Important information before you beginKevin A. Miller
When the Roman general sacked the temple, the Jews were forced into a new era—and so were the Christians.
The agreement shifted Christianity from being an illicit, persecuted sect to being a welcome—and soon dominant—religion of the Roman Empire.David F. Wright
At stake in the church’s first general council was the simplest, yet most profound, question: Who is Jesus Christ?Bruce L. Shelley
His letter is the earliest authoritative statement to fix the New Testament as we know it today.Carsten Peter Thiede
A brilliant, profligate professor of rhetoric became the church’s leading theologian for centuries to come.
This Latin translation stood as the preeminent Bible text for centuries—and set the standard for future translators.
If Jesus was truly God, how could he be truly human as well? Leo the Great helped guide a critical council to a clear answer.Tony Lane
His flexible, compassionate guidelines for Christian community forever shaped monastic life—and influenced Western society.Bennett D. Hill
The pagan prince of Kievan Rus’ embraced a new faith, leading to the Christianization of the Ukrainian, Russian, and Byelorussian peoples.
Long-standing differences between Western and Eastern Christians finally caused a definitive break, and Roman Catholics and Eastern Orthodox still remain separate.George T. Dennis
Waves of pilgrims and soldiers embarked for the Holy Land, beginning an era of exploration, conquest, defeat, and folly.
The massive treatise set forth a theological system so influential it has been declared eternally valid.
When two popes, and later three popes, vied for supremacy, the medieval church entered a dramatic, forty-year crisis of authority.Dr. Francis Oakley is president of Williams College in Williamstown, Massachusetts.
A capsule overview of the movement Jesus started, seen mostly from a Western perspective.Bruce L. Shelley
Using his revolutionary invention—printing from movable type—he made the Scriptures potentially accessible to every person.
Some useful and accessible reading.the Editors
A timeline of important events in (mostly western) church history.the Editors
A selective chronology of church history and world events, mostly from a western point of view.the Editors
An obscure monk invited debate on a pressing church issue—and touched off a history-shattering reform movement.Eric W. Gritsch
Was the wayward Luther free to dissent? A German council rendered a judgment.Eric W. Gritsch
Hated by Protestants and Catholics alike, these “radical reformers” wanted to not merely reform the church but restore it.
Breaking from Rome, the English Parliament declared King Henry VIII “the only supreme head on earth of the Church of England.”
Either adored or abhorred, the reformer and his teachings live on in his monumental work.
Responding to the Reformation, the council charted the Catholic church’s course for the next 400 years.
A team of scholars produced an English Bible translation unsurpassed in linguistic beauty and longevity.
They were ordained ministers and missionaries. Then their hearts were “strangely warmed,” and their changed lives gave rise to a worldwide movement.Roger J. Green
A mighty wave of revival washed across North America, forever altering the religious landscape.Mark A. Noll
In an epochal council, the Catholic Church undertook its most searching self-examination ever and renewed itself for a modern world.Joseph A. Komonchak
A Baptist preacher had a dream that guided one of the most profound social movements of our times.Wesley A. Roberts
A brief listing of significant dates that also earn a place in the “Christian History 100”the Editors
Christ and Culture in Russia
Walk Through the Wilderness
Erasmus: Christ's humanist
Christian history in images
Containing today’s events, devotional, quote and stories


Exhibition Co-Curator Steven W. Hackel
W. Hackel, associate professor of history at the University of
California, Riverside, specializes in the California missions,
California Indians, colonial America, the American West, and the Spanish
Borderlands. Over the last two decades, he has emerged as a leading
scholar of Spanish California through his research integrating colonial
California into larger currents of scholarship and his central role in
creating new resources for the study of the region. Hackel’s work on
this exhibition is the culmination of more than 20 years of research at
the Huntington Library on Spanish California and California Indians.
Hackel is the author of the highly anticipated biography Junípero Serra: California’s Founding Father.
Based on extensive research in archives in Mallorca, Spain, Mexico, and
California, this groundbreaking study is the most comprehensive
biography of Serra in 50 years and the first to remove Serra from the
realm of polemic and place him within his historical context. It is
slated for release in early September 2013 by Hill and Wang, a division
of Farrar, Straus & Giroux.
Hackel’s award-winning first book, Children of Coyote, Missionaries of Saint Francis: Indian-Spanish Relations in Colonial California, 1769-1850
(2005), is a sweeping examination of Spanish California centered on
Indian life in Mission San Carlos, the mission that Serra established in
Monterey in 1770. Hackel is the author of 20 articles on Spanish
California and the editor of a volume of essays on colonial California, Alta California: People in Motion, Identities in Formation, which was published by the Huntington Library Press in 2010. He is the general editor of The Huntington’s Early California Population Project,
a database of the baptism, marriage, and burial records from all 21 of
California’s missions, and the director of the Early California Cultural
Atlas, an NEH-funded spatial history of colonial California. Hackel is a
member of the board of directors of the California Missions Foundation,
the California Missions Studies Association, and the Historical Society
of Southern California.
Hackel was born and raised in
California and received his B.A. with Distinction at Stanford University
in International Relations and his Ph.D. in American History from
Cornell University. He lives in Pasadena, Calif.
back to release


Art is a vital, integral and valuable part of education. It provides opportunities to develop a range of ways to express creativity and make links with art in society.
At Lanesfield our intent is to engage, inspire and challenge pupils, while equipping them with the knowledge and skills to experiment, create and invent different works of art. To recognise art is developed through experiences and the importance of learning about art through the eyes of great artists.
This is achieved through an immersive curriculum, pupils are encouraged to develop their critical thinking and to establish a more thorough understanding of art and design centred around great artists. Pupils have the opportunity to extend different styles and skills by incorporating a range of materials and media. Further consolidated as all pupils then reflective and evaluate their work to make changes and improvements.
“Art is not just a subject to learn, but an activity that you can practise with your hands, your eyes, your whole personality.” Quentin Blake, Children’s Laureate


In light of some reading I managed to do on the plane, and considering recent global events, as well as events which may occur in our students’ lives in future weeks which they may find challenging, I thought this week it may be worth discussing resilience.
Research has established that resilience is essential for humans to thrive. It is necessary for the development of healthy, adaptable young people. It’s what enables children to emerge from challenging experiences with a positive sense of themselves and their future. Children who develop resilience are better able to face disappointment, learn from failure, cope with loss, and adapt to change. We recognise resilience in children when we observe their determination, grit, and perseverance to tackle problems and cope with the emotional challenges of school and life. Our role in schools is to attempt to develop resilience skills within our students.
No matter how hard we may try, life isn't perfect. Every day cannot be sunny; our relationships with others cannot always be smooth - and there are days where (no doubt for students as well as staff) life can be challenging. However, it is how we react to those less-than-perfect situations that give insight into our individual development.
Our students spend a significant portion of their time at school, so it provides a worthy context within which to examine resilience and actions we can take to develop this trait further. A relevant example for some of our students may be their first day back after examinations. They may receive their first exam result and it has gone drastically wrong – a misinterpreted question, or an examination instruction not followed properly. All of a sudden the student may feel as though disaster is imminent. Talk between classes may be negative and there is the potential for a downward spiral to develop.
How then can our students address this? First, a conscious effort must be made to ensure the self-talk is positive and reaffirming. Examples may be ‘I am confident in my revision for other subjects’ or ‘I always perform well in my favourite subject’. Second, thoughts must go beyond the current ‘disaster’ and begin focusing on the future, where the problem no longer exists. Third, forget trying to point fingers and assign blame. Students will benefit from focusing on the future – ‘two more exams to go’ or ‘I now have targets for future improvement for next time’ or ‘I won’t make that mistake again’.
Affirmations are an important tool for our students to use. These are simply present-tense statements of fact - about the future. Students must believe that through their attitude and effort they have the ability to impact future performance. Useful affirmations include ‘I have the tools around me to get support for my individual subjects’ or ‘I was successful in some of my exams so I can apply the same processes to my poorer performances and improve in the future’.
The important thing is to have our minds firmly fixed on the future, the future without the current challenge. Our mind moves you toward the most dominant picture. If all you are thinking about is the current "disaster," then you won't be able to move forward. The more affirmations we undertake, the clearer the future picture, and performance, becomes.
As a skill we have discussed resilience in an individual setting, but it is also one which has a much wider application on our lives.
Every year, the world sees its share of disasters and the most recent events in Manchester certainly highlight this. In each instance, the aftermath has been almost unbearable to watch. We feel a lack of control and an inability to prevent these events from occurring. We need to take care of how our minds approach coping with disaster. Rebounding from disaster takes a conscious effort to control our self-talk in order to remain positive. Looking beyond ourselves by helping others, assists in aiding our own positive self-talk. Making the effort to visualise what our worlds will look like, once the current situation is fixed, provides a path to follow. Reinforcing that vision with positive affirmations goes a long way towards avoiding the pitfalls of a downward spiral.
And one more important thing about resilience: Letting others help you, as you help others, creates a sense of community. The knowledge that we can work together to solve problems is a powerful thing, which only provides a further foundation to build our resilience.
Mr Brad Evans
Head of Senior School
1 Jun 2017 - 8:04 AM


Science is a multidisciplinary course having different subjects’ combinations in class 12th. These combinations can be PCB ( Physics, Chemistry,Biology), PCM (Physics, Chemistry , Maths),
PCMB (Physics, Chemistry, Maths and Biology).
Having a good career in science, the student has a wide range of options to go ahead. It starts with bachelor’s degree (B.Sc), master’s degree (M.Sc) and then Ph.D (Doctor of Philosophy) in a variety of subjects like Physics, Chemistry, Mathematics, Biology, Computer Science, Microbiology, Biotechnology among others.
Since the science course can be pursued as UG, PG and PhD, the eligibility criteria are different for each category. Below are the criteria’s for UG and PG Science course –
For Undergraduate –
For Postgraduate –
We Campus Live Educational Services Provider Assist and Guide you to study on various Science Courses


