For Flood Forecast issued by CWCCentral Water Commission at various stations please go to the website Flood Forecast
Floods have been recurrent phenomenon in many parts of India, causing loss of lives and public property and bringing untold misery to the people, especially those in the rural areas. There is also a larger economic impact, as they derail economic activities, thus affecting growth. Indian continent has peculiar climatic conditions since it has floods in some parts whereas drought in other parts. Over the years, several expert Committees have studied the problems caused by floods and suggested various measures for their management to the Government. However, despite the various steps undertaken over the last five decades, the trend of increasing damage and devastation brought by floods has posed a challenge to the Government as well as to the people. The approaches to flood management presently exercised in India also need to give a re-look to have an integrated strategy for policy and management related to floods.
River Systems and Associated Flood Problems
The rivers in India can be broadly divided into the following four regions for a study of flood problem.
(1) Brahmaputra Region;
(2) Ganga Region;
(3) North West Region ; and
(4) Central India and Deccan region.
Brahmaputra River Region:
This region consists of the rivers Brahmaputra & Barak and their tributaries covering seven states Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Mozoram, Nothern parts of West Bengal, Manipur, Tripura and Nagaland. The catchments of these rivers receive very heavy rainfall ranging from 110 cm. to 635 cm. a year which occurs mostly during the months of May / June to September. As a result, floods in this region are severe and quite frequent. Further, the rocks of the hills, where these rivers originate are fragile and susceptible to erosion thereby causing exceptionally high silt charge in the rivers. In addition, the region is subject to severe and frequent earthquakes which cause numerous landslides in the hills and upset the regime of the rivers. The predominant problems in this region are the flooding caused by spilling of rivers over their banks, drainage congestion and tendency of some of the rivers to change their courses. In recent years, the erosion along the banks of the Brahmaputra has assumed serious proportions.
Ganga River Region:
The river Ganga and its numerous tributaries, of which important ones are the Yamuna, the Sone, the Ghaghra, the Gandak, the Kosi and the Mahananda, constitute this river region. It covers ten states of Uttaranchal, Uttar Pradesh in its basin area , Jharkand, Bihar, South and Central parts of West Bengal, parts of Haryana , Himachal Pradesh, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Delhi. The normal annual rainfall in this region varies from 60 cm to 190 cm of which more than 80% occurs during the south west monsoon. The rainfall increases from West to East and from South to North.
The flood problem is mostly confined to the areas on the northern bank of the river Ganga. The damage is caused by the northern tributaries of the Ganga by spilling over their banks and changing their courses. Even though the Ganga is a mighty river carrying huge discharges of 57,000 to 85,000 cumec (2 to 3 million cusec), the inundation and erosion problems are confined to relatively few places. In general, the flood problem increases from the West to the East and from South to North.In the North Western parts of the region and some eastern parts, there is the problem of drainage congestion.
The flooding and erosion problem is serious in the States located in the downstream.In recent years some States which were not traditionally flood prone have also experienced some incidents of heavy floods.
North West River Region:
The main rivers in this region are the Sutlej, the Beas, the Ravi, the Chenab and the Jhelum, the tributaries of Indus, all flowing from the Himalayas. These carry quite substantial discharge during the monsoon and also large volumes of sediment. They change their courses frequently and leave behind tracts of sandy waste. The region covers the State of Jammu and Kashmir, Punjab and parts of Himachal Pradesh, Haryana and Rajasthan.
Compared to the Ganga and the Brahmaputra river region, the flood problem is relatively less in this region. The major problem is that of inadequate surface drainage which causes inundation and water logging over vast areas.
Central India and Deccan Region:
The important rivers in this region are the Narmada, the Tapi , the Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna and the Cauvery. These rivers have mostly well defined stable courses. They have adequate capacity within the natural banks to carry the flood discharge except in the delta area. The lower reaches of the important rivers on the East Coast have been embanked, thus largely eliminating the flood problem.
Flood Prone Areas in India
National Flood Commission (RBA) -1980 assessed the total flood prone area in the country as 40 m.ha which included the unprotected flood area of 33.516 m ha and the balance as protected area. Subsequently, the Working Groups on Flood Management for X and XI Plans assessed the flood prone area in the country as 45.64 m ha.
Statutory Provisions about Flood Management
The subject of flood control, unlike irrigation, does not figure as such in any of the three legislative lists included in the Constitution State list,Union list and concurrence list of India. However, Drainage and Embankments, are two of the measures specifically mentioned in entry 17 of List II (State List), reproduced below:
“Water, that is to say, water supplies, irrigation and canals, drainage and embankments, water storage and water power subject to the provision of entry 56 of List I(Union List).”
Entry 56 of List I (Union List) reads as follows:-
“Regulation and development of inter-State rivers and river valleys to the extent to which such regulation and development under the control of the Union is declared by Parliament by law to be expedient in the public interest..”
It may thus be seen that the primary responsibility for flood control lies with the States. A number of States have already enacted laws with provisions to deal with matters connected with flood control works. Therefore, the subject “ flood management” falls within the purview of the States. The schemes for flood control are planned, investigated and implemented by the States as per priorities within the State with their own resources and the role of central government is technical, advisory, catalytic and promotional in nature.
Existing Flood Management Mechanisms in India
In India, a two tier system of flood management exists as briefly described below:
State Level Mechanism - The State Level Mechanism includes the Water Resources Departments, State Technical Advisory Committee and Flood Control Board. In some States, the Irrigation Departments and Public Works Departments look after flood matters.
Central Government Mechanism – The Union Government has set up following organizations and various expert committees to enable the State Governments in addressing flood problems in a comprehensive manner:
Central Water Commission (CWC) – The Government of India set up Central Water Commission as presently named in 1945 for achieving the goal of furthering and promoting measures of flood control, conservation and utilization of water resources through out the country in the areas of beneficial uses, irrigation and hydropower generation, flood management and river conservation. As a national apex engineering organisation in the field of water resources development, the CWC with its vast experience gained in its strides towards progress in more than six decades, has developed considerable know-how in planning, investigation, management and design of water resources development schemes and made valuable contribution in the country’s remarkable progress in this field besides sharing the expertise with developing nations of the world.
Brahmaputra Board – The Government of India set up Brahmaputra Board under Brahmaputra Board Act, 1980 (46 of 1980) under the then Ministry of Irrigation ( now Ministry of Water Resources) The jurisdiction of Brahmaputra Board includes all NEStates of North East region States in Brahmaputra and Barak Basin. The main functions of Brahmaputra Board are as under :
- Survey and investigations in Brahmautra and barak valley.
- Preparation of master plans to control floods, bank erosion, improvement of drainage system.
- Preparation of DPRs for dams and other projects
- Standard specifications for construction operation and maintenance of dams.
- Construction of multipurpose dams and maintenance thereof.
- Any other function for implementation of Brahmaputra Board Act-1980.
Brahmaputra Board prepared master plans for the flood management for river Brahmaputra and Barak.Besides this, the Board has undertaken survey and investigations for preparation of master plans for tackling the problems of flood, erosion and drainage congestion including DPRs for multipurpose projects.
Ganga Flood Control Commission - The Ganga Flood Control Commission (GFCC) was set up by Government of India in 1972 for preparation of comprehensive plan of flood control for Ganga Basin and to draw out a phased coordinated programme of implementation of works and monitoring & appraisal of flood management schemes of Ganga basin States. The GFCC has prepared comprehensive plans of flood management of the 23 sub-basins in the Ganga Basin besides drawing out a phased programme of implementation of these works to proper standards, examination and monitoring of various flood management schemes in the Ganga Basin States.
Farakka Barrage Project Authority – The Farakka Barrage Project Authority carry out anti-erosion and river bank protection works in its jurisdiction in near river vicinity of the Barrage..
National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) - For prevention and mitigation effects of disasters including flood disasters and for undertaking a holistic, coordinated and prompt response to any disaster situation, the Government of India has set up a National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) in 2005 under the Chairmanship of Hon’ble Prime Minister of India. The functions of the NDMA are :
(i) lay down policies on disaster management;
(ii) approve national Plan;
(iii) approve plans prepared by the Ministries or departments of the Government of India in accordance with the National Plan; (iv) lay down guidelines to be followed by the State Authorities in drawing up the State Plan;
(v) lay down guidelines to be followed by the different Ministries or departments of the government of India for the purpose of integrating the measures for prevention of disaster or the mitigation of its effects in their development plans and projects;
(vi) coordinate the enforcement and implementation of the policy and plan for disaster management;
(vii) recommend provision of funds for the purpose of mitigation;
(viii) provide such support to other countries affected by major disasters as may be determined by the central Government;
(ix) take such other measures for the prevention of disaster, or the mitigation, or preparedness and capacity building for dealing with the threatening disaster situation or disaster as it may consider necessary;
(x) lay down broad policies and guidelines for the functioning of the National Institute of Disaster Management.
The NDMA has issued guidelines in January, 2008 for management of floods and the roles of various Central and State agencies have been specified for preparation of flood mitigation plans and taking relief measures during flood disasters.
Government’s Initiatives and Policies on Floods
After the unprecedented floods of 1954, the Government of India took several initiatives and constituted a number of Committees to study the problem of floods in the country.
Recommendations Of Expert Committees On Flood Management
A brief account of the recommendations of some of the important expert committees are as follows.
