[Editor's Note: This article is part of a series of feature articles by our Central Rockies Regional Editor about alternative/sustainable/renewable energy (RE) solutions for self-sufficiency. Previous related articles in SurvivalBlog that complement this one are: “Home Power Systems: Batteries,” “Home Inverter Comparison: Off Grid and Grid Tied,” “Home Power Systems: Micro Hydro”, and “Energy Efficiency and Conservation.” Upcoming article topics in this Home Power Systems series include: Wind Generators, Solar Water Distillers, Solar Ovens, and Solar Water Heating.]
Photovoltaics, or PV for short, is the technology that converts sunlight directly into electricity. PV has come a long way from the discovery of the photovoltaic effect in 1839 by French physicist Alexandre-Edmund Becquerel, the first practical silicon solar cell in 1954 by Bell Labs, commercial production by Western Electric at $1,785/Watt a year later, and Telstar’s power source in 1962. Early commercial uses included mountaintop radio repeaters, orbiting satellite power, and various experimental uses. Most of the early consumer adoption, starting in the 1960s and 1970s, was from off-grid pioneers who were challenged by high prices and unwieldy technology of not only the PV panels themselves but also the battery, inverter, and charge controller technologies needed to complete a practical home power system. In 1977, PV panels were first installed on the White House and world-wide production of PV cells surpassed 500 kW; a year later the first solar-powered calculators hit the market.
Even in those early days of PV, the simplicity of energy that comes directly from the sun, uses no moving parts and lasts for decades lured experimenters onward to refine and move towards perfecting the technology. There are numerous other reasons why one would want to switch from grid power to solar, including self-reliance/self-sufficiency/independence, reliability/stability, environmental, financial, maintenance and social/geopolitical ones; this article gives a quick overview of these motivations for PV use.
Home Power magazine, which started in the late 1980s, did much (and still does to this day) to chronicle, educate, and nurture the fledgling home energy market with PV as the flagship technology, adding inverters, home-scale wind turbines, and small hydro as complementary options that work best together to provide year-round energy coverage. Home solar electric systems were spurred onward in that era by surplus PV panels that still had significant useful life after their commercial and government lifespans had been reached; those PV pioneers showed that, even with the growing pains of an immature technology at the time, it still was a viable alternative. Inverters now put out better sine wave AC power than any utility company, leap-frogging over the early awkward days of modified square-wave systems that were buzzy, inefficient, and required a lot more technical savvy to install and maintain. Battery and other interconnection technologies and safety advances have moved home PV systems from home-brew and experimental status, a few decades ago, to mainstream appliance status today.
As the technology and momentum of economies of scale have improved, the cost per PV watt has continued to plummet, from over $70/Watt in 1977, to a mere 36 cents/Watt today, in 2014. Contrast this with the price of gasoline (the linked chart is adjusted for inflation) over about the same period of time, and PV looks more and more attractive all the time, compared with running a generator as a primary alternative energy source, for example. Nowadays one doesn’t have to go far to see PV panels used on traffic lights and equipment, on commercial buildings, and in ever-increasing numbers on residential buildings as well. A couple of decades ago, the prohibitive cost of PV panels and all the related gear (batteries still being one of the more expensive components, but advances are happening there as well) needed to complete a PV home power system stretched out the “break-even”– the time for a system to pay for itself– to spans of a decade or more. Now, with this time frame shrinking due to steadily declining costs of essential all-system components, more companies are manufacturing PV and more are sprouting up to offer PV home installations, sales, and maintenance service.
Recently a milestone was reached in a country not particularly notorious for having abundant solar energy. Germany is evidently producing over half of its electrical energy from photovoltaics! This related document has an interesting map/graphic on page 12, showing the theoretic space requirement to meet the electricity demand of the world, and it appears to be about half the size of Portugal; this is more evidence that the technology, infrastructure, and momentum is growing to make solar electricity a maturing option to our planet’s energy needs. So the obvious question arises: Why aren’t other countries, particularly ones like the United States that have significantly more solar potential, following suit, or better yet, leading the way in this regard? Instead of pondering this rhetorical question from a theoretical standpoint, a more relevant contemporary practical question might be to ask when, rather than if, is the best time to incorporate PV in a home energy system. Obviously location is important; as you can see from this solar map of the USA, if you live in the deserts of southern California, Arizona, New Mexico, or west Texas, your solar PV potential is superb, but if can make a go of it, why not other less sunny locations as well?
If you’ve eagerly followed this industry for decades, or even if you have not but are now curious, and have waited until PV systems are cost effective, your wait may be over. According to the “Trends in PV & Grid Residential Electricity Prices (U.S. Annual Averages)” chart (one of the clickable rotating slides on the page), it appears that last year (2013) the cost of Solar (which continues to drop) overtook the cost of Grid power (which continues to climb) at about 12 cents per kiloWatt-hour (kWh). What this means is that, in general, in the U.S., it’s now more cost effective to use solar than grid power, with everything being equal. What are we waiting for? If you live in a densely wooded area in Alaska with zero solar potential or have draconian CC&Rs in your neighborhood against solar, you might have other obstacles, but now, at least the overall cost issue should no longer be a primary deterrent to at least considering a PV-powered home.
To get a sense of the general categories of PV systems available and which might be suitable for a use you and your family might have, let’s explore four basic types of PV systems:
PV-Direct: The simplest of systems with the fewest components, a system of this type in simplified form consists primarily of a PV panel (or panels) and whatever load is being powered, along with whatever wiring is needed. Since there is no storage (e.g. batteries), this type of system will not work if the sun isn’t shining; the best uses for systems like this include ventilation fans and other efficient air-conditioning (since that’s usually when those loads are needed most anyway) and water pumping.
Off-grid: This type of system does not interface with utility (grid) power at all. These originally were most common in remote locations where the cost of bringing in power lines was prohibitive, and they were the only viable option in many cases. With today’s improvements in design, efficiency, and performance, combined with the low cost of newer systems, even locations with grid power available might consider an off-grid system because of the advantages of independence, which include a somewhat simpler system, since grid disconnects and switching aren’t required, to say nothing of the legal, regulatory, and financial hook-ups required; although, to be fair, these “hoops” are getting smaller and easier to jump through than ever, compared to the PV pioneer days. These systems need a battery (or bank of interconnected batteries) to store PV-acquired solar electricity for nighttime and/or overcast weather usage, a charge controller to protect the battery/bank from overcharging, and optionally (although nowadays this is the most common choice) an inverter to convert the Direct Current (DC) power from the PV array to Alternating Current (AC) for use with AC household appliances, and all the required disconnects, monitoring, and associated electrical safety gear. Fortunately, the equipment needed for a system like this is now easily and safely installed by certified professionals or any homeowners who will avail themselves of a bit of training, which can be found online for free.
Grid-tied systems with battery-backup: Similar to an off-grid setup, this approach is in some ways the “best of both worlds” approach, in that it provides grid backup for the local power (PV and/or wind, micro-hydro, generator, or other source/s) and local backup for the grid power. It’s also the most complex and hence, most expensive, but this might be worth it, considering the versatility, and particularly situations where reliable power is a must regardless of any other considerations. If you run life-sustaining biomedical equipment or run Internet servers or have other critical power-reliability requirements, this might be ideal for your situation. The additional components (above what is needed for a comparable off-grid system) include manual and/or automatic switching, often mandated, or at least regulated by the utility company and typically metering of both grid-supplied and locally-supplied power. Speaking of metering, an important consideration to make before deciding on a system of this type, is whether or not your location has net metering available and what the particular details are. For example, in some locations, e.g. Ashland, Oregon, will purchase excess power, if you generate more than you use in a given month, at full retail, rather than wholesale prices. Grid parity is a related topic you might want to look into. Even more fundamental than this, some locations still don’t allow full hybrid systems like these, so the point might be moot; always check with local, state, and other regulatory agencies and utility companies before making any significant investments in time or energy with a system like this to make sure it will be viable, not merely from a technological and financial point of view but also from a political one.
Grid-tied systems without batteries: Similar to the grid-tied systems with batteries, these systems provide power from both local and off-site sources, but if the off-site (grid) power goes down, you’ll be without power for the duration of the outage. If you have a reliable grid utility with minimal outages, this type of system might work for you. (A bit of phone research a decade ago revealed that the home I bought was on the same sub-grid as the local hospital, which had multiple backup sources and explained why outages were so rare, compared with other places I had lived; this home would have been a good candidate for a system like this.) The “grid-outage-becomes-my-outage” disadvantage is somewhat mitigated by the advantage of reduced system cost, since batteries (and to a lesser extent charge controllers) are non-trivial expenses in systems that store excess power in batteries, with or without the grid-tied connections. Systems like these can be installed by companies, such as RealGoods Solar, SolarCity, SunRun, Trinity Solar, and others. If you opt to go with a system like this (and all of the siting, regulatory, zoning, CC&Rs*, legal, financing and other issues have been addressed), most likely you won’t need to be directly involved in the selection of PV panels and other components, since an installer would likely guide your family through this process, but you might still want to familiarize yourself with the technology, which the remainder of this article will address.
* If your Home-Owner’s Association (HOA) has Covenants, Conditions & Restrictions (CC&Rs) you might want to check their rules first, since their local jurisdiction might constrain the nature and scope of your proposed solar project, even if city, county, state, and federal particulars are all a “go”. For example, if you’re on 40 acres with no visible neighbors for miles, there’s not likely to be much in the way of issues in this regard, but if your suburban neighbors “view” looks directly at your roof from 50 feet away, getting “buy-in” from the neighbors and the HOA is well advised. Also, if you’re considering a grid-tied system, make sure you check into your home’s specific net-metering and the wholesale/retail particulars with your electric utility, and get all pertinent details before calculating any financial figures, such as budgets and/or break-even/payback analyses.
For all of these system types, it is vitally important that you do your research first; research technical requirements, such as power budget, anticipated loads and peak demand, system sizing, and so forth, and all the safety, regulatory, and utility requirements, which will vary by location, type of system, and what sources you plan to use (e.g. PV, small/micro-hydro, wind, et cetera). Even if you plan to do much of the design and/or installation yourself, it is always a good idea to have a licensed solar professional review your proposed PV (and/or other alternate energy) system before you begin and certainly before you invest your hard-earned time and money into a new system. Also, make sure to check if there are Renewable Energy (RE) Incentive programs and/or Net Metering policies in effect.
