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+,text,pageid,title,stem_label
+0,"Operations research (British English: operational research) (U.S. Air Force Specialty Code: Operations Analysis), often shortened to the initialism OR, is a discipline that deals with the development and application of analytical methods to improve decision-making. The term management science is occasionally used as a synonym.Employing techniques from other mathematical sciences, such as modeling, statistics, and optimization, operations research arrives at optimal or near-optimal solutions to decision-making problems. Because of its emphasis on practical applications, operations research has overlapped with many other disciplines, notably industrial engineering. Operations research is often concerned with determining the extreme values of some real-world objective: the maximum (of profit, performance, or yield) or minimum (of loss, risk, or cost).",43476,Operations research,E
+1,"Anthropology is the study of human societal and cultural development in the past, present, and future with a number of facets that are categorized into five different fields. These fields include: Biological (Physical) Anthropology, Cultural (socio-cultural) Anthropology, Linguistic Anthropology (Linguistics), Archaeology, and Applied anthropology. Applied anthropology is the analysis of human interaction with the purpose of solving practical problems that affect and arise throughout time between cultures and societies. Applied Anthropologists use many different methods to conduct research on agriculture, health and medicine, housing, social services, political-economic development, displacement and resettlement, business and industry, education, nutrition, environment, and aging. Applied Anthropology research methods are: 1.) policy research, 2.) evaluation research, 3.) cultural intervention, 4.) activist (action) research, 5.) participatory action research (PAR).
+
+Background/history
+Applied anthropology was first established in the 19th century in Europe and continued to expand to other cultures around the world.",65980939,Applied Anthropology Research Methods,S
+2,"The long-range identification and tracking (LRIT) of ships was established as an international system on 19 May 2006 by the International Maritime Organization (IMO) as resolution MSC.202 (81). This resolution amends Chapter V of the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS), regulation 19-1 and binds all governments which have contracted to the IMO.The LRIT regulation will apply to the following ship types engaged on international voyages:
+
+All passenger ships including high-speed craft,
+Cargo ships, including high-speed craft of 300 gross tonnage and above, and
+Mobile offshore drilling units.These ships must report their position to their flag administration at least four times a day. Most vessels set their existing satellite communications systems to automatically make these reports.  Other contracting governments may request information about vessels in which they have a legitimate interest under the regulation.
+The LRIT system consists of the already installed (generally) shipborne satellite communications equipment, communications service providers (CSPs), application service providers (ASPs), LRIT data centres, the LRIT data distribution plan and the International LRIT data exchange. Certain aspects of the performance of the LRIT system are reviewed or audited by the LRIT coordinator acting on behalf of the IMO and its contracting governments.
+Some confuse the functions of LRIT with that of AIS (Automatic Identification System), a collision avoidance system also mandated by the IMO, which operates in the VHF radio band, with a range only slightly greater than line-of-sight.",9895412,Long-range identification and tracking (ships),T
+3,"Agrobacterium is a genus of Gram-negative bacteria established by H. J. Conn that uses horizontal gene transfer to cause tumors in plants. Agrobacterium tumefaciens is the most commonly studied species in this genus. Agrobacterium is well known for its ability to transfer DNA between itself and plants, and for this reason it has become an important tool for genetic engineering.
+
+Nomenclatural History
+Leading up to the 1990s, the genus Agrobacterium was used as a wastebasket taxon.",646842,Agrobacterium,S
+4,"Predictive informatics (PI) is the combination of predictive modeling and informatics applied to healthcare, pharmaceutical, life sciences and business industries.
+Predictive informatics enables researchers, analysts, physicians and decision-makers to aggregate and analyze disparate types of data, recognize patterns and trends within that data, and make more informed decisions in an effort to preemptively alter future outcomes.
+
+Current uses of PI
+Healthcare
+Over the past decade the increased usage of electronic health records has produced vast amounts of clinical data that is now computable. Predictive informatics integrates this data with other datasets (e.g., genotypic, phenotypic) in centralized and standardized data repositories upon which predictive analytics may be conducted.
+
+Pharmaceuticals
+The biopharmaceutical industry uses predictive informatics (a superset of chemoinformatics) to integrate information resources to transform data into knowledge in order to make better decisions faster in the area of drug lead identification and optimization.
+
+Systems biology
+Scientists involved in systems biology employ predictive informatics to integrate complex data about the interactions in biological systems from diverse experimental sources.
+
+Other uses
+Predictive informatics and analytics are also used in financial services, insurance, telecommunications, retail, and travel industries.
+
+See also
+Predictive analytics
+Informatics (academic field)
+Predictive modeling
+Biomedical informatics
+Chemoinformatics
+
+References
+Further reading
+Christophe Giraud-Carrier, Burdette Pixton, and Roberto A. Rocha. (2009) ""Bariatric surgery performance: A predictive informatics case study"". Intell.",11613197,Predictive informatics,S
+5,"/e/ (also known as /e/ OS and /e/OS, formerly Eelo) is a fork of LineageOS, an Android-based mobile operating system, and associated online services. /e/ is presented as privacy software that does not contain proprietary Google apps or services, and challenges the public to ""find any parts of the system or default applications that are still leaking data to Google.""
+
+Software
+/e/ is a fork of LineageOS, which is a fork of the CyanogenMod and Android operating systems. /e/ uses MicroG, ""an open source project that hijacks Google API calls."" according to Ron Amadeo of ars Technica, as an alternative for Google Play Services, and Mozilla Location Service for geolocation.Some /e/ applications and sources are proprietary. As of June 2022, /e/ includes a proprietary maps app. A privacy app was proprietary when first developed, then open source after release.",59180959,/e/ (operating system),T
+6,"Humboldtian science refers to a movement in science in the 19th century closely connected to the work and writings of German scientist, naturalist and explorer Alexander von Humboldt. It maintained a certain ethics of precision and observation, which combined scientific field work with the sensitivity and aesthetic ideals of the age of Romanticism.  Like Romanticism in science, it was rather popular in the 19th century. The term was coined by Susan Faye Cannon in 1978.
+The example of Humboldt's life and his writings allowed him to reach out beyond the academic community with his natural history and address a wider audience with popular science aspects. It has supplanted the older Baconian method, related as well to a single person, Francis Bacon.
+
+Brief biography
+Humboldt was born in Berlin in 1769 and worked as a Prussian mining official in the 1790s until 1797 when he quit and began collecting scientific knowledge and equipment.",8243937,Humboldtian science,S
+7,"In mathematics, a positive-definite function is, depending on the context, either of two types of function.
+
+Definition 1
+Let 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          R
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \mathbb {R} }
+   be the set of real numbers and 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          C
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \mathbb {C} }
+   be the set of complex numbers.
+A function 
+  
+    
+      
+        f
+        :
+        
+          R
+        
+        →
+        
+          C
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle f:\mathbb {R} \to \mathbb {C} }
+    is called positive semi-definite if for any real numbers x1, …, xn the n × n matrix
+
+  
+    
+      
+        A
+        =
+        
+          
+            (
+            
+              a
+              
+                i
+                j
+              
+            
+            )
+          
+          
+            i
+            ,
+            j
+            =
+            1
+          
+          
+            n
+          
+        
+         
+        ,
+        
+        
+          a
+          
+            i
+            j
+          
+        
+        =
+        f
+        (
+        
+          x
+          
+            i
+          
+        
+        −
+        
+          x
+          
+            j
+          
+        
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle A=\left(a_{ij}\right)_{i,j=1}^{n}~,\quad a_{ij}=f(x_{i}-x_{j})}
+  is a positive semi-definite matrix.By definition, a positive semi-definite matrix, such as 
+  
+    
+      
+        A
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle A}
+  , is Hermitian; therefore f(−x) is the complex conjugate of f(x)).
+In particular, it is necessary (but not sufficient) that
+
+  
+    
+      
+        f
+        (
+        0
+        )
+        ≥
+        0
+         
+        ,
+        
+        
+          |
+        
+        f
+        (
+        x
+        )
+        
+          |
+        
+        ≤
+        f
+        (
+        0
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle f(0)\geq 0~,\quad |f(x)|\leq f(0)}
+  (these inequalities follow from the condition for n = 1, 2.)
+A function is negative semi-definite if the inequality is reversed.  A function is definite if the weak inequality is replaced with a strong (<, > 0).
+
+Examples
+If 
+  
+    
+      
+        (
+        X
+        ,
+        ⟨
+        ⋅
+        ,
+        ⋅
+        ⟩
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle (X,\langle \cdot ,\cdot \rangle )}
+   is a real inner product space, then 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          g
+          
+            y
+          
+        
+        :
+        X
+        →
+        
+          C
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle g_{y}\colon X\to \mathbb {C} }
+  , 
+  
+    
+      
+        x
+        ↦
+        exp
+        ⁡
+        (
+        i
+        ⟨
+        y
+        ,
+        x
+        ⟩
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle x\mapsto \exp(i\langle y,x\rangle )}
+   is positive definite for every 
+  
+    
+      
+        y
+        ∈
+        X
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle y\in X}
+  : for all 
+  
+    
+      
+        u
+        ∈
+        
+          
+            C
+          
+          
+            n
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle u\in \mathbb {C} ^{n}}
+   and all 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          x
+          
+            1
+          
+        
+        ,
+        …
+        ,
+        
+          x
+          
+            n
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle x_{1},\ldots ,x_{n}}
+   we have
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          u
+          
+            ∗
+          
+        
+        
+          A
+          
+            (
+            
+              g
+              
+                y
+              
+            
+            )
+          
+        
+        u
+        =
+        
+          ∑
+          
+            j
+            ,
+            k
+            =
+            1
+          
+          
+            n
+          
+        
+        
+          
+            
+              u
+              
+                k
+              
+            
+            ¯
+          
+        
+        
+          u
+          
+            j
+          
+        
+        
+          e
+          
+            i
+            ⟨
+            y
+            ,
+            
+              x
+              
+                k
+              
+            
+            −
+            
+              x
+              
+                j
+              
+            
+            ⟩
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          ∑
+          
+            k
+            =
+            1
+          
+          
+            n
+          
+        
+        
+          
+            
+              u
+              
+                k
+              
+            
+            ¯
+          
+        
+        
+          e
+          
+            i
+            ⟨
+            y
+            ,
+            
+              x
+              
+                k
+              
+            
+            ⟩
+          
+        
+        
+          ∑
+          
+            j
+            =
+            1
+          
+          
+            n
+          
+        
+        
+          u
+          
+            j
+          
+        
+        
+          e
+          
+            −
+            i
+            ⟨
+            y
+            ,
+            
+              x
+              
+                j
+              
+            
+            ⟩
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          
+            |
+            
+              
+                ∑
+                
+                  j
+                  =
+                  1
+                
+                
+                  n
+                
+              
+              
+                
+                  
+                    u
+                    
+                      j
+                    
+                  
+                  ¯
+                
+              
+              
+                e
+                
+                  i
+                  ⟨
+                  y
+                  ,
+                  
+                    x
+                    
+                      j
+                    
+                  
+                  ⟩
+                
+              
+            
+            |
+          
+          
+            2
+          
+        
+        ≥
+        0.
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle u^{*}A^{(g_{y})}u=\sum _{j,k=1}^{n}{\overline {u_{k}}}u_{j}e^{i\langle y,x_{k}-x_{j}\rangle }=\sum _{k=1}^{n}{\overline {u_{k}}}e^{i\langle y,x_{k}\rangle }\sum _{j=1}^{n}u_{j}e^{-i\langle y,x_{j}\rangle }=\left|\sum _{j=1}^{n}{\overline {u_{j}}}e^{i\langle y,x_{j}\rangle }\right|^{2}\geq 0.}
+  As nonnegative linear combinations of positive definite functions are again positive definite, the cosine function is positive definite as a nonnegative linear combination of the above functions:
+
+  
+    
+      
+        cos
+        ⁡
+        (
+        x
+        )
+        =
+        
+          
+            1
+            2
+          
+        
+        (
+        
+          e
+          
+            i
+            x
+          
+        
+        +
+        
+          e
+          
+            −
+            i
+            x
+          
+        
+        )
+        =
+        
+          
+            1
+            2
+          
+        
+        (
+        
+          g
+          
+            1
+          
+        
+        +
+        
+          g
+          
+            −
+            1
+          
+        
+        )
+        .
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \cos(x)={\frac {1}{2}}(e^{ix}+e^{-ix})={\frac {1}{2}}(g_{1}+g_{-1}).}
+  One can create a positive definite function 
+  
+    
+      
+        f
+        :
+        X
+        →
+        
+          C
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle f\colon X\to \mathbb {C} }
+   easily from positive definite function 
+  
+    
+      
+        f
+        :
+        
+          R
+        
+        →
+        
+          C
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle f\colon \mathbb {R} \to \mathbb {C} }
+   for any vector space 
+  
+    
+      
+        X
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle X}
+  : choose a linear function 
+  
+    
+      
+        ϕ
+        :
+        X
+        →
+        
+          R
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \phi \colon X\to \mathbb {R} }
+   and define 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          f
+          
+            ∗
+          
+        
+        :=
+        f
+        ∘
+        ϕ
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle f^{*}:=f\circ \phi }
+  .
+Then
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          u
+          
+            ∗
+          
+        
+        
+          A
+          
+            (
+            
+              f
+              
+                ∗
+              
+            
+            )
+          
+        
+        u
+        =
+        
+          ∑
+          
+            j
+            ,
+            k
+            =
+            1
+          
+          
+            n
+          
+        
+        
+          
+            
+              u
+              
+                k
+              
+            
+            ¯
+          
+        
+        
+          u
+          
+            j
+          
+        
+        
+          f
+          
+            ∗
+          
+        
+        (
+        
+          x
+          
+            k
+          
+        
+        −
+        
+          x
+          
+            j
+          
+        
+        )
+        =
+        
+          ∑
+          
+            j
+            ,
+            k
+            =
+            1
+          
+          
+            n
+          
+        
+        
+          
+            
+              u
+              
+                k
+              
+            
+            ¯
+          
+        
+        
+          u
+          
+            j
+          
+        
+        f
+        (
+        ϕ
+        (
+        
+          x
+          
+            k
+          
+        
+        )
+        −
+        ϕ
+        (
+        
+          x
+          
+            j
+          
+        
+        )
+        )
+        =
+        
+          u
+          
+            ∗
+          
+        
+        
+          
+            
+              
+                A
+                ~
+              
+            
+          
+          
+            (
+            f
+            )
+          
+        
+        u
+        ≥
+        0
+        ,
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle u^{*}A^{(f^{*})}u=\sum _{j,k=1}^{n}{\overline {u_{k}}}u_{j}f^{*}(x_{k}-x_{j})=\sum _{j,k=1}^{n}{\overline {u_{k}}}u_{j}f(\phi (x_{k})-\phi (x_{j}))=u^{*}{\tilde {A}}^{(f)}u\geq 0,}
+  where 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            
+              
+                A
+                ~
+              
+            
+          
+          
+            (
+            f
+            )
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          
+            (
+          
+        
+        f
+        (
+        ϕ
+        (
+        
+          x
+          
+            i
+          
+        
+        )
+        −
+        ϕ
+        (
+        
+          x
+          
+            j
+          
+        
+        )
+        )
+        =
+        f
+        (
+        
+          
+            
+              
+                x
+                ~
+              
+            
+          
+          
+            i
+          
+        
+        −
+        
+          
+            
+              
+                x
+                ~
+              
+            
+          
+          
+            j
+          
+        
+        )
+        
+          
+            
+              )
+            
+          
+          
+            i
+            ,
+            j
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\tilde {A}}^{(f)}={\big (}f(\phi (x_{i})-\phi (x_{j}))=f({\tilde {x}}_{i}-{\tilde {x}}_{j}){\big )}_{i,j}}
+   where 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            
+              
+                x
+                ~
+              
+            
+          
+          
+            k
+          
+        
+        :=
+        ϕ
+        (
+        
+          x
+          
+            k
+          
+        
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\tilde {x}}_{k}:=\phi (x_{k})}
+   are distinct as 
+  
+    
+      
+        ϕ
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \phi }
+   is linear.
+
+Bochner's theorem
+Positive-definiteness arises naturally in the theory of the Fourier transform; it can be seen directly that to be positive-definite it is sufficient for f to be the Fourier transform of a function g on the real line with g(y) ≥ 0.
+The converse result is Bochner's theorem, stating that any continuous positive-definite function on the real line is the Fourier transform of a (positive) measure.
+
+Applications
+In statistics, and especially Bayesian statistics, the theorem is usually applied to real functions. Typically, n scalar measurements of some scalar value at points in 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          R
+          
+            d
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle R^{d}}
+   are taken and points that are mutually close are required to have measurements that are highly correlated.  In practice, one must be careful to ensure that the resulting covariance matrix (an n × n matrix) is always positive-definite.  One strategy is to define a correlation matrix A which is then multiplied by a scalar to give a covariance matrix: this must be positive-definite.",649616,Positive-definite function,M
+8,"A pallet inverter or pile turner is a machine that is used to turn over full pallet loads of packages or products.  The term pallet inverter is also used to cover machines that turn the palletised load through 90 degrees only.
+
+Use
+The reasons for needing to turn over a pallet are varied. The primary reason is have access  to the bottom of the load without having to manually unload all of the boxes or bags.  If a pallet or slip sheet is damaged. it can be replaced by inverting the load, replacing it, and re-inverting the load.",8626724,Pallet inverter,E
+9,"The Blaser R93 is a straight-pull action precision rifle offered in a multitude of calibers and barrel lengths manufactured by the German firearms manufacturer Blaser. Designed by Blasers' designer Mr. Meinhard Zeh in 1993, it had a number of features rare on modern hunting rifles, including a manual cocking system and a proprietary Blaser saddle scope mount for mounting the optic directly to the quick-change barrel
+In 2002, more than 100,000 complete Blaser R93 rifles had been produced. By 2017, more than 200,000 R93 rifles had been produced, but it is not clear whether the R93 Tactical variant is included in these numbers.
+
+History
+The predecessor of the R93 was the 60 degree turn bolt action Blaser R84, which was discontinued after the introduction of the R93 in 1993.
