The 4th of July is inspired by the American War of Independence from 1775 to 1776. Tension between England and the Colonies grew severe and gave way to war. John Murray, the Earl of Dunmore, was then governor of Virginia at the time. Rumor had it that he, along with other governors were sharing with the King of England that colonists were growing fiercely agitated and wanted their independence from Britain!
British armies rushed to the colonies. The war began!
After the war, just as the founders of the country began to organize the United States as a Democratic Republic, some say that Thomas Jefferson mentioned the issue of freeing the slaves in a meeting in historic Williamsburg.
Jefferson’s proposal was met with resistance based heavily on economic reasons. If the slaves were freed, they felt that the foundation of the country would quickly become economically weak. The slaves were the economic engine in produce, manufacturing, home economics, and more.
Black people made up approximately 52% of Williamsburg by the late 18th century. The rest of the colonies had their fair share of slaves, also. Yet, slaves were not considered people. The colonists maintained the historic sentiment that black slaves were of a race other than the human race. This had been the mindset from early on when the Englishmen discovered dark skinned Africans.
The mindset that blacks were less than human was handed down for several generations; by the 18th century, it blinded the English colonists from the obvious reality that true freedom was not fulfilled as long as they were holding people in slavery.
The whole concept of “race” was manufactured to locate black slaves in a class within the animal kingdom by themselves – of lower creature status than the Europeans. Both the slave industry and the slave production engine were lucrative enterprises in their eyes. Black slavery was merely the machine to build the white colonists’ developing country.
So, when the colonists declared that “all men were created equal,” most of them where not thinking that such eloquent words included the black slaves.
While I am inclined to believe that those as intelligent as Jefferson, Madison and some of the other founding fathers must have at least thought of the implications of the language “all men are created equal,” there seems to have been a blinder over the general public’s eyes as to the depth of such important statement in the Declaration of Independence. The phrase was prophetic, bearing implications for future eradication of slavery. Nearly a century later, these words were foundational to the Emancipation Proclamation.
Interestingly, the colonists fought incessantly for their freedom from British rule; yet they were numb to the pressure they inflicted and the liberty they forfeited the black slaves. It is mind boggling to imagine how slavery was so engrained in the immoral fibers that weaved the country for so long.
Freedom is part of what it means to be truly human. The colonists saw freedom as having such sacred worth when it would benefit them but were blinded to it when it came to those whom they oppressed.
Nearly a hundred years after the American Revolution, Frederick Douglass praised the insurmountable patriotism, heroism, and intelligence that the leaders of the American Revolution possessed.
At the same time, Douglass pointed out the great contradiction that plagued the same revolution. As for the so-called Christians, Douglass called them hypocrites. His speech “The Meaning of July Fourth for the Negro” expounds upon the undeniable hypocrisy that weaved its way through the fabric of early American development.
In the words of Frederick Douglass, “Am I, therefore, called upon to bring our humble offering to the national altar, and to confess the benefits and express devout gratitude for the blessings resulting from your independence to us?”
This profound question is momentous in black history– a version of American history that is far too romanticized. Thanks to Douglass, Sojourner Truth and several other unnamed men and women (abolitionists) for their unsung patriotism, bravery, and intellect. The American abolitionists were the patriots who fought the extra fight. They jolted the American conscience until the 1863 Emancipation Proclamation.
I celebrate the abolitionists today because their legacy birthed the patriotism of people with dark skin just as that of the founding Fathers.
In the 19th century, Douglass boldly critiqued the Fourth of July saying (in part):
‘I say it with a sad sense of the disparity between us. I am not included within the pale of glorious anniversary! Your high independence only reveals the immeasurable distance between us. The blessings in which you, this day, rejoice, are not enjoyed in common. The rich inheritance of justice, liberty, prosperity and independence, bequeathed by your fathers, is shared by you, not by me. The sunlight that brought light and healing to you, has brought stripes and death to me. This Fourth July is yours, not mine. You may rejoice, I must mourn.’
If Douglass and countless other men and women of centuries past could be here today, undoubtedly, they would join me in flipping Douglass’ agony to much more joyful words. Douglass’ speech (in part) might look something like this:
‘I say it with a [joyous] sense of the [freedom] between [blacks and whites]. I am [-] included within the pale of glorious anniversary! Your high independence only reveals the [-] measurable distance between us. The blessings in which you, this day, rejoice, [are] enjoyed in common. The rich inheritance of justice, liberty, prosperity and independence, bequeathed by your fathers, is shared by you, [and by in large part] by me. The sunlight that brought light and healing to you, has brought stripes and death to me. This Fourth of July is yours, [and almost fully] mine. You may rejoice, I must [rejoice as we fight the good fight together to get the fullness of freedom].
Lincoln’s 1863 “Emancipation Proclamation” was an important milestone in the fight for black people’s freedom; however, the path of implementing the fullness of that freedom has been long and rough. Jim Crow sustained the heinous culture of slavery even when laws changed. One hundred years after Lincoln’s proclamation, blacks were still held hostage by the evils of racism. The 20th century Civil Rights Movement broke the back of Jim Crow. Today, we have come a long way. Many more people enjoy the product of freedom for which so many of our fore-parents fought. Yet, a culture of haves and have nots, privileged and under privileged sustains systemic, cultural, and social ills along racial lines.
With the fight for freedom in mind, my family and I celebrate what this country has meant to us. Yet, with the need for much more freedom in mind, today ignites within me the desire to fight for those who cannot fight for themselves. The fight for freedom is not over until all people of the world enjoy the “sacred and undeniable” truth (Jefferson’s original wording for the Declaration of Independence) that all people are created equal.
We cannot afford to go backwards. We must go forward. When we see young people sold as sex slaves; continued systems of privileged and underprivileged; mass incarceration disproportionately within ethnic communities; unequal pay for equal work; equal opportunities to excel; and a plethora of other injustices, we must admit that we have not arrived at true freedom and justice for all.
We have tasted the sweetness that freedom brings and know its value. We must fight together so that everyone experiences the freedom that affords all human beings the privilege of an equal experience of freedom. As long as there are injustices such as the privileged and under privileged, unequal pay for equal work, human trafficking, injustice in the justice system, mass incarcerations among people of color, inequality in education, and economic injustice, and babies are not given the privilege of birth there remains a need to fight for freedom.
Freedom must be systematized as well as socialized. We have come a long way, but we have a long way to go. So, while we celebrate this 4th of July, remember that the holiday calls for a renewed fight for freedom.
Let freedom ring again and again!
Happy 4th of July!
(Versions of this article has been published in the Christian Post and other media outlets.)
Antipas Harris (PhD), the founder and president of the Urban Renewal Center, Norfolk, Va.. He is also a minister, professor, and research scholar.
Dr. Antipas Harris


How would we ever get anything done in life without communication? It lets us know what to do, how to do it and if we are doing it at the right time. Communication in the workplace greases the wheels of the office machine and keeps it running smoothly.
Let’s start by briefly looking at the four main types of communication in the workplace. Remember that communication isn’t just about what you say, but also your tone of voice and your body language.
Verbal face to face communication
This greatly eliminates misunderstandings that can occur with other types of communication. It is the only method that allows both parties to read body language and tone and thus get the full message. It also allows for immediate back and forth.
This says what words do not say. How you sit and position your arms can communicate to the other person that you are paying attention and that you value what they are saying. The body can also communicate disinterest.
These are effective for when face to face communication is impossible (perhaps because of distance). People can still hear your tone even if they can’t see your face.
The biggest benefit of written communication is that it allows for well thought out messages. You have a chance to think through and edit before hitting send. It also allows for the recipient to go back and read the message again. However, where someone doesn’t understand, they are more likely to fill in the gaps, leading to instances of miscommunication.
Despite these different types and the many methods of communication that continue to be developed, companies still continue to get communication wrong. However, experts agree that effective communication is more important than ever. As a leader or manager, these seven simple methods can help you improve communication in the workplace.
Seek regular feedback
Communication shouldn’t stop at the employer telling the employee what to do. In fact it only starts there. The next step is to ask your team for feedback and input. What do they think? Do they have questions or ideas on how a certain decision can be improved?
You will never know this if you do not ask. This has two benefits, it boosts staff morale because people will feel heard and valued and it will also help you close any communication gaps. You can use a number of methods to collect feedback from your staff.
Close on the back of this is how you react to feedback. It is inevitable that you will get some negative feedback once in a while. Getting upset will signal to your team that you have a hard time hearing hard truths. Instead, offer a level headed response.
This will build trust and show your team that they can come to you with anything.
Build trust by following through
As a leader, it is a good idea to keep communication channels open and for your team to feel they can speak to you freely, but this will all be washed away if you do not do what you say you are going to do.
If you had promised to help a member of staff do something on a given day, don’t consistently shift the date and make them feel like they have to beg you to prioritise them.
When team members trust that you will work with them to find solutions and that you get stuff done, they will keep coming to you.
Combine different types of communication
In a busy work environment, it is easy for people to forget important things. So send a reminder. Don’t think of this as baby sitting, rather as closing any potential communication gaps in the workplace.
If you run into someone in the corridor and suddenly remember that you need them to complete a task, ask them and then follow that up with an email telling them what you said. This is one of the reasons that taking minutes of meetings, an old school workplace technique, is still relevant today.
Make people’s roles clear
A very simple way for communication to get jumbled up is when people do not know what their roles are on a particular project. On the one hand, some things won’t get done at all, because everyone thinks someone else is doing them. On the other, you might wind up with duplication of work. Neither of these is an ideal scenario.
Go ahead and establish who is in charge of what. But simply handing out job roles is not enough. Go further to list the exact responsibilities, with clarification on whom to approach if there are any queries. This will save a lot of time and boost efficiency of your team.
Tell people why you are asking them to do something
There are number of reasons why this works to improve communication in the workplace; the first is that it shows people where they fit in to the big picture and why they are an integral component of the business.
“Can you compile the reports from the last 5 months so that our partners can see what a great job we are doing?” is more effective than, “Can you compile the reports from the last five months?”
The second, is that it allows people to ask follow up questions. Once they know the Why of it, they will be keen to lend their efforts. This opens up the floor for discussion and also gives you a chance to clarify.
Set up regular one on one meeting
Who has time for meetings anyway? Meetings have earned a bad reputation lately for just being a waste of time. With an increasingly busy work day, they might seem unnecessary but these meetings are very important.
They allow employers to tackle issues specific to the individual. Employees will have the opportunity to speak up about things that may have been uncomfortable to bring up in a group meeting.
You can be creative and have these one on ones on a walk or over coffee or tea. With some tips, you can have very successful one on one meetings.
Understand your employees
This is one of the benefits of those one on ones. You get to know your team. Much as we would like it, it is impossible for people to be the same. And you have likely hired people for their unique strengths and abilities. Don’t be surprised to find that your employees have different communication styles.
You might learn that while one employee thrives on communication via email, the next one works better with one-on-one communications. Understanding this will allow you as a manger communicate more effectively.
Communication in the workplace requires consistent effort. But if you treat it as a two way street involving a give and take between management and employees, you will have set your business up for success.