Most solar cells that comprise PV solar panels are made of silicon, which is not any different, in principle, from the sand on your favorite beach or the silicon in SiO2 (Silicon Dioxide, a.k.a. quartz) in your favorite hiking mountain, but those silicon atoms are obviously a bit more sophisticated after they’ve been made into PV solar energy cells. The two primary categories of PV cells are crystalline silicon or thin-film. Crystalline silicon modules, which enjoyed earlier widespread adoption in the history of PV, can use monocrystalline, multicrystalline, or ribbon silicon. Here’s an article with more details on The Difference Between Thin-Film And Crystalline-Silicon Solar Panels. Thin film includes amorphous silicon and a variety of other semiconductor technologies, such as Copper Indium Gallium Diselenide (CIGS), Cadmium Telluride, and other compositions. While these newer approaches to making PV cells garner a lot of media attention, they only comprise about 20% of of the installed base of PV systems, with the crystalline modules doing the majority of the planet’s current PV solar workload.
Start here, with a conservation and efficiency overhaul, even if you end up postponing or even abandoning a RE (Renewable Energy) project. You’ll be glad you started with the essential conservation/efficiency audit, since you’ll save money and minimize your exposure/dependency on external sources of power, while reducing your family’s carbon footprint. Since PV systems (purchased outright at least) are still typically more expensive than several years worth of grid utility bills, the most important first step is almost always to do some serious-but-fun analysis, and often re-thinking, about the home energy budget. It’s fun, because if you stick with it even partial implementations can sweeten your pocketbook while reducing energy consumption. A prior article in this series details important conservation and energy efficiency considerations; a thorough review and elimination of energy wasters from small to large, including replacing watt-guzzling appliances and lighting and just plain old mindful, common sense (free!) lifestyle adjustments to one’s daily energy usage, plus (where appropriate) low-cost upgrades. Also, if remodeling or designing for new construction, solar and efficient home planning can all make a tremendous difference in the sizing of a PV system. If, for example, you can go from four dozen PV panels to two or even one dozen, that can make a tremendous difference in system cost and break-even/payback timing. Another factor to consider is that PV modules in some cases can be added to or subtracted from an installation if one’s energy budget changes, e.g. kids that take marathon showers and leave lights on 24/7 go off to college.
If you have a bit of technical aptitude, possess some mechanical prowess, and like to learn new skills, you might want to consider doing some of your own solar design and/or installation with guidance from a seasoned, licensed solar expert. Since we’re talking about electrical wiring and potentially-lethal voltages and other safety considerations, an unguided installation should be out of the question. At minimum, one should enlist a licensed, solar installer with reputable credentials and references from the beginning of a PV project to, at least, double-check (reality check) your energy budget, array sizing calculations, array location, thermal factors, wiring sizing, and diagrams, component selection, safety considerations, parts list, technical skills, planning, et cetera. This will minimize expense, delay, re-work, and other costly and/or hazardous pitfalls. If you find you really enjoy this sort of work, careers in this industry are burgeoning.
Obviously, PV panels are just one component in a Renewable Energy (RE) system, so they must be considered in the context of an overall, well-thought-out design that considers the specific home’s energy budget, array location and sizing, battery sub-system sizing, wiring and safety considerations, geographic and climatic factors, et cetera. Having made that caveat, however, one can select from an ever-growing array (pun-intended) of solar PV manufacturers, models, sizes, and other variables. Here is an extensive chart (Excel spreadsheet) of their 2012-2013 PV Module Buyer’s Guide, prepared by the folks at Home Power Magazine (currently the 2nd link on their Web Xtras page), which lists over 900 PV Manufacturer/Model combinations in the spreadsheet rows, and over two dozen parameters/specifications in the spreadsheet columns, such as rated power per square foot, module efficiency, maximum power voltage, open-circuit voltage, short-circuit current, various temperature coefficients, fuse Amperage ratings, connector types, length, width, depth, frame color, weight, overall warranty, power warranty, and more. Here’s a general overview article on Choosing PV modules from the same folks. If some of these terms don’t ring a bell, ask your solar installer or PV consultant to explain them to you, what to look for, and why.
Since each system design is generally fairly unique, it would take volumes to cover even fairly generalized details of specific classes of PV systems; this is yet another reason to contact a solar PV pro ASAP in your design process to save you time looking into minutiae that might not apply to your particular situation. However, if you spend a little time familiarizing yourself with PV jargon, technology, systems, components, and approaches, you might find you will be better equipped to ask the right questions. If this article has piqued your interest to learn more, Home Power Magazine (among numerous online resources) in addition to helpful overviews of general subject areas, has superb coverage of both general and specific topics, such as Professional Load Analysis & Site Survey, ENERGY BASICS: Shading and Solar-Electric Systems, Free Tools for Estimating PV System Output, Successful PV Site Evaluation, Solar Equipment and Products, Optimizing a PV Array with Orientation & Tilt, iPhone Apps for Solar Geeks, PV Array Mounting Options, numerous examples of first-hand accounts and project profiles of those who have used off-grid PV systems for decades, such as this one, small, medium, and large PV systems, solar home tours, and many more.
Another excellent resource is the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), which has resources such as this Consumer’s Guide: Get Your Power from the Sun and other resources for solar and other RE topics.
Happy PV solar explorations! – L.K.O. (SurvivalBlog’s Central Rockies Regional Editor)


Nile lechwes (Kobus megaceros) have a very restricted geographic range. They are found only in the Bahr-el-Ghazel district of the Southern Sudan, and in Machar Gambella marshes of Ethiopia in Africa. (Falchetti and Mostacci, 1993; Mochi and Carter, 1971)
Nile lechwes are found in swamps, dry and flooded grass marshes, and steppes. The species is known to inhabit short grass, high reed, and cane thickets. (Falchetti and Mostacci, 1993; Mochi and Carter, 1971; Walther and Grzimek, 1990)
Nile lechwes exhibit sexual dimorphism so extreme that males and females look as if they belong to different species. Males and females can easily be distinguished from one another based on pelage color, size, and ornamentation. However, both sexes have long, coarse hair; elongated, narrow hooves; a short nose; and a long tail (with a length between 40 and 50 cm).
Older males are blackish-brown, with a white spot behind the horns. This white spot connects to a white band on the neck, which broadens on the withers. Males have long, lyre-shaped horns that are 48 to 87 cm in length. Males are an average of 165 cm long, 100 to 105 cm tall at the shoulders, and weigh between 90 amd 120 kg.
Females are pale yellow, and lack horns. Young males look like females until they reach 2 or 3 years of age. At this time, the color of the pelage changes and the horns begin to grow. Females are an average of 135 cm long, 80 to 85 cm tall at the shoulders, and weigh between 60 and 90kg. (Mochi and Carter, 1971; Walther and Grzimek, 1990)
Kobus megaceros has a harem mating system where only the dominant male is sexually active. Mating starts with a unique form of marking. The male bends his head to the ground and urinates on his throat and cheek hair. He then rubs his dripping beard on the female's forehead and rump, and mating ensues. (Falchetti and Mostacci, 1993; Walther and Grzimek, 1990)
Both sexes are sexually mature at 2 years of age. The gestation period averages 235.5 days, after which a single calf is born. newborns weigh about 4.5 to 5.5 kg. (Estes, et al., 1971; Falchetti and Mostacci, 1993; Walther and Grzimek, 1990)
Female can ovulate again approximately one month after giving birth, leading to a mean interbirth interval of 11.6 months. Most females have a calf every year. The sex ratio at birth is 1:1. Calving takes place in the wet season in the wild, however, in captivity this species mates throughout the year, and so can produce young throughout the year. However, even in captivity, there is a birth peak, and this occurs between February and May.
Calves exhibit hiding behaviors, and are independent from their mothers between 6 and 8 months of age, which is the time of weaning in other members of this genus. (Estes, et al., 1971; Falchetti and Mostacci, 1993; Nowak, 1999; Walther and Grzimek, 1990)
Most artiodactyls are precocious at birth, and are able to keep up with their mother during foraging at a young age. It is likely that this species is similar.
Females care for their young, nursing them, and protecting them. Calves remain with their mothers until they are weaned at 6 to 8 months of age. Male parental care has not been reported for these animals. (Falchetti and Mostacci, 1993; Walther and Grzimek, 1990)
Adults live an average of 10 to 11.5 years in captivity. The lifespan in the wild is similar. The species is reported to have a maximum longevity of 19 years in captivity. In spite of their potential lifespan, most K. megaceros do not live a very long time. The infant mortality rate is high in the wild because yearling Nile lechwes are infected with warble flies, which bring many down. The 30-day infant mortality rate (36%) is high in captivity because of inbreeding. (Falchetti and Mostacci, 1993; Falchetti and Mostacci, 1995; Walther and Grzimek, 1990)
Nile lechwes are diurnal and social. They are gregarious, but territorial, animals. They forms herds of 50 to 500 individuals. Within a herd, there form three social classes: nursing-females and their young, bachelor males, and mature males with territory. (Estes, et al., 1971; Falchetti and Mostacci, 1993; Macdonald, et al., 1984; Walther and Grzimek, 1990)
Mating occurs in a lek. Males with a territory will sometimes allow one "satellite" male from the bachelor class into their territory. The satellite males are not allowed to copulate, though they may do so undetected occaisionally, and their role is to keep out other unwanted males. Satellite males have better food resources and a 12x greater chance of gaining territory than other bachelors. There is no cooperative defense by the herd when attacked, but females will defend their offspring from smaller predators by direct attack, mainly kicking, usually in response to the young's distress calls. (Estes, et al., 1971; Falchetti and Mostacci, 1993; Macdonald, et al., 1984; Walther and Grzimek, 1990)
Nile lechwes are attracted to water and wetlands, so during the wet season the population is spread out over water resources. During the dry season, these animals gather around the few water resources left. They will rest in areas above the water level such as dry banks, sandbanks, and islands, and flee to water when disturbed. They are good swimmers, but prefer to wade in shallow water. (Estes, et al., 1971; Falchetti and Mostacci, 1993; Macdonald, et al., 1984; Walther and Grzimek, 1990)
Nile lechwes communicate much like other waterbucks and kobs. There is a mixture of visual signaling and tactile communication. When displaying, they will rear high in the air in front of their opponent and turn their head to the side. They achieve a submissive posture by stretching their neck and head forward horizontally. The submissive female may also make snapping movements while stretching her neck. When fighting, males will duck their heads and use their horns to push against each other. If one male is significantly smaller than the other, he may move next to the larger male in a parallel position and push from there, which prevents the larger male from pushing with all his force. (Walther and Grzimek, 1990)
In addition, during the reproductive season, males urinate on themselves, then smear the urine onto the female before mounting her. It is difficult to see this as anything other than soem form of chemical, as well as tactile, communication. (Falchetti and Mostacci, 1993; Walther and Grzimek, 1990)
Although vocalizations were not reported in the literature reviewed here, because they are mammals, it is likely that they do vocalize, and that these vocalizations play some role in communication.
