On the floor of the 2018 Solar Power International trade show, manufacturers showed off a wide array of new module designs, with half-cut cells, copper wire interconnections, and bifacial modules all over the place, often in combination.
But one thing was consistent: The majority of the modules on display featured monocrystalline silicon, and there was even a module made of half-cut cells with the distinctive absence of grain at the booth of the world’s largest maker of multicrystalline silicon wafers. And the trend to monocrystalline is global.
For years, monocrystalline technology has been reserved largely for residential and other space-constrained installations, and multicrystalline has dominated the utility-scale sector. But market analysts say that more and more large-scale solar plants are using monocrystalline modules, and two different analysts told pv magazine that the global split between mono and multi product sold will be within a few percent of 50/50 in the second half of this year. This is a sea change from the first half of 2016, when modules using monocrystalline cells made up less than 30% of all product sold.
Price dynamics underlie this market shift. According to IHS Markit, prices for mono wafers fell to $0.133/W in the first half of 2018, making them only 10% more than multicrystalline wafers. This difference is less noticeable as the products are made into cells and then modules, as there is no inherent higher cost for mono cell production or module assembly. By the time we reach system prices, this is often more than compensated for by a balance of systems advantage due to the higher efficiency of monocrystalline silicon.
So how has monocrystalline silicon been able to reduce prices so sharply, and why is it taking over the global market? In order to answer this question, you have to go to the factories.
Diamond wire and PERC
Monocrystalline silicon makers have benefited from two of the big technology trends in solar wafer and cell manufacturing: diamond wire slicing and PERC.
Chinese manufacturing giant Longi Green Energy Technology, which has led the rise of mono (See China’s monocrystalline boom, pv magazine 04/2018, p. 56), claims to have been the first company to widely deploy diamond wire sawing. These are more expensive than slurry saws but also more efficient, with no need for glycol slurry or grit, and less saw waste, meaning more wafers per kilogram of ingot.
Diamond wire sawing was pioneered by Switzerland’s Meyer Burger, but as has been the case with other equipment, Chinese manufacturing is bringing down the cost of these saws, making a further economic case. At first, multicrystalline wafer makers could not take advantage of diamond wire sawing, as the saw left too smooth of a texture, which did not work with existing wet processes.
However, with multicrystalline wafer and cell makers making modifications to their etching solutions, by the end of 2017, diamond wire had also become the dominant technology for multicrystalline silicon, often combined with black silicon surface treatments.
A potentially longer lasting technological driver to monocrystalline has come with passivated emitter rear contact (PERC) cell technology. PERC requires only a few process additions, and the machinery to do PERC is far less expensive and easier to integrate than switching over to heterojunction or interdigitated back contact (IBC) cell designs. PERC has been the high-efficiency design of choice for many manufacturers during the last six years.
PERC can give both multi and monocrystalline silicon a boost, but the advantage is greater for mono. Charts from the German Mechanical Engineering Industry Association’s (VDMA’s) latest International Technology Roadmap for PV (ITRPV) show the average efficiency of multicrystalline PERC cells at around 1% higher than standard multi, but for monocrystalline cells it is more like 1.7%.
This relative efficiency gain is not the only advantage of mono-PERC over multi-PERC. PERC cells are more susceptible to light-induced degradation (LID) and light and elevated temperature-induced degradation (LeTID), and analysts including IHS Markit Research Director for Solar, Energy Storage and Smart Utilities Edurne Zoco say this is a bigger problem for multi-PERC: “LID is the biggest problem,” notes Zoco.
RCz and CCz
While both PERC and diamond wire have been significant, another factor in the shift to mono is lower costs coming from dramatic improvements in casting monocrystalline ingots through the Czochralski process. This includes the ability to cast more monocrystalline silicon in a single crucible, through the rechargeable Czochralski (RCz) and continuous Czochralski (CCz) processes.
Longi, the world’s largest monocrystalline wafer maker, stresses the advantages of the RCz technology it has widely adopted. Various analysts estimate that the company is getting three ingot pulls from a single crucible; however Longi Chair Zhenguo Li tells pv magazine that his company is getting as many as five.
Not only does this extend the life of crucibles, but also saves energy and reduces downtime. And in the world of ingot casting as elsewhere, time is money. “The main driver is productivity, which leads to lower cost,” explains Simon Price, the CEO and head of research at U.K.-based analysts Exawatt. Price notes that RCz has also benefited from a move to larger crucibles, which means longer ingots and less time loading and unloading, as well as other advantages. “There are little bits of savings all along to doing RCz,” he says.
RCz is not the only technology to get more monocrystalline silicon out of a single crucible. In 2016 GCL-Poly, which has managed to stay just ahead of Longi as the world’s largest wafer maker overall (including both mono and multicrystalline silicon wafers), bought the intellectual property behind SunEdison’s continuous Czochralski process, and in April of this year established a joint venture to build 20 GW of monocrystalline ingot capacity using this technology.
GCL also acquired SunEdison’s fluidized bed reactor (FBR) polysilicon technology, which it says produces the best material for making CCz mono. GCL is currently the only company in the world to own viable versions of both of these technologies. Exawatt’s Price notes that there are some advantages to CCz “in principle,” including the ability to run at a lower temperature, reducing wear on crucibles and extending crucible lifetimes. More significantly, he says that the process allows for better control of doping. Not only does this mean easier production of n-type silicon, but allows for gallium-doped wafers.
Longi agrees, stating that the “CCz process produces a narrower longitudinal resistivity distribution of silicon ingots that is suited in high-efficiency p-type PERC and high-efficiency n-type cells.” But while GCL claims that CCz can greatly improve efficiency and reduce overall production costs, the jury is still out on this question.
As opposed to RCz, which uses equipment similar to previous processes, CCz technology requires modifying pullers to allow for two feeders, both of which need to be continuously working. “There are loads of little wrinkles that need to be ironed out,” states Exawatt’s Price.
Price further notes that the development of the technology may be slower due to the limited number of companies working with CCz, as opposed to many other processes in the solar industry where dozens of companies are working on parallel paths. Longi has a less optimistic view of CCz and is informed by extensive experience – the company started an R&D project using CCz in 2011 and closed it in 2015. Among other concerns, Longi notes that CCz requires a double crucible, which drives up prices. “The reason that we have not used it for mass production is that we believe that RCz is more competitive,” Longi Chair Zhenguo Li explains. Li has also expressed concerns over powder and hydrogen issues in FBR polysilicon.
However, Longi is still involved with CCz, as in August the company returned to limited CCz production through a joint development agreement with Aiko Solar. Longi says that this is to find out if CCz can bring more value to end-customers, and if they will bear the higher costs.
“Hundreds” of improvements
Whether through RCz or CCz, monocrystalline silicon is advancing. Every expert who pv magazine spoke with stated that the speed of ingot pulls is the biggest driver for reducing costs, and these are moving quickly. Exawatt’s Price estimates that ingots are being pulled at roughly twice the speed they were only four years ago. “I don’t know what the ceiling is,” he admits.
Along with this, both crucibles and ingots are getting bigger, which also leads to greater productivity. Ingots up to five meters long are now being pulled, and monocrystalline ingot technology company Linton Crystal Technologies notes that the main limit so far has been the infrastructure to move the final product.
The progress does not stop there. Longi Chair Li has explained that there have been “hundreds” of improvements to the process of casting monocrystalline silicon ingots over the past few years.
Simon Price expressed a similar sentiment, noting that there are “a lot of little iterative processes” that have made mono cheaper, including improvements in hot zones.
It is worth noting that Longi may be responsible for a fair amount of the overall progress. At present, Longi spends more money on research and development than any other large PV maker, both as a portion of its revenues and in raw dollars, and roughly half of this goes to the ingot and wafer process.
It is obvious that mono is gaining on multi and becoming the more widely used technology, but analysts and market participants are divided as to how far this will go. “We are not so bullish as the other voices in the market,” states IHS Markit’s Edurne Zoco. “The market is not going to be 80% mono in two years.”
However, Zoco also notes that at present utilization rates are higher for mono producers than multi, and this is already having market impacts. “We might see some exits,” warns Zoco, noting that Daqo New Energy has already pulled out from multicrystalline wafer production.
Downstream, companies are voting with their feet. Even REC Solar, which was deeply invested in multicrystalline technology and has long championed multi-PERC, is now also producing mono-PERC products, including a line of mono-PERC modules for residential solar customers.
This shift is particularly pressing for GCL-Poly, which despite its inroads into mono remains the world’s largest producer of multicrystalline silicon ingots and wafers.
GCL is feeling the heat financially, and in the first six months of 2018, its profit fell 68% compared to the prior year – a decline likely exacerbated by mono’s growth.
But this may only be the beginning. GCL has a massive stock of directional solidification system (DSS) furnaces to make multicrystalline ingots, and if multi loses too much market share, they could become stranded assets. One solution for GCL has been to grow single-crystal ingots in its existing DSS furnaces to create “mono-like” wafers. However researchers note that it is challenging to keep the monocrystalline structure as the ingot grows, resulting in more waste and less efficiency. GCL states that it is pursuing a “dual-track” strategy of both mono and multi, the former in collaboration with Zhonghuan Semiconductor, which has been the second-largest mono ingot and wafer maker and which, like Longi, has grown rapidly over the past few years.