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The Great Zimbabwe Ruins
The largest ancient structure South of the Sahara and second only to the Pyramids of Egypt in size and grandeur
Before delving into the nitty gritty facts of Great Zimbabwe, I just wanted to express my absolute awe of this imposing settlement.
For anyone interested or stirred by the history of early civilisations, I can’t recommend highly enough a visit to this historical site.
Take a guided tour (+/-2.5hrs) by one of the onsite experts as they lead you around these great ruins showing you where the kings sat and watched over the people, where they held their religious rituals and ceremonies, where they found the famous soapstone Zimbabwe birds and even a cave that they sat in on the hill complex and when they shouted the sound echoed across the valley floor summoning for the kings wives to come to him. Truly remarkable.
The early civilisation was a town of imposing stone buildings, built and extended over many generations. At its peak it was the largest settlement in southern Africa, up to 20 000 people. The site, which has been proclaimed a National Monument and a World Heritage Site, lies 27 km southeast of the modern town of Masvingo, and 7 km to the west of Lake Mutirikwe. Latitude 20 16’ 20” south, longitude 30 56’ 06” east.
The stonewalled area of these Ancient Zimbabwe ruins can be divided into three major sectors: the Hill complex (where the King lived), the Great Enclosure (where the Kings first wife lived) and the Valley Enclosure (where all the other wives and villagers lived)
Great Zimbabwe: The Name
The word Zimbabwe consists of two key root words, -mba- which means house; and -bwe, which means stone. The word therefore means "House of Stone". In conventional usage the word had a figurative meaning denoting a royal court even where no stone enclosure existed. Its variant pronunciation is Dzimbahwe, which also meant a place where kings or chiefs were buried, and carrying the same metaphor such places did not necessarily have any stone work.
The ancient Zimbabwe city was built and occupied between the 12th and 15th centuries. At the peak of its power and prosperity in the 13th and 14th centuries, the town was the largest settlement in southern Africa. The builders of Great Zimbabwe were the Karanga, from which descend the Shona, who constitute a majority of the population of Zimbabwe today. The town’s landscape was dominated by imposing dry stonewalls forming enclosures and in certain areas terraces and platforms.
The stonewalls in some cases filled up gaps between boulders to form semi-natural enclosures. The entrances either had stone (dolerite) lintels or wooden (tambooti) crossbeams.
Within these enclosures and on the terrace platforms numerous earthen (daka) houses were built. Outside the stonewalls were situated closely spaced houses of the ordinary townsfolk. The settlement complex covered at least 720 hectares
The architecture of Great Zimbabwe reflected a complex socio-economic system. The monumental stonewalls were constructed to express wealth, power and pomp of those living within them, an elite population either closely related to or serving a powerful monarchy.
In a society with a strong kinship ideology, the king also depended on his relatives for support. He extended alliances through multiple marriages, which include concubines.
The social components of this ancient Zimbabwe community were not equal. Certainly those who lived inside enclosures possessed more social power then those who lived outside the walls.
In size and grandeur, the stonewalls of the early Zimbabwe city are unparalleled. However there are well over 250 similar but smaller zimbabwes within Zimbabwe. A few more zimbabwes are found in neighbouring countries of Botswana, South Africa and Mozambique.
Indeed, considering the wide geographical spread of the sites and time span on more than three centuries, this culture was a civilisation comparable to the Roman and Egyptian civilisations.
Most zimbabwe sites occur on the Zimbabwe central plateau located between the Limpopo and Zambezi valleys.
Two chronological phases have been isolated.
The early phase, that of Great Zimbabwe itself, is characterized mainly by the freestanding enclosure walls. Radiocarbon tests made on material recovered from these sites yielded results comparable with dated imports such as Chinese celadon and glass beads found in excavations (AD 1100 +/- 40, AD 1260 +/- 45, AD1280 +/- 45)
During the second phase from the 16th century, house were built on terraces and raised stones-reverted platforms as seen at sites like Khami near Bulawayo, and Danamombe and Natetale in the Midlands province.
The Fall of Great Zimbabwe, ca 1500
No single factor can be pinpointed to account for the fall of the once so powerful state. Maybe the site simply grew too large for its environment.
At the peak of its power and prosperity Great Zimbabwe is estimated to have had a population of about 20 000 inhabitants. The mere presence of so many people at one spot would have seriously affected the ability of the surrounding territory to supply crops, firewood, game, grazing and all the other resources necessary to sustain human and animal life.
Environmental stress might have led to quarrels over grazing and hunting rights. After its collapse the centre of power shifted to the west (Khami State) and to the north (Mutapa state).
By 1552 when the Portuguese made an apparent reference to Great Zimbabwe, it had been abandoned and was in ruins. Possibly three or four generations had passed since its collapse.
From the 17th century the Nemamwa dynasty occupied the area around Great Zimbabwe and they became the traditional custodians of the site until the late 1820 when they were ousted by the Duma (Mugabe dynasty). To this day both groups are regarded as the traditional custodians of Great Zimbabwe.


Oil Spills (Diving Deeper podcast, 4.7.10)
NOAA scientists and partners provide critical data and information to respond to oil spill disasters in U.S. coastal waters. The United States uses about 700 million gallons of oil every day. We use oil to fuel our cars, heat our homes, make medicines, and produce plastics for toys and radios.
Oil spills are caused by accidents involving tankers, barges, pipelines, refineries, and storage facilities. As a result of these accidents, oil can spill into rivers, bays, and the ocean. This usually happens when the oil is being transported.In the U.S., depending on where the spill occurs, either the U.S. Coast Guard or the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency is the lead federal agency to respond. NOAA provides direct scientific support to these agencies during response efforts. Many other federal, state, and local agencies also support response efforts during a spill of national significance.
Oil spills can be very harmful to marine birds and mammals, and also can harm fish and shellfish. Oil destroys the insulating ability of fur-bearing mammals, such as sea otters, and the water-repelling abilities of a bird's feathers, thus exposing these creatures to the harsh elements. Many birds and animals also ingest oil when they try to clean themselves, which can poison them.
A spill of national significance (SONS) is defined as "a spill that, due to its severity, size, location, actual or potential impact on the public health and welfare or the environment, or the necessary response effort, is so complex that it requires extraordinary coordination of federal, state, local, and responsible party resources to contain and clean up the discharge."
The U.S. Coast Guard develops "practice" SONS exercises to sharpen the nation’s ability to respond to major oil spill events. Each SONS exercise is set up exactly the way response efforts would be coordinated for an actual spill. The "responsible party" is present along with the U.S. Coast Guard, NOAA, state agencies, and the local community. The drills – held every three years – test the nation’s response system capability at all levels, from the local port to national senior officials.
In March 2010, a two-day SONS exercise was held that featured a hypothetical collision between two vessels (a car carrier and an oil tanker) approximately 16 miles off the coast in the Gulf of Maine. The collision occurred during a particularly strong winter storm with sub-freezing temperatures and restricted visibility. It resulted in a major coastal oil spill that exercised numerous other economic, environmental and political challenges designed to stress all levels of the response organizations. The oil spill exercise affected several states in the New England area, including Maine, New Hampshire, and Massachusetts.SONS 2010 was a multi-agency effort led by the U.S. Coast Guard in collaboration with Shell Oil Products, the 16 agencies of the National Response Team, and the states of Maine, New Hampshire, and Massachusetts. Because of the far-reaching effects and complexity of this scenario, two Incident Command Posts were staffed in Portland, ME, and Boston, MA; an Area-level Command was established in Maynard, MA; and a National-level Command was established in Portsmouth, VA, to manage all issues from on-water operations to national policy concerns.
NOAA’s Office of Response and Restoration (OR&R) supported the U.S. Coast Guard and other response agencies with scientific coordination during this exercise, similar to their actual role in a real oil spill event. NOAA had more than 30 staff, on scene and remote, supporting SONS 2010.
This support included expertise in:
In addition to their technical expertise, OR&R scientists also coordinated with other federal trustees to assess environmental and economic impacts, collect damages, and plan for and implement restoration. In preparation for SONS 2010, OR&R scientists coordinated data, products, and participation from other NOAA offices.
As part of the SONS 2010 exercise, OR&R field-tested a newly developed tool called the Environmental Response Management Application (ERMA). ERMA® is a Web-based mapping tool designed to capture and share geographic information used for science decision making, both on-scene and remotely. ERMA provides a real-time operational picture for responders and managers. The tool can incorporate data from online sources with data generated during an actual event to provide answers in a graphical format.
The SONS 2010 exercise was successful on many fronts. The national response system was tested at all levels with complex issues solved. In addition, new tools were used for information and data sharing at command posts, on-water equipment was deployed, and protection strategies as well as local and regional contingency plans were all well tested. One significant milestone included the full involvement of a natural resource damage assessment in a SONS exercise.
Future SONS drills will continue to sharpen the nation’s ability to respond quickly to an environmental disaster by testing key response capabilities and plans.


