The native Taino Amerindians - who inhabited the island of Hispaniola when it was discovered by COLUMBUS in 1492 - were virtually annihilated by Spanish settlers within 25 years. In the early 17th century, the French established a presence on Hispaniola. In 1697, Spain ceded to the French the western third of the island, which later became Haiti. The French colony, based on forestry and sugar-related industries, became one of the wealthiest in the Caribbean but only through the heavy importation of African slaves and considerable environmental degradation. In the late 18th century, Haiti's nearly half million slaves revolted under Toussaint L'OUVERTURE. After a prolonged struggle, Haiti became the first black republic to declare independence in 1804. The poorest country in the Western Hemisphere, Haiti has been plagued by political violence for most of its history. After an armed rebellion led to the forced resignation and exile of President Jean-Bertrand ARISTIDE in February 2004, an interim government took office to organize new elections under the auspices of the United Nations Stabilization Mission in Haiti (MINUSTAH). Continued violence and technical delays prompted repeated postponements, but Haiti finally did inaugurate a democratically elected president and parliament in May of 2006.
Caribbean, western one-third of the island of Hispaniola, between the Caribbean Sea and the North Atlantic Ocean, west of the Dominican Republic.
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July 28, 2018
Pennsylvania’s first 2018 case of West Nile Virus has been reported, according to a release Friday evening from the Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protect (DEP).
The good news for Philadelphia residents: it was reported in an Allegheny County resident. It's also still a "probable" case; samples are being sent to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention for "confirmatory testing."
The DEP, of course, recommends minimizing exposure to mosquitoes.
Eastern Pennsylvania has been proactive with mosquito spraying in recent weeks, including spraying in Upper Roxborough and Chestnut Hill on July 16, and Whitemarsh and Plymouth on July 20.
“Today’s announcement reminds all Pennsylvanians to be vigilant and take precautions to protect against mosquito bites. Using a personal insect repellant or staying indoors during dawn and dusk will help prevent exposure to mosquitoes,” Secretary Patrick McDonnell said in a release. “DEP monitors mosquito populations across Pennsylvania for the presence of disease.”
Last year, the first case of West Nile Virus in Pa. was traced to a Montgomery County resident in August.
The DEP says mosquitoes that transmit West Nile Virus are most active in the evening, and they breed in areas with standing and stagnant water, like catch basins, clogged gutters, poorly maintained swimming pools, and flower pots.
The DEP will continue to monitor mosquitoes throughout the state until October. Problem areas will be sprayed to reduce mosquito populations when needed, according to the DEP.


Bill Clinton has described the concept, which was the brainchild of Harvard students Jessica Lin, Julia Silverman, Jessica Matthews, Hemali Thakkaras and Aviva Presser, as 'extraordinary'. He added: 'It’s an off-grid solution that gives us a way to bring power and improved quality of life, working capacity and learning capacity.' The idea combines football, the world's most popular sport, with the huge need for electricity in developing countries - a staggering one in five people around the globe are without power.
The ball, which has been trialled in South Africa, is waterproof, durable and doesn't need to be inflated. It uses inductive coil technology which involves having a metal coil and magnetic slug that goes forwards and backwards. Ms Silverman and Ms Matthews have gone on to develop the mass-produced version of the ball through their own not-for-profit company Unchartered Play. In many developing countries, reliance on kerosene lamps has led to numerous health problems.
The World Bank estimates that breathing the fumes created from burning kerosene indoors equates to the harmful effect of smoking two packs of cigarettes a day. Burning kerosene for lighting also generates some 190 million metric tons a year of carbon dioxide emissions, according to recent estimates — the equivalent emissions of about 38 million automobiles. The special ball can currently be used with an ac adaptor but the designers hope this will be expanded in the future to enable other products to be charged by it. The initial inspiration came from hi-tech dance floors which can capture energy from dancers’ movements.
Ms Matthews added: 'The idea was come together and using art and science pick an issue and try to make it better. 'We started to think about the time we’d spent overseas and we’d all had this similar experience of seeing kids play. 'These kids aren’t allowed to be children for very long. They have to deal with very serious issues in their lives every single day. 'Sometimes giving these kids the ball before we even show them the power generation part is such an amazing thing because they have a ball which doesn’t require inflation - you are telling them that the tooth fairy does exist.' Ms Silverman added: ‘Just as much as we noticed that there was so much universal love for soccer we also noticed there’s a huge market for safe, sustainable immediate power access.'


It could be of historical interest that as a youngster growing up in a small coastal Maine village 75 years ago, I had no particular awareness of black people. There were none in our town. True, many doughty Maine sea captains and crews, some from my town, had brought slaves from Africa, but not to Maine.
In 1820, Maine was admitted to the Union as a free state, to balance Missouri, which was not. The railroads and the steam-ships had brought a few blacks to Maine who got jobs as porters and stewards, but they formed small communities in the harbor and terminal cities. We small-towners were well apart. The African-American I'd heard mentioned most often in my boyhood was Old Cuffee, and I was in college before I learned he was black. Otherwise, the only blacks I saw were Pullman porters going through on the Halifax trains. It took the high-speed Down-East trains about 13 seconds to pass our town. And while we were coastal, we did not have Eastern steamships on schedule.
Old Cuffee was a legend rather than a person. Out of New Bedford, he went to the Banks, later became a merchant marine master, and then was prominent with a kind of seagoing "underground railroad" that helped freed and runaway slaves to return to Africa. I've been told the Whaling Museum at New Bedford, Mass., has much information about Old Cuffee. My mother spoke of him frequently in some such sentence as, "And there he sat, smug as the cat that et the canary, and big as Old Cuffee." Old Cuffee was by now a folk allusion, a simile.
Old Cuffee was not a big man. He was slightly over four feet. His deeds were bigger than he was, and reference to his size was comparable with our Down-East custom of calling bald-headed men Curly. Shorty Towle, in our town, stood seven feet tall.
Old Cuffee was in and out of our North Atlantic ports often enough to make him well known, and the logical tenant of a metaphor. I did not know he was black until I was in my 20s.
All this in preface to the Pullman porter who entered my life the year I was 10.
In 1918, our town did not subsidize school athletics, and we lads who played baseball had to own our own gloves, bats, and balls. We had no school uniforms. If a baseball went into the weeds, our game was suspended until we found it. If the cover got smacked off a ball, we all put in 10 cents and sent Pokey Foss to the store for a new ball, or we took the wounded one to Dave Longway's garage and he'd mend it with friction tape.
WE had no diamond as such, but played on a small lot between the high school and the town hall, and to frustrate our line drives all exposed windows were slatted and screened. From school-out to evening chore-time, we'd play baseball there, and along about 4:30, or the fifth inning, an evening work train would pass at slow speed on the Maine Central Railroad iron, which was east-west about 50 feet in the outfield beyond second base.
Now and then this work train would have a Pullman car being returned to Portland or Boston, and we could see the black porter in the vestibule. After the train passed, we'd resume.
One evening, Hank Soule hit a soft liner just before the work train appeared, and the ball sailed directly into the open vestibule door of a parlor car, where the porter reached up and caught it. He waved it to show it was a clean catch, and then with his other hand waved at us boys, and the train was gone. That was our only baseball.
I had nothing to do with what followed, since it was carried out by the older boys. Perry Taylor asked Charley Bailey, the station agent, for the number of that work train, and then he wrote a letter to the president of the Maine Central Railroad at St. John Street, Union Station, Portland, Maine, and asked him to return our baseball, please. All we boys signed Perry's letter.
Perry got no reply, of course, and meantime we took up a collection and Pokey Foss got us a new ball at the sporting-goods counter of L.L.&G.C. Bean, gents' clothing, Walkover shoes, and Sweetorr work pants.
Then, maybe two weeks later, another work train came along at about the same time, and it had another Pullman car, and the same porter was standing on the steps of the open vestibule. He waved, and then he tossed a baseball. The train passed.
The baseball was unblemished, except it had the autographs of all the first-string players of the American League Boston Red Sox. Among the signatures was that of George Herman Ruth, at that time a very good left-handed pitcher. We never played with that ball. It was put in a small wood box with cotton batting, and the last I knew, Perry Taylor was its custodian.
But this began an association with the only black man our town knew anything about in those days, and if nobody else feels it has historical importance, I do.
WE never knew the porter's name. Nobody in town knew him. If he ever went through our town on anything except that deadhead work train, it would be in a first-class sleeping-car section at 100 m.p.h., eastbound or westbound, Halifax and Boston. But when he went through on his work train, standing on the steps of his open vestibule, he would wave, toss out a baseball, and be gone.
There was no way we could say thank you except to wave back. The baseballs he "returned" to us were all clean, new baseballs, some autographed, some not. By fall we had almost a bushel.
With the help of our parents, who became interested in the happening, we surmised our porter, perhaps reprimanded by the railroad's president, felt sorry for those kids and enlisted the aid of many friends who began shagging baseballs for us.
Every baseball we got from the Pullman vestibules could have been a home-run souvenir caught by a fan in the 50-cent bleachers at Braves Field or Fenway Park. Or even in a church league; we never knew. All I can tell you for sure is that the porter, tossing us another baseball, looked full as big to us boys as Old Cuffee.