This may be its best move in a market increasingly dominated by mono. “The fundamental thesis is that absent some kind of real technological innovation, it’s kind of the beginning of the end for multi,” notes Exawatt’s Simon Price. “Broadly speaking, we don’t really see anything that gets multi back ahead at this point.”
Correction: This article was corrected at 16:25 CET on November 26. An earlier version stated that Longi was gaining on GCL as the world’s largest polysilicon maker, and this was incorrect. Longi is gaining on GCL as the world’s largest wafer maker, and the text has been updated to show this. We regret the error.


Two cannibals were eating a clown.
One turns to the other and asks, "Does this taste funny to you?"
and his friend says, "Yeah. and I'm having a ball."
For centuries in the Fiji Islands, tribal officials would bring out their best utensils for special people, not to serve them, but to eat them. The tribal officials were cannibals, and the special people were the meal.
The cannibal fork, or iculanibokola, was used by attendants during ritual feasts to feed individuals considered too holy to touch food.
These forks arose for several reasons. First is a cultural taboo that prohibits chiefs and priests from touching food with their hands. Common Fijians generally did not use utensils until Europeanization. One of the most important ceremonies a chieftain participated in was the devouring of their or the tribes enemy. Combining the significance of the event and the inability to use their hands the chiefs needed a way to participate-hence the development of the cannibal fork. Forks became a way to show power and influence. The fancier more elaborate the fork, the higher status the owner had. Combining social status, religion and warfare made production of these forks a royal undertaking. Elaborate carvings from unique materials including human bone became the sole purpose of dedicated craftsmen.


Chapter one: Introduction
This chapter provides general background information regarding online purchasing behavior with an insight into the advantages and disadvantages of e-commerce in general and then specifically in Kuwait. The history of online shopping and internet retailers is presented to better understand e-purchasing behavior alongside a description of general theories of consumer online purchaser behavior and online shopping in Kuwait. The problem definition, research questions and methodology and limitations of the study are then presented, concluding with an outline of the thesis structure.
With advances in technology, specifically in the field of electronics and telecommunications, direct business and commerce with new retail approaches have emerged in recent decades to transform the business world. Due to the increase in the number of internet users and developing network technology, new forms of trade have grown from these advances particularly in Electronic Commerce (EC) a term introduced by Kalakota and Whinston in 1997. Electronic commerce has become one of the primary characteristics of the internet era and a significant method of doing business. According to Jelassi and Enders (2005) EC includes e-trading of digital and physical goods all trading steps: online marketing, online ordering, e-payment and distribution. Kalakota and Whinston (1997) pointed out that EC has two forms: business-to-consumer (B2C) and business-to-business (B2B). According to Molla and Licker (2001) B2C retailers offer their products and services to their customers. In the last decade, Khalifa and Liu (2003) stated that ‘we have witnessed a substantial growth of internet based on services, both from traditional companies and pure internet business that are developing online services’.
Despite apparent growth there are no reliable statistics concerning E-commerce in Kuwait. However there are indications that the volume of e-commerce in Kuwait is growing slowly as discussed by Al-Sabah (2009) Kuwait Financial Forum, the Central Bank Governor stating “We expect growth but so far we have not found a proper to be estimated for 2010, it depends on so many variables”. In research shown in Economist Information in 2006 involving over 100 countries regarding availability of e-commerce, Kuwait came 50th. As the business world recognised the advantages of such socioeconomic changes, Kuwait began to take note of the advantages of electronic trading and commerce including the set up and development of measurements of electronic trading facilities and venues across the country (Al-Shati, 2009). As e-commerce is newly introduced in Kuwait, in order for Kuwaiti firms to reach world standards there needs to be research in different contexts of e-commerce such as online retailing to utilize opportunities and avoid risk. As observed by Lin (2003)
the key to success in e-commerce depends on knowing customers and studying a customer’s viewpoint. The internet has singlehandedly created a concept shift away from more traditional methods of shopping. Studies by Joines et al. (2003) indicate the number of internet users is constantly increasing which signifies online purchasing is also increasing. Oppenheim and Ward (2006) agreed with Joines et al. (2003) explaining rapid increase was due to the growth of use of broadband technology combined with a change in consumer behaviour. Hollensen (2004) added that the internet has developed into a “new” distribution channel and evolution of this channel and e-commerce. Constantinides (2004) pointed out that in the influence of the consumer the first step was to identify certain impact aspects when purchasing online regarded as dimensions.
Numerous and varied studies have been conducted worldwide to identify the advantages and disadvantages of e-shopping. Bridges and Florsheim (2008) argue that online shopping has advantages for both consumers and retailers. From a consumer’s point of view they found e-shopping allows a lower price, different alternatives of products/services, and customized products. Additionally they established retailers benefited from online shopping as it allowed them to reach a maximum number of customers, reduce communication costs and rapid transportation. However, e-shopping has also been criticized as online shopping may be considered non-trust worthy due to concerns of security of privacy (personal and financial information), lack of examination of the products, lack of human interaction and a concern the quality of the products will not reach customer expectation. From a retailer perspective the disadvantages of online shopping are providing high quality and creating special services can be very costly for the firm and may not be a good incentive to make consumers purchase (Kim and Forsythe (2009) and Lee et al. (2006).
Whether it is a traditional market or online market, Hollensen (2004) pointed out that the retailer should understand the online consumer purchasing behaviour and how individuals make decision and buying choices. Therefore, Kotler and Armstrong (2007) stated that the marketers have developed different theories that can explain why consumers interpret information provided by e-retailer in a certain way, and thereby understand certain behaviours. Several authors have set out different definitions of consumer behaviour. According to Dr. Perner “consumer behaviour is study of individuals, groups, or organizations and the processes they use select, secure, use, and dispose of products, services, experiences, or ideas to satisfy needs and the impacts that these processes have on the consumer and society”. Hollensen (2004) and Constantinides (2004) agreed that consumer online purchasing behaviour is a process of various factors and influences experienced by a consumer before finally purchasing products online.
Online consumer behaviour researchers have therefore examined the adoption of technology for e-purchasing in different aspects. There appears to be no constant model of online purchasing adoption and behaviour as it depends on the nature of adoption as influenced by characteristics or social issues; Theory of Diffusion of Innovation (DOI) Roger (1983). In order to investigate consumer online purchasing behaviour, Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) and Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) are considered dominant theories to measure online purchase intention and attitude behaviour, with Decomposed Theory of Planned Behaviour (DTPB) (Taylor and Todd 1995) the extended TPB. On the other hand, one essential model for development technology usage perspective is the Theory of Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) Davis et al. (1989), which developed into the Online Shopping Acceptance Model (OSAM) (Zhou et al. (2007).
E-commerce researchers have measured different approaches for understanding online consumer behavior. Chen and Corkindale (2008) and Hernandez et al. (2009[a]) measured factors that influence consumer’s online purchasing behavior from the perspective of innovation adoption and accepting technology. Moreover, other authors examined trait attributes, situational factors, web site quality, and individual factors and influences on attitude and intention of consumer purchasing online (Monsuwe et al. (2004); Liao and Shi (2009); and Vazquez and Xu (2009)). Chen and Crokindale (2008) agreed attitude and intention have a strong relationship with acceptance of technology and the decision of purchasing online. In addition, innovation characteristics were considered significant factors that influence of technology adoption and purchasing behavior (Rogers, 1983).
Therefore in order to understand online purchasing behavior it is important to measure different factors that may influence e-shoppers and determine online shopping based on insight from technology adoption innovation diffusion literature. This study will therefore present the Liu Model (2004) using it to identify factors that influence Kuwaiti consumer purchasing online. It will also measure the relationship between characteristics of internet retailers/consumers and characteristics of innovation, allowing the research to examine the impacts of these characteristics on consumer decision making and then purchasing behavior.
1.2 Online purchasing
1.2.1 History of Online Shopping
In the 1990s online shopping emerged as a technological breakthrough and novelty in the business arena. Strengthening year on year in 1994 the first of its kind, an online bank was opened and Pizza Hut offered pizza ordering on their web page. Netscape then presented Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) to secure transactions, an essential feature of e-shopping. In 1995 Bezos launched Amazon.com, one of the most successful online businesses worldwide, followed by ‘e-bay’ an online auction site. By 1997 an estimated 41 million people were shopping online. With advances in technology in 1998, electronic postage stamps were introduced, whereby individuals could download and print stamps after paying a fee. In 1999, with the first online shop in the UK, The Virtual Mall was also launched, considered the first UK graphical internet shopping mall. The online shopping market developed rapidly from this point as the consumer gained in confidence and knowledge.
In 1991, Kuwait University connected all university campuses together with the internet using International Business Machine (IBM) then known as BITNET with the help of Ministry of Communication (MOC) university campuses together. This network was limited to e-mail and other minor services. The National Science Foundation (NSF) agreed to expand the internet services to Kuwait in 1992 (Hussain, 2003).
1.2.2 Kuwaiti Consumer Attitudes Towards Online Shopping
Online shopping is a relatively recent phenomenon that has gradually expanded worldwide reaching Kuwait. Compared to traditional stores, e-shopping is far from the target customer in efficacy and provides significant advantages in time saving and low costs. Although developing online shopping in Kuwait advances slowly, it is establishing a solid base as it incorporates a certain lifestyle, is a convenient option and its adventurous nature is attractive to Kuwaiti youths. With these factors increasingly dominant in daily routine, purchasing online has become a natural option in countries such as the USA and economic areas of the EU and the GCC ( Ma’arafy et al. 2007). Common products selling in Kuwait online are from the USA, the UAE and Asia. According to Forrester research (2008), “Global e-commerce spending in 2000 was 132 $ billion, and expected to spend more than 1 trillion by 2012”.
