurs and vermouth beyond France’s borders. In 1843, his brother-in-law became his partner and the company was renamed Noilly-Prat. In 1844, the first order was shipped to the United States (New Orleans and New York). Simultaneously, in 1821 Joseph Chavasse developed his own vermouth in Chambéry. Made from local herbs, this vermouth was named Dolin and was the first to be awarded the AOC label a century later (1932). The Dolin brand was also responsible for selling and marketing the first white vermouth.
Vermouth takes America by storm
Carlo Alberto was displeased by the market share taken by French vermouth manufacturers, particularly in the United States. He quickly recognised the dangers of having restricted sales of Turin vermouth to the local market. He decided to join forces with the Italian Cora brothers, who had founded a company in 1835 and were exporting massive quantities of vermouth to the United States to be sold on to Italian expat clients. To protect Turin’s vermouth from potential copycats, Carlo Alberto granted them the first licences in 1840. In this spirit of international expansion, the Distilleria Nazionale de Spirito de Vino was founded in 1849. In 1860, driven forward by new CEO Alessandro Martini, the distillery became a key player on the global vermouth market. In 1865 (in Dublin) and in 1867 (in Paris), his vermouth won a number of awards, and in 1868 the company exported its first bottles to the United States. In 1879, the Martini company became Martini & Rossi, following the departure of one of its shareholders. It was ultimately due to Martini & Rossi, and Cora, that vermouth enjoyed incredible expansion in the United States, the United Kingdom and France.


An Introduction to 2 Peter 2:4
Text and Translation
Εἰ γὰρ ὁ θεὸς ἀγγέλων ἁμαρτησάντων οὐκ ἐφείσατο, ἀλλὰ σειραῖς ζόφου ταρταρώσας παρέδωκεν εἰς κρίσιν τηρουμένους,
Is this example an interpretation or a reference?
Research Question Explicated
Most peoples throughout time have acclaimed their god to do whatever they please (mainly because they most likely constructed their own deity). The psalmist contrast this claiming, “Our God is in the heavens; he does all that he pleases.” (Psalm 115:3). This includes even the means by which he reveals himself. Most secular theologians and religious scholars peer into the mind of the religious folk assuming naturalism, “I can know everything about your God merely because you have created him.” This overwhelming assumption sometimes seeps into even Christian scholarship. The proper presupposing of problematic texts provides more concise exegesis. Instead of coming to a text as a demanding toddler, one can humbly gander at the grandeur of the God who has revealed himself to his own desires, not humanity’s.
That said, this exegetical attempt will not presume upon God as a mere invention, nor limit God except by which He has limited Himself. The questions mount quickly: Who are the angels? How did they sin? What does this reference? Should we call this reference canonical? What other things referenced by Biblical authors should we call canonical? Is this the Apostle’s interpretation of Genesis 6? Can one say the Apostle’s interpretation is incorrect?
Now some will take the argument about the means of revelation above and say, “Even the most conservative doctrine of scripture does not presume to prescribe what genres the Holy Spirit may or may not have chosen when inspiring scripture, and so the psuedonymity of 2 Peter cannot be ruled out without due consideration.” This carefully crafted statement gives the skeptic too much room to wriggle. Any Christian jumping into epistemological justification must question the authority of scripture. If one foundationally bases the authority on something else, the Bible drops authority; however, if one coherently bases the authority of the Word of God on itself (not precluding other justifications, of course), then the Bible remains fully authoritative.
To say, “Peter wrote 2 Peter because Peter says so,” must not be misconstrued to a mere brute shot of fideism nor begging the question. Douglas Moo gives the options promptly: 1. 2 Peter is a forgery and should not be canonical or 2. 2 Peter is authentic. Does this purporting limit the Holy Spirit as Jobes argues? Not if one were to say that God is going to reveal himself in a way that is consistent with his character.
Though the prologue enumerates no particular recipient, Peter likely wrote to the same groups as his first epistle (cf. 2 Pt. 3:1, 15). Karen Jobes argues that modernity does not have every epistle written by Peter and Paul; therefore, the conclusion does not necessarily have to be the same recipients as 1 Peter. Regardless of knowing the exact recipients, due to the contents of the letter, one concludes that the author was righting to a mixed audience of Jews and Greeks.
God created all things good (Gn. 1:31). Man decided he wanted to be God and rebelled against Him (Gn. 3:1-7). God punishes this rebellion, and gives grace (Gn. 3:14-19, 24). Mankind repeats this same rebellion (possibly with angels; Gn. 6:1-2). God punishes this rebellion with a flood (Gn. 6:13). This passage is traditionally interpreted as being angels procreating with humans.
Peter is writing to a people who are dealing with false teachers (2 Pt. 2:1). These false teachers are denying Christ (v.1), blaspheming holy things (v.10b), and scoffing at the eschaton (2 Pt. 3:3-4). Peter tells of their destruction (2 Pt. 2:3) and the saint’s perseverance (v.9).
For if God did not spare the angels who sinned, but by casting them to hell in gloomy chains, he handed over those who are being kept to the judgment,
This small text is a small conditional phrase in a chronological line of examples to prove one point: “then the Lord knows how to rescue the godly from trials, and to keep the unrighteous under punishment until the day of judgment” (2 Pt. 2:9). Jude also alludes to this same exact concept (Jd. 6). So, is this in reference to something outside the canon? Or is this the Apostle’s interpretation of Genesis 6?
Apostles do reference things outside the canon. In Acts 17:28, Luke records one of Paul’s sermons as quoting two secular writers. Paul is not trying to say we find our being in Zeus, nor is he saying we should go find these writings and make them canonical. Also, Paul quotes a secular writer in Titus 1:12. He makes these quotations as points of contact to contextualize the Gospel. Peter also wants to relate his points well to his audience. He uses the hapax legomenon ταρταρώσας most likely to relate to his Greek audience. He also uses writings that his Jewish audience would be familiar with, such as 1 Enoch 6ff. Just because the non-canonical writings use Biblical characters does not necessitate the reference to make those concepts biblical. For example, if a pastor today uses an example from the recent film Noah, that by no means makes the movie canonical. Also, if a young boy has fanciful visions in his near death experience that involve biblical characters, that does not make his visions canonical (nor should they validate a believer’s faith in any way).