The First Amendment Defense Act proposed Senator Mike Lee and Rep. Raul Labrador prior to the Supreme Court ruling upholding homosexual marriage under the 14th Amendment right to equal protection reveals that the United States no longer functions as a constitutional republic.
The First Amendment Defense Act (FADA) would bar the federal government from imposing penalties on individuals, businesses, groups, and especially religious organizations for refusing to participate in same-sex weddings.
In particular, the bill would not allow the IRS to revoke the tax-exempt status of non-profit organizations that believe same sex marriage is inappropriate.
If the Constitution prevailed in America, the First Amendment’s guarantees of freedom of religion, freedom of speech, and freedom of conscience would nullify any attempt by the government to punish individuals who oppose homosexual marriage on moral and religious grounds.
Last week, however, the Highest Court ruled that the First Amendment is subservient to the Fourteenth under its equal protection clause. The amendment was initially proposed to protect the rights of freed slaves during Reconstruction, but since that time the federal government has used the Equal Protection Clause and the Due Process Clause as a pretext for regulating private citizens and businesses.
“The Fourteenth Amendment, which was intended to reduce discrimination, has even been used, ironically, to uphold affirmative-action programs that discriminate against certain classes of people,” writes Allen Mendenhall.
“The Fourteenth Amendment is not itself a positive good but a dangerous animal to be handled with care.”
The Obergefell v. Hodges ruling is a sign that the court is now fully activist and will continue to rule in favor of the social agenda of the left.
More than a decade before the SCOTUS ruling last week, Ron Paul wrote:
The practice of judicial activism – legislating from the bench – is now standard procedure for many federal judges. They dismiss the doctrine of strict construction as outdated, instead treating the Constitution as fluid and malleable to create a desired outcome in any given case. For judges who see themselves as social activists, their vision of justice is more important than the letter of the law they are sworn to interpret and uphold. With the federal judiciary focused more on promoting a social agenda than on upholding the rule of law, Americans find themselves increasingly governed by judges they did not elect and cannot remove from office.
Gov. Greg Abbott of Texas, Gov. Bobby Jindal of Louisiana and Republicans in Congress believe the ruling will be used against Americans who disagree with same-sex marriage and business owners who refuse to provide services to same-sex couples.
“There is little doubt that these and similar questions will soon be before this Court,” Chief Justice John G. Roberts Jr. wrote in dissent. “Unfortunately, people of faith can take no comfort in the treatment they receive from the majority today.”
This will be particularly true of people of faith who own and operate a business.
“Same-sex couples exercising their constitutional freedom to marry should not be shunned by commercial businesses for any reason,” Susan Sommer, the director of constitutional litigation for Lambda Legal, a homosexual rights organization, told The New York Times last week.
If enacted, First Amendment Defense Act will prevent government from punishing individuals, businesses, charities or schools for actions based on a conviction that marriage is between a man and a woman.
The court will undoubtedly take up the act if it makes it through Congress and becomes law. It will stand in the way of the gay rights agenda that is modeled on the civil rights struggle of the 1950s and 1960s.


Author: Ian Taylor
The Source of C-14
The earth’s atmosphere is bombarded with cosmic rays thought to originate from our sun. The earth’s magnetic field serves to protect us from most of these cosmic rays. When the nucleus of a nitrogen atom (atomic mass 14) in the upper atmoshere is hit by a cosmic ray, a neutron is released and the atom becomes subject to the earth’s magnetic field and are seen as the Northern Lights in the northern hemisphere; ionized atoms drift to the north magnetic pole and discharge.
Other nitrogen atoms in the upper atmosphere capture those free neutrons and become unstable C-14 atoms, i.e. they are radioactive C-14, chemically identical to normal C-12 except that with time these atoms decay by emitting electrons (beta particles) and revert back to nitrogen-14 (N-14) atoms. Cosmic radiation converts about 16 atoms per gram per minute or 21 pounds of nitrogen per year into C-14 so that the proportion of C-14 to C-12 in the atmoshere is extremely small. The C-14 to C-12 ratio is given today as 1.2 X 10-12. This works out to approximately one atom of C-14 to every trillion atoms of C-12. Each C-14 atom combines with two oxygen atoms to form carbon dioxide and takes its place in the carbon chain together with the normal carbon dioxide produced from C-12. The ocean is a huge reservoir of carbon dioxide and, although mixing is much less rapid than in the atmosphere, the ocean does tend to keep the global system quite stable. The carbon dioxide and thus the C-14 content of the atmosphere is believed to have been in equilibrium for many thousands of years; thus, the ratio of C-12 to C-14 is believed to have been constant at least throughout human history. Plants and trees absorb the carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and thus as part of the food chain, C-14 finds its way into every living thing, including man. When living things die they cease to take in C-14. It is at this point that the proportion of C-14 in the dead body begins to decrease from what it had been when living. When living, the proportion of C-14 to C-12 was the same as that in the atmoshere. Knowing the rate at which the C-14 decays back to N-14, and knowing the proportion found in the sample, the age can be determined. The smaller the proportion of C-14, the older is the sample. The calculation depends upon comparing the ratio of C-14 to C-12 in the specimen with that believed to have been in the atmosphere at the time of death.
Materials Commonly Tested
- Wood. Starting with about 200 mg. of wood, peat, pine needles etc the cellulose is chemically extracted and 4 to 5 mg. taken for the test.
- Bone. Starting with 3 to 6 grams of material, the collagen (protein) is chemically extracted and the few mg. resulting used.
- Wooden statues. Rather than destructively use any of the wood, it is preferred to scrape away some of the lacquer or varnish; the wood may be much older.
- Cast iron contains < 3% carbon as graphite or Fe3C. A rod core is drilled from the sample and dissolved in acid. The carbon remains as a black powder, use 1 or 2 mg.
- Ivory/ sea shells. The carbon is present as carbonate and extracted chemically.
The sample is enclosed in an ampule together with copper oxide (CuO) and a small piece of silver wire to act as the “getter”: all traces of air are evacuated. The sealed ampule is heated to 800-900 degrees C. during which time all the organics are oxidized and the carbon converted to carbon dioxide gas. The silver scrubs out the sulphides and halides. The ampule is broken under vacuum and the carbon dioxide gas yield is measured. This CO2 gas is now converted to acetylene by reacting with metallic lithium to form lithium carbide; this carbide is then reacted with water to form acetylene gas.
The acetylene gas is dissociated to graphite powder by an electric discharge. Two electrodes are used with an AC spark and both electrodes become coated with graphite. This graphite powder is compressed to a pellet weighing about 250 micrograms. The pellet is made the target and bombarded with cesium atoms; about 10% of all carbon atoms are ionized to become a negative ion. The cesium atom is one of the largest and does not interfere with the ionized carbon atoms. The object here is to separate all the carbon atoms (C-12, C-13 and C-14) from the nitrogen atoms. Nitrogen 14 atoms have virtually the same weight and properties as C-14 but nitrogen does not form negative ions whereas carbon does. There are a few other elements that may be present and these are separated in the accelerator.
The mixed carbon ions are accelerated to 2 million volts and passed through argon gas. Here collisions take place with the heavier argon atoms and electrons are knocked off the carbon ions. The carbon ions are then passed through another gas chamber at a higher voltage to separate out the last traces of foreign elements.
The accelerator is really a molecular disintegrator because all the carbon products (C-12, C-13 and C-14) are disintegrated and lose electrons from their outer shells. The mass spectrometer sends the C-12, C-13 and C-14 into three separate beams that are then analyzed quantitatively and in sequential order: C-12 first, C-13 next then C-14. Carbon 14 decays with a half life of 5730 years meaning that the number of C-14 atoms left in the once-living material decrease with age: each 5730 years back into the past the number of C-14 atoms would have been double. Carbon 14 is determined by “counts per hour” in which the actual number of atoms are counted. A modern sample will typically have say, 40,000 counts; a sample of one half life or 5730 years old will have half this number of counts. A sample of two half-lives or 11,460 years old will have 10,000 counts and so on until at 14 half-lives the count is only six and the age would be (5730 X 14)= 80,220 years. The count becomes very uncertain at these low numbers and in practice the age limit for this method is about 70,000 years.
The number of C-12 atoms present, on the other hand, will be extremely great (at least 1012) and an atomic “count” would be impractical. The C-12 and C-13 are thus measured together as the current in milliamperes. A correction is made in the calculations to deduct the small fraction of C-13 that is occluded with the C-14.
Early tests (circa 1948) by Willard Libby used historically dated wood from caskets. When Egyptologist, I.E.S.Edwards, supplied dated wood he warned that the Egyptian chronology was actually younger than textbook ages. A range of wood samples, each about four ounces, was used to produce a calibration curve showing age versus C-14 count. Today, instead of using wood from dated caskets a standard solution of oxalic acid prepared by the US Standards Laboratory is used. However, this only provides one point on the calibration curve.
Reliability of the Method
Work in Leon, France, showed that over the years the results from 40% of the wood samples were rejected by archaeologists while the rejection rate of results from bone samples was only 10%. Clearly, there are problems with wood samples. In general, archaeologists have not met the C-14 tests with the enthusiasm shown by the geologist for their radiometric tests.
Calibration by Dendrochronology
In an attempt to provide some independent check on the C-14 test results, tree-ring analysis has been brought to a fine art using oak trees, bristlecone pine trees, etc. These trees live a long time and, as hardwoods, remain as wood a long time after being harvested. An especially useful set of calibration samples was found on the sea floor between Ireland and England. Here there were remains of oak trees standing in growth positions: those furthest from the shore were the oldest. The Irish oak calibration was carried out in the early 1980’s. There are also pine trees in Germany that have provided a more recent calibration curve that extends back to 11,000 BP (Before the Present).
Difficulties in Preparing Calibration Tree Samples
Under similar climatic conditions individual species of trees may form no rings or one or two or even more rings in a single year. Even among the same species, the number and pattern of rings that grow each year can vary from one valley to the next. Nevertheless, by analyzing several rings for C-14 rather than individual rings, a more uniform calibration curve is said to have been obtained. In practice, the tree section is turned on a lathe so that the sample for analysis consists of about twenty rings. The matching of trees earlier in history with those living later to provide a continuous record has had problems requiring extensive comparison of the patterns of the density of rings. Rings cluster in low growth years or become more separated in high growth years. The work in Germany (“Floating German pine chronology”) was carried out in 1993 and the difficulty of pattern matching overcome by averaging rings and ranking the results by C-14 analysis; this “circular” approach has resulted in a smooth calibration curve but the researchers are reluctant to report the details of their work.
Problems with C-12 to C-14 Equilibrium in the Atmoshere
Knowing the decay rate of C-14, it would take about 30,000 years for the production of C-14 in the upper atmosphere to build up to exactly match the rate of decay, that is, for the system to be in equlibrium. It is unquestionably assumed that the earth’s atmoshere is a lot older than 30,000 years and thus equibrium conditions have prevailed throughout the time that can be measured by the C-14 test method, say, 60,000 years. When the C-14 test was developed in 1948, the half life of C-14 was given as 5,500 years, today it is 5,730 years and, in recognition of the changing conditions, the date 1950 is taken as a base line so that whatever year the tests are carried out, they are all corrected back to this reference point. It is assumed that until the 17th century the ratio of C-12 to C-14 in the atmosphere was in equibrium but a number of factors are known to have influenced it:
- The Zeus Effect recognizes that since the Industrial Revolution a great deal of fossil fuel having virtually no C-14 has been burned adding more C-12 to the atmosphere thus the proportion of C-14 becomes effectively less making specimens living since the 18th century appear to be older.
- The Bomb Peak Effect is the result of atomic bomb testing that added a great deal of C-14 to the atmoshere thus tending to make specimens look younger. The “Bomb Peak” produced a maximum C-14 in 1965 and has been decreasing since; currently, the proportion of C-14 in the atmoshere is 13% above normal. However, the Bomb Peak Effect will only influence those living organisms that were alive from about 1965; it will have no effect on older specimens.
- The explosion of galactic nebulae is now known to increase the rate of decay of all radioactive elements. In the case of C-14 this means that specimens will appear older (having less C-14) than they really are.
- The geomagnetic field of the earth is known to have an effect on the rate of cosmogenic C-14 formation; less C-14 would be produced when the magnetic field was greater. The published data since 1830 shows that the average value of the magnetic field was consistently greater in the past; the Magsat program showed that the half-life of the earth’s magnetic field was an astounding 930 years. Thus, older specimens would contain less C-14 in the initial stage and appear older than their historical date today.
The Radiocarbon test begins by assuming the earth is old and the C-12 to C-14 ratio in the atmosphere has always been about what it is today — about one in a trillion. In fact, this is highly unlikely because today C-14 is actually forming 28 to 37% faster than it is decaying indicating non-equilibrium. It is commonly known among archeologists that specimens beyond about 3,000 years consistently date in excess of their historical age; the departure is greater the older the specimen. A reasonable explanation is as follows:
Sir James George Frazer recorded similar accounts of a world-wide flood in very early human history from 138 separate cultures from around the world. These were not the result of misionary teaching but were nevertheless very similar to the Genesis account of the Flood. If that account is true then at one point in earth’s history there was no vegetation to absorb the earth’s natural output of carbon dioxide. The bulk of the carbon dioxide production prior to the Industrial Revolution was from volcanoes.
Assuming the rate of C-14 production was lower in the past due to the earth’s greater magnetic field, production would nevertheless have continued but in the year of the flood the proportion of C-14 relative to the greater quantity of C-12 would have been less. Following the great flood, it would have taken some centuries for the C-14 to C-12 ratio to come into equilibrium and anything that lived during this period would have had a lower C-14 content and give the appearance of being older than is actually the case.
© 2021 Creation Moments. All rights reserved.


