A FACTUAL GUIDE FOR CONSUMERS
We now stand on the verge of a great new age in magnetic science and its applications, a tool that has been provided by Mother Nature herself. Ralph U. Sierra M.D.
Why Magnetic Therapy?
Magnetic Therapy is a natural method used to relieve pain, restore energy and enhance sleep. It has proven to be a safe, effective, economical, and simple to use form of alternative therapy. Magnetic therapy is thousands of years old yet holds great promise for the future.
Benefits of Magnetic Therapy
Magnets have been scientifically proven to enable the body to regain its self-healing electromagnetic balance naturally. Strong evidence suggests that magnetic therapy may help to:
- Relieve Pain
- Reduce inflammation
- Restore natural energy
- Increase blood circulation
- Prevent or reverse infection
- Promote metabolic processing of toxins
- Support the healing process
Magnetic therapy is a non-invasive treatment method with a very high success rate. Magnetic therapy has much to offer in both the prevention and treatment of chronic ailments.
A Brief History of Magnetic Therapy
The association between magnets, health and well being is currently enjoying a revival, but the approach is not new. Magnetic therapy possesses an ancient heritage and has occupied a central role within Chinese medicine for over 2000 years. Magnetic therapy is mentioned in some of the earliest writings in Egypt, India and Greece. Until recently the scientific explanation of magnetic action was not available. Dedicated researchers and the introduction of the space age have contributed greatly to the understanding of magnetism in health and healing. NASA discovered that magnetic field generators were essential in space craft to maintain normal health for the astronauts
How Magnetic Therapy Works
Magnetic therapy utilizes the natural energy of magnetism that is important to human existence and overall health. A magnetic field provides a (natural) way to assist the (body’s normal healing process) as it passes through all tissues and cells. Studies show that magnets can be an effective therapy for the relief of pain by blocking pain sensations.
- Applying magnetic fields to an injured area improves blood flow and oxygen to enhance the body’s natural healing process.
- The improved blood flow and fluid exchange to the injured tissue helps reduce pain and inflammation.
Dr. U. Warnke’s studies showed higher body temperatures under the influence of magnetic fields. His study used infrared thermography, a method that maps increased heat caused by increased blood flow thus proving magnetic fields increase circulation.
*Dr. Julian Whittaker states, the big question in the scientific community is exactly how magnets produce such
amazing pain-relieving sensations. At this time no one can answer that question. But regardless of how they work, there is no question that they do work.
In 1997, Dr. Carlos Valbona of the Baylor College of Medicine, published a study that reported:
76% success rate.76% of treated patients using permanent magnets reported a decrease in arthritic joint and muscle pain VS: 19% of placebo patients.
Diabetic Foot Pain:
In 1999, Dr. Michael Weintraub of New York Medical College, released a study that showed a significant rate of reduction in foot pain that afflicts millions of diabetics.
90% success rate.Using magnetic insoles, nine out of ten diabetics reported a decrease in painful burning sensations, numbness and tingling VS. Only a 22% reporting improvement in the placebo group.
The Effects of Magnetic Poles
In simple terms, magnetic poles have the following effect:
North Pole – has a sedating, healing effect.
South Pole – has a stimulating, activating effect.
Bipolar (both poles) – Increases circulation, and is effective in pain control on conditions on or near the skin surface.
Gauss is the most misunderstood and misused word in the field of magnetic therapy. Magnet strength is measured in units called Gauss. For comparison, the natural magnetic field of the Earth is about ½ of 1 gauss. The average "refrigerator" magnet is about 10 gauss. Magnets used in therapeutic products vary from about 100 gauss to 2,500 gauss. The strength of a magnet is dependent on the size, weight and shape of the magnet.
FAQ (frequently asked questions)
Do Magnets Have The Power To Heal?
Magnets themselves do not heal. Magnets create an environment to assist and speed up the healing process.
WILL MAGNETS WORK FOR ME?
An estimated 140 million people around the world currently use magnetic therapy. Published studies demonstrate a success rate of 75 to 95%. (Depending on the various ailments studied)
How Long Should I Wear A Magnetic Product?
This is an individual’s choice. Some use magnetic devices until pain is relieved and re-apply when pain returns. Others wear magnetic devices most of the time. Base your decision on your results. Magnetic products used to relieve pain and speed up the healing process are generally used short term whereas those used to promote overall health and wellness are often used on a long term basis.
How Quick Can One Expect Results?
Some individuals get relief within minutes. The majority however, gets relief within several hours to several weeks. The effect can be very subtle and in some cases is not noticeable until after the treatment is stopped.
Are Magnetic Products Safe?
Magnets are a natural product from the earth’s resources. All research done to date indicates that magnets are one of the safest forms of alternative therapy available, This is also the position of The World Health Organization as stated in their study on magnetic fields published in 1987.
HOW LONG WILL MAGNETS LAST?
In normal use and with proper care, the magnetic element in products will last a lifetime. Magnetic products can be demagnetized if exposed to high temperatures exceeding 140° C (250°F).
WILL A FRIDGE MAGNET WORK?
No, a typical fridge magnet is magnetized bipolar, with up to 32 poles per inch. This configuration prevents the magnetic field from penetrating deep enough to be biologically effective.
Do Magnets Block Electromagnetic Pollution?
No they do not, although negative ions produced by aNorth pole magnetmay enhance the body’s ability to counter the effects of positive ion absorption from electromagnetic fields.
Explaining Different Types of Magnets
There are four types of magnets used in magnetic therapy. Gauss readings vary within each type according to the magnet’s weight, size and shape.
Ceramic #5 and Ceramic #8(Manufacturer’s rating 3950 and 4000 Gauss) Actual readings with a Gauss meter will range from 300 to 1200 Gauss. Made by mixing ceramic clay and iron powder. This type ofmagnet is used in most magnetic therapy products.
Flexible magnetic rubber(Manufacturer’s rating 700 Gauss) Actual readings with a Gauss meter will range from 120 to 260 Gauss. Made by mixing iron powder with rubber. Most commonly used in magnetic insoles and flexible magnetic therapy pads.
Neodymium(Manufacturer’s rating 10200 to 12300 Gauss). Actual readings with a Gauss meter will range from 1700 to 2300 Gauss. A very costly magnet made from a combination of neodymium, iron and boron. Used in magnetic jewelry and small magnetic therapy devices.
Samarium Cobalt(Manufacturer’s rating 8700 to 1100 Gauss). Actual readings with a Gauss meter range from 1000 to 2000 Gauss. Made from a combination of samarium and cobalt. Used in small quantities in magnetic jewelry items.
Today in Japan and other Asian countries, therapeutic magnets are licensed as medical devices. Magnetic therapy has found favor in Australia, Russia and many European countries, especially Germany where medical insurance covers some of the costs. Contemporary western medicine uses magnetic energy for diagnosis with magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and, as a method to accelerate the healing of bone fractures. Magnetic therapy is becoming increasingly popular among progressive health care practitioners, veterinarians and professional athletes as well as the general population.
It is a fact our population is aging and the cost of traditional health care is spiraling upward. Magnetic therapy, for reasons of simplicity, effectiveness and economy, will become a much more important form of alternative therapy in the future.
What the Experts Say
Magnetic energy has a beneficial effect on blood circulation, lymph flow, hormone production, nerves and muscles. Dr. Ulrich Warnke
The application of a magnetic field has the virtues of simplicity, freedom from danger and low cost. Dr. Evelyne Holzapfel
The astounding results obtained through magnet therapy give it a place of considerable importance in the field of therapeutics.Neville S. Bengali M.D.
This is a revolution in the therapy of muscle injuries, joint pain, and posture problems. We have treated 4,000 patients with whiplash injuries by means of the magnet and helped 80% of them.Dr. J.B. Baron M.D.
Magnets are scientifically proven to be able to assist the body regain its self-healing electromagnetic balance naturally. Ken Wianko, M.D.
Normal exposure to natural geomagnetic fields of the earth has diminished and many people suffer from, "magnetic field deficiency syndrome", which, can cause headaches, dizziness, muscle stiffness, chest pain, insomnia, constipation, and general fatigue. The use of magnets assists in restoring the natural magnetic balance required by the body’s healing process. Kyoichi Nakagawa M.D.
Magnetic fields can stimulate metabolism and increase the amount of oxygen available to the cells of the body. Magnet therapy can increase enzyme action because it fosters a favorable environment within cells (mainly a proper pH). William H. Philpott M.D.
According to the World Health Organization the type and Gauss strength of magnets used in magnetic therapy offer no health hazard. Consult your health care professional before using any new type of therapy. Most magnetic products carry warning labels indicating the following precautions:
- Use magnetic therapy as a supplement to conventional treatment. This information is provided for educational purposes only. It does not recommend self diagnosis and treatment with magnetic products. Anyone experiencing health problems should consult with a health care professional before starting any new therapy. The author will not be held responsible for anyone using this information to treat themselves or others. Do not use magnets or magnetic therapy if using a pacemaker, implanted medical device or insulin pump as they may interfere with the delicate electronic equipment. Magnetic products are not recommended with transdermal patches or during pregnancy.
- Keep magnetic products at least six inches away from objects such as credit cards, computers, diskettes, audio and videotapes, and similar items, as loss of data may result.
Note: This information is provided for educational purposes only. It does not recommend self-diagnosis and treatment with magnetic products. Anyone experiencing health problems should consult with a health care professional before starting any new therapy. Magna-Pak will not be held responsible for anyone using this information to treat themselves or others with magnets or magnetic therapy.
MAGNETIC THERAPY A Factual Guide for Consumers© ISBN - 0-9681900-1-4
Published May, 2000 By Mason Services Publishing P. O. Box 98, Arva Ontario Canada, N0M 1C0
Phone/Fax 519 471 3677
Copyright 2000 by Fred Rinker - Printed in Canada
All rights including illustrations are reserved including the right of reproduction in whole or in part in any form.
Author, Fred Rinker - Fred Rinker is also author of The Invisible Force –Traditional Magnetic Therapy
not to be printed or used without Magnapak's written permission.