Policy Statement - 1954
Following the unprecedented floods of 1954, the Union Minister for Planning, Irrigation and Power, placed before the Parliament on 3rd September, 1954, two statements namely "Floods in India - Problems and remedies" and "The Floods in the country".The objective unequivocally set, in the policy statements, was to rid the country from the menace of floods by containing and managing floods and thus solving the problem.
In the supplementary statement placed before the Parliament on the 27th July, 1956, the above optimistic note changed a little, stating “We shall, however, be able to curb and confine the floods, more and more and do all that is possible to save ourselves from the harm and the devastation that they bring”. Simultaneously, a statement on the flood situation and flood control programme was laid before the Parliament. In this Statement, it was, pointed out that absolute immunity from flood damage was not physically possible even in the distant future.
High Level Committee On Floods – 1957 & Policy Statement of 1958
A High Level Committee on floods submitted its report in December, 1957, and this was considered by the Central Flood Control Board in its seventh meeting held in May, 1958. Some of their important recommendations are
(i) Absolute or permanent immunity from flood damage is not physically attainable by known methods of flood control. Flood plain zoning, flood forecasting and warning, and like measures should, therefore, be given due importance, particularly as these do not require large capital investment.
(ii) Flood control schemes should fit in with other water related plans to the extent feasible.
(iii) Future multi-purpose project should consider flood control aspects simultaneously.
(iv) Effects of embankments on river regime be considered, before approving such proposals.
(v) In general, embankments are satisfactory means of flood protection when properly designed, executed and maintained, but a suitable combination of this method with other methods such as storage dams, detention basins, etc. is usually more efficient and should be adopted as resources permit.
(vi) Priorities for soil conservation work relating to flood control should be as under:-
(a) Catchment areas of multi-purpose dams.
(b) Himalayas with their foothills.
(c) Indo-Gangetic plain and
(d) Deccan plateau.
vii) Works relating to watershed management prioritized. Work commenced in a catchment should not be left incomplete to take up work in other catchments.
(viii) The following order of priority in general is recommended:-
(a) Emergent schemes,
(b) Continuing schemes,
(c) Schemes for the protection of important urban and industrial communities.
(d) Schemes which would help in augmenting flood protection in the country.
(e) Schemes which combine other beneficial utilization of waters.
Another policy statement placed in Parliament in 1958 also emphasises that while substantial diminution of flood related distress is possible, immunity against flood is impracticable.
National Flood Commission (Rashtriya Barh Ayog) – 1980.
The National Flood Commission (R.B.A.) submitted its comprehensive report in March,1980. This contained a total of 207 recommendations covering the entire gamut of flood problem in the country. Some of the important recommendations are given below.
- Data collection for providing information on their long term performance and their impact on various socio-economic factors.
- Legislation and enforcement by States to prevent unauthorized river bed cultivation and encroachments into drains etc.
- Separate reporting of flood damage for (i) Unprotected areas (ii) Protected areas and (iii) Areas situated between the embankments.
- Legislation for management of flood plains.
- A comprehensive dynamic and flexible approach to the problem of floods as a part of a comprehensive approach for the utilization of land and water resources.
- Priority for measures to modify the susceptibility of life and property to flood damage.
- Priority for completion of continuing schemes.
- Adequate funds for maintenance.
- States to enact legislation amending section 17 (II) of land acquisition act, to make the existing provisions for emergent situations, as applicable for flood control works.
- Intensifying studies on sedimentation of reservoirs.
- Forming a national council for mitigating disaster.
Expert Committee to Review the Implementation of the Recommendations of National Flood Commission-2003 (R Rangachari Committee)
An Experts Committee under the Chairmanship of Shri R Rangachari was set up by Ministry of Water Resources, Government of India in October 2001 to review the implementation of recommendation of National Flood Commission.
The Committee suggested emphasis on 25 recommendations out of 207 and summed up its views as follows:
- Flood damage assessment, from year to year, is not done realistically or on scientific basis as per RBA recommendations, due to collateral reasons, which are surmised but not expressed. This needs corrective steps.
- Lack of representative, scientific and credible post-project performance evaluations of past flood management works is a serious handicap.
- Unabated and unplanned intrusion into the flood plains and river beds, sometimes with the approval or acquiescence of Government has now reached alarming dimensions. If this is not managed, flood losses will continue to mount.
- RBA has made a number of recommendations on the future approach and the planning and implementation thereof. Most of these have not been implemented or at the best partially implemented. They will have to be kept in view as part of future approach.
- The international dimensions of flood management as an integral part of Water resource development and management must be pro actively addressed.
- A number of other issues of importance like adequate funds, legislation, research and people’s involvement at all important stages, etc are very important to effectively manage floods. However, the inter-state issues in multi state river basins is a very important matter waiting to be effectively addressed.
National Water Policy ( 1987/ 2002/2012)
The Government of India while framing policy has laid significant emphasis on the management of floods which gets reflected in the National Water Policy as under :
The National Water Policy (1987) adopted by the National Water Resources council, inter alia, recommended that “adequate flood cushion should be provided in water storage projects wherever feasible to facilitate better flood management”. While it recognized that “physical flood protection works like embankments and dykes will continue to be necessary”, it laid emphasis on adoption of non -structural measures for the minimization of losses, such as flood forecasting and warning and flood plain zoning etc.
The National Water Policy of 2002 adopted by the National Water Resources Council inter alia recommended the following guiding principles:
(i) There should be a master plan for flood control and management for each flood prone basin.
(ii) Adequate flood cushion should be provided in water storage projects, wherever feasible, to facilitate better flood management. In highly flood prone areas, flood control should be given overriding consideration in reservoir regulations policy even at the cost of sacrificing some irrigation or power benefits.
(iii) While physical flood protection works like embankments and dykes will continue to be necessary, increased emphasis should be laid on non-structural measures such as flood forecasting and warning, flood plain zoning and flood proofing for the minimization of losses and to reduce the recurring expenditure on flood relief.
(iv) There should be strict regulation of settlements and economic activity in the flood plain zones along with flood proofing, to minimize the loss of life and property on account of floods.
(v) The flood forecasting activities should be modernized, value added and extended to other uncovered areas. Inflow forecasting to reservoirs should be instituted for their effective regulation.
(vi) The erosion of land, whether by the sea in coastal areas or by river waters inland, should be minimized by suitable cost-effective measures. The States and Union Territories should also undertake all requisite steps to ensure that indiscriminate occupation and exploitation of coastal strips of land are discouraged and that the location of economic activities in areas adjacent to the sea is regulated.
(vii) Each coastal State should prepare a comprehensive coastal land management plan, keeping in view the environmental and ecological impacts, and regulate the developmental activities accordingly.
The National Water Policy of 2012 adopted by the National Water Resources Council inter alia recommended the following guiding principles:
General Flood Management Measures practiced in India
Different measures have been adopted to reduce the flood losses and protect the flood plains. Depending upon the nature work, Flood protection and flood management measures may be broadly classified as under:
(a) Engineering / Structural Measures
(b) Administrative / Non-Structural Measures
Engineering /Structural Measures
The engineering measures for flood control which bring relief to the flood prone areas by reducing flood flows and thereby the flood levels are –
(a) an artificially created reservoir behind a dam across a river
(b) a natural depression suitably improved and regulated, if necessary or
(c) by diversion of a part of the peak flow to another river or basin, where such diversion would not cause appreciable damage.
(d) by constructing a parallel channel bye passing a particular town/reach of the river prone to flooding.
The engineering methods of flood protection, which do not reduce the flood flow but reduce spilling, are:
(a) embankments which artificially raise the effective river bank and thereby prevent spilling and
(b) channel and drainage improvement works, which artificially reduce the flood water level so as to keep the same, confined within the river banks and thus prevent spilling.
Different aspects of some of the important measures for flood management are enumerated below:
Reservoirs can moderate the intensity and timing of the incoming flood. They store the water during periods of high discharges in the river and release it after the critical high flow condition is over, so as to be ready to receive the next wave. Their effectiveness in moderating floods would depend on the reservoir capacity available at that time for absorbing the flood runoff and their proximity to the likely damage centre. They are operated with a carefully planned regulation schedule which takes into account both the safety of the dam and related structures and the safe carrying capacity of the lower reaches of the river in their present condition.
Reservoirs are more effective for flood management if, apart from the incidental moderation available for any type of storage on a river, specific flood space is earmarked, as in the case of DVCDamodar Valley Corporation dams across the Damodar and its tributaries. The operation schedule or rule curve being followed should be reviewed and a suitable operation schedule/rule curve prescribed for the monsoon filling to ensure space for flood moderation but which can be filled for conservation at a later stage when high flows end.
In order to improve the efficiency of the reservoirs and improve the operation schedules for providing either incidental or specific flood moderation effects, arrangement for inflow forecasts should be made. 10.1.2 Detention Basins Detention basins are usually formed by utilizing natural depressions/ swamps and lakes by improving their capacity by constructing encircling embankments and providing suitable devices for regulating the release of stored waters. Since, the land under the marshes or low depression may hardly require much compensation and rehabilitation measures, this method are relatively in expensive. The Ghaggar detention basin in Rajasthan is a good example. Depressions available upstream of Srinagar City, on the left bank of river Jhelum, the Mokama Tal area in Bihar and Ottu, Bhindawas, Kotla lakes in Haryana and various beels/haors of Barak basin are some examples of a few natural basins.
