Emerald is a green variation of the mineral beryl that has been highly valued as a gemstone for thousands of years. Scholars speculate that the name derives from the Greek word smaragdos, a term that was also used when referring to other green-colored stones. The name emerald is also applied to other green minerals that are used as gemstones, such as tourmaline, hiddenite, corundum, and andradite.
Beryl crystals are some of the most well-known and prized gems that occur in nature, and include aquamarine, heliodor, and morganite, as well as emerald. Before 1925, gemstones were the primary use for beryl. Since then, beryl has become an important source of the element beryllium, formerly known as glucinium, a metal with a variety of modern commercial uses, particularly in manufacturing metal alloys.
The crystal structure of beryl emeralds is hexagonal (six-sided) with a hardness slightly higher than quartz but considerably less than that of diamond. The rich green color is created by small amounts of chromium or vanadium imbedded within the crystalline lattice. Emeralds are notorious for containing flaws, and flawless stones are rare and greatly valued.
The world's finest emeralds originate in the Muzo mining district of Colombia, where most are mined today. A rare stone, found only in this region, is known as a "Trapiche emerald", and is characterized by star-shaped rays that emanate from its center in a hexagonal pattern called an asterism, reminiscent of a star sapphire. Unlike star sapphires, ray patterns in emerald are not caused by light reflections from tiny parallel inclusions, but by black carbon impurities that happen to form in the same pattern. Emeralds have also been found in Australia, the Urals, Norway, Austria, and North Carolina. In the ancient Old World, emeralds were mined primarily in Egypt. Synthetic emeralds have been produced successfully since the mid-1930s. These crystals are very similar to naturally occurring crystals, evidencing the same color and beauty.
Many virtues and healing properties have been ascribed to emeralds over the years, when worn as a charm, from preventing epileptic seizures, curing dysentery, and driving away evil spirits to preserving the chastity of the wearer. The gems were even administered internally for their medicinal value.
Gem scholars agree that the tradition of birthstones arose from the Breastplate of Aaron described in the Bible (Exodus 28, 15-30). The breastplate was a ceremonial religious garment set with twelve gemstones that represented the twelve tribes of Israel and corresponded with the twelve signs of the zodiac and the twelve months of the year. There are many different birthstone lists, however, and some argue that they should be assigned by astrological sign and not month. Emerald is the birthstone for May and the zodiac sign Taurus.
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– Education in the United Kingdom comprises several systems divided according to regional government. The UK Government is responsible for England proper; the Scottish, Welsh Assembly, and the Northern Ireland Executive governments have their own spheres of responsibility.
– Although these systems resemble each other, the Scottish model differs slightly from the rest. For example, secondary schools in Scotland require that students obtain a wide education.
– A similar policy applies to university programs, which generally take a year longer to complete than elsewhere in the UK.
– The other educational systems stick more to depth than to breadth.


Get the most from your workouts by knowing how to gauge your exercise intensity.
By Mayo Clinic Staff
When you work out, are you working hard or hardly working? Exercising at the correct intensity can help you get the most out of your physical activity — making sure you're not overdoing or even underdoing it. Here's a look at what exercise intensity means and how to make it work for you.
How do you know how hard you should be exercising? For most healthy adults, the Department of Health and Human Services recommends these exercise guidelines:
- Aerobic activity. Get at least 150 minutes a week of moderate aerobic activity — such as brisk walking, swimming or mowing the lawn — or 75 minutes a week of vigorous aerobic activity — such as running or aerobic dancing. You can also do a combination of moderate and vigorous activity, preferably spread throughout the course of a week.
- Strength training. Do strength training exercises at least twice a week. Consider free weights, weight machines or activities that use your own body weight — such as rock climbing or heavy gardening. The amount of time for each session is up to you.
To reap the most health benefits from exercise, your exercise intensity must generally be at a moderate or vigorous level. For weight loss, the more intense your exercise, or the longer you exercise, the more calories you burn.
However, balance is important. Overdoing it can increase your risk of soreness, injury and burnout. If you're new to regular exercise and physical activity, you may need to start out at a light intensity and gradually build up to a moderate or vigorous intensity.
So think about your reasons for exercising. Do you want to improve your fitness, lose weight, train for a competition or do a combination of these? Your answer will help determine the appropriate level of exercise intensity. Be realistic and don't push yourself too hard, too fast. Fitness is a lifetime project, not a sprint. Of course, if you have any medical conditions or you're not sure what your exercise intensity should be, talk to your doctor.
When you're doing aerobic activity, such as walking or biking, exercise intensity correlates with how hard the activity feels to you. Exercise intensity also is reflected in your breathing and heart rate, whether you're sweating, and how tired your muscles feel.
There are two basic ways to measure exercise intensity:
- How you feel. Exercise intensity is a subjective measure of how hard physical activity feels to you while you're doing it — your perceived exertion. Your perceived level of exertion may be different from what someone else feels doing the same exercise. For example, what feels to you like a hard run can feel like an easy workout to someone who's more fit.
- Your heart rate. Your heart rate offers a more objective look at exercise intensity. In general, the higher your heart rate during physical activity, the higher the exercise intensity.
Studies show that your perceived exertion correlates well with your heart rate. So if you think you're working hard, your heart rate is likely elevated.
You can use either way of gauging exercise intensity. If you like technology and care about the numbers, a heart rate monitor might be a useful device for you. If you feel you're in tune with your body and your level of exertion, you likely will do fine without a monitor.
Here are some clues to help you judge your exercise intensity.
Moderate exercise intensity
Moderate activity feels somewhat hard. Here are clues that your exercise intensity is at a moderate level:
- Your breathing quickens, but you're not out of breath.
- You develop a light sweat after about 10 minutes of activity.
- You can carry on a conversation, but you can't sing.
Vigorous exercise intensity
Vigorous activity feels challenging. Here are clues that your exercise intensity is at a vigorous level:
- Your breathing is deep and rapid.
- You develop a sweat after a few minutes of activity.
- You can't say more than a few words without pausing for breath.
Beware of pushing yourself too hard too often. If you're short of breath, in pain or can't work out as long as you'd planned, your exercise intensity is probably higher than your fitness level allows. Back off a bit and build intensity gradually.
Another way to gauge your exercise intensity is to see how hard your heart is beating during physical activity. To use this method, you first have to figure out your maximum heart rate — the upper limit of what your cardiovascular system can handle during physical activity.
The basic way to calculate your maximum heart rate is to subtract your age from 220. For example, if you're 45 years old, subtract 45 from 220 to get a maximum heart rate of 175. This is the maximum number of times your heart should beat per minute while you're exercising.
Once you know your maximum heart rate, you can calculate your desired target heart rate zone — the level at which your heart is being exercised and conditioned but not overworked.
Here's how heart rate matches up with exercise intensity levels:
- Moderate exercise intensity: 50 to 70 percent of your maximum heart rate
- Vigorous exercise intensity: 70 to 85 percent of your maximum heart rate
If you're not fit or you're just beginning an exercise program, aim for the lower end of your target zone (50 percent). Then, gradually build up the intensity. If you're healthy and want a vigorous intensity, opt for the higher end of the zone.
How to determine your target zone
To determine your desired target heart rate zone, use an online calculator. Or, here's a simple way to do the math yourself. If you're aiming for a target heart rate of 70 to 85 percent, which is in the vigorous range, you would calculate it like this:
- Subtract your age from 220 to get your maximum heart rate.
- Multiple that number by 0.7 (70 percent) to determine the lower end of your target heart rate zone.
- Multiply your maximum heart rate by 0.85 (85 percent) to determine the upper end of your target heart rate zone.
For example, say your age is 45 and you want to figure out your target heart rate zone for vigorous intensity exercise. Subtract 45 from 220 to get 175 — this is your maximum heart rate. To get the lower end of your target zone, multiply 175 by 0.7 to get 123. To get the higher end, multiply 175 by 0.85 to get 149. So your target heart rate zone for vigorous exercise intensity is 123 to 149 beats per minute.
How to tell if you're in the zone
So how do you know if you're in your target heart rate zone? Use these steps to check your heart rate during exercise:
- Stop momentarily.
- Take your pulse for 15 seconds. To check your pulse over your carotid artery, place your index and third fingers on your neck to the side of your windpipe. To check your pulse at your wrist, place two fingers between the bone and the tendon over your radial artery — which is located on the thumb side of your wrist.
- Multiply this number by 4 to calculate your beats per minute.
Here's an example: You stop exercising and take your pulse for 15 seconds, getting 33 beats. Multiply 33 by 4, to get 132. If you're 45 years old, this puts you in the middle of your target heart rate zone for vigorous exercise, since that zone is 123 to 149 beats per minute. If you're under or over your target heart rate zone, adjust your exercise intensity.
Target heart rate tips
It's important to note that maximum heart rate is just a guide. You may have a higher or lower maximum heart rate, sometimes by as much as 15 to 20 beats per minute. If you want a more definitive range, consider discussing your target heart rate zone with an exercise physiologist or a personal trainer.
Generally only elite athletes are concerned about this level of precision. They may also use slightly different calculations that take into account gender differences in target heart rate zones. These differences are so small that most casual athletes don't need separate calculations for men and women.
Also note that several types of medications can lower your maximum heart rate and, therefore, lower your target heart rate zone. Ask your doctor if you need to use a lower target heart rate zone because of any medications you take or medical conditions you have.
Interestingly, research has shown that interval training, which includes short bouts (60 to 90 seconds) of higher intensity exercise interspersed throughout your workout, is well tolerated, even by those with certain cardiac conditions. This type of training is also very effective at increasing your cardiovascular fitness.
You'll get the most from your workouts if you're exercising at the proper exercise intensity for your health and fitness goals. If you're not feeling any exertion or your heart rate is too low, pick up the pace. If you're worried that you're pushing yourself too hard or your heart rate is too high, back off a bit.
Feb. 05, 2014
- 2008 Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. http://www.health.gov/paguidelines/pdf/paguide.pdf. Accessed July 18, 2013.
- Target heart rates. American Heart Association. http://www.heart.org/HEARTORG/GettingHealthy/PhysicalActivity/Target-Heart-Rates_UCM_434341_Article.jsp. Accessed July 18, 2013.
- Stay active and be fit! President's Council on Physical Fitness and Sports. https://www.presidentschallenge.org/tools-resources/fitness-guides.shtml. Accessed July 18, 2013.
- Laskowski ER (expert opinion). Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minn. July 18, 2013.
- Pescatello LS, ed., et al. ACSM's Guidelines for Exercise Testing and Prescription. 9th ed. Philadelphia, Pa.: Wolters Kluwer Health Lippincott Williams & Wilkins;162.
- Measuring physical activity intensity. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. http://www.cdc.gov/physicalactivity/everyone/measuring/index.html. Accessed July 18, 2013.
- Perceived exertion (Borg Rating of Perceived Exertion Scale). Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. http://www.cdc.gov/physicalactivity/everyone/measuring/exertion.html. Accessed July 18, 2013.
- Loose BD, et al. Consistency of the counting talk test for exercise prescription. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research. 2012;26:1701.
- Norton K, et al. Position statement on physical activity and exercise intensity terminology. Journal of Science in Medicine and Sport. 2010;13:496.
- Katch VL, et al. Essentials of Exercise Physiology. 4th ed. Philadelphia, Pa.: Wolters Kluwer Health Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2011:301.
- Bushman BA, ed., et al. ACSM's Resources for the Personal Trainer. 4th ed. Philadelphia, Pa.: Wolters Kluwer Health Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2014:302.
- Target heart rate and estimated maximum heart rate. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. http://www.cdc.gov/physicalactivity/everyone/measuring/heartrate.html. Accessed July 18, 2013
- Gulati M, et al. Heart rate response to exercise stress testing in asymptomatic women: The St. James women take heart project. Circulation. 2010;122:130.
- Guiraud T, et al. High-intensity interval training in cardiac rehabilitation. Sports Medicine. 2012;42:587.