Scaling early literacy
WHAT’S THE CHALLENGE?
Literacy is the foundation of all future learning. Despite the nearly universal acknowledgment of the benefits of literacy, 250 million children around the world are still not learning basics like reading and writing. Numerous barriers prevent students from developing the literacy skills they need to thrive – including a lack of educational resources, minimal exposure to age-appropriate books, insufficiently trained teachers, and overstretched infrastructure. Without a strong foundation of literacy skills, children are more likely to struggle throughout their education, live in poverty, and see their potential hampered.
WHAT’S THE OPPORTUNITY?
Focusing on data-driven interventions that provide resources, increase local capacity, and improve training, Room to Read has a proven approach to increasing literacy skills and helping children develop a habit of reading early in life. They have honed this strategy to create sustainable impact at scale. Working in partnership with local communities, governments, and the private sector, they help to implement effective programming in library services, reading and writing instruction, and high-quality children’s book publishing – impacting over 18 million children to date.
While the fundamental requirements to teach reading and develop a habit of reading are consistent, each country’s context and needs are different. Room to Read uses international best practices while working with governments to focus on the elements of literacy support that will have the highest impact in their school systems, are easy to scale, and are cost-effective.
Showcase Room to Read’s proven literacy model and demonstrate how to scale effective system-level change for early-grade literacy in India, Vietnam, and South Africa, thanks to more than $3.5 million in funding support from partners. This will contribute directly to Room to Read’s goal of impacting over 1.1 million more children in these countries over the next three years.
- In India – scale-up literacy instruction and teacher training coupled with building the habit of reading, in collaboration with the Ministry of Human Resource Development (MHRD) and state governments.
- In Vietnam – scale-up the establishment of “model libraries” that will be replicated by the government, in collaboration with the Ministry of Education and Training (MoET).
- In South Africa – scale-up access to quality reading materials by working with the Department of Basic Education and provincial government agencies to develop national recommendations for storybook quality – and train local publishers and authors to develop early-grade storybooks in indigenous languages.
PROGRESS ACHIEVED TO DATE:
Expanded programs into new geographies, working in more languages and investing in new technologies, to now benefit over 18 million children in 39,000 communities in 16 countries around the world:
- In India, Room to Read ran a national reading campaign in August 2019 with engagement from community members, teachers and government officials. The campaign reached 2 million students in more than 30,000 schools. During the campaign, Room to Read worked with Google to encourage reading skills and habits among children in India using Google’s mobile-based app, Read Along. In total, the campaign reached 56,000 children across 522 schools in 5 states.
- Established 192 expansion libraries in Vietnam as part of Room to Read’s library model, reaching an estimated 141,000 students in 34 of Vietnam’s 63 provinces (up from 16 provinces at launch).
- Increased the supply of high-quality indigenous language storybooks as part of the Results in Education for All Children (REACH) project. Worked with five local publishers in South Africa to create early-grade story books in five indigenous languages, distributing over 46,000 copies to government schools and 16,000 copies to the public.
WHAT YOU CAN DO
DONATE TO ROOM THE READ
Donate to Room to Read to expand programming and resources within these three countries and beyond.
KEEP THE DISCOURSE GOING
Keep the discourse going on the role of early literacy as a foundational element of education to ensure it is made a top policy priority for leaders around the world.


The use of antidepressants has been on the rise for many years. Between two and eight percent of pregnant women are on antidepressants. Now researchers from the National Center for Register-based Research at Aarhus BSS show that there is an increased risk involved in using antidepressants during pregnancy.
The researchers, headed by Xiaoqin Liu, have applied register-based research to the study of 905,383 children born between 1998 and 2012 with the aim of exploring the possible adverse effects of the mother’s use of antidepressants during her pregnancy.
They found that out of the 905,383 children in total, 32,400 developed a psychiatric disorder later in life. Some of these children were born to mothers who were on antidepressants during their pregnancy, while other children had not been exposed to medication.
“When we look at children born to mothers who discontinued and continued antidepressant treatment during pregnancy, we can see an increased risk of developing a psychiatric disorder if the mothers continued antidepressant treatment while pregnant,” says Xiaoqin Liu, who is the lead author of the article, which has just been published in BMJ-British Medical Journal.
Article continues below...
More specifically, the researchers divided the children into four groups depending on the mother’s use of antidepressants before and during pregnancy. The children in group 1 had not been exposed to antidepressants in the womb. In group 2, the mothers had been taking antidepressants up until the pregnancy, but not during. In group 3, the mothers were using antidepressants both before and during the pregnancy. Group 4 consisted of children, whose mothers were new users of antidepressants and had started taking the medication during the pregnancy.
The result of the study showed an increased number of children with psychiatric disorders in the group in which the mothers had been using antidepressants during their pregnancy. Approximately twice as many children were diagnosed with a psychiatric disorder in group 4 (14.5%) than in group 1 (8%). In groups 2 and 3 respectively, 11.5% and 13.6% were diagnosed with a psychiatric disorder at age 16 years.
Psychiatric disorders are hereditary
In their analyses, the researchers took into account that heritability also plays a part in determining who will be diagnosed with a psychiatric disorder, and that it is not just a question of being exposed to antidepressants in the womb.
“We chose to conduct the study on the assumption that psychiatric disorders are highly heritable. For this reason, we wanted to show that is too narrow if you only look at autism, which is what many previous studies have done. If heritability plays a part, other psychiatric disorders such as depression, anxiety, ADHD-like symptoms would also appear in the data,” says Trine Munk-Olsen, who is also one of the researchers behind the study.
Indeed, the study also shows that the increase covers not only autism but also other psychiatric disorders such as depression, anxiety, and ADHD. Thus it becomes clear that the mother’s underlying psychiatric disorder matters in relation to the child’s mental health later in life. At the same time, it cannot be ruled out that the use of antidepressants further increases the risk of psychiatric diseases in the child.
“Our research shows that medication seems to increase the risk, but that heritability also plays a part,” says Trine Munk-Olsen, who also points out that it might be the mothers who suffer from the most severe forms of depression who need to take medication during their pregnancy.
Not just black and white
The researchers hope that the study can increase the focus on the fact that the research results are not just black and white. This could help doctors advise women on the use of antidepressants both before and after their pregnancy. Some women might be able to discontinue treatment with the medication while pregnant. However, the researchers also acknowledge that some women need medication and stress that the consequences of an untreated depression are severe and can lead to serious consequences to both mother and child.
The most important message is that we ensure and safeguard the mental well-being of the pregnant women, and for some women, this involves the use of antidepressants.
“These women should not feel guilty about taking antidepressants. Even though there is an increased risk of the child developing a psychiatric disorder later in life, our research shows that we cannot blame medication alone. Heritability also plays a part,” says Trine Munk-Olsen.


Hydrogen as an Automotive Fuel
As a result of climate change, you have just replaced your gas-guzzling SUV with an ultra fuel efficient hybrid car because you care about the environment, but there is still in the back of your mind the thought that while you are using less gasoline, you still have no choice in the matter- you are still obliged to carry on using gasoline until a fuel comes along that has no harmful emissions. However, is such a fuel even possible; is it possible to create a fuel that contains more energy per any given volume than any other alternative fuel in use today, and yet has no harmful effects on the environment?
Well, it might be possible. In fact, such a fuel already exists in the form of hydrogen, but is it a viable replacement for the fossil fuels currently in use? Again, it might be, but all energy sources have drawbacks, and in the case of hydrogen as an automotive fuel, the downside is the production of carbon dioxide as a waste product, which goes some way towards negating the “no harm to the environment” claim of its proponents. Therefore, to help you understand the issues, we have outlined the pros and cons of hydrogen as an automotive fuel, albeit very briefly.
What is hydrogen?
Hydrogen, which is denoted with an “H” on periodic tables, is the most abundant element in the Universe, so it should be easy to turn it into an automotive fuel, right? Well, not really, since hydrogen does not occur naturally in a pure form on earth- if it did, everyone would be using it. The fact is that hydrogen only occurs in combination with other substances, the most notable of which is water, which consists of hydrogen and oxygen. Other notable compounds in which hydrogen is present is coal, methane, natural gas, and as a constituent in almost all forms of biomass.
To obtain hydrogen for fuel, it first has to be extracted from the compounds in which it occurs, and today, this is most commonly accomplished in a process called “steam reforming” in which the hydrogen atoms are detached from the carbon atoms in methane. This process accounts for around 95% of all hydrogen produced today, of which approximately 10 million metric tons are produced in the USA annually. If this amount of hydrogen is taken at its calorific value, which is twice that of gasoline, it is enough to fuel all the vehicles in the USA today. However, this process releases large amounts of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, which has serious negative impacts on the environment.
Another method of extraction is called “electrolysis”, and it involves separating the hydrogen from the oxygen in water. This process uses electricity and while its proponents claim that it involves no harmful emissions, the fact is that vast amounts of greenhouse gasses are released during the generation of the electricity required to manufacture clean burning hydrogen. Moreover, the sheer amount of electricity required to manufacture hydrogen makes the process expensive to the point of it not being a viable option for large sale hydrogen production.
Hydrogen Fuel Cells in Cars
While hydrogen as a gas is not a viable fuel at present, hydrogen is at the heart of fuel cells for automotive use. In short, hydrogen is released from water using the electrolytic process, after which it is converted into electrical energy by a rather complicated process to drive electric motors via rechargeable batteries, much like the system in the hybrid car you have just purchased.
However, the amount of electrical energy produced in this way is not sufficient to allow for say, cross county trips. Most hydrogen powered cars have ranges of less than 200 miles, and the performance of these cars is lackluster at best. In addition, there exists virtually no infrastructure to service fuel cell-powered cars. The United States has at present only about 50 hydrogen stations (mostly in Southern California), which translates into the fact that for as long as there is no infrastructure, there will be no hydrogen fueled cars because they cannot be refueled.
How Safe is Hydrogen as a Fuel?
Hydrogen is safe enough considering the fact that millions of tons of it are produced and transported on American roads without incident. In fact, Toyota has performed extensive tests on the Mirai, and by all accounts, it passed all tests with flying colors. Below are listed some of the tests and their results.
- At just 260 lbs heavier than the existing Camry hybrid, the Mirai is several hundred lbs lighter than pure electric cars with ranges of about 200 miles.
- The hydrogen tanks inside the Mirai is made from ultra strong fibers similar to carbon fiber, and they are capable of withstanding singe impacts even from .50 caliber bullets while being pressurized to as much as 10,000 psi. One such tank ruptured only after being hit by a .50 caliber bullet twice in the same spot.
- Repeated crash tests at varying speeds showed that the fuel cell and hydrogen tanks were more crash resistant than the steel structures that are meant to protect them. In every test, the protective structures failed before the tanks and fuel cell did.
- Toyota logged more than 1 million successful test miles in temperatures ranging from below freezing to more than 1000F, proving the efficiency of fuel cells in all temperatures.
- Fuel sells tested in the Mirai were found to effective for around 5000 hours, or 150,000 miles of use.
The Future of Hydrogen as Fuel
While the cost of producing hydrogen for automotive use is at present comparable to that of gasoline and diesel, the biggest issue is the lack of suitable infrastructure. While it is true that large quantities of liquid, as well as gaseous hydrogen can be transported safely, the only viable method storing quantities large enough to fuel the national fleet is to store it in liquefied and pressurized form. At present, there are no facilities anywhere in the world to store hydrogen in very large volumes, which means that there is also no reliable means of distributing it. Proponents of hydrogen as an automotive fuel claim that the required infrastructure will cost no more than the existing distribution network for fossil fuels.
Nonetheless, the existing network was constructed over a period of more than a hundred years, and the cost was shared among all the players in the field. With hydrogen, there are not that many players, and while most makers of hydrogen powered vehicles are presently giving hydrogen away for free to users who buy or lease their vehicles, this is not enough to create the awareness required to spur large scale investment in new infrastructure. And in particular, not by current players in the field who still have very large vested interests in producing and selling fossil-based fuels.
For the moment then, it appears that hydrogen as an automotive fuel is dead in the water so to speak, and unless a sudden, and severe, oil crisis occurs that could possibly reinvigorate the hydrogen industry, it is likely to remain dead in the water for the foreseeable future.