Nile lechwes are herbivorous, eating grasses, herbs, and waterplants. (Walther and Grzimek, 1990)
Natural predators of Nile lechwes include lions, leopards, cape hunting dogs, and crocodiles. Humans are also major predators of these animals. Nile lechwes are particularly vulnerable to cooperative hunting because of their close association with aquatic habitats. In the 1950's, traditional lechwe drives (chilas) were common, each one killing about 3,000 individuals. (Macdonald, et al., 1984; Walther and Grzimek, 1990)
Nile lechwes may help reduce grass fires by trampling the grass when grazing, making a natural firewall. They are also an important source of food for crocodiles because of the amount of time these animals spend in the water. (Keay and Eyre, 1971)
Nile lechwes are a highly prized trophy to an African hunter and may be traded for food or other resources. They were also traditionally hunted as a source of food. (Mochi and Carter, 1971)
There is apparently no negative impact of this species on humans.
Nile lechwes are not on the IUCN red list or in CITES, but they are in need of conservation efforts. Populations are confined to two small areas where any change in conditions would be detrimental to their status. The regions they inhabit are also places of severe political and social unrest, which contributes to a dim outlook for their survival. (Falchetti and Mostacci, 1993; Falchetti and Mostacci, 1995; Walther and Grzimek, 1990)
The main threats to K. megaceros are habitat loss and hunting pressures. Hunting in the Sudan requires a special license. In Ethiopia only six animals per year are allowed to be captured with a special license. In 1971, a law limited hunters to two animals per a lifetime, making the animal a rare commodity. (Falchetti and Mostacci, 1993; Falchetti and Mostacci, 1995; Mochi and Carter, 1971; Walther and Grzimek, 1990)
The most recent census found 30,000 to 40,000 in the wild and 150 in captivity. Their current IUCN status is "Satisfactory" in Sudan and "Rare" in Ethiopia. (Falchetti and Mostacci, 1993; Falchetti and Mostacci, 1995; Walther and Grzimek, 1990)
Better conservation efforts are needed in zoos. Falchetti (1993) believes that the genetic make-up of most of the captive individuals is not adequate for a long-term survival program aiming at preserving 90% of the average heterozygosity of the original population for 200 years. Capturing wild individuals in Ethiopia is possible and would reduce the inbreeding and consequently the infant mortality rate in captive animals. (Falchetti and Mostacci, 1993; Falchetti and Mostacci, 1995)
Nancy Shefferly (editor), Animal Diversity Web.
Julia Corrie (author), University of Wisconsin-Stevens Point, Chris Yahnke (editor, instructor), University of Wisconsin-Stevens Point.
living in sub-Saharan Africa (south of 30 degrees north) and Madagascar.
uses sound to communicate
young are born in a relatively underdeveloped state; they are unable to feed or care for themselves or locomote independently for a period of time after birth/hatching. In birds, naked and helpless after hatching.
having body symmetry such that the animal can be divided in one plane into two mirror-image halves. Animals with bilateral symmetry have dorsal and ventral sides, as well as anterior and posterior ends. Synapomorphy of the Bilateria.
uses smells or other chemicals to communicate
ranking system or pecking order among members of a long-term social group, where dominance status affects access to resources or mates
animals that use metabolically generated heat to regulate body temperature independently of ambient temperature. Endothermy is a synapomorphy of the Mammalia, although it may have arisen in a (now extinct) synapsid ancestor; the fossil record does not distinguish these possibilities. Convergent in birds.
union of egg and spermatozoan
an animal that mainly eats leaves.
A substance that provides both nutrients and energy to a living thing.
An animal that eats mainly plants or parts of plants.
offspring are produced in more than one group (litters, clutches, etc.) and across multiple seasons (or other periods hospitable to reproduction). Iteroparous animals must, by definition, survive over multiple seasons (or periodic condition changes).
marshes are wetland areas often dominated by grasses and reeds.
having the capacity to move from one place to another.
the area in which the animal is naturally found, the region in which it is endemic.
having more than one female as a mate at one time
breeding is confined to a particular season
remains in the same area
reproduction that includes combining the genetic contribution of two individuals, a male and a female
one of the sexes (usually males) has special physical structures used in courting the other sex or fighting the same sex. For example: antlers, elongated tails, special spurs.
associates with others of its species; forms social groups.
a wetland area that may be permanently or intermittently covered in water, often dominated by woody vegetation.
uses touch to communicate
Living on the ground.
defends an area within the home range, occupied by a single animals or group of animals of the same species and held through overt defense, display, or advertisement
the region of the earth that surrounds the equator, from 23.5 degrees north to 23.5 degrees south.
A terrestrial biome. Savannas are grasslands with scattered individual trees that do not form a closed canopy. Extensive savannas are found in parts of subtropical and tropical Africa and South America, and in Australia.
A grassland with scattered trees or scattered clumps of trees, a type of community intermediate between grassland and forest. See also Tropical savanna and grassland biome.
A terrestrial biome found in temperate latitudes (>23.5° N or S latitude). Vegetation is made up mostly of grasses, the height and species diversity of which depend largely on the amount of moisture available. Fire and grazing are important in the long-term maintenance of grasslands.
uses sight to communicate
reproduction in which fertilization and development take place within the female body and the developing embryo derives nourishment from the female.
Corbet, G., J. Hill. 1991. Pp. 132 in A World List of Mammalian Species, 3rd Edition. New York, NY, USA: Oxford University Press.
Estes, R., V. Geist, F. Walther. 1971. Social Organization of the African Bovidae. Pp. 166-205 in The Behaviour of Ungulates and its Relation to Management. Morges, Switzerland: Unwin Brothers Unlimited.
Falchetti, E., B. Mostacci. 1995. A case study of inbreeding and juvenile mortality in the population of Nile lechwe (Kobus megaceros) at Rome Zoo. International Zoo Yearbook, 34/0074-9664: 225-231.
Falchetti, E., B. Mostacci. 1993. The Nile lechwe: PVA factors and guidelines to captive management. International Zoo Yearbook, 32/0074-9664: 60-69.
Keay, R., S. Eyre. 1971. An Example of Sudan Zone Vegetation in Nigeria. Pp. 70-80 in World Vegetation Types. London, England: The Macmillan Press Ltd.
Macdonald, D., D. Whyte, D. Macdonald. 1984. The Encyclopedia of Mammals. New York, NY, USA: Facts on File Publications.
Mochi, U., T. Carter. 1971. Hoofed Mammals of the World. New York, NY, USA: Charles Scribner's Sons.
Nowak, R. 1999. Walker's Mammals of the World, Sixth Edition. Baltimore and London: The Johns Hopkins University Press.
Walther, F., B. Grzimek. 1990. Reedbucks, Waterbucks, and Impalas. Pp. 448-461 in Grzimek's Encyclopedia of Mammals, Vol. 5. New York, NY, USA: McGraw Hill Publishing Company.


October 6 marks the 20th anniversary of the first discovery of a planet orbiting a sun-like, or "normal," star beyond our solar system. The planet, called 51 Pegasi b, belongs to a class of planets now known as exoplanets. Since that momentous discovery, thousands more exoplanets have been found in our galaxy.
For details about planned public events to mark the occasion, and other related stories and graphics, visit:
As of today, there are more than 1,800 confirmed exoplanets. More than 1,000 of these were discovered by NASA's Kepler mission, breaking wide open the field of exoplanet science. Kepler has even identified some planets with Earth-like traits, such as Kepler-452b, a near-Earth-size planet found in the habitable zone of a sun-like star. The habitable zone is the region around a star where temperatures are just right for one of life's essential ingredients -- water -- to pool on a planet's surface.
NASA's Ames Research Center, Moffett Field, California, manages the Kepler and K2 missions for NASA's Science Mission Directorate. NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena, California, managed Kepler mission development. Ball Aerospace & Technologies Corporation operates the flight system with support from the Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics at the University of Colorado Boulder.
For more information about the Kepler mission, visit:
A related feature story about other potentially habitable planets is online at:
News Media ContactWhitney Clavin
Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, California


The Pana alphabet was invented by Zhao Ze (Kenet Jervet), a junior software engineer from China in August, 2011. It was initially used as the standard alphabet for his conlang "Saya Pana" but can also be used to write English, French, and Japanese and so on.
Like the Lao alphabet, the Pana alphabet is generally curly and full of circles. But it looks much simpler and contains fewer letters than Lao.
The alphabet contains 24 consonant letters and 21 vowel letters. In addition, it has a small group of markers and an "empty" letter which pronounces no phoneme. The variety of vowels is made from a combination of 8 elemental phonemes and 4 tones.
Pana文字于2011年8月由赵泽（Kenet Jervet）创造出来。最初作为该作者发明的人造语言“Saya Pana”的官方标准文字系统。后经实践发现，该文字可同样用于书写英语、法语、日语及其他诸多语言。
/ means both are acceptable; , means both apply in different conditions.
The conlang "Saya Pana" is intended for private purpose only, so to give an overview of the look of Pana script, here's a text in English.
All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They
are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another
in a spirit of brotherhood.
(Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights)
Download a font for Pana (TrueType, 41K)
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Plants winter annuals. Culms 30-110 cm. Leaves green. Spikes green at anthesis, often more or less purple just before maturity. Central floret pedicellate; lemmas and awns shorter than those of the lateral florets; anthers 0.9-3 mm. Lateral spikelets: paleas scabrous on the lower 1/2; anthers 1.2-3.2 mm; rachillas about 0.25 mm, pale. 2n = 14, 28, 42.
Hordeum murinum subsp. leporinum grows in waste places, roadsides, and disturbed areas in arid regions. It is native to the Mediterranean region. It is now established in the Flora region, being most common in the western United States. A hexaploid cytotype has been found in Turkey, Armenia, Turkmenistan, and Iran. It has been named H. leporinum var. simulans Bowden. It is treated here as part of H. murinum subsp. leporinum.