Matcha Green Tea Posted on 4 Nov 21:10 , 0 comments
Matcha is a powder made by grinding steamed new tea leaves, with stems and leaf veins removed, in a millstone. This powder is dissolved in boiled water and drunk. The unique deep green color of matcha is created by covering the tea plant to block sunlight for about 20 days before picking.
The custom of preparing matcha was established during the Muromachi period (1338-1573) and spread by Sen no Rikyu (1552-1591). The preparation of matcha for guests in a tea ceremony is one example of culture that expresses Japanese hospitality.


NATIONAL DOCUMENTARY HELPS TO DEMYSTIFY THE TRAGEDY OF TEEN SUICIDE
FOR IMMEDIATE RELEASE:
Contact: Rosemary Martinelli
National Documentary Helps To Demystify
The Tragedy of Teen Suicide
DATE – Suicide, the third leading cause of death among teenagers, is a vastly misunderstood phenomenon – rarely considered plausible by the people whose lives are destroyed in the wake of this sudden tragedy. WQED Pittsburgh explores the mystery of teen suicide with stunning insight through the documentary Losing Lambert: A Journey Through Survival & Hope airing DATE at TIME on STATION.
The 30-minute documentary tells the story of Kathy Fowler, a Pittsburgh-area mother whose 16-year-old-son Lambert Hillman died by suicide in 1995. Kathy struggled through her own loss, grief and questions, but now helps other families who’ve lost children to suicide. The documentary also explores first-of-its kind research on the brains of teenagers who have attempted suicide.
More than 34,000 people die from suicide each year in the United States. Males are four times more likely to complete suicide and the rate of suicide has doubled in the last two decades for children ages 10-14.
“By bringing vital issues to the forefront of discussion, programs such as Losing Lambert: A Journey Through Survival & Hope really exemplify public television’s capacity to care and to serve the needs of the community at large,” said Darryl Ford Williams, vice president of production for presenting/producing station WQED Pittsburgh.
In 2010, Losing Lambert: A Journey Through Survival & Hope was awarded the national Gabriel Award for Outstanding News/Informational Program. The Press Club of Western Pennsylvania also recognized the documentary with a 2010 Golden Quill Award for Best Television Writing.
Additional resources for parents, health care providers and teachers are available online at: http://www.wqed.org/tv/onq/specials/losing_lambert.php
WQED Pittsburgh, honored with the 2007 and 2006 Mid-Atlantic Emmy® Award for Station Excellence, was founded in 1954 as the nation’s first community-supported broadcaster. WQED creates, produces and distributes quality programs, products and services to engage, inform, educate and entertain the public within its community and around the world. WQED Pittsburgh is one of the first broadcasters in the country to be fully high-definition (HD) in its studio and field production capabilities. It is the parent company of WQED-TV (PBS); WQED: The Neighborhood Channel; WQED: The Create Channel; WQEX-TV (A ShopNBC affiliate); Classical WQED-FM 89.3/Pittsburgh; Classical WQEJ-FM 89.7/Johnstown; local and national television and radio productions; WQED Interactive (www.wqed.org); and The WQED Education Department.
American Public Television (APT) has been a leading distributor of high-quality, top-rated programming to America’s public television stations since 1961. In 2009, APT distributed 56 of the top 100 highest-rated public television titles. Among its 300 new program titles per year are prominent documentaries, news and current affairs programs, dramatic series, how-to programs, children’s series and classic movies, including For Love of Liberty: The Story of America’s Black Patriots, A Ripple of Hope, Rick Steves' Europe, Newsline, Globe Trekker, Simply Ming, America's Test Kitchen From Cook’s Illustrated, Lidia's Italy, P. Allen Smith's Garden Home, Murdoch Mysteries, Doc Martin, Rosemary and Thyme, Johnny Cash at Folsom Prison, The Great American Songbook and John Denver: The Wildlife Concert. APT also licenses programs internationally through its APT Worldwide service. In 2006, APT launched Create™ – the TV channel featuring the best of public television's lifestyle programming. For more information about APT’s programs and services, visit APTonline.org.
NOTE TO WORKING PRESS
Interviews with Lambert Hillman’s mother Kathy Fowler and writer/producer David Solomon are available. For more information contact Rosemary Martinelli at 412-622-6433 or email@example.com
| WQED-TV | website


Master of Science (MS)
Forestry, Wildlife, and Fisheries
To address public concern over potential ecological effects on commercially and ecologically important species following use of dispersants during oil spill response efforts, toxicity data was generated for three estuarine species indigenous to the Gulf of Mexico including juvenile Gulf killifish Fundulus grandis, white shrimp Litopenaeus setiferus, and Eastern oyster Crassostrea virginica. The acute toxicity of the dispersant Exxon Corexit 9500, South Louisiana crude oil (SLC), Alaskan north slope crude oil (ANSC) and dispersed oils (SLC+9500 and ANSC+9500) to the species was determined for both nominal concentrations (NC) and hydrocarbon concentrations (HC). Two 24-h field toxicity trials were conducted with the same species in a Louisiana coastal marsh, using ANSC and ANSC+9500, dosed at a NC of 30 ppm. White shrimp were more sensitive to dispersant, crude oils, and dispersed oils than killifish and oysters. The 96-h NC LC50 for crude oil and dispersed oil ranged from 370 to 4,500 ppm for killifish (HC 7.6 to 18.7 ppm) and 60 to 180 ppm for shrimp (HC 5 to 7.5 ppm). Mortality in oysters was not positively correlated with increasing levels of crude oils, or dispersed oils. Dispersed oils were more toxic than crude oils based on nominal concentrations, but no difference in toxicity of crude oils and dispersed oils was observed based on HC concentrations. No synergistic toxicity action was found between SLC or ANSC and dispersant Corexit 9500 based on HC concentrations. Survival was relatively high for all three species during the two 24-h field trials, generally exceeding 83% in crude oil and dispersed oil enclosures. Mortality of white shrimp was slightly higher than observed in killifish and oysters. The HC concentration in ANSC+9500 and ANSC enclosures ranged from 14 to 24 ppm and 10 to 11 ppm, respectively, at 0 h and declined to near 0 ppm in 3 hours. The rapid decrease was attributed to dilution from vertical mixing and tidal action. Both laboratory finding and field studies indicate that short-term exposure to nominal concentrations of ANSC or ANSC+9500 of 30 ppm or less are not likely to have an acute toxic effect on these species.
Document Availability at the Time of Submission
Release the entire work immediately for access worldwide.
Liu, Bo, "Toxicity of South Louisiana crude oil, Alaskan north slope crude oil, and dispersant Corexit 9500 to Gulf killifish, white shrimp, and Eastern oyster" (2003). LSU Master's Theses. 1292.
Robert P. Romaire