Mayo Clinic Minute: The dangers of hypertension in young adults
- October 20, 2020
Hypertension, or high blood pressure, is a significant risk factor for heart disease and other major health issues. A recent JAMA study shows a large number of Americans between the ages of 18 and 44 aren’t even aware that they have high blood pressure. It stresses the importance of regular blood pressure screening for all ages.
Journalists: Broadcast-quality video (0:59) is in the downloads at the end of this post. Please “Courtesy: Mayo Clinic News Network.” Read the script.
Hypertension can be a ticking time bomb in young adults, according to Dr. Barbara Ruddy, a Mayo Clinic internal medicine physician.
“Many times, younger adults have no idea what their blood pressure is, and, so, people will come in and have a significantly elevated blood pressure that’s probably been elevated for several years. So it is dangerous because although they may feel fine, down the road, it could cause them significant health issues,” says Dr. Ruddy.
Those issues might include heart disease, stroke, visual problems and kidney failure.
“They don’t show up for some decades after the development of high blood pressure, but they really do impact people’s health in their later years,” says Dr. Ruddy.
She encourages getting an accurate blood pressure reading from your health care provider.
“There’s many ways to help normalize your blood pressure. You can do that through diet and lifestyle, but we also have many medications that are helpful to control high blood pressure,” says Dr. Ruddy.
Eating a heart-healthy diet, limiting salt and alcohol intake, regular physical activity, and maintaining a healthy weight are all ways to avoid hypertension.


|Naval officer ranks|
Admiral of the fleet • Fleet admiral • Grand admiral
The term served to distinguish those who were captains by rank from:
- Officers in command of a naval vessel, who were (and still are) addressed as captain regardless of rank;
- Commanders, who received the title of captain as a courtesy, whether they currently had a command or not (e.g. the fictional Captain Jack Aubrey in Master and Commander or the fictional Captain Horatio Hornblower in Hornblower and the Hotspur); this custom is now defunct.
Once an officer had been promoted to post-captain, his further promotion was strictly by seniority; if he could avoid death or disgrace, he would eventually become an admiral (even if only a yellow admiral).
In the Royal Navy of the time, an officer might have a rank, but not a command. Until the officer had a command, he was "on the beach" and on half-pay. An officer who was promoted from commander was a captain, but until he was given a command, he was on half-pay. Once the captain was given a command, his name was "posted" in the London Gazette.
An officer "took post" or was "made post" when he was first commissioned to command a rated vessel — that is, a ship too important to be commanded by a mere commander. Unrated vessels could also in some cases be commanded by post-captains. Being "made post" is portrayed as the most crucial event in an officer's career in both Forester's Horatio Hornblower series and O'Brian's Aubrey-Maturin series.
A junior post-captain would usually command a frigate or a comparable ship, while more senior post-captains would command larger ships. An exception to this rule was that a very junior post-captain could be posted to command an admiral's flagship, which was almost always a large ship of the line. The admiral would usually do this to keep his most junior captain under close observation, and subject to his direct supervision. Captains commanding an admiral's flagship were called "flag captains". One example of an admiral appointing a junior post-captain to command his flagship in this way is the appointment of Alexander Hood to the command of HMS Barfleur, flagship of his brother, Admiral Sir Samuel Hood.
Sometimes, a high-ranking admiral would have two post-captains on his flagship. The junior of the two would serve as the flag captain and retain responsibility for the day-to-day operation of the vessel. The senior of the two would be the fleet captain, or "captain of the fleet", and would serve as the admiral's chief-of-staff. These two captains would be listed in the ship's roll as the "second captain" and "first captain", respectively.
After 1795, when they were first introduced on Royal Navy uniforms, the number and position of epaulettes distinguished between commanders and post-captains of various seniorities. A commander wore a single epaulette on the left shoulder. A post-captain with less than three years seniority wore a single epaulette on the right shoulder, and a post-captain with three or more years seniority wore an epaulette on each shoulder. (National Maritime Museum Uniform Collection, see below.) In the O'Brian series, Aubrey "wets the swab"—that is, he celebrates his promotion to commander and the acquisition of his "swab" or epaulette with the consumption of copious amounts of alcohol.
Note that the term was descriptive only: no-one was ever styled "Post-Captain John Smith".
- "The London Gazette - Treasure Trove of Historical Information". London Gazette. http://www.london-gazette.co.uk/documents/0609FamilyHistory. Retrieved 2011-05-30.
|This page uses Creative Commons Licensed content from Wikipedia (view authors).|


As Heart Healthy Month comes to an end, we wanted to share a few tips to get healthy fats into your diet.
But wait, good fats?
There are, in fact, fats that are important for a healthy diet! Unsaturated fats are beneficial in keeping your heart healthy, while saturated and trans fats increase the risk of heart disease.
Foods such as avocados, olives, and salmon are full of good fats, along with corn, soybean, canola, and sunflower oils.
The American Heart association also recommends maintaining a proper sodium intake. A full diet with under 1,500 milligrams of sodium is considered a healthy level. 77% of sodium in our foods comes from processed and prepared foods, so try to cook with natural and unprocessed ingredients to lower sodium levels.
Looking for a way to get good fats in quick? Try Avocado Toast!
Fresh avocado on warm whole wheat toast is an amazing start to the day. Sprinkle a little bit of sea salt (watch those sodium levels though), or add more toppings for a powerhouse breakfast.
Keep that heart healthy!


There are two rivers in the small village of Alto Guayabal, the smallest is turquoise in colour and is called Jancadía and the largest is amber-green in colour and is called Jiguamiandó which means river that brings fever in the Emberá indigenous language. The name does this area justice, as mosquitoes are rife and people often catch tropical diseases.
The Jai Katumá mountain, where the spirits of the Emberá people live, stands majestically in the distance. The 87 families in the community live in ranches on stilts to avoid the devastating impact of the waters during the rainy season. The roofs are made of zinc or braided grass, and in the houses there are large and colourful cloths, which the women use as cross-over skirts that they call parumas.
The village belongs to the Urada – Jiguamiandó indigenous territory. For the Emberá, the earth is sacred and they are its guardians. When they cut down a tree they plant five more – that is what is written in their community regulations – and they do not cut down trees near the river, nor do they shoot snakes into the stream because they could contaminate the waters with the poison. The river is life, there the community bathe, wash, play and collect water to drink. The jungle is life because there are wild animals to be hunted there. Thanks to their care, most of the 90,000 hectares of the territory still contain native forest. Each family uses only what is necessary to grow cassava, corn, plantain, rice and pineapple.
The people of Alto Guayabal are the owners of this land, which is legally constituted as an indigenous reservation, a special category of land in Colombia. Still, mother earth has many enemies here. For four years, settlers have burned trees and replaced them with coca crops. They have built laboratories in the middle of the thick jungle where they process the leaves. The waste ends up in the colourful rivers and that is why there are days when bathing in the water causes itching and stains the skin, gives people diarrhoea when they drink it and makes the fish die.
Nowadays, men dressed in camouflage with guns and radios pass through the thick jungle. For fear of bumping into them, the indigenous men do not go out with their lanterns to hunt at night, nor fish far from the village, which is why at times food is scarce.
They have already lived through one cycle of violence, and they fear that they will have to abandon their mother earth again to protect their lives, as they did once before in the year 2000, when after a military operation, the families ran away and only returned eight years later.
The sacred mountain Jai Katumá is also a symbol of resistance. There is gold under the mountain; in fact, when they need money to buy salt and clothes, the Emberá come to the mountain and search for a sliver of gold, just as their ancestors did. But in 2009 a multinational company arrived with the Mande Norte project, and tried to occupy the mountain to take its gold. In response, Emberá women, men and children climbed Jai Katumá and stayed there for six weeks, demanding the departure of the army and the company workers. They took jaibanás, their traditional doctors, to call upon the spirits and scare the occupiers. In the end they were victorious. It was one more battle for the protection of their beautiful and abundant mother earth. The daughters and sons of these protectors of the jungle and the rivers run freely through the flourishing green environment, shouting with joy because they have not known the violence their parents faced and hopefully they never will.
 In March 2017 more than 100 men from the Gaitanista Self-Defence Forces of Colombia (AGC) invaded the territory. El Espectador: Denuncian incursiones paramilitares en Chocó durante fin de semana, 13 March 2017
*Cover photo: Bianca Bauer