Educators can use this page to learn how their students can access Guided Notes from their system. These are partially completed worksheets that scaffold the process of taking notes. Guided Notes are available for lessons that are in-progress, or for the following lesson, if the previous lesson has been completed. They are printable—but not editable—PDFs. For lessons that have Guided Notes, they will be displayed underneath the corresponding lesson's title.
To access the Educator version, click here.
For Students to access the Guided Notes:
- From the Course Map, select the guided notes underneath the lesson title.
- The PDF file will open in a new tab.


Darwin’s explanation of biological speciation in terms of variation and natural selection has revolutionised biological thought. However, while his principle of natural selection, the fitness principle, has shaped biology until the present, its interpretation changed more than once during the almost 150 years of its history. The most striking change of the status of the principle is that, in the middle of the 20th century, it transmutated from an often disputed, groundbreaking insight into a tautology. Moreover, not only the interpretation of the fitness principle, but the whole body of biological knowledge was subjected to significant modifications. In this paper, I relate modifications of the fitness principle to those of the respective body of biological knowledge. This body of knowledge is conceived as a Quinean web of belief. After an exposition of Darwin’s conception of the principle, which equated fitness with adaptedness to the environment, several of its changes are analysed with respect to different webs of biological knowledge. It is concluded that the different interpretations and the reshaping of the fitness principle are rational responses to the modified systems of background knowledge, which saved the coherence of the web of biological knowledge in each single case.


Osteotomy of the knee is surgery that involves making a cut in one of the bones in the lower leg. This can be done to relieve symptoms of arthritis (when other treatments no longer offer relief) by realignment of the leg. By having an osteotomy, the patient may be able to delay the need for a knee replacement for up to 10 years, but still stay active.
Arthritis most often affects the inside part of the knee. Most of the time, the outside part of the knee is not affected unless there was a knee injury in the past.
Osteotomy surgery works by shifting the weight away from the damaged part of the knee. For the surgery to be successful, the side of the knee where the weight is being shifted should have little or no arthritis.
There are two types of surgery:
- Tibial osteotomy is surgery done on the shin bone below the knee cap.
- Femoral osteotomy is surgery done on the thigh bone above the knee cap.
- It will be pain-free during surgery. Patient may get spinal or epidural anesthesia, along with medicine to help with relaxation. Patient may also receive general anesthesia, in which sleep occurs.
- Surgeon will make a 4 to 5 inch cut on the area where the osteotomy is being done.
- Surgeon may remove a wedge of shinbone from underneath the healthy side of the knee. This is called a closing wedge osteotomy.
- The surgeon may also open a wedge on the painful side of the knee. This is called an opening wedge osteotomy.
- Staples, screws, or plates may be used, depending on the type of osteotomy.
- May need a bone graft to fill in the wedge.
In most cases, the procedure will take 1 to 1 1/2 hours.
Patient will be fitted with a brace to limit movement of the knee during the recovery period. The brace may also help hold the knee in the correct position.
Patient will need to use crutches for 6 weeks or more. At first, patient may be asked to not place any weight on the knee. Patient will also see a physiotherapist to help with an exercise program.
Complete recovery may take several months to a year.


Nerves serve an especially important function in the body, allowing you to do everything from riding a bike to conversing with friends. However, when nerves become damaged, these once-normal functions and sensations may be affected.
If you’ve suffered nerve damage from an accident, consult an experienced personal injury attorney for assistance.
Understanding Nerves and Their Role in the Body
Every human has nerves. In common depictions of the nervous system, the nerves look like thin, branching cables running through the entire length of the body.
There are two main types of nerves: motor nerves, which help you move, and sensory nerves, which affect your senses, including touch, smell, and taste. There are also autonomic nerves, which regulate activities you don’t consciously control, such as digestion.
Additionally, there are two primary groups of nerves that stem from the brain and spinal cord:
- Cranial Nerves: Nerves that extend from the brain out into the head, neck, and face and have both motor and sensory functions
- Spinal Nerves: Nerves that originate from the spinal cord and have both motor and sensory functions
Nerves send electrical impulses produced in the brain to other parts of the body. These messages tell your body what to do and how to react to external stimuli. Nerves assist with some of the most important bodily functions that keep you alive, like breathing and regulating heart rate.
Nerve cells are also called neurons. These cells are present throughout the body but are most concentrated in the brain and spinal cord, which serve as the central components of the nervous system.
There are two main parts to the nervous system:
- Central Nervous System: Made up of the brain and spinal cord
- Peripheral Nervous System: The network of nerves that carry signals from different parts of the body to the spinal cord
As mentioned, nerves are found in all parts of the body, including the:
Because nerves are vital for normal bodily function, it can greatly affect your quality of life when they suffer damage.
How Can Nerves Become Damaged?
When any of the nerves in your body suffer injury and become damaged, you may begin to feel a difference in your body or have difficulty functioning. Nerve damage can affect your overall health and ability to live a normal life.
Signs and Symptoms of Nerve Damage
The symptoms of nerve damage often depend on the cause of the damage and the types of nerves that suffered harm.
Common signs of motor nerve damage include:
- Muscle weakness
- Muscle atrophy
- Coordination issues
Symptoms of sensory nerve damage can include:
- Tingling sensations
- Burning or throbbing pain
- Coordination issues
- Lack of sensation in certain areas
- Difficulty walking
Finally, signs of autonomic nerve damage may include:
- Changes in blood pressure
- Rapid heart rate
If you develop new symptoms and are unsure what’s behind them, it’s best to see a medical professional right away. A physician can perform a thorough physical examination and order diagnostic tests to determine the cause of your symptoms and recommend medical treatment.
What Potential Treatment Is Available for Nerve Damage?
It’s possible to treat nerve damage depending on the location and severity of the injury.
Potential treatment could include:
- Physical therapy
If your nerve damage affects certain parts of your body, like your muscles, you may need additional treatment, like braces or splints, to give the muscles time to recover and improve.
Unfortunately, when nerve damage is severe enough, there may not be any viable treatment options.
What Are the Long-Term Consequences of Damaged Nerves?
In certain cases, nerve damage can affect your life in the long term.
Some of the life-altering effects of nerve damage can include:
- Chronic pain
- Permanent loss of sensation
- Difficulty controlling the bladder or bowels
- Sexual dysfunction
- Respiratory issues
When the damage is particularly severe, amputations may be necessary.
Aside from your physical health, the long-lasting effects of nerve damage can negatively affect your mental and emotional health.
Taking Legal Action for Nerve Damage Caused By Negligence
Nerves may suffer damage for a variety of reasons. Sometimes, certain things like nutritional or vitamin imbalance can cause medical conditions like neuropathy, which results from damaged nerves. However, in certain cases, nerve damage may not arise naturally but as a result of someone else’s doing.
Nerve damage is a common injury resulting from accidents and incidents caused by negligent individuals. A party is negligent when they fail to act in the same manner a reasonable, similarly situated individual would act.
Victims of the following types of accidents are at risk of sustaining nerve damage:
- Car accidents
- Motorcycle accidents
- Truck accidents
- Rideshare accidents
- Boating accidents
- Pedestrian accidents
- Workplace accidents
- Slip and fall accidents
- Medical malpractice
If you suffer nerve damage as a result of another party’s actions, you may have the opportunity to take legal action against them.
Filing a personal injury claim against the individual responsible can hold them accountable for their wrongdoing while allowing you to pursue financial restitution for your resulting injuries and losses.
A knowledgeable personal injury lawyer can guide you through the process and assist you with seeking the justice and compensation you deserve.
What Compensation Is Available in a Nerve Damage Case?
Damages may be available to help you recover from the injuries and losses stemming from an accident, such as nerve damage.
Some of the damages you may be eligible to receive include:
- Past and future medical expenses
- Lost wages
- Diminished earning capacity
- Pain and suffering or emotional distress
- Loss of the ability to enjoy life
- Loss of consortium
A personal injury attorney can review the details of your situation and determine how much your case is worth. Knowing the true value of your case can help guarantee that you receive full and fair compensation.
If You’ve Suffered Nerve Damage, You’re Not Alone – Schedule a Free Consultation With a Griffin Personal Injury Lawyer
Nerve damage can affect your life and finances. Having an attorney fighting aggressively for financial recovery can make all the difference.
If you’ve sustained nerve damage due to someone else’s negligence, don’t hesitate to consult a Griffin personal injury lawyer, call (404) 567-4546 to schedule a free consultation with an experienced Griffin personal injury attorney at The King Firm as soon as possible.


Make sure you don’t get behind with your phrasal verbs with this article.
The main meaning of the phrasal verb get back is to return to a place, often to ones’ home, as in ‘What time do you think you will get back tonight?’ If you get something back, you retrieve it after losing it for a particular time, as in ‘I left my glasses on the train and I don’t know how I’m going to get them back’.
If you get back at someone, you do something to hurt or upset them after they have hurt or upset you, as in ‘She was trying to get back at him for humiliating her in front of her friends’.
Getting back to someone means to phone, write or speak to someone at a later time because you were busy or could not answer their question earlier, as in ‘Can you tell him I’m busy and that I’ll get back to him tomorrow’.
If two people who ended their romantic relationship get back together, they start having a relationship with each other again. Similarly, getting back with someone means to start to have a relationship with someone you had a relationship with before, as in ‘I heard from Kevin that Dave’s getting back with his ex-wife’.
If you get behind with work or payments, you have not done as much work or made as many payments as you should have, as in ‘My daughter’s getting behind with her rent’.
In a sporting context, when fans get behind their team, they support them enthusiastically, as in ‘The crowd really got behind their team in the second half’.