In GCC capitals, the usage of online shopping behavior is different in the USA compared with and European and Asia Pacific cities. In Kuwait the online shopping concept is relatively in its early stages, however the adoption of online purchasing is expected to grow continually in coming years. With a high level of penetration in neighboring countries online such as Saudi Arabia and UAE, Kuwait will not be far from this diffusion of web shopping. Among the GCC, Kuwait lies 3rd with 10.7% in terms of e-commerce penetration, against 25.1% UAE and 14.3% in Saudi Arabia (Field, (2008)).
According to recent worldwide research, as shown in Table 1.1, Kuwait’s internet user growth has jumped from 5.8% of the population in 2000 to over 34% in 2008 and five times more users in the same time period and with further growth expected.
Table1.1: Growth Internet Users in Kuwait
Source: world wide statistics.com
According to Al-Bahar (2009), Kuwait Consumer Adaptors online shopping distinguishes between local and international websites when purchasing online for many reasons. Kuwaiti consumer purchasing online and local websites are still in their infancy and under development. Thus, consumers are oriented to external websites they have established reputations, are trustworthy and provide an assurance of quality of their products. Express delivery firms such as Aramex and DHL compete to provide their services for delivery products in efficacy and effectiveness to encourage customers to e-purchase (Al-Abdullah, 2009).
However, according to Al-Awan, (2008) e-shopping in the Kuwait market is still in its development stage through lack of organization. In order to enlighten and educate consumers, huge effort needs to be made with responsibility on the retailer to reach their maximum number of potential customers in order to realize value. Recently online businesses have started to establish themselves as limited e-firms providing products and services for Kuwaiti customers.
1.3 Problem definition
- E-commerce penetration:
With the adoption of Kuwaiti consumer online purchasing low, the penetration of e-commerce in Kuwait remains relatively slow with a lack of studies relating to Kuwaiti e-shopping adoption.
- Consumer e-purchasing awareness:
Due to a lack of consumer awareness of online shopping it has not been used widely in Kuwait.
- E-retailer strategies:
As online selling is different to offline selling, it is necessary to fully understand consumer behavior in order to set up business strategies for the long term. In addition the rapid development of technology related to the internet enhances the shopping experience and encourages potential customers to purchase online. It is therefore critical for e-retailers to identify what factors influence the consumer when e-shopping.
1.4 Research objectives
The overall objective of this research is to gain a deeper understanding of online purchasing behavior in Kuwait and factors affecting their buying decision process. This study is therefore focusing on the following objectives:
- To investigate the key factors affecting online purchasing behavior of Kuwaiti consumers.
- To explore the impact of the decision making process on Kuwaiti consumers purchasing behavior.
- To determine the relationship between factors influencing purchasing behavior and the decision making process.
1.5 Research Questions
To fulfill the purpose of this research and reach the stated objectives related to consumer purchase online behavior the following research questions need to be addressed:
- What are the main factors influencing Kuwaiti customers online purchasing?
- How do these factors affect online purchasing behavior?
- What is the impact of the decision making process on consumer online purchasing behavior?
- What is the relationship between factors influencing behavior and the decision making process for e-shopping?
1.6 Research methodology
This study’s approach is deductive, because it measures factors that affect online shopping to explain Kuwaiti consumer online behavior taken from previous studies in different countries. It is mainly explanatory, developing a deeper understanding of the online purchasing behavior of Kuwaiti consumers while investigating varied opinions related to local e-commerce, alongside which factors affect their purchasing behavior. To a certain extent it is exploratory because of a lack of previous research in the online purchase behavior in Kuwait and Gulf region. The study is also mildly descriptive due to previous research of online market phenomena conducted in different countries and extended to Kuwait.
Moreover, this research is quantitative in nature using primary data for the survey questionnaire as the main tool of data collection in order to discuss online Kuwaiti consumer purchase behavior. The questionnaire was randomly distributed either in person or through email. The total sample size 500 was distributed in Kuwaiti firms, ministries, universities and public places with 360 respondents. The data collected from the questionnaire is then used to identify relationships and connections between these variables to achieve the study’s objectives.
In the course of this research a number of limitations were identified as follows:
- As the research examines consumer online shopping behavior without specifying the type of product exchanged whether tangible or intangible, it is limited in its scope.
- This study is limited to selection factors covering aspects of Kuwaiti consumer online purchase behavior disregarding other variables of satisfaction, trust, social aspects and situational factors.
- As with all research using survey data the sample may not be fully representative of the actual behavior in the population, as it is impossible to directly compare our data with data collected on the State of Kuwait level on online purchasing behavior due to time factors.
- Investigation focuses on online consumer behavior mainly from the customer’s perspective rather than the retailer’s perspective.
- This study evaluates only the online adoption purchasing behavior without evaluation of service quality offered by distinct websites.
- With a lack of previous research in this topic in Kuwait and the Gulf region, there is little, if any, comparative literature review or use as a framework.
1.8 Thesis structure
In the first chapter; an overview of the research area is given, introducing e-commerce in general, then in Kuwait. This is followed by a presentation of the country relevance, the problem definition, the research objectives and questions, the research methodology and the limitations of the study. Chapter Two provides a comprehensive review of relevant literature concerning the research to draw an understanding of dominant theories that explain online consumer behavior, followed by factors that influence consumer online purchase with an integrated consumer making decision process. Chapter Three covers the research design and methodology exploring the methodology of the strategy of collecting data and analysis of the survey questionnaire to achieve the objectives. In Chapter Four, data analysis presents the empirical data collected with analysis and a survey discussion of the results. Finally in Chapter Five conclusions drawn from the overall study are summarized with recommendations made for future research in the subject area.
Chapter Two: Literature Review
In this chapter an overview and examination of theories of adoption and online technology acceptance behavior from a global perspective is presented, with a comprehensive review of relevant studies conducted on consumer behavior purchasing online with the decision making process.
Interactivity is considered a primary principle for the World Wide Web (WWW) with Lee et al. (2006) arguing that “interactivity is the extent to which users can participate in modifying the form and content of a mediated environment in real time”. The WWW allows unprecedented access to information and markets which has impacted societies globally with people able to search for information and/or purchase product/service online. Factors influencing consumer online purchasing behavior have been explored between 2004/09. Ha and Stoel (2004), Lee et al. (2006) and Hernandez et al. (2009) [b] analyzed the online behavior from the perspective of innovation adoption and accepting technology by identifying the consumer acceptance of innovativeness and frequency of shopping online. Lin and Wang (2008) focused on the decision making process arguing that consumers depend on their experience with repeat shopping. Broekhuizen and Huizingh (2009) agreed adding experience will lead to a strong relationship between different variables (such as saving time/effort, enjoyment and price attractiveness) and intention to purchase. The research of Monsuwe et al. (2004) and Liao and Shi (2009) explored situational factors, trait attributes, individual factors and website quality and impact on attitude and intention of consumer purchasing online.
This review will therefore cover wide-ranging theories considering the features and benefits of numerous models proposed by such authors studying online consumer behavior.
2.2 Technology readiness and Self-Services Technologies
While customer innovation adoption behavior and diffusion of innovations have been investigated for decades, recent interest has turned toward Self-Service Technologies (SST’s). SST’s involves new service access provided via new channels to meet customer demand in an effective and efficient way. Many technological innovations face resistance from customers, due to a lack of experience and uncertainty. Therefore research involves varied measurements such as: innovation characteristics, service quality, individual differences, ease of use and usefulness. Liljander et al. (2006) agreed personal traits suggest influence on customer adoption of SSTs. A study by Parasurman (2000), presented the attitudinal measurement “Technology Readiness (TR), peoples propensity to embrace and use new technologies for accomplishing goals in home life and at work” stating TR is considered a factor influencing SST’s. The same author explained an individual’s positive or negative feeling toward technology is dominant identifying TR consists of multi-measurements of: Insecurity, Discomfort, Innovativeness and Optimism. The latter, Optimism refers to the positive view of technology and beliefs of control that enable users to increase convenience, efficiency and flexibility, while, Innovativeness is people’s tendency to open up to technology. Discomfort is an individual’s perceived lack of control of technology and has a strong negative influence on SST’s. Insecurity refers to lack of trust in technology and its ability to work effectively. Notably, optimism and innovativeness are considered highly TR individual contributors, with discomfort and flexibility considered to have high level inhibitor attributes decreasing TR. Liljander et al. (2006) proved in their research a positive effect of TR on customer’s attitude towards using SST’s and their website evaluation, finding technology linked with convenience, freedom and control as vital when building positive attitudes towards using SST’s.
2.3 Original theories of consumer online behavior
Having reviewed numerous forms of literature no singular constant model has been identified for innovation diffusion and adoption. Innovation technology depends on the nature of adoption influenced by social theory or characteristics of innovation such as the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) devised by Davis et al. (1989).Therefore diffusion theory and other factors have been widely used to guide consumer behavior research.
Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) and Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) are dominant theories examining consumers online purchase intention and behavior. TAM is considered an initial model for technology usage development, as it is customized to understand the adoption of computer-based technology in the workplace and is used in many studies. Conversely other researchers criticized TAM, because it explores simply the technology side. TRA has evolved from TAM, determining individual attitude toward and behavioral intention to use this new technology. TPB is considered another update from TRA. Theory of Planned Behavior identifies the behavioral intention of purchase online influence with its attitude to technology. Rogers (1983) created a Diffusion of Innovation Theory (DOI) that illustrates adoption of innovation dominant over time in social systems. This theory depends on critical elements, the time of adoption and characteristics of innovation.
2.3.1 Technology acceptance model
By using Theory of Reasoned Action as a theoretical base Davis et al. (1989) created a Technology Acceptance Model. TAM is identified a viable paradigm for examining consumer adoption for the new technology and information technology. The genuine TAM determined the actual use of technology, attitude toward using this technology connected with beliefs to define behavioral intention to use new technology as explained by Liu (2004) and illustrated in 2.1. TAM focused on beliefs about the usefulness and ease of use to be a main role in technology adoption behavior. Perceived Usefulness (PU) refers to the degree of potential individual perception that use of new technology will enhance improving performance Davis et al. (1989). Perceived Ease of Use (PEOU) is identified as an individual perception of using technology not requiring extra effort. Perceived Enjoyment was added later by Davis et al. (1992) and considered “essential motivation in adoption of new technology, the extent to which the activity of using computer is perceived to be enjoyable in its own right, apart from any performance consequences that may be anticipated”. In TAM, behavioral intention to new technology usage was determined by a person’s attitude toward using this technology. In addition TAM evolved with an updated version proposed in 2000 by Venkatesh and Davis called TAM2. This new model was influenced by subjective norms, image and output quality.
Having examined PU, PEOU and enjoyment in different shopping experiences, Lee et al. (2006) and Bridges and Florsheim (2008) found that seeking hedonic benefit depends on perceived enjoyment through online experience. Hedonic elements may encourage internet use, but not necessarily online buying. Furthermore, an individual consumer may be oriented to seek experiential value through enjoyable browsing or shopping online or for their own fun experience. Seeking utilitarian benefits also relies on perceived ease of use and satisfactory outcomes, in addition to influencing the purchase directly. Utilitarian orientation defined by Bellenger and Korgaonker (1980), Babin et al. (1994) and To et al. (2007) observes orientation or motivation seeking instrumental value to minimize time and effort shopping and cost saving or seeking convenience. Acquired benefit depends on whether the mission of shopping is completed or not. The e-retailer’s focus providing utilitarian benefits more than hedonic benefits will increase or be completed efficiently during the process of online buying and future intention.
2.3.2 online shopping acceptance model
Zhou et al. (2007) proposed an extension model of TAM called “Online Shopping Acceptance Model” (OSAM). This model considers a general view of online purchasing acceptance from the consumer’s perspective. These authors also pointed out that in spite of TAM Davis et al. (1989) being broadly used to examine online purchasing environment, it does not analyze specific online shopping characteristics. Therefore OSAM integrated consumer factors in traditional markets and theories may be added to TAM factors to re-examine the issue in the context of online shopping as showed in 2.2. Moreover, OSAM have been developed to predict and explore consumer acceptance e-purchasing by incorporating the beliefs, intention, and attitude behavior relationship into the perspective of perceived usefulness which was replaced by perceived outcomes to cover potential benefits and e-shopping risks. Shopping orientation and motivation have been added from traditional market factors considered antecedents of online purchasing intention and online experience as factors that construct during navigation of e-shopping sites. Also, satisfaction as mediators between behavior and intention has been added. OSAM considers a strong predictor of continue intention to purchasing more than perceived usefulness. Furthermore, this model includes consumer demographics and normative beliefs with their influence on e-purchasing intention. Exploring the development of TAM by introducing OSAM will enhance our understanding of different factors that affect consumer behavior intention.
2.3.3 Theory of reasoned action
Fishbein and Ajzen (1975) formulated a “Theory of Reasoned Action” (TRA), which illustrates behaviors expressed by individual intention to perform a behavior from psychological social factors and aims to examine measurements of that behavior. Based on Marshall et al. (2009) and Lee and Park (2009), they pointed out correlations between beliefs, subjective norms and attitude affects on formation of behavioral individual intention. This intention is influenced by subjective norms referring to the individual’s perception with outside influences to perform (or not) a specific behavior to purchase as illustrated in 2.3. While attitude refers to an individual attitude behavior, negative or positive, toward adoption of innovation and brand overall which creates their beliefs about the consequences of adopting and the brand’s attributes (Jobber, 2004). Beliefs are defined by the person’s subjective probability that performing a particular behavior will produce specific results. Four types of belief attitude towards to e-shopping were identified by Vijayasarathy (2002); shopping experience, product perception, customer services and customer risk. This model therefore suggests that external stimuli influence attitudes by modifying the structure of the person’s beliefs (Ajzan and Fishbein, 1980 and Ajzen, 1991).
Further, TRA provides a strong theoretical basis for studying motivation related decision-making. Using this theory is expected to enhance our understanding toward attitudes and behavioral intention of online shoppers.
2.3.4 Theory of planned behavior
The Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) can be appraised as an extension of TRA according to Ajzen (1985) used to predict buying behavior based on Bagozzi and Kimmel (1995) and De Cannière et al. (2009). A central element of this theory is the individual intention to perform a given behavior as shown in 2.4. Ajzen (1991) identified intention as ‘how individuals are willing to try and how much effort they are planning to exert, in order to perform the behavior’. The same author and Chen and Corkindale (2008) state this theory includes an additional element which is an individual perceived behavioral control (PBC). Compeau and Higgins (1995) cited by Dennis et al. (2009) defined it as a judgment of one’s ability to use a computer. PBC is compatible with Bandura’s (1977, 1982) concept of “perceived self-efficacy which is concerned with judgments of how well an individual can execute courses of action required to deal with prospective situations”. In PBC attitude and subjective norms factors can predict intention and behavior.
According to TPB, PBC together with intention can be used directly to predict behavioral achievement. This model proposes the intention impact and mediates among these factors: 1) intentions are the immediate antecedent of behavior, 2) fully mediate on impact of attitude towards behavior and 3) intentions partially mediate the impact of perceived behavioral control (Ajzen, 1985, 1991; Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975) as illustrated in 2.4. Furthermore, Ajzen stated that the relative importance of predictors in the TPB would be different among behaviors and situations. On the other hand, TPB components can be used according to De Cannière et al. (2009) to form the experience after purchasing.
2.3.5 Decomposed Theory of planned behavior
In 1995, Taylor and Todd demonstrated that better comprehension of the relationship between beliefs and antecedent of intention need to be combined as attitudinal beliefs as DTPB as shown in 2.5. They argued that DTPB is a strong model, more advanced and purer than the TRA and the TPB model. It was identified that, due to diffusion innovation theory, attitudinal beliefs contained three characteristics of an innovation that affect the adopt
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A new report by UNESCO says that mobile devices can boost literacy rates in developing countries, potentially reaching almost all of the world’s population. Furthermore, an expensive tablet or smartphone is not necessary. In fact, many e-book readers use featurephones.
The report surveyed 5,000 people in Ethiopia, Ghana, India, Kenya, Nigeria, Pakistan, and Zimbabwe. “In places where physical books are scarce, mobile phones are plentiful. And while mobile phones are still used primarily for basic communication, even the simplest phones are a gateway to long-form text,” says the report, which was created in partnership with Nokia, which is still pegging a significant portion of its business on featurephones, and Worldreader, a free mobile reading platform that targets markets in Asia and Africa.
The report, which was released to coincide with World Book Day, cites data from the United Nations that says more than 6 billion people have access to a working phone, which it claims means that 6.8 billion people, or most of the world’s population, can potentially have access to reading material.
Just 18% of respondents said that data costs hindered them from mobile reading because e-book platforms. The report says that Worldreader Mobile can compress data and reduce cost of reading to just two to three cents for every 1,000 pages read. Of the people surveyed, only 18% said the cost of data was a concern, while 50% said they never worry about the price.
The report also found that girls and women in particular are benefiting from easier access to reading materials and read up to six times more than boys and men. Though 77% of mobile readers are male, women spend more time reading, or about 207 minutes per month. Men, on the other hand, spent 33 minutes per month. One-third of parents surveyed said they read regularly to their children from their mobile phones.
But there is still a lack of interesting content available and 60% of respondents said they consider that a barrier to reading on mobile devices. Popular genres, based on clicks per menu item on Worldreader Mobile, is romance, followed by books about religion. The most popular search terms were Harry Potter, Romeo and Juliet, Animal Farm, and Twilight.
Worldreader was founded in 2010 by David Risher, a former executive at Microsoft and Amazon, and Colin McElwee, a former marketing director at Barcelona’s ESADE Business School. Its goal is to provide more than one million mobile users with access to free e-books by the end of this year.
Photo from Worldreader’s Facebook page


Criminals are getting smarter by the minute and it can be hard to get ahead of them when it comes to keeping your money safe. As the online world evolves, criminals are finding new ways to obtain your personal information and access your identity and compromise your financial security. It is important to stay on top of new technology to protect yourself. Here are a few tips you can use to secure your finances in cyberspace as you move in: pension†
Secure your passwords
Do you use the same password for everything you log in to? That’s not a good idea because if that password is compromised and sold, a person with bad intentions can access multiple accounts at once. Create passwords that are unique to each login or website, and if you have the option to select two-factor authentication, use it. When using two-factor authentication, you are prompted to enter a code that you received from another source (your phone, text message, or an app) that provides an extra layer of security. Think you might have trouble remembering all those unique passwords?