Smarter Living: Chemical Index
Formaldehyde (pronounced "for `mal de hide") is a chemical that is known to cause cancer (a carcinogen) used in many consumer products and building materials.
Formaldehyde is classified as a "known human carcinogen" by the National Toxicology Program, a designation upheld by the National Research Council in 2014.
What is it and how can I recognize it?
A gas. Formaldehyde is a volatile organic chemical (VOC) meaning that products containing formaldehyde can give off vapors for a long time. It is a colorless, highly toxic, and flammable gas at room temperature. It has a pungent, irritating, suffocating odor that is detectable at low concentrations.
Where is it found?
Household products. Widespread use has made it known as a widespread indoor air pollutant. Formaldehyde is popular because of its low cost and is commonly used in building materials and in the production of many household products.
- Building materials: pressed-wood products, such as particleboard, plywood, and fiberboard; glues and adhesives; paper product coatings (such as wallpaper); and certain insulation materials
- Fabrics: permanent-press fabrics
- Personal care and beauty products: hair straightening treatments, antiseptics, cosmetics, and nail polish
Formaldehyde has been recognized as a toxic substance in hair straightening products used in salons. A 2013 study conducted by the Cosmetic Ingredient Review Board and backed by the FDA stated that "...hair smoothing products containing formaldehyde and methylene glycol are unsafe." The heat generated when using straightening irons and blow-dryers can cause the release of formaldehyde.
Produced from burning materials. Formaldehyde is also produced during combustion and can be found as an outdoor air contaminant from sources such as forest fires, power plants, automobile exhaust and cigarette smoke. Formaldehyde can react with other chemicals in the atmosphere to create carbon monoxide, contributing to smog formation.
How does it enter my body, and what are the health effects?
Breathing. The most common way that formaldehyde enters the body is by breathing it in (inhalation). This usually occurs in indoor environments where the gas has been released from formaldehyde-containing products.
Short term effects of exposure to formaldehyde vapors include irritation of the eyes, nose, throat and skin, as well as nausea and headaches. People that have previously been exposed to formaldehyde can become hypersensitive to its effects and may not even be aware of the smell before it's too late.
Does it cause cancer, and which types?
Yes. The effects from long-term exposure to formaldehyde include cancer of the nasal passages and throat, leukemia and potentially other cancers of the respiratory tract. According to a 2011 report by the National Toxicology Program, formaldehyde is classified as "known to be a human carcinogen." It has a causal relationship to higher risks of nasopharyngeal cancer, sinonasal cancer, and myeloid leukemia.
Research also shows a link between exposure to elevated levels of formaldehyde and an increase in a child's risk of getting asthma.
How do I reduce my exposure?
To minimize formaldehyde exposure at home:
- Ventilation. When using products containing formaldehyde, increase air flow in the affected area by opening windows and doors. Make sure any wood furniture or fixtures that use particleboard are laminated or otherwise coated.
- Choose exterior-grade rather than interior-grade pressed wood products for remodeling.
Capitol Hill. Congress, in the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, defined formaldehyde as a toxic air pollutant subject to regulatory action and it is considered by U.S. EPA as one of the major toxic constituents of smog. However, there are no federal laws banning or regulating the use of formaldehyde in consumer products and very few safety standards have been implemented to limit use.
A number of states have taken action to tighten up regulation of formaldehyde, and the market is responding to consumer concerns about the health effects from exposure. Formaldehyde-free insulation and wood products are now readily available, and some companies are marketing formaldehyde-free clothing, personal care products and baby items.
But consumer protection should not be left to successful retailer campaigns. Congress must act so that unsafe chemicals like formaldehyde are removed from the market and new chemicals are tested for safety before they are put into use. Legislation to reform the Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA) was introduced in April 2010.
NRDC's factsheet on formaldehyde.
Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry. Toxicological Profile for Formaldehyde. July 1999.
Boyer, IJ, et al. Amended safety assessment of formaldehyde and methylene glycol as used in cosmetics. Int J Toxicol. 2013 Nov-Dec;32(6 Suppl):5S-32S.
California Air Resources Board. Final Regulation Order, 2008. Airborne Toxic Control Measure To Reduce Formaldehyde Emissions From Composite Wood Products.
Gordon SM, et al, 1999. Residential environmental measurements in the National Human Exposure Assessment Survey (NHEXAS) pilot study in Arizona: preliminary results for pesticides and VOCs. J Expo Anal Environ Epidemiol 9: 456-470.
International Agency for Research on Cancer, Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans Volume 88, 2006 and volume 100, 2009.
National Research Council. Review of the Formaldehyde Assessment in the National Toxicology Program 12th Report on Carcinogens. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press, 2014. http://www.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=18948
National Toxicology Program, Report on Carcinogens (ROC) - 12th Edition. http://ntp.niehs.nih.gov/ntp/roc/content/profiles/formaldehyde.pdf
Rumchev, K. B., et al. (2002). "Domestic exposure to formaldehyde significantly increases the risk of asthma in young children." Eur Respir J 20(2): 403-408.
U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development. Formaldehyde emission controls for certain wood products. 24 CFR 3282.308.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, TEACH Formaldehyde chemical summary. 2007.
last revised 9/25/2014


A radio burst with the energy of a hundred million Suns has finally been placed on the cosmic map, enabling scientists to investigate the origin of these mysterious bursts.
|Update (March 4, 2016): Since this paper's publication, a number of counter-arguments have been proposed that suggest the radio burst is not actually associated with the radio glow spotted in an elliptical galaxy. These arguments include a paper that suggests the afterglow is actually due to a gobbling supermassive black hole known as an active galactic nucleus. In addition, the likelihood of a chance association between the fast radio burst and the galaxy put forward in the initial Nature paper may have been too low. A flurry of proposals have been submitted to perform further analysis.|
Thousands of times a day, a burst of radio waves hundreds of millions of times more energetic than the Sun, washes over Earth. In less than a second the burst disappears and the radio sky returns to an eerie quiet. Astronomers have struggled to explain the origin of these so-called fast radio bursts (FRBs) for nearly a decade — the mysterious events are difficult to pinpoint, and they often elude detection altogether. But, the bursts provide tantalizing hints that they might represent something genuinely new to science.
Now, for the first time, an FRB has been spotted at a shorter radio wavelength, enabling astronomers to pin down its exact location in the universe and speculate on its potentially exotic origins. The results published February 25th in Nature not only shed light on the burst’s mysterious origin, they also open a new window on the cosmos.
On the Hunt
The first of these ultrafast, ultrabright pulses was discovered in 2007 when Duncan Lorimer (West Virginia University) was parsing archival data from the 64-meter Parkes Radio Telescope in Australia. A 5-millisecond burst on August 24, 2001, was so bright that it caught his eye.
There was something unexpected in the dispersion of the burst’s wavelengths. The event’s short-wavelength components arrived at the telescope a fraction of a second before its long-wavelength components, an effect that can only be caused if the light had traveled through some sort of medium such as ionized gas. The longer the delay, the higher the number of electrons between us and the source — and generally, the greater its distance.
The Lorimer burst, as it is now called, must have traveled through a few billion light-years of intergalactic space. It would have been very short, tremendously bright, and potentially cataclysmic (the source, whatever it was, didn’t burst again). But what could have sparked such an extreme event?
Lorimer suspected that it might represent an entirely new, previously undetected astronomical source, one that astronomers could glimpse again. But the radio sky above the Parkes dish remained frustratingly quiet. Astronomers started to find handfuls of FRBs buried deep within archival data, but arguments ensued over whether these bursts were actually extragalactic. Perhaps our models of how ionized gas is distributed within the Milky Way were incorrect. Or maybe the bursts originated in flare-prone stars that were enveloped in so much plasma that it, too, could cause the same delay signature.
To be sure, astronomers needed to pinpoint fast radio bursts on the sky. And in order to do that, they needed to catch one in real time.
Pinpointing a Fast Radio Burst
So, with the help of a little funding, the team now sends all of the data from Parkes to a supercomputer at Swinburne University in Melbourne, Australia. Within 30 seconds of the initial flash, the supercomputer pings a series of other telescopes, alerting them to the burst’s location. This enables observers across the world to slew their telescopes toward the FRB’s location with the hope of catching a burst’s afterglow.
Several follow-up searches came up empty. Then on April 18, 2015, “it all just clicked into place,” says Evan Keane (Square Kilometer Array Organization and Swinburne University of Technology). The Swinburne supercomputer had caught an FRB red-handed. Within hours, observers at the Australia Telescope Compact Array — a collection of 22-meter dishes — searched the sky where Parkes had spotted the burst. It caught a slowly fading radio signal, an afterglow surely associated with the FRB.
But it still wasn’t clear where both signals had originated. Parkes could narrow down the burst to within 15 arcminutes, about half the angular size of the full Moon, but hundreds of galaxies easily fit within such a region. The array further narrowed the afterglow down to about 1 arcsecond, a location 900 times more precise. Still, the team eventually relied on the 8.2-meter Subaru telescope in Hawaii to match the afterglow’s location.
The FRB had burst forth from an elliptical galaxy roughly 6 billion light-years away.
The galaxy is old, well past its prime period for star formation — a useful hint as to the origin of this FRB. Although there are more theories on FRBs than discoveries, the most compelling theories can be lumped into two broad categories: relatively rare explosive collisions between aging stars and periodic outbursts of younger stars.
The fact that the galaxy is older suggests that — at least this time — an explosive collision produced the FRB. Both Keane and Lorimer place their money on the inspiral of two neutron stars. (If you’ve been following your physics news this month you might know that this would also produce a gravitational wave signal, which is true, but at 6 billion light-years it would be too faint to see with LIGO).
A New Window on the Cosmos
Although this burst doesn’t represent a previously unknown astrophysical source, as Lorimer had initially hoped, he is excited about how fast radio bursts might be able to probe the cosmos.
“As these radio signals traverse the cosmos, they're imprinted with the characteristics of the universe,” says Keane. Those smeared-out radio waves tell astronomers how much material the burst has traveled through. Now, with the host galaxy’s corresponding distance, astronomers can compute the density of electrons in the intergalactic medium and better map the distribution of matter throughout the universe.
When Keane and his colleagues did just that for this single discovery, they found that the result matched current cosmological models perfectly. “Our grasp on the reality of the universe just got a bit better,” says Keane. And with more FRBs pinpointed in the years to come, astronomers will be able to nail down more lines of sight, until they create a 3D model of the cosmos.
Lorimer, who has been studying FRBs the longest, thinks the field is really poised to take off now as a standalone research field. (Before it piggybacked on pulsar research.) “The mist is gradually clearing,” he says. “We still have a long way to go — we're not out of the woods yet — but these are very exciting times.”
E. F. Keane et al. “The Host Galaxy of a Fast Radio Burst.” Nature. February 25, 2016.