Embankments (including ring bunds and town protection works) confine the flood flows and prevent spilling, thereby reducing the damage. These are generally cheap, quick and most popular method of flood protection and have been constructed extensively in the past. These are reported to have given considerable protection at comparatively low costs, particularly in the lower reaches of large rivers. In many places, embankments may be the only feasible method of preventing inundation. Embankments are designed and constructed to afford a degree of protection against floods of a certain frequency and intensity or against the maximum recorded floods till the time of their planning only (in the absence of detailed hydrological data for longer periods) depending upon the location protected and their economic justification. The raising and strengthening of existing embankments have also been taken up in many of the flood prone States. In order that this work is done adequately it is necessary to adopt the flood frequency approach in their redesign, taking into account the data of historical floods, which is now available.
Apart from the raising and strengthening works, erosion along the embankments and natural banks of the river systems has been a serious problem on which considerable expenditure has been incurred in the past. Particular mention could be made of the erosion problem of the embankment systems in Assam, Bihar, U.P, Punjab and West Bengal. The embankments, under serious attack by the major rivers and their tributaries, have to be suitably protected by spurs, pitching and other suitable anti-erosion measures. On many embankment systems like the Kosi embankment and Piprasi-Pipraghat embankment on the Gandak in Bihar, the river attack is so severe that the protection measures required to be taken are large and cannot be covered under the normal maintenance works.
A number of Committees constituted in various countries as well as in India have deliberated upon the utility of embankments as a means for flood protection. Divergent views have emerged out of these. Many NGOs have voiced serious criticism about existing embankments. One is that problems of flood can be solved by removal of all the existing embankments and the other diametrically opposite being that construction of more and more lengths of the embankments and their raising and strengthening is the only practicable medium/short term solution for the flood problems. The reason for such wide divergence in opinion is obviously due to the inadequacy of sufficient number of performance evaluation studies of existing embankments and the divergent views on their performance. As experienced, some embankments have provided positive benefits by ensuring sustained protection against floods and river spills while on the other hand, some embankments have, in certain reaches of the river, aggravated the flood problem by rising river bed levels, decreasing their carrying capacity, causing drainage congestion in the countryside and distorting the levels/gradient of the outfall points.
Construction of embankment with proper roads has been perceived as providing useful communication linkages and reliable surface network for areas that are liable to stand completely cut off during floods and thereafter. They could provide quick communication for facilitating better supervision and maintenance of the flood protection works and provide all weather communication facilities to the adjoining habitats. As such, they are often deemed as the life line during floods.
It is also recognised that embankments are not an unmixed blessing. They have adverse effects such as interference with drainage, inability to stand erosion, etc. which should be considered before planning this measure for flood management.
As such, this method of flood management may be undertaken only after carrying out detailed hydrological and other studies regarding their favourable and adverse effects.
Channelisation of Rivers
Some of the states are proposing channelisation of rivers, at least in certain reaches, in the context of tackling the extensive meandering problems of the rivers, activating navigational channels and training these rivers into their original courses. While venturing to channelise rivers, thought must be given in allowing the river certain freedom to flow and right of way to pass its flood waters and silt load within its natural waterway. The dynamic nature of the rivers should be appreciated and preventive measures planned accordingly instead of pinning down the river by channelising.
The method of improving the channel by improving the hydraulic conditions of the river channels by desilting, dredging, lining etc., to enable the river to carry its discharges at lower levels or within its banks has been often advocated but adopted on a very limited extent because of its high cost and other problems.
Dredging operations of the Brahmaputra, which were undertaken in the early seventies on an experimental basis, were discontinued because of their prohibitive cost and limited benefits. Dredging in selected locations may perhaps be considered as a component of a package of measures for channel improvement to check the river bank erosion subject to techno-economic justification. It may be economically justifiable as a method for channel improvement where navigation is involved. Dredging is sometimes advocated for clearing river mouth or narrow constrictions.
Surface water drainage congestion due to inadequacy of natural or artificial drainage channels to carry the storm water discharge within a reasonable period causes damages. It is often difficult to distinguish between flood and drainage congestion situations. This problem is rather acute in Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Haryana, Punjab, Orissa, Uttar Pradesh, Assam and West Bengal, J&K, Gujarat and Tamilnadu. Therefore, improvement of drainage by construction of new channels or improvement in the discharge capacity of the existing drainage system is recommended as an integral part of the flood management programme in the country.
Stress has to be laid on improving the existing natural drainage system in the flood plains so that what should essentially be flooding of a few days should not get prolonged for months. In this context, the importance of the system ‘dhars’ or ‘old channels’, which efficiently served the function of draining away the spillage and surface flows generated by local rains, must be recognised. The blocking of these natural drainage channels, which is normally done in the name of “reclamation for development” because of paucity of land or vested interest, must be firmly discouraged. This applies also to all natural depressions, which are targeted for reclamation.
The adequacy of existing sluices and drainage channels should be reviewed in areas suffering from drainage congestion. If the capacities of existing sluices in embankments and drainage channels are inadequate, this should be improved by increasing the vents and improving outfall conditions.
Diversion of Flood Waters
Diversion of flood waters takes a part of the flood discharge to another basin or to the same basin downstream of the problem area or to a depression where it could be stored for subsequent release. This measure can be used to manage unusual floods around cities as in the case of flood spill channel near Srinagar and also in the lower reaches of a river near the sea as in the case of Krishna Godavari drainage scheme. Important schemes under execution or under planning are the supplementary drain in Delhi, the outfall channel in Jammu and Kashmir, the Damodar in the lower reaches in West Bengal, the Thottapally Spillway diversion in Kerala, the Kolleru lake diversion into the sea in Andhra Pradesh, the Kama-Pahari drain in Rajasthan and the Hulwaa drain in Uttar Pradesh.
The watershed management measures include developing and conserving the vegetative and soil covers and also to undertake structural works like check-dams, detention basins, diversion channels, etc. In the watershed management of upper catchment, land treatment through afforestation and grass land development practices should be supplemented by structural works for retarding the water velocity and arresting silt.
Administrative / Non-structural Measures
The administrative methods endeavour to mitigate the flood damages by;
(a) Facilitating timely evacuation of the people and shifting of their movable property to safer grounds by having advance warning of incoming flood i.e. flood forecasting, flood warning in case of threatened inundation
(b) Discouraging creation of valuable assets/settlement of the people in the areas subject to frequent flooding i.e. enforcing flood plain zoning regulation.
Providing absolute protection to all flood prone areas against all magnitude of floods is neither practically possible nor economically viable. Such an attempt would involve stupendously high cost for construction and for maintenance. Hence a pragmatic approach in flood management is to provide a reasonable degree of protection against flood damages at economic cost through a combination of structural and non-structural measures.
Flood Plain Zoning
Flood-plain zoning is a concept central to flood plain management. This concept recognises the basic fact that the flood plain of a river is essentially its domain and any intrusion into or developmental activity therein must recognise the river’s ‘right of way’. Flood-plain zoning measures aim at demarcating zones or areas likely to be affected by floods of different magnitudes or frequencies and probability levels, and specify the types of permissible developments in these zones, so that whenever floods actually occur, the damage can be minimised, if not avoided. Unfortunately, while all generally endorse this approach in principle, scant attention is given to it in actual practice, leading to increased flood damages.The Central Water Commission (CWC) has been continuously impressing upon the states the need to take follow-up action to implement the flood plain zoning approach. A model draft bill for flood plain zoning legislation was also circulated by the union government in 1975 to all the states.
There has been passive resistance on the part of the states to follow up the various aspects of flood plain management including possible legislation.
Flood proofing measures adopted in India in the past, consisted in raising a few villages above pre-determined flood levels and connecting them to nearby roads or high lands. Under this programme, several thousand villages were raised in Uttar Pradesh in the fifties. In West Bengal and Assam also land-fills were attempted in villages to keep houses above flood levels even though nearby agricultural lands were liable to inundation. During X Plan, the Government of Bihar had also constructed, with Central assistance, the raised platforms for safety of the people in flood prone areas of North Bihar.
The work of flood forecasting and warning in India is entrusted with the Central Water Commission (CWC). Flood Forecasting and flood warning in India was commenced in a small way in the year 1958 with the establishment of a unit in the Central Water Commission (CWC), New Delhi, for flood forecasting for the river Yamuna at Delhi. Presently, there are 878 Hydrological and Hydro-meteorological sites being operated by CWC across the country covering 20 river basins for gauge, discharge, sediment & water quality observations. The formulation of a forecast requires effective means of real time data communication network from the forecasting stations and the base stations (380 nos approx at present). Wireless Communication system installed in almost 550 stations is the backbone of the communication system required for flood forecasting activities. The activity of flood forecasting comprises of Level Forecasting and Inflow Forecasting. The level forecasts help the user agencies to decide mitigating measures like evacuation of people and shifting people and their movable property to safer locations. The Inflow Forecasting is used by various dam authorities in optimum operation of reservoirs for safe passage of flood downstream as well as to ensure adequate storage in the reservoirs for meeting demand during non-monsoon period.
Presently, Flood forecasts are issued by CWC at 175 stations (28 Inflow Forecast Stations and 147 Level Forecast Stations). Annually, about 6000 flood forecasts are issued by CWC during floods.
In order to meet the requirement of real-time data collection, automatic data transmission and flood forecast formulation, expeditious data / information dissemination, the Central Water Commission has undertaken modernization of its data collection and flood forecast network. During IX Plan, 55 telemetry stations were installed in Mahanadi and Chambal Basins besides setting up of two Earth receiving Stations ( ERS) at Jaipur ( Rajasthan) and Burla ( Orissa). During X Plan, modernization of 168 stations was undertaken; out of which 166 stations besides 11 Modelling Centres have been set up till date. During XI Plan, additional 222 stations and 10 Modelling Centres are proposed to be installed; which would help the concerned States in taking appropriate measures in advance for evacuation of people and shifting them and their properties to safer locations.