What are micronutrients?
Vitamins and minerals
Vitamins are an absolute necessity for vitality, strength and performance. The human body only requires very small amounts of each vitamin, however many chemical activities that normally occur in the body cannot take place unless the correct vitamin is present. Some vitamins are attached to enzymes that only do their job if the vitamin is part of the enzyme’s structure.
Name a vitamin that forms part of an enzyme’s structure?
Vitamin B6 is part of an enzyme that is responsible for building new protein from amino acids.
Biotin(part of the vitamin B complex – vitamin B7 or vitamin H) is necessary for the enzyme that is responsible for breaking down fat.
Some vitamins are form part of the immune system and others are busy with the nervous and hormone systems.
Why must vitamins be supplied to the diet?
The human body is unable to make vitamins so they must be obtained through our diet.
What are the two types of vitamins?
fat – soluble
Name the water-soluble and fat-soluble vitamins?
- vitamin B
- vitamin C
These must be included in the diet everyday because the body cannot store them.
- vitamin A
- vitamin D
- vitamin E
- vitamin K
Do not have to be including in the diet daily. The body can store extra supplies of fat-soluble vitamins for future use.
Water-soluble vitamins are more sensitive and are easily lost in cooking, as they drain out of food into water.
Minerals must be obtained from the foods we eat, because they cannot be made in the body.
What are the role of minerals in the body?
- Calcium and phosphorus (such as teeth and bones) form structure
- allow muscles to contract
- control the fluid balance in tissue
What are free radicals?
small chemicals produced by the body as a result of everyday lifestyle activities such as
Free radicals are also produced when the human body is exposed to environmental elements or stress. Such as:
- cigarette smoke
- exhaust fumes
Once these substances are produced the body must react and inactivate them, as free radicals react and join other substances in the body and produce chemicals that are damaging to the body. Damage from large quantities of free radicals can result in:
- heart disease
- genetic abnormalities
In relationship to dancers, free radical damage can result in:
- muscle pain
- fluid retention
How do we as dancers produce free radicals?
The body works harder during exercise, as it requires more oxygen and produces more heat, and muscles contract harder. So the more you exercise the more free radical you produce.
What are antioxidants?
antioxidants are enzymes and nutrients that help the body inactivate free radicals by changing the shape of the free radical and thus preventing it from being harmful. Many vitamins can be considered antioxidants, as they prevent damage from free radicals.
Enzymes that act as antioxidants contain minerals such as zinc, selenium and manganese incorporated into their structure.
Which foods are rich in antioxidants?
- dark chocolate
- goji berries
- red cabbage
Vitamins and Minerals important to the dancer
Vitamin C is especially important as it is vital :
- for growth and repair of tissues in all parts of the body
- to form collagen, an important protein used to make skin, scar tissue, tendons, ligaments and blood vessels.
- for the healing of wounds
- for the repair and maintenance of cartilage, bones and teeth.
Daily requirement – 40mg per day
It also a powerful antioxidant and has the further role of helping the body absorb iron from food.
Which foods contain vitamin C?
All fruits and vegetables contain some vitamin C. However those containing the greatest amounts are:
- citrus fruits
- Snow peas
Other sources include: mangos, sweet and white potatoes, Brussels sprouts , cauliflower, cabbage and berries.
Daily requirement – 40mg per day
How many vitamins make up Vitamin B or vitamin B complex?
It is made up of eight water soluble vitamins
What important role do they play in the body?
Important for the metabolism
Name the 8 B vitamins?
- B1 – thiamine
- B2 – riboflavin
- B3 – niacin
- B5 – pantothenic acid
- B6 – pyridoxine
- B7 – biotin
- B9 – folic acid
- B12 – cyanocobalamin
The B vitamins work together to provide many health benefits to the dancer such as:
- supporting and increasing the metabolism
- breaking down carbohydrates, proteins and fats from food
- maintaining healthy hair and skin
- maintaining good muscle tone
Which foods contain vitamin B?
- leafy greens – spinach, kale, romaine lettuce etc
- pulses – lentils, kidney beans, chick peas, roasted soya nuts etc
- shell fish
- yeast extract
- fortified cereal
What function does vitamin A play?
- plays a crucial role in helping the body’s natural defenses fight against viruses and bacteria.
- membranes that line the nose, mouth and digestive system rely on vitamin A to perform vital functions
- important for good vision
- can help skin conditions like acne, eczema and dry skin
Food sources – vitamin A
- oily fish
Your body can produce vitamin A from carotenoids found in plants These carotenoids include beta-carotene and alpha-carotene, which are collectively known as provitamin A. However, about 45% of people carry a genetic mutation that significantly reduces their ability to convert provitamin A into vitamin A). So depending on your genetics, the following vegetables might provide considerably less vitamin A than indicated.
- sweet potato
- leafy greens – kale, collards, turnip greens etc
- sweet red pepper
Daily requirement – 0.7mg for men and 0.6mg for women
Where is iron found in the body?
Iron is found in every cell in the body.
Why is iron important to the dancer?
Iron helps the body make red blood cells, which transport oxygen to the working muscles.
What happens to the body if it is deficient in Iron?
- Lack of energy
- shortness of breath
- irritability (moodiness)
- hair loss
Which foods contain iron?
- shell fish – particularly clams, mussels and oysters
- leafy greens – spinach, curly kale
- pulse vegetables – chick beans, lentils etc
- whole grains
- red meat
- pumpkin seeds
- dark chocolate
Is the most plentiful and important mineral found in the human body.
Where is the most calcium found in the body?
In the teeth and bones with the rest found in nerve cells, body tissues and blood.
What does calcium do?
- helps muscles including the heart to contract and relax during exercise
- reduces the risk of osteoporosis
Note: Osteoporosis is very common in dancers
Which foods contain calcium?
- seeds – poppy, sesame, celery and chia
- cheese – hard cheese contains more calcium than soft cheese
- beans and lentils
- leafy greens
- edamame (young soya beans)
Zinc is present in every part of the body and has many important functions.
What function does zinc play in the body?
- helps the body produce new enzymes and cells
- helps metabolize carbohydrates, fats and protein in the food we eat
- helps maintain a healthy immune system
- helps healing wounds
Note: Zinc deficiency in dancers is relatively common
Which foods contain zinc?
- Red meat
- shell fish
- pulse vegetables – beans, lentils etc
- seeds – particularly pumpkin seeds
- whole grains
- dark chocolate
Supplements – Do you need them and which ones are best?
If you have a varied and balanced diet and you include all the food groups then it is likely that you are receiving all the vitamins and minerals needed. However if you restrict your diet (calorie intake) and avoid certain foods then you risk missing out on important nutrients. Therefore you may benefit from taking a multi-vitamin supplement.
Other reasons for supplements include:
- If you eat out often or eat on the run
- you eat less than 1500 calories a day
- you rely on processed foods
- you are a vegan (you may lack B12)
- you are anemic (you may lack Iron)
- you are pregnant (lack of folic acid)
- you are a heavy smoker or drinker (both detrimental to you health)
Eating lots of processed food can rob your body of valuable vitamins and minerals. To break down and get rid of unwanted chemicals in the body that you have eaten, the body uses valuable vitamins and minerals which depletes you stores.
The correct balance of vitamins and minerals is the most important. An excess or deficiency in one vitamin could reduce the absorption of another. For example, a lack of vitamin C would reduce the absorption of iron. Healthy bones need a careful balance of vitamin D, calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, zinc, manganese, fluoride, chloride, copper and boron. And although it is tempting to think that more is better, vitamins and minerals are only required in certain amounts. Taking more will not improve you performance nor will it increase the number of pirouettes you can do.
- aim for five to eight potions of fruit and vegetables per day
- choose fruits , vegetables and salads of different colours as each colour indicates a different antioxidant or vitamin. (dark green vegetables are rich in chlorophyll, tomatoes are rich in lycopene and carrots are rich in carotene)
chlorophyll – the green pigment found in plants – it is a good source of vitamins such as A, C, E, K, and beta-carotene. It is rich in antioxidants, vital minerals such as magnesium, iron, potassium, calcium, and essential fatty acids.
Lycopene – is a plant nutrient with antioxidant properties. It’s the pigment that gives red and pink fruits, such as tomatoes, watermelons and pink grapefruit, their characteristic color. Lycopene has been linked to health benefits ranging from heart health to protection against sunburns and certain types of cancers.
Carotene – is an antioxidant that converts to vitamin A and plays a very important role in health. It’s responsible for the red, yellow, and orange coloration of some fruits and veggies.
Sources of information
Iadms.org. (2017). Resource Paper: Nutrition (2016) – International Association for Dance Medicine & Science
Mastin, Z. (2009). Nutrition for the dancer. Alton, Hampshire [England]: Dance Books
https://www.healthline.com/nutrition [accessed February 3rd 2019]
https://www.organicfacts.net/health-benefits/other/health-benefits-of-chlorophyll.html [accessed February 3rd 2019)