Hawaiian flower thought extinct rediscovered by a drone
KAUAI, Hawaii — Researchers dispatched a drone into the Hawaiian skies to observe an extremely biodiverse area on a remote part of Kauai’s Kalalau Valley. The scientists soon realized they had rediscovered a flower species that was thought to be extinct.
According to a statement from the National Tropical Botanical Garden, Hibiscadelphus woodii was discovered on a vertical cliff face. Most sections of this area of the valley are inaccessible to humans because of the steep landscape.
NTBG has been using drone technology for the past two and a half years to get a look at the unique flora.
Dr. David Lorence, director science and conservation for the garden, said, “This incredible rediscovery was made possible by our staff using drone technology and was supported by a grant from the Mohamed bin Zayed Species Conservation Fund. Drone technology greatly facilitates botanical surveys in rough terrain areas.”
Before the discovery, the plant was last seen alive in 2009.
H. woodii, which belongs to the Hibiscadelphus family, was first discovered in 1991 by NTBG botanists in the same valley.
The plant grows in a shrub or small tree and produces bright yellow flowers, which turn purple or maroon as it ages. The species was named and published in 1995, raising the number of Hibiscadelphus at the time from six to seven species. An eighth species was discovered on Maui in 2012, and prior to the rediscovery, only two species still exist in the wild, the statement said.
H. woodii faces threats from invasive plants, animals and rock slides. Falling boulders were a large factor in the extinction of the known colony in the late 1990s.
The NTBG said in its statement that the rediscovery offers new hope that other species that are “thought to be extinct” may still survive in hard to access areas.
Ben Nyberg, GIS coordinator and drone specialist for NTBG, said, “Drones are unlocking a treasure trove of unexplored cliff habitat, and while this may be the first discovery of its kind, I am sure it won’t be the last.”


Climate change is all over the news. But do you know the latest scientific estimates and projections about climate change? How do the projected physical effects of climate change translate into economic costs? What are the costs and benefits of different actions to address climate change? And what are the implications of climate change for asset pricing and investing?
The answers to those questions can shape our behavior as consumers, voters, and investors. Therefore, it is important to get robust, well-informed answers. Doing so requires studying the vast academic literature on climate science, economics, and finance. This approach takes time, but we believe it is the most effective way to build a robust framework for analyzing the links between climate change, the real economy, and investing.
In our new study “The Economics of Climate Change,” we do exactly that. We survey the literature to assess the potential economic impacts of climate change and their implications for investing. We first review the basics of climate science and the historical evolution of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere have increased by about 50% relative to pre-industrial levels.1 Consistent with the increased accumulation of GHG in the atmosphere, the global mean surface temperature has risen by approximately 1.0°C (1.8°F) since 1850.2 If emissions were to stay constant at their current level, it would take only about 40 years for new emissions to equal the amount of CO2 emitted in modern history.
The paper then goes on to show how we can use economics to assess the potential damages, direct and indirect, of climate change. These economic costs are long lasting, uncertain, and highly sensitive to the choice of discount rate used to calculate their present value. Overall, the expected economic costs across studies range from about $35 per metric ton of carbon emissions to over $125.3 At current emission levels (36.6 gigatons per year), the annual economic costs of CO2 emissions alone would be equivalent to 1.5%–5% of global economic output.4
To address climate change, we can take many actions. In our view, economic reasoning provides a powerful tool to analyze the costs and benefits of those actions, including public policies such as carbon taxation and private sector responses designed to produce less carbon-intensive goods and services. Similarly, fundamental investment principles provide a useful framework to analyze the relation between climate risks and asset prices and can help investors navigate the risks and opportunities related to climate change.
The approach we take to analyze climate change and its investment implications is the same rigorous, science-based approach we have taken to study other investment challenges for close to 40 years. We harness the power of robust academic research to help us understand the issues relevant to investors and, where appropriate, apply the findings from that research to our investment process.


Not long ago I had the privilege of standing in front of the Wittenberg Castle in Germany, where 500 years ago this month Martin Luther began a mighty Reformation by nailing his earthshaking document to the door of this church. The original doors no longer stand, but the Reformation that started on October 31, 1517, is alive today, half a millennium later.
When Luther posted his “Disputation on the Power and Efficacy of Indulgences” (the “95 theses”), his intention was to start an academic debate, not a revolution. The document begins humbly:
“Out of love for the truth and from desire to elucidate it, the Reverend Father Martin Luther, Master of Arts and Sacred Theology, and ordinary lecturer therein at Wittenberg, intends to defend the following statements and to dispute on them in that place. Therefore he asks that those who cannot be present and dispute with him orally shall do so in their absence by letter. In the name of our Lord Jesus Christ, Amen.”1
Two Central Beliefs
Going against the prevalent teachings of the time, Luther’s two central beliefs from which he argued were:
Sola scriptura: the Bible alone is the sole rule of faith and practice.
Human beings are saved by faith, not by works.
So strong was Martin Luther’s belief in the importance of Scripture—and the necessity of having it accessible to everyone—that in less than 11 weeks, while hidden away inside Wartburg Castle, he translated the New Testament into the common German language. The language formulation he used paved the way for the commonly used version of today’s German language Bible.
The power and strength of the Reformation brought people back to simple, yet profound, Bible truth. Taking the clear meaning of Scripture, Martin Luther was able to teach these Bible truths clearly and eloquently. Luther embraced sola scriptura, finding that Scripture itself is self-authenticating, is clear to rational readers, serves as its own interpreter, and is sufficient of itself to be the final authority of Christian doctrine.2
In the book The Great Controversy Ellen White comments that Martin Luther’s teachings “struck at the very foundation of papal supremacy. They contained the vital principle of the Reformation.”3
Sola Scriptura or Prima Scriptura?
Later, another doctrine, known as prima scriptura, entered some Protestant churches. This doctrine teaches that “while scripture is not the sole rule of faith in the church, it is the primary authority. It refers to the primacy of scripture, or that scripture is primary among traditions and ecclesiastical decisions, although those also carry some authority alongside scripture.”4
As good as prima scriptura may sound, it goes against the principles of the Reformation because it does not always place God’s Word as the final authority, above tradition or church teachings.
Commenting on Luther’s stand on the Bible alone, Ellen White wrote, “Luther saw the danger of exalting human theories above the Word of God. He fearlessly attacked the speculative infidelity of the schoolmen and opposed the philosophy and theology which had so long held a controlling influence upon the people. He denounced such studies as not only worthless but pernicious, and sought to turn the minds of his hearers from the sophistries of philosophers and theologians to the eternal truths set forth by prophets and apostles.”5
Those who embrace sola scriptura and scriptural methods of Bible study are sometimes mischaracterized as naive, ill-informed, and closed-minded by those who view the Bible as a human book and use critical methods of studying it. As explained in the official document “Methods of Bible Study,” voted by the members of the General Conference Executive Committee of Seventh-day Adventists:
“As it is impossible for those who do not accept Christ’s divinity to understand the purpose of His incarnation, it is also impossible for those who see the Bible merely as a human book to understand its message, however careful and rigorous their methods.
“Even Christian scholars who accept the divine-human nature of Scripture, but whose methodological approaches cause them to dwell largely on its human aspects, risk emptying the biblical message of its power by relegating it to the background while concentrating on the medium. They forget that medium and message are inseparable, and that the medium without the message is as an empty shell that cannot address the vital spiritual needs of humankind.”
Committed Christians “will use only those methods that do full justice to the dual, inseparable nature of Scripture, enhance [their] ability to understand and apply its message, and strengthen faith.”6
Personal Conscience and Scripture
When Luther took his famous stand at the Diet of Worms, he based his actions and informed his personal conscience by Scripture, not on tradition, culture, or personal opinion.
“Unless therefore I am convinced by the testimony of Scripture or by the clearest reasoning,” stated Luther, “unless I am persuaded by means of the passages I have quoted, and unless they thus render my conscience bound by the Word of God, I cannot and I will not retract, for it is unsafe for a Christian to speak against his conscience.”7
As Luther was urged to acquiesce to the demands of church and state regardless of what the Bible said, he made it abundantly clear that Scripture ruled his conscience.
“ ‘I consent,’ said he in reply, ‘with all my heart, that the emperor, the princes, and even the meanest Christian, should examine and judge my works; but on one condition, that they take the Word of God for their standard. Men have nothing to do but to obey it. Do not offer violence to my conscience, which is bound and chained up with the Holy Scriptures.’ ”8
Martin Luther allowed Scripture to inform his conscience and his actions. So must we. The essence of the Reformation is a personal relationship with God through His Word, and a living faith.
Reformation to Continue
The Reformation did not begin and end with Martin Luther. “It is to be continued to the close of this world’s history,”9 wrote Ellen White.
Throughout history God has preserved His truth through Scripture and, through the enlightenment of the Holy Spirit, has been revealing new truths through His Word. It is vital that we, when considering “new truth,” adhere to the scriptural test given in Isaiah 8:20: “To the law and to the testimony! If they do not speak according to this word, it is because there is no light in them.”
Scripture was central in the Reformation, and it needs to be central in our lives today. We need to be heralds of sola scriptura (Scripture alone), sola fide (faith alone), sola gratia (grace alone), solus Christus (Christ alone), and soli Deo gloria (to the glory of God alone).
Is the Reformation over? No! May we continue to carry it on, because at the very end of time our witness must continue to be based solely on the Word of God. Let us remain faithful to God and His Word, so that when the test comes, we, like Luther, will be able to take our stand, having our conscience “bound up” with the Holy Scriptures. n
1 “The 95 Theses,” at www.luther.de/en/95thesen.html.
2 See “What the Bible and Lutherans Teach,” at wels.net/about-wels/what-we-believe/.
3Ellen G. White, The Great Controversy (Mountain View, Calif.: Pacific Press Pub. Asn., 1911), p. 126.
4 See “Prima Scriptura, Sola Scriptura and Sola Ecclesia,” at www.orthodoxevangelical.com/2014/02/26/prima-scriptura-sola-scriptura-and-sola-ecclesia/.
5 E. G. White, p. 126.
6“Methods of Bible Study,” approved and voted by the General Conference of Seventh-day AdventistsExecutive Committee at the Annual Council in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, October 12, 1986. For entire document, see: www.adventist.org/en/information/official-statements/documents/article/go/-/methods-of-bible-study/
7 J. H. Merle d’Aubigné, History of the Reformation of the the Sixteenth Century, b. 7, ch. 8, cited in E. G. White, p. 160.
8 In d’Aubigné, b. 7, ch. 10, cited in E. G. White, p. 166. (Italics supplied.)
Ted N. C. Wilson is president of the Seventh-day Adventist Church. Additional articles and commentaries are available from the president’s office on Twitter: @pastortedwilson and on Facebook: @PastorTedWilson.