+The successor of R93, Blaser R8, was introduced in 2008. Production of the R93 ended by 2017.
+
+Design features
+Modularity
+The Blaser R93 is a truly modular system built around an aluminium alloy frame, offering differing stocks and barrels varying length and thickness available in chamberings from .22 LR to .375 H&H Magnum/.416 Remington Magnum/.458 Winchester Magnum size.",4107390,Blaser R93,E
+10,"A planetary coordinate system (also referred to as planetographic, planetodetic, or planetocentric) is a generalization of the geographic, geodetic, and the geocentric coordinate systems for planets other than Earth.
+Similar coordinate systems are defined for other solid celestial bodies, such as in the selenographic coordinates for the Moon.
+The coordinate systems for almost all of the solid bodies in the Solar System were established by Merton E. Davies of the Rand Corporation, including Mercury, Venus, Mars, the four Galilean moons of Jupiter, and Triton, the largest moon of Neptune.
+
+Longitude
+The longitude systems of most of those bodies with observable rigid surfaces have been defined by references to a surface feature such as a crater. The north pole is that pole of rotation that lies on the north side of the invariable plane of the Solar System (near the ecliptic). The location of the prime meridian as well as the position of the body's north pole on the celestial sphere may vary with time due to precession of the axis of rotation of the planet (or satellite). If the position angle of the body's prime meridian increases with time, the body has a direct (or prograde) rotation; otherwise the rotation is said to be retrograde.
+In the absence of other information, the axis of rotation is assumed to be normal to the mean orbital plane; Mercury and most of the satellites are in this category.",67562204,Planetary coordinate system,M
+11,"Ecotrophology is a branch of nutritional science concerned with everyday practice. It is mainly in Germany that it is seen as a separate branch of health care, and the word is rare outside Germany. 
+Ecotrophologists are specialists in nutrition, household management and economics. This includes physiological, economic and technological principles of healthy nutrition and practical application. They work in many different fields: management of the above types of operations, development of new nutritional concepts in catering, quality control in food manufacturing and processing operations and research within the food industry.",40265974,Ecotrophology,S
+12,"Allotropy or allotropism (from Ancient Greek  ἄλλος (allos) 'other', and  τρόπος (tropos) 'manner, form') is the property of some chemical elements to exist in two or more different forms, in the same physical state, known as allotropes of the elements. Allotropes are different structural modifications of an element: the atoms of the element are bonded together in different manners.
+For example, the allotropes of carbon include diamond (the carbon atoms are bonded together to form a cubic lattice of tetrahedra), graphite (the carbon atoms are bonded together in sheets of a hexagonal lattice), graphene (single sheets of graphite), and fullerenes (the carbon atoms are bonded together in spherical, tubular, or ellipsoidal formations).
+The term allotropy is used for elements only, not for compounds. The more general term, used for any compound, is polymorphism, although its use is usually restricted to solid materials such as crystals. Allotropy refers only to different forms of an element within the same physical phase (the state of matter, such as a solid, liquid or gas). The differences between these states of matter would not alone constitute examples of allotropy.",1839,Allotropy,M
+13,"In transcendental number theory, the Lindemann–Weierstrass theorem is a result that is very useful in establishing the transcendence of numbers. It states the following:  
+In other words, the extension field 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          Q
+        
+        (
+        
+          e
+          
+            
+              α
+              
+                1
+              
+            
+          
+        
+        ,
+        …
+        ,
+        
+          e
+          
+            
+              α
+              
+                n
+              
+            
+          
+        
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \mathbb {Q} (e^{\alpha _{1}},\dots ,e^{\alpha _{n}})}
+   has transcendence degree n over 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          Q
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \mathbb {Q} }
+  .
+
+An equivalent formulation (Baker 1990, Chapter 1, Theorem 1.4), is the following:   This equivalence transforms a linear relation over the algebraic numbers into an algebraic relation over 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          Q
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \mathbb {Q} }
+   by using the fact that a symmetric polynomial whose arguments are all conjugates of one another gives a rational number.
+The theorem is named for Ferdinand von Lindemann and Karl Weierstrass. Lindemann proved in 1882 that eα is transcendental for every non-zero algebraic number α, thereby establishing that π is transcendental (see below). Weierstrass proved the above more general statement in 1885.The theorem, along with the Gelfond–Schneider theorem, is extended by Baker's theorem, and all of these would be further generalized by Schanuel's conjecture.
+
+Naming convention
+The theorem is also known variously as the Hermite–Lindemann theorem and the Hermite–Lindemann–Weierstrass theorem. Charles Hermite first proved the simpler theorem where the αi exponents are required to be rational integers and linear independence is only assured over the rational integers, a result sometimes referred to as Hermite's theorem.",348976,Lindemann–Weierstrass theorem,M
+14,"Esterel is a synchronous programming language  for the development of complex reactive systems. The imperative programming style of Esterel allows the simple expression of parallelism and preemption. As a consequence, it is well suited for control-dominated model designs.
+The development of the language started in the early 1980s, and was mainly carried out by a team of Ecole des Mines de Paris and INRIA led by Gérard Berry in France. Current compilers take Esterel programs and generate C code or hardware (RTL) implementations (VHDL or Verilog).
+The language is still under development, with several compilers out. The commercial version of Esterel is the development environment Esterel Studio.",1285078,Esterel,T
+15,"Drum pump, barrel pump, and transfer pump refer to pumps that are used to empty barrels, tanks, IBCs and drums. Many liquids used on manufacturing and processing plants are delivered in 100 or 200 litre barrels and are too heavy to tip to empty the liquids inside. Drum pumps range from simple siphon based devices to sophisticated highly-engineered machinery.
+
+Considerations
+Function - Is the purpose simply to empty the drum completely in one operation, to allow dispense-on-demand operations, or to provide a metered flow to a subsequent operations?  Flow rate, pressure, control systems, etc.  need to be specified.
+Liquid being pumped - Product viscosity determines the type of pump mechanism.  Heavy viscous liquids usually require positive displacement pumping head.
+Special product characteristics - Acids, corrosives, or reactive liquids need special materials in the drum pumps.",23170404,Drum pump,E
+16,"A tarpaulin ( tar-PAW-lin, also US: ) or tarp is a large sheet of strong, flexible, water-resistant or waterproof material, often cloth such as canvas or polyester coated with polyurethane, or made of plastics such as polyethylene. Tarpaulins often have reinforced grommets at the corners and along the sides to form attachment points for rope, allowing them to be tied down or suspended.
+Inexpensive modern tarpaulins are made from woven polyethylene; This material has become so commonly used for tarpaulins that people in some places refer to it colloquially as ""poly tarp"" or ""polytarp"".
+
+Uses
+Tarpaulins are used in many ways to protect persons and things from wind, rain, and sunlight. They are used during construction or after disasters to protect partially built or damaged structures, to prevent mess during painting and similar activities, and to contain and collect debris. They are used to protect the loads of open trucks and wagons, to keep wood piles dry, and for shelters such as tents or other temporary structures.
+
+Tarpaulins are also used for advertisement printing, most notably for billboards. Perforated tarpaulins are typically used for medium to large advertising, or for protection on scaffoldings; the aim of the perforations (from 20% to 70%) is to reduce wind vulnerability.",608992,Tarpaulin,E
+17,"Environmental epigenetics is a branch of epigenetics that studies the influence of external environmental factors on the gene expression of a developing embryo. The way that genes are expressed may be passed down from parent to offspring through epigenetic modifications, although environmental influences do not alter the genome itself.
+During embryonic development, epigenetic modifications determine which genes are expressed, which in turn determines the embryo's phenotype. When the offspring is still developing, genes can be turned on and off depending on exposure to certain environmental factors. While certain genes being turned on or off can increase the risk of developmental diseases or abnormal phenotypes, there is also the possibility that the phenotype will be non-functional. Environmental influence on epigenetics is highly variable, but certain environmental factors can greatly increase the risk of detrimental diseases being expressed at both early and adult life stages.
+
+Environmental triggers for epigenetic change
+The way that genes are expressed is influenced by the environment that the genome is in.",72989088,Environmental epigenetics,S
+18,"In mathematical set theory, the Mitchell order is a well-founded preorder on the set of normal measures on a measurable cardinal κ. It is named for William Mitchell. We say that M ◅ N (this is a strict order) if M is in the ultrapower model defined by N. Intuitively, this means that M is a weaker measure than N (note, for example, that κ will still be measurable in the ultrapower for N, since M is a measure on it).
+In fact, the Mitchell order can be defined on the set (or proper class, as the case may be) of extenders for κ; but if it is so defined it may fail to be transitive, or even well-founded, provided κ has sufficiently strong large cardinal properties. Well-foundedness fails specifically for rank-into-rank extenders; but Itay Neeman showed in 2004 that it holds for all weaker types of extender.
+The Mitchell rank of a measure is the order type of its predecessors under ◅; since ◅ is well-founded this is always an ordinal.",29768842,Mitchell order,M
+19,"Euphaedra perseis, the Perseis mimic forester, is a butterfly in the family Nymphalidae. It is found in Guinea (Conakry), Sierra Leone, Liberia, Ivory Coast and western Ghana. It was first described by Dru Drury in 1773.
+The habitat consists of wet forests. Adults mimic a day-flying moth of the genus Xanthospilopteryx.  They are attracted to fallen fruit.
+
+Description
+Upperside: Antennae black.",36126711,Euphaedra perseis,S
+20,"In discrete mathematics, a discrete fixed-point is a fixed-point for functions defined on finite sets, typically subsets of the integer grid 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            Z
+          
+          
+            n
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \mathbb {Z} ^{n}}
+  .
+Discrete fixed-point theorems were developed by Iimura, Murota and Tamura, Chen and Deng and others. Yang provides a survey.
+
+Basic concepts
+Continuous fixed-point theorems often require a continuous function. Since continuity is not meaningful for functions on discrete sets, it is replaced by conditions such as a direction-preserving function. Such conditions imply that the function does not change too drastically when moving between neighboring points of the integer grid. There are various direction-preservation conditions, depending on whether neighboring points are considered points of a hypercube (HGDP), of a simplex (SGDP) etc.",63326424,Discrete fixed-point theorem,M
+21,"Climate engineering (also called geoengineering) is a term used for both carbon dioxide removal and solar radiation management, also called solar geoengineering, when applied at a planetary scale.: 6–11  However, they have very different geophysical characteristics which is why the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change no longer uses this overarching term.: 6–11  Carbon dioxide removal approaches are part of climate change mitigation. Solar geoengineering involves reflecting some sunlight (solar radiation) back to space. All forms of geoengineering are not a standalone solution to climate change, but need to be coupled with other forms of climate change mitigation. Another approach to geoengineering is to increase the Earth's thermal emittance through passive radiative cooling.Carbon dioxide removal is defined as ""Anthropogenic activities removing carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere and durably storing it in geological, terrestrial, or ocean reservoirs, or in products. It includes existing and potential anthropogenic enhancement of biological or geochemical CO2 sinks and direct air carbon dioxide capture and storage, but excludes natural CO2 uptake not directly caused by human activities.""Some types of climate engineering are highly controversial due to the large uncertainties around effectiveness, side effects and unforeseen consequences.",1038280,Climate engineering,E
+22,"Planetary cartography, or cartography of extraterrestrial objects (CEO), is the cartography of solid objects outside of the Earth. Planetary maps can show any spatially mapped characteristic (such as topography, geology, and geophysical properties) for extraterrestrial surfaces. Some well-known examples of these maps have been produced by the USGS, such as the latest Geologic Map of Mars, but many others are published in specialized scientific journals.
+
+Products
+Albedo map shows the measured difference in surface reflectivity from the surface of a celestial body.
+Atlas is a special collection of images of a celestial body surface. The images may be from either ground-based or spacecraft sources. Usually a single scale or set of scales is used throughout the atlas.",18018540,Planetary cartography,M
+23,"Smart manufacturing is a broad category of manufacturing that employs computer-integrated manufacturing, high levels of adaptability and rapid design changes, digital information technology, and more flexible technical workforce training. Other goals sometimes include fast changes in production levels based on demand, optimization of the supply chain, efficient production and recyclability. In this concept, as smart factory has interoperable systems, multi-scale dynamic modelling and simulation, intelligent automation, strong cyber security, and networked sensors.
+The broad definition of smart manufacturing covers many different technologies. Some of the key technologies in the smart manufacturing movement include big data processing capabilities, industrial connectivity devices and services, and advanced robotics.
+
+Big data processing
+Smart manufacturing utilizes big data analytics, to refine complicated processes and manage supply chains. Big data analytics refers to a method for gathering and understanding large data sets in terms of what are known as the three V's, velocity, variety and volume.",49260321,Smart manufacturing,E
+24,"Digital Trends is a Portland, Oregon-based tech news, lifestyle, and information website that publishes news, reviews, guides, how-to articles, descriptive videos and podcasts about technology and consumer electronics products. With offices in Portland, Oregon, New York City, Chicago and other locations, Digital Trends is operated by Digital Trends Media Group, a media company that also publishes Digital Trends Español, focusing on Spanish speakers worldwide, and a men's lifestyle site The Manual.The site offers reviews and information on a wide array of products that have been shaped by technology. That includes consumer electronics products such as smartphones, video games and systems, laptops, PCs and peripherals, televisions, home theater systems, digital cameras, video cameras, tablets, and more.
+According to third-party web analytics provider SimilarWeb, the site received over 40 million visits per month As of June 2018. From 2014 to 2021, Digital Trends' editorial team was led by Editor-in-Chief Jeremy Kaplan and guided by Co-Founders Ian Bell and Dan Gaul. Kaplan left the site in May of 2021.",11057200,Digital Trends,T
+25,"Tube tools are tools used to service any tubing (material) in industrial applications including, but not limited to: HVAC or industrial heating and air (hospitals and universities, for example), OEM's(Original equipment manufacturer), defense contractors, the automotive industry, process industries, aluminum smelting facilities, food and sugar production plants, oil refineries, and power plants.
+
+Application
+Tube Tools can be categorized into function by application:
+Tube Cleaners-tube cleaning demands vary widely by application
+Shell and tube heat exchangers, condensers and chillers: Deposits are typically sediment from impurities in the water circulating through the tubes.  Manual scrubbing with a wire brush attached to a long rod is the traditional method of cleaning.  Modern methods involve pneumatic or electric motors to pulsate the brush automatically with a medium pressure water jet to further clean out residual deposits.
+Tube Testers- Use air pressure or vacuum to test for leaks, cracks, and material failures in a tube.  Both manual activated and air activated models are available.
+To test for leaks in tubes, two operators are required with an operator at each end of the vessel.
+Step 1 - Seal the tube at both ends.
+Step 2 - Build air pressure or vacuum in the tube.
+Step 3 - Observe gauge to see if air pressure is dropping or vacuum is not holding.
+Tube Plugs(Repair)- To regain efficiency of a heat exchanger or chiller, tube plugs are installed to take leaky tubes out of service.  The rule of thumb is that a vessel will need to be retubed after approximately 10% of the tubes have been plugged.
+Tubes need to be plugged at both ends of the pressure vessel.
+It is a good practice to:
+Install a plug that is the same as or a compatible material to the tube and tube sheet.",12311888,Tube tool,E
+26,"The Stele of Zakkur (or Zakir) is a royal stele of King Zakkur of Hamath and Luhuti (or Lu'aš) in the province Nuhašše of Syria, who ruled around 785 BC.
+
+Description
+The inscription was on the lower part of the original stele. The upper part is now missing; it probably had the statue of king Zakkur sitting on a chair. Only some small parts of the upper part are still preserved such as the feet.
+
+Discovery
+The Stele was discovered in 1903 at Tell Afis (mentioned in the Stele as Hazrach), 45 km southeast of Aleppo, in the territory of the ancient kingdom of Hamath. It was published in 1907. The long inscription is known as KAI 202; it reads, in part:
+
+I am Zakkur, king of Hamath and Luash .",14285164,Stele of Zakkur,T
+27,"Manufacturing in New Zealand contributed $23 billion (12%) of the country's gross domestic product and directly employed 241,000 people in 2017, while manufactured goods made up 52% of the country's exports by value. The food and beverage subsector alone contributed 32% of manufacturing's GDP and 71% of exports.New Zealand has a disadvantage in export manufacturing due to its small population, isolated location, and high costs. Therefore, the majority of manufacturing is for the domestic markets, with the majority of exported manufactured goods being large-scale commodities (e.g. meat and dairy), high-value innovative products, and products targeting global niches.
+
+Employment
+The manufacturing sector (ANZSIC division C) in New Zealand employed 238,417 people according to the 2018 New Zealand census, an increase from 188,286 people at the 2013 census. However, the proportion of employed New Zealanders working in manufacturing decreased slightly from 9.80% to 9.75%.",64093938,Manufacturing in New Zealand,E
+28,"Sewing is the craft of fastening or attaching objects using stitches made with a sewing needle and thread. Sewing is one of the oldest of the textile arts, arising in the Paleolithic era. Before the invention of spinning yarn or weaving fabric, archaeologists believe Stone Age people across Europe and Asia sewed fur and leather clothing using bone, antler or ivory sewing-needles and ""thread"" made of various animal body parts including sinew, catgut, and veins.For thousands of years, all sewing was done by hand.  The invention of the sewing machine in the 19th century and the rise of computerization in the 20th century led to mass production and export of sewn objects, but hand sewing is still practiced around the world. Fine hand sewing is a characteristic of high-quality tailoring, haute couture fashion, and custom dressmaking, and is pursued by both textile artists and hobbyists as a means of creative expression.The first known use of the word ""sewing"" was in the 14th century.
+
+History
+Origins
+Sewing has an ancient history estimated to begin during the Paleolithic Era.",92295,Sewing,E
+29,"The United States Postal Service issued the Total Eclipse of the Sun Forever stamp on June 20, 2017. The stamp includes two superimposed images, one showing a total solar eclipse and the second showing a full moon that is revealed upon heat being applied. This stamp commemorates the solar eclipse of August 21, 2017 which was visible across the continental United States from coast to coast, weather permitting.