In 1913, american women couldn’t:
They won that right in 1920 when the 19th amendment passed. They could, however, hold public office. Susan Salter became the first female mayor in the U.S. when she ran for and won the mayorship of Argonia, Kansas in 1887. Women were elected to a state legislature for the first time in 1894 in the Colorado House of Representatives. The first female member of Congress, Jeanette Rankin, wasn’t elected until 1917.
Have a credit cards in their own names.
It wasn’t until the Equal Credit Opportunity Act passed in 1974 that card companies were no longer allowed to discriminate against potential card holders on the basis of sex.
Legally terminate a pregnancy.
That right arrived with Roe V. Wade in 1973.
Purchase the Pill.
It wasn’t FDA approved until 1960.
Access emergency contraception.
The FDA approved it in 1998.
Attend Harvard, Yale, Princeton, Brown, Dartmouth or Columbia.
The only Ivy League schools to admit women before 1913 were Cornell, which admitted a woman in 1870, and UPenn, which opened its doors to female students 1876.
Apply to graduate school as a married woman.
At least if you were this woman. Harvard’s response to her application has to be seen to be believed.
Become an astronaut.
Granted, humans didn’t make it to space until 1961. “We have no existing program concerning women astronauts nor do we contemplate any such plan,” NASA allegedly replied to one woman’s 1962 query letter. NASA selected its first female astronaut candidates in 1979.
Become a supreme court justice.
There was no law barring women from SCOTUS, but no president appointed a female justice until Ronald Reagan appointed Sandra Day O’Connor in 1981.


Fourth Grade School Census
Please send the completed Excel Database to the State Archives by May 2, 2014
Our goal is that by the end of this project fourth grade students will appreciate the importance of collecting and storing information for future use. Students will gain a better understanding of their relevance in relation to the history of their school, community, and state. It is hoped that students will conclude this project with a better understanding and sense of their own past, present, and future.
The archives goal is to get 1,000 fourth grade students to take the census this year. To help reach that goal, the State Archives will again offer a free presentation of historical images of South Dakota to one of the fourth grade classes that took the census.
Some time during the school year fourth grade students will fill out the census forms provided by the South Dakota State Historical Society – State Archives. Once the forms are completed the students can compile their answers and determine the statistical composition of their class’s answers.
Please, do not send the individual census forms to the State Archives.
The students can take their census data and the class statistics home with them to share with their families. The teachers should store the census information in their classroom. As time progresses, a period of years, students will be able to see the changes that have taken place at their grade level from past years.


As some essential services like community gardens reopen and people start planting again, our connections to food are top of mind.
Air pollution levels are emerging on migration checklists as quality of life competes with financial factors in the post-pandemic green recovery.
When you think about soil, you probably think of rolling fields of countryside. But what about urban soil? With city dwellers expected to account for 68% of the world’s population by 2050, this oft-forgotten resource is increasingly important.
Slow down and embrace nature. The pandemic recovery offers an opportunity to put green and blue space as the focus of development to help in the fight against climate change and improve citizen's well-being.
Research suggests little conflict between stemming biodiversity loss and a massive buildout of renewables, but opinions differ widely over the use of forests, and over-simplistic decisions about the role of wood in the energy transition must be avoided.
Cities can make parks feel safe and accommodating for housed and unhoused residents alike. A new toolkit shows what that looks like.
Mayor Ada Colau says her city's ongoing work to create affordable housing and safer streets provided a foundation for its crisis response.
Both the city and the greater metro region are taking a comprehensive approach, combining new parks and urban greenery initiatives with big investments in alternative transportation.
"Rewilding" places nature at the centre of urban development.


Standing on the Island’s highest point, at 20 ft above sea level, St. Mary’s Church became the central church on Hayling after flooding claimed the priory church, along with much of the southern edge of the Island in the 13th or 14th century. Built mainly in the early thirteenth century from imported stone, the church gained the addition on a timber porch in the fifteenth century and received significant interior restoration and alteration during the reign of Queen Victoria.
Although the original stocks and whipping post that were housed in the church yard have now been removed to Havant Museum, St. Mary’s church still has many features worthy of note. The most noticeable of these is the ancient yew that dominates the church yard, believed to be one of the oldest in the country with a girth of some nine metres. Although estimates as to its age vary, they range from over a thousand to nearly two thousand years old.
Carved into the outside walls of the church four sun dials can still be seen by the keen observer. Used for timing the frequent church services in the days before mechanical timepieces, these now receive too much shade from the surrounding yew trees to be of any functional use.
In 1803 the three bells in the belfry, once impressed “1324” were replaced by a tolling bell.
Inside the church notable features include a stained glass window depicting the Tree of Jesse and two interesting fonts. The first font, a Saxon stone basin with interlacing patterns, was excavated from a site near the vicarage in the nineteenth century. The second is a Norman font of a much squarer, less intricate design.