Margraviate of Brandenburg
|March/Margraviate of Brandenburg|
|State of the Holy Roman Empire
Imperial elector (1356–1806)
|Capital||Brandenburg an der Havel
Berlin (from 1417)
|-||1157–70||Albert the Bear (first)|
|-||1797–1806||Frederick William III (last)|
|-||Established||3 October 1157|
|-||Raised to Electorate||25 December 1356|
|-||Brandenburg-Prussia||27 August 1618|
|-||Kingdom of Prussia||18 January 1701|
|-||Dissolution of the
Holy Roman Empire
|6 August 1806|
The Margraviate of Brandenburg (German: Markgrafschaft Brandenburg) was a major principality of the Holy Roman Empire from 1157 to 1806. Also known as the March of Brandenburg (Mark Brandenburg), it played a pivotal role in the history of Germany and Central Europe.
Brandenburg developed out of the Northern March founded in the territory of the Slavic Wends. Its ruling margraves were established as prestigious prince-electors in the Golden Bull of 1356, allowing them to vote in the election of the Holy Roman Emperor. The state thus became additionally known as Electoral Brandenburg or the Electorate of Brandenburg (Kurfürstentum Brandenburg or Kurbrandenburg).
The House of Hohenzollern came to the throne of Brandenburg in 1415. Under Hohenzollern leadership, Brandenburg grew rapidly in power during the 17th century and inherited the Duchy of Prussia. The resulting Brandenburg-Prussia was the predecessor of the Kingdom of Prussia, which became a leading German state during the 18th century. Although the electors' highest title was "King in/of Prussia", their power base remained in Brandenburg and its capital Berlin.
Although the Margraviate of Brandenburg ended with the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806, it was replaced with the Prussian Province of Brandenburg in 1815. Despite its meager beginnings in the "sandbox" of the Holy Roman Empire, the Hohenzollern Kingdom of Prussia achieved the unification of Germany and the creation of the German Empire in 1871. The "Mark Brandenburg" is still used informally today to refer to the federal state of Brandenburg in the Federal Republic of Germany.
History of Brandenburg and Prussia
|Margraviate of Brandenburg
|Duchy of Prussia
|Royal (Polish) Prussia
|Kingdom in Prussia
|Kingdom of Prussia
|Free State of Prussia
1920–1939 / 1945–present
1947–1952 / 1990–present
The territory of the former margraviate, commonly known as the Mark Brandenburg, lies in present-day eastern Germany and western Poland. Geographically it encompassed the majority of the present-day German states Brandenburg and Berlin, the Altmark (the northern third of Saxony-Anhalt), and the Neumark (now divided between Poland's Lubusz and West Pomeranian Voivodeships). Parts of the present-day federal state Brandenburg, such as Lower Lusatia and territory which had been Saxon until 1815, were not parts of the Mark. Colloquially but not accurately, the federal state Brandenburg is sometimes identified as the Mark or Mark Brandenburg.
The region was formed during the ice age and characterized by moraines, glacial valleys, and numerous lakes. The territory is known as a Mark or march because it was a border county of the Holy Roman Empire (see also Margraviate of Meissen).
The Mark is defined by two uplands and two depressions. The depressions are taken up by rivers and chains of lakes with marsh and boggy soil along the shores; once used for peat collection, the riverbanks are now mostly drained and dry.
The Northern or Baltic Uplands of the Mecklenburg Lake Plateau have only minor extensions into Brandenburg. The approximately 230 km-long range of hills in the Mark's south begins in the Lusatian Highlands (near Żary (Sorau)) and continues past Trzebiel (Triebel) and Spremberg, then to the northwest through Calau, and ends in the bare and dry Fläming. The southern depression is generally to the north of this ridge and appears strikingly in the Spreewald (between Baruth/Mark and Plaue an der Havel). The northern depression, lying almost directly south of the Baltic uplands, is defined by the lowlands of the Noteć and Warta Rivers, the Oderbruch, the valley of the Finow, the Havelland moor, and the Oder River.
Between these two depressions is a low plateau that extends from the Poznań area westward to Brandenburg through Torzym (Sternberg), the Spree plateau, and the Mittelmark. From southeast to northwest, this plateau is intersected by the lowland of the Leniwa Obra and the Oder River below the confluence of the Lusatian Neisse, the lower Spree Valley, and the Havel Valley. Between these valleys rise a series of hills and plateaus, such as the Barnim, the Teltow (region), the Semmelberg near Bad Freienwalde (157 m), the Müggelberge in Köpenick (115 m), the Havelberge (97 m), and the Rauen Hills near Fürstenwalde (112 to 152 m).
The region is predominantly marked by dry, sandy soil, wide stretches of which have pine trees and erica plants, or heath. However, the soil is loamy in the uplands and plateaus and, when farmed appropriately, can be agriculturally productive.
Mark Brandenburg has a cool, continental climate, with temperatures averaging near 0 °C (32 °F) in January and February and near 18 °C (64 °F) in July and August. Precipitation averages between 500 mm and 600 mm annually, with a modest summer maximum.
The Bishoprics of Brandenburg and Havelberg were established at the beginning of the 10th century (in 928 and 948, respectively). They were suffragan to the Archbishopric of Mainz; the Bishopric of Brandenburg reached to the Baltic Sea.
King Henry the Fowler started governing in the region in 928–9, allowing Emperor Otto I to establish the Northern March under Margrave Gero in 936 during the German Ostsiedlung. However, the march and the bishropics were overthrown by a Slavic rebellion in 983; until the collapse of the Liutizian alliance in the middle of the 11th century, the Holy Roman Empire government through bishoprics and marches came nearly to a standstill for approximately 150 years., even though the bishopric was retained.
Prince Pribislav of the Hevelli came to power at the castle of Brenna (Brandenburg an der Havel) in 1127. During Pribislav's reign, in which he cultivated close connections with the German nobility, Germans succeeded in binding to the Holy Roman Empire the Havolanie region from Brandenburg an der Havel to Spandau. The disputed eastern border continued between the Hevelli and the Sprewane, recognized as the Havel-Nuthe line. Prince Jaxa of Köpenick (Jaxa de Copnic) of the Sprewaner lived in Köpenick east of the dividing line.
||The neutrality of this article is disputed. (January 2012)|
During the second phase of the German Ostsiedlung, Albert the Bear began the expansionary eastern policy of the Ascanians. From 1123–5 Albert developed contacts with Pribislav, who served as the godfather for the Ascanian's first son, Otto, and gave the boy the Zauche region as a christening present in 1134. In the same year Emperor Lothair III named Albert margrave of the Northern March and raised Pribislav to the status of king, although that was later rescinded. Also in 1134, Albert succeeded in securing for the Ascanians the inheritance of the childless Pribislav. After the latter's death in 1150, Albert received the Havolanie residence of Brenna, or Brandenburg an der Havel. The Ascanians also began to build the castle of Spandau.
In contrast to their leaders who had accepted Christianity, the Havolanie population still worshipped old Slavic deities and opposed Albert's assumption of power. Jaxa of Köpenick, a possible relative of Pribislav and a claim-holder to Brandenburg, controlled Brandenburg with Polish help, and ruled the land of the Stodorans. Older historical research dates this conquest to 1153, although there are no definite sources for the date. More recent researchers, such as Lutz Partenheimer, date it to spring 1157, as it is doubtful that Albert would not have responded to Jaxa's actions for four years.
With bloody victories on 11 June 1157, Albert the Bear was able to reconquer Brandenburg, exile Jaxa, and found a new lordship. Because he already held the title of margrave, Albert styled himself as Margrave of Brandenburg (Adelbertus Die gratia marchio in Brandenborch) on 3 October 1157, thereby beginning the Margraviate of Brandenburg.
The territorial limits of the original margraviate differed from the area of the current Bundesland Brandenburg, consisting merely of the Havelland and Zauche regions. In the following 150 years the Ascanians succeeded in winning the Uckermark, Teltow, and Barnim regions east of the Havel and Nuthe, thereby extending the Mark to the Oder River. The Neumark ("New March") east of the Oder was acquired gradually through purchases, marriages, and aid to the Piast dynasty of Poland.
Because of the sandy soil prevalent in Brandenburg, the agriculturally meager principality was denigrated as "the sandbox of the Holy Roman Empire". Albert invited colonists to settle the new territory, many of whom came from the Altmark ("Old March", a later name for the original Northern March), the Harz, Flanders (hence the Fläming region), and the Rhineland. After the capture of territory along the Elbe and Havel Rivers in the 1160s, Flemish and Dutch settlers from flooded regions in Holland used their expertise to build dikes in Brandenburg. Initially, the Ascanians protected the country by settling knights in villages; castles fortified with knights were mostly located in the border region of the Neumark. After a 14th-century decline in imperial power, however, knights began constructing castles throughout the principality, granting them more independence.
After Albert's death in 1170, his son succeeded him as Otto I, Margrave of Brandenburg. The Ascanians pursued a policy of expanding to the east and the northeast with the goal of connecting their territories through Pomerania to the Baltic Sea. This policy brought them into conflict with the Kingdom of Denmark. After the Battle of Bornhöved (1227), Margrave John I staked his claim to Pomerania, receiving it as a fief from Emperor Frederick II in 1231. The middle of the 13th century was a time of important developments for the Ascanian House, as it won Stettin (Szczecin) and the Uckermark (1250), although the former was later lost to the Duchy of Pomerania. Henry II, the last Ascanian margrave, died in 1320.
Having defeated the Habsburgs, the Wittelsbach Emperor Louis IV, an uncle of Henry II, granted Brandenburg to his oldest son, Louis I (the "Brandenburger") in 1323. As a consequence of the murder of Provost Nikolaus von Bernau in 1325, Brandenburg was punished with a papal interdict. From 1328 onwards, Louis was in war against Pomerania which he claimed as a fiefdom and the conflict did not end before 1333. The rule of Margrave Louis I was rejected by the domestic nobility of Brandenburg, and, after the death of Emperor Louis VI in 1347, the margrave was confronted with the False Waldemar, an imposter of the deceased Margrave Waldemar. The pretender was recognized as Margrave of Brandenburg on 2 October 1348 by the new emperor, Charles IV of Luxembourg, but was exposed as a fraud after a peace between the Wittelsbachs and Luxembourgs at Eltville. In 1351 Louis gave the Mark to his younger half-brothers Louis II (the "Roman") and Otto V in exchange for the sole rule over Upper Bavaria.
Louis the Roman forced the False Waldemar to renounce his claims to Brandenburg and succeeded in establishing the Margraves of Brandenburg as prince-electors in the Golden Bull of 1356. Brandenburg therefore became a Kurfürstentum (literally "electoral principality" or "electorate") of the Holy Roman Empire and had a vote in the election of the Holy Roman Emperor. The Margrave of Brandenburg also held the ceremonial title of Arch-Chamberlain of the Empire. When Louis the Roman died in 1365, Otto took over the rule of Brandenburg, although he quickly neglected the march. He sold Lower Lusatia, which he had already pledged to the Wettin dynasty, to Emperor Charles IV in 1367. A year later he lost the town Deutsch Krone (Wałcz) to King Casimir the Great of Poland.
After the middle of the 14th century, Emperor Charles IV attempted to secure Brandenburg for the House of Luxembourg. Control over the electoral vote of Brandenburg would help assure the Luxembourgs of election to the imperial throne, as they already held the vote of Bohemia. Charles succeeded in purchasing Brandenburg from Margrave Otto for 500,000 guilders in 1373 and, at a Landtag in Guben, united Brandenburg and Lower Lusatia with the Lands of the Bohemian Crown. The Landbuch of Charles IV, a source for the history of medieval settlement in Brandenburg, originated during this time. Charles chose the castle of Tangermünde to be the electoral residence.
The power of the Luxembourgs in Brandenburg declined during the reign of Charles's nephew Jobst of Moravia. The Neumark was pawned to the Teutonic Knights, who neglected the border region. Under the Wittelsbach and Luxembourg margraves, Brandenburg fell increasingly under the control of the local nobility as central authority declined.
In return for supporting Sigismund as Holy Roman Emperor at Frankfurt in 1410, Frederick VI of Nuremberg, a burgrave of the House of Hohenzollern, was granted hereditary control over Brandenburg in 1411. Rebellious landed nobility such as the Quitzow family opposed his appointment, but Frederick overpowered these knights with artillery. Some nobles had their property confiscated, and the Brandenburg estates gave allegiance at Tangermünde on 20 March 1414. Frederick was officially recognized as Margrave and Prince-elector Frederick I of Brandenburg at the Council of Constance in 1415. Frederick's formal investiture with the Kurmark, or electoral march, and his appointment as Archchamberlain of the Holy Roman Empire occurred on 18 April 1417, also during the Council of Constance.
Frederick made Berlin his residence, although he retired to his Franconian possessions in 1425. He granted governance of Brandenburg to his eldest son John the Alchemist, while retaining the electoral dignity for himself. The next elector, Frederick II, forced the submission of Berlin and Cölln, setting an example for the other towns of Brandenburg. He reacquired the Neumark from the Teutonic Knights by the Treaties of Cölln and Mewe and began its rebuilding.
The Hohenzollerns of Brandenburg sought to expand their power base from their relatively meager possessions, although this brought them into conflict with neighboring states. John William, Duke of Julich-Cleves-Berg died childless in 1609. His eldest niece, Anna, Duchess of Prussia, was the wife of John Sigismund, Elector of Brandenburg, who promptly claimed the inheritance and sent troops to take hold of some of John William's holdings in the Rhineland. Unfortunately for John Sigismund, this effort became tied up with the Thirty Years' War and the disputed succession of Julich. At the end of the war in 1648, Brandenburg was recognized as the possessor of approximately half the inheritance, comprising the Duchy of Cleves in the Rhineland and the Counties of Mark and Ravensberg in Westphalia. These territories, which were more than 100 kilometers from the borders of Brandenburg, formed the nucleus of the later Prussian Rhineland.
When Albert Frederick, Duke of Prussia, died without a son in 1618, his son-in-law John Sigismund inherited the Duchy of Prussia. He then ruled both territories in a personal union which came to be known as Brandenburg-Prussia. In this way, the fortuitous marriage of John Sigismund to Anna of Prussia, and the deaths of her maternal uncle in 1609 and her father in 1618 without immediate male heirs, proved to be the key events by which Brandenburg acquired territory both in the Rhineland and on the Baltic coast. Prussia lay outside the Holy Roman Empire and the electors of Brandenburg held it as a fief of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, to which the electors paid homage.
The electors of Brandenburg spent the next two centuries attempting to gain lands to unite their separate territories (the Mark Brandenburg, the territories in the Rhineland and Westphalia, and Ducal Prussia) to form one geographically contiguous domain. In the Peace of Westphalia ending the Thirty Years' War in 1648, Brandenburg-Prussia acquired Farther Pomerania and made it the Province of Pomerania by the Treaty of Stettin (1653). In the second half of the 17th century, Frederick William, the "Great Elector", developed Brandenburg-Prussia into a major power. The state constructed Brandenburg's first navy (Kurbrandenburgische Marine), leading to short-lived colonies at Arguin, the Brandenburger Gold Coast, and Saint Thomas. The electors succeeded in acquiring full sovereignty over Prussia in the treaties of Wehlau and Bromberg in 1657. The territories of the Hohenzollerns were opened to immigration by Huguenot refugees in by the Edict of Potsdam in 1685.
Kingdom of Prussia
In return for aiding Emperor Leopold I during the War of the Spanish Succession, Frederick William's son, Frederick III, was allowed to elevate Prussia to the status of a kingdom. On 18 January 1701, Frederick crowned himself Frederick I, King in Prussia. Prussia, unlike Brandenburg, lay outside the Holy Roman Empire, within which only the emperor and the ruler of Bohemia could call themselves king. As king was a more prestigious title than prince-elector, the territories of the Hohenzollerns became known as the Kingdom of Prussia, although their power base remained in Brandenburg. Legally, Brandenburg was still part of the Holy Roman Empire, ruled by the Hohenzollerns in personal union with the Prussian kingdom over which they were fully sovereign. For this reason, the Hohenzollerns continued to use the additional title of Elector of Brandenburg for the remainder of the empire's run. However, by this time the emperor's authority over the empire had become merely nominal. The various territories of the empire acted more or less as de facto sovereign states, and only acknowledged the emperor's overlordship over them in a formal way For this reason, Brandenburg soon came to be treated as de facto part of the Prussian kingdom rather than a separate entity.
From 1701 to 1946, Brandenburg's history was largely that of the state of Prussia, which established itself as a major power in Europe during the 18th century. King Frederick William I of Prussia, the "Soldier-King", modernized the Prussian Army, while his son Frederick the Great achieved glory and infamy with the Silesian Wars and Partitions of Poland. The feudal designation of the Margraviate of Brandenburg ended with the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806, which made the Hohenzollerns de jure as well as de facto sovereigns over it. It was replaced with the Province of Brandenburg in 1815 following the Napoleonic Wars. Brandenburg, along with the rest of Prussia, became part of the German Empire in 1871 during the Prussian-led unification of Germany.
During the Gleichschaltung of provinces by Nazi Germany during the 1930s, the Province of Brandenburg and the Free State of Prussia lost all practical relevancy. The region was administered as the Gau "Mark Brandenburg".
The state of Prussia was de jure abolished in 1947 after the defeat of Nazi Germany in World War II; the Gau "Mark Brandenburg" was replaced with the Land Brandenburg. Territory east of the Oder-Neisse Line (the Neumark region) was placed under Polish administration (became part Poland as her boundaries were agreed by the international powers in 1945 at the Yalta Conference) and separated from Germany. Most of its German-speaking population was expelled and replaced with Poles. Brandenburg west of the Oder-Neisse Line lay in the Soviet occupation zone; it became part of the German Democratic Republic. In 1952 the region was divided among the districts of Cottbus, Frankfurt (Oder), Potsdam, Schwerin, and Neubrandenburg; Berlin was divided between East Berlin and West Berlin.
This division of Brandenburg continued until the German reunification in 1990. The GDR districts were dissolved and replaced with the state of Brandenburg with its capital in Potsdam. The 850th anniversary of the foundation of the March of Brandenburg was to be celebrated officially on 11 June 2007, with preliminary celebrations having begun at the Knights' Academy of Brandenburg an der Havel on 23 June 2006.
- Koch, p. 23.
- Koch, p. 24.
- Koch, p. 25.
- Koch, p. 28
- Koch, p. 29.
- Koch, p. 30.
- (German) Hochmittelalter in der Mark Brandenburg at Brandenburg1260.de.
- (German) Der Brandenburger Landstreicher
- Historical map of Brandenburg, 1789
- (German) Wanderungen durch die Mark Brandenburg by Theodor Fontane, 1899 at Lexikus.de.