Use a password manager
Password managers are designed so that you only need to remember one password (for the password manager), which then gives you access to the password vault, where all the other unique passwords for each website and login are stored. A password manager can even design unique, hard-to-hack passwords for you so you don’t have to come up with them yourself.
There are several credit monitoring services available for purchase, and it’s worth comparing them to see which one is best for you. Credit monitoring systems monitor your creditworthiness and notify you when there is an investigation on your credit so that you are aware if something unusual is going on and you can investigate and stop it before it starts. They are usually a nominal fee.
Visit secure sites
When visiting websites, make sure you visit safely. Make sure you typed the address correctly, as phishing schemes can lead to incorrect URLs. It’s also a good idea to check the front end of the URL or website address to make sure the site is using https instead of http, which means the site is secure.
Be careful with personal information
Do not enter your personal information on the website when using a public computer, if you can avoid doing so. If you engage in social media, be wary of posting personal information or filling out forms, polls or games that capture your personal information unless you trust the source. If you’re using an unsecured public Wi-Fi, don’t check your personal accounts, such as your bank account, until you’re on a secured and protected network.
Keep an eye on your bank account and credit cards at a rhythm that makes sense to you – daily, weekly, etc. Not only will you have an idea that something is not right, but it’s also a good way to keep an eye on your finances. You should also be careful when checking your email. Emails with strange subject lines can be phishing emails. Do not click on links if you are not sure what they are or who sent them. Destroy your physical documents containing personal information and delete any emails you no longer need to keep your inbox clean.
Keep your software up to date, both on your computer and on your phone, so you have the latest updates and protection. Install antivirus software on all the devices you own to protect against cyber-attacks. When you use your browser, you should periodically clear your cache and cookies to keep your personal information clear.
If your personal information has been compromised, please contact your banks and credit bureaus and freeze your credit while dealing with the issue.


Remenchus Glacier (The name as it would appear in a gazetteer)
Remenchus Glacier (The name as it would appear on a map)
If this information is incorrect, please e-mail email@example.com
Feature type: Glacier
This name originates from Australia. It is part of the Australian Antarctic Gazetteer and the SCAR Composite Gazetteer of Antarctica.
Names that other countries have for this feature:
A glacier just east of the Bunger Hills on the Knox Coast of Wilkes Land. Delineated from air photographs taken by USN Operation Highjump (1946-47).
Named by USACAN after J.F. Remenchus who served with USN Operation Windmill (1947-48) on this coast.
No images of this place could be found.


PR of MCC: How to capture and use atmospheric CO₂
Carbon dioxide (CO₂), the main greenhouse gas responsible for global warming, can also be used as a raw material, for example for the production of chemicals, building materials, novel fuels, or even as fertilizer in algae farming, i.e. input for future food production. CO₂ can also be bound to land areas and increase agricultural yields. An overview study now quantifies the potential in this regard up to the year 2050. It was conducted by research institutions in England, the USA, the Netherlands and Germany, among them the Berlin climate research institute MCC (Mercator Institute on Global Commons and Climate Change). The study was now published in the renowned journal Nature.
Using research synthesis methods, the authors assessed the relevant scientific literature on the use of atmospheric CO₂, comprising over 11,000 peer-reviewed papers. Based on this information, in combination with the results of an expert survey, utilisation potentials for the year 2050 and breakeven prices were calculated. The global potential for the ten most important CO₂ utilisation options is quite impressive: in the long term, each option would make it possible to bind at least half a gigatonne of atmospheric CO₂ per year. However, the applications are in part mutually limiting – and while CO₂ can remain bound in building materials for centuries, for example, storage is limited to only a few weeks in methanol as a fuel.
“The potential uses of atmospheric CO₂ need to be systematically analysed”, says Jan Minx, one of the authors of the study and head of the MCC working group Applied Sustainability Science. “The potential for most industrial applications may be limited, but CO₂ utilization can provide an important boost on the path to greenhouse gas neutrality. For example, it could accelerate the development of removal technologies through new business models and niche markets. This could also cause the total costs for climate mitigation to drop in the long run.”
However, climate change mitigation through reducing emissions remains as the number one priority. The study puts a widespread misunderstanding to rest with a solid argument: “If we capture one tonne of CO₂ for industrial use at one point, it doesn’t compensate for blowing one tonne into the atmosphere at another point”, emphasises Sabine Fuss, head of the MCC working group Sustainable Resource Management and Global Change and also co-author of the study. “This is because CO₂ utilisation goes hand in hand with considerable energy consumption and therefore additional emissions. It’s important to look at lifecycle emissions and substitution effects more closely and distinguish between different options. Our study makes an important contribution in that regard.”
Professor Cameron Hepburn, Director of Oxford’s Smith School of Enterprise and the Environment and lead author of the study, explains: „Greenhouse gas removal is essential to achieve net zero carbon emissions and stabilise the climate because we haven’t reduced our emissions fast enough.” He points out: “Even though CO₂ utilisation could act as an incentive for carbon removal, we do not advocate subsidies for utilization. Rather, carbon pricing as a means of targeting emissions would support CO₂ utilization in cases in which it is beneficial for the climate.”
Contact for scientific information:
Hepburn, C., Adlen, E., Beddington, J., Carter, E., Fuss, S., Mac Dowell, N., Minx, J., Smith, P., Williams, C., The technological and economic prospects for CO2 utilisation and removal, 2019, Nature


“My name is Lihle, and I am a young person living with HIV. I am here to bring hope to those who are feeling lost. Remember, you are not alone,” says Lihle Bhebhe, a young woman featured in 360HIV, a virtual reality film launched by the Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS) in 2018 to address a major obstacle in the AIDS response globally: The social stigma of living with HIV.
In the 360HIV films, Lihle takes us through her journey as a young person getting tested for, and diagnosed with, HIV. She meets with a nurse and a peer counselor, and builds a plan and support system so that she can continue to live a full life.
UNAIDS partnered with Google and Makhulu, a creative media agency in South Africa, to put viewers in the shoes of young people like Lihle living with HIV/AIDS and their health care workers. By being fully immersed in Lihle’s story, virtual reality viewers get a real sense of both the challenges young people with HIV face, but also the future they can create when they get testing and treatment.
This new approach to HIV/AIDS education seeks to not only raise awareness of the issue, but to encourage young people to get tested. Through an immersive VR experience, the films aim to break down stereotypes, make testing more accessible, and assist broader efforts by the United Nations and partners to achieve Sustainable Development Goal 3 – ensuring healthy lives and promoting well-being for all at all ages.
Why Young People Aren’t Getting Tested for HIV/AIDS
The first cases of AIDS were reported in South Africa in the early 1980s. Since then, it has become home to the largest HIV epidemic in the world. The government, civil society groups, and partners including the Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria, the U.S. President’s Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief (PEPFAR), and UNAIDS have worked to fight back against the disease.
While HIV/AIDS is no longer a death sentence, patients first need to know their status in order to access lifesaving treatments and stop transmission. Unfortunately, there are many barriers preventing people from getting tested. Only 23% of girls and 17% of boys from the ages of 15 to 19 in eastern and southern Africa have undergone testing in the past 12 months, according to UNICEF. Experts say stigma is a main reason young people avoid getting tested.
One source of social stigma comes from an unexpected place: health workers. In a study conducted by the Desmond Tutu HIV Foundation, many young people said that they felt judged by clinic staff who lectured them on sexual morality and started rumors about a patient in the local community.
Cape Town health care worker Sister Nomtando Vece understands the damaging effect of such behavior. “Research has shown that stigma from nurses toward young people greatly affects their attitudes toward testing and treatment,” she said. “Young people have the right to sexual health care.”
Fighting Stigma Through Immersive Storytelling
Since the first case of AIDS was reported in South Africa, organizations have launched dozens of mass media campaigns to address the epidemic, many of which have inadvertently ended up perpetuating stigma instead of reducing it by incorporating prejudices around race, sexuality, and morality.
Recognizing the issues of the past, many organizations today are looking to address awareness and prevention campaigns in a new way.
The media company Makhulu joined forces with UNAIDS, Google, and local non-profits — including Youth Voices, the Desmond Tutu HIV Foundation, and the Children’s Radio Foundation — to launch the 360HIV partnership and produce a series of virtual reality films with the goal of changing behavior around HIV testing among youth.
The films focus on two real-life stories: One on Lihle’s experience as she goes through the process of testing and care and one on Sister Vece’s work as a nurse and how she interacts with young patients.
By putting nurses in the shoes of Lilhe and by putting young patients in the position of Sister Vece, the 360HIV series hopes to use virtual reality to increase understanding between the two communities. Understanding, they hope, will lead to behavior change.
The films debuted last year at clinics in five different towns near Cape Town. Young people and clinic staff watched the films on headsets provided by Google and then shared their responses.