However, all of the references Peter makes are from Genesis 6-19 and are in chronological order. Some make the argument that this refers to a prehistoric fall of the angels (before the fall of humanity). However, Peter makes references to Genesis and events that would be familiar with the audience. It is also very unlikely every fallen angel was bound from the beginning given the amount of exorcisms recorded in the synoptic Gospels. Therefore, Peter is referring to an event in Genesis before the flood that has to do with a specific group of angels.
“The sons of God saw that the daughters of man were attractive. And they took as their wives any they chose” (Gn. 6:2). Three major interpretations march through history. (1) Angelic theory: that the sons of God are angels. Collectively, angels are “the sons of God” throughout scripture (Ps. 29:1, Jb. 1:6, et. al.). (2) Sethite theory: The Godly line of Seth intermingled with the ungodly line of Cain. (3) Royal theory: the sons of God are kings that accumulate for themselves power by committing the sin of polygamy. Some even combine the angelic and royal theories to say that demons possessed rulers to take human wives. Sadly, other than the Davidic king, nowhere else in the Bible is a plurality of kings referred to as “sons of God.” Augustine and some reformers acclaimed the Sethite theory. The major problem with this view is spiritualizing the term sons of God to mean godly men; whereas, the phrase daughters of men cannot necessarily be spiritualized to mean wicked people. The difficulty with the angelic theory is Jesus statement, “they neither marry nor give in marriage” (Mt. 22:30). This verse does not preclude ability, however. Marriage could be one of the very sins for which the angels were punished.
Therefore, humans repeated the sin of Adam and Eve: exalting themselves to be more like God; however, this time to have relationships with angelic beings. The angels left their proper abode upon their sinful desires (lust of the eyes). God hands over both groups to judgment.
Peter makes two main points with his list of conditional illustrations from the Old Testament: God is not idle in his judgment of false teachers and God preserves the righteous. This provides a warning and comfort for modern believers. First, because God is/will punish(ing) false teachers, believers are warned to not stray into heresy. This punishment also gives hope to believers in the midst of persecution that they will overcome. Second, God preserves the righteous. Because of this preserving, believers can endure every type of situation because Christ is the strength (Phil. 4:13). Believers rejoice that the Lord knows how to preserve the righteous and punish the wicked (2 Pt. 2:9-10).
Peter is not merely referring to a non-canonical source like a simple illustration for a sermon. He has pointed chronological references to Genesis. This is also not a simple reference to a plausible interpretation of Genesis; this is an Apostle’s interpretation of a particular passage. This leaves the exegete with two plausible conclusions: Apostles writing under inspiration are still fallible, or Peter correctly interpreted Genesis 6:1-2. Of course, if one goes with the former, where does the line of infallibility begin? One could dare push it past the resurrection and say the authors “misinterpreted” historical events. Therefore, Peter is properly interpreting the Old Testament passage of Genesis to give an example of God’s judgment.
Appendix I: Greek Exegesis and Syntax
Εἰ γὰρ ὁ θεὸς ἀγγέλων ἁμαρτησάντων οὐκ ἐφείσατο, ἀλλὰ σειραῖς ζόφου ταρταρώσας παρέδωκεν εἰς κρίσιν τηρουμένους,
|τηρουμένους||Present||Middle/ Passive||Participle||Accusative||Masculine/ Plural||τηρέω|
Lexical and Syntactic Notes:
Εἰ is a first class conditional clause assumed to be true both by audience and author (Wallace, 694).
γὰρ is an explanatory post positive linking this to the previous passage (the condemnation for false teachers is not idol).
ἁμαρτησάντων is an attributive participle describing ἀγγέλων (the genitive direct object).
σειραῖς (K L P p72 vg syr boh al) several texts with the variant σειροῖς (A B C 81vid copsa al). See discussion in Bauckham, 244.
Ταρταρώσας translated as participle of means due to the lack of article and case.
Τηρουμένους translated as substantive article (acting as indirect object in English).
εἰς acts to show the goal of the main verb (παρέδωκεν): God handed the angles (those being kept) over to (the) judgment.
Carson, D. A., and G. K. Beale, eds. Commentary On the New Testament Use of the Old Testament. Nottingham, England: Baker Academic, 2007.
Davids, Peter H. 2 Peter and Jude: A Handbook On the Greek Text. Baylor Handbook On the Greek New Testament. Waco, Tex.: Baylor University Press, 2011.
Gentry, Peter J., and Stephen J. Wellum. Kingdom through Covenant: a Biblical-Theological Understanding of the Covenants. Wheaton, IL: Crossway, 2012.
Hamilton, Victor P. The Book of Genesis. (New International Commentary On the Old Testament Series) 1-17. Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1990.
Jobes, Karen H. Letters to the Church: a Survey of Hebrews and the General Epistles. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2011.
Mathews, Kenneth A. Genesis, New American Commentary, vol. 1a. Nashville, TN: Holman Reference, 1996.
Moo, Douglas J. 2 Peter, Jude (The NIV Application Commentary). Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2011.
Wallace, Daniel B. Greek Grammar Beyond the Basics: An Exegetical Syntax of the New Testament with Scripture, Subject, and Greek Word Indexes. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 1996.
Walton, John. Genesis: from Biblical Text… to Contemporary Life, The NIV Application Commentary. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2001.
Wenham, Gordon J. Word Biblical Commentary. Vol. 1, Genesis 1-15. Waco, TX: Thomas Nelson, 1987.
 For parsing of text’s verbs, see appendix 1.
 Explanatory γὰρ Peter H. Davids, 2 Peter and Jude: A Handbook On the Greek Text, Baylor Handbook On the Greek New Testament (Waco, Tex.: Baylor University Press, 2011), 68.
 First class conditional clause: “assume this is true for sake of the argument” Daniel B. Wallace, Greek Grammar Beyond the Basics: An Exegetical Syntax of the New Testament with Scripture, Subject, and Greek Word Indexes (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 1996), 694. Wallace uses this passage under a reference that the author and the audience assume this is true.