Is SC ready for next big quake?
It came like a wave.
On a Sunday night in 1886, the deadliest earthquake to strike the East Coast began with a tremor. In seconds, the tremor gave way to violent jolts as the earth rumbled and growled, homes were tossed from their foundations and thousands of buildings were instantly destroyed.
It was just before 10 p.m. on Aug. 31. The epicenter was about 30 miles north of Charleston in Summerville, but the quake was felt as far away as New York, Chicago, Ontario and Cuba. Shock waves reportedly damaged structures 200 miles away, including many in Greenville.
"It snapped chimneys off in the Upstate; it caused lots of cracks in plaster. It overturned bookcases," said Jimmy Martin, chair of the department of civil engineering at Clemson University.
The earthquake, which the U.S. Geological Survey later estimated as a magnitude 7.3, left more than 100 dead and $23 million in damage. Most of Charleston laid in ruins.
Such an event is likely to happen again, experts say, but with even greater losses.
"It's like a fracture in a bone," said Martin, an earthquake engineer who has studied the Charleston quake. "If you have a break once and you put stress on that leg or arm again, you'll tend to break it in the same place."
A magnitude 7 earthquake in Charleston today would result in 45,000 casualties, displace nearly 70,000 households and result in $20 billion in economic losses — $31 million alone in Greenville County, according to the most recent study commissioned by the South Carolina Emergency Management Division.
USGS earthquake hazard maps updated in July list South Carolina as one of 16 states with a "relatively high likelihood" for a damaging earthquake within 50 years.
The eastern U.S. also had the potential for larger and more damaging quakes than previous maps indicated, the report said. Hazard estimates increased after the 2011 Virginia earthquake, a magnitude 5.8 with shock waves that rattled doors and shook cabinets in Greenville, Easley, Rock Hill and Georgetown.
"It was among the largest earthquakes to occur along the East Coast in the last century and helped determine that even larger events are possible," the report said.
When and where that will happen in South Carolina is something scientists have yet to figure out.
Mostly, they go unnoticed.
A fraction of the 10 to 15 earthquakes recorded in the state each year are felt and most are centered in the Lowcountry, according to the state Department of Natural Resources.
At least 24 low-magnitude quakes have been recorded since February 2013.
The most recent on Sept. 19 in Aiken County registered as a 2.5 on the Richter scale.
A magnitude 4.1 was reported outside Edgefield on Valentine's Day this year and was "a large quake for that area," USGS geophysicist Dale Grant has said.
Less than an hour after the initial shock, more than 2,500 people from 451 ZIP codes reported feeling the tremors, from Atlanta to Asheville to Blythewood, where one USGS official told The State newspaper it felt like military helicopters had perched on top of his house.
Moderately damaging earthquakes strike the region every few decades, the Geological Survey reported, and are felt over a much broader area — at least 90 miles — than a West Coast quake of the same magnitude.
These tremblers "could occur just about anywhere in the Upstate," Martin said.
In fact, the state's second-largest quake on Jan. 1, 1913, was centered in Union and registered at 5.5 on the Richter scale, the USGS reported.
A 1924 Pickens County earthquake was felt as far away as Tennessee and Georgia, according to the State Geological Survey. Moderate earthquakes shook Anderson in 1958; one hit Greenville County near Taylors in 1963.
Light tremors have been recorded in recent years in Oconee County near Lake Jocassee, large enough to rattle dishes but not bring damage.
What causes earthquakes in South Carolina still isn't clear since they don't occur on active fault lines like quakes in California.
The East Coast is full of old faults buried deep within the North American tectonic plate, the result of the pushing and pulling that formed the Atlantic Ocean and Appalachian Mountains millions of years ago.
"At some point, this would have been a very high intensity earthquake area. As we got pushed further and further away from the plate boundaries, the intensity fell," Martin said.
Tremors that occur now are the result of stresses that build up in the rocks, like a rubber band stretching until it breaks.
There's no warning when that happens, and that's what worries Martin and others who study earthquakes.
"All we can do is kind of locate where the earthquakes are occurring, which means that they're really poorly understood because most of the fault zones are not very active," Martin said.
Roughly a dozen remote monitoring stations keep track of the state's tremors, which feed into a regional network that includes the University of South Carolina, the University of Memphis and Virginia Tech.
In this way, scientists are able to map out fault lines and better understand how earthquakes travel, said Martin Chapman, a geologist at Virginia Tech.
"We have these big earthquakes happening on these minor faults, but we haven't figured out which faults will cause the next big one," Chapman said.
Martin's research into the Charleston quake, for example, has shown that the 1886 catastrophe wasn't an isolated event. Earthquakes of that intensity have occurred four or five times over the last few thousand years, at about 500 year intervals.
Chapman said it's still not known exactly where that quake's fault line was located.
Maps using monitoring data are also an emergency management tool, used in counties to create disaster response plans and to raise awareness about the state's threat level.
A South Carolina earthquake guide is available for the first time this month at Walgreens stores statewide. The S.C. Earthquake Guide is the first publication that has state-specific information about what people should do before, during and after a major earthquake.
Download the Earthquake Guide.
The state will be participating in the Southeast ShakeOut! earthquake drill on Oct. 16. during Earthquake Awareness Week.
Local families and businesses can register to take part in the Drop! Cover! Hold On! drill at 10:16 a.m. on that day or get more information about the drill at Drop, Cover and Hold On.