40 CFR 76.2 - Definitions.
Alternative contemporaneous annual emission limitation means the maximum allowable NOX emission rate (on a lb/mmBtu, annual average basis) assigned to an individual unit in a NOX emissions averaging plan pursuant to § 76.10.
Alternative technology means a control technology for reducing NOX emissions that is outside the scope of the definition of low NOX burner technology. Alternative technology does not include overfire air as applied to wall-fired boilers or separated overfire air as applied to tangentially fired boilers.
Approved clean coal technology demonstration project means a project using funds appropriated under the Department of Energy's “Clean Coal Technology Demonstration Program,” up to a total amount of $2,500,000,000 for commercial demonstration of clean coal technology, or similar projects funded through appropriations for the Environmental Protection Agency. The Federal contribution for a qualifying project shall be at least 20 percent of the total cost of the demonstration project.
Arch-fired boiler means a dry bottom boiler with circular burners, or coal and air pipes, oriented downward and mounted on waterwalls that are at an angle significantly different from the horizontal axis and the vertical axis. This definition shall include only the following units: Holtwood unit 17, Hunlock unit 6, and Sunbury units 1A, 1B, 2A, and 2B. This definition shall exclude dry bottom turbo fired boilers.
Cell burner boiler means a wall-fired boiler that utilizes two or three circular burners combined into a single vertically oriented assembly that results in a compact, intense flame. Any low NOX retrofit of a cell burner boiler that reuses the existing cell burner, close-coupled wall opening configuration would not change the designation of the unit as a cell burner boiler.
Coal-fired utility unit means a utility unit in which the combustion of coal (or any coal-derived fuel) on a Btu basis exceeds 50.0 percent of its annual heat input during the following calendar year: for Phase I units, in calendar year 1990; and, for Phase II units, in calendar year 1995 or, for a Phase II unit that did not combust any fuel that resulted in the generation of electricity in calendar year 1995, in any calendar year during the period 1990-1995. For the purposes of this part, this definition shall apply notwithstanding the definition in § 72.2 of this chapter.
Combustion controls means technology that minimizes NOX formation by staging fuel and combustion air flows in a boiler. This definition shall include low NOX burners, overfire air, or low NOX burners with overfire air.
Cyclone boiler means a boiler with one or more water-cooled horizontal cylindrical chambers in which coal combustion takes place. The horizontal cylindrical chamber(s) is (are) attached to the bottom of the furnace. One or more cylindrical chambers are arranged either on one furnace wall or on two opposed furnace walls. Gaseous combustion products exiting from the chamber(s) turn 90 degrees to go up through the boiler while coal ash exits the bottom of the boiler as a molten slag.
Demonstration period means a period of time not less than 15 months, approved under § 76.10, for demonstrating that the affected unit cannot meet the applicable emission limitation under § 76.5, 76.6, or 76.7 and establishing the minimum NOX emission rate that the unit can achieve during long-term load dispatch operation.
Dry bottom means the boiler has a furnace bottom temperature below the ash melting point and the bottom ash is removed as a solid.
Flue gas means the combustion products arising from the combustion of fossil fuel in a utility boiler.
Group 2 boiler means a wet bottom wall-fired boiler, a cyclone boiler, a boiler applying cell burner technology, a vertically fired boiler, an arch-fired boiler, or any other type of utility boiler (such as a fluidized bed or stoker boiler) that is not a Group 1 boiler.
Low NOXburners and low NOXburner technology means commercially available combustion modification NOX controls that minimize NOX formation by introducing coal and its associated combustion air into a boiler such that initial combustion occurs in a manner that promotes rapid coal devolatilization in a fuel-rich (i.e., oxygen deficient) environment and introduces additional air to achieve a final fuel-lean (i.e., oxygen rich) environment to complete the combustion process. This definition shall include the staging of any portion of the combustion air using air nozzles or registers located inside any waterwall hole that includes a burner. This definition shall exclude the staging of any portion of the combustion air using air nozzles or ports located outside any waterwall hole that includes a burner (commonly referred to as NOX ports or separated overfire air ports).
Maximum Continuous Steam Flow at 100% of Load means the maximum capacity of a boiler as reported in item 3 (Maximum Continuous Steam Flow at 100% Load in thousand pounds per hour), Section C (design parameters), Part III (boiler information) of the Department of Energy's Form EIA-767 for 1995.
Non-plug-in combustion controls means the replacement, in a cell burner boiler, of the portions of the waterwalls containing the cell burners by new portions of the waterwalls containing low NOX burners or low NOX burners with overfire air.
Operating period means a period of time of not less than three consecutive months and that occurs not more than one month prior to applying for an alternative emission limitation demonstration period under § 76.10, during which the owner or operator of an affected unit that cannot meet the applicable emission limitation:
(1) Operates the installed NOX emission controls in accordance with primary vendor specifications and procedures, with the unit operating under normal conditions; and
(2) records and reports quality-assured continuous emission monitoring (CEM) and unit operating data according to the methods and procedures in part 75 of this chapter.
Plug-in combustion controls means the replacement, in a cell burner boiler, of existing cell burners by low NOX burners or low NOX burners with overfire air.
Primary vendor means the vendor of the NOX emission control system who has primary responsibility for providing the equipment, service, and technical expertise necessary for detailed design, installation, and operation of the controls, including process data, mechanical drawings, operating manuals, or any combination thereof.
Reburning means reducing the coal and combustion air to the main burners and injecting a reburn fuel (such as gas or oil) to create a fuel-rich secondary combustion zone above the main burner zone and final combustion air to create a fuel-lean burnout zone. The formation of NOX is inhibited in the main burner zone due to the reduced combustion intensity, and NOX is destroyed in the fuel-rich secondary combustion zone by conversion to molecular nitrogen.
Selective catalytic reduction means a noncombustion control technology that destroys NOX by injecting a reducing agent (e.g., ammonia) into the flue gas that, in the presence of a catalyst (e.g., vanadium, titanium, or zeolite), converts NOX into molecular nitrogen and water.
Selective noncatalytic reduction means a noncombustion control technology that destroys NOX by injecting a reducing agent (e.g., ammonia, urea, or cyanuric acid) into the flue gas, downstream of the combustion zone that converts NOX to molecular nitrogen, water, and when urea or cyanuric acid are used, to carbon dioxide (CO2).
Stoker boiler means a boiler that burns solid fuel in a bed, on a stationary or moving grate, that is located at the bottom of the furnace.
Tangentially fired boiler means a boiler that has coal and air nozzles mounted in each corner of the furnace where the vertical furnace walls meet. Both pulverized coal and air are directed from the furnace corners along a line tangential to a circle lying in a horizontal plane of the furnace.
Turbo-fired boiler means a pulverized coal, wall-fired boiler with burners arranged on walls so that the individual flames extend down toward the furnace bottom and then turn back up through the center of the furnace.
Vertically fired boiler means a dry bottom boiler with circular burners, or coal and air pipes, oriented downward and mounted on waterwalls that are horizontal or at an angle. This definition shall include dry bottom roof-fired boilers and dry bottom top-fired boilers, and shall exclude dry bottom arch-fired boilers and dry bottom turbo-fired boilers.
Wall-fired boiler means a boiler that has pulverized coal burners arranged on the walls of the furnace. The burners have discrete, individual flames that extend perpendicularly into the furnace area.
Wet bottom means that the ash is removed from the furnace in a molten state. The term “wet bottom boiler” shall include: wet bottom wall-fired boilers, including wet bottom turbo-fired boilers; and wet bottom boilers otherwise meeting the definition of vertically fired boilers, including wet bottom arch-fired boilers, wet bottom roof-fired boilers, and wet bottom top-fired boilers. The term “wet bottom boiler” shall exclude cyclone boilers and tangentially fired boilers.


20 miles Northwest of Dolgellau
With the mountains of Snowdon as its backdrop and the sea not far from its foot, Harlech's spectacular location has made it one of the most photographed in the British Isles.
But not only has it an unsurpassed natural setting; as a piece of castle-building Harlech is also unrivalled. It is a magnificent structure just seven years in the creation from an architect genius and has survived seven centuries as a sentinel overlooking Tremadoc Bay.
Harlech castle is quite possibly the perfect castle and an absolutle must to anyone who is interested in castles.
There is a small carpark immediately infront of the castle whichwas once part of the moat.
~ History ~
1283 - Six months after the death of the first and last prince of all Wales, Llywelyn in December 1282, and the subsequent fall of free Wales to Edward I's forces, Sir Otto de Grandison's central army arrives at Harlech and immediately beings work on a new castle.
1286 - During the summer months work on the new castle reaches its height with nearly 950 men from all over Britain working on site.
1289 - The castle is completed and is soon handed over to its creator and architect Master James of St.George who is appointed constable, 'together with 30 fencible men of whom 10 shall be crossbow-men', one chaplain and other retainers to maintain the castle.
1294 - With the Welsh uprising under Madog ap Llywelyn, Harlech is completely cut off by land and has to rely on supplies from Ireland by sea, but the thirty-seven men successfully hold out against the welsh forces that had already wrecked havoc at Caernarfon.
1404 - With the whole of Wales in revolt under the leadership of Owain Glyndwr, his forces surround Harlech and settle down to besiege the garrison into starvation as the castle had proven to impregnable to open assault. For months Owain's forces control every road to the castle and watch every entrance. The sea is patrolled by Owain's French allies. Inside, provisions begin to run out and then an outbreak of disease. Some defenders try to escape under cover of darkness but are caught and put to death. Finally, with no hope of relief the garrison surrender. Owain moves his family into the castle and sets up a Welsh parliament where he is later crowned as prince of Wales in the presence of envoys from Scotland, France and Spain. From his headquarters at Harlech he continues his campaign against the English.
1407 - The English besiege Harlech castle without success. Prince Henry besieges Aberystwyth Castle for a year before taking it.
1409 - Henry IV sends a strong force under Gilbert Talbot to retake Harlech. After a long siege and persistent bombardment from English canon the castle falls to Harry of Monmouth, prince of Wales and future Henry V and victor of Agincourt. Owain's wife and four children are taken but the great Welshman had already slipped away. The fall of Harlech marks the turning point and fall of the Welsh uprising.
1460 - A period of comparative peace is brought to an end by the Wars of the Roses. The castle is held by Lancastrian forces and endures a siege which lasts seven years. The constable, Dafydd ap Ieuan, and his garrison hold out long after other Lancastrian commanders in England and Wales have surrendered to the Yorkist faction and Alan Reid tells the following story. "Dafydd ... widened his fame by replying to one summons to surrender with the boast that he had once held a castle in France so long against siege that all the old women of Wales talked of it; and now he would hold a castle in Wales until all the old women of France talked of it."
Eventually famine forces surrender and Dafydd hands the castle to Lord Herbert and his brother Sir Richard Herbert on honourable terms. King Edward IV at first refuses to honour the terms of the settlement but Sir Richard Herbert, out of respect for the bravery of the defenders, offers his own life in exchange for Dafydd's rather than see his promise broken. The 'men of Harlech' begin their place in welsh folklore with their deeds being passed down through generations in song.
1539 - Crown surveyors declare that Conwy, Caernarfon and Harlech, in the event of invasion by the French or Scots, incapable of being defended for more than an hour.
1564 - Another survey reports the internal of nearly every tower in the castle to be 'in utter ruin' and the drawbridge 'in greate decaye'.
1647 - Harlech is defended for King Charles I by its constable Colonel William Owen of Brogyntyn. Following a lengthy siege the surviving garrison of 14 gentlemen and 28 common soldiers finally surrender to the besieging Parliament force under Colonel Mytton. Harlech is the last castle of all to be lost and its fall signals the end of the Civil War. The castle is later slighted but orders for its demolition are not carried through. Harlech is left to slowly decay.