 Dative of location; Davids, 69.
 Substantival participle; Davids, 69.
 εἰς prepositional phrase of purpose/goal; Davids, 70.
 All quotations of scripture, unless otherwise noted, are from the English Standard Version.
 Karen H. Jobes, Letters to the Church: a Survey of Hebrews and the General Epistles (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2011), 364. Granted, Jobes seems to lean toward Petrine authorship in her arguments.
 Douglas J. Moo, 2 Peter, Jude (The NIV Application Commentary) (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2011), 24. A good amount of scholars denies Petrine authorship, but approve of canonicity of the “testament.” Moo does well to exclude that middle.
 If God reveals himself through the genre of “testament”, it would be a glorified lie (i.e. against his nature) and not respected by the early church. Also, though the length of this paper denies me the space to discuss authorship in detail, Daniel Wallace has a very helpful article discussing the five major doubts of Petrine authorship (personal allusions forced, historical problems raised by Guthrie, literary problems, stylistic problems, and doctrinal problems). Cf. https://bible.org/seriespage/second-peter-introduction-argument-and-outline
 Karen H. Jobes, Letters to the Church: a Survey of Hebrews and the General Epistles (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2011), 367-8.
 His use of Jewish literature similar to Jude and references to Greek paganism (i.e. “send to Tartarus”) alludes to the mixed audience and catholicity of this epistle.
 1 Enoch 6:2ff, LXX, Philo, Josephus cf. Gordon J. Wenham, Word Biblical Commentary, vol. 1, Genesis 1-15 (Waco, TX: Thomas Nelson, 1987), 139.
 D. A. Carson and G. K. Beale, eds., Commentary On the New Testament Use of the Old Testament (Nottingham, England: Baker Academic, 2007), 1049.
 Peter J. Gentry and Stephen J. Wellum, Kingdom through Covenant: a Biblical-Theological Understanding of the Covenants (Wheaton, IL: Crossway, 2012), 149.
 Nearly every commentary on this passage will mention these three views. The particular terminology utilized for the theories come from Wenham WBC, 138-9.
 Victor P. Hamilton, The Book of Genesis (New International Commentary On the Old Testament Series) 1-17 (Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1990), 264.
 There is an instance where judges are referred to as sons of God in Ps. 82:6 (cf. Jn. 10:33); however, one is farfetched to apply this to a plurality of kings.
 Kenneth A. Mathews, Genesis, New American Commentary, vol. 1a (Nashville, TN: Holman Reference, 1996), 331. Also, of which this author is a proponent.
 John Walton, Genesis: from Biblical Text… to Contemporary Life, NIV Application Commentary, (Grand Rapids, Mich: Zondervan, 2001), 293.
 Considering the gnomic statement of Christ in Matthew’s Gospel, it is reasonable to conclude that if angels are giving in marriage, that is something that is precluded from them; therefore, they are sinning.
 Again, these are first class conditions which Wallace further qualifies as already assumed true by the author and audience (Wallace, 694).


According to newspaper records, in 1795 excavations began at the site of a mysterious depression on Nova Scotia's Oak Island. A layer of flagstones was found buried a few feet below the surface, and layers of logs were uncovered at 10 ft (3 m) intervals. At a depth of about 90 ft (27 m), a large stone bearing an inscription of symbols was recovered; and translations revealed the secret message, â€œforty feet below, two million pounds lie buried." Whose treasure is believed to be buried there?
Back in the day
Robinson, a vocal member of the Civil Rights movement, was the first African-American baseball player in the modern major leagues and the first African American to be inducted into the Baseball Hall of Fame. In 1949, he led the National League in both stolen bases and batting average and was named its most valuable player. In recognition of his accomplishments both on the field and off, Major League Baseball retired Robinson's number in 1972. Which other Dodgers players have received this honor?
Born on a day like today
Armero, a Columbian astronomer, was a child prodigy in the fields of science and mathematics. As an adult, his studies of celestial mechanics eventually led him to investigate how lunar fluctuations affect weather, floods, polar ice, and the Earth's orbital acceleration. He contributed widely to research on comets and solar eclipses and later lectured on economics and population growth. How did Armero secure his membership in the secret scientific society El CÃrculo de los Nueve Puntos?


zäks, 1891–1970, German poet and translator who lived after 1940 in Sweden. Sachs describes her own experiences and the sufferings of the European Jews in the collections In den Wohnungen des Todes [in the apartments of death] (1947), Das Leiden Israels [Israel's suffering] (1969), and Die Suchende (1966; tr. The Seeker and Other Poems, 1970). The selection of her poems in English, O the Chimneys (1967), incorporates the verse mystery play Eli (written 1943–44; publ. 1951). Sachs shared the 1966 Nobel Prize in Literature with S. Y. Agnon.
See biography by A. Fioretos (2011).
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed. Copyright © 2012, Columbia University Press. All rights reserved.
See more Encyclopedia articles on: German Literature: Biographies


08 Aug Masdar Institute project uses sand to store solar energy
Researchers at Abu Dhabi’s Masdar Institute of Science and Technology are testing a pilot device that can store solar energy in sand to increase the efficiency of power plants and provide energy at night.
The technology uses gravity to drain sand from a higher basin into a lower one, heating the sand grains with solar power during the change.
In the lower basin, the solar energy can be stored and taken out at low cost to generate extra energy if needed, during peak hours at night for example.
Nicholas Calvet, an assistant professor at the Masdar Institute’s department of mechanical engineering said: “Two pilot models of the system have been tested in an effort to prove its efficiency and applicability on a large scale in big projects.”
The researchers will now test a more sophisticated model in preparation for its commercial marketing.
These tests will include researching the thermal stability of sand and its specific heat-absorption capacity. The results showed the ability to store thermal energy up to 800-1000 degrees Celsius.
Sand is abundant in regions with a lot of sunshine and it’s inexpensive to obtain, unlike traditional storage media used in thermal storage systems such as synthetic oils and molten salts.