FNA 2003, Gould 1980
Common Name: hare barley Duration: Annual Nativity: Non-Native Lifeform: Graminoid General: Introduced annual, geniculate and spreading at base, 15-50 cm tall. Vegetative: Blades mostly 3-8 mm broad, sparsely hispid, auriculate, auricles membranous, about 2 mm long; ligules short, membranous, upper sheath expanded, enclosing basal portion of the inflorescence. Inflorescence: Spicate raceme 4-8 cm long, about 1 cm broad excluding awns; lateral spikelets large, florets equaling or exceeding central floret; glumes of central spikelet and inner glumes of lateral spikelets broadened and flattened with ciliate margins; floret of central spikelet borne on pedicel as long as pedicels of lateral spikelets, its lemma, awn, and palea all shorter than those of lateral spikelets, awn of glumes 1.5-2.5 cm long, stiffly erect-spreading. Ecology: Weed of disturbed soils below 9,000 ft (2743 m); flowers April-September. Distribution: Introduced to much of w N. America from British Columbia, CAN, south to CA and west to TX, also along the east coast from GA north to ME; south to s MEX and S. Amer. and in Europe, Africa, Asia and Australia. Notes: Distinguished from other Hordeum by the being an annual to 0.25 m tall with auricles; disarticulation of the rachis at maturity; the length of awns; and the ciliate glumes. Separated from other Hordeum murinum by stalked central floret, central floret less than lateral ones, and lemma awn slightly less than awn of lateral floret. Ethnobotany: Unknown Etymology: Hordeum is the Latin name for barley, murinum means of mice, mouse-gray, like a mouse, while leporinum is from root lepus or leporis for a hare. Synonyms: Critesion murinum subsp. leporinum, Hordeum leporinum Editor: SBuckley 2010, FSCoburn 2015
Annual to 4(-6) dm; lvs flat, 2-5 mm wide, glabrous or hairy; auricles well developed, to 3.5 mm; spikes 4-7(-10) cm (excl. awns), erect, often partly enclosed in the inflated upper sheath; all 3 spikelets of the triad well developed, the central one sessile, its floret on an elongate rachilla-joint 1-2 mm and equaling or even surpassing the pedicels of the lateral spikelets; lateral spikelets usually staminate; glumes 15-22(-28) mm, those of the central spikelet and the inner glumes of the lateral spikelets ±lanceolate, 3-nerved and ciliate on the margins, the nerves scabrous, the outer glumes of the lateral spikelets awn-like and somewhat longer, scabrous; fertile lemma (6-)7-10 mm, glabrous, 5-veined, those of the lateral spikelets somewhat larger, 7-20 mm, sterile, all 3 lemmas tapering into awns 18-30 mm; anthers 0.8-1.2 mm; 2n=14, 28, 42. Moderately moist waste places; native of s. Europe, intr. and well established in w. U.S., sporadic with us. Perhaps better subordinated to no. 5 [Hordeum murinum L.]
Gleason, Henry A. & Cronquist, Arthur J. 1991. Manual of vascular plants of northeastern United States and adjacent Canada. lxxv + 910 pp.


In the mercerizing process, the use of higher concentrations of caustic soda [18.7% to 23.5% (25-30?Be)], in the continuous mercerizing process, cotton fabrics in the lye after the time is generally only 30 to 50s Therefore, the permeability of the mercerized liquid is very important. In this concentration of lye, the penetrant cannot be used in general, and penetrants that are specially used in the mercerizing process must be used. Therefore, the mercerizing penetrant is often used as a special kind of particle. In the mercerizing process, the lye's permeability is poor due to the strong shrinkage of the cotton fibers. After the use of mercerizing penetrant, the mercerizing effect can be made rapid and uniform, and the process time can be shortened. Especially for mercerized mercerizing without scouring fabric, mercerizing penetrant is particularly important.
As mercerizing penetrant should meet the following requirements:
(1) It can be dissolved in the mercerized liquid (concentrated lye), and has excellent permeability and wettability, which can greatly shorten the wetting time.
(2) Strong alkali resistance, long-term stability in concentrated lye, and little change in potency.
(3) It does not cause coloration and odor of the mercerized liquid.
(4) Waste lye can be used for other purposes without producing tar and blistering.
(5) Make the mercerizing solution less foaming.
(6) Use no more than lO~30g/L.
The phenol-containing silk light penetrating agent has strong penetrability, is cheap, but has an odor, and causes the spent caustics to be colored or produces tar and is difficult to be recycled, does not meet the above requirements, and causes serious environmental pollution and has been eliminated. At present, phenol-free silk penetrating agents are mainly used.
The phenol-free silk penetrants are generally mixtures. Surfactants commonly used in the composition include alkyl alcohol sulfate sodium salt, alkyl sulfonate sodium salt, alcohol ether compound, phosphate ester compound, amino alcohol compound, amide Compounds, alcohol compounds, etc. The common feature is that the hydrophobic group is relatively small, and the general number of carbon atoms is about 8, and the branched alkyl group has better permeability than the linear alkyl group. Mercerized penetrating agents are auxiliaries that have an osmotic effect in concentrated alkalis. Permeability is not good in alkali liquors that are relatively low in concentration, so they cannot generally be used as a penetrant for concentrated alkali working fluids.
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So here's the thing.
Let's say you have an electromagnetic wave of wavelength l, and you send it from where you are to a receiver a distance d away. The total number of cycles of the electromagnetic wave which will fit in that distance is d/l. Using ordinary amplitude modulation, you can therefore fit d/l bits of data in that gap.
If d is something like the diameter of the orbit of Neptune, about 10,000,000,000 kilometres, and l is the wavelength of a typical X-ray, about 1 nanometre, then that number is of the order of ten billion billion bits. Or more! It would depend on how you modulate the signal.
In other words, if you send two probes to roughly opposite ends of the Solar System, and equip one of them with a powerful X-ray laser and the other with a sensitive receiver, you will find that it is possible to fit something like a billion gigabytes in the gap between your two probes. In the ether.
Now the clever bit. Because the information is in transit, there is no reason why the satellites need to have any actual hard storage of their own. If you make it so that each satellite has paired receiver and transmitter, you can program each one to receive the signal, amplify it hugely and transmit it back in the opposite direction, without performing any kind of operation on the signal or storing any part of it (outside of solid-state memory).
You just stored an exabyte of data in hard vacuum using two passive space probes! Neat!
Obviously the complete length of a round trip could be increased just by adding more probes at other points in the solar system. A problem could arise if the signals began to interfere with each other but modifying the frequency slightly for distinct probe pairs would prevent this; each probe would listen on one frequency and transmit on another. This would also allow the probes to duplicate each other's efforts, adding hardware redundancy in case one is destroyed.
The major advantage of this system is that there are no hard drives involved. However, you still need a lot of solid-state processing power and a lot of energy to drive that processing. The probes would need to be located near the Sun, perhaps, to draw solar power, so they couldn't be out by Neptune. This would reduce the distance apart they could be placed. Possibly arrange a few dozen probes in a star-like constellation?


Once confined to cloud servers with practically infinite resources, machine learning is moving into edge devices for various reasons including lower latency, reduced cost, energy efficiency, and enhanced privacy. The time needed to send data to the cloud for interpretation could be prohibitive, such as pedestrian recognition in a self-driving car. The bandwidth needed to send data to the cloud can be costly, not to mention the cost of the cloud service itself, such as speech recognition for voice commands.
Energy is a trade-off between sending data back and forth to server vs. localized processing. Machine learning computations are complex and could easily drain the battery of an edge device if not executed efficiently. Edge decisions also keep the data on-device which is important for user privacy, such as sensitive emails dictated by voice on a smartphone. Audio AI is a rich example of inference at the edge; and a new type of digital signal processor (DSP) specialized for audio machine learning use-cases can enable better performance and new features at the edge of the network.
Always-on voice wake is one of the earliest examples of machine learning on the edge: listening for a keyword such as “Hey Siri” or “OK Google” before waking the rest of the system to determine the next action. If this keyword detection was run on a generic application processor, it could take well over 100mW. Throughout the course of a day this would deplete the smartphone battery. Therefore, the first phones to implement this feature had algorithms ported onto a small DSP which could run at less than 5mW. Nowadays these same algorithms can run on a specialized audio and machine learning DSP in a smart microphone at less than 0.5mW.
Once an edge device is enabled for always-on audio machine learning, it can do more things than speech recognition at low power: contextual awareness such as whether the device is in a crowded restaurant or busy street, ambient music recognition, ultrasonic room recognition, and even recognizing whether someone nearby is shouting or laughing. These types of features will enable new sophisticated use cases that could improve the edge device and benefit the user.
Best performance and energy efficiency for machine learning inference at the edge requires extensive hardware customization, some of the most impactful techniques are collected in Table 1. Implementing these features will improve edge machine learning inference efficiency.
The majority of arithmetic operations needed for neural network inference are matrix-vector multiplies. This is because machine learning models are typically represented as matrices, which get applied to new stimulants represented as vectors. The most common technique to improve edge machine learning inference is to make matrix-vector multiplication very efficient. A fused multiply followed by an accumulate (MAC) is a common way to address this.
Although the training phase is sensitive to numerical precision, the inference phase can achieve near equivalent results with low precision (e.g. 8-bits). Limiting precision can greatly reduce the complexity of the edge computation. For this reason, processor companies such as Intel and Texas Instruments have added limited precision MACs. Texas Instruments’ TMS320C6745 can execute 8 MACs of 8-bits each per cycle. Also, Knowles’ audio DSP supports 16 MACS of 8-bits each per cycle.
Both the training and inference phases put pressure on the memory subsystem. Processor support for wide word widths is often improved to accommodate this. Intel’s more recent high-performance processors have AVX-512 which supports transferring 512-bits per cycle into an array of 64 multipliers. The Texas Instruments 6745 uses a 64-bit bus to increase memory bandwidth. Knowles’ advanced audio processors use a 128-bit bus striking a good balance between large chip area and high bandwidth. Furthermore, audio machine learning architectures (such as RNN or LSTM) often require feedback. This puts additional requirements on chip architecture, since data dependence can stall heavily pipelined architectures.