Table of Contents
Chapter 4: Database Locking, Scanning, And Processing
Before describing particular components of the IOC software, it is helpful to give an overview of three closely related topics: Database locking, scanning, and processing. Locking is done to prevent two different tasks from simultaneously modifying related database records. Database scanning is the mechanism for deciding when records should be processed. The basics of record processing involves obtaining the current value of input fields and outputting the current value of output fields. As records become more complex so does the record processing.
One powerful feature of the DATABASE is that records can contain links to other records. This feature also causes considerable complication. Thus, before discussing locking, scanning, and processing, database links are described.
A database record may contain links to other records. Each link is one of the following types:
INLINKs and OUTLINKs can be one of the following: constant, database link, channel access link, or a reference to a hardware signal.
- INLINK: Input link, used to fetch data.
- OUTLINK: Output link, used to write data.
NOTE: If a forward link is not a database link it is just ignored.
- FWDLINK: A forward link refers to a record that should be processed whenever the record containing the forward link completes processing.
This chapter only discusses database links. Links are defined in file link.h.
Database links are referenced by calling one of the following routines:
A forward link only makes sense if it refers to a passive record that the application developer wants processed after the record containing the link. For input and output links, however, two other attributes can be specified by the application developer, process passive and maximize severity.
- dbGetLink: The value of the field referenced by the input link retrieved.
- dbPutLink: The value of the field referenced by the output link is changed.
- dbScanPassive: The record referred to by the forward link is processed if it is passive.
Process passive (PP or NPP), is either TRUE or FALSE. It determines if the linked record should be processed before getting a value from an input link or after writing a value to an output link. The linked record will be processed, via a call to dbProcess, only if the record is a passive record and process_passive is TRUE.
Maximize severity (MS or NMS), is TRUE or FALSE. It determines if alarm severity is propagated across links. For input links the alarm severity of the record referred to by the link is propagated to the record containing the link. For output links the alarm severity of the record containing the link is propagated to the record referred to by the link. In either case, if the severity is changed, the alarm status is set to LINK_ALARM.
The method of determining if the alarm status and severity should be changed is called "maximize severity". In addition to its actual status and severity, each record also has a new status and severity. The new status and severity are initially 0, which means NO_ALARM. Every time a software component wants to modify the status and severity, it first checks the new severity and only makes a change if the severity it wants to set is greater than the current new severity. If it does make a change, it changes the new status and new severity, not the current status and severity. When database monitors are checked, which is normally done by a record processing routine, the current status and severity are set equal to the new values and the new values reset to zero. The end result is that the current alarm status and severity reflect the highest severity outstanding alarm. If multiple alarms of the same severity are present the status reflects the first one detected.
The purpose of database locking is to prevent a record from being processed simultaneously by two different tasks. In addition, it prevents "outside" tasks from changing any field while the record is being processed.
The following routines are provided for database locking.
The basic idea is to call dbScanLock before performing any operations that can modify database records and calling dbScanUnlock after the modifications are complete. Because of database links (Input, Output, and Forward) a modification to one record can cause modification to other records. All records linked together, except possibly for input links declared NPP and NMS, are placed in the same lock set. dbScanLock locks the entire lock set not just the record requested. dbScanUnlock unlocks the entire set.
The following rules determine when the lock routines must be called:
All records linked via OUTLINKs and FWDLINKs are placed in the same lock set. Records linked via INLINKs with process_passive or maximize_severity TRUE are also forced to be in the same lock set. The lock sets are determined during IOC initialization.
- The periodic, I/O event, and event tasks lock before and unlock after processing:
- dbPutField locks before modifying a record and unlocks afterwards.
- dbGetField locks before reading and unlocks afterwards.
- Any asynchronous record support completion routine must lock before modifying a record and unlock afterwards.
Database scanning is the mechanism that requests a database record be processed. Four types of scanning are possible:
A dbScanPassive request results from a task calling one of the following routines:
- Periodic - Records are scanned at regular intervals.
- I/O event - A record is scanned as the result of an I/O interrupt.
- Event - A record is scanned as the result of any task issuing a post_event request.
- Passive - A record is scanned as a result of a call to dbScanPassive. dbScanPassive will issue a record processing request if and only if the record is passive and is not already being processed.
All non-record processing tasks (Channel Access, Sequence Programs, etc.) call dbGetField to obtain database values. dbGetField just reads values without asking that a record be processed.
- dbScanPassive: Only record processing routines, dbGetLink, dbPutLink, and dbPutField call dbScanPassive. Record processing routines call it for each forward link in the record.
- dbPutField: This routine changes the specified field and then, if the field has been declared process_passive, calls dbScanPassive. Each field of each record type has the attribute process_passive declared TRUE or FALSE in the ASCII definition file. This attribute is a global property, i.e. the application developer has no control of it. This use of process_passive is used only by dbPutField. If dbPutField finds the record already active (this can happen to asynchronous records) and it is supposed to cause it to process, it arranges for it to be processed again, when the current processing completes.
- dbGetLink: If the link specifies process passive, this routine calls dbScanPassive. Whether or not dbScanPassive is called, it then obtains the specified value.
- dbPutLink: This routine changes the specified field. Then, if the link specifies process passive, it calls dbScanPassive. dbPutLink is only called from record processing routines. Note that this usage of process_passive is under the control of the application developer. If dbPutLink finds the record already active because of a dbPutField directed to this record then it arranges for the record to be processed again, when the current processing completes.
A record is processed as a result of a call to dbProcess. Each record support module must supply a routine process. This routine does most of the work related to record processing. Since the details of record processing are record type specific this topic is discussed in greater detail in "Record And Device Support" on page 65.
The ability to link records together is an extremely powerful feature of the IOC software. In order to use links properly it is important that the Application Developer understand how they are processed. As an introduction consider the following example (Figure 4-1):
Figure 4-1: Example of Database Links
Assume that A, B, and C are all passive records. The notation states that A has a forward link to B and B to C. C has an input link obtaining a value from A. Assume, for some reason, A gets processed. The following sequence of events occurs:
This brief example demonstrates that database links needs more discussion.
- A begins processing. While processing a request is made to process B.
- B starts processing. While processing a request is made to process C.
- C starts processing. One of the first steps is to get a value from A via the input link.
- At this point a question occurs. Note that the input link specifies process passive (signified by the PP after InLink). But process passive states that A should be processed before the value is retrieved. Are we in an infinite loop? The answer is no. Every record contains a field pact (processing active), which is set TRUE when record processing begins and is not set FALSE until all processing completes. When C is processed A still has pact TRUE and will not be processed again.
- C obtains the value from A and completes its processing. Control returns to B.
- B completes returning control to A
- A completes processing.
Rules Relating to Database Links
The processing order is guaranteed to follow the following rules:
- Forward links are processed in order from left to right and top to bottom. For example the following records are processed in the order FLNK1, FLNK2, FLKN3, FLNK4 (Figure 4-2).
Figure 4-2: Processing Order
- If a record has multiple input links (calculation and select records) the input is obtained in the natural order. For example if the fields are named INPA, INPB, ..., INPL, then the links are read in the order A then B then C, etc. Thus if obtaining an input results in a record being processed, the processing order is guaranteed.
- All input and output links are processed before the forward link.
All records, except possibly for NPP & NMS input links, linked together directly or indirectly are placed in the same lock set. When dbScanLock is called the entire set, not just the specified record, is locked. This prevents two different tasks from simultaneously modifying records in the same lock set.
PACT - processing active
Each record contains a field pact. This field is set TRUE at the beginning of record processing and is not set FALSE until the record is completely processed. In particular no links are processed with pact FALSE. This prevents infinite processing loops. The example given at the beginning of this chapter gives an example. It will be seen in Section 7 on page 32 and Section 8 on page 33 that pact has other uses.
Process Passive: Link option
Input and output links have an option called process passive. For each such link the application developer can specify process passive TRUE (PP) or process passive FALSE (NPP). Consider the following example (Figure 4-3):
Figure 4-3: Incorrect Link Definition
Assume that all records except fanout are passive. When the fanout record is processed the following sequence of events occur:
Note that A got processed twice. This is unnecessary. If the input link to C is declared no process passive then A will only be processed once. Thus we should have (Figure 4-4).
- Fanout starts processing and asks that B be processed.
- B begins processing. It calls dbGetLink to obtain data from A.
- Because the input link has process passive true, a request is made to process A.
- A is processed, the data value fetched, and control is returned to B
- B completes processing and control is returned to fanout. Fanout asks that C be processed.
- C begins processing. It calls dbGetLink to obtain data from A.
- Because the input link has process passive TRUE, a request is made to process A.
- A is processed, the data value fetched, and control is returned to C.
- C completes processing and returns to fanout
- The fanout completes
Figure 4-4: Correct Link definition
Process Passive: Field attribute
Each field of each database record type has an attribute called process_passive. This attribute is specified in the ASCII record definition file. It is not under the control of the application developer. This attribute is used only by dbPutField. It determines if a passive record will be processed after dbPutField changes a field in the record. Consult the record specific information in the record reference manual for the setting of individual fields.
Maximize Severity: Link option
Input and output links have an option called maximize severity. For each such link the application developer can specify maximize severity TRUE (MS) or maximize severity FALSE (NMS).
When database input or output links are defined via DCT, the application developer can specify if alarm severities should be propagated across links. For input links the severity is propagated from the record referred to by the link to the record containing the link. For output links the severity of the record containing the link is propagated to the record referenced by the link. The alarm severity is transferred only if the new severity will be greater than the current severity. If the severity is propagated the alarm status is set equal to LINK_ALARM. See `Maximize Severity" on page 28 for details.
A synchronous record is a record that can be completely processed without waiting. Thus the application developer never needs to consider the possibility of delays when he defines a set of related records. The only consideration is deciding when records should be processed and in what order a set of records should be processed.
Lets review the methods available to the application programmer for deciding when to process a record and for enforcing the order of record processing.
The previous discussion does not allow for asynchronous records. An example is a GPIB input record. When the record is processed the GPIB request is started and the processing routine returns. Processing, however, is not really complete until the GPIB request completes. This is handled via an asynchronous completion routine. Lets state a few attributes of asynchronous record processing.
- A record can be scanned periodically (at one of several rates), via I/O event, or via Event.
- For each periodic group and for each Event group the phase field can be used to specify processing order.
- The application programmer has no control over the record processing order of records in different groups.
- The disable fields (SDIS, DISA, and DISV) can be used to disable records from being processed. By letting the SDIS field of an entire set of records refer to the same input record, the entire set can be enabled or disabled simultaneously. See the Record Reference Manual for details.
- A record (periodic or other) can be the root of a set of passive records that will all be processed whenever the root record is processed. The set is formed by input, output, and forward links.
- The process_passive option specified for each field of each record determines if a passive record is processed when a dbPutField is directed to the field. The application developer must be aware of the possibility of record processing being triggered by external sources if dbPutFields are directed to fields that have process_passive TRUE.
- The process_passive option for input and output links provides the application developer control over how a set of records are scanned.
- General link structures can be defined. The application programmer should be wary, however, of defining arbitrary structures without carefully analyzing the processing order.
During the initial processing for all asynchronous records the following is done:
The asynchronous completion routine performs the following algorithm:
- pact is set TRUE
- Data is obtained for all input links
- Record processing is started
- The record processing routine returns
Lets note a few attributes of the above rules:
- Record processing continues
- Record specific alarm conditions are checked
- Monitors are raised
- Forward links are processed
- pact is set FALSE.
With these rules the following works just fine:
- Asynchronous record processing does not delay the scanners.
- Between the time record processing begins and the asynchronous completion routine completes, no attempt will be made to again process the record. This is because pact is TRUE. The routine dbProcess checks pact and does not call the record processing routine if it is TRUE. Note, however, that if dbProcess finds the record active 10 times in succession, it raises a SCAN_ALARM.
- Forward and output links are triggered only when the asynchronous completion routine completes record processing.
When dbProcess is called for record ASYN, processing will be started but dbScanPassive will not be called. Until the asynchronous completion routine executes any additional attempts to process ASYN are ignored. When the asynchronous callback is invoked the dbScanPassive is performed.
Problems still remain. A few examples are:
Infinite processing loops are possible.
Assume both A and B are asynchronous passive records and a request is made to process A. The following sequence of events occur.
Thus an infinite loop of record processing has been set up. It is up to the application developer to prevent such loops.
- A starts record processing and returns leaving pact TRUE.
- Sometime later the record completion for A occurs. During record completion a request is made to process B. B starts processing and control returns to A which completes leaving its pact field TRUE.
- Sometime later the record completion for B occurs. During record completion a request is made to process A. A starts processing and control returns to B which completes leaving its pact field TRUE.
Obtain Old Data
A dbGetLink to a passive asynchronous record can get old data.
If A is a passive asynchronous record then the dbGetLink request forces dbProcess to be called for A. dbProcess starts the processing and returns. dbGetLink then reads the desired value which is still old because processing will only be completed at a later time.
Consider the following:
The second ASYN record will not begin processing until the first completes, etc. This is not really a problem except that the application developer must be aware of delays caused by asynchronous records. Again, note that scanners are not delayed, only records downstream of asynchronous records.
If the processing task aborts and the watch dog task cleans up before the asynchronous processing routine completes what happens? If the asynchronous routine completes before the watch dog task runs everything is okay. If it doesn't? This is a more general question of the consequences of having the watchdog timer restart a scan task. EPICS currently does not allow scanners to be automatically restarted.
The rules followed by dbPutLink and dbPutField provide for "cached" puts. This is necessary because of asynchronous records. Two cases arise.
The first results from a dbPutField, which is a put coming from outside the database, i.e. Channel Access puts. If this is directed to a record that already has pact TRUE because the record started processing but asynchronous completion has not yet occurred, then a value is written to the record but nothing will be done with the value until the record is again processed. In order to make this happen dbPutField arranges to have the record reprocessed when the record finally completes processing.
The second case results from dbPutLink finding a record already active because of a dbPutField directed to the record. In this case dbPutLink arranges to have the record reprocessed when the record finally completes processing. Note that it could already be active because it appears twice in a chain of record processing. In this case it is not reprocessed because the chain of record processing would constitute an infinite loop.
Note that the term caching not queuing is used. If multiple requests are directed to a record while it is active, each new value is placed in the record but it will still only be processed once, i.e. last value wins.
Table of Contents