Credit: Yunfei Wu
Black carbon (BC) is the product of incomplete combustion of fossil fuels, biofuel, and biomass. By strongly absorbing solar radiation, BC can heat the atmosphere, affect its stability, and further deteriorate air quality.
The climatic and environmental effects of BC are determined by its loading in the atmosphere. Scientists find that microphysical characteristics of BC, such as particle size and mixing state, can also influence these effects.
The team pointed out that the reduction of the thickly coated BC would further lead to a decline of solar radiation absorption by atmospheric aerosols, besides the decline resulting from the BC loading itself.
Using a single-particle soot photometer (SP2), Dr. Yunfei Wu from the Institute of Atmospheric Physics (IAP) of the Chinese Academy of Science and his collaborators conducted long-term observations of BC loading and microphysical properties in urban Beijing.
In a study published in Environmental Pollution, the researchers reported temporal variations of BC loading and microphysical properties.
“We observed evident decreases of BC loading in the atmosphere of urban Beijing since the implementation of China’s Action Plan of Prevention and Control of Air Pollution in 2013,” said Dr. Wu. Apparently, strict emission controls contributed to the decrease.
The team also found that emission control measures had impacts on BC size and mixing state. The BC aerosols became “slim”, with smaller core sizes and less coatings.
This phenomenon was more pronounced after the comprehensive implementation of the “coal to electricity” measures in Beijing and surrounding areas from 2016. “Coal combustion and biomass burning likely emitted more BC aerosols with larger core sizes and thicker coatings than vehicle exhaust,” said Dr. Wu.
Ms. Zheng Lin
Related Journal Article


With the CDC admitting that last year’s flu shot was a considerable bust and other emerging research challenging the shot’s efficacy, some are questioning if they should even bother. As a spritely 20-something who feels like she’s made of steel and impervious to all disease, I planned to meet in person with Dr. John Swartzberg, UC Berkeley professor of public health and Editorial Board Chair of Berkeley Wellness, to discuss the controversy. And then I got sick.
“I didn’t get my shot,” I admitted over the phone, as I was forced to do the interview from bed. In between a cough and a sneeze, I asked him if the flu shot actually works. Swartzberg, who publicly advocates for getting the vaccine, laughed.
“It’s not a very good vaccine. I think that’s a very fair statement to make,” Swartzberg says. “But it’s the best we have, and it is better than nothing.”
How much better than nothing? According to Swartzberg, it depends. Some years, flu vaccines protect 70 percent of the population—other years, only 20 percent. Compare these results to something like the measles vaccine, which prevents measles in 95 percent of people who get it, and that’s a pretty wide margin of error.
The effectiveness of the vaccine depends on how well it was designed to match the active flu strains, says Swartzberg, and that accuracy can fluctuate per shot—mostly because vaccines are created based on educated guesses.
To determine what viruses to vaccinate for, experts examine the most recent winter on our planet—which occurs in the Southern Hemisphere—then look at the circulating strains and make a judgment about which ones they think we’ll see in our winter coming up. Because it takes about six months to develop the vaccine and get it ready for the public, the World Health Organization and CDC decide what will make up the vaccine’s components as early as February.
Most of the time their guesses are “spot on,” Swartzberg says, with 3-4 circulating strains covered by the vaccine—but sometimes they may miss one or two of the strains.
Also, even if they do guess correctly, flu viruses can change. Small genetic shifts in a virus can accumulate, according to the CDC. So even if you got vaccinated and develop antibodies for a specific strain, if that virus has changed enough over time, you can still get sick.
And some may argue that these genetic shifts happen so frequently that they render the shot virtually meaningless.
Chris Kresser, Cal grad and author of the New York Times best seller, Your Personal Paleo Code, has stated on his podcast that he doesn’t think flu shots are necessary and he doesn’t get them himself. In a blog post, he wrote, “Conventional wisdom holds that there’s not much you can do to prevent colds and flus—and even less you can do to treat them. Of course you could get a flu shot, but research suggests they aren’t nearly as effective as many believe.”
Kresser, who has a BA in communications from Cal and is a licensed acupuncturist cites as evidence (as many medical experts have) an exhaustive study from the Center for Infectious Disease Research and Policy (CIDRAP) at the University of Minnesota, released in 2012—which challenged the current methods of developing vaccines.
The study revealed that flu shot protection is “substantially lower than for most routinely recommended vaccines.” The paper acknowledges that hundreds of studies have been conducted showing a 70-90 percent flu vaccine efficacy in healthy adults—but that the data was taken from “suboptimal methodology.”
Piggy-backing off of this, the study concluded that flu shot recommendations over the last three decades were based on “professional judgment” and not “scientifically sound data”—asserting that the widely-held idea that current flu vaccines are highly effective keeps the medical community from creating better alternatives.
Ordinarily, a single study is taken with a grain of salt, but when I mentioned the CIDRAP study to Swartzberg, he knew it and noted that it was reasonable and done by “good people.” The six experts who authored the paper spent thousands of hours reviewing more than 12,000 official documents, notes, transcripts and articles dating back to 1936. They also spoke to 88 influenza experts, and consulted with a 13-member expert advisory group before the study was published. Of the many influenza reviews used for the study’s research, 10 of them were from the Cochrane Collaboration, a well-known international network of experts.
Tom Jefferson, an author of the Cochrane reviews, told The Independent: “We have conducted four reviews since the late 1990s. We calculated that you need to vaccinate between 33 and 99 people to prevent one case of flu, depending on the match between the vaccine and the circulating strains of the virus. I want people held accountable for wasting taxpayer’s money on these vaccines. The reviews have been available for years and nothing has been done.”
Despite all of this, the authors of the CIDRAP study concluded that you should STILL GET THE FLU SHOT.
“Vaccination offers substantially more protection for most of the population than being unvaccinated,” the study concludes. “For this reason, we believe current influenza vaccines will continue to have a role in reducing influenza morbidity until more effective interventions are available.”
Swartzberg says that the flu vaccine is always going to be imperfect until we develop a universal vaccine—one that attacks the virus in a part of its structure that never changes. One of the most recent attempts at a universal vaccine came out of Lancaster University this year. Researchers there have used computation techniques to design a vaccine that could cover 88 percent of known global flu strains and 95 percent of U.S. flu strains.
“Once we do that, we’ll have a vaccine that will always work, and that’s the Holy Grail,” Swartzberg says. “But we’re probably a decade away from that.”
Until that day, professionals are working on other ways to make the current flu shot more effective. Some shots cover four strains instead of three, and others have higher concentrations that might give more protection to people over 65 who are susceptible to complications from the flu. There’s also a new vaccine for those who are allergic to eggs (as egg proteins have long been used in the flu shot).
Regardless of fluctuating effectiveness of the shot, it seems that anything you can do to prevent contracting the illness is wise.
“Influenza is the only acute infectious disease that occurs in the United States, that every year significantly increases the mortality rate,” says Swartzberg.
On a good year, there are 15,000 excess deaths due to flu in the United States—and on a bad year, it may be 40-45,000. To put this into perspective, says Swartzberg, that’s more than are caused by automobile accidents, which usually are around 33,000 on average per year.
Sadly, of those who die of the flu each year, about 100 are children, said Dr. Thomas Friedan, director of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, at a joint briefing with the National Foundation for Infectious Diseases.
Despite these disturbing statistics, there’s been a slight drop in the number of those who get vaccinated: 45 percent of the U.S. population got shots last year, a 1.5 percent decrease than the year before that. What’s concerning is that the largest decrease was among middle-aged to older people—with a 3.4 percent drop among those 50 to 64 and 3.3 percent for those 65 and older. Swartzberg says some of this could have to do with the public health sector not having the budget to advertise and create adequate campaigns to inform the public. He also theorizes that the decrease could be due to a normalization of the virus in society.
“We live in a world where we see influenza every year, and that’s just to be expected. So we get used to it and get accustomed to it,” Swartzberg says. “People are too complacent about how significant an infectious disease this is. It causes significant morbidity and mortality. So that’s the unfortunate thing. Because it’s so common, it happens every year, we tend to make it part of the background noise of life. It’s called denial.”
This was an affliction I currently suffered from, having not gotten around to getting my shot at the end of November. Fortunately, after a brief review of my symptoms, Swartzberg determined that it was just a cold (whew) and I should go get vaccinated. But what about those rumors that getting a flu shot can give you a bad reaction—or even make you sicker?
“Unless you have fever you should be safe to get the flu shot,” Swartzberg said. But he recommended I wait a few days until I get better so I don’t attribute the flu shot to any illness I may experience. “Humans are always looking for causality…. Wait a couple extra days to make sure you’re better.”
I have since taken his advice and have emerged unscathed—and presumably a little bit more protected than I was. A vaccinated woman of steel.