Discovering Rockingham Forest 19 January 2018
Fineshade Wood is a remnant of what was once Rockingham Forest, which was created by William the Conqueror so that he could hunt when in the area – a forest means an enclosure or hunting ground. It was on a similar scale to the New and Sherwood Forests, occupying two thirds of today’s Northamptonshire. This forest included both the wooded areas and the villages and towns.
This is why Fineshade Wood is in part classified as Ancient Woodland, meaning that the wood has existed continuously since 1600. Fineshade has a beech and ash dating back at least 400 years.
Rockingham Forest was slowly broken down and sold off over the centuries. 1832 marked the end of the overall forest and the Forestry Commission took over many of the remaining woodland parcels between 1922-23.
Many thanks to local historian Peter Hill for this information. His publications include Rockingham Forest: Then and Now and Rockingham Forest Revisited
Food for thought. 25 January 2018
The artist Paul Klee once described an artist as being like a tree, drawing the minerals of experience from its roots - things observed, read, told and felt - and slowly processing them into new leaves. A tree is a great metaphor for what artists can do.
The poet W.H. Auden wrote that ‘A culture is no better than its woods’ in his poem Bucolics II: Woods (for Nicholas Nabakov)
Hailstones near as big as walnuts (1690 to today) 30 January 2018
How did we come to be preoccupied with measuring weather, particularly in the UK?
Galileo was the first person to develop the principles behind the thermometer. His pupil Evangelista Torricello developed the first barometer in the 1640s, a device which operates by weighing air. It is an extraordinary thought that the weight of the air around us is in constant flux.
Torricello’s barometer was refined by Englishman Robert Hooke in 1664. Weather watching was now officially an English pursuit – not simply an opening gambit for a conversation. Hooke suggested that people all over the UK should adopt a standard practice of weather observation, recorded on a special chart showing the position of the moon and sun, direction and strength of the wind, the temperature, air pressure, appearance of the sky and ‘notable effects’ (including large hailstones from 1690).
The Central England Temperature record- now held by the Met Office- started in 1659. This record is cross-referenced with the dendrochronology tree cores.
The (re)introduction of the weathervane 4 February 2018
‘Legend has it that in the ninth century Pope Nicholas sent out a decree that churches across all Christendom should bear the cock as a reminder of how Peter denied Christ. The evidence is extremely thin, but it is a plausible explanation for the sudden profusion of roosters. Across Europe they were hoisted onto towers and steeples…they were eye catching reminders of denial and repentance…(revealing) the linked histories of faith and meteorology.’
Weatherland: Writers and Artists Under English Skies by Alexandra Harris
This created an association in the Christian world between God and God’s weather: bad weather that was sent as a punishment for humans behaving badly. It is noteworthy that so many effects of climate change: tempests, flooding, tsunamis, thunderbolts, and extreme temperatures echo these biblical punishments. So whilst climate changes effect's are scary enough, the idea of it is also profoundly culturally unsettling.
Edges and boundaries of the Forest 9 February 2018
As Rockingham Forest isn’t simply made up of trees, its edges and boundaries were always going to be blurry. To quote local historian Peter Hill, ‘Both man (managing or clearing woodland, and using land and water for agricultural, domestic and industrial purposes) and nature (especially in the form of soil erosion, storms, climatic changes and disease), have had an effect on the eventual composition and size of the forest.’
Rockingham Forest Revisited. Peter Hill
Rockingham Forest was a designated royal hunting ground. Whilst these boundaries had to be respected by the human species, other species such as deer had no such concerns. In the Forest‘s early days, there were Foresters and Wardens engaged to police both boundaries and local poaching. They made several official 'perambulations' (1286, 1299, 1641), to identify the edges of the forest with natural or permanent markers. A few of these old boundary trees still exist in Fineshade Wood. (See right)
The boundaries fixed by the 1299 perambulation remained unchanged for 300 years. However by the 1641 perambulation, the Forest had significantly shrunk, having being sold off to local nobles. An 1817 Act of Parliament placed UK forests under a special commission, and as mentioned earlier, a large part of Rockingham Forest was disafforested in 1832. More areas were sold off in 1850.
The Forestry Commission took over Fineshade Wood as part of the UK Government's attempts to afforest swathes of England following the significant depletion of forests during WW1.
Victorian Climate Change? 12 February 2018
In his 1884 essay, The Storm-Cloud of the Nineteenth Century, the writer and art critic, John Ruskin complained of a new type of weather in the UK. It had steadily emerged over previous forty years and therefore wasn’t caused by the global ash cloud caused by Indonesia's Krakatoa volcano's eruption in 1883.
Ruskin reported that our weather system has changed from being that of extremes - either glorious or rainy, with little in between - to a volatile scenarios of strange unsettling winds, grey skies, fogs and storms.
‘And everywhere the leaves of the trees are shaking fitfully, as they do before a thunderstorm, only not violently, but enough to show the strange passing to and fro of a strange bitter biting wind… but I would care much and give much if I could be told where this bitter wind comes from’.
John Ruskin, The Storm-Cloud of the Nineteenth Century from his Selected Writings
He went on to say that these clouds look toxic. He’s very probably right. The UK’s growing conurbations of factories and homes pumped out increasing amounts of carbon monoxide.
It is interesting to hear a Victorian discussing the emotional affects of climate change and bemoaning the lack of a good old-fashioned sunset (last seen in 1876). Ruskin was a fan of J.M.V Turner’s paintings – particularly his skies and sunsets. The florid sunsets were probably caused by pollution.
Human presence in Fineshade. 19 February 2018
1100s Castle Hymel was built by the Engayne family sometime in the 12th Century.
1200 Richard Engayne had Castle Hymel demolished, he then founded the Augustinian Priory of St Mary a small distance to the north east of the castle site. Fineshade (or Fynshed) Priory remained for over 300 years.
1534 With Henry VIII’s Dissolution of the Monasteries, the prior Christopher Harringworth subscribed with six fellow canons to the acknowledgement of the king's supremacy on the 26th August. The site and demesne of the priory were in granted to John, Lord Russell, in exchange for lands in Devonshire.
1546 Sir Robert Kirkham purchased Fineshade Priory and turned it into his family seat and residence, adapting and adding to the original buildings.
1632 Robert Kirkham’s great grandson Walter obtained a license to enclose a 400-acre park.
1748 Charles Kirkham sold Fineshade Priory to William Payne King, who demolished the house and surviving monastic remains, replacing it with a Georgian mansion (ironically called Fineshade Abbey), complete with gatehouse, landscaped gardens and farmhouses.
1759 William Payne King died and left the estate to his widow, who remarried the Hon. Edwin Sandys.
1769 Sandys sold it to the Hon. John Monckton.
1928 The Moncktons sold the Abbey to Charles R. d’Anyers Willis. From 1928 to 1955 the history of the house is uncertain.
1955 There was a demolition sale for unknown reasons.
1956 The Georgian mansion was demolished.
Many thanks to Caroline Lloyd, whose much more extensive history of Fineshade Abbey is available at https://www.fineshade.org.uk/abbey
Many thanks also to Niall Rudd for these images (see right)
Dendrochronology part 1 12/13 March 2018
We spent two days taking tree cores from a range of trees around Fineshade Wood - please see the tree archive section for information about each tree. Together these will create a trail around the Wood. Some trees are on well frequented routes, others are more remote. Some trees are native. others have been introduced so it will be interesting to see if they have coped with changing weather conditions differently.
Edwina would like to thank Neil Loader and Iain Robertson from the Department of Geography at Swansea University and Phil Aldous from the Forestry Commission. Please see their UK Oak Project.
Many thanks also to James Steventon (Fermynwoods Contemporary Art) for some of the still images of the coring.
The relationship between sky and being in a forest? 26 March 2018
According to Robert Pogue Harrison, in his book Forest:The Shadow of Civilisation, early humans living in dense forests rarely saw the sky.
When they did it was often caused by lightening strikes suddenly opening up views of the heavens. They were probably read as “Acts of God”.
Letting in the sky created light in the forest – it accessed sunshine, winds, rain and snow. It also created space for new seeds, thereby changing each forest’s biodiversity. By doing this, it changed how - and particularly how quickly - humans could traverse woodlands.
Today, seeing more sky in woodlands often relates to tree felling. Sometimes, in Forestry Commission owned woodlands, this is due to planned harvesting trees as crops, on other occasions this relates to unplanned felling because of tree diseases.
Signs of Spring in Fineshade Wood? 27 March 2018
There might finally signs of Spring emerging in the woods - a very noticeable change from 13 March, despite the "Beast from the East".
So many people from the Fineshade Wood area are speaking about 2017-18 being a very long winter.
The forest as a place for trade, disputes and affinity 30 March 2018
Woodlands are, and always have been a fusion of power, pragmatic trade and something more spiritual.
Historically, Gypsies have had a strong relationship with Fineshade Wood and the nearby village of (what is currently named as) King’s Cliffe. Some of them gave up their itinerant lives, settling in the area because of their relationship to these very old trees as places of celebration and possibly healing.