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Item Code: IDK250
D.K. Printworld (P) Ltd.
Size: 9.1" X 11.1"
Pages: 456 (Throughout B/W Illustrations)
Price: $80.00 Shipping Free - 4 to 6 days
This brief study will concentrate on the iconography of the Tai textiles from Laos, Lan Na and Isan. Laos, as a country, is well known. However, Lan Na no longer exist and Isan, as an independent country, never was. Lan Na was an independent kingdom in what is now northern Thailand with its ancient capitol first at Chiang Rai and then at Chiang Mai. Isan, on the other hand, fell under the yoke of the Khmer, Sukhothai, Ayuthaya, Lan Xang and finally Thailand. Isan is the region which is known as Northeast Thailand, and is the home for more Lao Tai than inhabit Laos.
These three are considered as the weaving "style" is similar in these contiguous states/regions. In addition, the majority of those now living in the region know as Isan are of Lao origin having been resettled in this area after the numerous wars with Sukhothai, Ayuthaya and the Rattanakosin (Bangkok). These three areas, prior to the Tai migration, had been part of the Mon Dvaravati Kingdom (c. 6th C-1007 C.E.) and then the Khmers (a.1007 C.E.)
Two terms used need clarification-Tai and Thai. Tai (Dai) refers to the general ethnic group that settled in what is now Thailand, Laos and the northeastern part of Myanmar. Thai refers to the inhabitants of present day Thailand.
The country which is now know as Laos, long known before the French takeover as Lan Xang-the Land of a 'Million Elephants" is a land locked country in North central Southeast Asia. The Second smallest country of the Indochinese peninsula, it has suffered more vicissitudes than any of its others neighbors. Partly because of its physical isolation, it has traditionally been considered to be the most mysterious of all the Southeast Asian countries by those of the West. Yet, it has been able to maintains its own identity.
This country, this Lan Xang in an venerable as the surrounding states. Ethnographically, the people are considered to be Tai-Lao or Dai-Lao. Their genesis n this area can be traced from the invasion of Kublai Khan into China. The Tai or Dai migrated southward into the rich riverine systems of the Mekong and Chao Phaya Rivers. They were bracketed by the Shan states on the east, by Annam and Champa on the East and the Khmer to the southeast. Basically, sedentary, non aggressive group they settled into the rich farming areas, intermixed and flourished.
Lan Xang has had the fortune or misfortune to be so geographically located and composed that it had been coveted by a number of its more bellicose neighbors throughout its existence. Its mountainous North East served as a buffer against the rapacious Annamese, the giant China the Thai Kingdoms, the kingdoms of Myanmar (Burma) and Kamboja-specifically the Khmer. Foreign armies consistently invaded this small, isolated country in their quest of plunder and glory. It is little wonder that there are any monuments of any substance remaining.
1353 saw the establishment of a Lao kingdom, Lan Xang by Fa Ngum (Fa Ngoum) with the help of the Khmers. For nearly two hundred years Lan Xang expanded and developed. In 1520 King Phothisarat ascended the throne, moved the capitol from Luang Phabang to Wieng Chan (Vientiane), and by 1545 he had subdued the Lan Na Kingdom to the West. When the Lan Na throne fell vacant King Phothisarat set his son Setthathirat upon the that throne. Two years later Phothisarat died and Setthathirat consolidated his kingdom and moved his capitol back to the more opulent Wieng Chan. He brought with him the Pha Kaew (Phra Kaew) the Emerald Buddha, subsequently it was taken by the Thai and is now the palladium of Thailand. In 1571 King Setthathirat disappeared during a military expedition into the mountainous northeast. He was succeeded by a number of weak and ineffectual rulers.
In 1574 the Burmans invaded and plundered Lan Xang and the city of Wieng Chan. They razed and destroyed many of the important monuments, carried off numerous craftsmen, artisans and nobility to enrich their kingdom, and left the country in shambles. Happily, in 1637 Sulinya Vongsa (r.1667-1694) was crowned king. He came the longest reigning Lan Xang king. King Sulinya Vongsa consolidated the populous, rebuilt the country, enlarged the borders and generally improved te lot of the Lao. Unfortunately, his death, without issue, brought the dissolution and the breakup of Lan Xang into three separate, weak kingdoms of Luang Phabang, Wieng Chan and Champasak.
Thailand, by the end of the eighteenth Century controlled the kingdom of Wieng Chan and the kingdom of Luang Phabang was also a vassal state to Thailand. 1826 saw the first sack of Vientiane by the Thai after an unsuccessful attempt to overthrow the Thai yoke by Prince Chan of Wieng Chan. The Thai, like the Burman, ravaged the small princedoms and carried off great numbers of the population. However, the Thai at least left numerous monuments, including the great monument known as That Luang, relatively intact at that time. They were not as even handed in 1828 when the monument was considerably damaged by their re-invading armies. Again, nearly the whole of the populous of Wieng Chan (Vientiane) was transported to Thailand, including all the available craftsmen and anyone else whom the Thai thought would benefit their thirst for glory. Within a few score yeas the same fate befell the kingdoms of Luang Phabang and Champasak. Later, in 1873, a bandit horde from southern China swept into the beleaguered princedom and was responsible for further desecration of the remaining monuments of Wieng Chan. By 1855 all of what had been Lan Xang was under direct Thai control.
None of the Southeast Asian kingdoms were prepared for the rapacious incursions of two, very powerful encompassing European Countries England and France. Between 1893 and 1907, the Thai relinquished all their hold on Lan Xang in favour of the French. France also annexed Kamboja and Viet Nam while England usurped the Malay States ad Burma. Thailand alone was too rich a prize for either France or England to allow to fall into their competitors net. It remained independent by default.
After World War II, the War of Independence raged on both the battlefield and within the political arena with bewildering permutations. Finally, in 1975 the Lao People's Democratic Republic was declared. This country has been so governed ever since.
Today the country's population is slightly over five million people who live in a land greater in size than Great Britain, but with only 8% of the latter's population. It possesses the lowest inhabitants per square kilometer of any Southeast Asian country. When one considers Thailand its neighbor to the South, with a population of close to forty million which possesses a larger population of those with Lao origin than the total inhabitants of Laos, one begins to understand the true and nefarious effect of the plundering of its monuments, the abduction and deportation of its populous. It is small wonder that the Lao culture has survived at all!
The Kingdom of Lan Na ("Land of a Million Rice fields") (aka Lan Na Tai) finds its roots as an independent kingdom as early as the thirteenth century. But traces its royal roots back to a Tai Prince Phang and his son, the monarch Khun Chuang (mid 12th C 1172) of Chiang Saen. As the other Tai of the region, they migrated from China and here encountered the Lawa peoples. The area of what is now Northern Thailand and what was known as Sip-song Pan Na held numerous Thai muang which coalesced into small, viable principalities.
The monarch Meng Rai (1259-1317) (aka Mengrai, Mangrai) born of the ruler of Chiang Saen is however seen as the father of this kingdom, Lan Na His line can be traced variously from his ascension o the throne (See: Appendix B) to the sixteenth century C.E. in 1292 he established Chiang Mai as his capitol. Prior to Chiang Mai his seat of rule had been Chiang Rai. It had remained so until the demise of this kingdom and its final amalgamation into the hegemony of Thailand. During Meng Rai's reign he conquered the neighboring states of Muang Lai, Vhiang Kham, Chiang Chang and finally Haripunjaya. Later he annexed Chiang Hung. He ruled all the northern Tai but was unable to conqueror Phayao. Nonetheless, he was the most vital of kings of Lan Na. Within a century after his death the kingdom began to suffer a gradual decline during the reign of various ineffectual rulers with few exceptions.
Yet after Meng Rai's passing this small kingdom expended further. Within a century of this great king's death, the kingdom included the principalities of Chiang Sean, Phayao and Fan and was a vibrant power I the region even though it was one of the smaller kingdoms of Southeast Asia. It's influence was felt in Luang Phabang, to the East, the giant China to the North, and the burgeoning kingdoms of Burma and Thailand (Sukhothai and Ayuthaya) to the West and South.
Lan Na was in an unenviable position, even more so than Lao. After the collapse of the Khmer Empire, the kingdoms of Sukhothai, Ayuthaya, Pagan and the later Burman states vied for influence and control of this strategic and vital kingdom. Unfortunately a number of weak kings sat upon the throne and in 1578 a Burmese prince was elevated to the throne of Lan Na. The kingdom was to be ruled mainly by external forces until a revolt in 1774 which managed to throw off the Burman yoke. The final disintegration came, first with the establishment of the Chao of Chiang Mai (the demotion of Lan Na to a principality under the Kingship of Bangkok) in 1781. This, in a sense, protected Lan Na from the avaricious incursions and conquests of England and France. Then came the complete absorption of Lan Na into the state we now know as Thailand in 1939. Since that time the state of Lan Na no longer existed as an independent kingdom or a principality. It was and is a province of Thailand.
Isan, the region of northeast Thailand had never been an independent entity. Its location and topography made it an area that was coveted by a number of surrounding states. First it was a part of Dvaravati, then fell under the yoke of the brilliant Khmer empire. With the rise and independence of Sukhothai, the northern part was absorbed by that kingdom. With the ascendancy of the two vibrant states Ayuthaya and Lan Sang Isan wa split North to South. Lan Sang occupied the greater share of the eastern part and Ayuthaya the western smaller portion. As Lan Sang diminished in power, Ayuthaya assimilated more and more of Isan. Ayuthaya then was conquered and razed by the Burmese invasion of 1776. First, the Thon Buri kingdom sprang up (1776-1782 C.E.) and was quickly supplanted by the Chakri Dynasty of Bangkok (1782-present). By 1809 Siam occupied not only all of Isan, but also Lan Na, Lan Xang, as well as most of the Khmer homeland and the Malay Sultanates of Perlis, Kedah, Kelantan and Terengganu.
Isan is a region of unique of demography. As part of the early Khmer Empire, many of the inhabitants of the southeast are Khmer descendants. The Northern and Western areas are inhabited primarily by Lao (Tai). They had been forcibly resettled here by the Thai (Siam) after the various incursions into the kingdom of Lan Xang. Scattered throughout the region are Chinese and Tai (Thai). However, the majority are Lao (Tai) and their population in the Isan exceeds the population of Lao (Tai) in present day Los.
Of all the regions or states within Southeast Asia, Lao is most often neglected in art and architectural studies and considerations. Certainly the major art historical surveys present a paucity of information and/or comment on this country contributions to the region's cultural heritage. If Laos is mentioned at all, it is frequently stated that it has been heavily influenced by the Thai, Burmese, Khmer, as well as the Annamese, and possesses little, if any, truly indigenous and/or unique art form or style. On the other hand, Thailand (including the Isan) and even the former kingdom of Lan Na are relatively well known and frequently considered in the various journal that treat this region.
In a part of the world where civilizations are measured in millennia, little is conceived without influence. China to the North and India to the West have had such influence in the area known as Southeast Asia as to be truly astounding. Yet from theses culturally rich giants, areas resting along their boundaries or subject to their substantial influence had developed in way as to be clearly distinct and unique. The Kingdoms of Java, Thailand, Myanmar and Kamboja surely stand out as substantial sources within their own areas as well as that the of the region.
As has been stated, little credit is given to the aesthetic contributions that this country has provided to region. Architecturally, the That Luang is one prominent example of scholarly neglect. It is said that it was constructed on a sight that had long been held sacred. The wat sits on a low hill some three kilometers from the Mekong River and overlooked the old city. In its present form it was constructed by King Sai Setthathirat, of Lan Xang (Lao) (1548-1571), who had moved the capital from Muang Sawa (Luang Phabang or Luang Phrabang) to Wieng Chan (Vientiane). The Form of its distinctive "spire" (Indic chattravali) can be seen in other Laotion stupa as well as in a number of Thai chedi. That in itself indicates the level of its regional importance.
Of course, in field of archeology, there is a single phenomenon which finds no equal the Plain of Jars. From what people did they emanate? How were they constructed? When were they constructed? Where were they constructed? Why were they constructed? These are questions that still remain unanswered. Yet the Plain of Jars in singular in the world!
The various invasions may have tried to suppress, destroy or, at least, subvert the natural creative effort of the Lao, particularly in the area of architecture. However, it is in the area of weaving that one finds a distinctively rich field. Doubtlessly, this is due to the fact that weaving has been considered as a "cottage industry" and often beyond the interest of the invading hoards whose rapacious desire was centered on larger, richer and more substantive objects.
Lan Na and the Isan fared worse. Both the kingdom of Lan Na and the region of Isan were amalgamated into the burgeoning Thai kingdom. Isan, particularly, since it was not an independent state has lost whatever identity is possessed. Chiang Mai (Lan Na), on the other hand, has managed to maintain a modicum of its former cultural heritage.
Weaving has long been employed by the various peoples of Southeast Asia as a form of expression, as a means of providing material for clothing, as adornment, as religious/ spiritual expression, as a badge of identity and as a source of income. Each of the countries of Southeast Asia possess distinct forms of textile and textile design. Further, within each country, the many tribes and/or ethnic groups developed their own individual style, colour and patterns. Most are so distinctive that they clearly identify the individual group from which they emanate.
This brief study is, therefore, concerned with the design elements that are typically employed by the craftspersons. This study is not an attempt to be encyclopaedic in its consideration of all the design elements or their iconography. These various elements, their variations and permutations are as varied as there are those individual, unique craftspersons who employ this singular form.
Terms and Spelling
Due to regional vagaries and national preferences, there are often time sterims which are indentical or similar. For example, the woman's garment, reered to herein as pha-sin is the Thai Term. The Lao refer to the same article as simply sin. In Vientiane, one may find themselves quietly and politely corrected when using the Thai equivalent: "pha-sin".
Also, one may find subtle spelling variations which refer to even subtler pronunciations between Laos and Thailand. Herein, the term for snake or serpent is spelled; "nak". However, there are those who insist that the spelling should be: "nark. The pronunciation in both cases sounds virtually identical to these Western ears. Similarly, one will find two distinct spellings for Luang Praband-the variation being: "Luang Phabang."
These may seem like minor points. However, they are important to the national interests of these peoples.
Textiles from Laos, Lan Na and the Isan are prized for their artistic brilliance and aesthetic beauty. They speak volumes on a weaving tradition that has evolved through centuries and shaped the socio-cultural life of the people associated with it.
This book studies the iconography of the design elements typically employed by crafts persons of textiles from these areas: it deals with their art of weaving, various textile forms to be found in the region and the suitable and inherently powerful motifs woven. With numerous splendid illustrations of the designs, it involves study of design elements on articles of daily use as well as those used for ceremonial purposes and the kind of forms and iconography depicted like ancestor figures, animal and plant forms, water creatures, objects used in ceremonies and geometric forms. Viewing Buddhism as the prime influence upon the objects though Hinduism is also an important referent, it explores the symbols the design elements involve and their many meanings and the dimensions they encompass their fertility-related, religious and universal association, for instance. The designs considered in the study are based upon the square grid and the design elements are shown in the typical graph for employed by weavers. It also gives Indian (Sanskrit) and Thai equivalents for English terms of plant and animal species and clarifies a number of terms all of which make this painstakingly-conducted a thorough work on the subject.
The book will be very useful to scholars of Textile designs, Buddhist art and culture; and the cultural tradition of South-East Asia.
Fredrick W. Bunce, a Ph.D. a cultural historian of international eminence, is an authority on ancient iconography and Buddhist arts. He has been honoured with prestigious awards/commendations and is listed in Who's Who in American Art and the International Biographical Dictionary 1980. He has published the: Encyclopaedia of Buddhist Deities (2 vols.); Encyclopaedia of Hindu Deities (3 vols.); Dictionary of Buddhist and Hindu Iconography; Yantra of Deities and their Numerological Foundations; Iconography of Architectural Plans; Numbers: Their Iconographic Consideration in Buddhist and Hindu Practice; Islamic Tombs in India; and co-authored with Lokesh Chandra: The Tibetan Iconography of Buddhas, Bodhisattvas and Other Deities. He is currently Professors Emeritus of Art, Indiana State University, Terre Haute Indiana.
|List of Plates||xvii|
|List of Figures||xix|
|Pha-biang and Pha-chet||1|
|Pha-sin and Related Forms||37|
|Pha-sin I (tin-sin)||38|
|Pha-sin II (tin-jok)||40|
|Pha-sin III (tin-jok)||42|
|Pha-sin V (tin-jok)||46|
|Pha-sin VI (tin-jok)||48|
|Pha-sin VII (tin-jok)||50|
|Pha-sin VIII (tin-jok)||52|
|Pha-sin IX (tin-jok)||54|
|Pha-sin X (tin-jok)||56|
|Pha-sin XI (tin-jok)||58|
|Pha-sin XIII (tin-sin)||62|
|Pha-sin XIV (tin-sin)||64|
|Pha-sin XV (tin-sin)||66|
|Pha-sin XVI (luntaya)||68|
|Pha-sin XVII (luntaya)||70|
|Pha-sin XVIII (tin-sin)||72|
|Pha-sin XXII (tin-jok)||80|
|Pha-sin XXIII (tin-jok)||82|
|Pha-sin XXIV (tin-jok)||84|
|Pha-chong kaben I||124|
|Pha-chong kaben II||126|
|Tung and Other Ceremonial Textiles||129|
|Ceremonial Curtain I||172|
|Ceremonial Curtain II||174|
|Bed Curtain (Mosquito Net)||176|
|Door Curtain I||178|
|Door Curtain II||180|
|Door Curtain III||182|
|Door Curtain IV||184|
|Door Curtain V||186|
|Maun Panel I||192|
|Maun Panel II||193|
|Maun Panel III||194|
|Maun Panel IV||195|
|Khit Patten from sampler||200|
|Khon kob and Khon thani||218|
|Flower (single, generic)||282|
|Flower (on stems, generic)||288|
|Temples, stupas & boats||298|
|Addendum to Miscellaneous Design Elements||372|
|Lao/Lan Na (Tai) Rulers||406|