P. 469 THE COUNTY’S FIRST WHITE SETTLER—
FIRST WHITE SETTLEMENT—
A LAND OF FLOODS AND LEVEES—
THE WILSONS—GENERAL THOMAS POSEY—
OTHER PROMINENT MEN—TOWN OF EQUALITY
Picturesque Gallatin! With her rounded hills, her precipitous bluffs, her vast stretches of level sandy low lands, her old Salines, her Indian
BROUGHT WEST BY GEN. ALEXANDER POSEY.
NOW IN POSSESSION OF
ROBINSON BROTHERS, SHAWNEETOWN
THE COUNTY’S FIRST WHITE SETTLERIt is generally agreed that Michael Sprinkle, a gunsmith, was the first white man to settle within the present limits of Gallatin county. He is supposed to have come to Shawneetown as early as 1800 where he remained till 1814 when he removed into the country some four miles. p 470
FIRST WHITE SETTLEMENTShawneetown without doubt became the first white settlement. There was a ferry at Shawneetown probably as early as 1800 or within a year or so thereafter. Its necessity resulted from the travel out of Kentucky to the salt works which were at Equality ten or twelve miles up the Saline river. The continual moving of people back and forth between Kentucky and Illinois brought many people within the county at an early date. Settlements sprang up about Equality, Omaha, and in other neighborhoods. The first settlers at Shawneetown evidently followed their own sweet will in locating their cabins, but in 1808-9 the general government ordered the town laid out, which was done. The Indians still resided in that locality. In 1812 a land office was located in Shawneetown. Many prominent men early gathered about Shawneetown.
A LAND OF FLOODS AND LEVEESThe Indians of the village which was located at this point, gave the whites to understand that the land overflowed and the people must often take to the hills for safety. In a very early day the people began to construct levees for protection against high water. There have been floods every decade almost since the town was laid out. About 1859-60 the state granted the town a charter to borrow money with which to build a levee. The state granted aid. The work went forward slowly. In 1867 the river covered the entire town and rose into the second stories. The state and town had spent many thousands of dollars on the levees and they were thought safe, but in 1875 they broke and the town was flooded. For several years the floods seemed to come annually. In 1884 the city was flooded the water rising 56.4 feet above low water mark. More money was spent and the levees raised. By 1888 or 1890 there were four and a half miles of levees, built at a cost of $200,000. In 1898, or thereabouts, the levees broke above the city and great damage was done property by the enormous current which swept through the city. Many homes were swept away and more than a score of lives were lost. The general government appropriated $25,000 with which to repair the break in the levee, and thousands of dollars in money, clothing, and food poured into Shawneetown from every hamlet, village, and town. In 1907 another severe test arose, the water reaching 52.8 feet. By prompt and vigilant attention by the city the threatened danger was averted. A few years ago the state created an Internal Improvement Commission. This commission has expended many thousands of dollars of state appropriations in an effort to strengthen the Shawneetown levees. An effort is also on foot to get help from Congress, and there is reason to believe, since the high water of April, 1912, that the levees are proof against the waters of the Ohio.
THE WILSONSThe history of the county, at least in its earliest decades, is identical with the history of a number of Illinois’ great names. Probably the oldest name among these is that of the Wilsons. Alexander Wilson an early emigrant to Illinois settled at Shawneetown so early as 1802 or P 471
|THE TOMB OF GEN. ALEXANDER POSEY, SHAWNEETOWN, GALLATIN COUNTY|
GENERAL THOMAS POSEYGeneral Thomas Posey was born 1750 in Virginia. He was captain and lieutenant colonel in the Revolutionary war. He was at Stony Point and at Yorktown. He held the position of lieutenant governor of Kentucky, U. S. senator from Louisiana, territorial governor of Indiana, made his home in Shawneetown and lies buried in Westwood cemetery, Shawneetown.
OTHER PROMINENT MENOther prominent citizens of Illinois whose lives were connected with Gallatin county history were John McLean, representative in congress; Gen. John A. McClernand, warrior and statesman; John Marshall, pioneer financier; Henry Eddy, veteran newspaper man; Gen. John A. Logan, the idol of the Illinois volunteers; Robert G. Ingersoll, the matchless orator; Chas. Carroll and Thomas Ridgway, noted financiers and public spirited citizens of later years; Gen. Michael K. Lawler, a hero of two wars. P 472
A SECTION OF A WOODEN PIPE USED
THE SALT WORKS AT EQUALITY. MANY OF THESE WOODEN PIPES ARE STILL
BURIED IN THE GROUND IN THAT LOCALITY.
TOWN OF EQUALITYEquality is a thriving town on the Saline river some ten or twelve miles from Shawneetown. It has extensive coal mines and has one of the largest coke ovens in the state. In this city will be erected a monument by the state in honor of the public service to the state of Gen. Michael K. Lawler. The appropriation has been made and the work is under way. Omaha in the northwest corner of the county, Ridgway toward the center, and New Haven in the northeast. are all towns of importance. The last named was settled by Jonathan Boone, a brother of Daniel Boone. Boone settled New Haven as early as 1812 or 1814. He built a stockade known as Boone’s Fort. Four miles west of Shawneetown is Bowlesville, a small village whose chief interest was coal mining. Here lived fifty years ago a gentleman whom Mark Twain made famous—George Eschol Sellers. In Twain’s “Golden Age~’ George Eschol Sellers is dramatized as “Colonel Mulberry Sellers,” or “Millions in it.’’ The friends of Mr. Sellers remember him as an honest, industrious, intelligent gentleman who spent his time in making inventions, managing a great coal company, and cultivating silk worms. He had a valuable private library and kept open house to distinguished visitors.
A PIONEER INDUSTRYOn February 12, 1812, congress created the Shawneetown land district. Leonard White, Willis Hargrave, and Phillip Trammel constituted a committee to set aside the land adjacent to these salt works as a reservation for the benefit of the salt works. The timber was needed for fuel to boil down the brine. Something like 100,000 acres of land P 473 was reserved from sale in the immediate vicinity of the Great Half Moon Lick which was found near Equality. An additional 84,000 acres were reserved in other Southern Illinois communities. On the Saline river which rises in Hamilton, Franklin, and Williamson, and empties into the Ohio in Gallatin county, was found one of the greatest salt licks which is to be found, in the United States. There was also in the immediate vicinity salt springs of strongly impregnated water. This lick is within a half mile of the town of Equality, Gallatin
© 2006~ Pam MARDOS Rietsch email@example.com


Many Christian parents encourage their kids to learn Bible verses as a part of their faith education. Children as young as 2 years of age can memorize a simple Bible verse -- if the verse is presented correctly. Once the child learns the Bible verse, periodic review ensures that the child continues to recall the verse.
Scripture or a biblical principle set to music helps children remember. Many Sunday school and vacation Bible school teachers can provide simple songs they frequently use, but not all of the songs are Bible verses. Your child could know Psalm 47:1, “Clap your hands, all ye people; shout unto God with the voice of triumph” because it is a familiar song for many church kids’ choirs. The kids enjoy clapping, raising their hands for “hosannah” and shouting, “praise him.” “Seek Ye First the Kingdom of God” and “Seek and Ye Shall Find” are two songs based on Matthew 6:33. Church kids’ choir directors often use hand signs, American Sign Language and body motions to help kids remember the verse.
Know the Story
The ancient Hebrews used stories to help their children remember Scripture. Deuteronomy 6:7-9 commanded parents to talk about the Scriptures at home, walking down the road, lying down at night and getting up in the morning. You can use this same principle by telling your child the verse as a story and include the biblical reference at the end. Some of the easiest examples of simple verses that tell stories are Jesus’ parables, such as the wise and foolish builders, the parable of the Good Shepherd and the pearl of great price. Repeat these stories often to help your child remember them.
With elementary ages kids and older, you can use games to help your child remember Bible verses. Scramble the words with the Bible reference and have your child put the verse in the proper order. Create a word search puzzle using the words of a familiar Scripture and provide the reference to help your child puzzle it out. Your child’s Sunday school or vacation Bible school teacher could have puzzles you can use or you can find them in many Bible activity books.
Kids in elementary grades and older can create crafts to remember Bible verses. Your child can string letter and number beads to spell out a Bible verse. A child who knows how to sew could embroider the verse on a cross, make a Bible verse quilt or illustrate a Bible verse with cross stitch. A young child could build a toy house on a solid foundation and another on sand to understand the parable of the wise and foolish builders found in Matthew 7:24-27. A cardboard roll lamb can help your child remember the verses about the Good Shepherd found in Luke 15:3-6.


Mathura lion capital
The Mathura lion capital (British Museum)
|Size||16.75 inches tip to tip|
|Created||1st century CE|
|Discovered||Mathura in Central India|
|Present location||British Museum, London|
The capital was excavated by Bhagwan Lal Indraji in 1869. It is covered with Prakrit inscriptions in the kharoshthi script of northwestern India. The capital was made on the occasion of the funeral of "the illustrious king Muki and his horse" (Muki has been conjectured to be Maues).
The capital describes, among other donations, the gift of a stupa with a relic of the Buddha, by Queen Aiyasi Kamuia, the "chief queen of the Indo-Scythian ruler of Mathura, strap Rajuvula", mentioned as the "daughter of Kharaosta Kamuio" (See: Mathura Lion Capital inscriptions below). The lion capital also mentions the genealogy of several Indo-Scythian satraps of Mathura. It mentions Sodasa, son of Rajuvula, who succeeded him and also made Mathura his capital. The Kharoshthi names Kamuia/Kamuio mentioned in the Lion Capital have been restored as Kambojika or Kamboja by Stein Konow
The capital also displays at its center a Buddhist triratana symbol, further confirming the involvement of Indo-Scythian rulers with Buddhism.
It is on display at the British Museum in the Joseph E. Hotung Gallery.
List of inscriptions
- A1 mahaksha[tra]vasa rajulasa
- A2 agra-maheshi ayasia
- "Chief Queen Ayasia,"
- A3 kamuia dhida
- "The kamuia daughter of"
- A4 kharaostasa yuvarana
- "The heir-apparent Kharahostes,"
- A5 mada nada-diakasa [taye]
- A6 sadha matra abuhola[e]
- A7 pitramahi pishpasia bhra
- A8 tra hayuarana sadha hana dhi[tra]
- A9 a[te]urena horaka-pa
- A10 rivarena isha pradhravi-prade
- A11 she nisime sharira pradithavido
- "Has offered relics of"
- A12 bhakhavado shakamunisa budhasa
- A13 muki-[shiri]-raya sashpa [a]bhusavi[ta]
- A14 thuva ca sagharama ca cadu
- A15 dishasa saghasa sarva
- A16 stivadana parigrahe
- E1 kharaosto yuvaraya
- "The heir-apparent Kharahostes,"
- E’ kamuio
- "A kamuia"
- E2 khalamasa kumara
- E3 maja kanitha
- E4 saman[u] moda
- E’’ kha karita
- B1/B2 mahakshatravasa va[ra]julasa putra
- "The son of the Great Satrap Rajuvula:"
- C1 kalui a
- C2 varajo
- C3 sudase kshatrave
- "The Satrap Sodasa"
- D1 nauludo
- M1 kshatrave sudise
- M2 imo padhravi
- M3 pradesho
- I1 veyaudirna kadhavaro busapa
- I2 ro kadha
- I3 varo
- I4 vi ya u
- J1 rvaraparena palichina
- J2 nisimo karita niyadido
- H guhavihare
- KL1 ayariasa
- KL2 budhadevasa
- "The divine Buddha"
- KL3 udaena ayimi[ta]
- F1 budhilasa nakharaasa
- F2 bhikhusa sarvastivadasa
- "Sarvastivada monk"
- G1/G2 mahakshat[r]avasa kusul[u]asa patikasa mevaki[sa] miyikasa kshat[r]avasa puyae
- "The satrap Miyika honours the great satrap Kusulaka Patika"
- J3 sarvastivadana parigrahe
- N1 ayariasa budhilasa nakharakhasa bhikhu
- N2 sa sarvastivadasa pagra
- N3 na mahasaghiana pra
- N4 ma navidave khalulasa
- O1/O2 sarvabudhana puya dhamasa puya saghasa puya
- P1/P2 sarvasa sakhasta nasa puyae
- "In reverence of all the dead Sakas"
- Q1 khardaasa
- Q2 kshatravasa
- "the Satrap"
- R1 takshilasa
- R2 kroninasa
- J'1 khalasamu
- J'2 so
Sten Konow, who compiled a definitive listing of Indian Buddhist inscriptions, identified "Kamuia" with "Kamboja" (an Iron Age tribe of the north-west frontier). "If we bear in mind that mb becomes m i.e mm in the dialect of Kharoshthi dhammapada, and that u is used for the common o in Sudasa in the Lion Capital Inscriptions, the Kamuia of the Lion Capital can very well represent a Sanskrit Kambojika ... I shall only add that if Kharoshtha and his father Arta were Kambojas, the same may have been the case with Moga, and we understand why the Kambojas are sometimes mentioned with the Sakas and Yavanas". Many of Konow's readings, his sequence of sentences and some of the interpretation, particularly the connection with king Maues, need to be changed in the light of a new reading of H. Falk.
- Jason Neelis (19 November 2010). Early Buddhist Transmission and Trade Networks: Mobility and Exchange Within and Beyond the Northwestern Borderlands of South Asia. BRILL. p. 122. ISBN 90-04-18159-8.
- Red Sanstone Pillar Capital, British Museum, accessed August 2010
- Rosenfield, "The dynastic art of the Kushans", p.134
- List of the inscriptions on the Mathura lion capital
- Sten Konow, Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum, Vol II, Part I, p xxxvi,p 36
- Harry Falk, "Ten thoughts on the Mathura Lion capital reliquary". Bhandare, Shailendra & Sanjay Garg (eds.), "Felicitas - Essays in Numismatics, Epigraphy and History in Honour of Joe Cribb". Mumbai, pp. 121-141