Rebuilding the Past in Your Presence
The Colonel Benjamin Stephenson House is an important landmark that links the early history of Edwardsville to the earliest days of the Illinois Territory circa 1809 and the establishment of Edwardsville as the center of government and commerce. It is a connection between Territorial Governer Ninian Edwards, Colonel Benjamin Stephenson and the State of Illinois.
Built in 1820, this two-story brick home, constructed in the Federal style, is an excellent example of architecture from this early period. Each of the four rooms has original millwork; and two of the
four original mantels are designed in the Adams style. The home was built with native material by skilled local craftsmen.


Build skills to improve: social interactions, build self-esteem, improve behavior at home and at school,
Focuses on the development of life skills that enable children to function purposefully
within their environment.
Speech therapy helps kids with language-related learning issues, such as speaking, listening and writing.
Classes and camps
focusing on skill building


American Flags around Tariffville.
100% Made in America!
The United States flag is a strong icon of American identification and also national pride. Called Old Glory, the U.S. flag has a colorful background as well as has gone through several modifications starting from the very first main flag of 1777.
Today the U.S. flag consists of thirteen horizontal stripes, seven red rotating with six white stripes. The stripes stand for the original 13 colonies; the stars represent the 50 states of the country. The shades of the flag are symbolic also: red symbolizes hardiness and valiance, white symbolizes pureness and also virtue and also blue stands for vigilance, perseverance and justice. Nonetheless, the factor the Continental Congress initially picked the red, white, and blue colors was not made clear in the resolution embracing the flag. Historians think it was possibly a shade choice based on the British Union Jack, which had formerly flown over the colonies.
Over time, some have actually associated a little different definitions to the 3 colors, for instance, the color red symbolizing the blood spilled to protect our liberty, however the significance of the initial definition has been rather regular from 1782.
Exactly how did the American flag grow into just what it is today?
It is so much greater than the 3 shades or a “decoration”. Think of the places around the globe that the American flag has flown, think of the transformation it has actually undergone throughout the years on American territory. It is absolutely humbling to think about all that was offered and given up to ensure that the American flag could fly openly throughout this country.
The flag that began with only 13 stars grew to 50 with the addition of states to the Union. The number of stars on the flag progressively increased to its existing number today wherein a new star would be included in the blue area on the 4th of July after the date of each new state’s admission.
The number of rotating horizontal red and white stripes has actually continued to be at thirteen except from 1795 to 1818 when fifteen stripes appeared on the flag to show the admission of Kentucky and Vermont to the Union. In 1818, it was decided that adding a stripe to the flag for every brand-new state would certainly not take place as it will certainly make the flag appear crowded as well as it would make the flag unwieldy. It was decided then that the flag would certainly go back to having just thirteen stripes to represent the original colonies.
The American flag is an icon not only of hardiness, valor, pureness, innocence, vigilance, perseverance and also justice; it is a sign of freedom. Freedom that has actually been battled so hard for over the years. Freedom that has cost this country and also the households within so much, and yet it is still a beacon to those wanting they had the liberty that the nation has.
Folding the American flag.
Conventional flag etiquette prescribes that before an American flag is kept or flown, its handlers need to twice fold it in half lengthwise; then (from the other end opposite the blue field) make a triangular fold, continuing to fold it in triangles til the other end is reached. This makes a triangular “cushion” of the flag with only the blue starred field showing on the outside, as well as it takes thirteen folds to create: 2 lengthwise folds as well as eleven triangular ones.
The flag isn’t really folded in this fashion because each of the folds has a unique symbolic definition; the flag is folded in this manner since it provides a sensible ritualistic touch that identifies folding a flag from folding a common item such as a bedsheet, and because it results an aesthetically pleasing, easy-to-handle shape. This thirteen-fold treatment was a common practice long prior to the production of a ceremonial assignation of “meaning” per of the actions.
A sophisticated flag folding event integrating these meanings has since been devised for special occasions such as Memorial Day and also Veterans Day. These meanings are “genuine” in the sense that they mean something to the people that take part in the ceremony, however they are not the reason why a flag is folded in the conventional thirteen-step way.
This is America as well as its symbol is the American Flag. Even though lots of Americans in Connecticut proudly fly the flag outside their homes as well as organisations every day, it is suitable that we, as a country, have established aside one specific day each year to honor our flag as well as to remember that it represents the ideals as well as values that we should make every effort to support.
Tariffville ZIP codes we serve: 06081


