EUTHANASIA, term denoting "the action of inducing gentle and easy death," first used by the British moral historian W.E.H. Lecky in 1869. Among advocates of this measure to terminate the life of sufferers from incurable or painful disease are many earlier philosophers, Christian as well as pagan, including Plato in his Republic (3:405ff.) and Sir Thomas More in his Utopia (2:7). The precise Hebrew equivalent for euthanasia, mitah yafah ("pleasant death"), occurs several times in the Talmud, though always in connection with the duty to reduce to a minimum the anguish of capital criminals before their execution (e.g., Sanh. 45a), and never in the sense of deliberately hastening the end of persons dying from natural causes. In the Jewish view, life being of infinite worth, any fraction of it is of equally infinite value, and the relief from suffering cannot be purchased at the cost of life itself, whatever other concessions Jewish law may make or urge for the mitigation of pain. Hence, "a patient on his deathbed is considered as a living person in every respect … and it is forbidden to cause him to die quickly … or to move him from his place (lest this hasten his death);… and whoever closes his eyes with the onset of death is regarded as shedding blood" (Sh. Ar., YD 339:1 and gloss). Indeed, killing any innocent person, "whether he is healthy or about to die from natural causes," is legally codified as murder (Maim. Yad, Roẓe'aḥ 2:7). Some recent rabbinical responsa, however, are inclined to sanction the cessation of "heroic" methods to prolong a lingering life without hope of recovery. The withdrawal of treatment under such circumstances might be justified on the basis of the permission to remove from a dying person an extraneous impediment, such as "a clattering noise or salt on his tongue, delaying the departure of his soul" (Sh. Ar., loc. cit., gloss).
The otherwise uncompromising opposition to euthanasia no doubt springs from the life-affirming attitude of Judaism in which, nationally as well as individually, life in misery is to be preferred to death with glory or dignity, a sentiment which stirred the Psalmist to exclaim gratefully: "The Lord hath chastened me sore; but He hath not given me over unto death" (Ps. 118:18). For the same reason, martyrdom is permitted only in the most exceptional circumstances; to lay down one's life, even for the fulfillment of divine laws, when such sacrifice is not required by law, is regarded as a mortal offense (Maim. Yad, Yesodei ha-Torah 5:4).
In Nazi Germany
Euthanasia was also a euphemism used by the Nazi regime for the murder of the disabled, a group of human beings de-famed as "life unworthy of life." Although Adolf Hitler and his associates talked about "mercy death" their aim was not to shorten the lives of persons with painful terminal diseases but to kill those they considered inferior, who could otherwise have lived for many years.
The belief that mentally and physically disabled human beings should be excluded from a nation's gene pool was a staple argument of the international eugenic movement, in Germany known as racial hygiene, and had led to widespread sterilization of the disabled in various countries, including the United States. The Nazis incorporated the goals of the eugenicists into their racial world view, and on July 14, 1933, only four and a half months after Hitler became chancellor, the German government enacted the Law for the Prevention of Offspring with Hereditary Diseases, the so-called sterilization law mandating the compulsory sterilization of the disabled. This law led to the sterilization of three to four hundred thousand disabled German nationals, representing about 0.5 percent of the German population.
The attack on patients with disabilities in state hospitals and nursing homes during the 1930s had involved sterilization
and a reduced standard of care. But this was only the beginning. In 1935 Adolf Hitler told Gerhard Wagner, the Reich physicians' leader, that once war began he would implement the killing of the disabled. As Germany unleashed World War II and Nazi policy became more radical, the regime crossed the line separating traditional eugenic policies from killing operations. Although this radical decision had been initiated by the political leadership, the scientific and medical community did not oppose it, because the idea had circulated since at least 1920, the year the jurist Karl Binding and the psychiatrist Alfred Hoche published The Authorization for the Destruction of Life Unworthy of Life.
The first Nazi killing operation was directed against institutionalized disabled patients. It started with the killing of infants and young children born with mental or physical disabilities. Hitler appointed Dr. Karl Brandt, his escorting physician, and Philipp Bouhler, who headed the Chancellery of the Fuehrer (Kanzlei des Fuehrers, or KdF), to direct the killing operation, and they in turn designated Viktor Brack, chief of Office II in the KdF, as the person to implement the Fuehrer's order. The so-called children's euthanasia was top-secret and was carried out in various hospitals. There the children were placed in so-called special children's wards; they were killed with an overdose of common barbiturates, and sometimes also through starvation diets.
In September 1939, the killing operation was expanded to include adults. Hitler first appointed Leonardo Conti, state secretary for health in the Reich Ministry of Interior, to direct adult euthanasia, telling him in the presence of Hans Heinrich Lammers and Martin Bormann "that he considered it appropriate that life unfit for living of severely insane patients should be ended by intervention that would result in death." Conti accepted the assignment, but he did not remain in charge long; within a few weeks, Hitler replaced him, turning once again to Brandt and Bouhler as his plenipotentiaries, so that Brack and the KdF could administer adult euthanasia alongside that for children. To avoid implicating the Chancellery, the staff administering the euthanasia killings moved from the KdF into a confiscated Jewish villa at Tiergarten Street number 4 and euthanasia was thus soon known as Operation T4, or simply as T4.
The method used to kill the children could not be used to kill the far larger number of adults. To accomplish its task, T4 therefore constructed killing centers, including gas chambers and crematoria, and developed a killing technique to select, transport, and "process" the victims. And always the killers robbed the corpses of their victims, taking gold teeth and bridge work to enrich the state as well as internal organs to enrich "scientific research." For this purpose, T4 established six killing centers – Brandenburg, Grafeneck, Hartheim, Sonnenstein, Bernburg, and Hadamar – but only four were ever operational at the same time. To hide the killings, T4 used subterfuge to fool the relatives; the killing centers camouflaged as hospitals wrote letters of condolence and issued fraudulent death certificates.
In their 1920 book, Binding and Hoche had argued that euthanasia could only function if the act of this kind of mercy death would be decriminalized, so that physicians would not have to fear prosecution under the murder statute, paragraph 212 of the German penal code, which remained in force throughout the Nazi period. Since Hitler absolutely refused to consider promulgating a euthanasia law, the KdF decided to ask Hitler for written orders, so that they could convince physicians to collaborate. In October 1939, Hitler finally signed a document, more an authorization than an order, that had been prepared by the KdF. But to emphasize that war would not only alter the international status of the Reich but also herald "domestic purification," he predated it to September 1, 1939, the day World War II began. Prepared on Hitler's personal stationery, as if mass murder was his "private affair," but never promulgated or published in any legal gazette, this authorization did not actually have the force of law, but served, nevertheless, as the "legal" basis for the killing operation.
The imposed secrecy did not prevent news of the murder of the disabled to reach the general population. The unrest of victims' relatives posed a danger to the regime, and in August 1941 Hitler therefore ordered a stop to the gassing of the disabled. This order did not, however, end the killing of the disabled; only their gassing in killing centers stopped. Children's euthanasia continued without interruption; adults were murdered in regular hospitals spread throughout the Reich. The T4 killing centers also continued to operate for several years; they were used to kill concentration camp inmates under a killing enterprise known as Operation 14 f13. The Austrian killing center Hartheim near Linz continued in operation until late in 1944 for the killings under 14f13 and later for the murder of prisoners from the nearby Mauthausen concentration camp. Furthermore, a selected number of T4 male staff members were dispatched to Lublin to operate the killing centers of Operation Reinhard: Belzec, Sobibor, and Treblinka. One of those was the Austrian physician Irmfried Eberl, medical director of the T4 killing centers in Brandenburg and Bernburg, who served as the first commandant of Treblinka.
After the war, the perpetrators argued that Jews were never killed in Operation T4, since they did not "deserve" mercy death, and this was believed at the Nuremberg and later trials. But this was not true. Jewish institutionalized disabled patients were included alongside non-Jewish victims from the beginning. In the spring of 1940, however, a decision was made on the highest level to kill Jewish patients as a group. They were concentrated in a number of central institutions, and killed in the closest killing center. But for the Jews there were no letters of condolence; the Jews were supposed to disappear without a trace. In the end, however, T4 did issue fraudulent death certificates long after the victims had been killed; this permitted T4 to extort money for weeks, even months, for upkeep of the already murdered Jewish patients. To accomplish this, T4 claimed the patients
had been deported to a non-existent hospital in Cholm in Poland, and issued fraudulent death certificates with that nonexistent address.
Sources:I. Jakobovits, Jewish Medical Ethics (19592), 123–5; idem, Journal of a Rabbi (19672), 165f. (= Essays… I. Brodie (1967), 195, Eng. pt.); L. Alexander, "Medical Science under Dictatorship," in: New England Journal of Medicine, 241:2 (1949), 39–47; G.E. Allen, "The Eugenics Record Office at Cold Spring Harbor, 1910–1940: An Essay in Institutional History," in: Osiris, 2d ser., 2 (1986), 225–64; G. Aly, "Medizin gegen Unbrauchbare," in: Beiträge zur nationalsozialistischen Gesundheits- und Sozialpolitik, 1 (1985), 9–74; idem, "Der saubere und der schmutzige Fortschritt," in: Beiträge zur nationalsozialistischen Gesundheits- und Sozialpolitik, 2 (1985), 9–78; I. Arndt and W. Scheffler, "Organisierter Massenmord an Juden in nationalsozialistischen Vernichtungslagern," in: Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte, 24 (1976), 105–35; G. Bock, Zwangssterilisation im Nationalsozialismus: Studien zur Rassenpolitik und Frauenpolitik (1986); M. Burleigh, Death and Deliverance: "Euthanasia" in Germany, c. 1900–1945 (1995); P. Chroust (ed.), Friedrich Mennecke, Innenansichten eines medizinischen Täters im Nationalsozialismus. Eine Edition seiner Briefe, 1935–1947, 2 vols. paginated throughout (1987); K. Doerner, "Nationalsozialismus und Lebensvernichtung," in: Vierteljahrshefte fuer Zeitgeschichte, 15 (1967), 121–52; H. Friedlander, The Origins of Nazi Genocide: From Euthanasia to the Final Solution (1995); S.J. Gould, The Mismeasure of Man (1981); M.H. Kater, Doctors Under Hitler (1989); F.K. Kaul, Nazimordaktion T4: Ein Bericht ueber die erste industriemässig durchgeführte Mordaktion des Naziregimes (1973); E. Klee, "Euthanasie" im NS-Staat: Die "Vernichtung lebensunwerten Lebens" (1983); D.J. Kevles, In the Name of Eugenics: Genetics and the Uses of Human Heredity (1985); S. Kühl, The Nazi Connection: Eugenics, American Racism, and German National Socialism (1994); R.J. Lifton, The Nazi Doctors: Medical Killing and the Psychology of Genocide (1986); A. Mitscherlich and F. Mielke (eds.), Medizin ohne Menschlichkeit: Dokumente des Nuernberger Aerzte prozesses (1960); B. Mueller-Hill, Murderous Science: Elimination by Scientific Selection of Jews, Gypsies, and Others, Germany, 1933–1945, trans. G.R. Fraser (1988); K. Nowak, "Euthanasie" und Sterilisierung im "Dritten Reich" (19802); A. Platen-Hallermund, Die Tötung Geisteskranker in Deutschland: Aus der deutschen Aerztekommission beim amerikanischen Militaergericht (1948); A. Rueckerl, NS-Vernichtungslager im Spiegel deutscher Strafprozesse (1977); H.W. Schmuhl, Rassenhygiene, Nationalsozialismus, Euthanasie: Von der Verhütung zur Vernichtung "lebensunwerten Lebens," 1890–1945 (1987); G. Sereny, Into that Darkness: From Mercy Killing to Mass Murder (1974); S.F. Weiss, "The Race Hygiene Movement in Germany," in: Osiris, 2d ser., 3 (1987), 193–236.
Judaica. © 2008 The Gale Group.
All Rights Reserved.