+
+Details
+In the first U.S. stamp application of thermochromic ink, the Total Eclipse of the Sun Forever stamps reveal a second image. By rubbing a thumb or finger on the image, the heat imparted will cause an underlying image of the full moon to be revealed.",54506466,2017 Total Solar Eclipse stamp,S
+30,"An eggshell planet is a type of exoplanet characterized by its ultra-thin outer brittle layer and minimal topography. The term was introduced in scientific discussions to describe a subset of rocky exoplanets with specific geological and tectonic characteristics. These planets pose questions regarding their potential habitability due to the unlikelihood of them having plate tectonics.
+
+Characteristics
+The defining characteristic of an eggshell planet is its exceptionally thin lithosphere. The lithosphere of a planet is the rigid outermost shell, and its thickness can influence various geological processes, including the formation of mountains and plate tectonics. The thickness of the lithosphere is determined by a myriad of factors including the planet's size, interior temperature, and composition.While plate tectonics is considered essential for maintaining Earth's habitability through temperature regulation, eggshell planets are thought to lack this process.",74552737,Eggshell planet,M
+31,"In mathematics, especially differential geometry, the cotangent bundle of a smooth manifold is the vector bundle of all the cotangent spaces at every point in the manifold. It may be described also as the dual bundle to the tangent bundle. This may be generalized to categories with more structure than smooth manifolds, such as complex manifolds, or (in the form of cotangent sheaf) algebraic varieties or schemes. In the smooth case, any Riemannian metric or symplectic form gives an isomorphism between the cotangent bundle and the tangent bundle, but they are not in general isomorphic in other categories.
+
+Formal definition via diagonal morphism
+There are several equivalent ways to define the cotangent bundle. One way is through a diagonal mapping Δ and  germs.
+Let M be a smooth manifold and let M×M be the Cartesian product of M with itself.",221600,Cotangent bundle,E
+32,"The Minor Planet Bulletin is a quarterly peer-reviewed open-access scientific journal. Its focus is on theoretical, observational, and historical information regarding the study of minor planets. The journal mainly targets amateur research, but it includes professional research as well.
+It has been published by the Minor Planets section of the Association of Lunar and Planetary Observers since 1973 and the editor-in-chief is Richard P. Binzel (Massachusetts Institute of Technology).
+
+Operations
+All editorial, production, and distribution tasks are performed on a volunteer basis, many by amateur astronomers.
+
+See also
+List of astronomy journals
+
+References
+Further reading
+Pilcher, F.; Binzel, R. (1993).",32311457,The Minor Planet Bulletin,M
+33,"A bacteriophage (), also known informally as a phage (), is a duplodnaviria virus that infects and replicates within bacteria and archaea. The term was derived from ""bacteria"" and the Greek φαγεῖν (phagein), meaning ""to devour"". Bacteriophages are composed of proteins that encapsulate a DNA or RNA genome, and may have structures that are either simple or elaborate. Their genomes may encode as few as four genes (e.g. MS2) and as many as hundreds of genes.",4185,Bacteriophage,S
+34,"Richard Lydekker (; 25 July 1849 – 16 April 1915) was an English naturalist, geologist and writer of numerous books on natural history.
+
+Biography
+Richard Lydekker was born at Tavistock Square in London. His father was Gerard Wolfe Lydekker, a barrister-at-law with Dutch ancestry. The family moved to Harpenden Lodge soon after Richard's birth. He was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he took a first-class in the Natural Science tripos (1872). In 1874 he joined the Geological Survey of India and made studies of the vertebrate palaeontology of northern India (especially Kashmir).",981749,Richard Lydekker,S
+35,"Real-Time Object-Oriented Modeling (ROOM) is a domain-specific language.
+ROOM was developed in the early 1990s for modeling Real-time systems. The initial focus was on telecommunications, even though ROOM can be applied to any event-driven real-time system.
+ROOM was supported by ObjecTime Developer (commercial) and is now implemented by the official Eclipse project eTriceWhen UML2 was defined (version 2 of UML with real time extensions), many elements of ROOM were adopted.
+
+Concepts and Key Notions of ROOM
+ROOM is a modeling language for the definition of software systems. It allows the complete code generation for the whole system from the model. ROOM comes with a textual as well as with a graphical notation.
+Typically the generated code is accompanied with manually written code, e.g. for graphical user interfaces (GUI).
+The code is compiled and linked against a runtime library which provides base classes and basic services (e.g.",39809989,Real-Time Object-Oriented Modeling,T
+36,"Spontaneous generation is a superseded scientific theory that held that living creatures could arise from nonliving matter and that such processes were commonplace and regular. It was hypothesized that certain forms, such as fleas, could arise from inanimate matter such as dust, or that maggots could arise from dead flesh. The doctrine of spontaneous generation was coherently synthesized by the Greek philosopher and naturalist Aristotle, who compiled and expanded the work of earlier natural philosophers and the various ancient explanations for the appearance of organisms. Spontaneous generation was taken as scientific fact for two millennia. Though challenged in the 17th and 18th centuries by the experiments of the Italian biologists Francesco Redi and Lazzaro Spallanzani, it was not discredited until the work of the French chemist Louis Pasteur and the Irish physicist John Tyndall in the mid-19th century.
+Rejection of spontaneous generation is no longer controversial among biologists.",326920,Spontaneous generation,S
+37,"Between 1992 and 2022, the worldwide usage of photovoltaics (PV) increased exponentially. During this period, it evolved from a niche market of small-scale applications to a mainstream electricity source.When solar PV systems were first recognized as a promising renewable energy technology, subsidy programs, such as feed-in tariffs, were implemented by a number of governments in order to provide economic incentives for investments. For several years, growth was mainly driven by Japan and pioneering European countries. As a consequence, cost of solar declined significantly due to experience curve effects like improvements in technology and economies of scale. Several national programs were instrumental in increasing PV deployment, such as the Energiewende in Germany, the Million Solar Roofs project in the United States, and China's 2011 five-year-plan for energy production.",21150165,Growth of photovoltaics,T
+38,"Rolling bed dryers are used for efficiently processing large amounts of material that need their respective moisture levels reduced. Rolling bed dryers are most often used for drying wood chips and organic residues and are most often utilized in the biomass, waste/recycling, wood particle board, pellet, and biofuel industries.
+
+General concept
+The versatility of the rolling bed dryer is based on its simple idea of product circulation. The biomass processed through the rolling bed dryer can be not only efficiently dried but also has the option of being cleaned simultaneously. This provides for efficiency and conservation in energy which results in lower production costs. Biomass is being increasingly used as an alternative fuel source.",39647531,Rolling bed dryer,E
+39,"Geomathematics (also: mathematical geosciences, mathematical geology, mathematical geophysics) is the application of mathematical methods to solve problems in geosciences, including geology and geophysics, and particularly geodynamics and seismology.
+
+Applications
+Geophysical fluid dynamics
+Geophysical fluid dynamics develops the theory of fluid dynamics for the atmosphere, ocean and Earth's interior. Applications include geodynamics and the theory of the geodynamo.
+
+Geophysical inverse theory
+Geophysical inverse theory is concerned with analyzing geophysical data to get model parameters. It is concerned with the question: What can be known about the Earth's interior from measurements on the surface? Generally there are limits on what can be known even in the ideal limit of exact data.The goal of inverse theory is to determine the spatial distribution of some variable (for example, density or seismic wave velocity). The distribution determines the values of an observable at the surface (for example, gravitational acceleration for density). There must be a forward model predicting the surface observations given the distribution of this variable.
+Applications include geomagnetism, magnetotellurics and seismology.
+
+Fractals and complexity
+Many geophysical data sets have spectra that follow a power law, meaning that the frequency of an observed magnitude varies as some power of the magnitude.",27290438,Geomathematics,M
+40,"In mathematics, a quasisymmetric homeomorphism between metric spaces is a map that generalizes bi-Lipschitz maps. While bi-Lipschitz maps shrink or expand the diameter of a set by no more than a multiplicative factor, quasisymmetric maps satisfy the weaker geometric property that they preserve the relative sizes of sets: if two sets A and B have diameters t and are no more than distance t apart, then the ratio of their sizes changes by no more than a multiplicative constant. These maps are also related to quasiconformal maps, since in many circumstances they are in fact equivalent.
+
+Definition
+Let (X, dX) and (Y, dY) be two metric spaces. A homeomorphism f:X → Y is said to be η-quasisymmetric if there is an increasing function η : [0, ∞) → [0, ∞) such that for any triple x, y, z of distinct points in X, we have
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            
+              
+                d
+                
+                  Y
+                
+              
+              (
+              f
+              (
+              x
+              )
+              ,
+              f
+              (
+              y
+              )
+              )
+            
+            
+              
+                d
+                
+                  Y
+                
+              
+              (
+              f
+              (
+              x
+              )
+              ,
+              f
+              (
+              z
+              )
+              )
+            
+          
+        
+        ≤
+        η
+        
+          (
+          
+            
+              
+                
+                  d
+                  
+                    X
+                  
+                
+                (
+                x
+                ,
+                y
+                )
+              
+              
+                
+                  d
+                  
+                    X
+                  
+                
+                (
+                x
+                ,
+                z
+                )
+              
+            
+          
+          )
+        
+        .
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\frac {d_{Y}(f(x),f(y))}{d_{Y}(f(x),f(z))}}\leq \eta \left({\frac {d_{X}(x,y)}{d_{X}(x,z)}}\right).}
+
+Basic properties
+Inverses are quasisymmetric
+If f : X → Y is an invertible η-quasisymmetric map as above, then its inverse map is 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          η
+          ′
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \eta '}
+  -quasisymmetric, where 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          η
+          ′
+        
+        (
+        t
+        )
+        =
+        1
+        
+          /
+        
+        
+          η
+          
+            −
+            1
+          
+        
+        (
+        1
+        
+          /
+        
+        t
+        )
+        .
+      
+    
+    {\textstyle \eta '(t)=1/\eta ^{-1}(1/t).}
+  
+Quasisymmetric maps preserve relative sizes of sets
+If 
+  
+    
+      
+        A
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle A}
+   and 
+  
+    
+      
+        B
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle B}
+   are subsets of 
+  
+    
+      
+        X
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle X}
+   and 
+  
+    
+      
+        A
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle A}
+   is a subset of 
+  
+    
+      
+        B
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle B}
+  , then
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            1
+            
+              2
+              η
+              (
+              
+                
+                  
+                    diam
+                    ⁡
+                    A
+                  
+                  
+                    diam
+                    ⁡
+                    B
+                  
+                
+              
+              )
+            
+          
+        
+        ≤
+        
+          
+            
+              diam
+              ⁡
+              f
+              (
+              B
+              )
+            
+            
+              diam
+              ⁡
+              f
+              (
+              A
+              )
+            
+          
+        
+        ≤
+        η
+        
+          (
+          
+            
+              
+                2
+                diam
+                ⁡
+                B
+              
+              
+                diam
+                ⁡
+                A
+              
+            
+          
+          )
+        
+        .
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\frac {1}{2\eta ({\frac {\operatorname {diam} A}{\operatorname {diam} B}})}}\leq {\frac {\operatorname {diam} f(B)}{\operatorname {diam} f(A)}}\leq \eta \left({\frac {2\operatorname {diam} B}{\operatorname {diam} A}}\right).}
+
+Examples
+Weakly quasisymmetric maps
+A map f:X→Y is said to be H-weakly-quasisymmetric for some 
+  
+    
+      
+        H
+        >
+        0
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle H>0}
+   if for all triples of distinct points 
+  
+    
+      
+        x
+        ,
+        y
+        ,
+        z
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle x,y,z}
+   in 
+  
+    
+      
+        X
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle X}
+  , then
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          |
+        
+        f
+        (
+        x
+        )
+        −
+        f
+        (
+        y
+        )
+        
+          |
+        
+        ≤
+        H
+        
+          |
+        
+        f
+        (
+        x
+        )
+        −
+        f
+        (
+        z
+        )
+        
+          |
+        
+        
+        
+        
+        
+           whenever 
+        
+        
+        
+        
+        
+          |
+        
+        x
+        −
+        y
+        
+          |
+        
+        ≤
+        
+          |
+        
+        x
+        −
+        z
+        
+          |
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle |f(x)-f(y)|\leq H|f(x)-f(z)|\;\;\;{\text{ whenever }}\;\;\;|x-y|\leq |x-z|}
+  Not all weakly quasisymmetric maps are quasisymmetric. However, if 
+  
+    
+      
+        X
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle X}
+   is connected and 
+  
+    
+      
+        X
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle X}
+   and 
+  
+    
+      
+        Y
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle Y}
+   are doubling, then all weakly quasisymmetric maps are quasisymmetric.",30220726,Quasisymmetric map,M
+41,"A bioreactor refers to any manufactured device or system that supports a biologically active environment. In one case, a bioreactor is a vessel in which a chemical process is carried out which involves organisms or biochemically active substances derived from such organisms. This process can either be aerobic or anaerobic. These bioreactors are commonly cylindrical, ranging in size from litres to cubic metres, and are often made of stainless steel.
+It may also refer to a device or system designed to grow cells or tissues in the context of cell culture. These devices are being developed for use in tissue engineering or biochemical/bioprocess engineering.On the basis of mode of operation, a bioreactor may be classified as batch, fed batch or continuous (e.g.",746495,Bioreactor,S
+42,"This article contains a list of the most studied restriction enzymes whose names start with T to Z inclusive.  It contains approximately 70 enzymes.
+The following information is given:
+
+Enzyme: Accepted name of the molecule, according to the internationally adopted nomenclature, and bibliographical references. (Further reading: see the section ""Nomenclature"" in the article ""Restriction enzyme"".)
+PDB code: Code used to identify the structure of a protein in the PDB database of protein structures. The 3D atomic structure of a protein provides highly valuable information to understand the intimate details of its mechanism of action.
+Source: Organism that naturally produces the enzyme.
+Recognition sequence: Sequence of DNA recognized by the enzyme and to which it specifically binds.
+Cut: Cutting site and DNA products of the cut. The recognition sequence and the cutting site usually match, but sometimes the cutting site can be dozens of nucleotides away from the recognition site.
+Isoschizomers and neoschizomers: An isoschizomer is an enzyme that recognizes the same sequence as another.",27458759,List of restriction enzyme cutting sites: T–Z,S
+43,"Direct development is a concept in biology.  It refers to forms of growth to adulthood that do not involve metamorphosis.  An animal undergoes direct development if the immature organism resembles a small adult rather than having a distinct larval form.  A frog that hatches out of its egg as a small frog undergoes direct development.  A frog that hatches out of its egg as a tadpole does not.
+Direct development is the opposite of complete metamorphosis.",38701470,Direct development,S
+44,"Adobe Flash (formerly Macromedia Flash and FutureSplash) is a multimedia software platform used for production of animations, rich internet applications, desktop applications, mobile apps, mobile games, and embedded web browser video players.
+
+About
+Flash displays text, vector graphics, and raster graphics to provide animations, video games, and applications. It allows streaming of audio and video, and can capture mouse, keyboard, microphone, and camera input.
+Artists may produce Flash graphics and animations using Adobe Animate (formerly known as Adobe Flash Professional). Software developers may produce applications and video games using Adobe Flash Builder, FlashDevelop, Flash Catalyst, or any text editor combined with the Apache Flex SDK. End users view Flash content via Flash Player (for web browsers), Adobe AIR (for desktop or mobile apps), or third-party players such as Scaleform (for video games). Adobe Flash Player (which is available on Microsoft Windows, macOS, and Linux) enables end users to view Flash content using web browsers.",20947,Adobe Flash,T
+45,"A mezzanine (; or in Italian, a mezzanino) is an intermediate floor in a building which is partly open to the double-height ceilinged floor below, or which does not extend over the whole floorspace of the building, a loft with non-sloped walls. However, the term is often used loosely for the floor above the ground floor, especially where a very high-ceilinged original ground floor has been split horizontally into two floors.
+Mezzanines may serve a wide variety of functions. Industrial mezzanines, such as those used in warehouses, may be temporary or semi-permanent structures.
+In Royal Italian architecture, mezzanino also means a chamber created by partitioning that does not go up all the way to the arch vaulting or ceiling; these were historically common in Italy and France, for example in the palaces for the nobility at the Quirinal Palace.
+
+Definition
+A mezzanine is an intermediate floor (or floors) in a building which is open to the floor below. It is placed halfway (mezzo means 'half' in Italian) up the wall on a floor which has a ceiling at least twice as high as a floor with minimum height. A mezzanine does not count as one of the floors in a building, and generally does not count in determining maximum floorspace.",325156,Mezzanine,E
+46,"Space tethers are long cables which can be used for propulsion, momentum exchange, stabilization and attitude control, or maintaining the relative positions of the components of a large dispersed satellite/spacecraft sensor system. Depending on the mission objectives and altitude, spaceflight using this form of spacecraft propulsion is theorized to be significantly less expensive than spaceflight using rocket engines.
+
+Main techniques
+Tether satellites might be used for various purposes, including research into tether propulsion, tidal stabilization and orbital plasma dynamics. Five main techniques for employing space tethers are in development:
+Electrodynamic tethers
+Electrodynamic tethers are primarily used for propulsion.  These are conducting tethers that carry a current that can generate either thrust or drag from a planetary magnetic field, in much the same way as an electric motor does.
+
+Momentum exchange tethers
+These can be either rotating tethers, or non-rotating tethers, that capture an arriving spacecraft and then release it at a later time into a different orbit with a different velocity.  Momentum exchange tethers can be used for orbital maneuvering, or as part of a planetary-surface-to-orbit / orbit-to-escape-velocity space transportation system.
+
+Tethered formation flying
+This is typically a non-conductive tether that accurately maintains a set distance between multiple space vehicles flying in formation.
+
+Electric sail
+A form of solar wind sail with electrically charged tethers that will be pushed by the momentum of solar wind ions.
+
+Universal Orbital Support System
+A concept for suspending an object from a tether orbiting in space.
+Many uses for space tethers have been proposed, including deployment as space elevators, as skyhooks, and for doing propellant-free orbital transfers.