Although traditional machine learning can work with raw data, audio machine learning algorithms typically perform spectral analysis and feature extraction to feed neural networks. Acceleration of traditional signal processing functions such as FFTs, audio filters, trigonometric functions, and logarithms are necessary for energy efficiency. Subsequent operations often utilize a variety of non-linear vector operations, such as a sigmoid, implemented as a hyperbolic tangent, or rectified linear unit (absolute value function with all negative numbers changed to zero). These sophisticated non-linear operations take many cycles on traditional processors. Single-cycle instructions for these functions also improve energy efficiency of machine learning Audio DSPs.
In summary, advanced processors specialized for both machine learning and audio processing enable real-time always-on edge inference at low-cost while simultaneously maintaining privacy. Energy consumption is kept low through architectural decisions on instruction set support to allow multiple operations per cycle and wider memory buses to maintain high performance at low power. As companies continue to innovate on specialized compute at the edge, the use-cases for machine learning that utilize it will only increase.
Jim Steele is vice president of technology strategy at Knowles Corp.
>> This article was originally published on our sister site, EE Times: “Machine Learning on DSPs: Enabling Audio AI at the Edge.”


LIVERPOOL.- Masterpiece prints by Albrecht Dürer, one of the great Renaissance artists, are featured in an exhibition highlighting the influence of his work.
Dürer (1471 1528) was the first great artist to achieve fame through prints he established his reputation throughout Europe while still in his 20s.
"Dürer and Italy" 28 May 26 September 2010 has engraved classics by the Nuremberg artist alongside Italian works by Dürers contemporaries.
The combination illustrates a surprising cultural exchange that took place through the medium of prints from 1500 to Dürers death. He had a fascination with Italy from an early age and visited in 1494 and stayed there between 1505 and 1507.
Dürer promoted himself as an artist, studied art and met engravers and exponents in the art of perspective, unknown in Germany. He produced two types of prints.
Cheap woodcuts, often sold as bound sets, were aimed at the popular market while his expensive astonishingly-detailed engravings appealed to artists and collectors.
Prints and engravings are easily transported and can spread an artists influence over large distances. Soon Dürers work became known to Raphael in Rome just as Dürer knew engravings by Italian artists as a young man in Germany.
Dürer and Italy features a total of 24 prints including 11 by Dürer with his well-known images "The Fall of Man (Adam and Eve)", "The Prodigal Son" and "Melancholia". Wenceslas Hollars famous etching of Dürer, after the self-portrait in the Prado art gallery, Spain, is included.
Sandra Penketh, head of Lady Lever Art Gallery, says: Dürer is the greatest artist of the Northern Renaissance whose work has never been out of favour. These wonderful prints demonstrate how far his influence reached in his lifetime and beyond.
Dürers most popular woodcuts were two series of the "Passion of Christ" and another of the "Life of the Virgin" (1511).
His engravings present figures and landscapes of unparalleled beauty that rapidly became highly fashionable, especially in Italy.
Raphael did not make prints himself but wished to publish his imagery so provided sketches to be engraved by artists such as Marcantonio.
Included in the exhibition are Marcantonios "Judgement of Paris" and "Massacre of the Innocents" which were both engraved in collaboration with Raphael. They provide a somewhat dry, classical contrast to Dürers vision, tinged by his roots in Gothic illustration.


The ‘zero waste’ concept is used to showcase the numerous ways of modern waste management in order to reduce the amount of waste as close to zero as possible. ‘Zero waste,’ more specifically, stands for a lifestyle that is ethical, economical, efficient, visionary and systematically intended towards the elimination of waste and recycling of materials and resources.
If you are embarking on the journey of trying to be more environmentally friendly and lead a ‘zero-waste’ life, there might be a few things you should know beforehand. Yes, there are numerous documentaries, YouTube videos, and articles talking about the advantages of leading a ‘zero-waste’ lifestyle, but no one genuinely tackles the issues you’ll probably face on your way to leading a ‘greener’ life. For example, people need to talk more about how awesome the Edusson, online writing service is; if you want to save money, time, energy and materials, make sure to visit this site that helped me to write my dissertation for more information. If you want to find out the issues of transitioning to a ‘zero-waste’ lifestyle, then keep on reading.
1. Recycling Is Not Enough
On the journey to leading a ‘zero waste’ lifestyle, the first thing you will realize is that recycling is not enough. According to the Sustainable Jungle article, ‘zero waste’ is a much bigger concept than recycling, meaning, recycling focuses mainly on the garbage problem itself rather than the source of the problem. Even though recycling is receiving much more publicity and is overall prioritized, there are numerous other ways you have to take care of waste minimization which might be a little overwhelming for someone starting a ‘zero waste’ lifestyle.
One reason for recycling publicity might be the fact that waste minimization is challenging to measure and is out of the reach for the customers. In order to minimize waste, there should be waste minimization efforts even before the product reaches the consumers. This is more a ‘designing waste out’ concept, which would basically look over the materials and ingredients of the products before they even hit the shelves in supermarkets. And, this is actually the part where you as someone in favor of ‘zero waste’ is thrown under the bus, set to fail from the beginning; which brings us to the following issue:
2. Zero Waste Lifestyle Is Impossible
The term ‘zero waste’ can be problematic because of the word ‘zero.’ What I’m trying to say is that producing no waste is simply impossible; everything you ever use is waste after you’re done using it. What you should do instead is try and lead a ‘low-impact’ lifestyle, rather than the impossible ‘zero waste’ one. The ‘zero waste’ ideology revolves around the idea that we should all live like our predecessors did hundreds of years ago, producing no waste and only using natural, reusable materials.; and this is simply out of the question for a modern man or woman; we still need to lead life in line with the day and age we are in. But we can do a lot to create a ‘low-impact’ lifestyle that will still be beneficial for our environment.
Therefore, you should consider how to be a more conscious consumer, for example; turn to small-profit-making companies, stop buying things for immediate satisfaction, take in consideration the cost of the cheap, disposable products and don’t waste water. These are simple, baby-steps that will lead you to a ‘less-impact’ lifestyle you can actually handle, rather than setting you up for failure with the impossible idea of producing zero waste.
3. Zero Waste Guilt Phenomenon
If you want to lead an eco-friendly lifestyle, it shouldn’t be motivated by the feeling of guilt and other people’s judgment. According to this my green closet article, the majority of people striving for a ‘zero waste’ lifestyle lose the motivation to do positive things and turned it into trying to avoid the guilt of doing negative things. To be more specific, after some time of leading a ‘zero waste’ lifestyle, you will start feeling guilty for buying products that contain plastic or are wrapped in unrecyclable material, like makeup or hygiene products. And this is not supposed to make you feel bad. Maybe over the course of time, you would become accustomed to the feeling, but it is definitely not motivational, at least, in the beginning.
The ‘zero waste’ lifestyle seems to be all about the label itself and the focus on the ‘zero’ part, which is entirely wrong. It is not about producing literally zero waste, but rather about what we can do to reduce the negative impact on our environment without having to completely change the way we are as humans. You shouldn’t feel guilty about living a regular life, but rather about the things you are not doing to help your environment.
4. Zero Waste Lifestyle Is Not Accessible To Everyone
‘Zero waste’ lifestyle depends highly on your living situation; you may not have the same accessibility to eco-friendly options to produce less waste as people living in some other cities and regions. Some cities, like Tokyo or Vienna, have excellent waste minimalization infrastructure and system, but some other, less-developed cities are not that lucky. ‘Zero waste’ specialty stores are also not that widespread, and it would probably take you a drive to the first neighboring city with a specialty store in order to buy necessary products.
Moreover, since the majority of the products nowadays contain plastic and other unwanted materials, a lot of things have to be self-made. This is also time-consuming and basically means that everything pre-made, packaged or non-vegan/vegetarian is off the table for you. Products like soaps, deodorants, makeup, dairy products, and many more, would have to be DIY’d, since the store-bought ones contribute to waste production.
That’s the tea on ‘zero waste’ lifestyle people rarely talk about. Hopefully this article will help you reach a decision about leading such a lifestyle and paint a picture on how it might look like. ‘Low-impact’ lifestyle seems to be a more reasonable way to go, but if ‘zero waste’ life appeals to you, then you should try it yourself. But, make sure to be aware of all the possible issue you might face on your ‘zero-waste’ journey.
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Site of Special Scientific Interest
The Woodland Trust describe a Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI) as a ‘formal conservation designation for an area which is of particular interest because of its fauna, flora or geological or physiological features; in other words, these areas have extremely high conservation value. The designation could be due to the presence of rare species or geological and physiological features. An SSSI can also be designated to give higher levels of protection over other designations that might be given to an area of land such as Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty (AONB’s). (See Woodland Trust website for more information)
There are over 4,000 SSSI sites in England. Legally, a Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI) is the land notified as an SSSI under the Wildlife and Countryside Act (1981), as amended (see link).
Local Ide Hill SSSI’s include Stubbs Wood.


| Aphaenogaster longiceps|
(Smith, F., 1858)
This is one of the most commonly encountered species of Aphaenogaster in Australia. It occurs in a wide range of habitats from swampy coastal scrub, wet sclerophyll and rainforests through to dry sclerophyll and Callitris woodlands. Nests in sandy soil are often highly visible with large, funnel-shaped entrances while nests in firmer soils are less obvious with low, scattered soil around entrances. Nests are also found under rocks or other objects on the ground. Activity around nests is generally restricted to a few workers excavating soil or defending the nest entrance. Foraging activity is primarily nocturnal and seems to be limited with workers foraging singly and primarily near the nest. This species has an extensive literature, including the following: Banks (1916) (association with mites), Crawley (1922a: 122) (biology), Barrett (1927) (habits, as A. longipes (sic)), Clark (1929: 121) (distribution), Clark (1934: 58) (distribution), Smith and Atherton (1944: 4) (biology, economic importance), Sloane and Sloane (1964) (nesting biology), Berg (1975) (seed dispersal), Imai, Crozier and Taylor (1977) (karyotype), Greenslade and Thompson (1981) (biology), Humphreys (1981) (relation to soils), Humphreys and Mitchell (1983) (relation to soils), Cowan et al. (1985) (relation to soils), Andersen (1988a) (relation to fire), Anderson (1988b) (relation to plants), Hughes and Westoby (1992a) (seed dispersal), Hughes and Westoby (1992b) (seed dispersal), Nicholls and McKenzie (1994) (distribution pattern) and York (1994) (relation to fire).