At one time Lodge Hill was just like every other “Brown Field” site in the country but the discovery of Nightingale has changed that forever.
- As a nation, we have decided that those places that have been proven to be of national importance for wildlife should be protected. They are called Sites of Special Scientific Interest (nationally) and Special Protection Areas (internationally), and the rules that govern what can be built where say that, in layperson’s terms, these sites should not be destroyed or damaged. That damage isn’t only by them being built on, but the damage could come from building next to them – what are called ‘indirect effects’
- The Hoo Peninsula is surrounded by protected wildlife sites – the Thames Estuary & Marshes, the Medway Estuary and Marshes, with Chattenden Woods and Lodge Hill in the middle.
- Lodge Hill was protected because it holds the largest population of Nightingales in the whole of the UK. Nightingales are one of our most threatened species, having declined by 90% in the last 50 years, and with less than 5,500 pairs left.
- The reason why Lodge Hill was such a big case nationally is in part because of the Nightingales but also because of the precedent it would set for protected sites everywhere
- Homes England, the government’s ‘housing accelerator’, has now accepted that it would not be right to build on Lodge Hill, which was a major step
- We are continuing to make the case that new housing shouldn’t be within 400m of Lodge Hill because of the indirect effects (lighting, noise, dogs, cats, people…etc etc – Nightingales can’t cope with all that)
If anyone was to say that they’d rather have Lodge Hill developed than Hoo St W, there is a very strong answer: If people start calling for protected sites to be built on, they risk getting the protected sites AND the non protected sites built on. They will have thrown away one of their key lines of defence.


Tics Among Children - A Visible Sign of Stress
Date: May 1, 2009
Stress is a factor we’ve come to accept as part of our modern-day society. As adults, we generally recognize situations that cause stress in our lives and develop strategies for dealing with it, such as exercise, meditation and relaxation techniques.
Young children, however, typically are unable to recognize situations that cause stress in their lives, nor are they equipped to deal with stress in positive and productive ways. Instead, they often exhibit stress and anxiety in physical and emotional outbursts. Sometimes stress can lead to a tic— a sudden, repetitive, non-rhythmic movement involving a distinct muscle group—like an uncontrolled eye blinking.
Surprisingly, tics are fairly common among kids. In fact, up to 24 percent of children may have a tic at some point in their young lives. This ailment is referred to as Transient Tic Disorder, and it is very common.
Blinking, Grunting and Jerking
Facial tics, like an eye blink, represent only one type of tic. Others include hand-clapping; neck stretching; mouth movements; head, arm or leg jerks; and facial grimacing. Sometimes tics can be in the form of an audible sound, like throat clearing, sniffing, or grunting.
It’s important for parents to understand that children cannot consciously suppress a tic. Once children begin to think about it, holding in a tic is as hard as holding in a sneeze or a yawn.
Tics are rarely diagnosed before the age of 2 and can begin anytime during childhood. Boys are three to four times more likely to develop a tic than girls. Generally, tics come on slowly, last for a few weeks or up to a year and then regress again.
In rare cases, a tic may be the symptom of a more complicated condition. During my residency, a young girl was admitted to our hospital because she had been acting strangely. After a battery of tests, the neurologist began to discuss with us an autoimmune condition called PANDAS — a rare disorder, where children develop changes in personality and tics several weeks after a Streptococcal throat infection. Tics related to this condition come on much more suddenly and gradually improve. Often, but not always, penicillin is given for the Streptococcal infection and children typically do quite well when given this treatment.
When a child develops a tic, a parent inevitably begins to wonder, “Will my child develop Tourette’s Syndrome?” The answer is: very rarely. While having a transient tic is common, Tourette’s is not. In general terms, Tourette’s involves multiple tics, at least one is vocal, and symptoms must be present for one year. For children with Tourette’s, there are many medication and therapy options that may help decrease symptoms.
So what do you do if your child develops a tic? When you first notice a tic—like eye blinking—take your child to the pediatrician. Your physician can help determine if there are additional concerns beyond your child’s tic. He or she also will determine if there are any complicating factors. For example, the stimulant medications used for ADHD may bring out or exacerbate tics.
SEE ALSO: Tics in Kids and What to Do About Them
Ignoring the Behavior, Minimizing the Pressure
Once the doctor concludes there is nothing physically wrong with your child, it is best to simply ignore the tic. The best thing a parent can do is not to draw unnecessary attention to a child’s tic.
Some parents ask if children aren’t more likely to stop a behavior if they’re made aware of it. While it’s true children need to be taught proper behavior in many situations, drawing attention to a tic causes a child to think more about it, which inevitably worsens the condition.
Besides just ignoring a tic, helping to minimize children’s stress also is key. It may be hard to imagine, but children face a great deal of kid-size pressure in their lives. Think back to those days in grammar school — dealing with homework, social interactions and deadlines can be tough on youngsters. You may want to talk to your student’s teacher or school counselor to develop a plan to help minimize stress in your child’s life.
Home life can be another source of stress for children, especially during times of family turmoil and trials. Spending time with your kids and talking with them about their concerns can help lighten the load. Ensuring children are getting adequate sleep goes a long way toward eliminating stress.
For the most part, tics are harmless, and the vast majority of tics are not the result of any underlying problem. Once the doctor gives your child a clean bill of health, the best thing to do is just ignore the tic, help minimize stress and make sure your child is getting enough sleep. These are the best measures to help your child deal with a problem that will most likely disappear in a short time.
SEE ALSO: From Quirks to Compulsion: OCD in Children


What are the different types of trust deeds?
While there are a number of different types of trusts, the basic types are revocable and irrevocable.
- Revocable Trusts.
- Irrevocable Trust.
- Asset Protection Trust.
- Charitable Trust.
- Constructive Trust.
- Special Needs Trust.
- Spendthrift Trust.
- Tax By-Pass Trust.
What do you need to know about a deed of trust?
A deed of trust is a legal document in which a trust-maker (or settlor) transfers property to a trustee (who will manage it for beneficiaries) and creates a trust. “Property” here refers to any kind of asset, not just residential property.
What’s the difference between schedule a and Schedule B deed of trust?
WHEREAS, the Settlor wishes to settle on the Trustee that Property set out in Schedule A for the benefit of those beneficiaries set out in Schedule B. WHEREAS, the Trustee for his part is willing to accept the Property set out in Schedule A on trust for the beneficiaries set out in Schedule B and to hold the Trust Fund for their benefit.
What happens to a deed of trust when a tenant dies?
When property is held in this way, on the death of one tenant in common the deceased’s share does not pass to the surviving owner. It forms part of the deceased’s estate, and so passes to their successor under the terms of their will or the rules of intestacy. Words of separation or ‘severance’ are likely to be used.
Can a deed of trust of equal or unequal shares be made?
A declaration of trust of equal or unequal shares. For example, if there is a valid declaration that the property is held 25% for A and 75% for B. In the case of real property, there is a restriction in Land Registry Form A. This restriction usually means that there is a tenancy in common instead.
What can be covered by a deed of trust?
Any buildings or structures on the Property and anything now or later attached or fixed to the buildings or the Property including additions, alterations and improvements located on, above or below the surface of the Property are covered by this Trust.
Who is the trustee of a deed of trust?
It is a type of secured real estate transaction used in some states in place of a mortgage. The individual purchasing a property and a lender make this agreement, which states that the property buyer will repay a loan. A third party, known as a trustee, holds the property’s legal title until the loan gets paid in full.
What happens when a deed of trust is not paid?
The deed gives the lender the right to receive the proceeds of the sale of the property at auction if the loan is not paid. Unlike a warranty deed, which immediately transfers the owner’s rights in the property to the buyer, a deed of trust is not intended to transfer title to a property unless the loan is unpaid.
When does a buyer take subject to an existing Deed of trust?
When a buyer takes subject to an existing deed of trust, he assumes no liability for the debt. The mortgage remains in the name of the seller. The buyer just begins making payments.


The Mall and Literary Walk
The Mall, a quadruple row of American elms, is Central Park's most important horticultural feature, and one of the largest and last remaining stands of American Elm trees in North America.
The elms form a cathedral-like canopy above the Park's widest pedestrian pathway. and are one of the Parks most photographed features. The quarter-mile pedestrian path is the only intentional straight line inside the Park's walls. It was meant to address people gregarious needs Originally called the Promenade, the Mall was the place to stroll, wearing one's Sunday best.
Taking care of these trees is a full-time job for the Central Park Conservancy's tree crew. Each of the Park's thousands of trees are entered into a database, so they can be monitored by the Conservancy. The trees of Central Park have an important impact on the urban environment. They improve the quality of our air and water; reduce storm water runoff, flooding and erosion; and lower the air temperature in the summer. This is why Central Park is called the lungs of New York City.
The southern end of the Mall is known as Literary Walk. The statue of Christopher Columbus is the odd man out, since 4 of the 5 tributes here depict prominent writers. Nearby are Scottish poet Robert Burns and his compatriot, Scottish novelist Sir Walter Scott. A little farther north is Fitz-Greene Halleck, the first statue of an American to be placed in the Park. Ten years after his death, he was still so beloved that over 30,000 adoring fans came to the unveiling of his statue by President Rutherford B. Hayes and his entire cabinet. Today hardly anyone knows his poetry or his name, but everyone remembers their visit to the Mall.
Mid-Park from 66th to 72nd Streets