The results were promising. Before viewing the VR film, 63.3% of clinic workers answered that they would privately speak to their colleagues after they observed them speaking harshly to a young person during HIV testing. After watching the VR film, 93.1% felt more likely to intervene. A nurse in the focus group reflected that after watching the film, she asked herself if she ever poorly treated a patient. She said the film reminded her that she is dealing with people’s lives and must remember to offer the best care she can provide.
The study also found that the virtual reality platform, which focuses on one individual’s perspective and blocks out distractions, left a more lasting imprint of the campaign’s overall messaging than traditional 2D films.
Following this initial study, the 360HIV partnership is hoping to roll out the film to more clinics across South Africa and launch a longer-term study to better understand the effects of virtual reality technology on stigma. Eventually, they hope to get VR sets into the hands of more employees and young people at clinics, so more people can have access to the technology.
For her part, Sister Vece ends her video with a dream for the future, one that the UNAIDS team and the 360HIV partnership are working together to achieve: “Imagine if everyone working at the health facility treated all young people with respect. Imagine that staff were aware of their actions and treated young people sensitively. Imagine they were given the best advice in a kind and respectful manner; without judgment.”
A world like this could mean more young people like Lilhe getting the care they need and deserve.
Want to learn more about how the UN is innovating to improve lives? Sign up to be a champion of innovation.
Innovation in Action shares the stories of how the UN is working with partners to pilot, test, and scale new ideas and new ways of working to deliver better results for people on the ground. From using artificial intelligence to better understand peoples’ needs to innovative methods to reduce maternal and infant mortality to reimagined partnerships and new approaches to mediation, the UN is working across issues and sectors to create dynamic and impactful solutions. The series has been developed with input and support from the UN, including the UN Innovation Network.
Thank you to UNAIDS and Rowan Pybus and Sydelle Willow Smith of Makhulu for sharing this story.


History of Cigarette's 2001 - 2002
2001 - Top exporters of tobacco are: Brazil 17 percent, U.S. 10 percent, Zimbabwe 9 percent, China 6 percent and India 5.6 percent. Marlborough cigarettes are still number one worldwide.
2001 - On average one in five Europeans smoke, a 2 percent decrease from the 1990s. A similar rate of decline was seen in the U.S.
2001 January - The Surgeon General releases a report, "Women and Smoking."
2001 January - Brown & Williamson Pall Malls are refreshed as the New Filtered Pall Mall.
2001 January - U.S. Institute of Medicine of the National Academies releases a report, "Clearing the Smoke: Assessing the Science Base for Tobacco Harm Reduction." Outlining how to analyze a new product's effectiveness in reducing smoking-related harm.
2001 May - Florida state judge dismisses lawsuit Ecuador brought against U.S. tobacco manufacturers.
2001 June - China and British American Tobaccos join to create Sino-British Cigarette Sales Co.
2001 June - Several lawsuits are thrown out by the U.S. Court of Appeals: Guatemala, Ukraine, Nicaragua and Service Employees International Union Health and Welfare Fund.
2001 June - Philip Morris, R.J. Reynolds, Lorillard and Liggett pay $17.8 million to Empire Blue Cross Blue Shield for deceptive business practices and asbestos exposure.
2001 June - Indoor smoking becomes illegal in Toronto, Canada.
2001 June - Department of Justice builds a team to address racketeering lawsuit and negotiate a settlement.
2001 June -Austria Tabak is acquired by Gallaher.
2001 July - Philip Morris in trouble over Arthur D. Little report, stating that smokers save the Czech Republic money by dying early. Philip Morris makes an official public apology.
2001 August - British American Tobacco becomes the first foreign tobacco company to enter the South Korean market and break Korea Tobacco & Ginseng's monopoly.
2001 August - A report finds that 5 percent of settlement money from tobacco companies goes towards tobacco control. Health services get 36 percent.
2001 August - New smuggling allegations against British American Tobacco released by the Guardian in the U.K. Documents released by Alex Solagnier confirm the allegations.
2001 August - British American Tobacco enters Vietnam market and is given license for a $40 million venture with Vintaba to build a tobacco processing plant in Vietnam.
2001 September - Philip Morris, British American Tobacco, and Japan Tobacco sign the "International Tobacco Products Marketing Standards Agreement," directing promotions away from children and towards adults.
2001 October - Massachusetts law upheld by the U.S. Court of Appeals that requires all ingredients to be listed on tobacco companies' products.
2001 November - "Advance," a reduced risk cigarette, is released by Brown & Williamson. It was discontinued by 2004.
2001 November - "Omni," a reduced risk cigarette, is released by Vector. It was discontinued in 2006.
2001 November - Federal tobacco taxes in Canada raised by CA$1.50.
2001 November - India Supreme Court declares smoking in public should be banned.
2001 November - The new company name Altria is proposed by Philip Morris which would include Kraft, Miller Beer and Philip Morris USA and Philip Morris International.
2001 November - George Harrison of the Beatles dies of lung and throat cancers.
2001 December - R.J. Reynolds buys Santa Fe Natural Tobacco, the makers of American Spirits, for $340 million.
2002 - Cigar use in the U.S. on the rise for the fourth strait year reaching around 250 million cigars.
2002 February - R.J. Reynolds and Brown & Williamson are found guilty of failing to warn people about the health risks of smoking before the 1960s. This was the first win in several aspects, in the Midwest, in a federal court and involving peripheral vascular disease.
2002 March - Philip Morris ordered to pay $150 million to Schwartz, finding that they lied about "light" cigarettes.
2002 March - Australian courts found British American Tobacco guilty for destroying over 30,000 documents and preventing a fair trial for McCabe. McCabe was awarded AU$700,000.
2002 April - South Korea National Cancer Center confirms lung cancer is caused by smoking.
2002 April - Centers for Disease Control estimates that the average smoker spends $3,391 per year when adjusted for health, cigarette and lost productivity costs.
2002 May - Los Angeles Superior Court fined R.J. Reynolds $14.8 million for illegally distributing free cigarettes at public events where children were present.
2002 May - U.S. appeals court orders U.S. Smokeless Tobacco to pay $1.05 billion for illegally monopolizing the moist snuff market.
2002 June - Oregon Court of Appeals reinstates an $80 billion award in the Williams case.
2002 June - R.J. Reynolds was fined $20 million by California judges for violating a 1998 tobacco settlement agreeing not to target youths.
2002 June - Florida jury awards $5.5 million to Lynn French, a flight attendant, for chronic sinusitis caused by second-hand smoke.
2002 June - France airs aid warning about the ingredients in a "dangerous product." Over half a million people call the hotline to find out the product is cigarettes.
2002 August - Lorillard Tobacco is dropped as a sponsor by the NBA.
2002 August - U.S. Attorney General and Exxon-Mobile sign a deal to further prevent the sale of tobacco to youths.
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leave the body of Teco Cava on the field, and secure his own existence by a speedy flight to Hibiso; where all who succeeded in making their escape quickly arrived. The body of Teoo Cava was soon found by the enemy; it was conveyed to their fortress, cut to pieces, and (must it again be said !) dressed for food.
Among the garrison of Hihifo there was a chief named Ata; he was not an old man, but he had a great reputation for political wisdom, and military skill. He was a native of the island, but at the time of the revolution his friends and acquaintance had all gone over to the Hapai islands for peace and safety. He however resolved to remain for the sake of his oldest and most sincere friend, Teoo Cava, and to assist and stand by him to the last ; (for Ata was endowed also with some of the best qualities of the human heart). As Teoo Cava was now no more, Ata, conscious of his skill in war, and the confidence which all the men placed in him, proposed to take upon himself the command of the garrison ; and his offers were gladly accepted. The other garrisons of the island soon hearing of the death of Teoo Cava, and the great losses he had sustained, several of them entered into league against Hihifo, and shortly
commenced a siege, which lasted fourteen days; but at length, quarrelling among themselves, and finding the besieged hold out so manfully, and withal being struck with awful astonishment, at the extraordinary bravery of Maccapapa*, who was said to be invincible by the peculiar protection of the gods ;+they raised the siege, and each party repaired as quickly as possible to its own fortress, lest it should be taken possession of by some enemy. During the siege, all the women made themselves remarkable by their resolute assistance in the defence of the place ; lest, for want of men, it should be taken by the enemy. The widow's of Teoo Cavat, however, were so afflicted at
- it will be recollected that Maccapapa was formerly in the service of Toe Oomoo; but at the peace he left Vavaoo, apprehensive that Finow might play him some treachery.
† Speaking of Teoo Cava calls to mind a circumstance, mentioned in the second Missionary Voyage, respecting Eliza Mosey and a black woman, both belonging to the American ship Duke of Portland, Captain Lovat Melon; the date is not mentioned. Through the treachery of Teoo Cava, (who from mistake of pronunciation they call Ducava,) the crew were all murdered, excepting three or four per. sons, among whom were Eliza Mosey, and the black woman. , The latter was still at the Hapai islands when Mr. Mariner left; she latterly became insane, but lived as a sort of domestic, (being harmless, with a certain female chief, who
kiş. loss, that many of them, it is said, strangled themselves.