+
+History
+Konstantin Tsiolkovsky (1857–1935) once proposed a tower so tall that it reached into space, so that it would be held there by the rotation of Earth.",31392778,Space tether,T
+47,"In a general sense, the design load is the maximum amount of something a system is designed to handle or the maximum amount of something that the system can produce, which are very different meanings. For example, a crane with a design load of 20 tons is designed to be able to lift loads that weigh 20 tons or less. However, when a failure could be catastrophic, such as a crane dropping its load or collapsing entirely, a factor of safety is necessary. As a result, the crane should lift about 2 to 5 tons at the most. 
+In structural design, a design load is greater than the load which the system is expected to support.",3584524,Design load,E
+48,"Sociobiology is a field of biology that aims to examine and explain social behavior in terms of evolution. It draws from disciplines including psychology, ethology, anthropology, evolution, zoology, archaeology, and population genetics. Within the study of human societies, sociobiology is closely allied to evolutionary anthropology, human behavioral ecology, evolutionary psychology, and sociology.Sociobiology investigates social behaviors such as mating patterns, territorial fights, pack hunting, and the hive society of social insects. It argues that just as selection pressure led to animals evolving useful ways of interacting with the natural environment, so also it led to the genetic evolution of advantageous social behavior.While the term ""sociobiology"" originated at least as early as the 1940s; the concept did not gain major recognition until the publication of E. O.",27919,Sociobiology,S
+49,"Ketu (Sanskrit: केतु, IAST: Ketú) () is the descending (i.e. 'south') lunar node in Vedic, or Hindu astrology. Personified as a deity, Rahu and Ketu are considered to be the two halves the immortal Asura (demon) Svarbhanu, who was beheaded by the god Vishnu.
+As per Vedic astrology, Rahu and Ketu have an orbital cycle of 18 years and are always 180 degrees from each other orbitally (as well as in the birth charts). This coincides with the precessional orbit of moon or the ~18-year rotational cycle of the lunar ascending and descending nodes on the earth's ecliptic plane. Ketu rules the Scorpio zodiac sign together with Mangala (traditional ruling planet).
+Astronomically, Rahu and Ketu denote the points of intersection of the paths of the Sun and the Moon as they move on the celestial sphere, and do not correspond to a physical planet.",1993856,Ketu (mythology),M
+50,"A rapid antigen test (RAT), sometimes called a rapid antigen detection test (RADT), antigen rapid test (ART), or loosely just a rapid test, is a rapid diagnostic test suitable for point-of-care testing that directly detects the presence or absence of an antigen. RATs are a type of lateral flow test detecting antigens, rather than antibodies (antibody tests) or nucleic acid (nucleic acid tests). Rapid tests generally give a result in 5 to 30 minutes, require minimal training or infrastructure, and have significant cost advantages. Rapid antigen tests for the detection of SARS-CoV-2, the virus that causes COVID-19, have been commonly used during the COVID-19 pandemic. 
+For many years, an early and major class of RATs—the rapid strep tests for streptococci—were so often the referent when RATs or RADTs were mentioned that the two latter terms were often loosely treated as synonymous with those.",44425759,Rapid antigen test,S
+51,"A toxin is a naturally occurring organic poison produced by metabolic activities of living cells or organisms. They occur especially as proteins, often conjugated. The term was first used by organic chemist Ludwig Brieger (1849–1919) and is derived from the word ""toxic"".
+Toxins can be small molecules, peptides, or proteins that are capable of causing disease on contact with or absorption by body tissues interacting with biological macromolecules such as enzymes or cellular receptors. They vary greatly in their toxicity, ranging from usually minor (such as a bee sting) to potentially fatal even at extremely low doses (such as botulinum toxin).
+
+Terminology
+Toxins are often distinguished from other chemical agents strictly based on their biological origin.Less strict understandings embrace naturally occurring non-organic toxins, such as arsenic. Other understandings embrace synthetic analogs of naturally occurring organic poisons as toxins, and may or may not embrace naturally occurring non-organic poisons.",23740,Toxin,S
+52,"White flower colour is related to the absence or reduction of the anthocyanidin content. Unlike other colors, white colour is not induced by pigments. Several white plant tissues are principally equipped with the complete machinery for anthocyanin biosynthesis including the expression of regulatory genes. Nevertheless, they are unable to accumulate red or blue pigments, for example Dahlia ´Seattle´ petals showing a white tip. Several studies have revealed a further reduction of the anthocyanidin to colorless epicatechin by the enzyme anthocyanidin reductase (ANR).
+
+Cultivation & Modification of Colour
+Many external factors can influence colour: light, temperature, pH, sugars and metals.",57374888,Basics of white flower colouration,S
+53,"Davangere benne dose or Butter Dose is a type of dosa which traces its origin from the city of Davanagere in Karnataka, India. The term ""benne dose"" in English language simply corresponds to butter dose. It is prepared by addition of generous amount of butter while preparing the normal dosa, and accompanied by coconut chutney. Its batter is very different comprising a mixture of rice, dal, puffed rice, etc. and is prepared on wood fired pan.",32712181,Benne dose,E
+54,"Biological organisation is the organisation of complex biological structures and systems that define life using a reductionistic approach. The traditional hierarchy, as detailed below, extends from atoms to biospheres. The higher levels of this scheme are often referred to as an ecological organisation concept, or as the field,  hierarchical ecology.
+Each level in the hierarchy represents an increase in organisational complexity, with each ""object"" being primarily composed of the previous level's basic unit. The basic principle behind the organisation is the concept of emergence—the properties and functions found at a hierarchical level are not present and irrelevant at the lower levels.
+The biological organisation of life is a fundamental premise for numerous areas of scientific research, particularly in the medical sciences. Without this necessary degree of organisation, it would be much more difficult—and likely impossible—to apply the study of the effects of various physical and chemical phenomena to diseases and physiology (body function).",8553751,Biological organisation,S
+55,"In image processing and computer vision, a scale space framework can be used to represent an image as a family of gradually smoothed images.  This framework is very general and a variety of scale space representations exist.  A typical approach for choosing a particular type of scale space representation is to establish a set of scale-space axioms, describing basic properties of the desired scale-space representation and often chosen so as to make the representation useful in practical applications. Once established, the axioms narrow the possible scale-space representations to a smaller class, typically with only a few free parameters.
+A set of standard scale space axioms, discussed below, leads to the linear Gaussian scale-space, which is the most common type of scale space used in image processing and computer vision.
+
+Scale space axioms for the linear scale-space representation
+The linear scale space representation 
+  
+    
+      
+        L
+        (
+        x
+        ,
+        y
+        ,
+        t
+        )
+        =
+        (
+        
+          T
+          
+            t
+          
+        
+        f
+        )
+        (
+        x
+        ,
+        y
+        )
+        =
+        g
+        (
+        x
+        ,
+        y
+        ,
+        t
+        )
+        ∗
+        f
+        (
+        x
+        ,
+        y
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle L(x,y,t)=(T_{t}f)(x,y)=g(x,y,t)*f(x,y)}
+   of signal 
+  
+    
+      
+        f
+        (
+        x
+        ,
+        y
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle f(x,y)}
+   obtained by smoothing with the Gaussian kernel 
+  
+    
+      
+        g
+        (
+        x
+        ,
+        y
+        ,
+        t
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle g(x,y,t)}
+   satisfies a number of properties 'scale-space axioms' that make it a special form of multi-scale representation:
+
+linearity
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          T
+          
+            t
+          
+        
+        (
+        a
+        f
+        +
+        b
+        h
+        )
+        =
+        a
+        
+          T
+          
+            t
+          
+        
+        f
+        +
+        b
+        
+          T
+          
+            t
+          
+        
+        h
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle T_{t}(af+bh)=aT_{t}f+bT_{t}h}
+  
+where 
+  
+    
+      
+        f
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle f}
+   and 
+  
+    
+      
+        h
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle h}
+   are signals while 
+  
+    
+      
+        a
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle a}
+   and 
+  
+    
+      
+        b
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle b}
+   are constants,
+shift invariance
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          T
+          
+            t
+          
+        
+        
+          S
+          
+            (
+            Δ
+            x
+            ,
+            
+              Δ
+              
+                y
+              
+            
+            )
+          
+        
+        f
+        =
+        
+          S
+          
+            (
+            Δ
+            x
+            ,
+            
+              Δ
+              
+                y
+              
+            
+            )
+          
+        
+        
+          T
+          
+            t
+          
+        
+        f
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle T_{t}S_{(\Delta x,\Delta _{y})}f=S_{(\Delta x,\Delta _{y})}T_{t}f}
+  
+where 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          S
+          
+            (
+            Δ
+            x
+            ,
+            
+              Δ
+              
+                y
+              
+            
+            )
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle S_{(\Delta x,\Delta _{y})}}
+   denotes the shift (translation) operator 
+  
+    
+      
+        (
+        
+          S
+          
+            (
+            Δ
+            x
+            ,
+            
+              Δ
+              
+                y
+              
+            
+            )
+          
+        
+        f
+        )
+        (
+        x
+        ,
+        y
+        )
+        =
+        f
+        (
+        x
+        −
+        Δ
+        x
+        ,
+        y
+        −
+        Δ
+        y
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle (S_{(\Delta x,\Delta _{y})}f)(x,y)=f(x-\Delta x,y-\Delta y)}
+  
+semi-group structure
+
+  
+    
+      
+        g
+        (
+        x
+        ,
+        y
+        ,
+        
+          t
+          
+            1
+          
+        
+        )
+        ∗
+        g
+        (
+        x
+        ,
+        y
+        ,
+        
+          t
+          
+            2
+          
+        
+        )
+        =
+        g
+        (
+        x
+        ,
+        y
+        ,
+        
+          t
+          
+            1
+          
+        
+        +
+        
+          t
+          
+            2
+          
+        
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle g(x,y,t_{1})*g(x,y,t_{2})=g(x,y,t_{1}+t_{2})}
+  
+with the associated cascade smoothing property
+
+  
+    
+      
+        L
+        (
+        x
+        ,
+        y
+        ,
+        
+          t
+          
+            2
+          
+        
+        )
+        =
+        g
+        (
+        x
+        ,
+        y
+        ,
+        
+          t
+          
+            2
+          
+        
+        −
+        
+          t
+          
+            1
+          
+        
+        )
+        ∗
+        L
+        (
+        x
+        ,
+        y
+        ,
+        
+          t
+          
+            1
+          
+        
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle L(x,y,t_{2})=g(x,y,t_{2}-t_{1})*L(x,y,t_{1})}
+  
+existence of an infinitesimal generator 
+  
+    
+      
+        A
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle A}
+  
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          ∂
+          
+            t
+          
+        
+        L
+        (
+        x
+        ,
+        y
+        ,
+        t
+        )
+        =
+        (
+        A
+        L
+        )
+        (
+        x
+        ,
+        y
+        ,
+        t
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \partial _{t}L(x,y,t)=(AL)(x,y,t)}
+  
+non-creation of local extrema (zero-crossings) in one dimension,
+non-enhancement of local extrema in any number of dimensions
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          ∂
+          
+            t
+          
+        
+        L
+        (
+        x
+        ,
+        y
+        ,
+        t
+        )
+        ≤
+        0
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \partial _{t}L(x,y,t)\leq 0}
+   at spatial maxima and 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          ∂
+          
+            t
+          
+        
+        L
+        (
+        x
+        ,
+        y
+        ,
+        t
+        )
+        ≥
+        0
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \partial _{t}L(x,y,t)\geq 0}
+   at spatial minima,
+rotational symmetry
+
+  
+    
+      
+        g
+        (
+        x
+        ,
+        y
+        ,
+        t
+        )
+        =
+        h
+        (
+        
+          x
+          
+            2
+          
+        
+        +
+        
+          y
+          
+            2
+          
+        
+        ,
+        t
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle g(x,y,t)=h(x^{2}+y^{2},t)}
+   for some function 
+  
+    
+      
+        h
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle h}
+  ,
+scale invariance
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            
+              g
+              ^
+            
+          
+        
+        (
+        
+          ω
+          
+            x
+          
+        
+        ,
+        
+          ω
+          
+            y
+          
+        
+        ,
+        t
+        )
+        =
+        
+          
+            
+              h
+              ^
+            
+          
+        
+        (
+        
+          
+            
+              ω
+              
+                x
+              
+            
+            
+              φ
+              (
+              t
+              )
+            
+          
+        
+        ,
+        
+          
+            
+              ω
+              
+                x
+              
+            
+            
+              φ
+              (
+              t
+              )
+            
+          
+        
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\hat {g}}(\omega _{x},\omega _{y},t)={\hat {h}}({\frac {\omega _{x}}{\varphi (t)}},{\frac {\omega _{x}}{\varphi (t)}})}
+  
+for some functions 
+  
+    
+      
+        φ
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \varphi }
+   and 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            
+              h
+              ^
+            
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\hat {h}}}
+   where 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            
+              g
+              ^
+            
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\hat {g}}}
+   denotes the Fourier transform of 
+  
+    
+      
+        g
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle g}
+  ,
+positivity
+
+  
+    
+      
+        g
+        (
+        x
+        ,
+        y
+        ,
+        t
+        )
+        ≥
+        0
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle g(x,y,t)\geq 0}
+  ,
+normalization
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          ∫
+          
+            x
+            =
+            −
+            ∞
+          
+          
+            ∞
+          
+        
+        
+          ∫
+          
+            y
+            =
+            −
+            ∞
+          
+          
+            ∞
+          
+        
+        g
+        (
+        x
+        ,
+        y
+        ,
+        t
+        )
+        
+        d
+        x
+        
+        d
+        y
+        =
+        1
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \int _{x=-\infty }^{\infty }\int _{y=-\infty }^{\infty }g(x,y,t)\,dx\,dy=1}
+  .In fact, it can be shown that the Gaussian kernel is a unique choice given several different combinations of subsets of these scale-space axioms:
+most of the axioms (linearity, shift-invariance, semigroup) correspond to scaling being a semigroup of shift-invariant linear operator, which is satisfied by a number of families integral transforms, while ""non-creation of local extrema"" for one-dimensional signals or ""non-enhancement of local extrema"" for higher-dimensional signals are the crucial axioms which relate scale-spaces to smoothing (formally, parabolic partial differential equations), and hence select for the Gaussian.
+The Gaussian kernel is also separable in Cartesian coordinates, i.e. 
+  
+    
+      
+        g
+        (
+        x
+        ,
+        y
+        ,
+        t
+        )
+        =
+        g
+        (
+        x
+        ,
+        t
+        )
+        
+        g
+        (
+        y
+        ,
+        t
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle g(x,y,t)=g(x,t)\,g(y,t)}
+  .",5481404,Scale-space axioms,E
+56,"A multiple-effect evaporator, as defined in chemical engineering, is an apparatus for efficiently using the heat from steam to evaporate water. Water is boiled in a sequence of vessels, each held at a lower pressure than the last.  Because the boiling temperature of water decreases as pressure decreases, the vapor boiled off in one vessel can be used to heat the next, and only the first vessel (at the highest pressure) requires an external source of heat.  While in theory, evaporators may be built with an arbitrarily large number of stages, evaporators with more than four stages are rarely practical except in systems where the liquor is the desired product such as in chemical recovery systems where up to seven effects are used.
+The multiple-effect evaporator was invented by an African-American inventor and engineer Norbert Rillieux.  Although he may have designed the apparatus during the 1820s and constructed a prototype in 1834, he did not build the first industrially practical evaporator until 1845.",1712357,Multiple-effect evaporator,E
+57,"Crysis 3 is a 2013 first-person shooter video game developed by Crytek and published by Electronic Arts. It is the third game of the Crysis series, a sequel to the 2011 video game Crysis 2. The multiplayer portion of the game was developed by Crytek UK. Crysis 3's story revolves around Prophet, a Nanosuit holder who is on a quest to take revenge on the Alpha Ceph, the leader of the Ceph alien race. The game's story serves as the end of the Crysis trilogy.",14421821,Crysis 3,S
+58,"Geiger counter is a colloquial name for any hand-held radiation measuring device in civil defense, but most civil defense devices were ion-chamber radiological survey meters capable of measuring only high levels of radiation that would be present after a major nuclear event.
+Most Geiger and ion-chamber survey meters were issued by governmental civil defense organizations in several countries from the 1950s in the midst of the Cold War in an effort to help prepare citizens for a nuclear attack.
+Many of these same instruments are still in use today by some states, Texas amongst them, under the jurisdiction of the Texas Bureau of Radiation Control. They are regularly maintained, calibrated and deployed to fire departments and other emergency services.
+
+US models
+CD Counters came in a variety of different models, each with specific capabilities.  Each of these models has an analog meter from 1 to 5, with 1/10 tick marks.  Thus, at X10, the meter reads from 1 to 50.
+CD meters were produced by a number of different firms under contract. Victoreen, Lionel, Electro Neutronics, Nuclear Measurements, Chatham Electronics, International Pump and Machine Works, Universal Atomics, Anton Electronic Laboratories; Landers, Frary, & Clark; El Tronics, Jordan, and Nuclear Chicago are among the many manufacturers contracted.
+Regardless of producer, most counters exhibit the same basic physical characteristics, albeit with slight variations between some production runs: a yellow case with black knobs and meter bezels.",2093226,Civil defense Geiger counters,T
+59,"Compressed air filters, often referred to as line filters, are used to remove contaminants from compressed air after compression has taken place.
+When the filer is combined with a regulator and an oiler, it is called an air set.Air leaving a standard screw or piston compressor will generally have a high water content, as well as a high concentration of oil and other contaminants. There are many different types of filters, suitable for different pneumatics applications.
+
+Working principle
+Unfiltered compressed air frequently contains dust, oil, rust, moisture and other harmful substances, and therefore requires filtration. In the first stage of filtration, the compressed air passes through a tube-shaped mesh filter, which creates a coalescence effect. Here bigger particles are adsorbed on the filter and the water will condense into larger droplets, which can then pass into the separation chamber. The compressed air is slowed down, which makes the particles condense on a honeycomb-like pad, allowing the water droplets to travel to the bottom of the drainage system and through an automatic or electric drain valve to the discharge.",17181237,Compressed air filters,E
+60,"In algebraic geometry, a mixed Hodge structure is an algebraic structure containing information about the cohomology of general algebraic varieties. It is a generalization of a Hodge structure, which is used to study smooth projective varieties.