Last week, central bankers across the globe reduced interest rates. Combined with government plans to part-nationalise banks and buy up toxic assets, this move may cause prices to rise. We can only hope that it is successful and prices do not fall due to a chronic lack of credit, as Tom Cunningham has argued may occur. For, contrary to what many commentators have argued over the past year, high inflation is exactly what we need right now to avert the second coming of the Great Depression.
Let me explain. The effects of the Wall Street Crash on 1929 were spread from the financial sector to the rest of the economy (from Wall Street to Main Street, if you like) by a phenomenon known as debt-deflation. It works as follows. At the beginning of the year, a farmer, say, borrows $100 from a bank to buy some fertiliser with the expectation of selling her produce, let's say wheat, on the open market at $150. If, come harvest time, the price of wheat has fallen to $50, then the farmer will not be able to pay off her $100 loan.
A bank can cope with isolated defaults of this kind. But if the price of all goods and services is falling, then the bank is likely to be hit by many similar cases. Once deposit holders get wind of the situation, they may want to withdraw their savings and a bank run may ensue. News of one bank run may set off a string of similar bank runs elsewhere, even at banks which have not lent money to borrowers affected by deflation.
The American economist Irving Fisher first put the concept of debt-deflation forward in the journal Econometrica (pdf) in 1933. His idea was largely ignored or forgotten by economists until it was proven in the early 1980s by a little-known Stanford University assistant professor by the name of Ben Bernanke. Today, Fisher's ideas should be on the mind of every self-respecting central banker.
How relevant is Fisher's original debt-deflation article to what we are experiencing now? Fisher warns that of the many different factors that make a depression into a Great one, all play a subordinate role compared with "two dominant factors, namely over-indebtedness to start with and deflation following soon after". He explains that "the two diseases act and react to each other", and "the very effort of individuals to lessen their burden of debts increases it, because of the mass effect of the stampede to liquidate in swelling each dollar owed", or, in other words, "the more the debtors pay, the more they owe". In short, debt combined with falling prices can be a lethal combination.
Fisher presents a chronology of events in 10 stages that together constitute a Great Depression, stage 10 of which includes:
(a) runs on banks;
(b) banks curtailing loans for self protection;
(c) banks selling investments;
(d) bank failures. This stage looks remarkably familiar; we may be already there.
On Sunday, UK treasury minister Yvette Cooper told the BBC's Andrew Marr that consumer prices might finally start to fall as a result of decreasing oil prices. But Yvette, we don't want prices to fall at all! Depressingly, many important prices are already falling. House prices are down, however they are measured.
And stock markets have seen some of the most dramatic falls in value for decades. These assets are not normally included in traditional price indices; perhaps they should be.
Fisher argued that the policy implication of his theory is that "the question of controlling the price level assumes a new importance". Yvette Cooper, please take note of history. Raise the Bank of England's unrealistically low 2% inflation target, for example. We would rather not see a second coming of the Great Depression.


Vaccine Adjuvants Review
Adjuvants are essential for enhancing and directing the adaptative immune response to vaccine antigens. This response is mediated by two main types of lymphocytes, B and T cells.
Upon activation by cytokines, B cells differentiate into memory B cells (long-lived antigen-specific B cells) or plasma cells (effector B cells that secrete large quantities of antibodies). Most antigens activate B cells using activated T helper (Th) cells, primarily Th1 and Th2 cells.
Th1 cells secrete IFN-γ, which activates macrophages and induces the production of opsonizing antibodies by B cells. The Th1 response leads mainly to a cell-mediated immunity (cellular response), which protects against intracellular pathogens (invasive bacteria, protozoa and viruses). The Th1 response activates cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTL), a sub-group of T cells, which induce death of cells infected with viruses and other intracellular pathogens. Natural killer (NK) cells are also activated by the Th1 response, these cells play a major role in the induction of apoptosis in tumors and cells infected by viruses.
Th2 cells secrete cytokines, including IL-4, which induces B cells to make neutralizing antibodies. Th2 cells generally induce a humoral (antibody) response critical in the defense against extracellular pathogens (helminthes, extracellular microbes and toxins).
The magnitude and type of Th response to a vaccine can be greatly modulated through the use of adjuvants. For almost 80 years, aluminium salts (referred to as ‘alum’) have been the only adjuvant in use in human vaccines. Only in the last two decades, have novel adjuvants (MF59®, AS04) been introduced in the formulation of new licensed vaccines. As our understanding of the mechanisms of ‘immunogenicity’ and ‘adjuvancy’ increases, new adjuvants and adjuvant formulations are being developed.
Mechanisms of adjuvants
Adjuvants may exert their effects through different mechanisms. Some adjuvants, such as alum and emulsions (e.g. MF59®), function as delivery systems by generating depots that trap antigens at the injection site, providing slow release in order to continue the stimulation of the immune system. These adjuvants enhance the antigen persistence at the injection site and increase recruitment and activation of antigen presenting cells (APCs). Particulate adjuvants (e.g. alum) have the capability to bind antigens to form multi-molecular aggregates which will encourage uptake by APCs .
Some adjuvants are also capable of directing antigen presentation by the major histocompatibility complexes (MHC) .
Other adjuvants, essentially ligands for pattern recognition receptors (PRR), act by inducing the innate immunity, predominantly targeting the APCs and consequently influencing the adaptative immune response. Members of nearly all of the PRR families are potential targets for adjuvants. These include Toll-like receptors (TLRs), NOD-like receptors (NLRs), RIG-I-like receptors (RLRs) and C-type lectin receptors (CLRs). They signal through pathways that involve distinct adaptor molecules leading to the activation of different transcription factors. These transcription factors (NF-κB, IRF3) induce the production of cytokines and chemokines that play a key role in the priming, expansion and polarization of the immune responses. Activation of some members of the NLR family, such as NLRP3 and NLRC4, triggers the formation of a protein complex, called inflammasome, implicated in the induction of the pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-1β  and IL-18. The NLRP3 and NLRC4 inflammasomes have been involved in the innate immunity induced by certain adjuvants but their mechanism of action remains unclear.
Alum & emulsions
Alum is the most commonly used adjuvant in human vaccination. It is found in numerous vaccines, including diphtheria-tetanus-pertussis, human papillomavirus and hepatitis vaccines . Alum provokes a strong Th2 response, but is rather ineffective against pathogens that require Th1–cell-mediated immunity. Alum induces the immune response by a depot effect and activation of APCs. Recently, the NLRP3 inflammasome has been linked to the immunostimulatory properties of alum  although its role in adjuvant-induced antibody responses remains controversial.
Emulsions (either oil-in-water or water-in-oil), such as Freund’s Incomplete Adjuvant (IFA) and MF59®, can trigger depot generation and induction of MHC responses. IFA induces a predominantly Th2 biased response with some Th1 cellular response. MF59® is a potent stimulator of both cellular (Th1) and humoral (Th2) immune responses . However, the precise mode of action of emulsion-based adjuvants is still unclear. A complication with emulsion-based adjuvants is their potential to induce autoimmunity.
As classical adjuvants induce strong Th2 response with little or no Th1 response, the current challenge is to develop adjuvants which induce a strong Th1 bias important for vaccines against hepatitis, flu, malaria, and HIV.
New adjuvants are being developed that are natural ligands or synthetic agonists for PRRs, either alone or with various formulations. PRR activation stimulates the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines/chemokines and type I IFNs that increase the host’s ability to eliminate the pathogen. Thus, the incorporation of pathogens associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) in vaccine formulations can improve and accelerate the induction of vaccine-specific responses. A number of these agonists are now in clinical or late preclinical stages of development for hepatitis and human papillomavirus vaccines [5, 6.] When used in combination with alum or classical emulsion adjuvants, the immune response can be biased towards a Th1 response .
TLR3 and RLR Ligands
Double-stranded RNA (dsRNA), which is produced during the replication of most viruses, is a potent inducer of innate immunity. Synthetic analogs of dsRNA, such as poly(I:C), have been tested as adjuvants. They act through TLR3 and RIG-I/MDA-5, inducing IL-12 and type I IFNs production, facilitating antigen cross-presentation to MHC class II molecules, and improving generation of cytotoxic T cells .
Bacterial lipopolysaccharides (LPS), which are ligands for TLR4, have long been recognized as potent adjuvants, but their pyrogenic activity have prevented their clinical use. The development of less toxic derivatives led to the production of MPLA (monophosphoryl lipid A), which formulated with alum (AS04) triggers a polarized Th1 response and is approved for clinical use in Europe .
The TLR5 ligand, bacterial flagellin, is a potent T-cell antigen and has potential as a vaccine adjuvant. Unlike other TLR agonists, flagellin tends to produce mixed Th1 and Th2 responses rather than strongly Th1 responses. Flagellin can be used as an adjuvant mixed with the antigen but it is more frequently fused to a recombinant vaccine antigen [9, 10].
The TLR7/8 pathway, specialized in the recognition of single stranded viral RNA, has demonstrated promising pre-clinical results as a target for potential vaccine adjuvants. Imidazoquinolines (i.e. imiquimod, gardiquimod and R848) are synthetic componds that activate TLR7/8 in multiple subsets of dendritic cells leading to the production of IFN-α and IL-12 thus promoting a Th1 response .
Oligodeoxynucleotides containing specific CpG motifs (CpG ODNs such as ODN 1826 and ODN 2006) are recognized by TLR9. They enhance antibody production and strongly polarize Th cell responses to Th1 and away from Th2 responses [11,12].
Fragments of bacterial cell walls, such as muramyl dipeptide (MDP), have long been recognized as adjuvants. More recently, it was discovered that MDP triggers the activation of NOD2 and the NLRP3 inflammasome .
Adjuvants may be combined to achieve a stronger effect or a more potent skewing of immune responses. Currently, much effort is devoted to combining alum with TLR9 agoinsts . In experimental models, administration of other combinations such as CpG ODNs with MDP or MPLA has proven very effective . Adjuvants currently in clinical use enhance humoral responses but new adjuvants in clinical and preclinical trials are focused on generating multifaceted immune responses. The PRR pathways are an attractive source of novel adjuvants for vaccines due to their ability to induce strong cell-mediated immunity.
1. Leroux-Roels G., 2010. Unmet needs in modern vaccinology adjuvants to imporve the immune response. Vaccine. 28S(3):C25-3.
2. Li H. et al., 2008. Cutting edge: Inflammasome activation by alum and alum's adjuvant effect are mediated by NLRP3. J Immunol. 181(1):17-21.
3. Marrack P. et al., 2009. Towards an understanding of the adjuvant action of aluminium. Nat Rev Immunol. 9(4):287-93.
4. Ott G. et al., 1995. MF59. Design and evaluation of a safe and potent adjuvant for human vaccines. Pharm Biotechnol 6: 277-96.
5. Steinhagen F. et al., 2010. TLR-based immune adjuvants. Vaccine [Epub ahead of print].
6. Mbow ML. et al., 2010. New adjuvants for human vaccines. Curr Opin Immunol. 22(3):411-6.
7. Didierlaurent A. ,et al., 2009. AS04, an aluminum salt- and TLR4 agonist-based adjuvant system, induces a transient localized innate immune response leading to enhanced adaptive immunity. J Immunol 183(10): 6186-97.
8. Coffman R. et al., 2010. Vaccine adjuvants: Putting innate immunity to work. Immunity 33(4):492-503.
9. Huleatt J. et al., 2007.Vaccination with recombinant fusion proteins incorporating Toll-like receptor ligands induces rapid cellular and humoral immunity. Vaccine 25(4): 763-75.
10. Mizel S. & Bates JT., 2010. Flagellin as an adjuvant: Cellular mechanisms and potential. J Immunol. 175(10):5677-82.
11. Kobayashi H. et al., 1999. Immunostimulatory DNA pre-priming: a novel approach for prolonged Th1-biased immunity. Cell Immunol 198(1): 69-75.
12. Tighe H. et al., 2000. Conjugation of immunostimulatory DNA to the short ragweed allergen amb a 1 enhances its immunogenicity and reduces its allergenicity. J Allergy Clin Immunol 106: 124-34.
13. Girardin S. et al., 2003. Nod2 is a general sensor of peptidoglycan through muramyl dipeptide (MDP) detection. J Biol Chem. 278(11):8869-72.
14. Siegrist C. et al., 2004. Co-administration of CpG oligonucleotides enhances the late affinity maturation process of human anti-hepatitis B vaccine response. Vaccine 23(5): 615-22.
15. Kim S. et al., 2000. Effect of immunological adjuvant combinations on the antibody and T-cell response to vaccination with MUC1-KLH and GD3-KLH conjugates. Vaccine 19: 530-7.
The mark MF59® is a registered trademark of Novartis, and is used for comparative purposes only. AddaVax™ is not made by, affiliated with, sponsored by or endorsed by Novartis. Novartis has not evaluated or approved the representations contained herein.