4 Endangered North Pacific Proper Whales Spotted Within The Gulf Of Alaska
Running Bamboo – Although not thought-about an invasive species in Connecticut, info on this species can be discovered on the Connecticut Invasive Plant Working Group web site. Over the years, a variety of non-native species have been launched to Connecticut. Non-native species are these which are alien to the ecosystem that they’ve been launched into and whose introduction causes or is likely to cause hurt to the environment or human well being. Some non-native species exhibit an aggressive growth behavior and can out-compete and displace native species. These are referred to as invasive species and they’re a serious problem in Connecticut and elsewhere.
However, a small share have triggered extreme injury to our environment and to our health. The financial harm caused by invasive species has been estimated to exceed $a hundred billion annually in the United States.… Read More


“One only understands the things one tames,” the fox teaches. In order to tame, one must be “very patient.”
First you will sit down at a little distance from me-like that- in the grass. I shall look at you out of the corner of my eye, and you will say nothing. Words are the source of misunderstandings. But you will sit a little closer to me every day.
The fox asks the Little Prince to “tame” him, explaining that this means to establish ties. But even more than that, taming, will transform their relationship into something special, making the other unique in all the world. Then different things will remind them of each other, seeing each other in other things, reflections reflected, a kaleidoscope of connections.
The fox then advises the Little Prince to observe “rites” that come at the same time everyday, these are the rituals that the Little Prince performs as markers of time; the days, the hours and the minutes that make each day distinct yet familiar.
“It is the time you have wasted for your rose that makes your rose so important.”
from Mary Watkins,
Waking Dreams, Spring Publications Inc. 1984
and of course:


World Mental Health Day
10th October 2019
We all have mental health and we need to take care of it as it is as important as our physical health!
First celebrated in 1992, World Mental Health Day focuses on raising awareness of mental health issues and advocacy against social stigma. With the aim to educate, inform and engage, this year’s theme is suicide prevention.
Did you know!
– In 2018, there were 6,859 suicides in the UK and Republic of Ireland which is 11.8% higher than the previous year
– In the UK, men are 3 times more likely to die by suicide than women
– The highest rate of suicide is among men aged 45 – 49
Championing positive mental health
Mental health issues range from anxiety, depression and panic attacks, through to bipolar disorder, schizophrenia and trauma-related conditions.
Why not get in touch to find out how you can become an ambassador to raise awareness and make a difference!


Hawksbill Sea Turtles, Eretmochelys imbricata
Taxonomy Animalia Chordata Reptilia Testudines Cheloniidae Eretmochelys imbricata
Description & Behavior
Hawksbill sea turtles, Eretmochelys imbricata (Linnaeus, 1766), are beautiful small to medium-sized sea turtles that take their species name (imbricata) from the overlapping plates on their upper shell. Hawksbills get their common name from the shape of its hooked jaw. They reach a length of about 0.62-1.14 m.
In the U.S. Caribbean, nesting females average about 0.62-0.94 m in straight carapace length. Weight is typically to 80 kg in the wider Caribbean, with a record weight of 127 kg. Hatchlings average about 42 mm straight carapace length and range in weight from 13.5-19.5 g. The following characteristics distinguish the hawksbill from other sea turtles: two pairs of prefrontal scales; thick, posteriorly overlapping scutes (plates) on the carapace; four pairs of coastal scutes; two claws on each flipper; and a beak-like mouth. The carapace is heart-shaped in very young turtles, and becomes more elongate or subovate with maturity.
Its lateral and posterior margins are sharply serrated in all but very old individuals. The epidermal scutes that overlay the bones of the shell are the shells sold commercially. They are unusually thick and overlap posteriorly on the carapace in all but hatchlings and very old individuals. Carpacial scutes are often richly patterned with irregularly radiating streaks of brown or black on an amber background. The scutes of the plastron of Atlantic hawksbills are usually clear yellow, with little or no dark pigmentation. The soft skin on the ventral side is cream or yellow and may be pinkish-orange in mature individuals. The scales of the head and forelimbs are dark brown or black with sharply defined yellow borders. There are typically four pairs of inframarginal scales. The head is elongate and tapers sharply to a point. The lower jaw is V-shaped.
Eretmochelys imbricata have 5 features that distinguish them from other sea turtles. Their heads have two pairs of prefrontal scales. They also have two claws on each of their forelimbs. There are thick, overlapping scutes on their carapaces, which also have four pairs of costal scutes. Their elongate mouths resemble a beak, that taper off to a sharp point at the end.
Male turtles are distinguished by a brighter pigmentation, a concave plastron, long claws and a thicker tail.
Sea turtles are some of the largest turtles in the world and live in almost every ocean of the world. Their smooth shells and paddlelike flippers help them speed through the water as fast as 24 kph. These long-distance travelers have been known to swim up to 4,828 km.
Although sea turtles cannot withdraw their heads into their shells, the adults are protected from predators by their shells, large size and thick scaly skin on their heads and necks.
Sea turtles spend almost all their lives submerged but must breathe air for the oxygen needed to meet the demands of vigorous activity. With a single explosive exhalation and rapid inhalation, sea turtles can quickly replace the air in their lungs. The lungs are adapted to permit a rapid exchange of oxygen and to prevent gasses from being trapped during deep dives. The blood of sea turtles can deliver oxygen efficiently to body tissues even at the pressures encountered during diving. During routine activity green and loggerhead turtles dive for about 4 to 5 minutes and surface to breathe for 1 to 3 seconds. A female loggerhead tracked at sea made up to 500 dives every 12 hours.
Sea turtles can rest or sleep underwater for several hours at a time but submergence time is much shorter while diving for food or to escape predators. Breath-holding ability is affected by activity and stress, which is why turtles drown in shrimp trawls and other fishing gear within a relatively short time.
Because sea turtles are difficult to study in the open ocean, scientists are just beginning to learn about the life history of sea turtles. Today, radio transmitters, attached to nesting turtles, help track the sea creatures on their travels and provide valuable information.
World Range & Habitat
Eretmochelys imbricata, or hawksbill sea turtles, are found mainly in the tropical regions of the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. In the western hemisphere, they have been reported to have nests as far north as Woods Hole, Massachusetts and are also present in the Long Island Sound. However, between the Carolinas and New Jersey, very few hawksbill turtles have been recorded.
Also found around the Oceanic Islands and Indian Ocean. Hawksbill turtles are most commonly found in coral reef habitats where sponges, a food source for hawksbills, grow on solid substrate. They also reside in shoals, lagoons of oceanic islands and on continental shelves. They are most commonly found in water 18.3 m or shallower. The habitats of hawksbills vary by stages in their life cycle. Young hawksbill turtles cannot dive into deep water and therefore live on masses of floating sea plants, such as sargassum. Hawksbills re-enter coastal waters when they reach approximately 20-25 cm carapace length. The ledges and caves of the reef provide shelter for resting both during the day and night. Hawksbills are also found around rocky outcrops and high energy shoals, which are also optimum sites for sponge growth. In areas where there are no coral reefs, hawksbills are found in mangrove-fringed bays and estuaries. In Texas, juvenile hawksbills are also found near stone jetties.
Feeding Behavior (Ecology)
Hawksbill sea turtles are omnivorous with a diet that consists primarily of sponges. They are selective feeders choosing only certain species of sponges of which are toxic to other animals. Sea jellies and other coelenterates are also common prey for hawksbill turtles. They also eat mollusks, fish, marine algae, crustaceans and other sea plants and animals. A preferred feeding ground of the hawksbills is in shallow shoals abundant with brown algae.
The actual age that hawksbill sea turtles reach sexual maturity is unknown. Mating occurs roughly every 2-3 years mainly in shallow waters. Copulation usually begins near the shore. Hawksbills leave the water only during the breeding season when females dig nests in the sand, typically near vegetation. The entire nesting process takes 1-3 hours. They clear the area and dig a pit in the sand. They lay their eggs in the pit then fill it with sand using their hind limbs. After the eggs are laid and buried, they immediately return to the sea.
After about two months, the hatchling turtles emerge at night. The light reflected off the water from the sky guides them to the sea. These days, car headlights, street lamps, or lights on buildings near the beach cause some hatchlings to travel in the wrong direction. Waiting herons make fast meals of other hatchlings. Any babies still on the beach in the morning are easily picked off by predators or die in the hot sun. It is thought that when the surviving hatchlings reach maturity, they return to the beach where they hatched to lay their eggs.
Like all turtles, the hard carapace of hawksbills discourages predators. Adult turtles are still consumed by humans, sharks and occasionally crocodiles. Nests are commonly robbed by terrestrial predators such as dogs, raccoons, rats, mongooses and humans. Directly after hatching, hawksbill turtles make the journey to water. Although this trip only takes a few minutes, many hatchlings are preyed upon by various gulls, herons and large crabs.
Conservation Status & Comments
The eggs of hawksbill sea turtles were once a popular food for humans as was the meat, however the sale and consumption of turtle eggs is now illegal and the meat was found to be frequently poisonous to humans. The skin of these turtles is also toxic to humans. The sale of hawksbill turtle shells is also illegal.
WARNING: Eating sea turtles and their eggs, anywhere, can cause severe illness and even death, especially to children. The flesh has been found to contain chelonitoxin which may cause a number of symptoms including nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, burning sensation of lips, tongue and mouth, chest tightness, difficulty swallowing, hypersalivation, skin rash, coma and death. See the following for more information:
Chelonitoxism: new case reports in French Polynesia and review of the literature
Turtle meat kills six in Micronesia
More than 50% of sea turtle eggs are stolen by humans, which has lead to a decrease in turtle populations worldwide which face a serious threat of extinction. A status that has not changed since 1970. As of 1983, the only known stable populations of hawksbills were found in the middle east and northeastern Australia. Commercial exploitation to meet the demand for the hawksbill's shell which commands as much as $225/kg, remains a major obstacle to hawksbill protection. Hawksbill "leather" is also sold as well as its oil which is used for some perfume and cosmetics. Japan imported about 20 metric tons of hawksbill shell per year from approximately 19,000 turtles until a settlement was negotiated on this trade in 1992.
Hawksbill sea turtles, Eretmochelys imbricata, are listed as Critically Endangered (CR A1bd) on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species:
CRITICALLY ENDANGERED (CR)
A taxon is Critically Endangered when it is facing an extremely high risk of extinction in the wild in the immediate future, as defined by any of the criteria (A to E) as described here.
References & Further Research
Hawksbill Sea Turtle Recovery - U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service resources for information on the Hawksbill sea turtle and its recovery.
Hawksbill Turtle - NOAA Fisheries
Photos: David Hall's Encounters in the Sea
Fish and Wildlife Service Sea Turtle Information
Turtle Trax - A Marine Turtle Page
Caribbean Conservation corporation/Sea Turtle Survival League
Archie Carr Center for Sea turtle Research and Sea Turtle on-line Bibliography
U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service Endangered Species
The State of the World's Sea Turtles (SWoT)
IUCN/SSC Marine Turtle Specialist Group
IUCN Red List of Threatened Species
Research Eretmochelys imbricata » Barcode of Life ~ BioOne ~ Biodiversity Heritage Library ~ CITES ~ Cornell Macaulay Library [audio / video] ~ Encyclopedia of Life (EOL) ~ ESA Online Journals ~ FishBase ~ Florida Museum of Natural History Ichthyology Department ~ GBIF ~ Google Scholar ~ ITIS ~ IUCN RedList (Threatened Status) ~ Marine Species Identification Portal ~ NCBI (PubMed, GenBank, etc.) ~ Ocean Biogeographic Information System ~ PLOS ~ SCIRIS ~ SIRIS ~ Tree of Life Web Project ~ UNEP-WCMC Species Database ~ WoRMS
Feedback & Citation
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The United States healthcare system faces an ongoing nursing crisis characterized by an alarming shortage of nurses. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the shortage grew even more severe, prompting concern from healthcare professionals and the public.
Why is there such a significant shortage, and how can master’s-prepared nurse educators play a pivotal role in resolving it? An advanced nursing online degree in nursing education is key to the answer.
What Is Causing the Nursing Shortage?
There are many root causes of the nursing shortage. Research from the National Council of State Boards of Nursing (NCSBN) reveals startling figures. Approximately 100,000 nurses left the profession during the COVID-19 pandemic due to stress, burnout, or retirement. An additional 900,000 nurses are projected to leave the profession by 2027.
Such an exodus is likely due to the increased workload, emotional strain and the physical toll of managing a global health crisis. Many nurses are reaching retirement age, which also contributes to the shortage.
Who will fill the void? Unfortunately, a lack of enrollees in nursing programs is compounding the problem. This is not necessarily due to a lack of interest among prospective nursing students. Rather, nursing students are experiencing challenges in entering nursing programs.
Why Are Nursing Programs Accepting Fewer Students?
According to the American Association of Colleges of Nursing (AACN), thousands of qualified nursing students were not accepted to nursing school in 2022.
Results from AACN’s Fall 2022 survey showed a 1.4% drop in Bachelor of Science in Nursing (BSN) program enrollments, translating into 3,518 fewer students between 2021 and 2022. This is the first instance of a decline in these programs since the turn of the millennium. In stark contrast, from 2001 to 2021, the number of students in entry-level BSN programs surged from 77,958 to 256,578.
A persistent shortage of nurse educators exists. This shortage among nurse educators means there are not enough qualified professionals to teach the next generation of nurses, leading to an even larger gap in the workforce. With qualified applicants struggling to start graduate programs, the potential pool of future nurse educators remains limited.
Increasing Numbers of MSN-Prepared Nurse Educators: A Viable Solution to the Nursing Shortage
Increasing the number of master’s-prepared nurse educators can help combat the nursing shortage. With coursework in learning theories, assessment, evaluation, and curriculum design, MSN Nurse Educator graduates are prepared to help students acquire the essential knowledge and skills needed to begin their nursing career.
With more MSN-prepared nurse educators, nursing programs can expand their intake, increasing the number of graduate nurses ready to enter the workforce.
Role of Online MSN in Nursing Education Programs in Addressing the Nursing Shortage
Given the demanding nature of nursing, many nurses find it challenging to pursue advanced degrees through traditional means. This is where online programs come into play, like The University of Texas at Arlington (UTA) online MSN in Nursing Education program. This program provides a flexible, accessible path for working nurses to advance their careers. By pursuing an online MSN in Nursing Education degree, nurses can become educators without leaving their current positions.
Why choose an online program? Online platforms cater to a broader demographic, allowing nurses from different geographical regions and with varying work schedules to access quality education. This flexibility could be the key to increasing the pool of MSN-prepared nurse educators and, subsequently, the number of nurses entering the workforce.
Luckily, UTA’s program is that much more accessible for those who want to pursue a nurse educator role. With affordable, pay-as-you-go tuition and straightforward requirements (online application, official transcripts and an active RN license), students can easily apply.
MSN-Prepared Nurses: The Answer the Healthcare Industry Needs
The nursing shortage is a complex issue that requires a multifaceted approach. Increasing the number of MSN-prepared nurse educators is crucial to addressing the shortage of nurses and nurse educators. By offering accessible online MSN programs, institutions can provide a pathway for more nurses to become educators, ensuring a brighter, more stable future for healthcare in the U.S.