“The hourglass idea inspired the system, as it uses two reservoirs connected to one another vertically across a narrow passage that allows the movement of ‘cold’ grains of sand from the upper reservoir to the lower ‘hot’ one,” explained Calvet.
The sand is heated by running cold and through a solar heat gatherer, where it is heated before being stored in a hot reservoir. The hot sand can be used to run electricity-producing turbines.


The Museum of Moscow is one of the oldest museums of the city. Its collection was established on the initiative of Russian scientific community in 1896. The Moscow City Duma gave it a large collection of exhibits. In the 20th century museum several times changed his name and location. In 1921 the museum was called Moscow Municipal Museum and was located in Sukharev Tower. In 1940 was renamed into the Museum of History and Reconstruction of Moscow. In 1987 the museum got its present name.
The museum acquired more than one million articles depicting life in the city throughout its history, from Moscow’s ancient beginnings to the present day. This collection contains the archaeological finds, ancient tools, jewelry, bronze and stone items from most ancient period of Moscow history. There is a collection of maps and drafts which show how the city grew from year to year. Great number of photos recreate the important occasions, celebrations, and events of Moscow since middle of the 19th century to the present day.
The museum holds original costumes, accessories, furniture and other everyday objects produced by talented Russian and European masters.
The Museum’s exhibition was housed in one of the Krestovsky Towers.
Presentation of the Museum of Moscow
Questions about sponsorship write to email@example.com


This resource is part of a series developed to support programs in successfully implementing a parenting curriculum. In this resource, learn about the initial implementation stage of implementation science.
Initial Implementation Stage Key Tasks
The initial implementation stage is a time to deliver the new parenting curriculum. Programs may test the delivery of the curriculum and make any enhancements before launching it as part of regular program operations. In this stage, programs identify and test such critical elements as key processes, supports, and data collection and use.
Adjust work plan. Engage the implementation team to review and update the work plan. Ensure that all team members are trained and prepared for group decision-making, problem solving, and data use for the new curriculum.
Review and adjust the implementation team membership, as needed. Consider who is on the team. What range of skills and perspectives are needed for this stage? Have any of the team roles and responsibilities changed? Do you need to add new members?
Consider perspectives inside and outside of the program. Are parents part of the team? Are staff perspectives represented? Is there a need to engage the curriculum developer or a consultant to address any issues?
Identify critical elements for implementation. “Critical elements” are those aspects of delivering the curriculum that you want to pay special attention to. These may include the content of the parenting curriculum, the facilitation process, organizational supports, or ways to collect feedback from the group. These elements may be critical to the success of the effort, or they may be the most difficult to execute.
Decide at this point what outcomes you will measure, and how. Make a plan to determine how you will measure the fidelity to the curriculum implementation.
Complete a trial run. Deliver a few sessions, or try out the curriculum with a small group. Use the small test runs to assess your critical elements. You are likely to identify problems and discover solutions.
Initial Implementation Stage Checklist
- Adjust work plan
- Review and adjust implementation team membership, as needed
- Identify critical elements for implementation
- Complete a trial run
- Use Plan-Do-Study-Act cycles to improve delivery
- Launch the curriculum as part of regular programming
- Collect data for internal monitoring and assessment
- Continue to make improvements
Use Plan-Do-Study-Act cycles to improve delivery. Use a Plan-Do-Study-Act cycle to help you test these solutions and make improvements.
Plan-Do-Study-Act for Improvement Cycles
After your team completes this cycle, review your data and feedback. Were the results what the team expected? Consider adjusting your plan, your assessment tools or procedures, as necessary. Several Plan-Do-Study-Act cycles may be needed to find all of the challenges and create solutions to address them.
Launch the curriculum as part of regular programming. Now it’s time to deliver the curriculum as part of your regular program operations.
Collect data for monitoring and assessment. Throughout the process, the team monitors activities closely and makes sure that accurate information is recorded regularly. The team reviews the data frequently to examine trends—for example, monthly in the first year, and then quarterly. Is the process for delivering the curriculum working? Are you seeing the results you expected? Are you satisfied?
Continue to make improvements. As you implement the curriculum, the team will continue to collect data, test, and refine the delivery of the curriculum. These activities overlap and continue over the five-year project period.
Consider ways to strengthen systems to support the success of the curriculum. There may be organizational policies that need to be changed. The implementation team may recommend adjustments to training or coaching practices, or point out partnerships that need strengthening. The team may also reach out to a consultant or the curriculum developer to share feedback about ways to enhance the delivery of the curriculum.
The focus of initial implementation is on trying out critical elements of the parenting intervention, trouble-shooting any problems, and testing any necessary changes in preparation for the next stage of implementation: full implementation.
Implementing a Parenting Curriculum Using Implementation Science Series
Explore other resources in this series:
The Active Implementation Hub—Designing a Fidelity Assessment System: Identifying Challenges and Strategies
Evidence-Based Prevention and Intervention Support Center: Fidelity Observation Tools
Implementing Parenting Interventions in Early Care and Education Settings: A Guidebook for Implementation
National Implementation Research Network’s (NIRN) Active Implementation Hub— Modules
National Implementation Research Network’s (NIRN) Active Implementation Hub—Resource Library Listing
National Implementation Science Network—Stages of Implementation Analysis: Where Are We?
New York State Department of Health: Plan-Do-Study-Act Worksheet
State Implementation and Scaling-Up of Evidence-Based Practices (SISEP) Center
Adapted from Implementing Parenting Interventions in Early Care and Education Settings: A Guidebook for Implementation.
For more information about this resource, please contact us:
PFCE@ecetta.info | 866-763-6481
Last Updated: January 7, 2019


“You make a valid point.” Have you ever heard anyone say this? When people say this they probably mean something like “you make a good point,” but when you enter the world of philosophy, you realise that the word “valid” is reserved for a different purpose. Similarly, in everyday speech when someone says “He has convinced me, because he made a valid argument,” they probably mean that someone has made a convincing argument. But in logic, the fact that an argument is valid certainly doesn’t indicate that it’s persuasive – or even good.