At this time Toobo Malohi sent word to his brother Toobo Toa, (chief of the Hapai islands,) that being weary of his unquiet and harassing life at Tonga, and being desirous to settle at Hapai, he wished his brother to petition the king in his behalf; and to obtain, if possible, his pardon for having fought against him at Nioocalofa, and to procure leave for himself and his chiefs and matabooles to reside at Hapai, and be henceforth tributary to him. This message was brought to Toobo Toa by a chief and two young matabooles, as before stated. Toobo Toa having communicated this request of his brother and his followers to the king, the latter, after a little consideration, gave his consent that they should reside at the
treated het kindly. Eliza Mosey became one of the wives of Teoo Cava, who was much envied by the other chiefs on that account, she being a white woman. She made her escape afterwards, in the Union of New York, and arrived at Port Jackson, where she remained. Mr. Mariner has since accidentally heard from a woman who had been at Port Jackson, that Eliza Mosey returned afterwards to Tonga, with a ship that went for the purpose of laying in a cargo of pork, but which was shortly afterwards wrecked among the Fiji islands.
Hapai islands, upon condition that Toobo Toa would keep a strict eye upon his brother's conduct, and be answerable for him, which was immediately agreed to. Toobo Toa thereupon got ready a large canoe, and proceeded to Hihifo to receive his brother, who came on board with all his chiefs and choice warriors ; the remainder of his attendants followed afterwards in another canoe.' Having touched, in their way, at the Hapai islands, they proceeded on to Vavaoo, to pay their respects to Finow, and to receive his pardon.
As soon as the king heard of their arrival at Vavaoo, he repaired with all his chiefs and maetabooles to the house on the marly at Neafoo, having, besides their usual dress, small mats round the middle, significant of its being a solemn occasion, and out of respect, too, for Toobo Malohi (although he came as an humble suppliant), for he was a very great chief, superior even to Toobo Toa, as being his "elder brother. Toobo Malohi being informed that the king was already seated in the large house on the marly', ready to receive him, he and his followers, being all dressed in large mats, expressive of their very great respect, with leaves of the ifi tree round their necks as a mark of submission, went forth, with due
sentiments, thus habited, and accompanied by a priest, to a house dedicated to Taliai Toobó, and sat down before it. The priest then addressed the divine spirit that was supposed to reside there, to the following purpose:
• Here “ thou seest the men who have come from Tonga to implore thy pardon for their crimes;
they have been rebels against those chiefs “ who bold power from divine authority, but,
sorry for what they have done, they hope that thou wilt be pleased to extend thy
protection towards them for the future.” The priest then rose up, and laid a piece of cava root under the eaves of the house: after which he proceeded towards Finow, with the suppliants all following him, one close after another in the order of their rank, their heads bowed down, and their hands clasped before them, and, entering the house on the side opposite the king, they seated themselves before him and his matabooles, their hands still clasped together, and their heads bowed down almost to touch the ground. After a little time, the priest, who sat between them and the king, addressed the latter to the following purpose : " You here see Toobo Malohi, and his “ chiefs and followers, who have been to im
plore the pardon of Taliái Toobó, and are


- Short report
- Open Access
Sequence analysis reveals mosaic genome of Aichi virus
Virology Journal volume 8, Article number: 390 (2011)
Aichi virus is a positive-sense and single-stranded RNA virus, which demonstrated to be related to diarrhea of Children. In the present study, phylogenetic and recombination analysis based on the Aichi virus complete genomes available in GenBank reveal a mosaic genome sequence [GenBank: FJ890523], of which the nt 261-852 region (the nt position was based on the aligned sequence file) shows close relationship with AB010145/Japan with 97.9% sequence identity, while the other genomic regions show close relationship with AY747174/German with 90.1% sequence identity. Our results will provide valuable hints for future research on Aichi virus diversity.
Aichi virus is a member of the Kobuvirus genus of the Picornaviridae family [1, 2] and belongs to a positive-sense and single-stranded RNA virus. Its presence in fecal specimens of children suffering from diarrhea has been demonstrated in several Asian countries [3–6], in Brazil and German , in France  and in Tunisia . Some reports showed the high level of seroprevalence in adults [7, 10], suggesting the widespread exposure to Aichi virus during childhood.
The genome of Aichi virus contains 8,280 nucleotides and a poly(A) tail. The single large open reading frame (nt 713-8014 according to the strain AB010145) encodes a polyprotein of 2,432 amino acids that is cleaved into the typical picornavirus structural proteins VP0, VP3, VP1, and nonstructural proteins 2A, 2B, 2C, 3A, 3B, 3C and 3D [2, 11]. Based on the phylogenetic analysis of 519-bp sequences at the 3C-3D (3CD) junction, Aichi viruses can be divided into two genotypes A and B with approximately 90% sequence homology . Although only six complete genomes of Aichi virus were deposited in GenBank at present, mosaic genomes can be found in strains from different countries.
The study sequences comprised six available complete genome sequences of Aichi virus from GenBank dated May 2011, including three Japan strains [GenBank: FJ890523, GenBank: NC_001918, GenBank: AB010145], one German strain [GenBank: AY747174], one Brazil strain [GenBank: DQ028632] and one China strain [GenBank: FJ890523]. Sequences were firstly screened to exclude patented and artificial mutants, and then aligned in the ClustalW program . The alignment was manually adjusted for the correct reading frame. Sequences showing less than 1% divergence from each other were considered as the same. The remaining five genomes include two Japan strains, one German strain, one Brazil strain and one China strain.
Phylogenetic Analysis and Recombination Detection
Before phylogenetic analysis, multiple-alignment was performed in the ClustalW program (http://www.clustal.org/). Phylogenetic trees were constructed using the neighbor-joining method and evaluated using the interior branch test method with Mega 4 software . Percent bootstrap support was indicated at each node. GenBank accession no. was indicated at each branch. Detection of potential recombinant sequences, identification of potential parental sequences, and localization of possible recombination break points were determined using the Recombination Detection Program (RDP), GENECONV , BOOTSCAN , MaxChi , CHIMAERA , and SISCAN  methods embedded in RDP3 . A Multiple-comparison-corrected P-value cutoff of 0.05 was used throughout.
Results and Discussion
Based on the five complete genomes, a phylogenetic tree was constructed (Figure 1A). From the phylogenetic tree, we can see the five Aichi virus strains separated into two clusters. The two Japan Aichi virus strains [GenBank: AB010145, GenBank: AB040749] were closely related to the German strain [GenBank: AY747174] and formed into one cluster; while the Brazil [GenBank: DQ028632] and China Aichi virus strains [GenBank: FJ890523] clustered together, forming the other cluster.
Figure 2 indicated the Bootscan plots showing the likehood of recombinant sequence [GenBank: FJ890523], of which the nt 261-852 region shows close relationship with Japanese strain [GenBank:AB010145], while the other genomic regions show close relationship with the German strain [GenBank:AY747174]. The Bootscan results suggested that genome of Chinese Aichi virus strain [GenBank: FJ890523] was mosaic. This inference was confirmed by phylogenetic analysis, where two discordant phylogenetic relationship were showed in Figure 1B and 1C. Figure 1B indicated the tree constructed over the nt 261-852 region, where the Chinese strain [GenBank: FJ890523] was more closely related to the two Japan Aichi virus strains than to Brazil and German strains. Figure 1C indicated the tree established on the on the rest genomic region, which was similar to that constructed basing on the whole genome sequence, where the Chinese strain [GenBank: FJ890523] showed more closely to Brazil strain than to the other strains. Figure 3 indicated the pairwise identity between the Chinese strain [GenBank: FJ890523], German strain [GenBank: AY747174], and Japanese strain [GenBank:AB010145], which provide further evidence that mosaic-like genome exists in Aichi virus strain [GenBank: FJ890523].
Due to the limited numbers of Aichi virus sequence available at present days, the parental strains of the mosaic Aichi virus strain have not been identified in the present study. However, we think with the increasing number of Aichi virus genome, further study should be performed to elucidate whether accurate recombination event can happen between different Aichi virus strains. Because recombination is a relatively common phenomenon in positive-sense RNA viruses [22–24] and understanding recombination can be helpful in unravelling the evolution of pathogens and drug resistance.
Taken together, this study reveals a mosaic genome sequence of Aichi virus [GenBank: FJ890523], of which the nt 261-852 region shows close relationship with strain of AB010145/Japan, while the other genomic regions show close relationship with German strain [GenBank:AY747174].
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This work was supported by the Professional Research Foundation for Advanced Talents of Jiangsu University under Grant No.10JDG059.
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
XH and WZ conceived the study. All authors performed recombination analysis and critically reviewed and approved the final manuscript. WZ and XH wrote the paper. All authors read and approved the final manuscript
Xiaohong Han, Wen Zhang contributed equally to this work.


Welcome to our class!
Your teacher is Miss Wright and your Teaching Assistant is Mrs Hicks.
In science we have been learning all about our senses and have investigated each one in turn. Today it was the sense of taste and we got to taste different flavours of crisps. We easily worked out the flavour and gave each one a score out of 10! Ready Salted were very popular but Smokey Bacon were not so!
We have been celebrating harvest all week and have collected lots of food for the local food bank. Our genorosity has been brilliant!
Sienna explains that
"Miss Wright told us a story about Mary the baker. We got some lovely bread to share from her and we all had a taste of it. Then we put the leftovers behind the blue doorand we waited for the fairies to come. (The fairies were also in the story). When we looked later all that was left was the blanket!"
GOODIES AND BADDIES!!
We have had lots of fun thinking about Goodies and Baddies in our story 'Knock Knock who's there?'. We have added new Baddies to the story and have described these using lots of interesting adjectives. We have thought about pirates and monsters and ghosts and of course the big bad wolf. Can you think of any more? What would they do if they came to your door?