Hairs on underside of head randomly distributed and not forming a distinct psammophore; posterior margin of head broadly arched in full face view; shorter erect hairs on mesosomal dorsum (especially those on mesonotum) with blunt tips; propodeal spines long, the dorsal surfaces of propodeum and propodeal spines connected through a gentle concavity (so that the base of each spine is at approximately the same level as the dorsal surface of the propodeum). The long scapes and blunt mesonotal hairs will separate this species from near relatives.
Keys including this Species
Distribution based on Regional Taxon Lists
Distribution based on specimens
The following information is derived from Barry Bolton's New General Catalogue, a catalogue of the world's ants.
- longiceps. Myrmica longiceps Smith, F. 1858b: 128 (w.) AUSTRALIA. Mayr, 1876: 98 (q.m.); Wheeler, G.C. & Wheeler, J. 1972b: 238 (l.); Imai, Crozier & Taylor, 1977: 348 (k.). Combination in Aphaenogaster: Mayr, 1876: 98; in Stenamma (Ischnomyrmex): Forel, 1899a: 118; in Aphaenogaster (Deromyrma): Forel, 1913g: 187; in Aphaenogaster (Nystalomyrma): Wheeler, W.M. 1916j: 216. Type-material redescribed: Crawley, 1922c: 19. Senior synonym of ruginota: Wheeler, W.M. 1916j: 217; of flava: Shattuck, 2008a: 33.
- ruginota. Stenamma (Ischnomyrmex) longiceps r. ruginota Forel, 1902h: 440 (w.q.) AUSTRALIA. Emery, 1914b: 181 (m.). Combination in Aphaenogaster: Emery, 1914b: 181; in Aphaenogaster (Deromyrma): Forel, 1915b: 75. Raised to species: Forel, 1915b: 75. Junior synonym of longiceps: Wheeler, W.M. 1916j: 217.
- flava. Aphaenogaster (Nystalomyrma) longiceps var. flava Emery, 1921f: 61 (m.) AUSTRALIA. Junior synonym of longiceps: Shattuck, 2008a: 33.
- Aphaenogaster (Nystalomyrma) longiceps flava: Holotype, male, Queensland, Australia, Museo Civico di Storia Naturale, Genoa.
- Myrmica longiceps: Syntype, worker(s), Melbourne, Victoria, Australia, The Natural History Museum.
- Stenamma (Ischnomyrmex) longiceps ruginota: Syntype, worker(s), queen(s), New South Wales and Yarra district, Victoria, Australia, Musee d'Histoire Naturelle Genève.
Emery's (1921) A. flava is here treated as a junior synonym of A. longiceps. A. flava was established by indication based on a male from Queensland and figured in Emery (1914). Emery (1914) presented two figures, one identified as longiceps from Queensland and the other as longiceps ruginota from Sydney. Emery (1921) based flava on the figure of longiceps. Wheeler (1916) (before Emery established flava) stated that the differences between these males were "insignificant" and considered them to belong to the same taxon, longiceps (he considered ruginota to be a synonym of longiceps, a treatment supported during this study); he also mentions that the male of pythia is quite different. Unfortunately Emery (1921) gave no information on why he considered flava to be a distinct taxon.
In fact the males of longiceps and pythia are very similar, differing mainly in colour and size (being larger and darker in longiceps). The male of barbara, the only other species of Aphaenogaster known from Queensland, differs from both longiceps and pythia in lacking a metanotal groove and in having the occipital collar rounded. The males of both longiceps and pythia have distinct, angular metanotal grooves and the occipital collars are angular. What Wheeler (1916) considered to be the male of pythia may well have actually been the male barbara.
Emery's (1914) illustration of longiceps gives little hint as to whether this male belongs to longiceps or pythia, although barbara can be safely eliminated. The shape of the head does differ slightly between longiceps and pythia, and Emery's figure resembles longiceps more closely than pythia. Based on this flava is here treated as a synonym of longiceps rather than pythia.
It should be noted that the name flava was overlooked for 74 years, until Bolton (1995) drew attention to it in his world catalogue. The name's obscurity was due to the cryptic way in which it was established. The name was based on a scant two lines of text, one consisting of "flava, Emery" and a second with a reference to Emery (1914). It is easy to see why the name was overlooked for such an extended period of time.
Posterior margin of head broadly arched in full face view, the arch beginning at the occipital collar and with at most a weak angle separating the posterior and lateral margins of the head (often posterior and lateral margins forming a continuous surface). Hairs on venter of head randomly distributed and not forming a distinct psammophore. Mandibular sculpture composed of regularly sized striations. Shorter erect hairs on mesosomal dorsum (especially those on mesonotum) with blunt tips. Propodeal spines intermediate in length. Dorsal surfaces of propodeum and propodeal spines connected through a gentle concavity (so that the base of each spine is at approximately the same level as the dorsal surface of the propodeum). Petiolar node (in dorsal view) approximately square.
Worker (n = 10, units = mm). CI 78-89; EI 19-24; EL 0.18-0.25; HL 0.99-1.43; HW 0.82-1.25; ML 1.50-2.07; MTL 1.04-1.41; SI 130-161; SL 1.3 1-1 .71.
- CI: Cephalic index: HW/HL x 100.
- EI: Eye index: EL/HW x 100.
- EL: Maximum eye length with eye in full face view.
- HL: Maximum head length in full face (dorsal) view, measured from the anterior-most point of the clypeal margin to the posterior-most point of the head proper (excluding the occipital collar).
- HW: Maximum head width in full face (dorsal) view excluding the eyes.
- ML: Mesosomal length measured from the anterior surface of the pronotum proper (excluding the collar) to the posterior extension of the propodeal lobes.
- MTL: Maximum length of mid tibia, excluding the proximal part of the articulation which is received into the distal end of the femur.
- SI: Scape index: SL/HW x 100.
- SL: Length of the scape (first antennal segment) excluding the basal neck and condyle.
- Andersen, A.N. (1988). Immediate and longer-term effects of fire on seed predation by ants in sclerophyllous vegetation in south-eastern Australia. Australian Journal of Ecology, 13: 285–293.
- Andersen, A.N. (1988). Soil of the nest-mound of the seed-dispersing ant, Aphaenogaster longiceps, enhances seedling growth. Australian Journal of Ecology, 13: 469–471
- Banks, N. (1916). Acarians from Australian and Tasmanian ants and ant-nests. Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust. 60: 224–240.
- Barrett, C. (1927). Ant life in Central Australia. Victorian Naturalist (Melbourne), 44: 209–212.
- Berg, R. Y. (1975). Myrmecochorous plants in Australia and their dispersal by ants. Australian Journal of Botany, 23: 475–508.
- Clark, J. (1929). Results of a collecting trip to the Cann River, East Gippsland. Victorian Naturalist (Melbourne), 46: 115–123.
- Clark, J. (1934). Ants from the Otway Ranges. Memoirs of the National Museum of Victoria, 8: 48–73.
- Cowan, J. A., Humphreys, G. S., Mitchell, P. B., Murphy, C. L. (1985). An assessment of pedoturbation by two species of mound-building ants, Camponotus intrepidus (Kirby) and Iridomyrmex purpureus (F. Smith). Australian Journal of Soil Research, 23: 95–107.
- Crawley, W. C. (1922). Notes on some Australian ants. Biological notes by E. B. Poulton, D.Sc., M.A., F.R.S., and notes and descriptions of new forms by W. C. Crawley, B.A., F.E.S., F.R.M.S. (concl.). Entomologist's Monthly Magazine, 58: 121–126.
- Crawley, W. C. 1922e. New ants from Australia (concluded from vol. ix. p. 449). Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. 9(10): 16-36 (page 19, Type-material redescribed)
- Emery, C. (1914). Formiche d'Australia e di Samoa raccolte dal Prof. Silvestri nel 1913. Bollettino del Laboratorio di Zoologia Generale e Agraria della Reale Scoula Superiore d'Agricoltura. Portici, 8: 179–186 .
- Emery, C. (1921). Hymenoptera. Fam. Formicidae. Subfam. Myrmicinae. [part]. Genera Insectorum, 174A: 1–94 + 7 plates.
- Forel, A. 1899a. Heterogyna (Formicidae). Fauna Hawaii. 1: 116-122 (page 118, combination in Stenamma (Ischnomyrmex))
- Forel, A. (1899). Formicidae. (part). Biol. Cent.-Am. Hym. 3: 105–136.
- Forel, A. (1902). Fourmis nouvelles d'Australie. Revue Suisse de Zoologie, 10: 405–548.
- Forel, A. 1913g. H. Sauter's Formosa-Ausbeute: Formicidae II. Arch. Naturgesch. (A)79(6 6: 183-202 (page 187, combination in Aphaenogaster (Deromyrma))
- Forel, A. (1913). Fourmis de Tasmanie et d'Australie récoltées par MM. Lae, Froggatt etc. Bulletin de la Société Vaudoise des Sciences Naturelles, (5)49: 173–195.
- Forel, A. (1915). Results of Dr. E. Mjöbergs Swedish Scientific Expeditions to Australia 1910-13. 2. Ameisen. Arkiv för Zoologi, 9(16): 1–119.
- Greenslade, P. J. M., Thompson, C. H. (1981). Ant distribution, vegetation, and soil relationships in the Cooloola-Noosa River area, Queensland . pp. 192–207 in Gillison, A. N., Anderson, D. J. Vegetation classification in Australia . Canberra : C.S.I.R.O. & Australian National University Press. xxi + 229 pp.
- Hughes, L., Westoby, M. (1992). Effect of diaspore characteristics on removal of seeds adapted for dispersal by ants. Ecology, 73: 1300–1312.
- Hughes, L., Westoby, M. (1992). Fate of seeds adapted for dispersal by ants in Australian sclerophyll vegetation. Ecology, 73: 1285–1299.
- Humphreys, G. S., Mitchell, P. B. (1983). A preliminary assessment of the role of bioturbation and rainwash on sandstone hillslopes in the Sydney Basin . pp. 66–80 in R. W. Young and G. C. Aspects Aspects Aspects of Australian sandstone landscapes . : Aust. N. Z. Geom. Group. Vol.Spec. Publ. No. 1.
- Humphreys, G. S. (1981). The rate of ant mounding and earthworm casting near Sydney, New South Wales. Search (Sydney), 12 (5): 129–131.