To say that an argument is logically valid is not to say anything at all about the truth of the claims made in an argument. Validity has to do with the form of an argument, rather than its content. A valid argument is one in which the conclusion logically follows from its premises. In other words, in a valid argument the conclusion of an argument would be true if the premises are true, because the conclusion gets its truth from the premises. Another way of putting this is to say that the conclusion is somehow “contained in” the premises. An example would be:
- If something is square, then it has four sides.
- Q is a square.
- Therefore Q has four sides.
The conclusion that Q has four sides clearly follows from the two premises. It is contained in the premises in the sense that Q and the property of having four sides are in the premises, and the fact that Q meets a condition for having four sides can be seen by reflecting on the premises. To understand them clearly is to grant the conclusion. Another way of referring to validity in this sense is deductive validity, since we are deducing the conclusion from the premises.
Notice that validity doesn’t establish anything in regard to truth. An argument can be valid even if its conclusion is obviously incorrect. For example:
- If the sky is blue, then Donald Duck is the president of the USA.
- The sky is blue.
- Therefore Donald Duck is the president of the USA.
The argument is perfectly valid, since the conclusion does follow from the premises in the sense described earlier. But since the first premise is absurd, the conclusion is not true.
Validity is necessary for a good deductive argument, but as seen in the Donald Duck example, it’s not enough. What an argument really needs is to be sound. A sound argument is a valid argument where all the premises are actually true, and so the conclusion doesn’t just follow from the premises, it’s also true.
Take a fairly uncontroversial example:
- If a substance is composed of H2O then it is water.
- The substance in lake Taupo is composed of H2O.
- Therefore the substance in lake Taupo is water.
Or a more controversial example, which I regard as equally sound:
- Whatever begins to exist has a cause of its existence.
- The universe began to exist.
- Therefore the universe had a cause of its existence.
Of course, in a disagreement with another person, it’s not enough to just have a sound argument to persuade them. You’ve got to be able to show them that the argument really is sound by showing that the premises are true and that the conclusion follows. I can’t help you with that.


Envelope Tracking Modulator with quad power IC and FPGA control
Envelope tracking technology is a well-known method of improving the efficiency of RF amplifiers operating with rapidly varying signal amplitude. The voltage source in an envelope tracking system is modulated to keep the RF amplifier as close as possible to the compression, where the efficiency is at its maximum (see Figure 1).
Figure 1: Envelope tracking principle of operation (left) and reduced bandwidth version (right)
The envelope tracking technique was described by Bell Labs in 1937. The similar techniques of envelope elimination and restoration were described by L. Kahn in 1951. Yet despite its obvious advantages, practical implementations were very rare simply because of the very high requirements imposed on a modulator. It has to combine very high bandwidth (up to 100 MHz in some new systems) with high efficiency, small size, and low cost.
One of the ways to lower the bar is to reduce the bandwidth requirements. This is simple in implementation, but a significant portion of the potential efficiency improvement is lost (see Figure 2).
Figure 2: Envelope tracking with reduced bandwidth
A different approach was proposed by Gunnar Cragfors in 1981 in U.S. patent no. 4,390,846, and later by Peter Garde in U.S. patent no. 4,516,080 (see the drawing from Cragfors’ patent in Figure 3). According to these inventors, modulator should consist of two parts: a switching regulator for low bandwidth and linear regulator for high bandwidth.
Figure 3: Linear regulator (F) and switching regulator (SW) combine for high-efficiency, high-bandwidth voltage modulation in Gunnar Cragfors’ U.S. patent no. 4,390,846 (S – summing node)
While the RF amplifier can now work with full efficiency, there is a price to be paid in the cost, complexity and reduced efficiency of the modulator itself. This approach was realized in some commercial applications, but the most typical architecture is similar to the one proposed by Peter Garde, which is shown in Figure 4.
Figure 4: The most popular method for combining switching and linear regulators
While commercially feasible, the switching-linear combination is most suitable for high-end applications. For widespread applications, eliminating the burden of the linear regulator seems necessary. However, the switching frequency, which according to the rule of thumb has to be at least 10 times higher than the bandwidth, seems impossible.
The conflict between switching frequency and bandwidth can be resolved by using a multilevel converter, which can achieve a small signal bandwidth higher than the average switching frequency. This is possible because the small amplitude regulation can be realized with the switching transition of only one or two of the many subconverters, while other parts continue to deliver the “unchanged portion of the voltage.” The high / low bandwidth assignment between subconverters can be continuously rotated, resulting in an equal and moderate burden on switching devices.
The other benefit of a multilevel converter comes from the much higher frequency and lower amplitude of the switching harmonics. As a result, the output filter corner frequency can be raised so high that it does not degrade the overall bandwidth and achieving stability is much easier.
The biggest problem with using a multilevel converter for an envelope tracking application comes from the fact that existing multilevel topologies were devised for high-power, high-voltage applications. As a result, the main current path leads through a large number of power components, thus increasing conduction losses very significantly. In high-voltage applications where conduction losses are low this isn’t a problem, but for low-voltage, high-current envelope tracking applications, the resulting efficiency would be unacceptable.
Artesyn Technology developed a new type of multilevel converter designed specifically for this type of application. It consists of a large number of switching cells combined with a proprietary matching impedance network. Like in many multilevel converters, the output voltage is proportional to the number of switching cells that are on at any given time, which creates output in a stepped or staircase-like pattern. A matching impedance network has very low output impedance (about 1 nH), facilitating very high bandwidth. For ET applications, a version with 16 subconverters was chosen as adequate to keep harmonics at an acceptable level with minimum filtering. This was sufficient for a small signal bandwidth of 100 MHz and 200 W average / 1000 W peak power to an RF amplifier working with up to 40 MHz bandwidth. At the same time, the average switching frequency per phase was only about 10MHz. While still high, it is definitely within the reach of state-of-the-art silicon MOSFET technology, like the SiP2204 used for this design.
Figure 5: New multilevel converter with passive coupling network for low-voltage operation
To keep the overall efficiency above 90 %, it was necessary to add one more innovation: only a fraction of the total output power was processed through 10 MHz switching; the part associated with outputting AC voltage and AC current simultaneously. Most of the DC voltage and current was directed straight from the source to the load, entirely bypassing the switching MOSFETs with an “effective efficiency of 100 %.” Concurrently, switching voltage and current were reduced to diminish MOSFET losses. Additional improvement was achieved by the special design of the power stage in the SiP2204, which was optimized for minimal losses at light loads. With all these factors combined, the need for a linear regulator was eliminated.