In writing that “the traditional way of making an engine run faster is to make one with more small cylinders” (Formula One Engine Design Trends, Motor Sport, January 1989), I was not stating that this was the only (or even the best) approach for producing a powerful or successful engine, but simply that this has been the traditional approach to high specific power; and It is an approach that continues to appeal to many designers today, for example Ferrari, Lamborghini, Life, MGN, Honda, Alfa Romeo and Renault.
Secondly, when writing, I was aware that piston-acceleration, not just mean piston-speed, is an important factor limiting engine speed. Pomeroy himself was familiar with this view (as is evident in his book), apparently having read Mr JL Hepworth’s article, “Piston Speed and All That” (Motor, June 17, 1953). However, like Pomeroy (and other writers on engines, Setright or Cameron for example) I continue to employ mean piston-speed as one of several limiting criteria.
In doing so one is simplifying; the use of different materials and methods of machining and processing also influence the safety factor. But like many simplifications, mean piston-speed remains a useful and valid measure. However neither piston-speed nor acceleration, as Prof Dr Ing R Eberan von Eberhorst noted in a reply to Hepworth, should be used exclusively to judge the safety factor of an engine.
Regarding the 1.5-litre V16 BRM engine,! doubt whether piston acceleration was the factor which limited the success of this ambitious machine, even though it was unusually high by the standards of the day. Moreover, and contrary to the popular impression, the V16 produced a substantial amount of torque, probably as much as or more than the opposition. The torque curve of the BRM may have climbed more steeply than those of its competitors, however, but this was not caused by the number of cylinders. It was primarily a consequence of the centrifugal supercharger which was used without the cones-throttling vanes of the original design.
Today the sort of power developed by the BRM would cause few problems. Given a suitable multi-speed transmission and adequate suspension and tyres to absorb the power, an engine with a powerband steeper than the BRM can be a race-winner. Witness the 1.5-litre 4-cylinder BMW engine raced recently; the shape of its power-curve is very dramatic, with power tripling between 6000 and 9000 rpm!
David D Hebb, Institute of Historical Research, London WC1


February 28, 2007
GCRIO Program Overview
Our extensive collection of documents.
Archives of the
Global Climate Change Digest
A Guide to Information on Greenhouse Gases and Ozone Depletion
Published July 1988 through June 1999
FROM VOLUME 5, NUMBER 5, MAY 1992
GENERAL INTEREST AND POLICY
"A Comprehensive Approach to Climate Policy: Reconciling Long-Term
Needs with Short-Term Concerns," R.J. Swart (Bruce Co., Washington, D.C.),
Intl. J. Environ. Aff., 4(1), 35-55, Winter 1992.
In international climate negotiations, the U.S. has recently favored a
comprehensive approach that takes account of all sources and sinks of greenhouse
gases. As the only approach that can ultimately control climate change, that has
both environmental and economic benefits, it should be a guiding principle of
any international agreement as well as for research, monitoring and technology
transfer. To avoid delaying development of currently cost-effective or useful
policies, a two-phase introduction is proposed. In the first five to ten years,
experience would be gained by national and international arrangements and would
form a basis for designing quantitative objectives or implementation mechanisms.
They would focus on fossil CO2 emissions, and possibly chlorofluorocarbons,
methane, and net biotic CO2 emissions (balance of deforestation and
reforestation). The second phase would involve a multinational system with a
full comprehensive approach.
"Verifying Compliance with an International Convention on Greenhouse
Gases," J.C. di Primio (KFA Res. Ctr., Jülich, Ger.), G. Stein, H.F.
Wagner, Environment, 34(2), 4-5, 45, Mar. 1992.
In contrast to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, on-site inspection and
surveillance aimed at establishing material balance is inappropriate as an
international verification system for greenhouse gases. Proposes a system
whereby national agencies determine their countries' emissions in terms of
reliable calculations or proxies, and declare this information to an
international organization which would verify it through audits and other checks
of reliability. A global inventory of anthropogenic emissions and related data
is an urgent need.
"Effects of Fuel and Forest Conservation on Future Levels of
Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide," J.C.G. Walker (Dept. Atmos. Sci., Univ.
Michigan, Ann Arbor MI 48109), J.F. Kasting, Global Planet. Change, 5(3),
151-189, Mar. 1992.
Presents a numerical simulation of the global biogeochemical cycles of
carbon extending from years to millions of years, which includes the ocean,
atmosphere and minerals, and accounts for the fertilization effect of elevated
CO2 levels. It reproduces reasonably well the historical record of CO2 levels
over the past 200 years in response to fossil fuel burning and land use changes.
Although the fertilization effect of increased CO2 currently outweighs the
effects of forest clearance, future CO2 levels are very sensitive to the fate of
forests. Atmospheric levels of CO2 below 500 ppm could be sustained indefinitely
if fossil fuel combustion rates were immediately cut by a factor of 25, and if
forest clearance halted.
Three items from Science, 256(5053), Apr. 3, 1992:
"Fugitive Carbon Dioxide: It's Not Hiding in the Ocean," R.A.
Kerr, p. 35. (See Research News, this GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE DIGEST issue--May
"Oceanic Uptake of Fossil Fuel CO2: Carbon-13 Evidence," P.D. Quay
(Sch. Oceanog., Univ. Washington, Seattle WA 98195), B. Tilbrook, C.S. Wong,
The net amount of CO2 taken up by the oceans and released from the biosphere
between 1970 and 1990 have been determined from the changes in three measured
values: atmospheric CO2, its delta 13C value, and the delta 13C of dissolved
inorganic carbon in the ocean. The result, a net ocean uptake of 2.1 gigatons
per year, implies that the ocean is the dominant net sink for anthropogenic CO2
and that there has been no significant net CO2 released from the biosphere
during the last 20 years.
"Biomass and Carbon Budget of European Forests, 1971 to 1990,"
P.E. Kauppi (Finnish For. Res. Inst., Unioninkatu 40 A, SF-00170 Helsinki,
Finland), K. Mielikäinen, K. Kuusela, 70-74.
Based on measurements from six western European countries, concludes that
biomass has increased in the 1970s and 1980s in forests of Europe, despite
adverse effects of air pollution. If there has been a similar increase on other
continents, biomass accumulation in nontropical forests can account for much of
the estimated mismatch between sinks and sources of atmospheric CO2.
"Global Environmental Change Issues in the Western Indian Ocean
Region," F.J. Gable (Coastal Res. Ctr., Woods Hole Oceanog. Inst., Woods
Hole MA 02543), D.G. Aubrey, J.H. Gentile, Geoforum, 22(4),
Sets into a regional context for countries on the east coast of Africa the
problems arising from changes in global climate, focusing on the coastal zone. A
regional strategy is needed to address the following: acquisition of tide-gauge
and other data to estimate relative sea-level rise; alteration of regional and
local activities that may contribute to greenhouse gas emissions; policies to
minimize impacts from possible future relative sea-level rise and meteorological
changes; and linkages between potential climate changes and present
anthropogenic stress on the environment.
"The MINK Project: A New Methodology for Identifying Regional
Influences of, and Responses to, Increasing Atmospheric CO2 and Climate Change,"
N.J. Rosenberg (Clim. Prog., Resour. for the Future, 1616 P St., Washington DC
20036), P.R. Crosson, Environ. Conserv., 18(4), 313-322, Winter
This major study of impacts on the total economy of the
Missouri-Iowa-Nebraska-Kansas (MINK) region included possibilities of response
and adaptation, and intersectoral linkages. The method developed is not
scenario-dependent and has potential for application to other regions. Results
indicate that impacts of projected change would be profound for agriculture, but
substantial adaptation would be possible; current water resource limits would
intensify and irrigation would shift eastward; impacts on forestry would be
severe with little opportunity for adaptation, unless biomass production becomes
economically viable. (See related reports, GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE DIGEST,
Reports/Impacts, Oct. 1991.)
Guide to Publishers
Index of Abbreviations