“I’m currently working on a research grant with the Kresge Hearing Institute. Our company, NeuroNexus, will also keep me busy,” said retiring faculty member David Anderson. Standing at the crossroads of engineering and neurophysiology, Anderson made his home in both areas. “Michigan is almost unique in having a top ten Medical school and a top ten Engineering College in the same location. No other institution has a combination of such quality,” said Anderson.
Anderson made the switch from computer engineering to bioengineering in graduate school at Wisconsin, ultimately finding his research home in the Laboratory of Neurophysiology. “It was an incredible place to be in the 60’s for neurobiology,” Anderson stated. “That was the time that computers emerged into physiological studies.” The first lab he built after arriving at U-M in 1970, still in operation, was the Neural Signal Processing Lab at Kresge, which is now part of the Otorhinolaryngology Department. “I’ve always been involved in auditory neurophysiology, that’s the thread throughout my career,” said Anderson.
Through a physician colleague at Kresge, Anderson became interested in the vestibular system – the system of sensors in the inner ear which controls one’s sense of movement and balance. With his unusual blend of skills, flight surgeons from NASA enlisted Anderson to help them understand the causes of motion sickness. This research led to an experiment that flew on Spacelab 1. “The equipment for the experiment was built here at Michigan,” he notes with Wolverine pride. The work involved the anti-gravity reflex (H-reflex), a term for the changes in the spinal cord that modulate with different levels of gravity. “If you drop out of a tree, your muscles have to adjust to absorb the landing. When you go into zero gravity, some interesting things happen with these reflexes.” Eventually the team set up a large testing facility at Edwards Air Force base where vestibular and biomedical tests continued. During this time, one of the PhD students in this group, Mehdi Hatamian (MSE, EE ’78; PhD, EE ’82), developed a video analysis system to analyze eye movements for vestibular studies, now one of the standard ways for reading eye rotation in clinics. Hatamian, VP of Engineering, DSP Microelectronics at Broadcom, said that “working with Dave and having him as my advisor was the best thing that could have happened to me. Dave helped me to become efficient, and was a true friend.”
Anderson’s training as an engineer, his experience in neurophysiology, and the need for more experimental data from the brain, led to his interest in multichannel neural probes. Through micromachined neural probes, Anderson tries to understand and optimize the interface between the probe and the cellular world. Together with Professor Kensall Wise and assistant research scientist Jamille Hetke, and thanks to continual funding through the National Institutes of Health (NIH), he has devoted more than two decades of research to developing what is, in effect, a microelectronic interface to the brain.
In 1994, Anderson established the Center for Neural Communication Technology (CNCT) in the EECS department, through which the probes were distributed to neuroscience laboratories throughout the world. This distribution enabled other researchers to use the probes in a variety of ways, and their feedback led to continual improvements. Steven Bierer, postdoctoral student at UC San Francisco in the Department of Otolaryngology, credits Anderson with helping to “orchestrate a notable paradigm shift in the research area of electrophysiology – the study of brain function by measurement of its electrical properties.” These probes became known simply as the “Michigan Probes.” It is expected that the devices will be used to find solutions for epilepsy, Parkinson’s, deafness, blindness, and many other diseases.
The probe technology has evolved to the point where it has become the basis for the startup company NeuroNexus (N2T). Called the most “notable spinoff from neurotech research institutions” by the Neurotech business report, the new company maintains strong ties to U-M, and will continue to fabricate probes in the Solid State Electronics Laboratory. Anderson is a founder of the company.
Another outgrowth of the Michigan Probe technology and research has been the establishment of the NSF Engineering Research Center (ERC) in Wireless Integrated Microsystems (WIMS) at Michigan, directed by Wise (see http://www.eecs. umich.edu/wims). Anderson has been involved with the Center from its beginning, in 2000.
Throughout these busy years running labs in both engineering and the medical school, Anderson was called upon to serve his academic community in significant ways. From the beginning of his time at Michigan, he was active in the bioengineering program, serving as director 1978-86. Under his leadership, the program grew into a model for interdisciplinary activity involving faculty from various departments in the College of Engineering and the medical school. Such fluid collaboration “is one of the great strengths of Michigan,” said Anderson.
In 1985, he was called upon by Dan Atkins, then Associate Dean, to serve as chair of a newly created Computer Aided Engineering Network (CAEN) executive committee, a position he held 1985-89. At this critical time, “Dave was a major player in creating the leading edge computing and information environment that faculty, students and staff now take for granted. He was always calm and thoughtful but passionate about doing the right thing and selfless in creating opportunities for others,” said Atkins.
Anderson was asked to become the Associate Chair of the EECS for the Systems Division in 1988, a position he held until 1995. Colleagues appreciated his ability to get faculty to work together harmoniously.
Anderson was also a member and/or chair of several committees that fell under the oversight of the Provost’s Office, and is most proud of his work as chair of the flexible benefits committee. “Chandler Mathews and I spent the 93/94 academic year with our committee consulting with the 18,000 members of the various constituencies of the University, and arrived at a system which added considerable value to the benefits program.” This program is still in effect today.
Jamille Hetke, who came to U-M in 1985 as a Master’s student in bioengineering, and is now a testbed leader at WIMS and co-founder of NeuroNexus, has worked with Dave her entire career at U-M. “He works with you on an equal level. He’s been a mentor and a friend, a collaborator, a really great person to work for.”
James Weiland (BSE, EE ’88; MS, EE-Systems, ’95; PhD, BioMed ‘97), assistant professor of Ophthalmology and Biomedical Engineering at U. of Southern California, said Anderson “had a clear vision of what important research questions needed to be addressed. To make the neural probes work, we needed to bring together electrical engineering, materials science, mechanical engineering, and neuroscience.”
Karim Oweiss (PhD, EE-Systems ’02), assistant professor at Michigan State University in the ECE department, sums up Anderson’s influence by saying, “The best way to measure someone’s achievements is the impact this person has had on another’s life, career, and endeavors. Dave had that great impact on my career, and it ultimately shaped the way my professional experience was developed.”
Daryl Kipke (BSc ’85; MSc, Bio ’86; MSE, EE-Systems ’88; PhD, Bio ‘91), associate professor of biomedical engineering at U-M, and Acting President of NeuroNexus, is a past student of Anderson who worked with the probes back in the 1980’s. Kipke appreciates what Anderson has contributed to signal processing and systems engineering, adding “In just the past five years, Dave has developed new algorithms for neural signal processing. He’s advanced the concept of the probe as a sensor that sits within an entire system to provide the appropriate function.”
Anderson taught the first digital signal processing course, which was to become EECS 451, offered at U-M in the early 1970’s. Now a staple in the curriculum, it took several years and Anderson’s persistence before being fully integrated into the department’s curriculum. “The number of students now who go through 451 is huge,” says Anderson.
Anderson will retire only in the sense of being able to concentrate solely on specific projects of his own choosing. He will continue his research with neural probes, expanding into the area of midbrain implants that can be used as an auditory prosthesis, and expects to continue his relationship with the Kresge Hearing Research Institute, NeuroNexus and the ERC. Anderson’s BME PhD students Francisco Martinez, Hubert Lim and Andre Snellings, who are also affiliated with prosthesis projects in the Medical School and WIMS, are continuing work on different aspects of the deepbrain implants, which have implications for the treatment of Parkinson’s disease, and deafness. Says Anderson of his retirement, “I’m just leaving behind some things and pursuing more of the fun work and play.”