New information emerging from cherry powdery mildew research shows the potential importance of managing the disease in the orchard throughout the season, not just through harvest.
Cherry powdery mildew (Podosphaera clandestina) is a chronic and serious disease in many cherry orchards. High levels of disease can result in the entire crop being rejected for the fresh market.
Although fruit infections are the primary concern, mildew is commonly found on foliage. Infected leaves then serve as sources of inoculum for later fruit infections and are also where the fungus forms structures to survive the dormant season.
Dr. Gary Grove, plant pathologist at Washington State University and director of WSU’s Irrigated Agriculture Research and Extension Center in Prosser, has studied cherry powdery mildew for years, evaluating fungicide efficacy and developing resistance management and control strategies.
Of late, he’s looked at ontogenic resistance (age of fruit-related resistance), improved fungicide timing, and importance of season-long disease control.
Research he conducted last year suggests that cherries may be unlike grapes and hops that develop age-related resistance to the disease as berries and cones mature. Cherries appear to be susceptible to powdery mildew throughout the season in all growth stages but there may be a period of peak susceptibility.
In wine grapes, fungicide sprays long after bloom to ward off fruit infection are unnecessary because berries become resistant to the infection. However, foliar sprays are often still needed to manage the disease on foliage. Grove was hoping to find a similar stage in cherry fruit growth that became resistant to powdery mildew, but no such luck to date.
“It appears that the susceptibility of cherry fruit is nothing like wine grapes, where fruit is susceptible around bloom but a month after bloom is no longer susceptible,” he said.
Grove said that in cherries (like grapes), the casual organism survives the winter as chasmothecia, which become the disease bridge between growing seasons. “With cherries, you’re managing disease epidemics on fruit and foliage. The problem is that after harvest, the mildew keeps increasing on the foliage.”
When spore populations become high enough on foliage, the disease can deplete tree nutrients, reduce photosynthesis, and, more importantly, set up the orchard for worse problems the following year.
For example, if you took no control measures in 2010 because you had only a low incidence of disease, the overwintering chasmothecia will increase the disease potential the following year. “As the years go by, even with sprays, the disease can intensify and the epidemic will start earlier in the season. The potential for severe disease pressure just gets worse,” Grove said.
To demonstrate the importance of season-long control, Grove sprayed one half of a research orchard at Prosser with fungicides up to harvest, leaving the other half untreated.
As expected, disease severity was initially higher in the untreated block, until after harvest. The last fungicide application was made at the end of June; harvest began in early July. But after harvest, things changed significantly in the trial.
“Later in the season, the block treated before the harvest caught up to the nontreated in terms of disease severity,” he said. “Spore concentrations in the treated block continued to increase during July after spraying stopped. The problem is that once we put the sprayer away and quit treating the foliage, the disease can blow up and cause problems the following year.”
Grove believes a new approach of controlling powdery mildew throughout the season may be warranted. “The need to control disease on the foliage doesn’t end when the fruit is harvested.”
But before he’s ready to make recommendations, several questions need answering. For example, how long does treatment need to be continued? Is it economically feasible?
And, will season-long control eliminate future fungicide sprays?
“A lot of work needs to be done if we are to develop a season-long program,” Grove said, adding that he is leading research to evaluate its efficacy and impacts on resistance management and long-term disease reduction, and to do an economic analysis.
The research is being funded by a Specialty Crop Research Initiative block grant from the Washington State Department of Agriculture.
Grove also gave an update on his resistance management research. Data from Washington cherry orchards in 2012 that were inoculated in the laboratory with powdery mildew isolates and analyzed for resistance showed some resistance to the strobilurin class of fungicides.
“Strobilurin resistance was not widespread in the state’s orchards, but we did find a few orchards confined to the Mattawa area,” he said. “It’s evidence that as a class, strobilurin resistance is a concern.”
He also recommends growers avoid using DMI fungicides in their alternations, putting them on the shelf for several years. “Then you can bring them back out later and they will be effective.”
Grove shared his latest research results, funded by the Washington Tree Fruit Research Commission and Oregon Sweet Cherry Commission, with growers attending the Cherry Institute meeting in Yakima, Washington. •
To assist Dr. Grove in his research, cherry growers are encouraged to complete a survey on their mildew control field practices at www.tfrec.wsu.edu/pages/surveys.


Over the past decade, U.S. Forest Service researchers have been working with university cooperators to find some way to slow down or stop the relentless spread of cogongrass. In late 2014, Auburn University researchers reported results that demonstrated, for the first time, that patches of cogongrass can be eliminated completely within three years — showing that eradication of the invasive plant is actually possible for many land managers.
Cogongrass is in a class of its own. Ranked the seventh worst weed in the world, it grows on every continent except Antarctica and is particularly destructive to the ecological structure of forests and natural areas, where the weed can literally take over understories.
Cogongrass currently occupies an estimated 66,000 forested acres in the U.S. South. It’s classified as a noxious weed in Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Mississippi, South Carolina, Texas, and Virginia, where it is widely believed to be impossible to eradicate. Estimated to spread 800 acres a year, cogongrass could infest 100,000 forested acres by 2060.
“Cogongrass grows mainly by extending rhizomes, which are like creeping rootstalks,” says Jim Miller, emeritus Forest Service Southern Research Station (SRS) researcher who helped with the study. “Cogongrass rhizomes are exceptionally aggressive, strong, and resistant to heat and water stress, making the plant a formidable and frustrating opponent.”
For the study published in 2014, researchers established a field study in two locations in southwestern Alabama where they applied herbicide treatments — glyphosate, imazapyr, and a mixture of both — in May, August, or October for three consecutive years.
“I consulted on experimental design, but Erwin Chambliss, senior technician with the SRS Restoring Longleaf Pine Ecosystems unit, did the heavy lifting for SRS, digging and separating rhizome samples in the field during the hot Alabama summer,” notes Miller.
The study found that although responses of cogongrass to the treatments varied by location, 36 months after the initial treatment cogongrass shoot and rhizomes were completely eliminated and 100 percent visual control achieved at both locations using several combinations of herbicide treatments and timing.
“The findings provide a ray of hope for actually eradicating cogongrass,” says Miller. “Land managers now have a clear option in fighting this noxious weed.”
In related news, the Georgia Forestry Commission’s Cogongrass Taskforce announced in January that for the fourth consecutive time since the Forest Service Southern Region’s Forest Health Program began funding cogongrass control in Georgia in 2004, there are more dead cogongrass spots in the state than new areas of cogongrass being reported.
The taskforce encourages citizens to report cogongrass occurrences and treats every infestation reported in the state, respraying as needed until the spots are negative for cogongrass for three years and receive “eradicated” status.
This effort confirms the hope that a weed that’s consumed millions of dollars in control efforts – and millions more in the economic and ecological consequences of cogongrass infestations – can indeed be eradicated in Georgia and other southern states.
For more information, email Jim Miller at email@example.com


In the third century BC, the Celts of Armorica, Ireland, discovered that an extract from the deep-sea Great Blue Fish could improve resilience to physical and emotional stress. This fish extract, called Garum Armoricum, became famous in the ancient world through the writings of the great Galen, as well as others. Used by women (especially pregnant women), children, athletes and the elderly, Garum was also given to legionnaires before long and exhausting marches and before battle.
Garum was almost lost during the Middle Ages, but was subsequently rediscovered in France and used by the French army. It is now available in the United States exclusively through Allergy Research Group®, under the trade name Stabilium® 200. It has been found that ingesting Garum supports the body during modern stressful conditions, both mental and physical, just as it did in ancient times.
The Great Blue Fish is found exclusively in deep waters off the Armorican peninsula of Brittany. The blue fish has long been a prized catch; even its physical appearance is extraordinary, with enormous eyes and distinctive blue color. It lives at a depth of 1,500 to 2,000 meters and because of the oxygen deficiency and extreme pressure and temperature at those depths, it has developed a highly specialized metabolism and physiology.
Stabilium® 200 contains a high concentration of small peptides similar to pituitary and hypothal-amic stimulating peptides. These polypeptides act as hormone precursors and as precursors to neurotransmitters such as gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), encephalins and endorphins. They can exert a regulatory effect on the nervous system, potentially enabling the organism to adapt to stressful conditions. Stabilium® 200 also contains 20 to 25% free amino acids, including glycine, glutamic acid and tryptophan.
Thirty percent of the fats in Stabilium® 200 are the essential Omega-3 fatty acids, DHA and EPA. These are precursors of the prostaglandins and prostacyclins, cellular chemical mediators which help regulate the main biological functions of the body, including the noradrenergic functions of the central nervous system. These fats are found in cellular membranes throughout the body. Besides their importance for the function of the brain and nervous system, they are also considered essential for the proper development of infants, for functioning of the retina of the eye and to have mood-stabilizing properties.
The ancient Celts discovered how to manufacture lysates from the organs of marine creatures and they used this to make Garum extract. Lysates come from the cellular protoplasmic material in which most of the chemical activities of the cell occur. Stabilium® 200 is produced using controlled enzymatic autolysis of the viscera of the blue fish, a modern version of the original Celtic methods.
Blue fish obtain energy from these long-chain fatty acids. Unlike mammals, blue fish store these fats in their muscles, allowing the fats to be easily used for energy. The tissues of the blue fish also contain the natural antioxidants vitamin E and selenium, which protect the polyunsaturated fatty acids from oxidation and further protect cells from free radical damage. Garum also contains other essential vitamins and minerals. It appears that the active components in Garum - amino acids, peptides, vitamins, minerals and essential fatty acids - may work synergistically as well as individually.
Research confirms that Stabilium® 200 may be useful for coping with stresses from work or personal life and can support healthy sleep patterns, energy, memory and mood. One double blind, placebo controlled study showed support for cognitive function, memory and fatigue in adults. Another study showed that Stabilium® 200 specifically supported motivation, concentration, learning, immediate memorization and the capacity for differentiated memorisation (REY) across all age groups and especially for the older members of the test population. In an eight week, double blind, placebo-controlled, cross-over study with college students, Stabilium® 200 was found to be effective in supporting comfort levels before and during examinations. The anti-stress effect of Stabilium® 200 has been objectively confirmed by researchers in Japan, through electroencephal-ography (EEC) measurement of alpha waves, which can serve as an index for determining the degree of stress. They found a significant increase in alpha wave activity, relative to that measured before the use of Stabilium® 200.
The composition of Stabilium® 200 is original and controlled and has been subjected to thorough, high quality testing. It is extremely well-tolerated, with no contraindications and with no cases of incompatibility or habituation. Rebound or dependence phenomena have not been observed. The benefits typically are maintained for fifteen days or more after stopping intake. Product of France.