Until fairly recently, there was an old oak in Fineshade Wood called the Fair Tree, located on a current forest path, which was originally called Justice Riding. It is uncertain why it had this name. It may have been where the Gypsies traded the wooden objects turned by the King’s Cliffe’s wood turners, or perhaps it was where they gathered before coming to the annual Cliffe Fair, which took place in the village. It may also have been a place where earlier hunting related disputes were settled.
Many thanks to Sue Trow-Smith from King’s Cliffe Heritage. The carved wood objects (see right) are in their amazing collection. They range from wooden spoons and beer taps, to incredibly sophisticated objects such a rattled and butter pats. Many thanks also to Barrie and Trish from Friends of Fineshade and local historian Peter Hill for their information about the Fair Tree.
The rise and decline of the wildwood 3 April 2018
According to farmer and writer John Lewis-Stempel, the Silver Birch was the first tree to colonize Britain after the last Ice Age (see example that we cored left). He considers how woods came into being as the ice receded and the arboreal invasion started. Apparently, the birch’s successors were juniper, willow and Scots Pine. This opens up the intriguing thought about how these forests returned and the varying dormancies of tree seeds. What species never came back?
So the wildwoods became established and humans started ‘managing’ them.
‘Pollen counts from prehistoric peat show a sudden decline in elm from about 3000 BC and a corresponding increase in nettles. The dismantling of the wildwood by Neolithic farmers had begun… then came the Celts with their iron tools...The Romans turned much of lowland Britain into an imperial bread basket’
The Wood. The Life & Times of Cockshutt Wood. John Lewis-Stempel
The 1086 Domesday book, written shortly after Fineshade Wood became a designated part of Rockingham Forest, stated that only 15% of England’s land was recorded as being woodland or wooded pasture.
Re-wildwooding today 12 April 2018
In the UK, we are clearly used to the idea of woodlands being managed spaces. Many of our forests have had non-native species introduced, well before the Forestry Commission came into existence.
The desire to grow new species (and also test their ability to cope with our weather), was fed by colonial plant hunters bringing living plants and seeds to the UK. Whilst the prime specimens often went to botanical institutions, the remaining ones were sold to the landed gentry, possibly including Fineshade Abbey (by this time a mansion with landscaped grounds). Many of these new trees (even when grown from seed) quickly proliferated, including the Japanese Cedar and Norway Spruce that we cored at Fineshade Wood, although this was planted much later. The project explores species introductions - be they animal (including humans( and plant life.
So instead of humans stewarding the landscape, how might forests “manage” themselves, particularly when tree disease on on the rise? This is being tested by re-wilding projects such as Wild Ennerdale in Cumbria, in partnership with the Forestry Commission. Even over a relatively short period (in woodland terms), there has been a huge positive impact to all areas of the Forest’s biodiversity and disease resistance.
Whilst we’ll never fully understand how forests came (back) into existence after the Ice Age, rewilded woods might give us insights into how our trees might cope with future changes.
2017 was a mast year 13 April 2018
A mast year is a natural phenomenon, in which certain tree species such as chestnut, English Oak and beech produce a glut of seeds. They occur every five to ten years.
Mast years are not just one off events occurring with one specific tree - the vast majority of woodland trees across the UK will have a fantastic seed crop. So how do trees seemingly miles apart communicate with one another?
This is a mystery. However, it is thought that it is probably to do with the weather. The right combination of temperature and rainfall in the spring is thought to trigger this response. So, how might changing climate affect the occurrence of mast years in the future?
Dendrochronology part 2 30 April 2018
How does a tree grow? Colin Tudge is his book The Secret Life of Trees… answers this question.
‘ A tree may grow to be as big as a church and yet must be fully functional (apart from the business of reproducing) from the moment it germinates. It must fashion and refashion itself as it grows, for as it increases in size so the stresses alter – the tension and compression on each part. To achieve hugeness and yet be self building – no scaffolding or outside agencies required – and to operate for good measure as an independent living creature through all phases of growth is beyond anything that human engineers have achieved.'
Where does tree growth come from? How does the tree’s truck increase in thickness and still be continuously functional? Xylem is the answer.
Xylem is the tree’s vascular tissue, which moves water and minerals from the roots to the rest of the plant. In trees, xylem builds another ring of new xylem around itself. Dead xylem becomes heartwood, which acts as the tree’s backbone. The newer xylem (the sapwood) serves as the tree’s plumbing system. Along with the creation of chlorophyll, this overall process is called transpiration. (More about this below)
Traditionally, the age of the trees was determined by cutting through the base of the tree, but this of course kills it. This is why we used dendrochronology for the archive of the trees.
Winter into summer 5 May 2018
Talk of spring emerging in March was premature.
Our seasons are different each year - it is one of the pleasures of living in the UK - but it is unusual that the transition out of winter seems to bypass spring. Plants and trees normally budding or blossoming weeks apart are on display together. The same happened in 2013.
Fineshade Wood is virtually unrecognisable from a few weeks ago. The bluebells are beginning to create their blue carpets, but it is the cowslips, whilst not yet in full flower, that are abundant in sunny areas of Fineshade. Violets are in full bloom and orchids are beginning to emerge.
And the cuckoos were calling.
Dendrochronology part 3 22 May 2018
Forest trees grow much more slowly than those in parks and gardens, where they are likely to be tended. There are several elements that affect a tree’s well being:
The soil quality. The Forestry Commission often grows trees on land that can’t be used for arable farming. Despite being part of Rockingham Forest for over 1000 years, the predominantly clay soil at Fineshade means that growing wheat (for example) is going to be inefficient in today’s farming terms. This means that there are not many nutrients in the soil to support tree growth.
The amount of soil. When you see first see a fallen tree, it is surprising about how little soil a large tree can actually grow on. This tree is still alive (in that it is still transpiring) for several years even when it has toppled over. It is just growing more slowly than it would do if it was still rooted in soil.
The amount of water. If the tree dehydrates too much it can’t fully transpire so it shuts down in order to survive. Too much water can wash away the soil.
The seasonal temperature. This is the big game changer for three reasons. As temperatures rise the lack of water affects the trees transpiration – its internal dialogue between creating chlorophyll , xylem and hardwood is compromised. Sunshine is great for chlorophyll production, but requires water to support this process. The second problem is that as temperatures rise, new insects can prey on trees. This has happened with the Processionary Oak moth, previously found much further south. Really cold weather also impact a tree's growth. A week of really dry or cold weather won't affect a mature tree (although it might with a sapling), but a month or two of it certainly will.
The origin of trees. The trees that are familiar to us have moved around the world through humans moving saplings or seeds. For example, there are now about 600 species of oak around the world. However importing any plant brings risk of disease, hence ash dieback (Chalara Fraxinea). By tracing back these migration routes, it may be possible to study trees that have built up a resistance to a disease.
Tree density. This means that each tree is competing for light, nutrients and water, although high tree density can offer tree's protection from strong winds if they are growing in very little soil.
Swansea University have analysed the Fineshade tree cores and it is mostly really good news. Please see the tree archive pages.


According to the Ministry of Health, the HIV toll may reach a toll similar to that of 2012, which accounted for 469 cases. Of the 198 Singapore residents with HIV infections in the first six months, 95% were males and most of the cases were reported due to sexual transmission of the disease.
Heterosexual transmission accounted for 43 percent of these cases, while 44 percent accounts for homosexual transmission. 10% accounted for bisexual transmission, states a report by the STRAINTSTIMES. Sources also reveal that the main cause of such high HIV index is due to ignorance or negligence.
For instance, 2 of the 3 newly reported cases were already in their late stages when they were diagnosed. Over 40 percent of the newly reported cases between January to June 2013 had HIV detected when tests were performed in the course of medical care provision.
Transmission cause mainly by heterosexual relationships.
Approximately 30 per cent were detected during routine programmatic HIV screening, while just 20 per cent were screened during voluntary HIV screening. It is further revealed that 33 percent of the cases occurred in homosexual couples, while just 8 percent occurred in heterosexual couples.
Pointing the root cause of increasing HIV rates, the MOH has said that it is rampant among those indulging in casual sex, multiple sex or commercial sex. Warning them of the consequences, the MOH has issued the following guidelines:
1. Condoms should be used consistently and correctly during every sexual encounter
2. Regular HIV testing should be done to ensure early diagnosis of the infection.
3. Care and treatment for those infected and providing them guidelines on how to protect their partners is a must


UN Works to Make Tourism More Sustainable
20 January 2017 | Mitigation
The United Nations has designated 2017 as the International Year of Sustainable Tourism for Development.
The year kicked off at the International Tourism Fair in Spain (FITUR) on Wednesday, which was opened by the King and Queen of Spain, Don Felipe VI and Doña Letizia.
This year is an opportunity to look at how tourism is affected by climate change and how emissions from the sector can be curbed, along with finding ways for the industry to better adapt to the inevitable impacts of rising global average temperatures.
More than one billion international tourists meanwhile travel the world each year, which means that tourism provides millions of jobs and is crucial for national and local economies, not least in the developing world.
More than many other industries, tourism relies on a stable climate, and is already being impacted by increased incidents of storms and heatwaves, desertification, fresh water loss, rising sea levels that threaten coastal resorts, and diminished snowfall in alpine skiing areas.
The UN's World Tourism Organization estimates that tourism is responsible of about 5% of global CO2 emissions. Accommodation accounts for approximately 20% of emissions from tourism. This involves heating, air-conditioning and the maintenance of bars, restaurants and pools.