On 9 December 2011, orphan designation (EU/3/11/936) was granted by the European Commission to Bio Products Laboratory Ltd, United Kingdom, for human haptoglobin for the treatment of sickle cell disease.
- What is sickle cell disease?
Sickle cell disease is a genetic disease in which the red blood cells become rigid and sticky, and change from being disc-shaped to being crescent-shaped (like a sickle). The change in shape is caused by the presence of an abnormal form of haemoglobin, the protein in red blood cells that carries oxygen around the body. In patients with sickle cell disease, the abnormal red blood cells attach to the walls of blood vessels and block them, restricting the flow of nutrients to the internal organs such as the heart, lungs and spleen. Because the abnormal red blood cells have a shorter life span, they release haemoglobin into the blood circulation rather than carrying it to the internal organs where it is needed. This causes severe pain and damage to these organs as well as repeated infections and anaemia (low red blood cell counts).
Sickle cell disease is a severe disease that is long lasting and may be life threatening because of damage to the heart and the lungs, anaemia and infections.
- What is the estimated number of patients affected by the condition?
At the time of designation, sickle cell disease affected approximately 1.5 in 10,000 people in the European Union (EU)*. This is equivalent to a total of around 76,000 people, and is below the ceiling for orphan designation, which is 5 people in 10,000. This is based on the information provided by the sponsor and the knowledge of the Committee for Orphan Medicinal Products (COMP).
*Disclaimer: For the purpose of the designation, the number of patients affected by the condition is estimated and assessed on the basis of data from the European Union (EU 27), Norway, Iceland and Liechtenstein. This represents a population of 506,300,000 (Eurostat 2011).
- What treatments are available?
At the time of designation, the only medicine authorised in the EU to treat sickle cell disease was hydroxyurea (also known as hydroxycarbamide). The main treatment for sickle cell disease was blood transfusion. This was usually combined with ‘iron chelators’, medicines used to reduce the high iron levels in the body caused by repeated blood transfusions, which are necessary in patients with long-term anaemias such as sickle cell disease. In some cases, haematopoietic (blood) stem cell transplantation was used (a complex procedure where the patient receives stem cells from a matched donor to help restore the bone marrow) to allow the patient to produce red blood cells containing normal haemoglobin.
The sponsor has provided sufficient information to show that human haptoglobin might be of significant benefit for patients with sickle cell disease because early studies in experimental models show that it works in a different way to existing medicines and might improve the treatment of patients with this condition. This assumption will need to be confirmed at the time of marketing authorisation, in order to maintain the orphan status.
- How is this medicine expected to work?
Human haptoglobin is a protein obtained from human blood. It works by attaching to free haemoglobin. In sickle cell disease, the medicine is expected to reduce the amount of free haemoglobin that is released into the circulation from the abnormal red blood cells. This is expected to reduce the symptoms of the disease. The haptoglobin-haemoglobin complex is then broken down by specialised cells called macrophages and cleared from the body.
- What is the stage of development of this medicine?
At the time of submission of the application for orphan designation, the evaluation of the effects of human haptoglobin in experimental models was ongoing.
At the time of submission of the application for orphan designation, no clinical trials with human haptoglobin in patients with sickle cell disease had been started.
At the time of submission, human haptoglobin was not authorised anywhere in the EU for treatment for sickle cell disease or designated as an orphan medicinal product elsewhere for this condition.
In accordance with Regulation (EC) No 141/2000 of 16 December 1999, the COMP adopted a positive opinion on 7 October 2011 recommending the granting of this designation.
- Opinions on orphan medicinal product designations are based on the following three criteria
- the seriousness of the condition;
- the existence of alternative methods of diagnosis, prevention or treatment;
- either the rarity of the condition (affecting not more than 5 in 10,000 people in the EU) or insufficient returns on investment.
Designated orphan medicinal products are products that are still under investigation and are considered for orphan designation on the basis of potential activity. An orphan designation is not a marketing authorisation. As a consequence, demonstration of quality, safety and efficacy is necessary before a product can be granted a marketing authorisation.
|Name||Language||First published||Last updated|
|EU/3/11/936: Public summary of opinion on orphan designation: Human haptoglobin for the treatment of sickle cell disease||(English only)||20/12/2011|
|Active substance||Human haptoglobin|
|Disease/condition||Treatment of sickle cell disease|
|Date of decision||09/12/2011|
|Orphan decision number||EU/3/11/936|
Review of designation
The Committee for Orphan Medicinal Products reviews the orphan designation of a product if it is approved for marketing authorisation.
Sponsor’s contact details:
Bio Products Laboratory Ltd
Hertfordshire WD6 3BX
Telephone: +44 20 82 58 22 00
Telefax: +44 20 82 58 26 08
For contact details of patients’ organisations whose activities are targeted at rare diseases see:
- Orphanet, a database containing information on rare diseases which includes a directory of patients’ organisations registered in Europe.
- European Organisation for Rare Diseases (EURORDIS), a non-governmental alliance of patient organisations and individuals active in the field of rare diseases.


Simon Bolivar is an enormous figure in 19th South American history, having spread the
seeds of rebellion to nearly every corner of the South American Continent, which in turn had a profound influence on the revolutions that followed in the 20th Century that stretched as close to the shores of the US as Cuba.
And so it seems only natural that Simon Bolivar, a towering near-mythological figure, should have a Cuban cigar befitting his legacy named in his honor.
While most tout Simon Bolivar as one of the most important figures in all the history of the Americas, there are a great many still who know little of his struggles and triumphs. What is undeniable is that the cigar which bears his name is itself a bold character and wondrously important part of the cigar world.
It was during the early part of the 19th Century that Simon Bolivar began his rise to fame as “El Libertador” and set forth what would end the rule of the Spanish monarchy in Latin America. A mere glance at the list of nations Bolivar directly helped create is stunning proof of his importance not to just South American history, yet the history of the entire World.
Bolivar had a hand in founding Colombia, Peru, Ecuador, Venezuela, Peru and of course the nation that bears his name, Bolivia. Although his dream of a unified Latin America remained but a dream, Bolivar’s influence is nonetheless engrained into every brick of the foundation that is modern South America.
A celebrated hero throughout the Western Hemisphere, Simon Bolivar was a brilliant, if not natural, choice to be emblazoned upon a new, strong-willed cigar.
The Bolivar brand began in 1902 when Spanish businessman turned Havana resident, Jose Rocha set about creating a richer, fuller-bodied smoke than what was apparently available at the time.
Although the brand garnered some notoriety, it wasn’t until Rocha’s death and the purchase of his company by the famed Cifuentes family in 1954 that the Bolivar cigar began to reach a truly international audience.
Moving operations to Cifuentes y Cia’s Partagas factory in Havana, the storied family’s firm guided the Bolivar brand to a new level of quality and popularity, which carried the Bolivar name around the World as one of the absolute best Cuban cigars.
With the extraordinary strength and body that each cigar possessed, the Bolivar brand became a go-to choice for experienced cigar aficionados.
After the Cuban revolution and the rise of the Castro regime, however, the Cifuentes family fled Cuba and in 1978 licensed the Bolivar and Partagas names to General Cigar, makers of the world-renown Macanudo cigars.
And so the Bolivar brand became two, the original Cuban and now a Dominican-made version that was a far-cry from the muscular original.
The new Dominican Bolivar was also a well-respected creation amongst connoisseurs, yet its vastly different flavor profile and mellower nature did not capture the zealous spirit of the cigars namesake. This non-Cuban blend was eventually changed to a more energetic Honduran mixture in hopes of bridging the gap between the two brands.
The results were admittedly mixed amongst connoisseurs, but the new Bolivar still maintains its own dedicated following.
Although the blends have been tweaked over the years, Cuban Bolivar cigars are still the heavy hitters of the Cuban cigar line-up, offering those with heartier palates an amazingly rich experience filled with glorious treasures that rival the best Cuban cigars, including Cuban Cohibas, Partagas and Montecristo cigars.
The secret behind the Bolivar’s success is a blend built around plush binder and filler tobaccos exclusively from the renowned Vuelta Abajo region. With a heavy dose of robust Ligero leaves, the Bolivar emerges as titan of a smoke that delivers what for many has become the stereotypically strong “Cuban” experience.
“Bolivar Bold” has become the measuring stick by which all other cigars are compared and a catch-phrase for hearty cigar lovers the World over.
With an impressive range of cigar sizes, the Bolivar line-up is a fantastic journey into the world of Cuban cigars for all those looking for big-bodied, full-flavored smokes that won’t pull any punches.
The 94-rated Bolivar Belicoso Fino and Royal Corona have become connoisseur classics that never fail to amaze the senses with blasts of leather, cocoa, earth, coffee bean and licorice. Habanos SA, the arm of the Cuban government that controls the Cuban cigar portfolio has expanded the Bolivar to include many limited run cigars and regional off-shoots that are as uniquely satisfying and occasionally, milder in character than the original.
No matter your preference in cigars, the original Cuban Bolivar is an absolute must that continues to be a rite of passage for cigar lovers around the World. With a broad spectrum of cigar sizes, there is a potent Bolivar to suit all tastes.
Settle into your favorite cigar place and enjoy a Bolivar after a hearty meal and with an equally well-structured libation for a truly grand, unforgettable adventure inspired by the man, the myth, the legend that is Simon Bolivar.
Thanks for reading!
If you enjoyed this article, say Hello On:


NEW YORK (GenomeWeb) – Scientists from Toronto's Hospital for Sick Children (Sick Kids) have led a study showing several ways in which CRISPR/Cas9 genome editing could be used to treat hereditary diseases. Among the various applications demonstrated, the researchers used CRISPR/Cas9 to remove exon duplication in a gene affecting a patient with Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy (DMD), leading to the production of regular dystrophin.
Led by co-first authors Daria Wojtal and Dwi Kemaladewi and senior authors Evgueni Ivakine and Ronald Cohn, the scientists published their study yesterday in the American Journal of Human Genetics. In addition to removing the duplication in the dystrophin gene in cells taken from a 14 year-old patient diagnosed with DMD, the scientists were able to use a Cas9 protein modified to promote gene expression to increase the amount of utrophin, a disease-ameliorating protein for DMD. Furthermore, they were able to disrupt a specific allele carrying a dominant-negative mutation in fibroblasts of an individual affected by achondroplasia – a kind of dwarfism - and remove a large chromosomal rearrangement in primary cells taken from an individual with an X chromosome duplication.
DMD is an X chromosome-linked disorder characterized by deficiency of the protein dystrophin, an important component of muscle tissue. Duplications of one or more exons in the dystrophin gene account for approximately 10 percent of DMD-causing mutations.
"Working with patients and families with genetic disorders, I'm often in a position where I can provide a diagnosis, and perhaps supportive care, but no treatment," Cohn said in a statement. "CRISPR could change that."According to a statement from Sick Kids, corticosteroids are the only treatment available to patients with DMD.
Though other researchers are evaluating several gene therapies for DMD, such as delivering a truncated dystrophin gene or exon skipping, the Sick Kids researchers said that removing exon duplications had not been well studied.
"Shorter dystrophin product ameliorates the disease phenotype only to the extent of making it similar to that of individuals affected by Becker muscular dystrophy, where a truncated yet functional dystrophin protein is detected," the authors wrote.
The researchers designed guide RNAs to target exons 18-30 in the dystrophin gene, delivering the CRISPR/Cas9 system with a lentiviral vector. They said the intervention led to the production of full-length dystrophin.
The researchers said they hoped their proof-of-concept studies could help lay the foundation for further research, eventually leading to in vivo treatments for inherited diseases.
"CRISPR is the most important technology that I have encountered in my scientific career thus far," Cohn said. "It could revolutionize the way we care for patients with currently untreatable genetic conditions."


Craniotomy is utilized during brain surgery. It consists of making an incision in the skull and removing a bone flap, which is a part of the skull, in order to provide access to the brain. The bone is replaced after the surgery, sometimes with a bone graft.
Also Known As:
- Brain surgery
- Cranial surgery
Conditions Treated with a Craniotomy:
A craniotomy may be used in a brain surgery that is repairing an injury, removing a tumor, stopping bleeding or an infection, or implanting electrodes in order to monitor seizure activity. A craniotomy is most often utilized in surgeries where patients have brain lesions or have suffered a brain injury.
Alternatives to a craniotomy are dictated by the conditions that are fixed by brain surgery. For example, chemotherapy or radiation may instead be used to treat a brain tumor.
Anesthesia with a Craniotomy:
A craniotomy is performed with general anesthesia, which means that the patient is asleep and completely unaware during the procedure.
Potential Complications from a Craniotomy:
Possible risks of a craniotomy include infection, bleeding, and a negative reaction to the anesthesia that is used. Other potential complications include blood clotting, seizures, muscle weakness and brain swelling.
Prognosis after a Craniotomy:
The prognosis for a positive end result following a craniotomy is good.
Recovery from a Craniotomy:
Recovery from a craniotomy takes up to eight weeks.


Net Neutrality is important for small business owners, startups and entrepreneurs . Net Neutrality preserves our right to an open internet. An open internet allows these entrepreneurs to communicate freely on the web.
Protecting Entrepreneurs on the Web
In May 2014, FCC Chairman Tom Wheeler released a plan that would give internet service companies control over free speech on the web. This meant that they could block and discriminate against any applications or content that was carried on these networks. Internet service providers could charge websites and companies money in order to have their packets delivered faster. Advertisers with more money would get a higher speed and a student blogger might be slowed down.
An internet protest was held by Etsy, WordPress, and Netflix to draw attention to the idea. Wheeler’s original proposal was shot down and revised after activists fought back. He based the new proposal of the Net Neutrality rules on Title II of the Communications Act, giving Internet users the strongest protections possible.
The FCC approved Wheeler’s proposal on Feb. 26, 2015. The rules rooted in Title II of the Communications Act ban throttling, blocking and paid prioritization.
- Net Neutrality: What You Need to Know Now – Free Press
- Net Neutrality: Here’s what it means, and why people are talking about it – Bring Me the News
- Goodbye, Net Neutrality; Hello, Net Discrimination – The New Yorker


Carpenter ants belong to a particular genus of ant that are well known for their ability to damage wooden structures. In addition to being a nuisance in homes in their search for food, carpenter ants can also cause structural damage to woodwork as they tunnel through timbers. and their presence in a home can be a sign of a moisture problem, or of wooden structures suffering from decay.
Experience teaches us to know where to look for these insects, and we have a variety of control and management tools at our disposal.
Like all ants, carpenter ants are social insects, living in large colonies consisting of hundreds of workers, several reproductive males and females, and one or more queens. The male members exist in the colony only briefly. They die soon after mating, and the fertilized females fly on to new sites where they establish new colonies. During warm weather, eggs are laid that develop into a larval, then a pupal stage over the course of 66 days (under optimum conditions). The workers are responsible for caring for the young and foraging for food to feed the rest of the colony.
Carpenter ants vary in length from 6 to 25 mm. Workers are generally 6 to 13 mm long; males range from 9 to 10 mm females are the largest,varying in length from 12 to 25 mm. The body is divided into three segments, with very slim waists and segmented antennae. Male and female adults have wings at mating time, and the front wings, if present, are much longer than the hind ones. The red and black carpenter ant has a dark brownish black body, with a reddish brown thorax. The black carpenter ant is uniformly dark brownish black.
A thorough inspection of areas of high moisture, wood in contact with the soil, areas of improper ventilation, and exposed structural lumber is the first step. A good indicator of the presence of a colony is a high concentration of ants in a particular area, e.g., under the kitchen sink. In addition to tunneling in outside woodwork of buildings, wooden steps and sills, they also infest hollow spaces such as wall voids, attic spaces, hollow doors, cracks, crevices, furniture and existing termite galleries. Nests may also be found behind books in libraries, behind drawers in dressers and cabinets, and sometimes even in styrofoam insulation.
We have the right solutions!
There are many other companies, but not all are licensed and insured professionals like the experts at GTA Wildlife Removal & Pest Control Ltd.
ABOUT THIS PEST
Carpenter ants are relatively large (6 to 25mm) and are indigenous to many parts of the world. They prefer dead, damp wood in which to build nests. Sometimes carpenter ants will hollow out sections of trees. The most likely species to be infesting a house in North America is the Black carpenter ant, Camponotus pennsylvanicus. However, there are over a thousand other species in the genus Camponotus.
Carpenter ants construct nests by burrowing into wood. Outdoors, they are found in dead trunks of standing trees, stumps, or logs, or under fallen logs and stones. They prefer moist, decaying wood, and their presence in a home can be a sign of a moisture problem, or of wooden structures suffering from decay. Carpenter ants can, on occasion, mine sound wood, but it is usually a soft wood, such as pine or more commonly rotten and soft wood that they choose. They excavate "galleries" much longer than those produced by termites. The wood is not eaten but ejected from the nest as sawdust-like shavings.
These have a shredded texture, somewhat like the shavings found in pencil sharpeners. Indeed, heaps of these wood fragments, which the ants have expelled through slits in the infested woodwork, may be one of the signs of infestation.
GTA Wildlife Removal & PestControl Ltd. 2021 Design by MLS


Chlamydia is a bacterium that causes a sexually transmitted infection (STI). A chlamydial infection contracted before or during pregnancy can be the cause of reproductive problems, so it’s important to clear it up a.s.a.p. About 2.8 million new cases of this infection occur every year in the U. S. in both sexes, making this one of the most common STIs. It occurs most frequently in people under age 25.
Chlamydia usually has no symptoms, although some infected women experience vaginal discharge and burning on urination. Untreated, chlamydia can spread to the upper genital tract (uterus, fallopian tubes and ovaries), resulting in pelvic inflammatory disease (PID), often with a superinfection with other bacteria – so not nice! And PID can damage a woman’s fallopian tubes and lead to ectopic pregnancy or infertility.
About 10 percent of pregnant women in the United States are infected with chlamydia. Untreated, they face an increased risk of premature rupture of the membranes (PROM) (bag of waters) and preterm delivery. Babies of untreated women often become infected during vaginal delivery, and infected babies can develop eye infections and pneumonia, which require treatment with antibiotics.
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) recommends that all pregnant women be screened for chlamydia infection at the first prenatal visit. Testing is easy and is done on a urine sample or vaginal fluid obtained with a swab. The good news is that chlamydial infection can be cured with antibiotics that prevent complications for mom and baby. It’s important to note that the partner of an infected woman also should be treated, because the infection can be passed back and forth between sexually active couples.


Each day computer users give away a variety of personal information about themselves without even realizing it.
Often this happens when a person takes advantage of online services like search, social media, mobile applications, e-commerce and professional development.
For example, if a person bookmarks a visited page, adds an item to an e-commerce store “wish list”, or completes an “About Me” quiz on social media, a friend can share the information they provide or sold to interested or competitor business or on the dark web.
Additionally, with social media sites like Facebook, Twitter, or LinkedIn, created content like status updates, comments and uploaded photos and videos become a permanent part of those social media networks. Anyone can find them, read them, and use them for any purpose. The real question for the user is: “What does my digital footprint reveal about me?”
Users cannot control how others use information provided online but they can control their online behavior and therefore protect their electronic privacy.
Essentially, anyone that uses social media should be aware that identity thieves, scam artists, debt collectors, stalkers, employers and corporations use these services to gather information about you. Don’t post anything online that you would not mind seeing on the front page of a newspaper. Once done with a social media website, you should always log off.
Please find examples of more social media privacy attacks here.


Mental illness is more common in the United States than diabetes, cancer or heart disease.
- Some form of mental illness affected nearly 44 million people in 2014. For about 10 million of those people, the illness proved serious and disabling.
- About 63 percent of people with a serious mental illness get treatment. People over 50 are most likely to seek help; 71 percent get treatment. Young adults age 18 to 25 are least likely; only 40 percent receive treatment for their illness.
- Mental illness affects all aspects of society. The United States loses an estimated $193 billion a year in earnings due to mental illness-related disability, sick leave and unemployment.
- Depression and anxiety are the most common mental illnesses. An estimated 6.6 percent of Americans experienced major depression in 2014. About 4 percent suffered severe anxiety.
- Although more Americans are diagnosed with a mental illness than in the past, most experts believe that the real rates are not increasing. Better diagnosis and treatments probably account for the perceived increase.