St. George Tuckerâ€™s View of the Constitution of the United States was the first extended, systematic commentary on the Constitution after it had been ratified by the people of the several states and amended by the Bill of Rights. Published in 1803 by a distinguished patriot and jurist, it was for much of the first half of the nineteenth century an important handbook for American law students, lawyers, judges, and statesmen. Though nearly forgotten since, Tuckerâ€™s work remains an important piece of constitutional history and a key document of Jeffersonian republicanism.
His strongest point of insistence is on the necessity for governmental power to be restrained within specifically delegated limits. Of course, it is this emphasis on the limitations, rather than the uses, of power that separated the Jeffersonian Republicans from the Federalists.
â€œBut, if the efficient force or administrative authority be, altogether, unlimited; as if it extends so far as to change the constitution, itself, the government, whatever be its form, is absolute and despotic. â€¦â€ By Tuckerâ€™s definition, the modern federal government, particularly in its judicial branch, qualifies as despotic. For Tucker, as for Calhoun, society, or the â€œbody politic,â€ takes precedence always over the government, or state. And for Tucker, unlike Lincoln, the people may resume their sovereignty at any time. The discussion is most of all, perhaps, an answer to those Federalists, like John Adams and Alexander Hamilton, who emphasized the evils of democracy and the need for it to be restrained. Tuckerâ€™s arguments about the failings of â€œaristocracyâ€ can be seen as a reply to the Federalist philosophers and also perhaps as a prophecy of later times. And Tuckerâ€™s long explanation of the characteristics and virtues of â€œconfederate governments,â€ such as the United States, though strange to modern ears, represents a predominant American understanding of his own time and long after.
The concise manner in which the commentator, has treated of the several forms of government, seems to require that the subject should be somewhat further considered: this has been attempted in the following pages; in the course of which the student will meet with considerable extracts from the writings of Mr. Locke, and other authors, who have copiously treated the subject; of which an epitome, only, is here offered for the use of those who may not possess the means of better information.
—From the Introduction, by Clyde Wilson
by St. George Tucker, excerpted from View of the Constitution of the United States
The fundamental regulation that determines the manner in which the public authority is to be executed, is what forms the constitution of the state. In this is seen the form by which the nation acts in quality of a body politic: how, and by whom the people ought to be governed, and what are the laws and duties of the governors.
From this definition of a constitution, given us by Vattel, we might reasonably be led to expect, that in every nation not reduced to the unconditional obedience of a despotic prince, there might be found some traces, at least, of the original compact of society entered into by the people at the first institution of the state. Yet it seems to be the opinion of the learned commentator that such an original compact had perhaps in no instance been expressed in that manner. But it is difficult not to imagine that such an original contract must have been actually entered into, and even formally expressed, in every state where government hath been established upon the principles of democracy. The various revolutions in the ancient states of Greece were often attended with the establishment of that species of government: The original constitution of Venice was a pure democracy; and the constitutions of several of the Swiss cantons partake also, in a great degree, of the same character. Can we conceive such regulations to have been established without being in some degree formally expressed? That the evidences of them have not been handed down to us is not, I apprehend, a sufficient reason for rejecting the opinion that they have had existence. If, therefore, the opinion of the learned commentator be, that there never was an instance in which government had been instituted by voluntary compact, and consent of the people of any state, it would seem that there is room to doubt the correctness of such an opinion. If, on the contrary, the opinion be referred to the primitive act of associating by individuals totally unconnected in society, before, I shall not controvert it any further.
For it is evident that the foundations of the state or body politic of any nation may have been laid for centuries before the existing constitution, or form of government of such state. In England, the foundation of the state (such as it has been from the time of the Heptarchy,) is agreed to have been laid by Alfred. And from that period till the union with Scotland, in the days of Queen Anne, the state remained unchanged: but the government during the same period was incessantly changing. Before the conquest it seems to have resembled a moderate, or limited monarchy. From that period it seems to have been, alternately, an absolute monarchy, a feudal aristocracy, an irregular oligarchy, and a government compounded, as at present, of three different estates, alternately, vieing with each other for the superiority, until it has finally settled in the crown. The foundations of the American States were laid in their respective colonial charters: with the revolution they ceased to be colonies, and became independent and sovereign republics, under a democratic form of government. When they became members of a confederacy, united for their mutual defense against a common enemy, they renounced the exercise of a part of their sovereign rights; and in adopting the present constitution of the United States, they have formed a closer, and more intimate union than before; yet still retaining the character of distinct, sovereign, independent states. In all these permutations of their constitutions or forms of government, the states or body politic of each of the members of the American confederacy, have remained the same, or nearly the same, as before the revolution.
Thus, as has been already mentioned, society may not only exist, though government be dissolved; but the state, or body politic, may remain the same, whilst the government is changeable. Whenever the form of government is fixed, the constitution of the state is said to be established; and this, as has been observed before, may be effected either by fraud, or by force; or by a temporary compromise between contending parties; or, by the general, and voluntary consent of the people. In the two first cases, the constitution is merely constructive, according to the will and pleasure of those who have usurped, and continue to exercise the supreme power. In the third case likewise, it is in general, merely constructive; each party contending for whatever power it hath not expressly yielded up to the other; or which it thinks it hath power to resume, or to secure to itself. Where the constitution is established by voluntary, and general consent, the people, and the public functionaries employed by them to administer the government, may be apprised of their several, and respective rights and duties; and the same voluntary, and general consent is equally necessary to every change in the constitution, as to its original establishment. The constitution may indeed provide a mode within itself for its amendment; but this very provision is founded in the previous consent of the people, that such a mode shall supercede the necessity of an immediate presumption of, the sovereign power, into their own hands, for the purpose of amending the constitution; but if the government has any agency in proposing, or establishing amendments, whenever that becomes corrupt, the people will probably find the necessity of a resumption of the sovereignty, in order to correct the abuses, and vices of the government.
And herein, I apprehend, consists the only distinction between limited and unlimited governments. If the constitution be founded upon the previous act of the people, the government is limited. If it have any other foundation, it is merely constructive, and the government arrogates to itself the sole right of making such a construction of it, as may suit with its own views, designs, and interests: and when this right can be successfully exercised, the government becomes absolute and despotic. In like manner, if in a limited government the public functionaries exceed the limits which the constitution prescribes to their powers, every such act is an act of usurpation in the government, and, as such, treason against the sovereignty of the people, which is thus endeavored to be subverted, and transferred to the usurpers.
Inseparably connected with this distinction between limited and unlimited governments, is the responsibility of the public functionaries, and the want of such responsibility. Every delegated authority implies a trust; responsibility follows as the shadow does its substance. But where there is no responsibility, authority is no longer a trust, but an act of usurpation. And every act of usurpation is either an act of treason, or an act of warfare.
Legitimate government, then, can be established only by the voluntary consent of the society, who by mutual compact with each other grant certain specified powers, to such agents as they may from time to time choose to administer the government thus established, and their agents are responsible to the society for the manner in which they may discharge the trust delegated to them. The instrument by which the government is thus established, and the powers, or more properly the duties, of the public functionaries and agents, are defined and limited, is the visible constitution of the state. For it has been well observed by the author of the Rights of Man, â€œthat a constitution is not a thing in name only, but in fact. It has not an ideal, but a real existence; and whenever it cannot be produced in a visible form there is none. A constitution is a thing antecedent to a government, and a government, is only the creature of a constitution. It is not the act of the government but of the people constituting the government. It is the body of elements to which you can refer, and quote article by article; and which contains the principles on which the government shall be established, the manner in which it shall be organized; the powers it shall have; the mode of elections; the duration of the legislative body, &c.â€ Hence every attempt in any government to change the constitution (otherwise than in that mode which the constitution may prescribe) is in fact a subversion of the foundations of its own authority.
The acquiescence of the people of a state under any usurped authority for any length of time, can never deprive them of the right of resuming the sovereign power into their own hands, whenever they think fit, or are able to do so, since that right is perfectly unalienable. Nor can it be supposed with any shadow of reason, that in a government established by the authority of the people, it could ever be their intention to deprive themselves of the means of correcting any defects which experience may point out or of applying a remedy to abuses which unfaithful agents may practice to their injury. The sovereign power therefore always resides ultimately, and in contemplation, in the people, whatever be the form of the government: yet the practical exercise of the sovereignty is almost universally usurped by those who administer the government, whatever may have been its original foundation.
It is the proper object of a written constitution not only to restrain the several branches of the government, viz. the legislative, executive, and judiciary departments, within their proper limits, respectively, but to prohibit the branches, united, from any attempt to invade that portion of the sovereign power which the people have not delegated to their public functionaries and agents, but have reserved, unalienably, to themselves.
A written constitution has moreover the peculiar advantage of serving as a beacon to apprise the people when their rights and liberties are invaded, or in danger.
It has been before remarked, that the constitutions of the several United States of America, rest upon the ground of general consent, and compact, between the individuals of each state respectively. To this it may be added, that in every state in the union (Connecticut and Rhode Island excepted) their constitutions have been formally expressed in a visible form, or writing, and have been established by the suffrages of the people, in that form, since the revolution.
The federal government of the United States rests likewise upon a similar foundation; the free consent and suffrages of the people of the several states, separately, and independently taken, and expressed.
It is therefore a fundamental principle in all the American States, which cannot be impugned, or shaken; that their governments have been instituted by the common consent, and for the common benefit, protection, and security of the people, in whom all power is vested, and from whom it is derived: that their magistrates, are their trustees and servants, and at all times amenable to them; and that when any government shall be found inadequate, or contrary, to the purposes of its institution, a majority of the community hath an indubitable, unalienable and indefeasible right to reform, alter, or abolish it, in such manner as shall be judged most conducive to the public weal.
Born in St. George, Bermuda, Tucker traveled to Virginia to study law at the College of William and Mary in 1772, where he was a member of the F.H.C. Society, and was approved for the bar on April 4, 1774. He then settled permanently in Williamsburg and began practice in the county courts. He served in the Virginia militia and cavalry in the American Revolutionary War. During the revolution, he was a colonel in the militia and later commanded the Chesterfield Militia, and saw action at the Battle of Guilford Court House and the Siege of Yorktown. In 1796, Tucker wrote a controversial pamphlet addressed to the General Assembly of Virginia which stated that the abolition of slavery was of “great importance for the moral character of the citizens of Virginia.” Read Tucker’s full bio at History.org


Never underestimate the staying power of a bad idea, especially in education. The no-zero policy in Newfoundland and Labrador schools is a prime example.
It’s been almost four years since the former Eastern School District officially implemented a no-zero policy. Teachers were no longer permitted to give zeros when work never came in, deduct marks for late assignments, or penalize students caught cheating on tests or assignments.
Despite widespread criticism from parents and teachers, school district administrators held firm to this bad idea. The neighbouring Western School District quickly followed with its own no-zero policy. Now, with the recent amalgamation of all English language school districts into a single province-wide school board, a de facto no-zero policy appears to be in effect across the province.
The philosophy underlying no-zero policies is quite simple. Proponents believe teachers should always separate behaviour from achievement when grading students. Since cheating on tests, handing in late work, and refusing to submit assignments are all examples of behaviour, they should not affect students’ academic grades. Instead, they argue, teachers should correct poor behavior in other ways.
Like many other education fads, this one sounds great in theory but quickly falls apart when implemented with real high school students. Once students find out about their school’s no-zero policy, it doesn’t take them long to conclude that assignment due dates have become mere suggestions. Without the ability to seriously penalize tardiness, teachers end up pleading with students to hand their assignments in.
No-zero policies became popular because they have been promoted by assessment consultants who lead professional development workshops. Ontario-based assessment consultants Ken O’Connor and Damian Cooper are two of the best-known advocates of no-zero policies. It should come as little surprise that both men spoke at education workshops in Atlantic Canada shortly before Eastern School District’s no-zero policy was formally adopted.
No-zero policies have also appeared in other provinces. In 2012, Edmonton physics teacher Lynden Dorval was fired by his school board for disobeying his principal’s no-zeros edict. Dorval went public with his concerns and steadfastly refused to budge from his position that the no-zero policy was a very bad idea.
Things did not go well for no-zero supporters. Not only did Dorval receive overwhelming public support for his stand, the Alberta Board of Reference recently ruled that his termination was unjust. In other words, Dorval had the professional right to challenge his school’s misguided policy.
Shortly after Dorval’s case became public, I analyzed the arguments used to support no-zero policies. The case for no-zero policies turned out to be very weak.
For example, Ken O’Connor regularly argues that zeros cause students to withdraw from learning and, to back up this claim, cites an article written by Thomas Guskey, an American education professor. When I looked up Guskey’s article, I found that he uses only one research study to support this argument — a 1992 article in the British Columbia Journal of Special Education by Deborah Selby and Sharon Murphy.
In their article, Selby and Murphy describe the experiences of six learning-disabled students in a mainstreamed classroom.
These students had negative experiences with letter grades and blamed themselves for their poor marks. While this might be true for the students in this study, it is patently absurd to generalize the experiences of six learning-disabled students to the whole student population.
Clearly, parents are right to be skeptical when assessment gurus claim that “decades of educational research” support no-zero policies.
It should come as little surprise that regular classroom teachers are some of the strongest opponents of no-zero policies. They know what it is like to work with real students, and they are not beholden to theories concocted by ivory tower academics.
Fortunately, there is a way for the English school board to extract itself from the no-zero quagmire. It should simply allow teachers to use their professional discretion when dealing with late or incomplete assignments. Sometimes students deserve an extension and sometimes they don’t. Since teachers are trained professionals, they are capable of making these decisions themselves.
No-zero policies are just as misguided now as they were four years ago. It’s time to end this province’s failed experiment with them.
Michael Zwaagstra is the Atlantic Institute of Market Studies (AIMS) Fellow in Common Sense Education, a high school teacher, and co-author of the book “What’s Wrong With Our Schools and How We Can Fix Them” (michaelzwaagstra.com)
*This opinion piece featured in the Telegram


Here’s a little quiz for you:
a. The richest 20% of households (measured by income) have an annual income that is X times greater than the poorest 20% of households. What is X?
b. The impact of taxes and benefits changes X to Y. What is Y?
Or in graphical form:
All data taken from the ONS’s The Effects of Taxes and Benefits on Household Income, 2012/13. Tackling inequality is, of course, a major issue that motivates Liberal Democrats. Understanding what does and doesn’t currently happen is key to turning motivation into effective policy.