The stepping output pattern of the multilevel converter creates high-frequency harmonics, which are reflected in the RF signal. The 16 subconverters used for the envelope tracking design allowed the frequency of this noise to be shifted far away from the RF channel, where it can be handled much more easily. In some applications, satisfactory operation may be achieved without any LC filter whatsoever. In other situations, more than 16 cells or subconverters with fractional amplitudes may be used instead of the filter.
A custom controller was developed in an Altera Cyclone FPGA. The initial design, similar to the one used in common multilevel converters, was based on 16 equally phase-shifted digital sawtooth waveforms and comparators. See Figure 6, which provides an example with only four phases shown to avoid cluttering the picture, but the principle for 16 phases is the same.
Figure 6: Simple realization of the PWM sequence for a low-voltage multilevel converter. The phase shift between the sawtooth and the input signal creates a variation in the step pattern
This structure can be very easily implemented in an FPGA using Simulink and DSPBuilder.
Figure 7: Simulink / DSPBuilder implementation of a 16-phase PWM generator. The initial value of each counter produces the desired phase shift
Careful analysis of the performance of the converter based on this controller revealed a relatively high level of completely random noise. This would be irrelevant for DC/DC applications, as this noise would be completely suppressed by the low-frequency output filter. For envelope tracking, with almost no output filtering, this noise was unacceptable. It turned out that the source of this random behavior was an uncontrolled phase relationship between the command signal and sawtooth generators. To understand this, see Figure 6, where identical sinusoidal input leads to significantly different step patterns, illustrating how the peak of the sine wave relates to phase relationships of the sawtooth pattern. The underlying baseband component is nearly identical, but harmonic content cannot be filtered out by using a large LC filter, as this would kill the bandwidth.
As some of the harmonic content becomes now unpredictable, so too is its resulting impact on the RF signal. This makes a difference because only predictable (deterministic) voltage ripple can be compensated by digital pre-distortion (DPD), which is commonly used in today systems.
Figure 8: Deterministic PWM pattern achieved by synchronizing the counters with the command signal. All counters increment simultaneously by one step only when the command signal is decreased in a given clock period
This random component was completely eliminated by a simple modification of the overall PWM generator. Instead of having all sawtooth counters free running, we now made them enabled always and only when the input signal commands “step down” in the multilevel pattern (see Figure 8). In this way independent dynamics of the sawtooth generator were eliminated and this, in turn, eliminated random components of the multilevel pattern.
Another significant source of randomness in the stepped pattern came from different control-to-switching delays of various subconverters. See Figure 9 for an illustration of this mechanism.
Figure 9: Output voltage distortion due to uneven subconverter delay. Both patterns are created with the same PWM signal; the lower pattern is affected by one of the subconverters having its delay increased by 50 ns
Despite identical PWM patterns for each subconverter, the combined multilevel pattern may differ very significantly because of the differences in the control-to-output delay of individual subconverters. Analysis has shown that in order to make this phenomenon negligible, it is necessary to achieve a delay consistency of at least 1 ns. This includes variation from the PWM controller, gate driver, and power MOSFET. Variation due to the load or temperature is unimportant, as it affects all channels in an approximately identical way. This type of timing accuracy normally can be achieved with an equalization procedure during manufacturing, or via self-adjustment circuitry implemented in the FPGA directly.
In this case we were able to simply take advantage of the excellent speed and accuracy of Vishay’s SiP2204. The envelope tracking modulator based on this part had only 80 ps of RMS jitter at the output voltage due to an uneven subconverter delay. This is negligible noise, even with 40 MHz RF signal bandwidth.
An article describing efficiency improvements of a power supply must include some discussion on what was done to optimize the power stage. In this application, with the DC power being provided at virtually no loss and only a small fraction of the power being output at 5 MHz to 10MHz per phase, the optimization of the SiP2204 power stage (see Figure 10 for a block diagram) was vastly different from standard buck regulators operating below the 1 MHz frequency range.
Figure 10: Block diagram of the Si2204 quad power stage
Since the current levels were low, the on-resistance of the MOSFETs were in the 0.25 Ω to 0.5 Ω range, and the design focused on reducing the switching losses that dominate at these high frequencies. Figure 11 shows the efficiency of the SiP2204 operating at 5 MHz per phase from a 24 V input to 15 V output.
Figure 11: SiP2204 efficiency curve using the 4.7 µH IHLP-2525EZ-01, operating at 24 Vin to 15 Vout at 5 MHz per phase
Now in order to improve switching losses, the rise time of the high-side FET turn ON is designed to be extremely fast, in the order of 25 V/ns. These fast rise times result in a large spike on the switch node. By reducing the break-before-make (BBM) time, this spike can be reduced by inducing a small amount of shoot through. Usually shoot through is to be avoided, but the minor losses induced by allowing for a small amount of shoot through are outweighed by the efficiency improvements obtained by the fast dv/dt on the switch node rising. It also serves to reduce the ringing and allows the use of a 30 V MOSFET breakdown with an input voltage of 24 V.
At these high frequencies, propagation delays in the PWM input are detrimental to the performance of the power stage. Several innovative design techniques were used to reduce the PWM propagation delay to a mere 13 ns, which is specified as the delay from the PWM input to the switch node rising. This is a critical specification, because the switch node high-to-low transition, if slower, will only cause a PWM pulse width error that the controller can adjust by subtracting a fixed offset to the PWM duration.
To reduce the propagation delay, the following was done:
- The PWM interface uses a Schmidt trigger that has been redesigned for speed (higher peak current during transitions).
- The design avoides changing supply domains in going from logic to power, so there’s no need for level shifters (which are slow) on the path from PWM to the low-side gate.
- The low-side MOSFET driver’s strength was increased to ensure an extremely fast low-side MOSFET turn OFF time, thus allowing the reduction of the BBM time.