- Imai, H. T.; Crozier, R. H.; Taylor, R. W. 1977. Karyotype evolution in Australian ants. Chromosoma (Berl.) 59: 341-393 (page 348, karyotype described)
- Lea, A. M. (1912). Austalian and Tasmanian Coleoptera inhabiting or resorting to the nests of ants, bees, and termites. Proc. R. Soc. Victoria, (n.s.)25: 31–78.
- Mayr, G. 1876. Die australischen Formiciden. J. Mus. Godeffroy 12: 56-115 (page 98, queen, male described, combination in Aphaenogaster)
- Nicholls, A. O., McKenzie, N. J. (1994). Environmental control of the local-scale distribution of funnel ants, Aphaenogaster longiceps. Mem. Qld Mus. 36: 165–172.
- Shattuck,S.O. (2008). Australian ants of the genus Aphaenogaster (Hymenoptera: Formicidae). Zootaxa, 1677: 25–45.
- Sloane, H., Sloane, A. J. (1964). The trap-nest or sand ant. Vict. Nat. 81: 165–167.
- Smith, F. 1858a. Catalogue of hymenopterous insects in the collection of the British Museum. Part VI. Formicidae. London: British Museum, 216 pp. (page 128, worker described)
- Smith, J. H., Atherton, D. O. (1944). Seed-harvesting and other ants in the tobacco-growing districts of North Queensland. Queensland Journal of Agricultural Science, 1: 33–61.
- Wheeler, G. C., Wheeler, J. (1972). Ant larvae of the subfamily Myrmicinae: second supplement on the tribes Myrmicini and Pheidolini. Journal of the Georgia Entomological Society, 7: 233–246.
- Wheeler, G. C.; Wheeler, J. 1972b. Ant larvae of the subfamily Myrmicinae: second supplement on the tribes Myrmicini and Pheidolini. J. Ga. Entomol. Soc. 7: 233-246 (page 238, larva described)
- Wheeler, W. M. 1916n. The Australian ants of the genus Aphaenogaster Mayr. Trans. R. Soc. S. Aust. 40: 213-223 (page 216, combination in Aphaenogaster (Nystalomyrma); page 217, senior synonym of ruginota)
- York, A. (1994). The long-term effects of fire on forest ant communities: management implications for the conservation of biodiveristy . Mem. Qld Mus. 36: 231–239.


If we do something, problems may occur, but there is no choice. It is impossible to live without doing karmas, thus we must learn how to make use of those karmas. If we join yoga with karmas, they cease to be karmas and become karmayoga. To join yoga with karmas means to associate Paramãtmã with one’s karmas. That is why the Gitã says, “योगस्थः कुरु कर्माणि” – “Yogasthaha kuru karmãni” – “O Arjuna! Do karmas remaining steadfast in yoga.” To remain steadfast in yoga means to develop conviction in the form of Paramãtmã. If we connect Paramãtmã with our karmas, then we can be said to have done those karmas with conviction in Paramãtmã. One who does karmas in this way is not merely dutiful but is a karmayogi. The Gitã teaches the technique of becoming such a karmayogi.
Karmas and their fruits; karmas and bondage – fruits and bondage are the two consequences associated with karmas. If we do something, we acquire accordingly; if we do something, we are bound by it. Let us first take a look at the relationship between karmas and their fruits.
कर्मण्येवाघिकारस्ते – You Are Entitled Only to Do Karmas
Shri Krishna says, “कर्मण्येवाघिकारस्ते मा फलेषु कदाचन। मा कर्मफलहेतुर्भूर्मा ते संगोऽस्त्वकर्मणि॥” – “Karmanyevãdhikãraste mã faleshu kadãchana, mã karmafalaheturbhoormã te sango’stvakarmani.” – “O Arjuna! You are entitled only to do karmas, never to the fruits thereof. Therefore, do not hope for the fruits, yet do not decide to refrain from karmas” (Gitã 2.47).
No karma is without fruits. ‘Fruits’ means its consequences. There is no action without a consequence. If ice is put in water, the water becomes cold, and, at the same time, the ice begins to melt. The consequences of karmas range from the individual to the global. Good actions have good consequences and bad actions have bad consequences. Both the individual that does the bad action and society are subject to the unfavourable consequences. When someone eats, they begin to experience the effects: their hunger is diminished, their body is nourished, blood is made, and flesh increases – these are all the so-called visible effects. There are many other effects that cannot be seen, or are obtained at a later time. All of this is called punya (merits) and pãp (demerits). One thing that should be noted here is that the system of karmas and the fruits thereof have been given by Paramãtmã. The karmas themselves cannot give any results, but it is Paramãtmã who looks at the karmas and decides of his own accord what type of results to give. If he so wishes, he can change the system. Therefore, we cannot claim that a certain karma should give certain results, that is all dependent on Paramãtmã’s will, we are only entitled to do the karma.
By using the word ‘entitled’, Shri Krishna has made an important clarification. ‘Entitled to do karmas’ means we have the freedom to choose what types of karmas we do and we do not do. Paramãtmã gives us a body that enables us to do karmas, he gives us the faculty of conation (the desire or will to do), the faculty of volition (the power of will), the faculty of cognition (the ability to understand), as well as the discretion of which types of karmas to do and not to do. Nevertheless, in the end, he leaves the decision to us. This is the manner in which we are entitled to do karmas. Furthermore, he adds, ‘मा फलेषु कदाचन।’ – ‘Mã faleshu kadãchana’ – we are not entitled to the fruits thereof. Our rights are limited, and whatever rights we have are by Paramãtmã’s grace, and still under his control. Thus, the principle explained here is that we do not have complete independence. The only right we have regarding karmas is that we can decide which types of karmas to do. On the other hand, to hold expectations for certain karmas to produce certain results is said to have demanded rights on the fruits of karmas, which is futile and impossible. Furthermore, someone who holds such expectations could drown in an ocean of depression at any time. To decide which karmas give which results is the right of Paramãtmã alone, no one can take that away from him, and that is why he is called karmafalpradãtã – the giver of the fruits of actions.
Indeed, it is hard to accept when someone says that we should do karmas but not desire any results. If we are not to desire results, then how can we do the karma at all. Also, how can one decide between good and bad karmas, that decision is based on the consequences. Then why does the Gitã give us such advice? Shri Krishna has answered this question using the word ‘entitled’. There is nothing wrong in thinking about the fruits of karmas, indeed, that should be taken into consideration. To think of the fruit is to think of the goal, and it is a fact that one must be clear of the goal. Nevertheless, it is also a fact that we are not entitled to those fruits. To think of the fruits and to expect them as an entitlement are different things. Thinking of the fruit helps us to do the karma, it inspires us to do good karmas and refrain from bad karmas. But if we start to put a claim on the fruits, then, perhaps, our expected outcome and the will of Paramãtmã may coincide on one or two occasions and there will be no issue; but that may not always be Paramãtmã’s wish. Paramãtmã does not make decisions based only on our expectations. Therefore, the truth of the matter is that the outcome may not be as we had expected. Those who cannot accept this reality must be prepared to endure the pain of grief.
This reality is such that it may lead to sinking into an abyss of lethargy. One may think, ‘If I have no claim to the fruits of the karmas, then why should I do them at all’ and become depressed. To rescue us from such a situation, Shri Krishna clarifies, ‘मा ते संगोऽस्त्वकर्मणि॥’ – ‘Mã te sango’stvakarmani.’ – ‘Nevertheless, do not cease to do karmas.’ One who completely ceases to do karmas is harassed by endless hardships.
Do karmas, do them well, think of the fruits too, but do not claim a right to those fruits. Do not forget that Paramãtmã is the giver of the fruits of all karmas. Keeping this in mind, one must continue to do karmas – that is the message of this shloka.
Karmas Combined with Yoga Become Karmayoga
How can karmas that seem ordinary attain the status of karmayoga? How can they result in happiness? How can karmas that seem ordinary lead us to liberation? Shri Krishna says to Arjuna on the battlefield,
“मयि सर्वाणि कर्माणि संन्यस्याऽध्यात्मचेतसा। निराशीíनर्ममो भूत्वा युद्ध्यस्य विगतज्वरः॥” – “Mayi sarvãni karmãni samnyasyã’dhyãtmachetasã, nirãsheernirmamo bhootvã yuddhyasya vigatajvaraha.” – “O Arjuna! Having offered all karmas to me, with a mind that has attained brahmabhav, having become free of desires, having become free of the attachment born from desires, and having become free of sorrow and fight.” (Gitã 3.30).
This verse shows us five things.
First, ‘Mayi sarvãni karmãni samnyasya’ tells us to surrender our karmas. It is common to surrender on occasions; people often give gifts to one another. Here, karmas are to be surrendered in a similar manner. Of course, karmas are not physical objects that can be given to someone by hand. Karmas are surrendered by purity of feelings and intentions. To surrender karmas means to shed the arrogance that ‘I am the doer’ and to do karmas with the thought that ‘the manifest form of Paramãtmã that I have attained is the all-doer. Will he be pleased by this action?’ Thus, actions should be done with the intention to please the manifest Paramãtmã. Daily activities such as sitting, standing, walking and working should all be done whilst remembering Paramãtmã. In this manner, one can be said to have surrendered one’s karmas to Paramãtmã if one remembers that Paramãtmã is the all-doer, one becomes humble, one does all actions to please Paramãtmã and all actions are done whilst worshipping Paramãtmã.
Secondly, it says, ‘adhyãtmachetasã’, which means ‘spiritual thought’. Spiritual thought leads in the direction of introspection. Who am I? What am I to do or become? These are questions that spiritual thought clarifies. Clarifying one’s goal, thinking, ‘I am separate from the body, indriyas and antahkaran. I am the ãtmã. I have to become brahmarup,’ is called spiritual thought. Bhagwan Swaminarayan has called such spiritual thought as the highest level of ãtmã-realization. One who attains this state, sees their ãtmã as brahmarup and constantly experiences that Paramãtmã resides within their ãtmã. If one attains such a brahmic state, they are never bound by karmas.
Thirdly, it says, to become ‘nirãsheehi’, which means to become free of desires. If karmas are done with a desire for fame, recognition or any other outcome, then they become chains that bind. Thus, one who does karmas should be free of worldly desires. So, the Gitã tells us to discipline our expectations.
Fourthly, it says to become ‘nirmamaha’, which means to abandon the feeling of me and mine. The feeling of me and mine is mãyã. This feeling soils karmas and makes them impure. If we claim ownership that ‘this is mine’, it leads to misery, burden and causes attachment.