The word "regular" has a broader meaning that includes the definitions you gave, and more. In a general sense, "regular" means something like "follows a predictable pattern". It could describe something periodic or symmetric, or it could just describe a group of things where all items have a certain form. In the case of regular expressions, the programming term is inherited from theoretical computer science and (originally) linguistic theory, and you have to drill down a few layers to find the original thing that was referred to as having a "regular" structure.
A regular expression is an "expression" (in this case just a generic term meaning some letters and symbols grouped as a single phrase) that describes a "regular language"; to put it simply, in order for a sentence to be part of the language described by a regex, it must follow the rules presented in the regex.
Next, a regular language is any language that can be generated by a "regular grammar". This is a term that comes from linguistic theory1. Here the word "regular" has a specific technical meaning related to the structure of the grammar's rules that really doesn't apply at all to regular expressions or languages. This is where the "regularity" comes in. All rules in a regular grammar must have a very small, specific, predictable structure, or the grammar doesn't count as "regular" any more.
So in short, a regular expression describes the rules that sentences must follow in order to belong to the language generated by a certain regular grammar.
1: If you're interested in the history and use of these terms in mathematical logic and linguistic theory, here's a basic overview and some links for more research (thanks to @DamkerngT. and @reinierpost for input):
- This use of the term "regular" was probably introduced first by the mathematician and logician Stephen Kleene in his 1951 RAND Corporation report "Representation of events in nerve nets and finite automata" (pdf link), slightly modified and republished in 1956 as a formal paper with the same name (published in Automata Studies, Princeton University Press).
- In this paper (section 7, beginning on pg. 46), Kleene uses the term "regular events" to describe the inputs and processing rules of "nerve nets" (neural networks) and finite automata (also called "finite state machines"); finite automata were later proven to be logically equivalent to regular expressions.
- Particularly relevant quote (section 7.1, paragraph 3): "Our objective is to show that all and only regular events can be represented by nerve nets or finite automata."
- The terms "regular language" and "regular grammar" were coined by Noam Chomsky as a part of the Chomsky hierarchy, a categorization of different grammars based on the complexity of the languages they describe.