Coffee is one of the most famous beverages with several health benefits. Read the article to know, What is black coffee and how you can change to black coffee to boost your well-being.
Black coffee has many therapeutic benefits, and you should consider changing the way you drink dark coffee. Studies have consistently shown that coffee reduces numerous diseases and ailments. Additionally, coffee helps prevent the onset of multiple other actual illnesses and health problems.
What is black coffee?
Black coffee is primarily prepared with ground coffee beans and water or instant coffee.
It does not need to add extra ingredients like milk, flavour, sugar, or condensed milk. But Some people prefer to add sugar, milk, or both to their combination, but people prefer black coffee without any addition as an available choice. Plain coffee is dull without extra items, and people usually call it dark coffee instead of just coffee when it looks virtually dark in the shade.
It may taste even more unpleasant and slightly acidic, yet the taste of the coffee will constantly change by changing the sort of the bean. Moreover, breed drinks do not contain any amount of sugar, carbohydrates, proteins, or fats. However, it includes a small amount of potassium.
HOW TO MAKE BLACK COFFEE THAT TASTES GOOD
- Necessary Ingredients:
- Coffee beans or powder.
- Sugar, milk (optionally)
The procedure of make coffee:
Black coffee can be made very easily and in a short time. And if cinnamon is mixed with coffee, its nutritional value cannot be overstated. See below for the method of making coffee added to the cinnamon:
· When the water boils, add cinnamon cloves, add 4-5 cloves and let it boil for one minute.
· Add the coffee powder or beans and let the water boil for 3-4 minutes until the color turns black-brown.
· Add some sugar if you want, and then remove it.
· Put our glass in a glass with a sieve so that the coffee particles do not enter your coffee and cinnamon, enjoy the heat.
The Top 9 Main Benefits of taking Black coffee:
Black coffee is vastly good and healthier than usual milk coffee. Black coffee can cure if consumed in the right way. Swallowing black coffee has several health benefits as it is stored with antioxidants and nutrients. Let’s take a look at some of the vital health benefits of drinking black coffee.
- Rich in antioxidants:
A few of the wealthiest enemies of oxidants are found in dark espresso, which improves its guaranteed treatment benefits. It contains potassium, magnesium, vitamins B2, B3, and B5, just as it contains manganese.
- Work in Memory Booster:
Growing older reduces cognitive skills and increases dementia, Parkinson’s, and Alzheimer’s disease. Drinking black coffee in the morning enhances brain function. Black
coffee helps to keep the brain active and thus helps to increase memory boosting power. It also keeps the nerves active which in turn keeps them in memory.
- It Increases intelligence:
Coffee has a psychological stimulant that can improve energy, mood, cognitive functioning when it reacts with the body and thus makes you more intelligent over time.
- Beneficial For liver:
Black coffee benefits prohibit liver cancer, hepatitis, fatty liver disease, and alcoholic cirrhosis. People who drink four or more cups of black coffee a day are 80 percent less likely to develop liver disease. Coffee helps reduce the levels of harmful liver enzymes in the blood.
- Help to clean stomach:
Since espresso is a diuretic drink, urinate as much as your drink because it mixes microorganisms and vitality from our body. It helps to keep your stomach spotless and firm.
- Helps to lose weight:
If you have it 30 minutes before hitting the Dark Espresso Rebuild Center, it helps you lose weight faster by doing more work. Garlic espresso helps increase digestion by about 50%. It similarly consumes belly fat as it is a fat-consuming refreshment. It animates the sensory system that the body uses to separate fat cells and as a source of energy rather than glycogen.
- It’s an improvement of the cardiovascular system:
Although regular drinking of black coffee temporarily raises blood pressure, this effect diminishes over time. If you drink black coffee of 1-2 cups per day reduces the risk of heart problems, like stroke. Black coffee also deducts the level of breakout in the body.
- Helpful to diminish diabetics risk:
Drinking dark coffee continuously reduces the risk of diabetes which can induce organ damage and coronary disease in later life. Coffee helps control diabetes by increasing insulin production—both caffeinated and decaffeinated coffee help diminish diabetes.
- Reduces the risk of cancer:
Malignancy has probably become the most prominent executor in this today’s era. The compound of coffee helps develop particularly severe growths such as breast, liver, colon, and rectal diseases. Coffee reduces irritation which is one of the primary purposes of tumor development.
Coffee is a surprising source of nutrients:
These antioxidants can help prevent certain cancers, heart disease, and type 2 diabetes.
Coffee contains beneficial nutrients, including magnesium and B vitamins, niacin, and riboflavin. Although these vitamins are not very high, they can be added when you drink several cups.
The nutrient value of black coffee:
If you are searching for a beverage that is low in calories, fats, and carbs, at that point, black coffee is the ideal beverage for you. Drinking coffee perhaps rolls into a reason for interest when you drink it routinely with milk, sugar, cream, and so forth. Even a solitary mug of coffee can contain however many calories as an extra-enormous cut of the cake.
Ordinarily, an 8-ounce cup of black contains:
- fat is 0%
- cholesterol is 0%
- sodium is 0%
- starches are 0f
- sugar present 0%
- and 4% potassium have seen
As you can detect with yourself, dark coffee doesn’t give calories, fats, or cholesterol. Surely, dark coffee has shallow health nutritional value other than providing you low measures of potassium. It’s simply that it doesn’t add such a large number of calories.
In this way, the dark coffee calorie content is shallow in basic terms, making it an ideal beverage for individuals. Who is searching for a standard beverage that will not mischief their well-being? On the off chance that you need to get more sustenance from your coffee, you can do as such by deciding to go with various espresso beverages like latte, mocha, cappuccino, and others.
Side effect of black coffee:
Does it have any side effects? As with everything else, excessive consumption of black coffee can cause side effects, as like:
· Excessive amounts of dark coffee provide a significant stress hormone to your body, which bids discomfort, anxiety, and stress. It won’t be hard for you to feel overwhelmed by the caffeine burn.
· Coffee filling at the top can hurt your sleep schedule. You should stay away to receive coffee a rare hour before bedtime if you require a good night’s rest.
· Black coffee is prosperous in caffeine and acid, which means overeating can cause acidity in your stomach. You may have obstruction and stomach spasms.
· Excessive amounts of coffee in your body give rise to it harder for your body to retain your minerals in your daily food, such as iron, calcium, and zinc.
Frequently Asked Questions:
What is the best time to drink black coffee?
Black coffee is a task as a pre-workout. In addition to these lines, the best ideal time to take coffee is before the gym. Meanwhile, the evening is the best time to drink, as coffee effectively helps in a quick mind.
Is black coffee safe for children?
It is sure of on the quantity of caffeine, sugar, and fat in the coffee. Check with the paediatrician to see if they have any concerns.
More importantly – why is the child drinking coffee every day, and when is the coffee being consumed? 13-year-olds are developing and need plenty of sleep, so make sure the child is not relying on coffee to mask fatigue and meet a tiring school schedule or just before drinking a caffeinated drink. That reason can cause harm to your baby.
What is black coffee? Black coffee is one of the simplest types of coffee that you can make quickly and easily if you drink ground coffee and some hot water.
Even better, black coffee also comes with a myriad of benefits, from reducing stress and frustration to improving your performance at work. So, enjoy your black coffee.


6 IP Security Overview IPSec is not a single protocol. Instead, IPSec provides a set of security algorithms plus a general framework that allows a pair of communicating entities to use whichever algorithms provide security appropriate for the communication.
7 IP Security Overview Applications of IPSec Secure branch office connectivity over the Internet Secure remote access over the Internet Establishing extranet and intranet connectivity with partners Enhancing electronic commerce security
9 IP Security Overview Benefits of IPSec Transparent to applications (below transport layer (TCP, UDP) Provide security for individual users Additionally, IPSec can assure that: A router or neighbour advertisement comes from an authorized router A redirect message comes from the router to which the initial packet was sent A routing update is not forged
10 IP Security Architecture IPSec documents: RFC 2401: An overview of security architecture RFC 2402: Description of a packet authentication extension to IPv4 and IPv6 RFC 2406: Description of a packet encryption extension to IPv4 and IPv6 RFC 2408: Specification of key management capabilities
12 IPSec Services Access Control Connectionless integrity Data origin authentication Rejection of replayed packets Confidentiality (encryption) Limited traffic flow confidentiality
13 Security Associations (SA) A one way relationship between a sender and a receiver. Identified by three parameters: Security Parameter Index (SPI) IP Destination address Security Protocol Identifier
14 Transport Mode SATunnel Mode SA AH Authenticates IP payload and selected portions of IP header and IPv6 extension headers Authenticates entire inner IP packet plus selected portions of outer IP header ESP Encrypts IP payload and any IPv6 extension header Encrypts inner IP packet ESP with authentication Encrypts IP payload and any IPv6 extension header. Authenticates IP payload but no IP header Encrypts inner IP packet. Authenticates inner IP packet.
28 Key Management Two types: Manual Automated Oakley Key Determination Protocol Internet Security Association and Key Management Protocol (ISAKMP)
29 Internet Key Exchange (IKE) IKE=ISAKMP+Oakley automated system for on-demand creation and distribution of keys for enabling SA’s in large systems in a protected manner Typically SAs need 2 pairs of keys 2 per direction for AH & ESP Perfect forward secrecy desired D-H
30 Oakley A key exchange protocol based on Diffie- Hellman key exchange Adds features to address weaknesses cookies, groups (global parameters), nonces, DH key exchange with authentication Cookie generation criteria: must depend on the specific parties must not be possible for anyone other than the issuing entity to generate cookies that will be accepted by that entity cookie generation function must be fast to thwart attacks intended to sabotage CPU resources a hash over the IP source & destination address, the UDP source and destination ports and a locally generated secret random value
31 Oakley Three authentication methods: Digital signatures Public-key encryption Symmetric-key encryption
32 ISAKMP Internet Security Association and Key Management Protocol Provides framework for key management Defines procedures and packet formats to establish, negotiate, modify, & delete SAs Independent of key exchange protocol, encryption alg., & authentication method Phase 1: ISAKMP peers establish bi-directional secure channel using main mode or aggressive mode Phase 2: negotiation of security services for IPSec (maybe for several SAs) using quick mode; can have multiple Phase 2 exchanges, e.g., to change keys