+In mixed Hodge theory, where the decomposition of a cohomology group 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          H
+          
+            k
+          
+        
+        (
+        X
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle H^{k}(X)}
+   may have subspaces of different weights, i.e. as a direct sum of Hodge structures
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          H
+          
+            k
+          
+        
+        (
+        X
+        )
+        =
+        
+          ⨁
+          
+            i
+          
+        
+        (
+        
+          H
+          
+            i
+          
+        
+        ,
+        
+          F
+          
+            i
+          
+          
+            ∙
+          
+        
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle H^{k}(X)=\bigoplus _{i}(H_{i},F_{i}^{\bullet })}
+  where each of the Hodge structures have weight 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          k
+          
+            i
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle k_{i}}
+  . One of the early hints that such structures should exist comes from the long exact sequence of a pair of smooth projective varieties 
+  
+    
+      
+        Y
+        ⊂
+        X
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle Y\subset X}
+  . The cohomology groups 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          H
+          
+            c
+          
+          
+            i
+          
+        
+        (
+        U
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle H_{c}^{i}(U)}
+   (for 
+  
+    
+      
+        U
+        =
+        X
+        −
+        Y
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle U=X-Y}
+  ) should have differing weights coming from both 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          H
+          
+            i
+          
+        
+        (
+        X
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle H^{i}(X)}
+   and 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          H
+          
+            i
+            +
+            1
+          
+        
+        (
+        Y
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle H^{i+1}(Y)}
+  .
+
+Motivation
+Originally, Hodge structures were introduced as a tool for keeping track of abstract Hodge decompositions on the cohomology groups of smooth projective algebraic varieties.",64743403,Mixed Hodge structure,E
+61,"Process manufacturing is a branch of manufacturing that is associated with formulas and manufacturing recipes, and can be contrasted with discrete manufacturing, which is concerned with discrete units, bills of materials and the assembly of components. Process manufacturing is also referred to as a 'process industry' which is defined as an industry, such as the chemical or petrochemical industry, that is concerned with the processing of bulk resources into other products.Process manufacturing is common in the food, beverage, chemical, pharmaceutical, nutraceutical, consumer packaged goods, cannabis, and biotechnology industries. In process manufacturing, the relevant factors are ingredients, not parts; formulas, not bills of materials; and bulk materials rather than individual units. Although there is invariably cross-over between the two branches of manufacturing, the major contents of the finished product and the majority of the resource intensity of the production process generally allow manufacturing systems to be classified as one or the other. For example, a bottle of juice is a discrete item, but juice is process manufactured.",12199703,Process manufacturing,E
+62,"International Forum on ANSI-41 Standards Technology (IFAST) is the coordinator for the allocation of System Identification Numbers (SID) for wireless communication outside Canada, the United States and territories, and on the assignment of International Roaming mobile identification numbers (MINs), or IRM, for use in cellular mobile devices.
+
+SID
+The SID lets mobile phones that conform to the TIA Cellular or PCS Standard analog, CDMA or TDMA standards recognize when they are in their home system vs. roaming or in another system that can provide them with service.
+IFAST inherited the assignment of SID ranges to countries and has continued the allocation of blocks to countries that need more codes or that were never assigned a block (e.g., because the country was not independent when the blocks were first assigned in the 1980s). IFAST considers it the responsibility of national telecom regulators to assign SID codes to individual wireless systems, but IFAST will perform this function when the national regulator is unwilling or unable to do so. IFAST also allocates SID ranges to international carriers, such as international mobile satellite carriers and companies that provide cellular service through base stations on boats. 
+In North America SIDs are allocated by seven companies that applied to the U.S.",3304568,International Forum on ANSI-41 Standards Technology,S
+63,"Lean manufacturing  is a production method aimed primarily at reducing times within the production system as well as response times from suppliers and to customers. It is closely related to another concept called  just-in-time manufacturing (JIT manufacturing in short). Just-in-time manufacturing tries to match production to demand by only supplying goods which have been ordered and focuses on efficiency, productivity (with a commitment to continuous improvement) and reduction of ""wastes"" for the producer and supplier of goods. Lean manufacturing adopts the just-in-time approach and additionally focuses on reducing cycle, flow and throughput times by further eliminating activities which do not add any value for the customer. Lean manufacturing also involves people who work outside of the manufacturing process, such as in marketing and customer service.",218445,Lean manufacturing,E
+64,"Superslow processes are processes in which values change so little that their capture is very difficult because of their smallness in comparison with the measurement error.
+
+Applications
+Most of the time, the superslow processes lie beyond the scope of investigation due to the reason of their superslowness.  Multiple gaps can be easily detected in biology, astronomy, physics, mechanics, economics, linguistics, ecology, gerontology, etc.
+Biology: Traditional scientific research in this area was focused on the describing some brain reactions.Mathematics: In mathematics, when the fluid flows through thin and long tubes it forms stagnation zones where the flow becomes almost immobile.  If the ratio of tube length to its diameter is large, then the potential function and stream function are almost invariable on very extended areas.  The situation seems uninteresting, but if we remember that these minor changes occur in the extra-long intervals, we see here a series of first-class tasks that require the development of special mathematical methods.Mathematics: Apriori information regarding the stagnation zones  contributes to optimization of the computational process by replacing the unknown functions with the corresponding constants in such zones.  Sometimes this makes it possible to significantly reduce the amount of computation, for example in approximate calculation of conformal mappings of strongly elongated rectangles.Economic Geography: The obtained results are particularly useful for applications in economic geography.",24822937,Superslow process,S
+65,"The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to software development:
+Software development is the development of a software product, which entails computer programming (process of writing and maintaining the source code), and encompasses a planned and structured process from the conception of the desired software to its final manifestation. Therefore, software development may include research, new development, prototyping, modification, reuse, re-engineering, maintenance, or any other activities that result in software products.
+
+What type of thing is software development?
+Software development can be described as all of the following:
+
+Research and development
+Vocation
+Profession
+
+Branches of software development
+Software engineering
+Computer programming
+Video game development
+Web development
+Web application development
+Mobile application development
+
+History of software development
+History of operating systems
+History of programming languages
+
+Software development participants
+Software developer
+Software engineer
+Consulting software engineer
+Computer programmer
+Software publisher
+Web developer
+
+Software development problems
+Shovelware
+Software bloat
+Software bug
+
+Software project management
+Software project management – art and science of planning and leading software projects. It is a sub-discipline of project management in which software projects are planned, monitored and controlled.
+Software configuration management
+
+Software development strategies
+Offshore software R&D – provision of software development services by an external supplier positioned in a country that is geographically remote from the client enterprise; a type of offshore outsourcing.
+
+Software development process
+Software development process
+Software release life cycle
+Stages of development
+Pre-alpha
+Alpha release
+Beta release
+Closed beta
+Open beta
+Release candidate
+Release
+Release to manufacturing (RTM)
+General availability release (GA)
+Web release (RTW)
+Technical support
+End-of-life – termination of support for a product
+
+Activities and steps
+Requirements analysis
+Software development effort estimation
+Functional specification
+Software architecture
+Software design
+Computer programming
+Software testing
+Software deployment
+Software release
+Product installation
+Product activation
+Deactivation
+Adaptation
+Software update
+Uninstallation
+Uninstaller
+Product retirement
+Software maintenance
+
+Software development methodologies
+Aspect-oriented software development
+Cleanroom Software Engineering
+Iterative and incremental development
+Incremental funding methodology
+Rapid application development
+IBM Rational Unified Process
+Spiral model
+Waterfall model
+Extreme programming
+Lean software development
+Scrum
+V-Model
+Test-driven development (TDD)
+
+Agile software development
+Cross-functional team
+Extreme programming
+Iterative and incremental development
+Pair programming
+Self-organization
+Timeboxing
+
+Supporting disciplines
+Computer programming
+Software documentation
+Software engineering
+Software quality assurance (SQA)
+User experience design
+
+Software development tools
+Programming tool
+Compiler
+Debugger
+Performance analysis
+Graphical user interface builder
+Integrated development environment
+
+Education relevant to software development
+Bachelor's degree in computer science – type of bachelor's degree awarded for study of computer science, emphasizing the mathematical and theoretical foundations of computing, rather than teaching specific technologies that may quickly become outdated. Such a degree is a common initial bachelor's degree for those entering the field of software development.
+
+Software development organizations
+While the information technology (IT) industry undergoes changes faster than any other field, most technical experts agree that one must have a community to consult, learn from, or share experiences with. Here is a list of well-known software development organizations.
+
+Association of Computer Engineers and Technicians (ACE – ACET) professional standards within the IT industry.
+Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) is one of the oldest and largest scientific communities that deal with computing and technology.",35246230,Outline of software development,T
+66,"This is the list of fictional characters in The Adventures of Tintin, the comics series by Belgian cartoonist Hergé. The characters are listed alphabetically, grouped by the Main characters, the Antagonists, and the Supporting characters. Before the list, there is an Index of characters for each of the 24 albums.
+The supporting characters Hergé created for his series have been described as far more developed than the central character, each imbued with a strength of character and depth of personality that has been compared with that of the characters of Charles Dickens. Hergé used the supporting characters to create a realistic world in which to set his protagonists' adventures. To further the realism and continuity, characters recur throughout the series.
+During the German occupation of Belgium during World War II, and the subsequent restrictions this imposed, Hergé was forced to focus on characterisation to avoid depicting troublesome political situations.",4553202,List of The Adventures of Tintin characters,M
+67,"Momo  (Chinese: 陌陌; pinyin: mò mò) is a free social search and instant messaging mobile app. The app allows users to chat with nearby friends and strangers. Momo provides users with free instant messaging services through Wifi, 3G and 4G. The client software is available for Android, iOS, and Windows Phone.Momo officially began operations in July 2011, and a month later, launched the first version of the app for iOS. Momo filed for a NASDAQ IPO on November 7, 2014 and was listed in December 2014.
+
+History
+Founding and incorporation
+Tang Yan, Zhang Sichuan, Lei Xiaoliang, Yong Li, and Li Zhiwei co-founded Beijing Momo Technology Co., Ltd.",38325858,Momo (software),T
+68,"Nanoengineering is the practice of engineering on the nanoscale. It derives its name from the nanometre, a unit of measurement equalling one billionth of a meter.
+Nanoengineering is largely a synonym for nanotechnology, but emphasizes the engineering rather than the pure science aspects of the field.
+
+History
+4th Century Rome: The Lycurgus Cup was crafted using dichroic glass which is a product of nanoengineering
+6th-15th Centuries: Stained glass windows were created in European cathedrals which contained nanoparticles of gold chloride or other metal oxides or chlorides. These nanoparticles give the glass its vibrant colors.
+9th-17th Centuries: A sparkling layer on the outside of ceramics was used containing silver, copper, or other metallic nanoparticles.
+13th-18th Centuries: ""Damascus"" saber blades were crafted using techniques that resulted in nanotubes and cementite nanowires.
+1950: Victor La Mer and Robert Dinegar created a process that was used to create specialized papers, paints, and thin films on an industrial level by growing monodisperse colloidal materials.
+1959: Richard Feynman gave the first lecture on molecular technology and engineering or just nanoengineering.
+1981: Gerd Binnig and Heinrich Rohrer invented the first atomic level microscope called a scanning tunneling microscope that allowed scientists to see individual atoms
+1991: The carbon nanotube was discovered by Sumio Iijima which became important due to their strength, and electrical and thermal conductivity
+2004: SUNY Albany started the first college program that focused on nanoengineering in the United States. It was called the College of Nanoscale Science and Engineering
+2009-2010: Robotic nanoscale assembly devices were created by Nadrian Seeman and his colleagues. These devices would be used to create 3D DNA structures using DNA crystals
+
+Degree programs
+The first nanoengineering program  was started at the University of Toronto within the Engineering Science program as one of the options of study in the final years.",21561,Nanoengineering,E
+69,"Bed bugs are insects from the genus Cimex that feed on blood, usually at night. Their bites can result in a number of health impacts including skin rashes, psychological effects, and allergic symptoms. Bed bug bites may lead to skin changes ranging from small areas of redness to prominent blisters. Symptoms may take between minutes to days to appear and itchiness is generally present. Some individuals may feel tired or have a fever.",48483301,Bed bug,S
+70,"Food science is the basic science and  applied science of food; its scope starts at overlap with agricultural science and nutritional science and leads through the scientific aspects of food safety and food processing, informing the development of food technology.
+Food science brings together multiple scientific disciplines. It incorporates concepts from fields such as chemistry, physics, physiology, microbiology, and biochemistry. Food technology incorporates concepts from chemical engineering, for example.
+Activities of food scientists include the development of new food products, design of processes to produce these foods, choice of packaging materials, shelf-life studies, sensory evaluation of products using survey panels or potential consumers, as well as microbiological and chemical testing. Food scientists may study more fundamental phenomena that are directly linked to the production of food products and its properties.
+
+Definition
+The Institute of Food Technologists defines food science as ""the discipline in which the engineering, biological, and physical sciences are used to study the nature of foods, the causes of deterioration, the principles underlying food processing, and the improvement of foods for the consuming public"". The textbook Food Science defines food science in simpler terms as ""the application of basic sciences and engineering to study the physical, chemical, and biochemical nature of foods and the principles of food processing"".
+
+Disciplines
+Some of the subdisciplines of food science are described below.
+
+Food chemistry
+Food chemistry is the study of chemical processes and interactions of all biological and non-biological components of foods.",252137,Food science,S
+71,"Electrical discharge machining (or EDM) is one of the most accurate manufacturing processes available for creating complex or simple shapes and geometries within parts and assemblies. A machining method typically used for hard metals, EDM makes it possible to work with metals for which traditional machining techniques are ineffective.
+Design for manufacturability (also sometimes known as design for manufacturing or DFM) is the general engineering art of designing products in such a way that they are easy to manufacture. The concept exists in almost all engineering disciplines, but the implementation differs widely depending on the manufacturing technology. DFM describes the process of designing or engineering a product in order to facilitate the manufacturing process in order to reduce its manufacturing costs. DFM will allow potential problems to be fixed in the design phase which is the least expensive place to address them.",47775741,Rule-based DFM analysis for electric discharge machining,E
+72,"The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to applied science:
+Applied science – the branch of science that applies existing scientific knowledge to develop more practical applications, including inventions and other technological advancements. Science itself is the  systematic enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe.
+
+Branches of applied science
+Applied cryptography – applications of cryptography.
+Applied science – application of scientific knowledge transferred into a physical environment.
+Actuarial science — applies mathematical and statistical methods to assess risk in the insurance, finance, and other industries
+Agricultural science
+Agronomy – science and technology of producing and using plants for food, fuel, feed, fiber, and reclamation.
+Animal husbandry – agricultural practice of breeding and raising livestock.
+Aquaculture – also known as aquafarming, is the farming of aquatic organisms such as fish, crustaceans, molluscs and aquatic plants.Algaculture – form of aquaculture involving the farming of species of algae.
+Mariculture – cultivation of marine organisms for food and other products in the open ocean, an enclosed section of the ocean, or in tanks, ponds or raceways which are filled with seawater.
+Agriculture – science of farming
+Cuniculture – also known as rabbit farming, is the breeding and raising domestic rabbits, usually for their meat or fur.
+Fungiculture –  process of producing food, medicine, and other products by the cultivation of mushrooms and other fungi.
+Heliciculture – also called snail farming, is the process of farming or raising land snails specifically for human consumption, and more recently, to obtain snail slime for cosmetics use.
+Olericulture – science of vegetable growing, dealing with the culture of non-woody (herbaceous) plants for food.
+Sericulture – also called silk farming, is the rearing of silkworms for the production of silk. Although there are several commercial species of silkworms, Bombyx mori is the most widely used and intensively studied.
+Food science – study concerned with all technical aspects of foods, beginning with harvesting or slaughtering, and ending with its cooking and consumption, an ideology commonly referred to as ""from field to fork"". It is the discipline in which the engineering, biological, and physical sciences are used to study the nature of foods, the causes of deterioration, the principles underlying food processing, and the improvement of foods for the consuming public.
+Forestry – art and science of managing forests, tree plantations, and related natural resources.
+Arboriculture – cultivation, management, and study of individual trees, shrubs, vines, and other perennial woody plants.
+Silviculture – practice of controlling the establishment, growth, composition, health, and quality of forests to meet diverse needs and values. It includes regenerating, tending and harvesting techniques.
+Horticulture – art, science, technology and business of intensive plant cultivation for human use
+Floriculture – discipline of horticulture concerned with the cultivation of flowering and ornamental plants for gardens and for floristry, comprising the floral industry.
+Hydroculture – growing of plants in a soilless medium, or an aquatic based environment.",33764165,Outline of applied science,S
+73,"The Aathal Dinosaur Museum (Swiss German native name: Sauriermuseum Aathal) is a paleontological museum in the locality Aathal of the municipality of Seegräben in the canton of Zürich, Switzerland, and one of the few dinosaur museums in Europe.
+
+History
+Hans-Jakob Siber, a mineral and fossil dealer, started in 1977 to exhibit temporarily a fossilized giant turtle from four and a half meters in length at his annual special show in Aathal, and was featuring the eight-meter-long skeleton of an Edmontosaurus four years later. In 1992 the collection was expanded and in 1993 the Sauriermuseum Aathal in the current building was opened. The family-owned company Siber + Siber supported the funding of the further activities.
+
+Museum and excavations
+Museum
+The former building of the Baumwollspinnerei Streiff & Cie weaving mill in Aathal was built in 1903 and houses the museum on about 4,500 square metres (48,000 sq ft), including the outside park on the surrounding property. The focus is on the museum's own excavations and original dinosaur bones, 19 special exhibitions and subsequently integrated new finds. A shop, a cafeteria and a park for children (Dino-Gardino) are sections of the museum.",44266346,Aathal Dinosaur Museum,S
+74,"An amplidyne is an obsolete electromechanical amplifier invented prior to World War II by Ernst Alexanderson. It consists of an electric motor driving a DC generator. The signal to be amplified is applied to the generator's field winding, and its output voltage is an amplified copy of the field current. The amplidyne was used in industry in high power servo and control systems, to amplify low power control signals to control powerful electric motors, for example. It is now mostly obsolete.