Despite its name, ringworm has nothing to do with worms. It is a fungal infection affecting the skin. Ringworm creates a scaly, crusty rash on the skin known as dermatophytosis that occurs on any part of the dog's body. It does not cause internal parasitic worms to appear in the dog or in his stool. An infected dog will display raised red, ring-like welts on his skin that scab over and cause hair loss.
There are three types of ringworm that infect domestic dogs, including Microsporum canis, Microsporum gypseum and Trichophyton mentagrophytes. All of them live in the outermost layers of skin, the dead parts that eventually slough off. They also live in hair follicles, toe nails and in the fibers of the hairs. These fungi seldom live on living tissue although one of them, Microsporum gypseum is capable of surviving in soil for a year or longer.
Ringworm is an example of a zoonotic disease, meaning that it's transmittable between animals and humans. It's extremely contagious as the spores are carried on sloughed-off skin, shed hair and toenail castings. Direct contact with infected dogs transmits the fungus to other pets or to people. Ringworm infections happen most often in hot, humid regions and usually resolve themselves within a few months without medical intervention. Dogs with lowered immunity are most prone to catching ringworm.
There are several internal parasitic worms that appear in a dog's stool. Roundworms are long unsegmented worms living in the dog's intestines. There are whipworms, so called because they move around like a whip in the intestines, and hookworms that attach themselves to the dog's intestinal walls. Threadworms are tiny worms living in the intestines and there are tapeworms, large segmented worms that reproduce themselves by breaking off segments. All can be found in the infected dog's stool.
When a dog is scratching excessively, pulling tufts of hair, biting his own skin and developing unusual rashes, he should be seen by a veterinarian. If he seems tired all the time, is weak and sleeping more than usual, he may have anemia caused by internal parasites drinking his blood. Anemia is dangerous and potentially fatal if not treated. If worms are visible in the dog's stool or vomit, this indicates parasites and should be treated immediately.
- Thinkstock/Stockbyte/Getty Images


|Mars Exploration Rover|
This NASA fact sheet provides a description of two new Mars rovers: Spirit and Opportunity. The document describes instruments mounted on the rovers as well as some details about the mission goals and procedures.
Intended for grade levels:
Type of resource:
Adobe Acrobat reader
Cost / Copyright:
JPL authored documents are sponsored by NASA under Contract NAS7-030010. All documents available from this server may be protected under the U.S. and Foreign Copyright Laws. Permission to reproduce may be required.
DLESE Catalog ID: DLESE-000-000-005-042
Resource contact / Creator / Publisher:
Contact: Tony Greicius
NASA, Jet Propulsion Laboratory


My friend solicited open letters to high school students for a project for work. Here is what I wrote last Friday afternoon. I found that I was really writing it as reminders to myself based on things I’ve recently been thinking about and learning, so in multiple respects it was a great and fun exercise.
We don’t know each other, but some of the best advice I’ve ever received has been from strangers. In fact, everything you’ll read here I’ve learned from others. There are things I think I know now that I wish I knew when I was in high school. Perhaps I wasn’t ready to really hear it, or I didn’t have the context for understanding its relevance. Here are some of the things I wish I started doing earlier, which are as much reminders to myself to do them now as they are advice to you.
Have empathy. You may have heard the phrase “walk in someone else’s shoes.” Empathy is listening to and learning about someone else, and acknowledging their experience as something real and valid even if it is different from your own or you don’t completely understand it. Empathy is not the same as sympathy—a proactive concern and desire to improve the situation of others. (This great animated video demonstrates the distinction between sympathy and empathy.) We should all strive to be more empathetic, and to be open–really open–to listening and learning from everyone around us.
Avoid silos. Be interested–in the world, in people, in how things work, in new topics. Make plans, but don’t be so focused on them that you miss out on opportunities to learn or try new things. You may be very passionate about one topic, but make sure you spend time learning about other ones because your passions will change over time. Don’t silo your experiences or learning; break down silos completely and learn how everything is connected and builds on each other.
Give yourself space to feel. You will go through at least one difficult or traumatic experience, if you haven’t already. It’s okay. If you go through something hard, give yourself space and permission to feel that pain and sadness. Realize the gravity of what you are going through, whether it’s something many others experience, or if you think you are the only person in the world going through it. Find people you trust to help you through the process, and don’t feel like you have to bottle-up your emotions or pretend everything is alright when it’s not.
Travel. You’ll hear this advice a lot. But don’t travel to some exotic country to “help the needy” or see how “others” live. Don’t stay for two weeks and then leave. Stay in the same place for a few months, or a year. Travel because you can learn more about yourself and others in the process, and see how you adapt to new environments. And don’t think of money as a barrier to travel. You don’t need to cross the globe for this experience. Travel to a different borough, city, state. Learn how to be somewhere new on your own. And then call your loved ones.
Ask why. Question your actions and beliefs. Question those of others. Don’t ask why something exists a certain way, and then stop. Ask why again, and again, until you can’t ask why anymore. There’s your real answer.
Have an opinion. Learn how to be diplomatic and respectful of the opinions of others. But also know where you stand and what you believe. Be open-minded to changing your opinion, but don’t have so much desire to be liked or respectful that you never express what you really think.
Don’t burn bridges you may need to cross. It’s okay to end relationships with employers, friends, or lovers. People change and move on. But always end on a good and honest note. You never know when they might come back into your life.
Say thank you. Be thankful for the people who help you, and remember your 5th grade teacher, college counselor, friend, or acquaintance and thank them for influencing your life and supporting you. Thank them in the moment, and thank them 5, 10, 15 years from now.
Do things. As Johann Wolfgang Von Goethe says, “Knowing is not enough; we must apply. Willing is not enough; we must do.”
Hopefully this advice will be valuable in your life, whether you use it now or later. But most importantly, your gut instinct is almost always right, so always listen to that first and last.


Submitted to: Physiologia Plantarum
Publication Type: Peer Reviewed Journal
Publication Acceptance Date: December 1, 2003
Publication Date: February 24, 2003
Citation: SALVUCCI, M.E., CRAFTS-BRANDNER, S.J. INHIBITION OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS BY HEAT STRESS: THE ACTIVATION STATE OF RUBISCO AS A LIMITING FACTOR IN PHOTOSYNTHESIS.. PHYSIOLOGIA PLANTARUM. 2003. 179-186. Interpretive Summary: In the process of photosynthesis, plants convert light into chemical energy. The energy produced by photosynthesis is then used to synthesize sugars and other foodstuffs. Heat stress inhibits photosynthesis, reducing the overall yield of the plant. Previous research from this research group identified an enzyme called Rubisco activase as the component of photosynthesis that is most sensitive to inhibition by heat. Rubisco activase is a regulatory enzyme that controls the activity of the major carbon dioxide-fixing enzyme in plants. In this review, we discuss recent data that has elucidated the biochemical basis for inhibition of photosynthesis by moderate heat stress. Specifically, we show how reduced activase activity, coupled with faster deactivation of Rubisco together contribute to an inhibition of photosynthesis under heat stress. This information eventually can be used to make changes that improve the activity and stability of Rubisco activase in order to improve the efficiency of photosynthesis under heat stress.
Technical Abstract: The low affinity of Rubisco for CO2 and its dual nature as an oxygenase limit the possible increase in net photosynthesis with temperature. For cotton, comparisons of measured rates of net photosynthesis with predicted rates indicate that direct inhibition of photosynthesis occurs at temperatures higher than about 30ºC. Inhibition of photosynthesis by moderate heat stress (i.e., 30 to 42ºC) is generally attributed to reduced rates of RuBP regeneration caused by disruption of electron transport activity. However, measurements of chlorophyll fluorescence and metabolite levels at air-levels of CO2 indicate that electron transport activity is not limiting at temperatures that inhibit CO2 fixation. Instead, recent evidence shows that inhibition of net photosynthesis correlates with a decrease in the activation state of Rubisco in both C3 and C4 plants and that this decrease in the amount of active Rubisco can fully account for the temperature response of net photosynthesis. Biochemically, the decrease in Rubisco activation can be attributed to 1) more rapid deactivation of Rubisco caused by a faster rate of dead-end product formation and 2) slower reactivation of Rubisco by activase. The net result is that as temperature increases activase becomes less effective in keeping Rubisco activated. In this opinionated review, we discuss how these processes provide a mechanism for the inhibition of photosynthesis by moderate heat stress.


Houseplants in the Winter
Houseplants in the Winter
By Rob Sproule
“Say aloe to my little friend.”
Less Light = Less Water:
Feeling sluggish? Light levels plummet in the winter leading to precious little Vitamin D to energize us. We feel tired, a little cranky, and pass the comfort food. Your plant relies on sunlight for its metabolism even more than we do. As light levels fall, expect its growth to slow. Leaves may fall and its immune system will weaken, making it more vulnerable to opportunistic pests. Increased humidity will help it fight them off (see below).
Water less. How much less depends on the plant. Some slow down, some go downright dormant. In the summer you’ll have gotten used to watering when the soil surface is dry. Kick that habit. The dry air will parch the surface but underneath the sleepy roots will be drowning in dampness. Stick your finger in and only water if it’s dry up the first knuckle.
The vast majority of houseplants, with the glaring exception of succulents and cacti, hail from tropical regions where the air is saturated with water and thrive in the near 100% humidity. In our stark Prairie winter the plants go from an acceptable 50% household humidity to a parching 10-20%.
With the air literally pulling moisture from our plants’ pores, it’s hard to imagine how a Ficus or Bird of Paradise can survive. But there are tricks:
– If you don’t have a good humidifier in your furnace, consider investing in a smaller one. It will benefit your health as much as the plants.
– Cluster your house plants close together so they can benefit from the moisture their neighbours are losing. Tropical plants don’t like being alone in any season.
– If your bathroom and/or kitchen is well lit, lug some of plants in there for the winter so they benefit from the running water and steam.
– Put a bed of stones in your plant’s saucer and fill with water. The plant should sit just above the water but will benefit from the water evaporating just below it.
As for misting: it doesn’t hurt, but it’s not enough on its own. The water sits on the leaves for such a short time that there’s no time for it to absorb in before it evaporates.
Beware the Draft:
In the frozen North, we’re used to annual temperature swings of up to 80 degrees from one extreme to the other. In the tropics, a swing of just 10 degrees can be a big deal. So as much as you need to beware the cold in winter, beware the heat, too.
If your plant is near a door, especially a big swinging front door that’s often used, back it up. A few -20 blasts could be fatal. Likewise, if it’s near a heat vent, oven, or fireplace, the desiccating air will add to the havoc the already dry winter air is playing.
If your trops are close to (ie. leaves touching) old windows, consider pulling them back a scootch. If the glass freezes it will kill the touching leaf and send shivering shockwaves through the plant.