INTRODUCTION TO CLASSICAL AND QUANTUM FIELD THEORY
Sujeito à disponibilidade do fornecedor
Área FÍSICA TEÓRICA
Número de páginas 304
Edição 1ª ED 2009
This is the first introductory textbook on quantum field theory to be written from the point of view of condensed matter physics. As such, it presents the basic concepts and techniques of statistical field theory, clearly explaining how and why they are integrated into modern (and classical) field theory, and includes the latest developments.
Written by an expert in the field, with a broad experience in teaching and training, it manages to present such substantial topics as phases and phase transitions or solitons and instantons in an accessible and concise way.
Divided into two parts, the first covers fundamental physics and the mathematics background needed by students in order to enter the field, while the second part discusses applications of quantum field theory to a few basic problems. The emphasis here lies on how modern concepts of quantum field theory are embedded in these approaches, and also on the limitations of standard quantum field theory techniques in facing 'real' physics problems.
Throughout, there are numerous end-of-chapter problems, and a free solutions manual is available for lecturers.


Rich, organic, well-aged compost improves the nutrition and fertility of your soil and increases the health of your plants. All organic matter breaks down eventually, but composting speeds up this process by using organisms and microorganisms to break organic material down at a faster rate. Beneficial bacteria, fungi and other organisms take on the job of breaking down organic materials in your compost pile. As they work, they create carbon dioxide, water and heat, which all play a part in creating a rich humus.
Breaking Down Organic Matter
Each gram of decaying compost contains millions of beneficial microorganisms that work to break down organic matter. Of the microorganisms present, 80 to 90 percent are bacteria, including actinomycetes and aerobic bacteria. They are some of the most important workers in your compost pile.
Larger organisms like spiders, worms, beetles, bugs, nematodes, mites and snails start the decomposition process by grinding larger pieces of organic matter into smaller pieces. Bacteria then go to work on these smaller pieces, consuming, digesting and recycling them. These bacteria are also versatile, extracting carbon and nitrogen from virtually any organic substance as a source of energy. They use this energy to create protein and reproduce. As they work, these bacteria also generate heat, increasing the temperature of your compost pile, which further speeds the decomposition process.
As the bacteria in your compost pile consume and digest organic matter, they excrete and free up important minerals and nutrients, including nitrogen, carbon, ammonia, magnesium and phosphorus. Once the compost is mature enough to add to your garden soil, your plants can absorb these nutrients. These nutrients are essential for the health and vigor of your plants. Adding compost to nutrient-poor soil may make it able to support plants.
Aerobic bacteria are the main type of bacteria in your compost pile. Of these workers, there are three different varieties, each of which is active at different phases of the decomposition process.
Psychrophilic bacteria go to work on the initial organic matter in the compost pile, thriving at temperatures around 55 degrees Fahrenheit. These bacteria raise the temperature of your compost pile to 70 F, at which time, the mesophilic bacteria take over. These bacteria work at moderate to warm temperatures between 70 and 100 F. At 100 F, the thermophilic bacteria take over, raising the temperature of the compost pile to as much as 160 F. Once your pile reaches 160 F, it is important to turn the soil and add new materials, which cools the pile and starts the process over again.
Another kind of bacteria present, Actinomycete bacteria, closely resemble fungi and appear during the late stages of composting to clean up remaining materials that are difficult for aerobic bacteria to break down. Actinomycete bacteria are responsible for breaking down cellulose, proteins, lignin and starches. Along with aerobic bacteria, actinomycetes change the chemical structure of the compost pile to create a rich soil amendment.
The bacteria in your compost pile are fragile microorganisms that are easily killed or become inactive if the proper conditions are not met. It is important that your compost pile not become too hot or too dry. This is dangerous for your yard, can be a fire hazard and also kills off many of the beneficial bacteria.
Oxygen also supports bacteria in your compost pile. Bacteria require levels of oxygen at 5 percent or more to survive, otherwise decomposition is greatly reduced. Anaerobic bacteria also begin to develop in low-oxygen compost, which creates an environment that is acidic, smelly and bad for your plants. Keep the temperatures down and oxygen levels high by sticking to a regular schedule of turning your compost pile.