Fifthly, it says to become ‘vigatajvaraha’, which means to be free of afflictions such as apathy, boredom, dislike and laziness. One who has any of the above four deficiencies is sure to suffer misery. If someone has a fever, they are not able to do anything satisfactorily. They do things, but half-heartedly, and they have to force themselves. Some work may get done, but not with enthusiasm or joy. With the word ‘vigatajvaraha’, the Gitã urges us to increase the quality of the things we do.
If we adorn our karmas with the above five features, our karmas cease to be mundane and become karmayoga. Then, that which was the cause of attachment, becomes the means to liberation. That which was full of misery, becomes full of happiness. Then, we never get fed up of doing karmas, do not fear karmas or get agitated by them. In fact, we feel inspired to please the guru and Paramãtmã. We are ready to do anything. These are the changes that a karmayogi experiences.
One thing that should be remembered here is that our karmas should be according to the commands of the shastras and our guru. They should abide by the limits of do’s and don’ts set by them. Only by imbibing the above five features in such permitted karmas can one attain karmayoga. Therefore, if someone steals, harms others or commits adultery, then, even if they remember Paramãtmã while doing such karmas, they are counted as crimes and they still incur pãp or sins.
Because Arjuna lacks the brahmic state, he is entangled in the web of mãyã. He has become arrogant, he has forgotten the all-doership of Paramãtmã, he has been beaten by ambition and desire, he is troubled by attachment, and finally, anguished by deficiencies such as lack of enthusiasm, weakness and doubt, he is unable to fulfil his duty. This is why, Krishna Bhagwan does not tell him to abandon karmas, but instead teaches him the art of doing karmas. Abiding to karmayoga is the very art of doing karmas. Throughout the entire Gitã, it is this art that Krishna repeatedly presents to and teaches Arjuna.


Fibromyalgia Myth Busting
One to show your GP if they bellieve any of the following about fibro....click link for full article...
by Karen Lee Richards
For many years Fibromyalgia has been considered something of a mystery, confounding the doctors who are trying to treat it and the patients who have to live with it. Only recently has new technology begun to unravel the truths about this mysterious disorder. As a result of the previous lack of scientific evidence, several myths about Fibromyalgia have developed that, unfortunately, are still being repeated today. It’s time to dispel the myths and clarify the facts.
Myth 1: Fibromyalgia is a form of arthritis.
Fact: Fibromyalgia is a neurologic disease.
the FM research front, new brain-imaging techniques and scientific studies are revealing that Fibromyalgia is better defined as a central nervous system disorder that results in abnormal pain processing.
Myth 2: Fibromyalgia affects the muscles, joints and connective tissue.
Fact: There is no damage to the muscles, joints or connective tissue of people with Fibromyalgia.
Myth 3: Fibromyalgia is an autoimmune disease.
Fact: Fibromyalgia is NOT an autoimmune disease.
Myth 4: Fibromyalgia is a middle-aged woman’s disease.
Fact: Fibromyalgia affects men, women and children.
Myth 5: Fibromyalgia is a psychological problem.
Fact: Fibromyalgia is a physical disorder with real, measurable biological abnormalities


Thursday, September 18, 2008
Bo Bunny Chipboard Album Class #3 - Trimming the Paper
When you are finished with the front of each letter, the first letter should be ready for trimming. Take the letter & paper and lay them letter side up on a craft cutting mat. Use your craft knife to trim the excess paper from around the letter. Place the knife against the letter, press hard enough to cut through the paper and slowly drag your knife along the edge of the letter, as closely as you can to the letter. Don't worry if you accidentally cut off a little of the chipboard or if the paper tears slightly. We'll cover all the edges with paint later and no one will be able to tell.
Be sure to use your knife to cut out the paper covering the 3 holes in the end of each letter at this point.
Next, repeat the instructions in Class #2 for the back of each letter. Don't forget to remove the paper from the back sides of the 3 holes.


A recent surge in Middle Eastern Respiratory Syndrome (MERS) has officials in Saudi Arabia worried because of the upcoming Hajj in September. The Hajj is the annual pilgrimage to Mecca that is required, at least once in their life, by all able adult Muslims.
In the past week, health officials have announced a total of 17 deaths from MERS in Saudi Arabia and are concerned for the estimated 2 million pilgrims coming to the Kingdom. MERS, a coronavirus that first appeared in Saudi Arabia in 2012, has been responsible for 502 deaths, the bulk of which have occurred in Saudi Arabia.
The World Health Organization (WHO) is monitoring the outbreak in Saudi Arabia have located the source of the current surge in cases. The emergency room of a hospital in the capital, Riyadh City, has been closed down after a reported 46 people, including hospital staff, contracted the disease. The recent surge in cases have prompted health officials to intensify their efforts to control an outbreak. Professor Tariq Madani, Saudi Arabia’s scientific adviser on MERS, said:
We’ve done a lot of work to ensure Hajj goes smooth without any (MERS) cases. Being a virus transmissible from human to human is a big concern for Hajj. We have overcrowding and this is an excellent medium for a respiratory infection to spread.
According to the Center for Disease Control (CDC), MERS affects the respiratory system, causing fever, coughing and shortness of breath. Between 30 and 40 percent of all cases of MERS cause death in the patient. Although how the disease is transmitted to humans is in question, the WHO recommends the following steps to minimize the risk of contracting the disease:
- Take precaution around people who may have been exposed to the disease.
- People with diabetes, renal failure, chronic lung disease, and immunocompromised persons are considered high risk and they should avoid contact with animals (specifically camels) in the Middle East.
- Proper hygiene should be followed after handling animals.
- Avoid drinking camel milk or urine and eating under-cooked camel meat.
- If you believe you have been exposed to MERS, see a health care professional promptly.
Although the number of MERS cases has fallen since April and May of this year, WHO officials are working with health officials in Saudi Arabia to prevent a surge of cases during the influx of visitors to the country.


Hi there! I'm back!
Fidget spinners are so popular right now so I thought I would make something that integrates a fidget spinner with an arduino! This was my Idea from the star, a speed test but I couldn't see any anywhere on instructables so... I WILL BE THE FIRST!
Lets get started!
Teachers! Did you use this instructable in your classroom?
Add a Teacher Note to share how you incorporated it into your lesson.
Step 1: What Will You Need?
Step 2: Glue Down Components
You also need some metal wire to hold up the laser
Once you have found some wire glue it to the laser and then glue the wire to the base as shown in the picture above!
When it is set you can glue down the LDR and attach a 220 ohm resistor as a pull up resistor.
As you can see my soldering iron is broken so I just joined the LDR and resistor together by twirling them but I recommend a soldering iron.
Step 3: Connecting Wires Together!
First connect the positive (Red) wire of the laser to the wire of the LDR that has nothing attached then add a jumper cable to it like in the picture. This is your positive wire. Wire it on the arduino to +5V
Next connect the negative(Blue) wire of the laser to the resistor end of the LDR like in the picture. Now attach a jumper cable. This will be your negative wire. Wire it on your arduino to GND
Finally attach a jumper cable to the resistor side of the LDR BUT be careful as it must be above where the resistor starts! this will be your data cable. Wire this on your arduino to A0
Step 4: Finally
Finally upload the code which I have posted and give it a whirl! What you need to do now, is position your fidget spinner so that it sometimes obstructs the laser beam and sometimes doesn't.
If you liked this project then please vote for it and follow me or favourite it. I would love to answer any questions about the code or the project so just leave a comment and I will be sure to answer!
Participated in the
Makerspace Contest 2017


A youth forum sponsored by the World Affairs Council of Houston, The
Africa Society and other groups with an international focus brought
more than 1,500 sixth to 12th grade students together this month
to learn more about Africa. But one of the things they learned is that
it is not easy to develop a simple concept for such a large and diverse
The purpose of the Teach Africa Youth Forum was to expose students to the real continent of Africa and its many countries and peoples as opposed to the somewhat distorted idea they might get from the news media or popular culture.
Ambassador encourages dialogue
Among those on hand to provide perspective was Angola's ambassador to the United States, Josefina Diakete.
"When we talk about Africa it is really important to keep talking and talking and engaging so that, at the end of the day, we will succeed in terms of changing perceptions about the continent," she explained.
One of the perceptions organizers of the forum stressed was that Africa is a huge, diverse continent that cannot be easily fit into one stereotype.
"There are 54 countries in Africa. There are over 2,000 languages in Africa. There is an extreme diversity in Africa that our students, unless they go out and seek the information, just are not getting and this is why we have Teach Africa," explained Jomo Bellard, who is with the Africa Society, a sponsor of the event.
Forums engage student discussions
As part of the planning for the event, students from some schools prepared poster displays about various African nations, showing the variety of climates, terrains, cultures and resources contained by this very large continent.
Some student participants, like Barry Authenreith came to the forum with little knowledge of Africa beyond some general impressions about cultures in different nations.
"Their religion, their customs, their dances and music," he noted.
He is one of the many students who thinks of going to Africa mainly to see pyramids in Egypt or wildlife in the large parks of Kenya, Tanzania or South Africa. At the Teach Africa Forum instructors tried to engage students in discussions about Africa's resources and the potential its nations hold as a trading partners.
Economic situation intrigues some
Crystal Bain is planning to go to Africa with a missionary group later this year and she was intrigued by presentations on the economic condition of many African nations.
"It posed a few questions about trade with Africa, detriments and benefits. It made you kind of think about what you can do to help or what you should not do to help," she said.
The man presenting the economic picture for the students was Gregory Rehmke, who operates an educational company called Economic Thinking out of Seattle, Washington.
"I am encouraging students to read books and follow up and study these issues and the best they could do for Africa and for themselves is become an entrepreneur or businessman doing trade and investment in Africa. There are huge opportunities there," he said.
Student finds forum helpful
One student who brought some special perspective to Rehmke's class on economics in Africa was 14-year-old Loyce Gayo, who came here from Tanzania two years ago. She says this forum was very helpful.
"For example, the stereotypes: It kind of helps students here get more understanding on what Africa really is and my country, Tanzania," said Loyce.
Gregory Rehmke says students from Africa like Loyce are in a unique position to help American students better understand Africa and the world in general.
"It is so great for American students to have international students in their class. The students here learn more about Africa from a classmate who is African than they ever could from a book or in a classroom," he said.
This daylong forum was part of a multi-phase program that included workshops for teachers on how to raise awareness of Africa in classrooms.