The transport sector, including air, car and rail, generates the largest proportion, with 75% of all emissions. Part of the emissions from transport can be avoided by choosing the most sustainable form of transport at least for inland travel, which is rail.
Tourist and business travelers, along with companies and organizations, can offset the carbon footprint of their trips by plane or car by purchasing UN-certified offsets provided through the UN's Climate Neutral Now Initiative.
Climate Neutral Now is also active in helping entire sub-sectors of the tourism transport industry, such as airports, measure, reduce and offset and their emissions.
International Tourism Fair in Madrid
The ongoing International Tourism Fair in Madrid (FITUR, 18-22) has a focus on sustainable tourism and comprises a number of events organized by the World Tourism Organization.
More than 20 ministers of tourism from Africa are debating the opportunities that the sector can bring to the continent.
The potential of tourism in the MENA region (the Middle East and North Africa) and how to strengthen the climate resilience of tourism in the region are also being discussed at the fair by ministers.


Organic Coffee Beans Journey: From Farm to Your Cup
The world of coffee is vast and diverse, yet among its many variations, organic coffee holds a special place. Its journey from farm to cup is not just a story of cultivation and flavor, but also one of environmental stewardship and commitment to sustainable practices. In this article, we delve into the fascinating process behind organic coffee beans – from their roots in the earth to the aromatic brew in your cup.
Organic coffee farming emphasizes the use of natural processes and materials, eschewing synthetic chemicals and fertilizers. This approach not only nurtures the health of the soil and the surrounding ecosystem but also enhances the quality and flavor of the coffee beans. Understanding this farm to cup process provides insight into the complexity and richness of organic coffee, and why it’s increasingly preferred by coffee enthusiasts and environmentalists alike.
Cultivating Organic Coffee Beans
The cultivation of organic coffee is a testament to the harmony between agriculture and nature. In this phase, sustainable farming practices play a crucial role. Farmers opt for natural fertilizers like compost and bird manure, and follow crop rotation methods to maintain soil health. These practices ensure that the coffee plants grow in a balanced ecosystem, leading to healthier beans.
However, growing coffee organically comes with its challenges. Farmers must combat pests and diseases without synthetic pesticides, often relying on biological control methods and selective breeding for disease-resistant varieties. Despite these difficulties, the benefits are significant. Organic coffee farming leads to richer biodiversity, soil preservation, and a safer environment for workers and local wildlife.
Challenges and Benefits of Growing Organic Coffee
In the world of organic coffee farming, challenges such as pest control, yield management, and adherence to strict organic certification standards are ever-present. Yet, these challenges are met with significant benefits. Organic methods result in a lower environmental impact, higher quality beans, and often, better prices for farmers due to the premium nature of organic products. This balance of difficulty and reward is at the heart of organic coffee cultivation.
Harvesting and Processing
Harvesting organic coffee beans is a process that epitomizes the essence of care and precision. Unlike conventional coffee farming, organic beans are typically harvested by hand, a labor-intensive but crucial method to ensure the highest quality. This hands-on approach allows farmers to select only the ripest cherries, ensuring each bean meets the strict standards of organic quality and flavor. Selective harvesting is more than just a method; it represents a dedication to excellence and sustainability, forming the very foundation of organic coffee production.
Meticulous Selection and Harvesting Techniques
The meticulous nature of organic coffee harvesting is paramount. Farmers traverse their plantations, often situated on steep, mountainous terrain, to handpick each cherry. This selective process not only guarantees the ripeness of each bean but also minimizes waste and environmental impact. The care taken during harvesting is a testament to the farmers’ commitment to producing coffee that is as good for the earth as it is for the consumer.
Natural Processing Methods
After the harvest, the beans undergo natural processing, a step as vital as the cultivation itself. The dry method, one of the oldest techniques, involves laying the cherries out in the sun to dry with their pulp still intact. This process can take several weeks, during which the cherries are turned regularly to ensure even drying. It’s a method that imbues the beans with a richer, more robust flavor.
Alternatively, the wet method involves fermenting the cherries to remove the pulp before drying them. This fermentation process is delicate, requiring careful monitoring to ensure the perfect balance of flavors. Once the pulp is removed, the beans are washed and dried, resulting in a cleaner, brighter flavor profile.
Both these natural processing methods are pivotal in shaping the coffee’s final taste. They are also integral in maintaining the organic integrity of the beans, as they eschew the use of chemical additives or artificial methods.
Roasting Organic Coffee Beans
The roasting stage is where the potential of the coffee bean is fully realized. Organic coffee beans are roasted to bring out their unique flavors and aromas. This process transforms the green coffee beans into the rich, aromatic beans that are then ground and brewed. Roasting organic coffee requires a keen eye and a skilled hand, as it is done in small batches to ensure that each bean’s natural characteristics are properly developed.
The Art of Coffee Roasting
Roasting organic coffee beans is a nuanced art, involving a careful balance of time, temperature, and technique. Artisanal roasters pay close attention to the roasting process, adjusting the heat and timing to achieve the desired roast level, from light to dark. The roasting stage profoundly influences the coffee’s final flavor profile, with lighter roasts imparting a more acidic, fruity flavor, and darker roasts bringing out deeper, more robust notes.
Packaging and Distribution
After roasting, the beans are swiftly packaged to preserve their freshness and quality. The packaging often involves airtight containers, sometimes equipped with special valves to allow gases to escape while preventing air from entering. This step is crucial in preventing oxidation, which can degrade the flavor of the coffee.
Eco-Friendly Practices in Distribution
In keeping with the principles of organic production, the distribution of organic coffee often incorporates eco-friendly practices. This includes using biodegradable packaging materials, reducing transportation emissions, and supporting fair trade initiatives. These practices ensure that the environmental impact of the coffee is minimized throughout the supply chain, from the farm to the consumer.
Brewing the Perfect Cup of Organic Coffee
Brewing organic coffee is an art in itself. The right techniques can extract the best flavors from the beans, providing an unparalleled coffee experience. Whether using a drip filter, French press, or espresso machine, each method can highlight different aspects of the coffee’s taste profile.
Brewing Techniques for Maximum Flavor
To brew the perfect cup, one must consider the grind size, water temperature, and brewing time. A finer grind and hotter water suit methods like espresso, whereas a coarser grind works better for slower methods like the French press. Experimenting with these variables can lead to discovering the perfect brew that suits your taste.
Impact on the Environment and Local Communities
The impact of organic coffee farming extends beyond the cup. It plays a significant role in environmental conservation, sustainable agriculture, and supporting local communities. Organic farms often become havens for wildlife and help in preserving local biodiversity.
Environmental Benefits and Community Support
By avoiding harmful chemicals, organic coffee farming contributes to cleaner soil, water, and air. It also offers a safer and healthier working environment for farmers and laborers. Additionally, organic coffee often involves fair trade practices, ensuring that farmers receive a fair price for their produce, thereby supporting local economies and communities.
The journey of organic coffee beans from farm to cup is a story of passion, dedication, and a deep respect for nature. It’s a process that requires patience, care, and a commitment to sustainable practices.
As consumers, every sip of organic coffee is not just a treat for the taste buds but also a small step towards supporting a more sustainable and equitable world. The future of coffee lies in these sustainable practices, promising a better tomorrow for both coffee lovers and the planet.


Definition of bedfellow in English:
1A person who shares a bed with another.
- The way men perceive the educational status of their female bedfellows has changed.
- For them, strange or strained bedfellows are more fun than no bedfellows at all, since the excitement is all in the conquest.
- It appears they were bedfellows both figuratively and literally.
1.1A person or thing allied or closely connected with another: big business and politics were inseparable bedfellows
More example sentences
- Plus, world politics makes for strange bedfellows.
- In this context, politics created strange bedfellows.
- History takes strange turns and politics makes strange bedfellows.
Definition of bedfellow in:
- US English dictionary
What do you find interesting about this word or phrase?
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Photographing with the Macro Switar on a Leica M and Fuji X-Pro1
Early camera lenses did not have the sophisticated anti-reflective optical coatings we have today. Early lens designs had fewer optical elements to control aberrations and so did not require coatings to control reflective glare. As optical elements were added to lens systems creating more glass surfaces, they also created more problems with reflective glare from the increase of internal glass surfaces. In the mid-1930's a non-reflective coating was first discovered and used to coat the lens surfaces to reduce glare. This was not widely applied until after WWII. It took decades for the development of the sophisticated, multi-lens coatings we use today.
Early lenses have a muted, low contrast effect when used on modern digital camera sensors, which are more demanding than film. The original sharpness of these lenses remains unaffected. I seem to remember reading somewhere that for the film "Saving Private Ryan" the cinematographer had the lens coatings removed from the Nikon lenses used to shoot the film in order to simulate the effect of contemporary optics.
The electronic view finders and "live view" mode of mirrorless cameras has made it possible to mount many older camera lenses on them. So I decided to try the 50mm Switar on my Leica M and also the Fuji X-Pro1. Interestingly, it is a very small lens for having been intended for SLR use. In fact, it is not much larger than a regular Leica M lens. This, plus its ability to focus close, made it very appealing to try.
|The focusing ring has a long throw -- a really long throw. It focuses down to 1.8x magnification at 11" but takes 2 3/4 turns of the focusing ring to get there. Note the Visifocus depth-of-field scale of yellow dots.|
|First thing I noticed about this lens was the low contrast due to its lack of modern anti-reflective coatings.|
|The images are definitely sharp, but lacking in color punch -- a direct result of the low level of lens coatings.|
|Normally, the colors in this photo and the one above would be very vibrant. I could have punched the color some more in Photoshop, but decided to keep it as it was to illustrate the muted color palette of the lens.|
For all of the above samples, I used a very wide open lens aperture of f/2 and a filtered window light for illumination to enhance the softer color palette of the lens. The muted colors are a product of the age of the lens and its minimal anti-reflective coatings. There is no other post-processing going on here.