Next came the goodies and of course that had to be us!!!


For marketers, the selling environment of business markets present uniquely different circumstances when compared to selling to consumers. At the beginning of this tutorial, we saw two ways in which consumer and business markets differ:
- Business markets are more likely to be price driven than brand driven, and
- Demand in business markets tends to be more volatile than consumer markets.
However, the two markets are dissimilar in other ways requiring marketers to take a different approach when selling to business customers than they do when selling to consumers. These differences include:
How Decisions Are Made
In the consumer market, a large percentage of purchase decisions are made by a single person. As we discussed in the Consumer Buying Behavior tutorial, there are situations in which multiple people may be involved in a consumer purchase decision, such as a child influencing a parent to choose a certain brand of cereal or a husband and wife deciding together to buy a house, but most of the time purchases are individual decisions. The business market is significantly different. While single person purchasing is not unusual, especially within a small company, a significant percentage of business buying, especially within larger organizations, requires the input of many (see Buying Center Roles).
Businesses often employ purchasing agents or professional buyers whose job is to negotiate the best deals for their company. Unlike consumers, who often lack information when making purchase decisions, professional buyers are generally as knowledgeable about the product and the industry as the marketer who is selling to them.
Depending on the product, business purchase decisions can drag on for an extensive period. Unlike consumer markets, where impulse purchasing is rampant, the number of people involved in business purchase decisions results in decisions taking weeks, months or even years.
Size of Purchases
For products that are regularly used and frequently purchased, businesses will often buy a larger volume at one time compared to consumer purchases. Because of this, business purchasers often demand price breaks (e.g., discounts) for higher order levels.
Number of Buyers
While there are several million organizations worldwide operating in the overall business market, within a particular market the number of businesses may be relatively small. For instance, within some industries, buyers are highly concentrated in a few geographic clusters (e.g., pharmaceutical and biotech clusters) and may number less than a few hundred. Consequently, compared to consumer products, where millions of customers make up a market, marketing efforts for the business market may be confined to a smaller targeted group.
Types of Promotion
Companies that primarily target consumers often use mass advertising methods to reach an often widely dispersed market. For business-to-business marketers, the size of individual orders, along with a smaller number of buyers, makes person-to-person contact by sales representatives a more effective means of promotion.


TORONTO — In Cambodia, Ontario scientists are doling out ingots to cure iron deficiencies. In Quebec, researchers are tackling food insecurity in Africa by cultivating insect farms, and B.C. doctors are fortifying mothers’ meals in Southeast Asia so they’re better able to take care of their newborn babies.
These are just a handful of the ambitious projects hoping to transform maternal and baby health around the world. And they have Canadian fingerprints all over them.
On Thursday, Grand Challenges Canada poured $12 million into 65 projects, handing 61 ideas seed money and another four successful ventures transition-to-scale funding.
Grand Challenges Canada is funded by the federal government and its grant program helps pay for research in developing ways to treat diseases in the developing world.
The ideas are far-reaching, with 35 innovators from 13 developing countries from across Asia, Africa and Latin America. Another 26 projects are based out of Canada.
Global News took a look at five made-in-Canada proposals:
While spending four years living in Cambodia, Guelph university student Chris Charles began a project to help locals. In Cambodia, about six in 10 women are anemic because of an iron deficiency in their diets. They end up with premature labour, hemorrhaging during childbirth and their babies struggle with brain development because of malnourishment.
Charles created the Lucky Iron Fish — a 200 gram, three-inch long, cast iron ingot that the women keep in their pots while cooking rice, stew or other broths. Because of the shape and design, the fish leaches out about 75 per cent of the daily-recommended intake of iron. It only costs $5 to buy and lasts for five years for an entire family, according to Tania Framst, the vice-president of the company, Lucky Iron Fish. Iron supplements, on the other hand, cost about $30 per person each year.
Framst said the company’s goal was to dole out 10,000 fish this year. Now, only five months in, it’s supplied more than 11,000 fish to families in Cambodia.
They may not be appetizing, but they’re packed with protein and iron: in Montreal’s McGill University, researchers are developing methods to grow, harvest and process edible insects in hopes of creating a sustainable, viable way to nourish countries in need.
Right now, about 35 per cent of the world relies on insects for nutrition. The thing is, access to this source of food is dependent on the season.
The Montreal researchers’ idea is to develop and distribute insect farming technology to create a cheap and nutritious, safe food that would feed 80 million people who live in the slums in Africa and Latin America. So far, the project has helped high-need regions in Mexico, Ghana and Kenya.
Pick up a breakfast cereal while grocery shopping and you’ll see most of our options are fortified with important vitamins and minerals. That isn’t the case in some parts of Southeast Asia. This is why University of British Columbia researchers are working on including thiamin — better known as B1 — to fish sauce that’s widely used in meals across Cambodia.
Their goal? To tackle beriberi, a disease caused by lack of the crucial vitamin. Low levels of B1 in moms who are breastfeeding causes their kids to develop beriberi, often resulting in heart failure and death. Breast milk is the only source of thiamin babies get in the first six months of their life.
Vitamin supplements are costly and improving on food in this resource-poor region isn’t a feasible option, according to the B.C. scientists. But fish sauce is a traditional South East Asian condiment: it’s cheap, consumed daily and made locally. The Vancouver scientists say they’ve developed a thiamin-fortified fish sauce. And in the long run, they think they could include other key nutrients using the sauce as the vehicle.
In Canada, if your newborn baby is sick, he or she receives a chest x-ray to check for pneumonia and is then whisked off to emergency care. But it isn’t as simple in remote areas, such as Uganda, according to University of Alberta researchers. There, the doctors are working on identifying a blood biomarker to be used in a simple blood test that could replace the chest x-ray for pneumonia diagnosis.
Childhood pneumonia is one of the top three causes of death in kids following the newborn period. Chest x-rays and conventional technology aren’t readily available in parts of the world, such as Uganda, so the doctors hope their biomarker test could be an easily accessible tool in remote communities.
In India, locals either don’t eat meat or can’t afford to eat it. As a result, families often deal with iron deficiency — in moms, this malnutrition is passed onto their kids. And iron is critical in early childhood health when kids are growing and developing.
At the University of Saskatchewan, the scientists believe they’ve zeroed in on a way for Canadians to easily help Indian moms. Dal — a stew made of lentils, chickpeas and peas — is a common dish in India, but the ingredients are Canadian products. With their seed money in tow, the researchers plan to treat the seed coating and add more iron to these crops so that once they’re in the hands of Indian families at the consumer level, their food is packed with the nutrients they need.
© 2014 Shaw Media


During your latest dental cleaning and checkup, your dentist notices a skin rash around your mouth. You sigh—it’s been going on for some time. And every ointment you’ve tried doesn’t help.
You may have peri-oral dermatitis, a type of skin rash dentists sometime notice during dental treatment. It doesn’t occur often—usually in only 1% of the population—but when it does, it can be resistant to common over-the-counter ointments.
That’s because peri-oral dermatitis is somewhat different from other facial rashes. Often mistaken as acne, the rash can appear as small red bumps, blisters or pus-filled pimples most often around the mouth (but not on the lips), nostrils or even the eyes. Sometimes the rash can sting, itch or burn.
People with peri-oral dermatitis often try medicated ointments to treat it. Many of these contain steroids that work well on other skin conditions; however, they can have an opposite effect on peri-oral dermatitis.
Because the steroids cause a constriction in the tiny blood vessels of the skin, the rash may first appear to be fading. This is short-lived, though, as the rash soon returns with a vengeance. Prolonged steroid applications can also thin the affected skin, making it more susceptible to infection and resistant to healing.
Peri-oral dermatitis requires a different treatment approach. The first step is to stop using any kind of steroidal cream, as well as moisturizers, ointments and both prescription and non-prescription medications. Instead, you should only use a mild soap to wash your face.
You may find the rash looking worse for a few days but be patient and continue to avoid ointments or creams. Your healthcare provider may also prescribe oral antibiotics, usually of the tetracycline family. It may take several weeks of antibiotic treatment until the skin noticeably clears up.
For most people, this approach puts their rash into permanent remission. Some, though, may see a reoccurrence, in which case it’s usually best to repeat treatment. With a little patience and care, though, you’ll finally see this persistent rash fade away.


The state insect of North Carolina, honeybees have long been prized. Honey is mentioned in the earliest history books and in the Bible. In the past, many farmers have maintained several hives of bees which provided sweetening for cooking and baking, in addition to its customary use as a complement to many kinds of bread. Currently, beekeeping is experiencing somewhat of a revival with everything from equipment to classes for beginner and experienced beekeepers readily available. This is good news when one considers that 40% of the world's food supply depends on pollination provided by honeybees! In this story, Joe and Papa race along, following the honeybee that Papa has marked with flour on its back, until they reach the bee tree. In the early 1900's, bee coursing was done to help locate bee trees. The method involved sprinkling flour on the bee's back, noting its direction as it left, and then marking the amount of time required for the bee to arrive back at the water source. This practice gave an estimate of the distance to the bee tree. Knowing that honeybees fly in a straight line (beeline) to their destination once airborne, bee keepers could follow the direction taken by the honeybee to find the bee tree and gather the sticky, delicious honey.
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