- The speed of the drivers was increased by eliminating the internal BBM.
Layout was also critical in getting the superb channel-to-channel matching accuracy achieved by the SiP2204.
Last but not least, the SiP2204 packs four high-performance switching power stages into one small package, allowing a very compact design of the whole 16-level converter to be achieved (see Figures 12 and 13). This not only results in the convenience of a small overall package, but also allows traces to be kept very short with minimum parasitic inductance and coupling, which is an absolute must for delivering current at tens of MHz.
Figure 12: 16-level envelope tracking modulator based on four SiP2204s (1.4 in x 3.4 in)
Figure 13: 16-level envelope tracking modulator, controller / cooling side, with a visible low-cost Cyclone FPGA used to implement a controller.
The technology of the 100 MHz regulation bandwidth voltage modulator described in this article has been patented and is available for licensing.


The New International Encyclopædia/Alexander I., Pavlovitch
ALEXANDER I., Pavlovitch (1777-1825). Emperor of Russia from 1801 to 1825. He was born December 23 (12 Old Style), 1777, at Saint Petersburg, and was the son of Paul I. and Maria Feodorovna (born Dorothea of Württemberg). The violent and arbitrary reign of Alexander's predecessor produced a conspiracy to force his abdication in favor of his son. The Polish prince, Adam Czartoryski, a friend of Alexander, who gives a circumstantial account of the conspiracy, says that Alexander was privy to the plan of forced abdication, but not to the assassination. The news of the accession of Alexander was received, according to the Russian historian Karamsin, as “a message of redemption.” Alexander had been educated under the direction of his grandmother, Catharine II., by eminent instructors, chief among whom was the Swiss Colonel Laharpe, whose ability and liberal views made a strong impression upon the imaginative character of his pupil. His education, however, was still incomplete when broken off by the dismissal of Laharpe, on account of his sympathy with the French Revolution. Alexander received a military training which was equally incomplete. His defective education, his experiences in the courts of his great, but despotic and immoral grandmother and of his half-insane father produced a curious mingling of characteristics and tendencies. Czartoryski speaks of the frank avowal made to him in 1796 by Alexander of his sympathy with republicanism and his belief that hereditary power was unjust and absurd. The tragedy with which his reign began also made its impression.
He began his reign with sweeping reforms. He abolished the barbaric and excessive punishments in use under his predecessors, restrained the brutality of the police, did away with the secret tribunal, pardoned many of his father's victims, and in other ways reformed the laws and procedure. Restrictions upon literature, art, and trade were removed. “I would not place myself above the law, even if I could,” Alexander wrote to the Princess Galitzin, “for I do not recognize any legitimate power on earth that does not emanate from the law. . . . The law should be the same for all.” He was aided in his work by four intimate friends, young men of liberal views — Count Paul Strogonoff, Prince Victor Kotchubei, Nicholas Novossiltsoff, and Prince Adam Czartoryski. These Alexander called his “committee of public safety.” They deliberated the duties and the limitations of the imperial power — a new question in Russia, and not much considered since that time. In 1801 the Senate was made the supreme high court, its ukases to be subject only to the imperial veto. The first move of the Senate in opposition to the Emperor, however, met with a sharp rebuke, and Czartoryski well explains the attitude of Alexander: “The Emperor liked the forms of liberty as we like spectacles. . . . He would have willingly consented that the whole world should be free on condition that the whole world should submit voluntarily to his single will.” The Russian Senate, in which the idle nobility were shelved, was not the body with which to experiment in parliamentary government. Alexander and his associates discussed the emancipation of the serfs; but the time seemed hardly ripe for that measure. An imperial ukase of March 3, 1804, attempted to ameliorate their condition.
The real administrative achievement of Alexander was the creation by the ukase of September 8, 1802, of the ministries, eight in number: Interior and Police, Finance, Justice, Public Instruction, Commerce, Foreign Affairs, Marine, and War. This was a marked step toward an orderly government from the semi-Asiatic methods by which the growing Empire had been managed. Each department was in charge of a minister and an adjunct. Progress was made toward a codification of the laws. The privilege hitherto held by the nobles only, that their patrimonial estate should not be confiscated as a punishment, was made the common right of all subjects. An imperial bank was instituted, Odessa was made a free port, the laws regarding debt and mortgages were amended, and by the ukase of 1818 peasants were permitted to carry on manufactures. Alexander sent expeditions around the world, and made treaties with the United States, Spain, Brazil, and Turkey. Settlements were established on the northwestern coast of America, but the enunciation of the Monroe Doctrine in 1823 checked the Russian advance in the last direction. The new Ministry of Public Instruction meant much for the Empire. There had been but three universities in Russia — Moscow, Vilna, and Dorpat. These were strengthened, and three others were founded at St. Petersburg, Kharkov, and Kazan. Literary and scientific bodies were established or encouraged, and the reign became noted for the aid lent to the sciences and arts by the Emperor and the wealthy nobility.
The foreign policy of Alexander was marked, like his internal policy, by plans outrunning performance. He at first stood as an advocate of peace. He endeavored to obtain from Napoleon just compensation for the German States; but, becoming convinced of Napoleon's bad faith, he joined the coalition of 1805. He was the ally of Prussia against Napoleon in the campaign of 1806, carrying on wars at the same time with Persia and Turkey. His forces fought an indecisive battle at Eylau in February, 1807, and were totally defeated at Friedland in the following June. In July, 1807, Alexander signed the Treaty of Tilsit, in which he left Prussia to her fate. Dazzled by the genius of Napoleon and by his scheme for the division of the world into an Eastern and a Western Empire, Alexander joined the Continental System (q.v.), declared war on England (1808), and wrested Finland from Sweden. At Erfurt in the autumn of 1808 the two emperors met with great pomp, but the ill-assorted alliance soon lost force. The pressure of the Continental System on the material resources of Russia, the growth of the Napoleonic despotism, the existence and aggrandizement of the Duchy of Warsaw, were utterly opposed to Alexander's theories and to his sense of sound Russian policy. At length in 1812 a rupture ensued, and Napoleon's Grand Army entered Russia, only to be destroyed in the retreat from Moscow. Alexander threw himself into the struggle of Europe against the French Emperor, and raised an army of nearly 900,000 men. He took part personally in the campaigns, and was prominent in the negotiations at Vienna.