Open loop heat pump system in DryFiciency
Open loop heat pump systems also known as Mechanical Vapour Recompression (MVR) systems use water as refrigerant in steam drying processes. Water as refrigerant is easily available, non-toxic and represents no environmental hazard.
In steam drying processes, goods are dried in a steam atmosphere. The process steam is circulated and reheated by a natural gas burner. The water removed from the product is present in the form of excess steam. Usually, the excess steam cannot be used further because there is no heat demand at this temperature and it is therefore wasted. MVR systems allow the use of the excess steam. Compressors increase the pressure level of the surplus steam to condense it at higher temperatures. A separate evaporator is not required, as the dryer acts as such.
The open loop heat pump system developed by the DryFiciency consortium uses advanced, low-cost, turbo-compressor technology originating from the automotive sector. It is further developed to reach condensation temperatures of up to 160°C at a combined pressure ratio of 6 when compressing steam over two stages. In the condenser, the hot excess steam reheats the process steam of the dryer. Thereby, the natural gas burner can be replaced. Read more on this system here.
The following graph shows the working principle of the open loop heat pump system with its innovative component, the oil-free steam turbo-compressor technology developed by Rotrex, integrated in a steam drying process.


We all get sick from time to time. Wintertime, in particular, brings with it colds and flus.
Symptoms may include feeling hot and cold, a runny nose, streaming eyes, headaches, tiredness, loss of appetite, then after a few days (or sometimes longer), we start to feel better and are back to normal. So what is happening? Why do we feel so terrible? How do we get better? What is going on inside our bodies?
Infection is the invasion of pathogenic (disease-causing) microorganisms in the body and the body’s response to that.
Pathogenic microorganisms, commonly called germs or bugs, are all around us. They can be easily transmitted from one person to another. Once they get past your skin (part of your first line of defence), they get into your body, your bloodstream and your cells. At this point, your immune system (your second line of defence) kicks in and fights back to destroy the pathogens causing infection.
The immune system
The immune system consists of cells, tissues and organs that work together to protect you. We explore the immune system and how it responds to various microorganisms.
In the article The body’s second line of defence, we look at microorganisms, including some of the pathogens that cause sickness.
Hand washing and hygiene practices are vital to stopping the spread of infection. In the 1880s, Florence Nightingale was well aware of the importance of hand washing even though microorganisms were not fully understood at that time.
Every nurse ought to be careful to wash her hands very frequently during the day. If her face, too, so much the better.”Florence Nightingale
We find out what happens when your immune system doesn’t work through the story of David Vetter who lived in a sterile bubble all his life.
We also take a look at vaccination. This is a way of preventing some diseases by using your immune system to protect you. Vaccination became a global focus with the COVID-19 pandemic. We look at the history of vaccination, as well as current immunisation in New Zealand. This is supported by activities including an investigation into some of the ethical issues surrounding vaccination.
We explore rongoā – the Māori term for medicines that are produced from native plants in New Zealand. Many of these plants were and are still used to fight infection. Find out more in the article Rongoā Māori and then follow up with the activity Using rongoā Māori.
Meet the scientists
Scientists from the Malaghan Institute of Medical Research in Wellington share their research. The article Hookworm and allergies profiles the work of Professor Graham Le Gros, who is working on a vaccine against asthma and allergies. Dr Joanna Kirman explores infectious diseases, like tuberculosis, and how they affect the immune system. This helps her team find cures for these diseases. Dr Bridget Stocker and Dr Mattie Timmer design drugs and make molecules to improve vaccines.
Take up the challenge
We also have some great activity ideas that cover some of the big ideas in science.
- Cells: Introduction to cells and Inside a cell
- DNA: Introduction to DNA
- Immune system: The wars within, Fighting infection card game, Making snot and Spreading diseases
- Medical research and ethics: Exploring medical research, Ethical dilemmas in fighting infection and Managing classroom discussions
Being a scientist is a lot like being a detective – you have to think of cunning ways to solve problems and find the answers.Dr Joanna Kirman (Malaghan Institute of Medical Research)
The Fighting infection – question bank provides a list of questions about ferns and places where their answers can be found. The questions support an inquiry approach.
For explanations of key concepts, see Fighting infection – key terms.
Use this timeline to see some of the historical aspects of fighting infection, covering early discoveries on germs, vaccination, how are our bodies help us to get better and more.
We have curated content in this Viruses and the immune system collection – it explores viruses and how our immune system fights them. Log in to make this collection part of your private collection. Click on the copy icon, and then you can add additional content and notes and make other changes.


This month two replicas of Thor Heyerdahl’s ancient pre-Incan rafts Kon-Tiki, christened Rahiti Tane and Tupac Yupanqui, have set out to sail from South America to Eastern Island – and back! The expedition has been named Kon-Tiki 2.
On their official homepage expedition leader Håkon Wium Lie explains that Kon-Tiki 2 got its name because they seek to double-down on Thor Heyerdahl’s famous voyage by sailing two rafts from South America to Polynesia and then back. No one has done this in modern times.
Heyerdahl’s Kon-Tiki voyage showed that people from South America could have sailed westwards and populated islands in the Pacific. The balsa raft had for instance keel and a type of sail that made it possible to cross the wind. The new expedition that started from Lima on November 9, aims prove that the Polynesians also were able to sail back from South America.
The two rafts will sail for about six weeks and 5,000 kilometers until they reach Rapa Nui. There they turn around and head back to South America. The expedition has chosen to use two rafts and two teams for safety reasons.
The rafts are fitted with transponders and beacons in the event that an emergency requires a search and rescue response.
“We have a number of activities during our voyage, and it is important for us to convey widest possible knowledge,” says expedition leader Thorgeir Higraff to the Norwegian newspaper Aftenposten. Higraff has a great sense of discovery and adventure. Throughout his life he has had Thor Heyerdahl as his great hero, and he siled in the same waters with the Tagora expedition in 2006.
When the two rafts of the Kon Tiki 2 Expedition sailed from Lima they were equipped for full-scale ocean and climate research. During the two legs – Peru to Easter Island before Christmas and Easter Island to Peru after Christmas – the rafts will make thousands of measurements in order to understand how changes in marine life relate to climate change and ocean pollution. The expedition takes place during the El Nino of 2015/2016, a fortunate fact which will deepen insights into the interactions between the marine ecosystem and the changing marine environment.
Higraff says they want to measure climate change and ocean acidification, marine litter pollution, El Nino and operational weather forecasting in addition to marine life.
The Polynesian population shows Caucasoid as well as Mongolian physical traits. Their origin is heavily disputed. The traditional and prevailing perception is that they originate from Southeast Asia.
Immigration from there to the central archipelagos Tonga and Tahiti is supposed to have begun about 3,000 years ago. Easter Island was first populated 200-300 years AD, Hawaii around 500 AD and New Zealand in the late 1100s.
Thor Heyerdahl argued, however, that the Polynesians came from the east and is of American Indian ancestry, and that immigration began considerably later: In his opinion, the first settlement came from Peru around 500 AD.
All images: Kon-Tiki 2
Kon-Tiki – Again, written by Tor Kjolberg


Therapy is often called a ‘talking therapy’ but what is talking exactly?
Generally speaking, what someone says is what therapists consider and explore in session. Body psychotherapies are often the exception because language and thought are understood as different aspects of being in and as the body. The rise of mindfulness-based therapies that explore therapeutic change via awareness of the body as a whole could suggest that the focus on talking therapy is changing.
Despite this, what someone says remains a significant focus in therapy. Other than words, what could be important to pay attention to in therapy and beyond?
Existential therapy is rooted in philosophy. Merleau-Ponty (1962) has been deeply influential in how existential therapy considers the embodied being. Merleau-Ponty illustrated how our embodied nature is our primary experience of the world and how we communicate.
He also emphasised the importance of our existential sexuality (which I will discuss in more depth in a later blog) and embodiment to how we feel and how we react to everything we encounter. This understanding seems fundamental to how we open and close ourselves to the world. Merleau-Ponty reminded us that however we are perceiving experience in our own way, we are always in an interpersonal encounter “like an atmosphere” (p. 168) .
Perhaps this atmosphere is most readily felt when we open and connect to something that generates sensation, for instance when doing yoga, meditating, making love. Or perhaps when we feel ourselves with others deeply, whether it is in an intimate and caring moment or perhaps feeling a difficult and challenging emotion. This ‘atmosphere’ is incredibly useful to consider both in therapy and in the moment when we feel the cluster of sensations that reveal our ‘being-ness’.
For instance, this atmosphere can point to how we are relating with others. It provides information for us personally but can also highlight how we feel in our relationships. Breaking through repetitive patterns in relationships can be tricky. However, a quick way to cut through stuck narratives is to stop and feel. Pausing the story telling and easing into the direct experience of being with another can sometimes reveal a deeper more intimate layer of being. We may notice we feel more open, or perhaps we may feel more closed. Defences may drop while a sense of feeling exposed becomes more prevalent.
In this moment, we may feel more deeply the sensations which illuminate the connecting space between all we encounter. We may understand more clearly whether we want to move towards or away from something or someone. This understanding can be a hugely significant when we are feeling confused intellectually.
Gendlin’s (1993) writes the “… living body always implies its right next step” (p.32). His commentary about being and focusing in the body seems to support Merleau Ponty’s ideas and suggests that it can be a guiding force to orient and anchor us. Even simple movements, such as feeling the pattern of breath and its impacts, can ground us and bring us into intimately present being. Paying attention to feeling sensations may encourage new understanding to arise. By broadening how we understand ourselves we may find more possibilities emerge where we once felt stuck.
These notions and an openness to experience it directly for yourself can be incredibly helpful in therapy. It is also a significant understanding and experience for anyone interested enough to pay attention to what is actually happening in your body, in any moment.
So, despite therapy often being considered a talking therapy there is much useful information that happens beyond this. Paying attention to what is actually happening in and as the body can be a fantastic starting point. This enquiry does not have to be difficult or complicated. For instance, next time you are out walking or sitting down just notice what it feels like. How do your feet and hands feel? Are they relaxed or tense? Do you feel any tension in your tummy? Let go of any judgement or speculation about it and just feel what is actually happening. If you feel like it, try sensitively easing into the tension. Relax, be curious and see what happens.
Susanna Petitpierre, BACP Registered, is an experienced psychotherapeutic counsellor, providing long and short term counselling. Her approach is primarily grounded in existential therapy and she works with individuals. Susanna is available at our Brighton and Hove Practice and Lewes Practice.
Disclaimer: some of the content of this blog was originally part of an essay for a doctoral programme at NSPC. It has been amended.
1) Merleau-Ponty, M. (1962). Phenomenology of Perception. Trans. C. Smith London: Routledge.
2) Gendlin, E.T (1993). ‘Three Assertions about the Body’. The Folio 12 (1): 21–33.