+
+How an amplidyne works
+An amplidyne comprises an electric motor which turns a generator on the same shaft.",8032763,Amplidyne,T
+75,"The Mathematics Subject Classification (MSC) is an alphanumerical classification scheme that has collaboratively been produced by staff of, and based on the coverage of, the two major mathematical reviewing databases, Mathematical Reviews and Zentralblatt MATH. The MSC is used by many mathematics journals, which ask authors of research papers and expository articles to list subject codes from the Mathematics Subject Classification in their papers. The current version is MSC2020.
+
+Structure
+The MSC is a hierarchical scheme, with three levels of structure. A classification can be two, three or five digits long, depending on how many levels of the classification scheme are used.
+The first level is represented by a two-digit number, the second by a letter, and the third by another two-digit number. For example:
+
+53 is the classification for differential geometry
+53A is the classification for classical differential geometry
+53A45 is the classification for vector and tensor analysis
+
+First level
+At the top level, 64 mathematical disciplines are labeled with a unique two-digit number.",3008091,Mathematics Subject Classification,M
+76,"Transit of Venus is a play by Canadian playwright Maureen Hunter. It was first produced at the Manitoba Theatre Centre in November 1992.The play is based on the life of Guillaume Le Gentil (1725–1792), a gentleman astronomer.
+In the play, he is obsessed with observing the transit of Venus. He leaves Celeste, the girl who loves him, to embark on an expedition to observe it. He returns after six years, having failed to observe the transit. He immediately makes preparations for a new expedition to observe the next transit.
+Some artistic license has been taken: the real-life Guillaume Le Gentil did not return until after the second transit, remaining overseas during the eight-year interim.
+The play was subsequently performed across Canada, by the Royal Shakespeare Company and the BBC.
+
+Opera version
+The play was transformed into an opera of the same name with libretto by Maureen Hunter and music by Victor Davies.",709146,Transit of Venus (play),M
+77,"A biopesticide is a biological substance or organism that damages, kills, or repels organisms seen as pests. Biological pest management intervention involves predatory, parasitic, or chemical relationships.
+They are obtained from organisms including plants, bacteria and other microbes, fungi, nematodes, etc. They are components of integrated pest management (IPM) programmes, and have received much practical attention as substitutes to synthetic chemical plant protection products (PPPs).
+
+Definitions
+The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency states that biopesticides ""are certain types of pesticides derived from such natural materials as animals, plants, bacteria, and certain minerals, and currently, there are 299 registered biopesticide active ingredients and 1401 active biopesticide product registrations."" The EPA also states that biopesticides ""include naturally occurring substances that control pests (biochemical pesticides), microorganisms that control pests (microbial pesticides), and pesticidal substances produced by plants containing added genetic material (plant-incorporated protectants) or PIPs"".The European Environmental Agency defines a biopesticide as “a pesticide made from biological sources, that is from toxins which occur naturally. - naturally occurring biological agents used to kill pests by causing specific biological effects rather than by inducing chemical poisoning.” Furthermore, the EEA defines a biopesticide as a pesticide in which “the active ingredient is a virus, fungus, or bacteria, or a natural product derived from a plant source.",2065799,Biopesticide,S
+78,"ISO 216 is an international standard for paper sizes, used around the world except in North America and parts of Latin America. The standard defines the ""A"", ""B"" and ""C"" series of paper sizes, including A4, the most commonly available paper size worldwide. Two supplementary standards, ISO 217 and ISO 269, define related paper sizes; the ISO 269 ""C"" series is commonly listed alongside the A and B sizes.
+All ISO 216, ISO 217 and ISO 269 paper sizes (except some envelopes) have the same aspect ratio, √2:1, within rounding to millimetres. This ratio has the unique property that when cut or folded in half widthways, the halves also have the same aspect ratio. Each ISO paper size is one half of the area of the next larger size in the same series.
+
+Dimensions of A, B and C series
+History
+The oldest known mention of the advantages of basing a paper size on an aspect ratio of √2 is found in a letter written on 25 October 1786 by the German scientist Georg Christoph Lichtenberg to Johann Beckmann.The formats that became ISO paper sizes A2, A3, B3, B4, and B5 were developed in France.",15275,ISO 216,T
+79,"Evernote is a note-taking and task management application developed by the Evernote Corporation. It is intended for archiving and creating notes with embedded photos, audio, and saved web content. Notes are stored in virtual ""notebooks"" and can be tagged, annotated, edited, searched, and exported.
+Evernote is available on Android, iOS, macOS, and Microsoft Windows, as well as a web client. It offers free and paid plans for use.
+
+Architecture
+Coding and versions
+In 2010, the programming language used to write Evernote's software was changed from C# for version 3.5 to C++ in version 4.0 to improve performance.
+
+Data entry
+As well as the keyboard entry of typed notes, Evernote supports image capture from cameras on supported devices, and the recording of voice notes. In some situations, text that appears in captured images can be recognized using OCR and annotated.",2848481,Evernote,T
+80,"The 5DX was an automated X-ray inspection robot, which belonged to the set of automated test equipment robots and industrial robots utilizing machine vision.  The 5DX was manufactured by Hewlett Packard,  then later Agilent Technologies when HP was split into Hewlett Packard and Agilent Technologies in 1999.  The 5DX performed a non-destructive structural test using X-ray laminography (tomography) to take 3D images of an assembled printed circuit board using 8-bit grayscale to indicate solder thickness.  It was used in the assembled printed circuit board (PCB) electronics manufacturing industry to provide process feedback to a surface mount technology assembly line, as well as defect capture.
+The 5DX was one of several tools used by many companies in the electronics manufacturing services sector to provide a means of inspecting both the visible and hidden solder connections between the printed circuit boards and components attached to those printed circuit boards.  These solder connections (also known as solder joints) are referred to as PCB interconnects.
+
+5DX technology
+The 5DX used a gantry robot to move the assembled printed circuit board underneath an X-ray source to be able to image the components' joints that require inspection.",13414773,5DX,E
+81,"Poison Ivy (Pamela Lillian Isley  EYEZ-lee), also known simply as Ivy, is a fictional character appearing in American comic books published by DC Comics, commonly in Batman stories. She was created by Robert Kanigher and Carmine Infantino, and first appeared in Batman #181 (June 1966).Poison Ivy is a misanthropic botanist and biochemist who possesses a poisonous touch, enhanced physical abilities, and a supernatural control over plant life. Empowered by the interplanetary force known as the Green, she uses her powers for the purposes of ecoterrorism. She is typically drawn barefoot in a one-piece costume adorned with leaves and vines, with occasional variations to her skin tone. Originally characterized as a supervillain, she has periodically been depicted as an antiheroine as of The New 52 and DC Rebirth, and the primary love interest of Harley Quinn.",74154,Poison Ivy (character),M
+82,"In general relativity, the Weyl–Lewis–Papapetrou coordinates are a set of coordinates, used in the solutions to the vacuum region surrounding an axisymmetric distribution of mass–energy. They are named for Hermann Weyl, Thomas Lewis, and Achilles Papapetrou.
+
+Details
+The square of the line element is of the form:
+
+  
+    
+      
+        d
+        
+          s
+          
+            2
+          
+        
+        =
+        −
+        
+          e
+          
+            2
+            ν
+          
+        
+        d
+        
+          t
+          
+            2
+          
+        
+        +
+        
+          ρ
+          
+            2
+          
+        
+        
+          B
+          
+            2
+          
+        
+        
+          e
+          
+            −
+            2
+            ν
+          
+        
+        (
+        d
+        ϕ
+        −
+        ω
+        d
+        t
+        
+          )
+          
+            2
+          
+        
+        +
+        
+          e
+          
+            2
+            (
+            λ
+            −
+            ν
+            )
+          
+        
+        (
+        d
+        
+          ρ
+          
+            2
+          
+        
+        +
+        d
+        
+          z
+          
+            2
+          
+        
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle ds^{2}=-e^{2\nu }dt^{2}+\rho ^{2}B^{2}e^{-2\nu }(d\phi -\omega dt)^{2}+e^{2(\lambda -\nu )}(d\rho ^{2}+dz^{2})}
+  where (t, ρ, ϕ, z) are the cylindrical Weyl–Lewis–Papapetrou coordinates in 3 + 1 spacetime, and λ, ν, ω, and B, are unknown functions of the spatial non-angular coordinates ρ and z only. Different authors define the functions of the coordinates differently.
+
+See also
+Introduction to the mathematics of general relativity
+Stress–energy tensor
+Metric tensor (general relativity)
+Relativistic angular momentum
+Weyl metrics
+
+References
+Further reading
+Selected papers
+J. Marek; A. Sloane (1979).",40910086,Weyl–Lewis–Papapetrou coordinates,E
+83,"Obeya (from Japanese Ōbeya 大部屋 ""large room"") originated from a long history of learning & improving. The earliest notion of which is believed to be the Analects of Confucius nearly 2500 years ago (China, 206 BC–220 AD). The roots of what is now a valuable management practice can be found across continents with many disciplines influencing each other throughout history. One of the more recognizable modern examples involving Obeya was at Toyota during the G21 (Globe 21st century) Project, while building the Prius. Chief Engineer of the G21 project, Takeshi Uchiyamada “felt that he lacked the necessary authority to make the optimal decisions and thought he could be overrun by experienced discipline leaders in a way that was not optimal for the project as such”.",39614604,Obeya,E
+84,"Lawrence Francis Probst III (born June 3, 1950) is an American businessman who is best known for his work with the  video game publisher Electronic Arts, including acting as CEO from 1991 until 2007 and as executive chairman from 2013–14. He remains chairman of EA and served as chairman of the United States Olympic Committee until 2019.
+
+Life
+Probst was born on July 6, 1950. He is the son of Ruth (née Gallagher) and Lawrence Francis Probst II. He and his wife Nancy have two sons. He earned a bachelor's degree from the University of Delaware.
+
+Entertainment career
+Probst worked for Johnson & Johnson and Clorox before being recruited into the video game industry through Activision in 1982.",1966333,Larry Probst,S
+85,"David Ruchien Liu (born 1973) is an American molecular biologist and chemist. He is the Richard Merkin Professor, Director of the Merkin Institute of Transformative Technologies in Healthcare, and Vice-Chair of the Faculty at the Broad Institute of Harvard and MIT; Thomas Dudley Cabot Professor of the Natural Sciences and Professor of Chemistry and Chemical Biology at Harvard University; and Howard Hughes Medical Institute Investigator.
+
+Early life and education
+Liu was born in Riverside, California on June 12, 1973. Both his parents immigrated to the United States from Taiwan. His father is an aerospace engineer; his mother is a retired physics professor at the University of California, Riverside.  While in high school, he finished second in the 1990 national Westinghouse Science Talent Search.",39262749,David R. Liu,S
+86,"A robot tax is a legislative strategy to disincentivize the replacement of workers by machines and bolster the social safety net for those who are displaced. While the automation of manual labour has been contemplated since before the industrial revolution, the issue has received increased discussion in the 21st century due to newer developments such as machine learning.Assessments of the risk vary widely, with one study finding that 47% of the workforce is automatable in the United States, and another study finding that this figure is 9% across 21 OECD countries. The idea of taxing companies for deploying robots is controversial with opponents arguing that such measures will stifle innovation and impede the economic growth that technology has consistently brought in the past. Proponents have pointed to the phenomenon of ""income polarization"" which threatens the jobs of low-income workers who lack the means to enter the knowledge-based fields in high demand.
+
+Arguments for
+Support for an automation tax by American politicians can be traced back to 1940 in which Joseph C. O'Mahoney tabled one such bill in the Senate.",53382545,Robot tax,T
+87,"The display aspect ratio (or DAR) is the aspect ratio of a display device and so the proportional relationship between the physical width and the height of the display. It is expressed as two numbers separated by a colon (x:y), where x corresponds to the width and y to the height. Common aspect ratios for displays, past and present, include 5:4, 4:3, 16:10, and 16:9.
+To distinguish:
+
+The display aspect ratio (DAR) is calculated from the physical width and height of a display, measured each in inch or cm (Display size).
+The pixel aspect ratio (PAR) is calculated from the width and height of one pixel.
+The storage aspect ratio (SAR) is calculated from the numbers of pixels in width and height stated in the display resolution.Because the units cancel out, all aspect ratios are unitless.
+
+Diagonal and area
+The size of a television set or computer monitor is given as the diagonal measurement of its display area, usually in inches. Wider aspect ratios result in smaller overall area, given the same diagonal.
+
+TVs
+Most televisions were built with an aspect ratio of 4:3 until the late 2000s, when widescreen TVs with 16:9 displays became the standard. This aspect ratio was chosen as the geometric mean between 4:3 and 2.35:1, an average of the various aspect ratios used in film.",17455275,Display aspect ratio,E
+88,"The Predicted Aligned Error (PAE) is a quantitative output produced by AlphaFold, a protein structure prediction system developed by DeepMind. PAE estimates the expected positional error for each residue in a predicted protein structure if it were aligned to a corresponding residue in the true protein structure. This measurement helps scientists assess the confidence in the relative positions and orientations of different parts of the predicted protein model.
+
+Structure
+PAE is presented as a two-dimensional (2D) interactive plot where the color at coordinates (x, y) represents the predicted position error at residue x if the predicted and true structures were aligned on residue y. Lower PAE values for residue pairs from different domains suggest well-defined relative positions and orientations in the prediction, while higher PAE values indicate uncertainty in the relative positions or orientations.
+Users can download the raw PAE data for all residue pairs in a custom JSON format for further analysis or visualization using a programming language such as Python. The format of the JSON file is as follows:
+
+[
+    {
+        ""predicted_aligned_error"": [[0, 1, 4, 7, 9, ...], ...],
+        ""max_predicted_aligned_error"": 31.75
+    }
+]
+
+In the JSON file, the field predicted_aligned_error provides the PAE value for each residue pair (rounded to the nearest integer), and the field max_predicted_aligned_error gives the maximum possible PAE value, which is capped at 31.75 Å.",74018311,Predicted Aligned Error,S
+89,"In mathematics, an antimatroid is a formal system that describes processes in which a set is built up by including elements one at a time, and in which an element, once available for inclusion, remains available until it is included. Antimatroids are commonly axiomatized in two equivalent ways, either as a set system modeling the possible states of such a process, or as a formal language modeling the different sequences in which elements may be included.
+Dilworth (1940) was the first to study antimatroids, using yet another axiomatization based on lattice theory, and they have been frequently rediscovered in other contexts.The axioms defining antimatroids as set systems are very similar to those of matroids, but whereas matroids are defined by an exchange axiom, antimatroids are defined instead by an anti-exchange axiom, from which their name derives.
+Antimatroids can be viewed as a special case of greedoids and of semimodular lattices, and as a generalization of partial orders and of distributive lattices. 
+Antimatroids are equivalent, by complementation, to convex geometries, a combinatorial abstraction of convex sets in geometry.
+Antimatroids have been applied to model precedence constraints in scheduling problems, potential event sequences in simulations, task planning in artificial intelligence, and the states of knowledge of human learners.
+
+Definitions
+An antimatroid can be defined as a finite family 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            F
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\mathcal {F}}}
+   of finite sets, called feasible sets, with the following two properties:
+The union of any two feasible sets is also feasible. That is, 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            F
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\mathcal {F}}}
+   is closed under unions.
+If 
+  
+    
+      
+        S
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle S}
+   is a nonempty feasible set, then 
+  
+    
+      
+        S
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle S}
+   contains an element 
+  
+    
+      
+        x
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle x}
+   for which 
+  
+    
+      
+        S
+        ∖
+        {
+        x
+        }
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle S\setminus \{x\}}
+   (the set formed by removing 
+  
+    
+      
+        x
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle x}
+   from 
+  
+    
+      
+        S
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle S}
+  ) is also feasible. That is, 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            F
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\mathcal {F}}}
+   is an accessible set system.Antimatroids also have an equivalent definition as a formal language, that is, as a set of strings defined from a finite alphabet of symbols.",667063,Antimatroid,M
+90,"Wirth's law is an adage on computer performance which states that software is getting slower more rapidly than hardware is becoming faster.
+The adage is named after Niklaus Wirth, a computer scientist who discussed it in his 1995 article ""A Plea for Lean Software"".
+
+History
+Wirth attributed the saying to Martin Reiser, who in the preface to his book on the Oberon System wrote: ""The hope is that the progress in hardware will cure all software ills. However, a critical observer may observe that software manages to outgrow hardware in size and sluggishness."" Other observers had noted this for some time before; indeed, the trend was becoming obvious as early as 1987.He states two contributing factors to the acceptance of ever-growing software as: ""rapidly growing hardware performance"" and ""customers' ignorance of features that are essential versus nice-to-have"". Enhanced user convenience and functionality supposedly justify the increased size of software, but Wirth argues that people are increasingly misinterpreting complexity as sophistication, that ""these details are cute but not essential, and they have a hidden cost"". As a result, he calls for the creation of ""leaner"" software and pioneered the development of Oberon, a software system developed between 1986 and 1989 based on nothing but hardware. Its primary goal was to show that software can be developed with a fraction of the memory capacity and processor power usually required, without sacrificing flexibility, functionality, or user convenience.
+
+Other names
+The law was restated in 2009 and attributed to Google co-founder Larry Page.",2279892,Wirth's law,T
+91,"Stercomata (or stercomes) are extracellular pellets of waste material produced by some groups of foraminiferans, including xenophyophoreans and komokiaceans, Gromia, and testate amoebae. The pellets are ovoid (egg-shaped), brownish in color, and on average measure from 10-20 µm in length. Stercomata are composed of small mineral grains and undigested waste products held together by strands of glycosaminoglycans.The term “sterkome” was first used Schaudinn in 1899 to describe the balls of undigested food remains produced by the testate amoeba Trichosphaerium sieboldi, the foraminiferan Saccammina sphaerica, and the gromiid Gromia dujardinii. Schaudinn conducted feeding experiments on live individuals of Trichosphaerium sieboldi kept in culture dishes to confirm that stercomata were accumulations of waste material produced as a byproduct of feeding.