Your students are in for a treat with this parts of a plant activity! Students use a lollipop, yarn and construction paper to create a model of the parts of a plant. It’s the perfect craft to include in your plant unit!
Parts of a Plant Activity
- Tootsie Roll ® sucker
- colored construction paper
- green paint and paintbrush OR green marker
- brown twine or yarn
- hole punch
- liquid glue (also stick glue if adding labels)
- clear tape
Paint the sucker stick with green paint and set aside to dry. Optional: Color the stick with a green marker.
Cut a flower out of construction paper. I made mine about four inches wide. Make a hole in the center of the flower using a hole punch.
Place the sucker stick down through the hole in the flower. Wrap a small amount of clear tape around the stick under the flower.
Cut leaves out of green construction paper. Roll a piece of clear tape up so it’s sticky all around. Tape the leaves to the sucker stick underneath the flower.
Cut two pieces of brown twine or yarn 12 inches long. Cut two more pieces 5-6 inches long each.
Add a small amount of liquid glue to the end of the sucker stick. Tie the two 12 inch pieces of twine/yarn to the stick over the glue. Let the glue dry. Once dried, it will keep the twine/yarn from slipping off the stick.
Tie the two smaller pieces of twine/yarn to two of the longer pieces of twine/yarn to resemble spreading roots.
Labeling the Parts of a Plant
If you want students to label the parts of the plant, have them use a marker and a white piece of paper to make the labels. They might also type the labels, print and then cut them out.
Flower & leaves labels: Simply use a marker to write the names on the flower and leaves.
Roots & stem labels: Make a label for the roots and stem. I suggest making them about two inches long and half an inch wide. Rub stick glue along the back of the labels. Fold the labels in half over the twine/yarn and sucker stick to secure them inside the label. Write the names on the labels.
Fruit & seed label: Make a one label for the fruit and seed. The sweet sucker represents the fruit, and the seed is the Tootsie Roll inside! I made my label one inch long and 3/4 inch wide. Roll up a piece of clear tape so that it’s sticky all around. Tape the label to the sucker.
Send the lollipops home with students. Encourage them to show family or friends their lollipop and tell them what they’ve learned about plants. Then, they can eat the treat!
This model is a great STEAM activity to do when you’re studying plants. Present students with the materials and tell them to use them to make a model to show all the parts of a plant. You might explain to them beforehand that the sucker will represent the fruit, seed and stem. Then let their creativity bloom!
This fun activity is a part of my plant unit for K-1. I do have all the templates and labels available separately in my TPT store if you’re interested in making models just like the one I’ve pictured in this post.


Scanning Near-field Optical Microscopy (SNOM)
In Scanning Near-field Optical Microscopy, the excitation laser light is focused through an aperture with a diameter smaller than the excitation wavelength, resulting in an evanescent field (or near-field) on the far side of the aperture. When the sample is scanned at a small distance below the aperture, the optical resolution of transmitted or reflected light is limited only by the diameter of the aperture. The optical resolution attainable is in the range of 60 – 100 nm. The optical image is generated by scanning the sample's surface point-by-point and line-by-line.
Typical applications are found in nanotechnology research and in particular the highly relevant fields of nano-photonics and nano-optics. In life science and materials research, SNOM allows the optical detection of the most miniscule surface structures of transparent as well as opaque samples. Using combinations with fluorescence techniques, even single-molecule detection can be easily achieved.
WITec’s Scanning Near-field Optical Microscope with Unique Cantilever Technique
With featured SNOM objectives and unique cantilever SNOM sensors, imaging beyond the diffraction limit is accomplished quickly and effortlessly with the WITec SNOM microscopes:
All WITec SNOM microscopes are equipped with unique, patented, high-quality micro-fabricated SNOM sensors, consisting of a silicon cantilever with a hollow aluminum pyramid as a tip. The SNOM aperture is at the apex of the pyramid. The laser light used for optical imaging is focused into the backside of the hollow tip and then onto the sample. Due to the wide opening angle of the hollow pyramid, the transmission coefficient is much higher than that of fiber probes of the same diameter. An established and proven method of mass-production enables tips with apertures of varying size to be specified according to customers’ individual requirements. Cantilever SNOM sensors are, unlike fiber tips, very robust and flexible in the z-direction and allow the beam deflection technique to precisely control the tip-sample distance.
All of these innovative characteristics make the handling of probes during near-field microscopy very easy and user-friendly for the most reliable optical imaging available beyond the diffraction limit.
Image on the right:
02 Optical fiber
03 Cantilever SNOM sensor
04 Flip mirror
05 Optical fiber
07 Highly sensitive video camera
08 White light LED for Köhler illumination
09 Color video camera
10 Connector for signal pick-up in reflection
11 Fiber connector for beam deflection laser
12 Segmented photo diode
[A] Video camera top view of SNOM sensor and sample
[B] Side view of cantilever pyramid
[C] SEM image of SNOM sensors
[D] EM image of aperture at the apex of the pyramid
[E] SNOM cantilever wafer
Correlative SNOM Analyzing Techniques Provided By WITec
The modular design of the WITec systems allows to combine various imaging techniques such as Raman imaging, fluorescence, luminescence, atomic force microscopy (AFM), and near-field microscopy (SNOM or NSOM) and in one single instrument for a more comprehensive sample analysis. Switching between the different modes is simply done by rotating the microscope turret.
Near-field Raman Imaging
Near-field Raman imaging is an exceptional microscopy technique which links chemical Raman information to high-resolution Scanning Near-field Optical Microscopy (SNOM). Thus near-field Raman allows for the acquisition of complete high-resolution confocal Raman images. Typically, lateral resolutions of below 100 nm can be achieved.
Through the unique combination of a high-throughput spectroscopic system with the cantilever-based SNOM technique of the WITec Raman-SNOM microscope, an unrivaled sensitivity and imaging quality can be provided by a single microscope setup.
The excitation laser light is focused through the SNOM-tip resulting in a “near-field” (evanescent field) on the far side of the aperture. While the sample is moved on a piezo-driven scan stage, the transmitted light is spectroscopically detected point-by-point and line-by-line in order to generate a hyperspectral Raman image. The optical resolution of the transmitted light is thereby only limited by the diameter of the aperture (< 100 nm). Using a beam deflection setup as in AFM contact mode, it is ensured that the cantilever is always in contact with the sample. In addition the topography can be recorded simultaneously to the measurement.


One of the vital often asked questions within the modern world is ‘What’s the meaning of science and expertise?’ Man is innovative in nature. Software program, computer systems, expertise itself, are instruments and inventive people always use tools, nicely, more creatively. The penguin dictionary of computer systems defines it as “a portmanteau phrase to cover all facets of the art or science of processing information to supply information”. To help make this definition more concrete, we’ve damaged it down into three attributes: creating worth on the new frontiers of the business world, creating value within the processes that execute a imaginative and prescient of buyer experiences, and constructing foundational capabilities that assist the entire structure.
An organization that may take advantage and switch it into shared knowledge, precisely and quickly, will certainly be better positioned to make successful business choices and rise above the competition. The evolution of the position of know-how is tied to scientific and technological advances in the area of information know-how, the pressures of an increasingly competitive surroundings and adjustments in the design of strategies for managing the business.
A science park is an organisation managed by specialised professionals, whose main goal is to increase the wealth of its community by promoting the tradition of innovation and the competitiveness of its related businesses and data-based institutions. As digital know-how continues to increase and film theatres purchase the universal means to show digital films, everyday individuals and community teams can turn out to be stars in their very own lives.
In physics , the invention of nuclear fission has led to both nuclear weapons and nuclear power Computer systems have been also invented and later miniaturized utilizing transistors and built-in circuits Information technology subsequently led to the creation of the Web , which ushered within the present Information Age Humans have also been in a position to discover area with satellites (later used for telecommunication ) and in manned missions going all the way to the moon.
Small companies have used technology to create new methods of competing with well-established firms. Optimistic assumptions are made by proponents of ideologies resembling transhumanism and singularitarianism , which view technological growth as typically having useful effects for the society and the human situation. With the development of biological expertise, it’s now possible to artificially recreate the process of Animal Cloning.


When a program is invoked it is given an array of strings
called the environment.
This is a list of name-value pairs, of the form
Bash provides several ways to manipulate the environment.
On invocation, the shell scans its own environment and
creates a parameter for each name found, automatically marking
it for export
to child processes. Executed commands inherit the environment.
export and ‘declare -x’
commands allow parameters and functions to be added to and
deleted from the environment. If the value of a parameter
in the environment is modified, the new value becomes part
of the environment, replacing the old. The environment
inherited by any executed command consists of the shell’s
initial environment, whose values may be modified in the shell,
less any pairs removed by the
unset and ‘export -n’
commands, plus any additions via the
‘declare -x’ commands.
The environment for any simple command or function may be augmented temporarily by prefixing it with parameter assignments, as described in Shell Parameters. These assignment statements affect only the environment seen by that command.
If the -k option is set (see The Set Builtin), then all parameter assignments are placed in the environment for a command, not just those that precede the command name.
When Bash invokes an external command, the variable ‘$_’ is set to the full pathname of the command and passed to that command in its environment.