Part of a waterfront research project which will inform the wider waterfront transformation plans, and with £10,000 funding from the Liverpool City Region Combined Authority (LCRA), the excavation will involve researching and investigating the site of two of the four houses which stood at Albert Parade, numbers 7 and 8 Albert Parade.
During the Blitz of the Second World War, the bustling Royal Albert docks became a target for the German bombers, causing substantial damage. Residences that were built from 1852, were extensively damaged and later demolished, and it is this very area which will be excavated, with hope of the site containing some remnants of the homes. Additionally, this excavation is also part of the 175th anniversary of the opening of the Royal Albert Dock by Prince Albert in 1846. To celebrate this milestone, the dig will aim to uncover and explore the material culture associated with the pier master’s, dock masters and their homes where families once resided.
Liz Stewart Lead Curator for Archaeology & Historic Environments at Museum of Liverpool said: “We are very excited to be exploring the homes of the dock masters and their families through this community excavation. Working with local people this is a great chance to explore a site at the heart of Liverpool’s waterfront.
National Museums Liverpool has ambitious plans to transform the experiences visitors will have at our waterfront sites, over the next ten years, and this project is one of the initial steps to understand the history of the place in detail.”
Opening between two and three trenches, MoL’s team hope to educate and inform local communities about archaeology, and the importance of this historical site. Enabling adults and children to engage and learn archaeological techniques, people will come away with an enhanced knowledge of life on the Albert Dock. Hoping to discover items from daily family life dating from pre-war periods, findings will hopefully highlight the normal family life that existed along these docks.
Using old maps and aerial photographs and drawings of the area from before the Second World War, as well as satellite images, budding archaeologists will be well armed to know where to start the dig. Old census documents have also been used to find out the names of the people who lived in these houses. There are also a number of old plans showing the houses before demolition.
This community archaeology project plays a significant part of the waterfront transformation project as we continuously research and inform the historic significance of the site. Spanning the area between the Royal Albert Dock and the Mann Island, the transformation project will take in key landmarks including the creation of pedestrian links to the Canning Docks and their quaysides while also bringing life to multiple buildings and providing new commercial opportunities within the Cooperage, Mermaid House, Pilotage, Piermaster’s Office, and the Great Western Railway Building. This dig will reveal stories of the docks while directly engaging with local communities and teaching new skills.
The dig will take place on Wednesday, Thursday and Friday each week from the 26th of May until 30th July with Covid-19 safety measures in place. Find out what the team get up to as you pass by on your daily walk, on the website or via social media using the hashtag #DockHouseDig. The excavators will be sharing what we discover throughout the project and if you have any memories of the houses or the docks we would love to hear those too!
For information on the waterfront transformation project, please visit: www.liverpoolmuseums.org.uk/waterfront


When Dental Issues are the Problem
Not everyone presenting with ear pain has the same underlying issue, but there are often times when a dental issue is causing swelling, inflammation, or other discomfort in adults. The most common types of medical issues related to the teeth and jaw include:
TMJ Disorders: The temporo-mandibular joint, or TMJ, is responsible for connecting the jaw to the temporal bones found in the skull. When functioning properly, the TMJ allows the jaw to move in a variety of ways. However, a problem with this joint may lead to a TMJ disorder, causing pain that begins in the jaw but then may subsequently travel to the area around the ears. Individuals who clench their teeth during the day or grind the jaw at night may experience TMJ-related pain that can be misdiagnosed as a problem with the ears.
Acute Apical Abscess: When the tip of a tooth’s root becomes infected and inflamed, an acute apical abscess is diagnosed. Infections that last for a long period of time without being treated are the most likely cause of this uncomfortable medical issue, but trauma to the tooth, a fracture, an untreated cavity or a failed restoration of the teeth may also be the cause. Should the infection travel to the jaw, a patient’s nerves may relay pain signals to the area around the ears.
Sinusitis: A sinus infection, referred to as sinusitis, affects the cheeks, jaw, and in some cases the ear of patients. When fluid accumulates in the sinus cavities and becomes infected, pressure is placed on the cheek and jaw bones that can then radiate to the ears.
Myalgia: Sore jaw muscles, collectively known as myalgia, can be caused by a variety of issues, including injury, dental procedures, or overexertion. If the pain remains untreated for some time, the nerves could carry signals to the ears leading to a missed or delayed diagnosis.
Trigeminal Neuralgia: When patients experience sudden, usually temporary yet severe facial pain, trigeminal neuralgia may be the cause. When this issue arises, compression of the trigeminal nerve is in play, most often due to a blood vessel putting pressure on the trigeminal nerve in the skull. Individuals may have pain for short periods of time for days, weeks, or months, but it is often debilitating when it takes place.
A Chance of Misdiagnosis
Dental problems that cause pain to the ear can be the result of one or several underlying conditions, but the potential for misdiagnosing the real issue at hand is high. A solicitor for a leading medical negligence firm that works with several ear, nose and throat cases each year explains that the reason for misdiagnosis lies in where pain presents. The nervous system in the human body is highly complex and interconnected, and so pain signals from the mouth or jaw can quickly travel to the area surrounding the ear. For instance, an ear infection may be the initial diagnosis when an individual complains of ear discomfort, but any one of the dental issues listed above may truly be the cause. When a misdiagnosis of the root cause of ear pain takes place, patients may be put on a treatment plan that does not address the problem at hand. Delaying the right treatment may result in ongoing pain or the dental issue getting far worse.
Although pain in the ear can subside on its own, it is beneficial for patients to receive the correct diagnosis and appropriate treatment sooner rather than later. Remedies for ear pain related to dental issues may include applying mild heat to the jaw or taking anti-inflammatory prescriptions to heal an infection. Adults presenting with ear pain can recover quickly, but only when the true cause of the problem is known and treated.
Hey, I really learned a lot from this article. I never knew teeth and ear are connected. Now I know if there is pain around my ear and jaw, it might be dental problem rather than ear infection or something. I’ve shared this article with my family and they too appreciate it. Thank you!
11 September 2017


Truly puts explanatory writing to the test! Students get to be creative and have fun, yet they must also use their expository and explanatory writing skills as well!
First, students invent a new critter, which is done by combining the features of two common animals. The student draws it and hides the drawing from a partner. (Examples in the form of photos and a drawing are provided.) Next, the student must describe the new critter in such a way that a partner will be able to draw it to look almost exactly like the original drawing.
This really puts explanatory writing to the test because it must introduce the critter, describe its features in a logical and clear order, use transition words, and use concrete descriptive language. If the explanatory text is not clear, the partner will be confused and may draw a confusing mess of a critter. It is a good lesson to teach the reason behind clear expository writing.
Organization, concrete details, clarity, and transition words are key!
There is a sample included. The sample is a drawing and a description. Also, I added photos of several creative critter examples. This is fun! My students really enjoyed this activity!
Be careful when you print. To save ink, do not print the cover. Consider whether you want to print the page with the photos of critters or if you would rather make it an overhead.
Meets these Common Core Standards:
CCSS.ELA-Literacy.W.5.2 Write informative/explanatory texts to examine a topic and convey ideas and information clearly.
CCSS.ELA-Literacy.W.5.2a Introduce a topic clearly, provide a general observation and focus, and group related information logically; include formatting (e.g., headings), illustrations, and multimedia when useful to aiding comprehension.
CCSS.ELA-Literacy.W.5.2b Develop the topic with facts, definitions, concrete details, quotations, or other information and examples related to the topic.
CCSS.ELA-Literacy.W.5.2c Link ideas within and across categories of information using words, phrases, and clauses (e.g., in contrast, especially).
CCSS.ELA-Literacy.W.5.2d Use precise language and domain-specific vocabulary to inform about or explain the topic.
CCSS.ELA-Literacy.W.5.2e Provide a concluding statement or section related to the information or explanation presented.
CCSS.ELA-Literacy.W.5.4 Produce clear and coherent writing in which the development and organization are appropriate to task, purpose, and audience. (Grade-specific expectations for writing types are defined in standards 1–3 above.)
CCSS.ELA-Literacy.L.5.1 Demonstrate command of the conventions of standard English grammar and usage when writing or speaking.
CCSS.ELA-Literacy.L.5.2 Demonstrate command of the conventions of standard English capitalization, punctuation, and spelling when writing.
CCSS.ELA-Literacy.L.5.3 Use knowledge of language and its conventions when writing, speaking, reading, or listening.
By Loving-Language-Arts, lovingela.blogspot.com