A few months ago, I covered blogger grammar basics in when to use periods, commas, and semicolons, along with how to use colons, ellipses and dashes. In one of the comments, a sweet blogger suggested that I write one about how to use apostrophes, because they had been seeing them misused a lot.
Lately I’ve been seeing them misused quite a bit, so it seemed appropriate to visit the topic. In the last segments, I used Gossip Girl to illustrate my examples. Now that the show is well over, I’ll be using Pretty Little Liars for examples
The Apostrophe is for Possessives
A common use for the apostrophe is to indicate the possessive: that someone or something (a noun) possesses another item.
So you may say, OMG. Aria’s relationship with Ezra is SO inappropriate! In this example, Aria possesses the relationship, so it would be Aria’s (not Arias, which would mean there is more than one Aria. And we’re watching Pretty Little Liars, not Fringe, got it?).
You could also say, Spencer’s boyfriend Toby is SUPER dreamy! Who doesn’t love a bad boy with a heart of gold?
In this example, Spencer is in possession of a boyfriend. Not boyfriend’s because the boyfriend is not in the ownership role.
Though if you said, Spencer’s boyfriend’s car is a beat up truck, you would be right! Spencer is in possession of the boyfriend, but the boyfriend is also in possession of the truck.
Easy enough, right? Use an apostrophe if someone is in possession of another object, item, person, etc. Use just an -S if there are more than one (relationships, trucks, letters, photos).
The Apostrophe for Acronyms or Years
If you are talking about a period of time or decade, then it is plural. This is the same if you’re talking about an acronym (aka DVDs, CDs, or VCRs); it’s always in the plural. If you’re talking specifically about a particular year, then it would be the possessive.
I love Aria’s ’90s fashions!
Aria is in possession of the ’90s. But why isn’t 90s in possession of fashion? In this instance, ’90s is a whole decade, hence the plural usage.
If you were to talk about the specific year, I love Aria’s 1990′s fashion!, then it would be in the possessive. It means that you love the fashion Aria wore that is specific to the year 1990.
If you’re omitting the first 2 numbers in a decade, be sure to put an apostrophe before the year (aka 1990s vs. ’90s).
The Apostrophe as Plural AND Possessive.
This is where apostrophes can get confusing. Say you want to talk about all 4 little liars. There are multiples of them, so you know not to use an apostrophe. But they will be in ownership of something, so that would mean an apostrophe… right?
If you have multiples in possession, the apostrophe comes at the end.
The girls’ fashion sense is killer. I love Aria’s playful combinations, Spencer’s pretty but preppy chic, Emily’s down to earth pieces, and Hanna’s super-fashionista styling.
Here girls is plural, but they are in possession of fashion. This would vary from The girl’s fashion… which would be talking about the fashion of one girl. This is a really subtle use of an apostrophe, but an amazingly easy way to change the meaning of your sentence!
Note: if you’re talking about something that is plural, but also ends in -S, like the last name Jones, you have two options: you can say Jones’ or you can say Jones’s. Grammarians say both are acceptable, just be consistent in the one you choose.
The Apostrophe as a Contraction
A contraction combines two words together.
Like: It is in your best interest to leave the photos becomes It’s in your best interest to leave the photos.
You are going to die becomes You’re going to die.
Allie is going to kill us all! becomes Allie’s going to kill us all!
And you get the point. So when you’re writing, it’s a good idea to read your post out loud to yourself. You’ll find the contractions naturally because it’s part of our common, every day speech to combine them.
Many common spelling mistakes come from this area of apostrophe use. So if you can say “you are” in place of “you’re” in the sentence, then you’re using the right one. If you can’t say “you are” in place of it, you should be using “your.” Same with it is vs. its, or they are vs. their (or there).
The apostrophe as contraction can easily get confused with the apostrophe showing ownership. Emily’s… can mean two things: Emily is… or Emily is in possession of…. The rest of your sentence will let the reader know which version it is, based on what comes after.
And that’s it. Apostrophes (not Apostrophe’s) made easy. Or not so easy. Just when you get a handle on when the apostrophe, there’s an exception to the rule or a weird cousin that does things a little bit differently. For the most part, you’ll be using apostrophes when using contractions and when showing possession in your posts. If you can nail those two, you’re pretty set.
Want a bit more? The Oatmeal has a great, illustrated version of how to use apostrophes.
[Image Credit: Shutterstock.com]