China’s gradually increasing economic role in Central Asia since the early 2000s is unsurprising considering the region’s geographic proximity to China’s dynamic economy. In this context, Beijing has carefully shaped a military strategy in the region, particularly in neighboring Tajikistan. In September 2016, Beijing offered to finance and build several outposts and other military facilities (in addition to the Gulhan post, which was opened in 2012) to beef up Tajikistan’s defense capabilities along its border with Afghanistan, whereas China’s and Tajikistan’s militaries performed a large counter-terrorism exercise in October 2016. These unexpected actions have raised concerns in Russia over rising Chinese influence in Tajikistan.
BACKGROUND: China’s economic expansion in Tajikistan is relatively new. In the early 2000s, China’s influence in Tajikistan was quite weak and limited due to the lack of transport communications that could connect the two countries. Bilateral trade rates significantly increased only after the opening of a new major highway Dushanbe – Kulma. China has invested approximately US$ 720 million in infrastructure improvements in Tajikistan, including the rebuilding, widening and improvement of the road between Dushanbe and Khujand, which has proceeded since August 2007 with equipment, labor, and oversight from China. Another factor that contributed to the empowerment of China’s economic activity was the availability of financial resources and its readiness to invest even in less important sectors of Tajikistan’s economy.
The bilateral economic relations entered a new phase during the deepening global economic crisis in 2008, and particularly as Tajikistan’s relations with Russia deteriorated. In 2009, Russia took a position favoring Uzbekistan in its dispute with Tajikistan over the Rogun Hydro Power Plant, which became the main catalyst that pushed official Dushanbe towards China. Tajikistan, one of the poorest former Soviet republics, is heavily dependent on hydroelectric power imports and regularly experiences electricity outages. Therefore, the construction of Rogun HPP is a matter of life and death for Tajikistan, which urgently needs to increase domestic electricity production capacity. Tajik authorities say the Rogun Dam would be able to produce electricity for the whole country, and also provide parts of Afghanistan and Pakistan with cheap electricity.
Tajik authorities were therefore looking for an alternative partner and economic counterweight to Russia, which became China. While China has actively participated in several sectors of Tajikistan’s economy, it has been careful to avoid infringing on Russian interests. China’s main interest in Tajikistan is in power-engineering, which is the most lucrative for foreign investors. However, China has not sought to replace Russia as the main constructor of Rogun HPP and surprisingly, Tajikistan’s President Emomali Rakhmon announced in October 2016 that the country re-launched the construction of the world’s tallest dam for the hydro plant. In a speech broadcast by state television, Rakhmon said Rogun will start providing electric power in late 2018.
Through its growing economic influence, China has quietly become the pre-eminent economic power in the region. Trade between China and the five post-Soviet central Asian states — Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan — has risen from US$ 1.8 billion in 2000 to US$ 50 billion in 2013. And China’s influence in the region, and in Tajikistan in particular, also has a military dimension driven by security concerns. In fact, by increasing its expenditures on security in the Central Asian region, China seeks to create secured buffer zones along its borders with Afghanistan, Pakistan, and Tajikistan. China is primarily wary of the threat emerging from radical Islamism in the region, which could spill over to destabilize China’s Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Province.
IMPLICATIONS: For these reasons, China has set up an anti-terrorism alliance with Pakistan, Afghanistan, and Tajikistan in order to boost coordination with regional countries to tackle a growing domestic militant threat. In this context, China is becoming more militarily active in Tajikistan, which is otherwise considered to be firmly under Russian influence.
On October 20–24, 2016, a combined force of 10,000 military personnel from the National Army of Tajikistan and the People’s Liberation Army (PLA) of China engaged in a five-day counterterrorism exercise in Tajikistan’s Ishkoshim region, bordering Afghanistan. To date, neither Beijing nor any of its regional partners have publicly commented on China’s sudden interest in bilateral military cooperation with Tajikistan. Dushanbe’s willingness to promote ties with Beijing is linked to the growing activity of what it considers domestic radical Islamists, namely members of the banned Islamic Renaissance Party of Tajikistan.
Although these moves could position China as a vital player in Central Asia, Russian experts are seemingly doubtful about the future of China’s military cooperation with Central Asia. Notably, Russia has an entrenched presence in the region and its largest foreign military base is located in the heart of Tajikistan. Yet while Moscow has not publicly condemned China’s military activities in Tajikistan, it is hardly comfortable with China’s growing influence in the Central Asian region. Although Russia’s presence in the region has weakened over the last decade, it still considers Central Asia as its area of privileged interest.
Russian officials are careful not to dramatize China’s current activities in Tajikistan, pointing out that the main priority of the military cooperation is border security. Even though Russia has not been invited to join the new quadrilateral alliance, it has sustained a military presence in Tajikistan for over fifty years, and the new military agreement between Moscow and Dushanbe prolongs its deployment in Tajikistan until 2042.
Presumably, China will continue its expansion in the Central Asian region, including in Tajikistan, both economically and militarily. Chinese direct investment in Tajikistan in 2015 amounted to US$ 273 million — 58 percent of the overall total. The potential consequences of Tajikistan’s growing economic reliance on China came into sharper focus in 2011, when Dushanbe agreed to hand over about 1 percent of its territory to Beijing in exchange for debt relief.
China’s neighborhood policy towards Central Asia indicates Beijing’s interest in playing a central role in the security field in the region, which is an important part of its multi-billion–dollar investment into the Silk Road Economic Belt. China also seeks to ensure that Al-Qaeda- or Taliban-affiliated Tajik Islamists and insurgents will not pose a serious threat to its national security (in particular to the Xinjiang province). China’s new regional security construct could also involve other Central Asian countries, probably Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan, in the future. The new China-Tajikistan-Afghanistan-Pakistan quadrilateral military alliance (excluding Russia) mainly aims to prevent the growing threat of Islamism in the region, which affects all of the participating countries. Geopolitically, China is also interested in establishing a “safe zone” along its Central Asian borders, whereas the alliance will mostly contribute to strengthening coordination, along with training of military staff and Special Forces.
CONCLUSIONS: China seemingly does not deem economic investments alone to be sufficient for further expansion in Central Asia, for several reasons including language barriers, religion, and incompatible doctrines. Therefore, China actively promotes and funds the establishment of Confucius Institutes and language centers in local universities, and offers study or exchange programs for students from Central Asia.
However, at this stage, China’s main military focus is on arms export, counterterrorism, border security, and joint military initiatives. Moreover, even though countries in Central Asia are willing to deepen ties with Beijing, most of them, and Tajikistan most of all, are still unable to ignore Russia’s influence in the region and their heavy reliance on Russia.
AUTHOR’S BIO: Fuad Shahbazov (@fuadshahbazov) is a policy analyst for Wikistrat Inc. He is the author of the books “Syria 1946-2012” and “Tunisian model of Democracy in the Arab world.”
Image source: en.kremlin.ru accessed on February 17, 2017


Resin. Modelling skill is required. Please use a fresh, sharp blade when removing the "scaffold" resin pieces from the model. Refer carefully to the pictures displayed.
The French 75 mm field gun was a quick-firing field artillery piece adopted in March 1898. Its official French designation was: Matériel de 75mm Mle 1897. It was commonly known as the French 75, simply the 75 and Soixante-Quinze (French for "seventy-five"). The French 75 was designed as an anti-personnel weapon system for delivering large volumes of time-fused shrapnel shells on enemy troops advancing in the open. After 1915 and the onset of trench warfare, other types of battlefield missions demanding impact-detonated high-explosive shells prevailed. By 1918 the 75s became the main agents of delivery for toxic gas shells. The 75s also became widely used as truck mounted anti-aircraft artillery. They were also the main armament of the Saint-Chamond tank in 1918.
The French 75 is widely regarded as the first modern artillery piece. It was the first field gun to include a hydro-pneumatic recoil mechanism, which kept the gun's trail and wheels perfectly still during the firing sequence. Since it did not need to be re-aimed after each shot, the crew could reload and fire as soon as the barrel returned to its resting position. In typical use, the French 75 could deliver fifteen rounds per minute on its target, either shrapnel or melinite high-explosive, up to about 8,500 m (5.3 mi) away. Its firing rate could even reach close to 30 rounds per minute, albeit only for a very short time and with a highly experienced crew.
At the opening of World War I, in 1914, the French Army had about 4,000 of these field guns in service. By the end of the war about 12,000 had been produced. It was also in service with the American Expeditionary Forces (AEF), which had been supplied with about 2,000 French 75 field guns. Several thousand were still in use in the French Army at the opening of World War II, updated with new wheels and tires to allow towing by trucks rather than by horses. The French 75 set the pattern for almost all early-20th century field pieces, with guns of mostly 75 mm forming the basis of many field artillery units into the early stages of World War II.
Romania had a considerable number of World War I guns of 75 mm and 76.2 mm. Some models were modernized at Resita works in 1935 including French md. 1897. The upgrade was made with removable barrels. Several types of guns of close caliber were barreled to use the best ammunition available for 75 m m caliber which was explosive projectile model 1917 "Schneider". The new barrel was made of steel alloy with chrome and nickel with excellent mechanical resistance to pressure which allowed, after modifying the firing brake, the recovery arch and the sighting devices an increase of the range from 8.5 km to 11.2 km and a rate of fire of 20 rounds/minute. During World War 2 these guns also used Costinescu 75 mm anti-tank rounds. These upgraded field guns were used in all infantry divisions in World War II.
There is some interesting further info here - http://www.landships.info/landships/artillery_articles.html?load=/landships/artillery_articles/75mm_Mle_1897.html - and it may be noted that this weapon was used by the Poles, Finns and Germans. There is some postulation that some may have been in service with the Greek Army as they were their chief artillery weapon in the Balkan Wars. British troops at the Battle of Crete used 75mm field guns at the Battle of Crete in emergency, lacking their own guns. These were reportedly "previously taken from Greeks" and they were "Mle 1897" model. These pieces may have been from an American shipment of Mle 1897's which arrived in early 1941. In German service it was designated 7,5 cm KM97(f), though many captured pieces were mounted on German chassis as the PaK 97/38.
If you want a particular nation's crew, please go to the relevant shop page for our WWII ranges: www.greatescapegames.co.uk/miniatures/miniatures-rules-of-engagement.html
Weight for shipping is 220g. See Customer Service page (link at bottom of page) for full postage rates. Gun sculpted by Oliver Piotrowski.


By Ed Oswald | Saturday, May 7, 2011 at 12:12 pm
A British game developer has turned his efforts away from video games for a moment, and is focusing on bringing computer science education into schools. Frontier Developments founder David Braben has introduced the Raspberry Pi, a $25 Linux-based computer.
The computer is not much larger than a USB keychain dongle, and includes an HDMI port to connect a display, and a USB 2.0 port to connect peripherals. The device runs on Linux, thus keeping any software licensing costs low (if not non-existent).
The Raspberry Pi is no gaming machine — that’s for sure — but it should be great for its purpose of teaching computer science: a 700MHz ARM11 processor powers the unit with 128MB of RAM, and a SD/MMC slot would handle the memory needed to power the device. It also seems modular — the picture of the device above shows a 12-megapixel camera module attached.
Braben and Co. hope that the device’s low price attracts governments, parents, and children alike to scoop the device up and get it into as many hands as possible quickly. It also seemingly puts pressure on OLPC — the $100 laptop folks — although the Raspberry Pi has no included monitor or input device.
The device is not yet ready for prime time: first it must produce a better prototype, then prove that it can be manufactured for the $25 target price. After that, mass production needs to begin. All that is going to take about a year according to the team.
I hope they make this available to the general public, because the geek in me really wants to get his hands on this. For $25, can you really go wrong?