Borrowing again from Katie Wood Ray‘s book, What We Know by Heart, which explores how we can develop curriculum from our own experiences as writers, I want to share some of the amazingly thoughtful comments readers left in response to Allen Woodman’s short short story “Wallet” in the other week’s post. In particular, I want to try to notice and name the moves those readers made and the instructional implications of those moves for classrooms.
To begin with, every single reader who responded was deeply engaged in thinking about what particular details might mean, both individually and in relationship to the whole. They considered the significance of the fortune cookie, the father’s comment about “all oyster and no pearl,” the billfold rising up “like a dark fish,” and the puzzling line that several mentioned, “There will be time enough for silence and rest.” Sometimes they had specific ideas about what those details might be revealing about character or even theme, and sometimes they weren’t sure what to do with them. But they all entered the text assuming that the details they encountered weren’t random but had been deliberately chosen by the author to convey something more than, say, the literal contents of a wallet. And as readers, their job was to attend to those details and to question and consider their meaning, which they did by wondering and brainstorming possibilities in a way that seemed less firm or emphatic than an inference or a prediction.
I believe there are instructional implications in what these readers knew about texts and how they used strategies based on that knowledge. Katie Wood Ray calls these “curriculum chunks,” and we can turn these chunks into teaching points, which could sound like this:
- Readers know that writers choose details deliberately to reveal both characters and the ideas or themes they’re exploring through the story.
- Because they know that, readers do the following:
- They attend to the details they notice, asking themselves and wondering: Why is the author telling me this? What could this possibly mean?
- They hold onto those wonderings as they keep reading, expecting to gain more clarity as they read.
- They consider the possible meaning of details by brainstorming, using words like ‘maybe’, ‘might’ or ‘could.’
The readers of “Wallet” also brought their knowledge of how stories work to anticipate what some called a “twist”. But interestingly enough, not a single one predicted. Instead they all tried to remain open to whatever twists and turns the writer took, letting the story unfold on its own terms, while keeping their thinking tentative and flexible, knowing that endings are often unpredictable—and are frequently better for that.
There were also none of the literal text-to-self connections we frequently hear in classrooms—that is, no stories about pick-pocketed wallets or aging fathers in Florida. Mostly readers connected with their previous experiences as readers. And the one reader who explicitly made a connection to his grandfather pushed and prodded and probed that connection, connecting it to other details and memories until it yielded an insight about the text.
Similarly while many readers talked about visualizing, they did so for specific reasons. They visualized as a way of monitoring their comprehension and as a tool to infer events that were conveyed indirectly in the text. They visualized to interpret the imagery, like the billfold rising “like a dark wish.” They also visualized as a way of emotionally engaging with the story, with virtually no mental image mentioned without the reader also thinking of what that image made them feel. And along with that inquisitive, wondering stance, “it was,” as one reader put it, “the way the text made me feel that truly supported my meaning making.”
Here, too, there are instructional implications that could be turned into teaching points:
- Readers know that stories unfold over time in ways that aren’t always predictable, and so they try to keep their minds open and receptive, drafting and revising their understandings as they go, without clamping down on any one idea too early.
- Readers know that it’s not enough to make a connection with a text. They explore and question their connections, using them as tools to dig deeper.
- Readers visualize to both monitor and fix breakdowns in their comprehension and to infer events that weren’t made explicit in the text.
- Readers also visualize to think about the imagery and engage emotionally with the text. And they use their emotional responses and ideas about the imagery to consider what the author might be trying to show them or explore through the vehicle of the story.
It’s also worth noting that no reader made a definitive claim about ‘the theme’ of the story. Perhaps they would have if I’d asked them to; but at the risk of speaking for them, I think that, as readers, they didn’t feel a need to sum up and fit all they were thinking into a single statement—yet. They were, however, all circling ideas that we could call understandings or themes. One, for instance, was trying to “reconcile the complex notion that the father might be embarrassed but also delighted at the same time,” while others kept thinking about that fortune cookie, aware that the events of the story refuted its life-is-always-the-same-old-story message. One thought the story was “at least partly about” our society’s view of the elderly, while others considered what it might be saying about father and son relationships. And having that line about silence and rest brought to my attention by a few readers, I found myself thinking about mortality and death, which seems to hover over the story as yet another layer and lens for thinking about its ideas.
My hunch is that what we each focused on says something about our individual preoccupations and concerns. And the beauty of the story is that it offered so many entryways in less than 300 words, along with the following teaching points:
- Readers know that even short texts can’t always be boiled down to a single idea, and that there are many ways of accessing and constructing understandings based on which details the reader notices and what they bring to the text.
- Readers don’t read to identify a theme. Rather their understanding of theme emerges from their engagement and thinking about the details of the text.
- Readers’ understanding of a text can be enriched and developed by hearing what other readers notice and think.
- Readers need to live and linger with multiple possibilities before committing themselves to one idea for the purpose of writing a paper.
All of these points are based on these readers’ understanding of how narratives are built. And all set strategies within the context and purpose of searching for meaning. That’s what was in these readers’ hearts. And that’s what I think should be in our teachers’ hearts as we talk to students about reading.
With many thanks to author Allen Woodman and all the readers who shared their thoughts on his story “Wallet.” Their comments can be found by clicking this link and scrolling down to the end of the post.


Caffeine Overdose Kills South Carolina Teen. That was the headline a few months ago, in May 2017, after a 16-year-old boy downed a latte, an energy drink and a large Mountain Dew and died. Parents, along with coffee addicts around the world, panicked, wondering if they had to now add caffeine to the list of dangers to worry about.
But Christopher Holstege, MD, of the Blue Ridge Poison Center, warns against paranoia. “You would have to drink a lot of coffee to overdose on caffeine. The highest reported caffeine blood level following a survivor of a caffeine overdose was equivalent to 1,000 cups of coffee, for instance.”
Taking too many caffeine pills – about 48 cups of coffee’s worth – killed a man in 2006. But episodes like these — a caffeine overdose causing seizures or a heart arrhythmia that kills — are rare.
Too Much Coffee?
“Caffeine isn’t bad; in fact, evidence shows maybe some benefit from it,” Holstege says, easing the minds of coffee-drinkers everywhere. “Everything is about dose. Drink in moderation.”
What exactly is moderation, when it comes to coffee? That’s where things get murky.
“It’s really hard to know with caffeine and adults, and there’s lots of different literature out there,” Holstege says. According to the European Food Safety Authority, for instance, an adult’s daily consumption of caffeine shouldn’t exceed 400 milligrams, which adds up to about two cups of coffee, a lot of soda, five Red Bulls and two caffeine pills. The Food and Drug Administration here in the U.S., however, has said that five cups of coffee (per day) are safe. The indications have changed over time, adding to the confusion.
Whatever the recommendations, really, the dose of caffeine a person can handle varies. As Holstege explains, “Caffeine is a chemical, and we have different make-ups regarding how our bodies react to different chemicals.”
And this is why Holstege warns us to take the scary headlines with a grain of salt.
“Pre-existing health conditions or genetics play a role,” he says. Connective tissue disease, for instance, increase the risk for an aorta to rupture due to too much caffeine. “There’s been a number of deaths at fairly low doses. But even if someone drinks a large amount of coffee and dies — it doesn’t mean they died from the beverage. We don’t really know. We often don’t hear the final autopsy reports,” just the anxiety-causing headlines.
Caffeine and Children
The indications don’t clear up when it comes to children.
While the American Academy of Pediatrics discourages any caffeine and stimulant use by children, the FDA does not have any regulations regarding children and caffeine.
Studies suggest that energy drinks can be harmful when consumed without caution, especially by young children. And it’s not just coffee and energy drinks parents need to watch for and regulate. You can buy almost anything in a caffeinated form these days: from water and syrup to gum and jelly beans.
Parents should definitely take heed.
“Caffeine is a stimulant, and you can get addicted to it. And children’s brains are still developing. Most prefer children under 12 to avoid it altogether,” Holstege says. And, he adds, teens especially need to limit caffeine intake because of how much sleep they need.
The Biggest Risk: Putting Off Sleep
More than the risk of dying from too much coffee, Holstege expresses his concerns about teens taking so much coffee they don’t get the sleep they need.
“You look around at students these days, like here at UVA, and you see a fair amount of coffee being bought,” he says. “Students will drink a large coffee just before bed as they cram for an exam and expect to go to sleep, but that’s not going to happen. Sleep will be impossible.”
Caffeine has to get metabolized and out of your system, and Holstege says that can take four to six hours, although that varies between individuals.
And if you find yourself unable to go to sleep because you’ve had too much caffeine?
“The only thing you can do is wait it out if you have too much,” Holstege says. “Your body has to metabolize it and can only do that so much.”
He notes that both teens and adults can get in an over-caffeinated state and “take depressants or sleeping pills because they can’t sleep at night – it becomes a vicious cycle.” If your teen is using pills to stay awake and study, you may need to intervene.
Caffeine Overdose: What to Do?
If you’re worried your child has overdosed on caffeine, in whatever form, call the Blue Ridge Poison Center.
Avoid the Caffeine Cycle
Avoid the cycle by planning, Holstege says.
• Don’t cram in middle of night
• Don’t take stimulants like caffeine in the evening before going to bed
• Never take drugs that are not prescribed to you, such as Ritalin or Adderall
• Read labels – don’t forget that many sodas have caffeine
• Caffeine can augment medicine, so be careful to read prescription labels/talk to your doctor
“If you need to stay awake in a dull meeting, sometimes just the motion of drinking any kind of liquid can help,” he suggests. “Drinking plenty of water each day is a good substitute.”