Scientists haven't found E.T. just yet, but they may bepinning down the best places and ways to look for alien life during futurespace missions, NASA researchers said Wednesday.
Experts on the search for extraterrestrial life spoke toreporters from the Astrobiology Science Conference near Houston to celebrate 50years of astrobiology research.
Scientists there said they are still eager to find life elsewherein the universe despite the firestorm this week kicked off by famed cosmologistStephen Hawking, who suggested that perhaps humans shouldn't be so eagerto find aliens since there's a chance they would want to colonize Earth orstrip it for resources.
"We're interested and prepared to discover any form oflife," said Mary Voytek, astrobiology senior scientist at NASAHeadquarters, during the teleconference.
The lure of new missions
Cornell University planetary scientist Steve Squyres, principalinvestigator of the MarsExploration Rover project, said NASA scientists were currently consideringa list of 28 future science missions that could help discover signs ofextraterrestrial life.
"Astrobiology and the search for life is really centralto what we should be doing next in the exploration of the solar system," Squyressaid.
He mentioned a host of possible robotic missions, includingvisits to Mercury, Mars, the moons of Jupiter and Saturn, and even distantouter solar system flybys. In particular, the Saturnianmoons Titan ? with its lakes of methane and ethane ? and Enceladus, withits plumes of water vapor, seem like possibly habitable sites.
Squyres also said NASA is considering an ambitiousthree-part mission to Mars that would return samples of rock back to Earth forscientists here to study in person.
This mission "might reveal a great deal about whetherMars once harbored life," he said.
Other scientists on the panel agreed that a Mars samplereturn mission would be invaluable.
"I personally think if we're ever going to be able toshow that there was past life on Mars ? if there was past life on Mars ? Ithink we're going to need to study the samples here on Earth rather thanrobotically," said Bill Schopf, a researcher at the University ofCalifornia, Los Angeles. "I think if we had the rocks back tomorrow and Ihad them in my lab, I think we could solve this problem."
Schopf and another researcher, Jack Farmer of Arizona StateUniversity, announced the results of a recent study in which they found that atype of mineral deposit called sulfate can harbor fossils of ancient organisms.
Although the scientists studied samples of sulfate fromEarth, this material is also present in large quantities on Mars. The fact thatthey found fossilized life in Earth's sulfate means that Mars' sulfate would becapable of storing a record of life, too, if that life existed. Thus,collecting samples of sulfate on Mars would be a good place to look for Martianlife, they said.
Another possible place to look for life in the solar systemis asteroids. Researchers announced for the first time Wednesday that they'dfound direct proof of frozenwater and organic compounds ? which could include the ingredients for life? on a space rock in the main asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter. Bothwater and organic materials are considered necessary to make a place habitable.
"Any time you have materials like that present you havea candidate that is worthy of study," Squyres said. "We should gowhere the data lead us."
- The Top 10 Mars Rover Discoveries
- Ten Alien Encounters Debunked
- Alien Life on Titan Would Stink


Foot health plays a major role in determining your overall sense of well-being. After all, if your feet hurt, even small, everyday tasks can become overwhelming. From insufficient arch support to ill-fitting footwear, there are a number of factors that can cause foot pain. Ingrown toenails are an all-too-common ailment that can make walking, running, …
Foot health plays a major role in determining your overall sense of well-being. After all, if your feet hurt, even small, everyday tasks can become overwhelming. From insufficient arch support to ill-fitting footwear, there are a number of factors that can cause foot pain. Ingrown toenails are an all-too-common ailment that can make walking, running, and even standing downright excruciating. Following are three causes of ingrown toenails along with tips for preventing them.
Shoes That Are Too Tight
Ingrown toenails develop as the toenail starts growing into the skin, as opposed to on top of it. Among the most common causes of this painful issue are tight-fitting shoes. The constant pressure that improperly fitting footwear applies can force the nail down into the soft tissues around it. This is especially problematic for people who routinely wear shoes that are excessively tight at or around the toes. If you have an ingrown toenail or suspect that one may be developing, replace your current shoes with a pair in a larger size. You should also have a shoe store employee measure your feet to avoid this problem in the future. People who are prone to ingrown toenails should avoid shoes with pointed toes, short, rounded toes, and other compact shoe styles. It is also important to avoid tight-fitting socks and other hosiery.
There are times when an ingrown toenail is the result of a sudden and unexpected, impact event such as stubbing the toe, dropping a heavy item on the foot, or having the toes stepped on. Unfortunately, events like these are often unavoidable. It’s important to note that toenail injuries can do more than simply increase the likelihood of developing ingrown nails. They can also leave the nail bed vulnerable to aggressive bacterial and fungal infections if the toenail becomes cracked, significantly displaced, or falls off.
One way to prevent toenail injuries is by wearing the appropriate, protective footwear when entering any construction area or other, potentially dangerous environment. Steel-toed boots can absorb the impact of heavy, falling objects so that the toes remain injury-free. Following any significant, injury event, it’s always a good idea to consult with a foot doctor Kissimmee FL residents can rely on. This professional may be able to mitigate the nail damages caused by these events to prevent ongoing problems with ingrown toenails, and to additionally limit the potential for aggressive, fungal, nail infections.
Cutting The Toenails Too Short
Another very common cause of ingrown toenails is excessive clipping. Although it’s important to keep the nails clean and well-groomed, cutting them too short can affect their natural growth pattern. It’s also important to avoid shaping or curving the nails when clipping or filing them. The toenails should always be cut straight across, while ensuring that a small amount of the white portion of the nail remains visible.
The intense pain that’s caused by ingrown toenails is often preventable. Choosing properly fitted footwear and trimming your nails correctly are among the most important efforts that you can make to this end. With these strategies, you can encourage your toenails to grow up and over the skin, rather than directly into the soft tissues that surround them.


Surgical technicians serve as the right hand of the surgeon. The steward of the operating room, a surgery tech knows exactly what must be in place to make sure that surgery runs smoothly. As a vital member of the operating room team, a surgical tech works right alongside the anesthesiologist, nurses and surgeons. The projected median income and demand for this occupation will grow faster than average, according to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, making it a stable career.
Surgeons oversee surgical techs and direct their work. A surgical tech plays many roles in the operating room. Before surgery, a surgical tech prepares the surgical suite by ensuring that all supplies and equipment are in place and in working order. This is a huge job since everything must be ready when the surgeon begins the operation. After the surgeon scrubs, the surgical tech assists with operating clothing and gloves. Surgical techs are keenly aware of what the surgeon needs during surgery and may hand the surgical instruments to the surgeon without prompting. If anything more is required during the surgery, the surgical tech is poised to quickly replenish supplies. Patient care includes transporting the patient to and from surgery, preparing a sterile field by draping the patient and disinfecting surgical areas on the body.
Most surgical techs obtain an associate degree in surgical technology. This program provides a foundation of science, math, anatomy, physiology, medical law and ethics. Other courses include pathophysiology, medical terminology, pharmacology, surgical aseptic techniques, surgical tech procedures and patient care. In addition to coursework, a surgical tech program provides clinical experiences to teach practical aspects of this position. Most surgical techs choose to take a certification exam, administered by the National Board of Surgical Technology and Surgical Assisting. Eligibility to take this exam is contingent upon graduating from an accredited program and demonstrating field experience.
The annual median pay for a surgical tech was $45,160 or $21.71 per hour, as reported by the BLS in 2016. This salary exceeds the national median salary of $37,040 per year. You can make the most money working at a large surgery center or specialty clinic. Top paying states for a surgery tech include Nevada, California, District of Columbia, Alaska and Washington. At the other end of the scale, lower wages are in Alabama, Mississippi, South Dakota, Louisiana and West Virginia.
Years of Experience
Gaining experience as a surgical tech will broaden your opportunities for increased wages and specialty opportunities. Advancement opportunities are available for surgical techs who specialize in neurology, neurology or cardiovascular surgery. Experienced surgical techs can secure a position as a mobile surgical tech. Traveling surgical techs can select jobs in the highest-paying cities and receive living expenses while in travel status.
Job Growth Trend
The job market for surgical technologists is expected to grow by 12 percent from now to 2026. This is faster than average, in comparison to other career fields. An aging population increases the need for health care, including surgeries, and this positively affects the surgical tech field.