The discovery of the Higgs boson may give a clue to the history of the universe. From BBC News:
“It turns out there’s a calculation you can do in our Standard Model of particle physics, once you know the mass of the Higgs boson,” explained Dr Joseph Lykken.
“What happens is you get just a quantum fluctuation that makes a tiny bubble of the vacuum the Universe really wants to be in. And because it’s a lower-energy state, this bubble will then expand, basically at the speed of light, and sweep everything before it,” the Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory theoretician told BBC News.
If the calculation on vacuum instability stands up, it will revive an old idea that the Big Bang Universe we observe today is just the latest version in a permanent cycle of events.
I would say that fluctuation is a better term than cycle. If quantum fluctuations can occur, then they can reoccur, and so the universe itself can fluctuate into and out of existence. This is not a “cycle” like a clock or a wheel that regularly turns.


Some people may have not changed disposable sheets for three months or even longer. Let's find out how dirty the disposable sheets will be at this time. In the process of sleep, we consciously or unconsciously will toss and turn, the skin of the body will directly rub with the disposable sheets. In this process, it is equivalent to giving the skin an exercise, the epidermis will be regenerated, new The skin replaces the old, old skin that falls off into dead skin. Many of these dead skins fell on the bed. They are the "food" for the survival of many bacteria. In other words, these dead skins provide living conditions for bacteria, which is a cause of easy breeding of bacteria. At the same time, it is not only dead skin, but also some other substances, such as body oil, saliva, stains and dust on the whole body, body fluids, even urine and feces, may be contaminated with disposable sheets. Mix with bacteria. Another problem is that during the sleep process, sweat also occurs. According to the study, one person will leave nearly 100,000 milliliters (the amount of 167 bottles of mineral water) in the bed every year, so the bed environment is damp. The condition is easy to breed fungi.
According to the test data, bacteria that may produce 3 to 5 million CFU (colony forming units) per 6 square centimeters of pillows, sheets and disposable sheets are not washed for one week. If not washed for one month, the number will be close to 12 million. . You know, a disposable sheet is about 4 square meters, or 6666 6 square centimeters, so at least 800 million bacteria will sleep with you.
Through the above analysis, we will know how dirty the disposable sheets are often not changed. We should pay attention to the cleaning of disposable sheets in one week. Use 55-60 degrees Celsius hot water and choose the right detergent. Otherwise new chemicals may be added to the disposable sheets. And after cleaning, pay attention to exposure, in addition to disposable sheets, other disposable sheets, also need to refer to disposable sheets, do a good job of cleaning.


Project«The Smithsonian Air and Space Museum» Grade 9ASchool 8Khanova AigulPagina YuliaSurgutFebruary, 2010
Plan of the working PreparationInclude in your project the following:Basic information about the museum;Comments from students;Picture (photos of sights).ActivityWork in groups:Look for the materials in the Internet;Look through the homework you’ve done for the previous lessonsAsk for other students’ ideas. Discuss the materials you want to include in your project;Copy and develop what you have discussed and agreed on.
Presentation Look again at the material you have prepared;Exchange your ideas about how to place pictures and photos, how to make your project colorful and readable;Proofread the material, check the spelling, punctuation, grammar and vocabulary;Make slides and presentation in Microsoft PowerPoint;Present your project to your students.
The National Air and Space Museum of the Smithsonian Institution
History National Air Museum was formed on August 12, 1946 by an act of Congress. Some pieces in the National Air and Space Museum collection date back to the 1876. In 1952 it was placed in the Maryland-National Capital Park. The Space race in 1950 and 1960 led to the renaming of the museum to the National Air and Space Museum.The new exhibition hall was opened in July, 1976.The Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center was opened in 2003.
Architecture The museum is designed as four simple marble – encased cubes containing the smaller and more theatrical exhibits, connected by three spacious steel-and-glass atria which house the larger exhibits such as missiles, airplanes and spacecraft. The west glass wall of the building is used for the installation of airplanes.AIA 150 - Shape of America
EducationAt the Museum The National Air and Space Museum offers a variety of free educational programs for families, school groups and the general public.Guided School Group Tours are held at the National Mall Building and at the Steven Udvar-Hazy Center.Tour duration is about one hour.National Mall Building Tours are about:African Americans in the and Space History;Discovery;Exploring the Planets;Exploring Space;Exploring the Universe with Telescopes;History of Flight;Air Transportation-Past, Present, Future;Personal Aviation;Military Aviation.
Smithsonian museums The Smithson Institution Building known as the «Castle» was completed in 1855. The complex now includes 14 museums.James Smithsonian had never been to the US but left his entire fortune of 500,000 $ to America.An 1816 portrait of Smithson by Henri-Joseph Johns
Smithsonian museums Washington, D.C.Anacostia Community Museum Arthur M. Sackler Gallery (Mall Museum) Arts and Industries Building (Mall Museum) Freer Gallery of Art (Mall Museum) Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden (Mall Museum) National Air and Space Museum (Mall Museum) National Museum of African American History and Culture (not yet built) National Museum of African Art (Mall Museum) National Museum of American History (Mall Museum) National Museum of the American Indian (Mall Museum) National Museum of Natural History (Mall Museum) National Portrait Gallery National Postal Museum S. Dillon Ripley Center (Mall Museum) Smithsonian American Art Museum Smithsonian Institution Building Smithsonian National Zoological Park (National Zoo) The National Gallery of Art is affiliated with the Smithsonian, and is run by a separate charter.
The collection of aircraft and spacecraft The National Air and Space Museum is the world’s most popular Museum.The 23 galleries are filled with the exhibits that tell the story of man flight.The National Air and Space Museum (NASM) holds the largest collection of historic aircraft and spacecraft in the world. It’s located in Washington, D.C, United State. It is also a center for research into the history and the science of aviation and spaceflight, planetary science
Image Gallery There are a lot of space rockets and a lunar landing module. It is also has the original airplane used by the Wright Brothers and «the Spirit of St. Lous»; the first plane to cross the Atlantic, which Charles Lindbergh flew from New York to Paris. the Spirit of St. Lous
Images Mercury Friendship 7Spacecraft
Images Soviet SS-20 and U.S. Pershing II rockets
Images Lunar space sui
Images Moon rock from Apollo 17
Images The Surveyor 3 camera
Images Apollo Lunar Module
Popular Museum The Air and Space Museum was used as part of the setting in the 2009 film Night at the Museum: Battle of the Smithsonian, but the film was actually shot in Vancouver.The Air and Space Museum that is in Transformers: Revenge of the Fallen, where Sam, Mikaela, Wheelie and Agent Simmons woke up Jetfire in SR-71 Blackbird mode, is the Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center branch facility located near Dulles International Airport.As of 2007, over 6 million people visited the National Air and Space Museum.


Symbols of Liberty
Cityview’s Assistant Editor Travels Abroad and Encounters Some of the Foundations of American Liberty
Long before Liberty’s beauty would be known to the world, William the Conqueror broke the Saxons in the Battle of Hastings in 1066 and ordered the building of the Tower of London. As she showed me around the iconic London landmark, the tower’s first ever female Beefeater Guard noted the little green where Henry VIII had wives and other high profile personages executed. But the majority of the tower’s victims were led down the cobblestone path, past the inn, out the gate, and up to Tower Hill where they would be killed publicly. As they passed the inn, an empathetic innkeeper brought the condemned man a beer, a custom colloquialized as “one more for the road.” Supposedly, one prisoner refused this customary drink, was led to the hill and was executed just moments before a letter pardoning him arrived at the tower.
Just a few days earlier, before we’d flown to London, my wife and I visited Faneuil Hall and walked the southern portion of the Freedom Trail in Boston. Marked by a red brick line that cuts through the city, the trail features the Old State House, a window from which one can look down at the street where, in 1770, five Americans were shot and killed by a group of nine red coats. Samuel Adams and the Sons of Liberty, who dubbed it the “Boston Massacre,” would meet a tenth of a mile away at the Old South Meeting House on December 16th, 1773. Adams would say, “This meeting can do nothing more to save the country,” signaling the Sons of Liberty to march down to Griffin’s Wharf and dump 340 crates of East India Company tea into the Boston Harbor before it could be unloaded and incur a tax for the colony.
It was not until we left England and reached an exhibit on the Kingdom of the Scots at the National Museum of Scotland that I again felt my hair stand up as it did within those American monuments. In harsh calligraphy on the museum walls was written The Declaration of Arbroath, crafted to declare Scottish independence in 1320: “As long as only one hundred of us remain alive, we will never on any conditions be brought under English rule. For we fight not for glory, nor riches, nor honors, but for Freedom alone, which no good man gives up except with his life.” Scotland would go on to give up its political sovereignty in 1707. Yet the freedoms of commerce this afforded soon allowed Scots to assume a dominant role in world culture for a century.
At Trinity College in Dublin a few days later, I read the proclamation that, “Standing on that fundamental right and again asserting it in arms in the face of the world, we hereby proclaim the Irish Republic as a Sovereign Independent State, and we pledge our lives and the lives of our comrades in arms to the cause of its freedom.” Ireland’s own 1916 Easter Rising was hereby ignited and she fought for and gained her independence in 1922.
The stories and symbols of freedom arise from more than one nation, and neither they nor the swamp from which they arose and into which they could again be plunged be forgotten. Never should we let down our guard to would-be unenlightened conquerors. Though each July we celebrate our own independence, we ought to think about John Wilkes’ remarks in the British Parliament in 1775: “I speak sir as a firm friend to England and America, but still more to universal liberty and the rights of all mankind.”