The main reason I enjoy using older lenses on modern digital cameras is for the inherent optical effects they offer due to the less sophisticated technology of their age. I find this extends the options of my creative palette.
|Here the Switar is mounted on a Fuji X-Pro1 where it acts as a 75mm close-up lens. The pleasing look of the match of camera to lens almost appears as if they were made for each other.|
|Taken with the Switar on the X-Pro1, this shot demonstrates the beautiful bokeh in the out of focus areas when working in close at a wide open f/1.8 aperture.|


- Socialization: A martial arts class is a diverse group of individuals, all of whom have something in common – they are there for the same purpose of learning martial arts. This is an ideal circumstance for connecting with other people, having differences and common points at the same time.
- Setting and achieving Goals: A Martial Arts School, like any educational facility, is about personal improvement and achievement. You are a better person for leaning and applying your abilities to your life. You become better for achieving some of your goals and getting past some of your obstacles.
- Growth: Martial Arts Training is great for getting people out of a comfort zone of self-imposed set of limitations. Learn discipline, deal with opposition and criticism, see improvement and learn co-operation.
- Physical fitness: Being physical fit is beneficial for everything. It is well established that physical fitness has some positive impact on mental health, and help us deal with many things in life. The only cost is some time and effort, but we more than compensate for this be becoming more productive.
- Self Defence: Perhaps the most commonly cited reason for undertaking karate or Taekwondo training, Self defence is something we learn hoping we never have to use. But sometime a crisis is inevitable, and it is best to be prepared.
Competition martial arts are an advantage here. The most difficult thing in a crisis is dealing with the adrenalin and stress; technical skill is important but not enough on its own. Competitions give martial arts students practice and ability to handle stressful situations, so they learn how to respond under pressure.
Any sport has physical and psychological benefits for younger people. When children want to improve at any activity they come to understand that teaching and discipline are there to help, not to impose barriers. Karate and Taekwondo are both good choices here.
Martial Arts Training Sydney
Make a Karate or Taekwondo class a regular part of your week. Martial Art Training get us in the best psychological and physical condition, so we can be get more done and make the best use of our time.


1. The problem statement, all variables and given/known data The 140-lb uniform steel plate ABCD is welded to shaft EF and is maintained in the position shown by the couple M. Knowing that collars prevent the shaft from sliding in the bearings and that the shaft lies in the yz plane, plot the magnitude M of the couple as a function of θ for 0<= θ<=90. http://img378.imageshack.us/my.php?image=figurefz3.jpg" 2. The attempt at a solution From what I understand, this problem requires a system equivalent to zero. Sum of F = 0 Sum of M (along EF) = 0 I am having problems setting/getting started on this problem.


For a long time it has been widely believed that cannabis has cancer preventative properties; but now, British scientists have proven for the first time that the plant can be used to prevent the growth of tumours.
A research team from the University Of East Anglia (UEA) has undertaken ground-breaking research into the beneficial properties of THC and found incredible results. The area of research has otherwise been ‘poorly understood’ due to being a controlled substance in this country and many parts of the world.
By injecting Tetrahydrocannabinol or THC into laboratory mice bearing human cancer cells, scientists have discovered two specific cell receptors that are responsible for the disease-fighting effects of the plant.
Dr Peter McCormick, from UEA’s school of pharmacy, said:
“Our findings help explain some of the well-known but still poorly understood effects of THC at low and high doses on tumour growth.
“There has been a great deal of interest in understanding the molecular mechanisms behind how marijuana, and specifically THC, influence cancer pathology.
“By identifying the receptors involved we have provided an important step towards the future development of therapeutics that can take advantage of the interactions we have discovered to reduce tumour growth.”
The study has been published in the Journal of Biological Chemistry, a highly regarded science journal which will create real validity to an otherwise discredited substance.
Cancer Research UK have been quick to warm the public more research will be required before we know the substance can 100% help treat the disease. Dr McCormick also warned:
“Our research uses an isolated chemical compound and using the correct concentration is vital. Cancer patients should not use cannabis to self-medicate, but I hope that our research will lead to a safe synthetic equivalent being available in the future.”


Many universities and educational organizations offer specialized Adult Education courses. A lot of these courses are online courses. Everybody can sign up online, pay the fee and begin the prep course.
The promise is that if you learn at least 1 hour per week, you will be ready for the exam within 2-4 months, and ambitious students who learn 1 hour per day will be able to pass the exam in just a few weeks.
Sounds really great, right? But it is not that easy. Why? Although students begin learning enthusiastically, they commonly drop their learning routine after a few weeks. We have seen this phenomenon with our own free online GED Classes.
However, the same online courses, when used in combination with traditional classes, work really well. The difference seems to be the instructor’s approach and encouragement.
Why is that? Well, there are many reasons, and there are solutions to this problem, too.
It is not uncommon for adult learners to feel insecure in the student role. Many students experience the “Imposter Syndrome,” frequently doubting their ability to succeed. They report that they feel that everyone else knows more than they do.
For some, this imposter feeling is further compounded by negative experiences they have had with the educational system. Those experiences have often left the students with low self-esteem and self-concepts and a feeling that they are failures.
Instructors in traditional classes keep these potential psychological barriers in mind and provide support and encouragement when asking students to try new skills. They establish a positive learning climate where adults feel comfortable.
How to Overcome This Problem
Realize what you are experiencing, and ask your friends and family to support you. Remember, adult learners, also GED students, often need to feel part of a learning community, a support network of learners that can serve as a sounding board.
Adult Learners Have Multiple Roles
Adult learners are engaged in multiple roles, and this impacts the time and the energy they can devote to their role as students. Unlike many younger students, attending classes is not a full-time occupation for them.
Usually, learning is a secondary activity that needs to be accomplished besides their tasks as parents, spouses, or full-time jobs so that they can spend less time on their studies.
Adult Learners Have Experience
Usually, adult learners learn a lot of things informally through talking with coworkers or friends and through on-the-job training, observation, and trial and error.
This won’t mean that they have learned it all correctly or completely. What it does mean, however, is that adult learners have already developed preconceptions.
When the information presented in a course conflicts with an adult learner’s preconceptions, the learning process can be distorted or delayed. You can also say that the student’s learning routine is interrupted.
Good instructors in traditional classes know how to balance respect for students’ opinions.
How to Overcome This Problem
- Take your time to think about it
- Check other resources
- Try to accept the new way of thinking
What Else Helps?
- Sharing the newly learned knowledge with friends or family
- Keeping a learning journal
- Tracking your progress. I use trello.com. It helps me to keep track of my goals and helps me to realize what I learned by setting goals (written goals)
- Self-expressing online via blogs
- Awarding yourself. For every lesson you finish, award yourself – You deserve it
Online lessons are a waste of money if you don’t follow the learning programs. It is only natural that you will meet some obstacles in the form of your own stubborn mind, your low self-esteem as a learner, or just because of a lack of time management.
But remember, you can make it; there is no lift to success; you need to take the stairs and fight all obstacles.
Background and Resources:
To find an explanation for this phenomenon, we talk with students, educators, and researchers. The most common problem is what Stephen Brookfield, Ph.D., identifies as “The Impostor Syndrome.”
Brookfield, a distinguished University Professor at the University of St. Thomas in Minneapolis-St. Paul is the author of 16 books on adult teaching, adult learning, discussion methods, critical thinking, critical theory, and critical pedagogy.
Last Updated on June 14, 2022.


X-ray telescope searches for evidence of Theory of Everything
Finding a way to unify conflicting scientific models into a “Theory of Everything” is essentially a Holy Grail of physics. Now a NASA observatory has conducted one of the first experimental tests of these theories, scouring the sky for evidence of a hypothetical particle that could tie the universe together.
The Standard Model of particle physics does a pretty good job of explaining the universe on the nano scale, but when it’s brought up to the macro scale it kind of falls apart. For instance, one of the biggest holes is that it doesn’t cover gravity.
At the other end of the scale, Albert Einstein’s general theory of relativity has proven resilient in describing the physics of massive objects like planets, stars, galaxies, and galaxy clusters. Unfortunately it also begins to break down when faced with the weirdness at the quantum scale.
Bringing these two disparate realms together under one umbrella has eluded science for decades. In fact, the search for a Unified Theory of Everything consumed much of the working lives of some of the top minds of recent times, such as Einstein and Stephen Hawking.
One of the leading contenders is known as “string theory.” In a nutshell, the idea goes that every particle that we may think of as just a “dot” is actually the tip of a one-dimensional string. Properties of the particle, such as its mass and charge, are determined by how that string vibrates.
There are many different versions of string theory, with some of them more likely than others. The problem is, it’s hard to find any supporting evidence, leading many scientists to dismiss the pursuit as pointless. After all, the scientific method doesn’t like ideas that are untestable.
But there may yet be clues out there. String theory predicts the existence of hypothetical particles called axions, which would have very tiny masses and, strangely, may convert into photons when passing through magnetic fields. The reverse may also be true under other circumstances. And these particles may be just the things to blow the case wide open.