+
+Taxonomic distribution
+Foraminifera
+Stercomata are produced by members of several different subclades of Foraminifera that possess organic-walled or agglutinated tests, including: single-chambered taxa with spherical organic-walled tests (e.g., Bathyallogromia and other undescribed species), single-chambered taxa with sac-like agglutinated tests (e.g., Saccammina and Leptammina), single-chambered taxa with tubular agglutinated tests (e.g., Bathysiphon), multi-chambered taxa with organic-walled tests (e.g., Nodellum and Resigella), taxa with complex agglutinated tests composed of delicate branching tubes (Komokioidea), and deep-sea taxa with large, complex tests agglutinated tests (Xenophyophorea).
+
+Saccamminid foraminiferans
+Komokiaceans
+Xenophyophores
+In xenophyophores, the stercomata are contained within an organic tubes called stercomare.
+
+Multichambered, organic-walled foraminiferans
+Gromiida
+Gromiida is a subclade of Endomyxa, a clade that branches within the more inclusive group Rhizaria, a clade that encompasses a diverse array free-living and parasitic single-celled eukaryotes that possess branching or anastomosing pseudopodia and complex life cycles. In Gromia, the only described genus of Gromiida, stercomata are spherical to ovoid in shape and range in color from brown to gray to orange.",52399962,Stercomata,S
+92,"Existential risk from artificial general intelligence is the hypothesis that substantial progress in artificial general intelligence (AGI) could result in human extinction or another irreversible global catastrophe.One argument goes as follows: The human species currently dominates other species because the human brain possesses distinctive capabilities other animals lack. If AI were to surpass humanity in general intelligence and become superintelligent, then it could become difficult or impossible to control. Just as the fate of the mountain gorilla depends on human goodwill, so might the fate of humanity depend on the actions of a future machine superintelligence.The plausibility of existential catastrophe due to AI is widely debated, and hinges in part on whether AGI or superintelligence are achievable, the speed at which dangerous behavior may emerge, and whether practical scenarios for AI takeovers exist. Concerns about superintelligence have been voiced by leading computer scientists and tech CEOs such as Geoffrey Hinton, Yoshua Bengio, Alan Turing, Elon Musk, and OpenAI CEO Sam Altman. In 2022, a survey of AI researchers with a 17% response rate found that the majority of respondents believed there is a 10 percent or greater chance that our inability to control AI will cause an existential catastrophe.",46583121,Existential risk from artificial general intelligence,T
+93,"A sweatshop or sweat factory is a crowded workplace with very poor, socially unacceptable or illegal working conditions. Some illegal working conditions include poor ventilation, little to no breaks, inadequate work space, insufficient lighting, or uncomfortably/dangerously high or low temperatures. The work may be difficult, tiresome, dangerous, climatically challenging or underpaid. Workers in sweatshops may work long hours with unfair wages, regardless of laws mandating overtime pay or a minimum wage; child labor laws may also be violated. Women make up 85 to 90% of sweatshop workers and may be forced by employers to take birth control and routine pregnancy tests to avoid supporting maternity leave or providing health benefits.",102075,Sweatshop,E
+94,"Applied anthropology is the practical application of anthropological theories, methods, and practices to the analysis and solution of practical problems. The term was first put forward by Daniel G. Brinton in his paper titled, ""The Aims of Anthropology""  and John Van Willengen simply defined applied anthropology as ""anthropology put to use""  Applied anthropology includes conducting research with a primary or tertiary purpose to solve real-world problems in areas such as public health, education, government, business, and more. 
+In Applied Anthropology: Domains of Application, Kedia and Van Willigen define the process as a ""complex of related, research-based, instrumental methods which produce change or stability in specific cultural systems through the provision of data, initiation of direct action, and/or the formulation of policy"". In other words, applied anthropology is the praxis-based side of anthropological research; it includes researcher involvement and activism within the participating community.
+
+Spanning academic disciplines
+The American Anthropological Association (AAA) website describes anthropology as a focus on ""the study of humans, past and present.",631934,Applied anthropology,S
+95,"The Perl-UNC Prize is awarded internationally in the field of neuroscience.  Its purpose is two-fold: to recognize researchers for outstanding discoveries and seminal insights in neuroscience and to celebrate the strength of the neuroscience research program at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill.
+
+Creation
+Edward Perl (1926-2014), a neuroscientist and former professor of Cell Biology & Physiology at the University of North Carolina School of Medicine, established the prize in 2000 to recognize outstanding scientific contribution in neuroscience. He had envisioned that the selection committee would choose recipients ""from a broad field of neuroscience ranging from development to molecular mechanisms to integrative function.""  Perl further noted that ""[t]he prize allows me to acknowledge the university for the opportunities it has given me"" and that it ""would help call attention to the institution and our strength in neuroscience.""As of 2017, six recipients of the Perl-UNC Prize have gone on to win Nobel Prizes in Physiology or Medicine (Linda Buck, Richard Axel, May-Britt Moser, Edvard Moser) or Chemistry (Roger Tsien, Roderick MacKinnon).  Three winners of the Perl-UNC Prize (Thomas Jessell, Cori Bargmann, Marcus Raichle) have been awarded the Kavli Prize in Neuroscience.
+
+Recipients
+Source: UNC Neuroscience Center
+
+2000 David Julius, Cloning the Capsaicin Receptor.
+2001 Roderick MacKinnon, Solving the Crystal Structure of the Potassium Channel.
+2002 Linda Buck and Richard Axel, Discovery of the Family of Olfactory Receptor Proteins.
+2003 Yves Barde, Discovery of Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor.
+2004 Roger Tsien, Development of Tools for Monitoring Signaling in Living Nerve Cells.
+2005 Robert Malenka and Roger Nicoll, Discovery of Mechanisms that Underlie Long-term Synaptic Plasticity.
+2006 Solomon H. Snyder, Identification of Opiate Receptors in the Brain.
+2007 Huda Zoghbi, Discovery of the Genetic Basis of Rett Syndrome.
+2008 Michael E.",46766871,Perl-UNC Prize,S
+96,"The blanketing effect (also referred to as line blanketing or the line-blanketing effect) is the enhancement of the red or infrared regions of a stellar spectrum at the expense of the other regions, with an overall diminishing effect on the whole spectrum. The term originates in a 1928 article by astrophysicist Edward Arthur Milne, where it was used to describe the effects that the astronomical metals in a star's outer regions had on that star's spectrum. The name arose because the absorption lines act as a ""blanket"", causing the continuum temperature of the spectrum to rise over what it would have been if these lines were not present.Astronomical metals, which produce most of a star's spectral absorption lines, absorb a fraction of the star's radiant energy (a phenomenon known as the blocking effect) and then re-emit it at a lower frequency as part of the backwarming effect. The combination of both these effects results in the position of stars in a color-color diagram to shift towards redder areas as the proportion of metals in them increases. The blanketing effect is thus highly dependent on the metallicity index of a star, which indicates the fraction of elements other than hydrogen and helium that compose it.
+
+References
+External links
+""Line-Blanketing Effects on the uvbyβ Photometric System""; McNamara, D.",36197961,Blanketing effect,M
+97,"Manufacturing operations management (MOM) is a collection of systems for managing end-to-end manufacturing processes with a view to optimizing efficiency.There are many types of MOM software, including for production management, performance analysis, quality and compliance, and human machine interface (HMI). Production management software provides real-time information about jobs and orders, labor and materials, machine status, and product shipments. Performance analysis software displays metrics at the machine, line, plant and enterprise level for situational or historical analysis. Quality and compliance software is used to promote compliance with standards and specifications for operational processes and procedures. HMI software is a form of manufacturing operations management (MOM) software that enables operators to manage industrial and process control machinery using a computer-based interface.Emerging Software Trends
+Advancements in technology and market demands are enabling new capabilities in MOM software platforms, gradually closing gaps in end-user needs.
+
+Collaboration Capabilities: Collaboration and workflow services support people-to-people, people-to-systems, and systems-to-systems interactions, enforcing procedures and rules while flexibly adapting to real-time situations with alternate workflows and processes.
+Security Services: Future manufacturing platforms will leverage common security services that determine roles, responsibilities, authorities, and access across all systems and application functions while fitting into corporate IT security schemes.
+Asset & Production Model: Future manufacturing platforms will have a unified asset and production model that supports all of the interrelationships between physical production equipment, facilities, inventory/materials and people, as well as production definitions such as the manufacturing bill of materials, productions orders, etc.",18657445,Manufacturing operations management,E
+98,"Convergent evolution — the repeated evolution of similar traits in multiple lineages which all ancestrally lack the trait — is rife in nature, as illustrated by the examples below. The ultimate cause of convergence is usually a similar evolutionary biome, as similar environments will select for similar traits in any species occupying the same ecological niche, even if those species are only distantly related. In the case of cryptic species, it can create species which are only distinguishable by analysing their genetics.  Distantly related organisms often develop analogous structures by adapting to similar environments.
+
+In animals
+Mammals
+Several groups of ungulates have independently reduced or lost side digits on their feet, often leaving one or two digits for walking. That name comes from their hooves, which have evolved from claws several times.",19643233,List of examples of convergent evolution,S
+99,"Inventory management software is a software system for tracking inventory levels, orders, sales and deliveries. It can also be used in the manufacturing industry to create a work order, bill of materials and other production-related documents. Companies use inventory management software to avoid product overstock and outages. It is a tool for organizing inventory data that before was generally stored in hard-copy form or in spreadsheets.
+
+Features
+Inventory management software is made up of several key components working together to create a cohesive inventory of many organization's systems.  These features include:
+
+Reorder point
+Should inventory reach a specific threshold, a company's inventory management system can be programmed to tell managers to reorder that product.",28399034,Inventory management software,E
+100,"FOUP (an acronym for Front Opening Unified Pod or Front Opening Universal Pod) is a specialized plastic carrier designed to hold silicon wafers securely and safely in a controlled environment, and to allow the wafers to be transferred between machines for processing or measurement.FOUPs began to appear along with the first 300mm wafer processing tools in the mid 1990s. The size of the wafers and their comparative lack of rigidity meant that SMIF pods were not a viable form factor.  FOUP standards were developed by SEMI and SEMI members to ensure that FOUPs and all equipment that interacts with FOUPs work together seamlessly.  Transitioning from a SMIF pod to a FOUP design, the removable cassette used to hold wafers was replaced by fixed wafer columns.  The door was relocated from a bottom orientation to a front orientation, where automated handling equipment can access the wafers.",4503954,FOUP,E
+101,"GS is a trade union in Sweden representing workers in the media, forestry and woodworking industries.
+
+History
+The union was established on 1 June 2009 through the merging of Swedish Forest and Wood Workers' Union and Swedish Graphic Workers' Union.  Like both its predecessors, it affiliated to the Swedish Trade Union Confederation.  The merger was originally conceived by the Swedish Paper Workers' Union, but that union ultimately decided to remain independent.On formation, the union had 52,845 members, but this has fallen in line with employment in the industries it covers.  By 2019, it had 37,583 members.
+
+External links
+Official website
+
+References
+
+ICTUR; et al., eds. (2005).",25430688,GS (Swedish union),E
+102,"A production packer is a standard component of the completion hardware of oil or gas wells used to provide a seal between the outside of the production tubing and the inside of the casing, liner, or wellbore wall.
+Based on their primary use, packers can be divided into two main categories: production packers and service packers. Production packers are those that remain in the well during well production. Service packers are used temporarily during well service activities such as cement squeezing, acidizing, fracturing and well testing.
+It is usually run in close to the bottom end of the production tubing and set at a point above the top perforations or sand screens.  In wells with multiple reservoir zones, packers are used to isolate the perforations for each zone. In these situations, a sliding sleeve would be used to select which zone to produce.",10368163,Production packer,E
+103,"The automatic identification system (AIS) is an automatic tracking system that uses transceivers on ships and is used by vessel traffic services (VTS). When satellites are used to receive AIS signatures, the term Satellite-AIS (S-AIS) is used.  AIS information supplements marine radar, which continues to be the primary method of collision avoidance for water transport. Although technically and operationally distinct, the ADS-B system is analogous to AIS and performs a similar function for aircraft.
+Information provided by AIS equipment, such as unique identification, position, course, and speed, can be displayed on a screen or an electronic chart display and information system (ECDIS). AIS is intended to assist a vessel's watchstanding officers and allow maritime authorities to track and monitor vessel movements.",1825702,Automatic identification system,T
+104,"In computing, internationalization and localization (American) or internationalisation and localisation (British English), often abbreviated i18n and L10n, are means of adapting computer software to different languages, regional peculiarities and technical requirements of a target locale.Internationalization is the process of designing a software application so that it can be adapted to various languages and regions without engineering changes. Localization is the process of adapting internationalized software for a specific region or language by translating text and adding locale-specific components.
+Localization (which is potentially performed multiple times, for different locales) uses the infrastructure or flexibility provided by internationalization (which is ideally performed only once before localization, or as an integral part of ongoing development).
+
+Naming
+The terms are frequently abbreviated to the numeronyms i18n (where 18 stands for the number of letters between the first i and the last n in the word internationalization, a usage coined at Digital Equipment Corporation in the 1970s or 1980s) and L10n for localization, due to the length of the words. Some writers have the latter term capitalized to help distinguish the two.Some companies, like IBM and Oracle, use the term globalization, g11n, for the combination of internationalization and localization.Microsoft defines internationalization as a combination of world-readiness and localization. World-readiness is a developer task, which enables a product to be used with multiple scripts and cultures (globalization) and separates user interface resources in a localizable format (localizability, abbreviated to L12y).Hewlett-Packard and HP-UX created a system called ""National Language Support"" or ""Native Language Support"" (NLS) to produce localizable software.
+
+Scope
+According to Software without frontiers, the design aspects to consider when internationalizing a product are ""data encoding, data and documentation, software construction, hardware device support, and user interaction""; while the key design areas to consider when making a fully internationalized product from scratch are ""user interaction, algorithm design and data formats, software services, and documentation"".Translation is typically the most time-consuming component of language localization. This may involve:
+
+For film, video, and audio, translation of spoken words or music lyrics, often using either dubbing or subtitles
+Text translation for printed materials, digital media (possibly including error messages and documentation)
+Potentially altering images and logos containing text to contain translations or generic icons
+Different translation lengths and differences in character sizes (e.g.",126844,Internationalization and localization,T
+105,"Molecular engineering is an emerging field of study concerned with the design and testing of molecular properties, behavior and interactions in order to assemble better materials, systems, and processes for specific functions. This approach, in which observable properties of a macroscopic system are influenced by direct alteration of a molecular structure, falls into the broader category of “bottom-up” design.
+
+Molecular engineering is highly interdisciplinary by nature, encompassing aspects of chemical engineering, materials science, bioengineering, electrical engineering, physics, mechanical engineering, and chemistry. There is also considerable overlap with nanotechnology, in that both are concerned with the behavior of materials on the scale of nanometers or smaller. Given the highly fundamental nature of molecular interactions, there are a plethora of potential application areas, limited perhaps only by one's imagination and the laws of physics. However, some of the early successes of molecular engineering have come in the fields of immunotherapy, synthetic biology, and printable electronics (see molecular engineering applications).
+Molecular engineering is a dynamic and evolving field with complex target problems; breakthroughs require sophisticated and creative engineers who are conversant across disciplines.",177515,Molecular engineering,E
+106,"Manufacturing in Ethiopia was, before 1957, dominated by
+cottage and handicraft industries which met most of the population's needs for manufactured goods such as clothes, ceramics, machine tools, and leather goods. Various factors – including the lack of basic infrastructure, the dearth of private and public investment, and the lack of any consistent public policy aimed at promoting industrial development – contributed to the insignificance of manufacturing.
+
+Five-year plans
+In 1957, Ethiopia initiated a series of five-year development plans.  Throughout much of the 1960s and early 1970s, manufacturing activity increased as the government's five-year plans diversified the economy by encouraging agro-industrial activity and by substituting domestically produced goods for imported items. Thus, according to the World Bank, manufacturing production increased at an annual rate of 6.1 percent between 1965 and 1973. During the same period, agriculture grew at an annual 2.1 percent rate, and services grew at an annual 6.7 percent rate.",16012831,Manufacturing in Ethiopia,E
+107,"Surface acoustic wave gas sensor or surface acoustic wave (SAW) sensors consist of an input transducer, a chemically adsorbent polymer film, and an output transducer on a piezoelectric substrate, which is typically quartz. The input transducer launches an acoustic wave that travels through the chemical film and is detected by the output transducer. SAW devices have been able to detect and distinguish between organophosphates, chlorinated hydrocarbons, ketones, alcohols, aromatic hydrocarbons, saturated hydrocarbons, and water. Such a device made at Sandia National Laboratories runs at a very high frequency (approximately 525 MHz), and the velocity and attenuation of the signal are sensitive to the viscoelasticity and mass of the thin film. The SAW device has four channels, each channel consisting of a transmitter and a receiver, separated by a small distance.",14230861,Microwave chemistry sensor,M
+108,"Powder Deaerators (also powder compactor or powder densifier) are working apparatuses for deaerating and compacting of dry, fine-grained powders. The machine removes excess air and open spaces in the powder, leaving it a more solid, compact, material.
+
+Construction
+Powder Deaerators consist of two parallel drums – a filter drum and a pressure drum – which rotate in opposite directions. The drums are driven via drive motor and spur gear. The filter drum is coated with a porous sinter metal layer. It is connected to a vacuum line via a hollow shaft creating a negative pressure within the filter drum.",22534140,Powder deaerator,E
+109,"A heat kernel signature (HKS) is a feature descriptor for use in deformable shape analysis and belongs to the group of spectral shape analysis methods. For each point in the shape, HKS defines its feature vector representing the point's local and global geometric properties. Applications include segmentation, classification, structure discovery, shape matching and shape retrieval.