At Paris, in 1814, Alexander, who by nature had always been inclined toward religious mysticism, fell under the influence of Madame Krüdener (q.v.) . It was under this influence that he instituted the Holy Alliance (q.v.), the declared object of which was to make the principles of Christianity recognized in the political arrangements of the world, but which became through Metternich a mere means for the reëstablishment of political absolutism. The latter part of Alexander's reign presents a strong contrast to the earlier. The ardent young reformer was drawn into a reactionary course. He concurred in the Austrian policy of Metternich, and by repressing insurrection in Europe assisted in crushing the political progress of the nations. The spread of education and liberal ideas, and the disorder of the finances, due to Russia's active part in the Napoleonic wars, aroused popular discontent, which was put down by the censorship and police espionage. Alexander became morbid and embittered, and sought relief alternately in dissipation and in religious mysticism. Personal exposure during the inundation of St. Petersburg in 1824 undermined his health; the death of a favorite daughter and the discovery of a Russo-Polish conspiracy against the House of Romanoff aggravated his illness. With the Empress he sought rest in the Crimea, but was seized by an illness on the journey, and died at Taganrog, December 1 (November 19, Old Style), 1825.
Bibliography. Schnitzler, Histoire intime de la Russie sous les empereurs Alexandre I. et Nicolas I. (Paris, 1847); Bogdanovitch, History of the Reign of Alexander I., in Russian (St. Petersburg, 1860-71), the first four volumes of which are translated into French; Rabbe, Histoire d'Alexandre I. (Paris, 1826); Countess Choiseul-Gonflier, Mémoires historiques sur l'empereur Alexandre et la cour de Russie (Paris, 1829), English translation by Patterson, Historical Memoirs of the Emperor Alexander I. and the Court of Russia (Chicago, 1900); C. Joyneville Alexander I.: His Life and Times (London, 1875); Mazade, Mémoires du prince Adam Czartoryski et sa correspondance avec l'empereur Alexandre I. (Paris, 1887); Vandal, Napoléon et Alexandre I., l'alliance russe sous le premier empire (Paris, 1890-96); and Bernhardi, Geschichte Russlands und der europäischen Politik 1814-1831 (Leipzig, 1863-77).


“It is very difficult to know that she does not remember the things from our past. It’s devastating.”
Alzheimer’s disease accounts for 64% of all forms of dementia and is characterized by gradual memory loss. As the person suffering from Alzheimer’s progressively loses critical brain functioning, they gradually experience a decline in normal cognitive abilities such as being able to remember past events, experiences, and feelings. As a result, the individual may not remember loved ones, including the person closest to them, their spouse.
Profound loss of memory has serious implications for the spouses of Alzheimer’s patients. Over time, the common ground and shared history that allow a couple to remain together for years diminish and come to exist only in the mind and heart of the healthy partner.
The Trauma and Mental Health Report had the opportunity to talk with Moise, a 98 year-old who over the past twelve years, has been caring for his wife of 65 years; she is diagnosed with Alzheimer’s. Although it was difficult for him, Moise wanted to share his personal account. His description paints a rather grim picture of the realities faced by those affected by Alzheimer’s, and speaks to the challenges faced by family and friends of those living with the disease.
“[Her condition] is very difficult, impossible almost. She is incontinent, does not recognize or comprehend anything, and sometimes she is not even conscious…she was diagnosed twelve years ago, and with time it became worse and worse. This disease also has physical consequences, and those are very hard to live with. It is difficult for me to take care of her by myself so we have to have someone with us 24/7 to provide assistance.”
The physical deterioration may indeed become unbearable and may include compromised gross motor skills (walking, balancing, sitting) and fine motor skills as well (writing, using utensils). Linguistic abilities are also impaired, difficulties may begin with the occasional mispronunciation of a word and progress to an inability to use words altogether.
Structural and chemical alterations in the brain affect all aspects of the Alzheimer’s patient and often lead to personality change, affecting the couple’s relationship. Mood swings and aggressive behaviour are also common and require the healthy partner to remain understanding. One common phenomenon is referred to as sundowning: During the late afternoon to evening, the Alzheimer’s sufferer grows more demanding, suspicious, and disoriented, and may perceive things that are not real. Instead of functioning as partners in a shared relationship, the healthy spouse may take on a parenting role.
As Moise explains, “It is very difficult for me that she does not remember me… very hard for me to see her like this. It is a horrible disease that cuts through the person’s memory; it makes her create her own alternate realities, none of which I am part of. She does not know who I am, she can’t do anything on her own and she is no longer independent in any of the day-to-day actions she used to be able to do.”
The solid foundation of a relationship that stems from a life-long partnership is challenged by the fact that the other person simply has no recollection of past events. Without these memories, the individual suffering from Alzheimer’s can no longer fulfill natural family roles.
“She doesn’t remember her own children and grandchildren. It’s very emotionally draining so I usually don’t like it when people come to visit because she is never well and I don’t like people seeing her like this. It pains me that our grandchildren did not get to really know their grandmother, even though she is still with us.”
“She does not know who I am. For the most part, she keeps looking for the “other” Moise that is her husband. And according to what she perceives, I am not him.”
How can one continue providing love and support to someone who does not know who you are?
Losing one’s spouse to Alzheimer’s is often a slow and emotionally painful process. Many of us choose a life partner for reasons like companionship and security. We make the assumption that we will have someone to share experiences with over a lifetime. For the patient’s loved ones, such companionship is no longer possible. Are there moments of joy when the individual regains her memory? Moise says there are, but they are few and far between.
“Unfortunately, there is nothing special I can do to get her to remember me; it comes on its own. Comes and goes, and all of a sudden I am Moise again, her husband.” Those moments are precious, but they are the exception.
-- Contributing Writer: Noam Bin-Noon, The Trauma & Mental Health Report
-- Chief Editor: Robert T. Muller, The Trauma & Mental Health Report
Copyright Robert T. Muller