An international team has now used NASA’s Chandra X-ray Observatory to search for signs of these axions in the Perseus cluster, some 240 million light-years from Earth. If there are axions there, they should create distortions in the X-ray energy as they convert into photons.
“While it may sound like a long shot to look for tiny particles like axions in gigantic structures like galaxy clusters, they are actually great places to look,” says David Marsh, co-author of the study. “Galaxy clusters contain magnetic fields over giant distances, and they also often contain bright X-ray sources. Together these properties enhance the chances that conversion of axion-like particles would be detectable.”
The team studied more than five days’ worth of data gathered by Chandra on the Perseus cluster. Specifically, the telescope was measuring the strength of X-rays produced at different energies as material falls into the supermassive black hole at the center of the cluster. If axions were there, distorting that light as they convert into photons, Chandra should be able to spot them.
Unfortunately, it didn’t. While this may suggest that axions don’t exist, the team also says that the particles could just have higher masses than they tested for, or perhaps they don’t convert into photons quite as easily as expected.
“Our research doesn’t rule out the existence of these particles, but it definitely doesn’t help their case,” says Helen Russell, co-author of the study. “These constraints dig into the range of properties suggested by string theory, and may help string theorists weed their theories.”
This isn’t the only axion-hunting experiment to return a null result. Others have tried to detect their electromagnetic oscillations in plasma chambers, their effect on the spins of neutrons, or their ability to create magnetic fields in places where there should be none. Together, these findings may help narrow down the search.
If they are ever discovered, axions could solve many different physics problems. Not only would they be evidence of string theory, but they could explain dark matter, and why there’s far more matter than antimatter in the universe.
The new research was published in the Astrophysical Journal.


Atlantis: The Unknown IslandThis is the Internet after all, where words like "sex" and "mp3" continue to rank high on the list of most searched terms. But every month or so, a new word topples the rest as the one appearing in search boxes the most.
The searched term can be representative of the times, popular trends, or simply the newest buzzword; whatever the case, each special feature examines why Internet users are in a frenzy to find this topic.
WordSpot.com Search Rank: -
according to www.wordspot.com
Overture Searches On Site: 70,816
according to the December 2001 report from www.overture.com
If you think Atlantis is only a Disney animation movie for children, you need to get informed. Although the island is said to have existed over 11,000 years ago, there has never been any scientific proof to back up its existence.
Often referred to as the "Lost Continent," the theory of Atlantis was popularized by ancient Greek philosopher Plato in his dialogues entitled Timaeus and Critias — the only known written records about this land.
In 360 BC, Plato believed that once upon a time, a nation existed on an island amid the Atlantic Ocean, west of the Straits of Gibraltar. It was filled with natural resources: fruits, nuts, herbs, and a variety of wild animals. The densely populated region spanned over 17 miles, complete with lakes, rivers and villages.
The island was the property of Poseidon, god of the sea, who fathered five sets of twin boys with his mortal lover Cleito. The island was divided among all the brothers and Atlas, the eldest son, was the first king to reign over the island.
Atlanteans lived moderately, and with a chaste mentality. But as time passed, like in many populations, greed and power began to corrupt them. Shortly after, in a punishment exerted by Zeus, Atlantis was swallowed by the sea.
Although that was the end of Atlantis according to Plato, it has left many researchers dumbfounded for centuries.
Much of the debates over Atlantis concern its actual existence, and where the island was located.
Whether you believe this tale is real, fictional, or simply a historical distortion of the fall of the Minoan civilization (and the destruction of the island of Thera), there is always room for debate.
If you believe that Atlantis did indeed exist, one of its likely geographical locations would've been around the Azores Islands, a group of islands that belong to Portugal, about 900 miles off the Portuguese coast.
It's also believed that Atlantis was the island of Thera in the Aegean Sea, which was destroyed following a volcanic explosion during the Minoan empire. But based on Plato's writings, Atlantis was destroyed by a cataclysm in 9000 BC — the island of Thera was ravaged by a volcanic eruption in 1500 BC.
The popularity lies in the fact that no one knows for sure if Atlantis ever existed. Right up there with UFO sightings and crop circles, no scientific and conclusive evidence has ever been found.
Maybe it existed, maybe it didn't. Only time and more research will tell.
Of The Longevity Of This Term's Popularity - 7/10


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Plato ranks among the most familiar ancient philosophers, along with his teacher, Socrates, and his student, Aristotle. In addition to writing philosophical dialogues ― used to teach logic, ethics, rhetoric, religion, and mathematics as well as philosophy ― he founded Athens' Academy, the Western world's first institution of higher learning.
God forbid that i have to read this tosh.
he goes on and on and on - too sanctimonious!!
This edition does not contain the chapter numbers or stanza numbers so you cannot use this book in any essays or use it to follow lectures if the tutor is using a different edition... Read morePublished on 4 April 2010 by mince


It’s no secret that most Americans do not eat nearly enough fruits and vegetables. This problem is especially acute in lower income groups. The growing obesity problem is also no secret, with one third of Americans now qualifying as overweight and another one third as obese. It’s here, as with other health problems such as heart disease, diabetes and cancer, that plant foods form a very powerful part of the solution. In fact, vegetarians have a 45% decreased risk of being overweight or obese, and vegans are, on average, 30 pounds thinner than meat eaters with a rather desirable BMI of only about 23. This dietary advantage is especially true of those consuming unprocessed plant foods and produce to be found at farmers’ markets.
In an effort to get disadvantaged New Yorkers to eat a little healthier, the city is launching a pilot program at two hospitals that will have New Yorkers receive “prescriptions” that can be used to purchase fruits and vegetables at farmers markets, and other plant foods such as whole grain corn on the cob, beans and even nuts.
Patients will receive Health Bucks, $2 coupons that can be used at any of the 142 farmers markets across the city, including farmers’ markets set up at the hospitals themselves. Doctors will then monitor the patients in the pilot program over the course of four months. Patients will have their weight and body mass index evaluated by their doctor, as well receive counseling on healthy eating.
The program, part of a national campaign to help doctors change the eating habits of their patients, will focus on low-income, high-risk patients who desperately need to change their diet. This program is now being launched at Harlem Hospital in Manhattan and Lincoln Medical Center in the South Bronx.
Dr. Katherine Szema, chief of pediatrics at Lincoln, said the program aims to get parents and their kids to eat at least one more serving of fruits or vegetables each day. “Kids usually kind of dread coming to the doctor to talk about their obesity,” she said. “But this is a positive thing. They look forward to it.” If the “prescriptions” are found successful in lowering obesity among the 140 patients in the pilot program, the city will look to expand the program to other low-income neighborhoods.
“Each dollar invested in the Fruit and Vegetable Prescription Program nourishes public hospital patients and their families, boosts revenue at farmers markets, and supports overall community health,” Deputy Mayor Gibbs said at a press conference. “Farmers markets support the City’s efforts to keep communities fit by providing healthy and affordable dietary options in a localized setting.”
A recent study by Swedish researchers, published in The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, found that people who ate fewer than five servings of fruit and vegetables a day were more likely to die early. “A food environment full of processed foods full of fat, sugar and salt is contributing to obesity, diabetes, heart disease, stroke, cancer and other chronic diseases,” New York City Health Commissioner Dr. Thomas Farley said in a statement. According to Farley, about one in 10 New Yorkers don’t eat any fruits or vegetables in a given day, but in the Bronx, that number is a shocking five in 10 adults. “The Fruit and Vegetable Prescription program is a creative approach that, with the inclusion of “Health Bucks”, will enable at-risk patients to purchase the fruits and vegetables that will help them stay healthy…. This is probably going to prevent an awful lot of disease in the long term” said Dr. Farley.
Bronx resident Tammy Futch says she’s lost weight, and her 11-year-old son has dropped 20 pounds since joining the program. “He was one that never ate vegetables. He used to be a McDonald’s baby,” she said. Tammy Futch, who lives in the Patterson Houses in Mott Haven, said the program was a huge success for her shrinking, 11-year-old son, Ty-J. Her son says his fast-food favorites were replaced with beets, corn, carrots, strawberries and avocados.
The FVRx, short for Fruit and Vegetable Prescription program, was started by Wholesome Wave, a nonprofit that supports small and mid-sized farms in Massachusetts, Maine, California and Rhode Island. Last year, the program was expanded to include 12 sites in seven more states, including New York and the District of Columbia. Lincoln Medical Center and Harlem Hospital Center are the first hospitals to join the program, according to Wholesome Wave.
Long known for serving some of the unhealthiest food to both patients and staff alike, this program comes as a long awaited improvement in hospitals’ recognition of the power of plant foods to prevent and even reverse a number of common diseases.
While your local hospital may not be giving out coupons for the local farmers’ market just yet, there’s nothing to stop you from including more healthy fruits and vegetables into your diet yourself. Check out your nearest farmers’ market, and enjoy the summer’s bounty.


Logic probes can be anything from useful to critical depending on the project, but if you don’t have one already, why not try building one? Instructables has a guide to building a logic probe using a PCB, an assorted lot of resistors, capacitors, regulators, DIP sockets, a 9V battery clip (and 9V battery), and a hex inverter. Instead of using an LED like other simple logic probes, though, this kit uses a 7 segment LED display to show whether logic high (H) or low (L). The schematic makes putting this together only slightly more complicated than snapping Legos together. Of course, the resulting device is not as versatile as a LogicPort logic analyzer, but it is still useful.