The Basics of Surround Sound Formats Explained
In this weeks article we take a small diversion from our historical HDMI journey to talk Surround Sound formats. Most AV Receivers available these days have a long list of decoding options. So which is which?
Dolby was the first company to really get to grip with surround sound using its “Dolby Surround” format for full size cinemas. Later they also launched the “Prologic System” for homes that was the first step toward widely available domestic surround sound.
Perhaps the most important technical aspect of all the Prologic formats (including the later Prologic II and IIx) is that only two channels of audio carrier are required to move it around. That’s significant because it means that any carrier of stereo audio could be used, with suitably encoded audio and a decoder at the playback end, to generate a (limited) surround field. Broadcast TV, VHS tape and Laserdisc were all popular carriers of early Prologic soundtracks.
The number of surround channels available with Prologic was limited at first, as was the audio bandwidth. The three front channels (Left, Centre & Right) were more or less full bandwidth but the two rear channels (Left and Right Surround) where both bandwidth and frequency limited. They also were actually the same mono signal! In addition, there were no special arrangements for low frequency effects (LFE). To carry more channels a digital system was needed and again Dolby were first to offer a solution…
Dolby Digital (AC-3)
The first appearance of Dolby Digital (or AC-3 as it was first know, AC-3 being the lossy digital compression format used) was on Laserdisc. Special players with digital outputs were required and the “clunkiness” of the whole system meant it only became popular at the more “enthusiast” end of the home cinema market. However, the rise of DVD in the late 1990s / early 2000s with its ability to carry the Dolby signals as standard kick started the home cinema market and with it came digital surround sound.
The Dolby Digital system offered a (up to) 5.1 channel system from the start. The front three channels remain but now the two surround channels offered a full bandwidth signal and were properly discrete. To complete the mix the “.1” channel offered a place to put low frequency information that could be replayed using a dedicated subwoofer.
DTS (Digital Theatre Systems)
The introduction of the DTS system started in cinemas with its use on the original Jurassic Park film. Rather than trying to squeeze the whole digital sound track on small pieces of magnetic strip between the films sprocket holes (which is how the Dolby system works) DTS uses a separate CD and player to store the audio which was synced to the film reels for playback. The extra space available on the CD (and the arguably superior DTS coding system) gave rise to a significant improvement in sound quality. It wasn’t long before DTS soundtracks started to appear on DVDs alongside the Dolby soundtrack and domestic AV receivers that could decode the format soon followed.
6.1 and 7.1 Systems
It’s never long after a new technology is released that someone, somewhere that wants to improve on it. While 5.1 systems do a great job in the living room the makers of Star Wars Episode 1 (The Phantom Menace) decided more surround channels were needed in the cinemas to convey the sense of movement their film needed in sound. “Dolby Digital Surround EX” brought the answer and, rather than needing a complete redesign, the extra “Centre Surround” channel was encoded into the existing surround channels so no change in carrier was needed.
Soon a whole raft of 6.1 channel systems (often referred to as “7.1” systems) were born. The “7.1” term refers to the fact that installations often feature two Centre Surround speakers, one each toward the left and right corners. DTS also offered a 6.1 channel system, DTS Surround ES, together with a 6.1 system with a fully discrete Centre Surround channel – DTS Discrete 6.1.
High Resolution Surround Sound
With the capacity of DVD discs “maxed out” the next steps in improved surround sound had to wait for the arrival of a higher capacity carrier. After a short battle with the opposing HD-DVD format BluRay became the high definition videodisc of choice and with it came higher capacity for sound data. The format developers were quick to use this to good effect.
Both Dolby and DTS came forward with two formats one lossy and one lossless, each. Dolby gave us Dolby Digital Plus and Dolby TruHD while DTS offered DTS-HD and DTS Master Audio. While these offered yet more potential resolution and dynamic range their data hungry nature also meant a new connection between source and decoder was needed. Lucky HDMI was perfect…
Next week we return to our historical look at HDMI to see which version can be used for connecting which surround sound format.


- What is Nephrotic Syndrome (NS)
- Statistics on Nephrotic Syndrome (NS)
- Risk Factors for Nephrotic Syndrome (NS)
- Progression of Nephrotic Syndrome (NS)
- Symptoms of Nephrotic Syndrome (NS)
- Clinical Examination of Nephrotic Syndrome (NS)
- How is Nephrotic Syndrome (NS) Diagnosed?
- Prognosis of Nephrotic Syndrome (NS)
- How is Nephrotic Syndrome (NS) Treated?
- Nephrotic Syndrome (NS) References
What is Nephrotic Syndrome (NS)
Nephrotic Syndrome (NS) is a disease affecting the kidneys.
Exclusively associated with the excessive loss of albumin into the urine generally defined to be exceeding 3.5g per day.
Statistics on Nephrotic Syndrome (NS)
Difficult to estimate due to wide cross section of renal disorders being associated with its occurrence. Minimal change disease accounts for three quarters of childhood cases and this occurs in 15 per 100,000 children. The incidence in adults is also dependent on the cause and thus will vary with the incidence of the particular diseases in the population.
Risk Factors for Nephrotic Syndrome (NS)
Nephrotic syndrome has a vast number of causes.
They are classified as primary (causes that primarily affect the glomerulus of the kidney) and secondary (known conditions whose affect on the kidney is part of their spectrum of disease. The primary causes are designated according to their microscopic appearance, for little is known about their specific origin. The secondary causes are designated by disease name, for the nephrotic syndrome occurs with the existence of that disease.
The primary diseases include minimal change disease, focal segmental glomerulosclerosis, membranous glomerulopathy, proliferative glomerulonephritis and membranoproliferative glomerulonephritis.
The secondary diseases include various infections, drugs/toxins (non-steroidal anti-inflammatories, gold salts, heroin, heavy metals, bee stings, pollens, tumour associated antigens), collagen-vascular diseases, diabetes mellitus, amyloidosis, light chain nephropathy, chronic vesicoureteric reflux, pregnancy, and obesity.
Progression of Nephrotic Syndrome (NS)
Prior to the development of immunosuppression therapy, nephrotic syndrome resolved in one of three ways.
1. Patients experienced the complications of nephrosis: Immunoglobulin loss in the urinary protein increased susceptibility to infection. The balance of clotting factors in the blood is also altered by this condition increasing the risk of developing clots in affected patients.
2. Renal toxicity: The longer and greater the loss of protein in the urine, the quicker the kidney develops glomerulosclerosis and fails.
3. The development of chronic renal failure.
Careful attention to the glomerulopathy with steroids and to the complications with drugs such as angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors have substantially improved the prognosis and prolonged the functional life of the kidney.
How is Nephrotic Syndrome (NS) Diagnosed?
The diagnosis of nephrotic syndrome will require a number of blood and urine tests to be carried out. Typical findings are increased protein in the urine, (which may need to be quantified with a 24 hr urine collection) decreased proteins in the blood and increased lipids or fats within the bloodstream.
Prognosis of Nephrotic Syndrome (NS)
The outcome varies; the syndrome may be acute and short-term or chronic and unresponsive to therapy. The cause and development of complications also affects the outcome.
How is Nephrotic Syndrome (NS) Treated?
1. Reduction of oedema: This can be achieved with the use of fluid tablets such as frusemide to enable the kidneys to excrete excess fluid more rapidly.
2. Control of hypertension: With sietary salt reduction and anti-hypertensive medication.
3. Prevention of infection: The pneumococcal vaccine is usually given as patients with this condition are more susceptible to this kind of infection.
4. Vitamin D supplementation: If deemed required on blood examination.
5. Prevent blood clots: Consider anticoagulation therapy.
6. Steroid therapy: May be necessary in some cases to control the condition.
Nephrotic Syndrome (NS) References Braunwald, Fauci, Kasper, Hauser, Longo, Jameson. Harrison’s Principles of Internal Medicine. 15th Edition. McGraw-Hill. 2001.
 Cotran, Kumar, Collins 6th edition. Robbins Pathologic Basis of Disease. WB Saunders Company. 1999.
 Kumar P, Clark M. CLINICAL MEDICINE. WB Saunders 2002 Pg 427-430.
 Hurst JW (Editor-in-chief). Medicine for the practicing physician. 4th edition Appleton and Lange 1996.
 Longmore M, Wilkinson I, Torok E. OXFORD HANDBOOK OF CLINICAL MEDICINE. Oxford Universtiy Press. 2001.
 MEDLINE Plus.


Bullying in Adolescents
By Karla and Helena
The different types of bullying
These are the four main types of bullying. All four of these types of bullying can lead to the same effect. There is no exceptions or exclusions for any of these forms of bullying.
Cyberbullying- Bullying over the internet and on social Media. This effects are mental status
Physical Bullying- Punching, kicking and anything hurting their physical health. This affects our physical status and body image.
Verbal bullying- Abusing someone with hurtful or insulting words. This affects or mental health and wellbeing.
Social Bullying- Spreading rumours or telling others nasty things about someone behind their backs. This affects our social abilities.
The effects of bullying on an adolescents physical, social and mental health.
Bullying can have a big negative impact on your health and wellbeing. This can result in a something that is in the list below. If these symptoms aren't treated properly it can lead to worse things.
Physical effects :
Severe weight loss or gain
Lack of sleep
Psychological effects :
Reduced academic performance
Lack of motivation
Withdrawal from activities
Strategies for coping with being bullied
There are many ways that you could cope with being bullied, these consist of these tips below :
Ignore them and turn away
Use humour and make it has positive as positive
Have a confident body language - stand tall, speak clearly and look at them in the eye.
Don't let the bully see you upset - don't give them power.
Don't be afraid to have a chat about with with a family member or a friend.
Tell the bully how you feel
Asked the bully, why ?
Stop, take a chill, breath.
Don't leave it to the last minute - to fix the problem
Don't make it a bigger problem
Health resources aimed at supporting victims of bullying
There are many Websites and helplines open for young people struggling to cope with bullying. You don’t have to use these helplines, you could simply talk to an adult or trusted relative. There are such things as guidance counselors and support guides if you don't have an important family member in your life. Teachers, psychologists and health experts are another useful source to rely on. Our top 4 links will be in another bar below if you are struggling and need help.
Recommended website for student use
OUR TOP 4 WEBSITES FOR SUPPORT
This website shows you the types of bullying
Explains bullying and what it does to young adolescents
Shows you the steps to help conquer bullying.
This website gives you information and resources for helpline phone numbers
Other useful websites that could help you recover from bullying
Is a good resource for teachers, students and parents.
This website give you trusted information on mental health.
Shares others stories and how their stories could help you.
They are all real people and can give you positive advice to help you with your bullying problems.
This website has detailed information and many headings and topics.
It explains the typical problems in an adolescent's life
It has resources for parents, teachers and students.
Health and Physical Education 1 - Michelle Bradford, Damien Davis, Ben Dawe, page: 282,283


It is common knowledge that the Universe began with the Big Bang. However, it is not yet certain as toRead more
Did You Know? A broken cup never re-assembles itself. A cube of ice melts if kept outside, but the waterRead more
What is thermodynamics? A branch of physics which deals the relationship between heat and the other forms of Energy. InRead more
Time is a measurement between events or moments. It is a measurement of progress of existence and events from past to future through present.
Time is a fundamental part of the universe and it is a fundamental physical quantity. Time is referred to fourth dimension along 3 spatial dimensionRead more


Mosquitoes with West Nile virus found in Pelham, N.H.
Pelham parks, fields to be sprayed in coming days
Mosquitoes collected in Pelham, N.H., have tested positive for West Nile virus, according to state health officials.
Emergency mosquito spraying will be done at all Pelham town parks, schools, playgrounds and fields in the coming days, according to the N.H. Department of Health and Human Services.
There have been no human cases of West Nile virus or EEE in New Hampshire or Massachusetts this year.
West Nile virus is usually transmitted to humans through the bite of an infected mosquito. Most people infected with West Nile virus will have no symptoms. West Nile virus symptoms tend to include fever and flu-like illness, but in rare cases, more severe illness can occur.
EEE is spread to humans through the bite of an infected mosquito. Initial symptoms of EEE are fever -- often 103 to 106 degrees Fahrenheit -- stiff neck, headache and lack of energy; in severe cases, symptoms can progress to confusion, disorientation and coma.


Sonobioprocessing can be used in the bioethanol industry: Bioethanol is the world’s most significant biofuel and around 85 B litres, worth $50 B, was produced in 2011 from over 500 producers. EU production is increasing constantly and currently stands at around 5 B litres. It will remain the dominant biofuel for some years to come. Importantly, global ethanol demand will represent 73% of total biofuels demand in 2020 and capacity will need to be added to keep up with demand requirements of over 180 B litres by 2020.
Current data predicts a strong increase in bioethanol capacity for near future. World production will continue to grow strongly, and will be derived from first and second generation processing.
Most bioethanol is made by first generation processes, where starches and sugars derived from food crops are used in yeast fermentation followed by distillation. In first generation processing there are some 200 corn ethanol producers in the USA alone and over 500 bioethanol producers worldwide. In the UK, Bioethanol can be economically produced by the fermentation of sugar beet (AB Sugar - some 70 M litres) or wheat (Vivergo).
However, the longer-term future of bioethanol is likely to lie with second generation processes, where various types of lignocellulosic biomass are used as the sugar sources. Terrestrial lignocellulose is the most abundant renewable feedstock on the planet, with annual production of > 200 billion tonnes, and can yield over 40% of its mass in fermentable sugars. The first commercial plants are starting to produce ethanol and many others are expected to emerge soon. According to European commission policy announcements, first generation ethanol is expected to be limited to about 5% of transport fuels with little or no expansion in production. There is now a strong impetus for a major shift to second generation ethanol production.
As an automotive fuel currently unleaded fuel on UK forecourts contains 5% bioethanol (E5). However there is a need to increase to 10% (E10) as most spark engine cars require no alteration. The major car producers can manufacture engines that can run on E55 (55% bioethanol). Ford, Volvo and Saab produce "Flex-Fuel" Vehicles (FFVs) that run on any percentage petrol-ethanol blend (up to E85). Ford has reported 70% reduction in carbon dioxide emissions compared with the petrol version.
Sonobioprocessing has the potential to impact the bioethanol industry including improving the bioethanol yield from waste biomass, agricultural residues, lignocellulose, and simple and complex carbohydrates.


1 of 5
We’ll kick this gallery off with a video. If we want to go further than the moon then we’re going to have to figure out where we are going, it is pointless planning a route with your eyes closed and the James Webb Space Telescope is designed to give us a greater understanding of the universe.
Mechanical Engineers at Lockheed Martin - the industrial partner to the NASA project – are using MakerBot Replicators for rapid prototyping purposes.
They say that the machines are helping them work in parallel to the testing processes by NASA, massively speeding up and therefore cutting costs of the design. This is hugely important in keeping the project on track, it has been on shaky ground after coming under scrutiny from US Congress for overspending.
2 of 5
In order to get into space you need power and lots of it. Current rockets are hugely expensive and take considerable time and tooling to create. NASA are using additive manufacturing to test parts that they say could be up to 70% cheaper to reproduce.
The pictured rocket-firing test recently showed the 3D printed part coping with 20,000lb of thrust. Traditionally a similar part would be made up from around 115 components, due to the ability to create complex structures with 3D printing this part is made from just two components!
If the rocket holds up in scrutiny tests then we could see this cheaper rocket go into full production, which could see us all on flights to space one day.
3 of 5
The problem with working in zero gravity is you can’t put things down, say you needed to fix the satellite dish on the side of your house, you can just put that spanner down and be sure in the knowledge it’ll stay put. In space DIY ain’t so easy, spanners float off and not all parts are readily available, you can’t just nip to a local hardware store for that hinge that’s broke on the kitchen door, that's the air-lock door and you're going to die without it.
This is were 3D printing comes in, NASA have been testing printers in zero-gravity conditions and have now announced that they are planning to use the a printer on-board in 2014.
"Imagine an astronaut needing to make a life-or-death repair on the International Space Station," said Aaron Kemmer, CEO of NASAs 3D printing partner Made in Space,
"Rather than hoping that the necessary parts and tools are on the station already, what if the parts could be 3D printed when they needed them?"
4 of 5
We’ve all seen space food right? They come in sachets like cat food, which are warmed in a microwave. Space food has to be packaged neatly and rich in nutrition, whereas Meal, Ready to Eat (MREs) used by the armed forces are designed to keep very active soldiers in battle, the meals designed for astronauts must cater for a slower, older clientele. NASA have steadily improved the available food list but essentially the preparation and packaging of the products have stayed the same since the early days of Neil and Buzz.
This year NASA granted $125k to Systems and Materials Research Corporation (SMRC) to see if they could develop more appetising food for astronauts to eat should they endure a fiver year trip to Mars.
The first display of this was a 3D printed pizza, made from food powders, layered down in essentially the same way as an FDM machine. I wouldn’t have thought it is going to get the Associazione Vera Pizza Napoletana seal of approval but it may be slightly tastier than those packets of Whiskers astronauts have previously had to endure.
5 of 5
Where to live
So you’ve landed on the moon, ready to start your new life. But where are you going to live? There are no trees to build a tree house, no corrugated iron (unless you take apart your ship) for your roof, I don’t imagine you had the funds to bring bricks out with you so where the heck are you going to live?
Well what if we could send giant 3D printing robot spiders to the moon before you and those spiders could make a habitat for you to live in out of moon dust? Ridiculous you might think, but, according to the SinterHab's recent study, theoretically perfectly possible.
The Renaissance astronomer Johannes Kepler dedicated his life to understanding space and in particular the moon. He spent the last decade of his being writing the work of fiction, Somnium, released in 1634, four years after his death. The novel details explicitly how the earth would look from the moon and the book is considered by many to be the first true work of science fiction.
379 years later and we’re still obsessed by space travel and exploration. Since the end of the Apollo era things may have appeared to slow down a little but that couldn’t be further from the truth and it is 3D printing that is proving to be the catalyst for a new space craze.
3D printing now plays a crucial part in the research and development of all things astronomical, in the gallery above we explore the five ways the technology could be the final piece in the jigsaw to send us into the final frontier.


Associations to the word «Warmth»
WARMTH, noun. A moderate degree of heat; the sensation of being warm.
WARMTH, noun. Friendliness, kindness or affection.
WARMTH, noun. (arts) The effect of using mostly red and yellow hues.
WARMTH, noun. The sensation caused by heat energy.
WARMTH, noun. A warmhearted feeling.
WARMTH, noun. The quality of having a moderate degree of heat; "an agreeable warmth in the house".
WARMTH, noun. The trait of being intensely emotional.
WARMTH, noun. A quality proceeding from feelings of affection or love.
In words are seen the state of mind and character and disposition of the speaker.


Russia, the world's largest producer of oil and gas, has always taken a skeptical view of climate change. In the wake of last summer's fires, public opinion is shifting.
In the past, Prime Minister Vladimir Putin has joked that global warming would mean that Russians would buy fewer fur coats and enjoy longer growing seasons. But after the fires, he and many Russians are taking a more open-minded view of the impact of humans on their climate.
At a recent conference here on the Arctic, he surprised visiting scientists by supporting research into theories that burning hydrocarbons is causing a dangerous build up of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.
Referring to global warming, he asked: "How are we influencing the speed of this process?"
Last summer's record high temperatures did not just bring Miami heat to Moscow. Droughts destroyed one third of the nation's grain crops, causing $1.3 billion in losses to farmers.
Around Moscow, fires smoldered unchecked in dried out peat bogs, filling the capital with woodsmoke. According to new figures, Moscow alone saw 9,000 extra deaths in August - almost a 70 percent jump in the mortality rate. Across Russia, the mortality rate jumped by more than one quarter.
According to a new survey, one third of Russians polled attributed the fires to global warming. An overwhelming majority expected a repeat of the fires next summer.
Igor Chestin, executive director of WWF Russia, has watched the change in public attitudes in a nation that relies heavily on its oil and gas exports:
"The public does not think they can do anything about it," said Chestin. "It is just something that happens, but it is not in their hands."
At the Arctic conference, Alexander Bedritsky, the Kremlin's advisor on climate change, said that temperatures in the Russian arctic had increased twice as fast as in the rest of the world.
Last week, a Norwegian trimaran, the Northern Passage, completed circling the North Pole in a single summer season. With much of the route going through Russian waters, the crew said in a statement: "Less than 10 years ago, the first steel-hulled sailboat managed to get through just one of the passages, and 100 years ago, a circumnavigation would have taken six years."
At the Moscow conference, Anatoli Brouchkov, a permafrost expert at Moscow State University' said that climate change is eroding the permafrost, the frozen soil layer essential for construction in the Russian Arctic
"About 50 percent of the buildings in the Russian Far North are damaged," said Brouchkov.
With Russian public opinion shifting, Russian leaders increasingly call for energy efficiency in a gas guzzling economy.
As a sign of the times, Moscow's new mayor, Sergei Sobyanin, vowed Thursday to impose construction standards that could raise the energy efficiency in new homes and offices by 30 percent.


The many varieties of Sorbus – both mountain ash and Swedish whitebeam – have bestowed clusters of flowers, colourful leaves and striking berries on Rosemary Verey’s Gloucestershire garden. Here she selects some of her favourites.
Now and the next two months are the best times to plant trees in your garden, so they have enough time for their roots to settle before the hard weather sets in. Make your selection from a catalogue or by visiting a good nursery. One visit is worth 100 catalogues, but anyone anticipating planting new trees will have looked around and taken notes.
We have been delighted with the Sorbus we were advised to plant on our alkaline soil (limestone), in the Cotswolds. The Sorbus family divides into two sections, the mountain ash (aucuparia) with pinnate leaves and the Swedish whitebeam (aria) with simple leaves.
They are a wise choice for drier conditions and even poor soil. They give major interest in spring with their flowers, in summer they provide shade so are ideal lawn trees, and in autumn their berries and leaves provide a diversity of colour.
I do not recommend our native mountain ash or rowan for the garden, the berries ripen in August and the birds will immediately steal them. My two selections with red berries are Sorbus commixta ‘Embley’ (left) (AGM), an upright 6-7 metre tree with outstanding and long-lasting colour in October and November and generous clusters of orange-red berries.
S. sargentiana, named for Charles Sprague Sargent, director of the Arnold Arboretum in Boston, has pinnate leaves up to 12 inches long, with 6-inch leaflets. These turn brilliant vermilion tones in late autumn. The bunches of scarlet berries are huge: I’ve counted up to 400 in a single cluster. Find a specimen with branches coming from near the ground, so you can appreciate the berries at eye level.
Joseph Rock went plant hunting in China, around 1900, for Professor Sargent, and brought back a yellow-berried form – named S. ‘Joseph Rock’ (AGM). It fruits reliably every autumn, and the birds ignore them until food is scarce.
Do include S. cashmiriana, an upright 5-6 metre tree with fern-like leaves and large pure white berries. In our garden the birds tend to peck and drop them.
S. hupehensis (AGM) is different in that its foliage has a grey tinge, looking silvery in sunlight. The berries start pink, turning to white. It is too large for a small lawn, but does well used as a windbreak or to hide an ugly building, or in a Sorbus collection.
My last choice is S. vilmorinii (AGM). Catalogues tell you it will grow to 6 metres, but on our poor Cotswold soil it has remained small, only 3 metres, so we can appreciate the clusters of pendulous berries (below). These start rosy red, changing to pink and then to white. It fascinates visitors when all these colours show simultaneously!
In the aria section, the Swedish whitebeams have simple, ovate leaves. In spring S. aria ‘Lutescens’ (AGM) is striking in the distance with silvery leaves looking like flowers. Later they turn green with grey undersides. The fruits are cherry like.
Sorbus latifolia, the ‘Service tree of Fontainbleau’ is broad-headed with russet-yellow berries. You can see S. l. ‘Mitchellii’ (AGM) at the Westonbirt Arboretum, Gloucestershire. This whitebeam was discovered by the late Alan Mitchell. It has a rounded head and reaches 8-10 metres, and is distinct for its massive leaves, about 15 cm each way. I used S. ‘Leonard Sprenger’ in a tree planting for friends and they are delighted with the large flowerheads and great clusters of orange-red fruits.
General thoughts when buying and planting trees:
1. Ask the nursery to mark on the trunk which side faces south
2. Dig a square hole (not round) and loosen the sides with a fork
3. Have enough good compost in a wheelbarrow, also a stake/s, and ties
4. Lay a stake across your hole to mark the ultimate level of the soil – this is to guide you for depth when planting
5. Spread the roots out and carefully place the stake to avoid these
6. Infill with compost, allowing this to filter between the roots, firming often
7. Secure the main stem to the stake/s
8. When planting in grass allow enough open soil around the trunk to prevent mower damage
9. Water well then either lay flat stones or carpet around the trunk to retain moisture
Note: AGM = Royal Horticultural Society Award of Garden Merit
See also the Helping Hands workshop:
How to plant and stake a tree
How to store bare rooted trees


This new OECD series aims to highlight the latest data in selected countries, to explain their health care systems and to provide key information in a clear and concise way. Each country snapshot highlights the most pertinent issues, be it smoking, obesity, surgical interventions, consumption of antibiotics, physicians density, etc., with the help of key statistics and are followed by brief policy recommendations.
English, PDF, 362kb
Despite financial strains, Portugal has shown a great level of commitment towards improving the quality and efficiency of its health system while maintaining a universal public system. However, although progress has been achieved, certain areas demand further scrutiny such as access to health care services – especially among the most vulnerable population – quality of care, healthier lifestyles and the long-term care system.
English, PDF, 564kb
The German health system is characterised by high levels of human and physical resources guaranteeing good access to care with a low direct financial burden for patients. Nevertheless, the changing demographic situation with a rapidly ageing society creating new demand for health services will pose a challenge for Germany’s health system.
English, PDF, 396kb
Denmark has a strong and high-performing healthcare system. However, challenges remain when it comes to primary care and prevention. Harmful alcohol consumption and rising overweight and obesity rates among adults suggest a need for targeted public health policies in Denmark.
English, PDF, 380kb
The Netherlands has seen remarkable improvements in the health of its population but also faces several challenges. The burden of cardiovascular diseases has declined but cancer prevalence is relatively high. Financial sustainability is of concern, while reforms in mental and long-term care that aim to improve efficiency must be monitored carefully.
English, PDF, 341kb
Although increasing, life expectancy in the Czech Republic, at 78.3 years, was still below the OECD average of 80.5 years in 2013. The Czech Republic presents above average levels of risk factors such as tobacco, alcohol consumption and obesity. To cope with the expected rise in chronic diseases, the Czech Republic will have to shift care from the hospital sector and strengthen preventive health care.
English, PDF, 345kb
Hungary ranks among the OECD countries with the highest rates of obesity, harmful alcohol use and tobacco smoking. These are leading behavioural risk factors for non-communicable diseases. Hungary has implemented a public health tax and tight policies on alcohol consumption, but alcohol taxation is mild and unrecorded alcohol and tobacco consumption are significant.
English, PDF, 413kb
In the past 30 years Korea has gone from having a limited medical infrastructure, fragmented financing and limited population coverage, to a health care system characterised by universal coverage, one of the highest life expectancies in the world while still having one of the lowest levels of health expenditure among OECD countries.
English, PDF, 529kb
Israel has built a universal health system at relatively low-cost. Health spending was 7.5% of GDP in 2013, below the OECD average of 8.9% although the health spending share of GDP has been increasing rapidly, particularly in recent years. Israel has developed a sophisticated programme to monitor quality of primary care.
English, PDF, 351kb
Norway has an impressive and comprehensive health system, but it is facing several challenges over the coming years. The shift in the need for care from an ageing population will weigh heavily on the Norwegian health care system, demanding for more skilled health care personnel as well as strengthening of community care.


Don't confuse Peru balsam with tolu balsam, which is the oily sap from the stems of Myroxylon balsamum.
Despite serious safety concerns, people take Peru balsam to treat cancer, increase urine production (as a diuretic), and expel intestinal worms.
Peru balsam is sometimes applied directly to the skin for infected and poorly healing wounds, burns, bedsores (decubitus ulcers), frostbite, leg ulcers caused by poor circulation, bruises, hemorrhoids, anal itchiness, diaper rash, skin irritated by rubbing or sweat, and bleeding.
In dentistry, Peru balsam is included in products used for treating "dry socket," a painful condition that sometimes follows tooth removal. Dry socket occurs when the clot that forms in the gum after tooth extraction comes out too early, exposing the tender gum to the air. Peru balsam is also used in toothpaste and toothpowder.
In manufacturing, Peru balsam is added to perfumes, soaps, and cosmetics as a fragrance. It also helps to keep perfume from evaporating too fast.
In food, it is used as a flavoring.
Insufficient Evidence to Rate Effectiveness for...
TAKEN BY MOUTH
Natural Medicines Comprehensive Database rates effectiveness based on scientific evidence according to the following scale: Effective, Likely Effective, Possibly Effective, Possibly Ineffective, Likely Ineffective, and Insufficient Evidence to Rate (detailed description of each of the ratings).
Report Problems to the Food and Drug Administration