+HKS was introduced in 2009 by Jian Sun, Maks Ovsjanikov and Leonidas Guibas. It is based on heat kernel, which is a fundamental solution to the heat equation. HKS is one of the many recently introduced shape descriptors which are based on the Laplace–Beltrami operator associated with the shape.
+
+Overview
+Shape analysis is the field of automatic digital analysis of shapes, e.g., 3D objects.",34060358,Heat kernel signature,M
+110,"A gook was a piece of protective headgear worn by bal maidens (female manual labourers in the mining industries of Cornwall and Devon). The gook was a bonnet which covered the head and projected forward over the face, to protect the wearer's head and face from sunlight and flying debris. Bal maidens often worked outdoors or in very crude surface-level shelters, and the gook also gave protection from extreme weather conditions. By covering the ears, gooks protected the ears from the noisy industrial environment.While there was some regional variation in style, gooks would generally be tied under the chin and around the neck, and fall loose from the neck over the shoulders to protect the shoulders and upper arms. In bright sunlight, the wearer would sometimes pin the gook across her face, leaving only the eyes exposed.",36935574,Gook (headgear),E
+111,"Pathema was one of the eight bioinformatics resource centers funded by the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID), a component of the National Institute of Health (NIH), which is an agency of the United States Department of Health and Human Services.
+Pathema was funded for five years from 2004 through a contract to The J. Craig Venter Institute, and is currently led by PI Granger Sutton.
+Pathema is the web resource for JCVI's NIAID-funded Bioinformatics Resource Center, and was one of eight such centers designed to support bio-defense and infectious disease research. The overarching goal of Pathema is to provide a core resource that will accelerated scientific progress towards understanding, detection, diagnosis and treatment of diseases caused by six clades of Category A-C pathogens (Bacillus anthracis, Clostridium botulinum, Burkholderia mallei, Burkholderia pseudomallei, Clostridium perfringens, and Entamoeba histolytica) involved in new and re-emerging infectious diseases. Pathema provides comprehensive curated datasets for the targeted pathogen clades, along with advanced bioinformatics capabilities geared specifically towards biodefense requirements, and the identification of potential targets for vaccine development, therapeutics and diagnostics.
+
+Supported Pathema organisms
+Pathema analysis tools
+Pathema supports a suite of over 50 web-based single gene, whole-genome and multi-genome comparative tools to facilitate analyses of genomic sequence and annotation data of over 80 NIAID Category A-C prokaryotic pathogens. Tools available on the BRC resource are developed and customized to best meet the scientific needs of the pathogen research community based on feedback solicited through community outreach.",22207814,Pathema,S
+112,"The angle of repose, or critical angle of repose, of a granular material is the steepest angle of descent or dip  relative to the horizontal plane on which the material can be piled without slumping. At this angle, the material on the slope face is on the verge of sliding. The angle of repose can range from 0° to 90°. The morphology of the material affects the angle of repose; smooth, rounded sand grains cannot be piled as steeply as can rough, interlocking sands. The angle of repose can also be affected by additions of solvents.",518397,Angle of repose,E
+113,"Elverum is a municipality in Innlandet county, Norway. It is located in the traditional district of Østerdalen. The administrative centre of the municipality is the town of Elverum. Other settlements in the municipality include Heradsbygd, Sørskogbygda, and Neverlia. Elverum lies at an important crossroads, with the town of Hamar to the west, the town of Kongsvinger to the south, and village of Innbygda and the Swedish border to the northeast.",57003319,Elverum,S
+114,"A photomask is an opaque plate with transparent areas that allow light to shine through in a defined pattern.  Photomasks are commonly used in photolithography for the production of integrated circuits (ICs or ""chips"") to produce a pattern on a thin wafer of material (usually silicon). Several masks are used in turn, each one reproducing a layer of the completed design, and together known as a mask set.
+
+History
+For IC production in the 1960s and early 1970s, an opaque rubylith film laminated onto a transparent mylar sheet was used. The design of one layer was cut into the rubylith, initially by hand on an illuminated drafting table (later by machine (plotter)) and the unwanted rubylith was peeled off by hand, forming the master image of that layer of the chip. Increasingly complex and thus larger chips required larger and larger rubyliths, eventually even filling the wall of a room.",642903,Photomask,E
+115,"Malaysian Nature Society (Malay: Persatuan Pencinta Alam Malaysia, abbrev: MNS) is the oldest and one of the most prominent environmental not for profit, non-governmental organisations in Malaysia. It was first established, as the Malayan Nature Society, with the launch of the Malayan Nature Journal, in 1940. Initially primarily as a scientific organisation, today MNS is involved in a wide range of environmental activities and campaigns. In 2008 MNS was awarded the inaugural Merdeka Award for the environment, primarily for its efforts in campaigning for the protection of the Belum-Temengor forests of Malaysia. MNS is a voluntary, membership-based organisation with approximately 3800 members.
+The Society has branches in most of the states in Malaysia.",7236493,Malaysian Nature Society,S
+116,"Landfills are the primary method of waste disposal in many parts of the world, including United States and Canada. Bioreactor landfills are expected to reduce the amount of and costs associated with management of leachate, to increase the rate of production of methane (natural gas) for commercial purposes and reduce the amount of land required for land-fills. Bioreactor landfills are monitored and manipulate oxygen and moisture levels to increase the rate of decomposition by microbial activity.
+
+Traditional landfills and associated problems
+Landfills are the oldest known method of waste disposal. Waste is buried in large dug out pits (unless naturally occurring locations are available) and covered. Bacteria and archaea decompose the waste over several decades producing several by-products of importance, including methane gas (natural gas), leachate, and volatile organic compounds (such as hydrogen sulfide (H2S), N2O2, etc.).
+Methane gas, a strong greenhouse gas, can build up inside the landfill leading to an explosion unless released from the cell.",6011211,Bioreactor landfill,S
+117,"A wheel is a type of algebra (in the sense of universal algebra) where division is always defined.  In particular, division by zero is meaningful. The real numbers can be extended to a wheel, as can any commutative ring.
+The term wheel is inspired by the topological picture 
+  
+    
+      
+        ⊙
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \odot }
+   of the real projective line together with an extra point ⊥ (bottom element) such as 
+  
+    
+      
+        ⊥
+        =
+        0
+        
+          /
+        
+        0
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \bot =0/0}
+  .A wheel can be regarded as the equivalent of a commutative ring (and semiring) where addition and multiplication are not a group but respectively a commutative monoid and a commutative monoid with involution.
+
+Definition
+A wheel is an algebraic structure 
+  
+    
+      
+        (
+        W
+        ,
+        0
+        ,
+        1
+        ,
+        +
+        ,
+        ⋅
+        ,
+        
+          /
+        
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle (W,0,1,+,\cdot ,/)}
+  , in which
+
+  
+    
+      
+        W
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle W}
+   is a set,
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+
+        
+        0
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {}0}
+   and 
+  
+    
+      
+        1
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle 1}
+   are elements of that set,
+
+  
+    
+      
+        +
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle +}
+   and 
+  
+    
+      
+        ⋅
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \cdot }
+   are binary operations,
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          /
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle /}
+   is a unary operation,and satisfying the following properties:
+
+  
+    
+      
+        +
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle +}
+   and 
+  
+    
+      
+        ⋅
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \cdot }
+   are each commutative and associative, and have 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+        0
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \,0}
+   and 
+  
+    
+      
+        1
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle 1}
+   as their respective identities.
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          /
+        
+        
+          /
+        
+        x
+        =
+        x
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle //x=x}
+   (
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          /
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle /}
+   is an involution)
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          /
+        
+        (
+        x
+        y
+        )
+        =
+        
+          /
+        
+        x
+        
+          /
+        
+        y
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle /(xy)=/x/y}
+   (
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          /
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle /}
+   is multiplicative)
+
+  
+    
+      
+        (
+        x
+        +
+        y
+        )
+        z
+        +
+        0
+        z
+        =
+        x
+        z
+        +
+        y
+        z
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle (x+y)z+0z=xz+yz}
+  
+
+  
+    
+      
+        (
+        x
+        +
+        y
+        z
+        )
+        
+          /
+        
+        y
+        =
+        x
+        
+          /
+        
+        y
+        +
+        z
+        +
+        0
+        y
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle (x+yz)/y=x/y+z+0y}
+  
+
+  
+    
+      
+        0
+        ⋅
+        0
+        =
+        0
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle 0\cdot 0=0}
+  
+
+  
+    
+      
+        (
+        x
+        +
+        0
+        y
+        )
+        z
+        =
+        x
+        z
+        +
+        0
+        y
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle (x+0y)z=xz+0y}
+  
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          /
+        
+        (
+        x
+        +
+        0
+        y
+        )
+        =
+        
+          /
+        
+        x
+        +
+        0
+        y
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle /(x+0y)=/x+0y}
+  
+
+  
+    
+      
+        0
+        
+          /
+        
+        0
+        +
+        x
+        =
+        0
+        
+          /
+        
+        0
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle 0/0+x=0/0}
+
+Algebra of wheels
+Wheels replace the usual division as a binary operation with multiplication, with a unary operation applied to one argument 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          /
+        
+        x
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle /x}
+   similar (but not identical) to the multiplicative inverse 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          x
+          
+            −
+            1
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle x^{-1}}
+  , such that 
+  
+    
+      
+        a
+        
+          /
+        
+        b
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle a/b}
+   becomes shorthand for 
+  
+    
+      
+        a
+        ⋅
+        
+          /
+        
+        b
+        =
+        
+          /
+        
+        b
+        ⋅
+        a
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle a\cdot /b=/b\cdot a}
+  , but neither 
+  
+    
+      
+        a
+        ⋅
+        
+          b
+          
+            −
+            1
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle a\cdot b^{-1}}
+   nor 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          b
+          
+            −
+            1
+          
+        
+        ⋅
+        a
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle b^{-1}\cdot a}
+   in general, and modifies the rules of algebra such that
+
+  
+    
+      
+        0
+        x
+        ≠
+        0
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle 0x\neq 0}
+   in the general case
+
+  
+    
+      
+        x
+        
+          /
+        
+        x
+        ≠
+        1
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle x/x\neq 1}
+   in the general case, as 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          /
+        
+        x
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle /x}
+   is not the same as the multiplicative inverse of 
+  
+    
+      
+        x
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle x}
+  .Other identities that may be derived are
+
+  
+    
+      
+        0
+        x
+        +
+        0
+        y
+        =
+        0
+        x
+        y
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle 0x+0y=0xy}
+  
+
+  
+    
+      
+        x
+        
+          /
+        
+        x
+        =
+        1
+        +
+        0
+        x
+        
+          /
+        
+        x
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle x/x=1+0x/x}
+  
+
+  
+    
+      
+        x
+        −
+        x
+        =
+        0
+        
+          x
+          
+            2
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle x-x=0x^{2}}
+  where the negation 
+  
+    
+      
+        −
+        x
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle -x}
+   is defined by 
+  
+    
+      
+        −
+        x
+        =
+        a
+        x
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle -x=ax}
+   and 
+  
+    
+      
+        x
+        −
+        y
+        =
+        x
+        +
+        (
+        −
+        y
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle x-y=x+(-y)}
+   if there is an element 
+  
+    
+      
+        a
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle a}
+   such that 
+  
+    
+      
+        1
+        +
+        a
+        =
+        0
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle 1+a=0}
+   (thus in the general case 
+  
+    
+      
+        x
+        −
+        x
+        ≠
+        0
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle x-x\neq 0}
+  ).
+However, for values of 
+  
+    
+      
+        x
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle x}
+   satisfying 
+  
+    
+      
+        0
+        x
+        =
+        0
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle 0x=0}
+   and 
+  
+    
+      
+        0
+        
+          /
+        
+        x
+        =
+        0
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle 0/x=0}
+  , we get the usual
+
+  
+    
+      
+        x
+        
+          /
+        
+        x
+        =
+        1
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle x/x=1}
+  
+
+  
+    
+      
+        x
+        −
+        x
+        =
+        0
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle x-x=0}
+  If negation can be defined as below then the subset 
+  
+    
+      
+        {
+        x
+        ∣
+        0
+        x
+        =
+        0
+        }
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \{x\mid 0x=0\}}
+   is a commutative ring, and every commutative ring is such a subset of a wheel. If 
+  
+    
+      
+        x
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle x}
+   is an invertible element of the commutative ring then 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          x
+          
+            −
+            1
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          /
+        
+        x
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle x^{-1}=/x}
+  . Thus, whenever 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          x
+          
+            −
+            1
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle x^{-1}}
+   makes sense, it is equal to 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          /
+        
+        x
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle /x}
+  , but the latter is always defined, even when 
+  
+    
+      
+        x
+        =
+        0
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle x=0}
+  .
+
+Examples
+Wheel of fractions
+Let 
+  
+    
+      
+        A
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle A}
+   be a commutative ring, and let 
+  
+    
+      
+        S
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle S}
+   be a multiplicative submonoid of 
+  
+    
+      
+        A
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle A}
+  .",634240,Wheel theory,M
+118,"Algenol, founded in 2009, headquartered in Fort Myers, Florida, Algenol is an industrial biotechnology company that is commercializing patented algae technology for production of ethanol and other fuels. The technology enables production four of the most important fuels (ethanol, gasoline, jet, and diesel fuel) using a proprietary process involving algae, sunlight, carbon dioxide and salt water.
+
+History
+In 2008 the company announced it would begin commercial production of Ethanol by 2009 in the Sonoran Desert in northwest Mexico. This seems not to have happened though and as of 2015 they are still not in commercial production. In October 2015 Paul Woods, the founder, resigned and the company announced they were laying off 25% of the staff and changing to a  “water treatment and carbon capture now, and maybe fuels later” focus. In 2016, Algenol celebrated its 10th Anniversary and added algae-based sustainable products to its portfolio.",21902464,Algenol,S
+119,"Equipment service management and rental (ESM&R) refers to equipment services management throughout the heavy equipment life cycle. Increased competition and slim margins in heavy equipment sales and rental place a heavy burden on manufacturers, dealers, rental companies and service businesses to improve their service performance. Improving service in these conditions is critical to maintaining margins and growing profitability.The ESM&R approach provides an integrated view of the heavy equipment business. Thus manufacturers, dealers, suppliers, rental and services business can improve the value their customers derive from their equipment and subsequently improve their own profitability and reduce cost at the same time. Collaboration is a critical factor in the equipment supply chain.
+Equipment companies must have two fundamentals in place of operational control of service operations on the one hand and equipment intelligence on the other.",30475108,Equipment service management and rental,E
+120,"A delta robot is a type of parallel robot that consists of three arms connected to universal joints at the base. The key design feature is the use of parallelograms in the arms, which maintains the orientation of the end effector. In contrast, Stewart platform can change the orientation of its end effector.Delta robots have popular usage in picking and packaging in factories because they can be quite fast, some executing up to 300 picks per minute.
+
+History
+The delta robot (a parallel arm robot) was invented in the early 1980s by a research team led by professor Reymond Clavel at the École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL, Switzerland). After a visit to a chocolate maker, a team member wanted to develop a robot to place pralines in their packages. The purpose of this new type of robot was to manipulate light and small objects at a very high speed, an industrial need at that time.
+In 1987, the Swiss company Demaurex purchased a license for the delta robot and started the production of delta robots for the packaging industry.",5703338,Delta robot,E
+121,"The Chapin Mine Steam Pump Engine, also known as The Cornish Pump, is a steam-driven pump located at the corner of Kent Street and Kimberly Avenue in Iron Mountain, Michigan, USA. It is the largest reciprocating steam-driven engine ever built in the United States. It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1981 and designated a Michigan State Historic Site in 1958.
+
+History
+Iron ore was discovered in what is now the Iron Mountain area in 1878. Development was rapid: Iron Mountain was platted in 1879 and the Chapin Mine Company was formed the same year. The Chapin Mine proved to be the most productive in the Menominee Range, but part of the ore body was underneath a cedar swamp and water seepage proved to be an ongoing problem.",34625782,Chapin Mine Steam Pump Engine,E
+122,"Fluorescent glucose biosensors are devices that measure the concentration of glucose in diabetic patients by means of sensitive protein that relays the concentration by means of fluorescence, an alternative to amperometric sension of glucose. Due to the prevalence of diabetes, it is the prime drive in the construction of fluorescent biosensors. A recent development has been approved by the FDA allowing a new continuous glucose monitoring system called EverSense, which is a 90-day glucose monitor using fluorescent biosensors.
+
+Application
+Keeping glucose levels in check is crucial to minimize the onset of the damage caused by diabetes. As a consequence, in conjunction with insulin administrations, the prime requirement for diabetic patients is to regularly monitor their blood glucose levels. The monitoring systems currently in general use have the drawback of below optimal number of readings, due to their reliance on a drop of fresh blood.",29221300,Fluorescent glucose biosensor,S
+123,"Nutritional neuroscience is the scientific discipline that studies the effects various components of the diet such as minerals, vitamins, protein, carbohydrates, fats, dietary supplements, synthetic hormones, and food additives have on neurochemistry, neurobiology, behavior, and cognition.
+Recent research on nutritional mechanisms and their effect on the brain show they are involved in almost every facet of neurological functioning including alterations in neurogenesis, neurotrophic factors, neural pathways and neuroplasticity, throughout the life cycle.Relatively speaking, the brain consumes an immense amount of energy in comparison to the rest of the body. The human brain is approximately 2% of the human body mass and uses 20–25% of the total energy expenditure. Therefore, mechanisms involved in the transfer of energy from foods to neurons are likely to be fundamental to the control of brain function. Insufficient intake of selected vitamins, or certain metabolic disorders, affect cognitive processes by disrupting the nutrient-dependent processes within the body that are associated with the management of energy in neurons, which can subsequently affect neurotransmission, synaptic plasticity, and cell survival.
+
+Minerals
+Deficiency or excess of essential minerals (e.g. iron, zinc, copper, and magnesium) can disrupt brain development and neurophysiology to affect behavior.",27024757,Nutritional neuroscience,S
+124,"The Data Incubator is a data science education company.  It offers corporate data science training and placement services.  It is best known for an 8-week educational fellowship preparing students with Master's degrees and PhDs for careers in big data and data science.
+
+Founding
+The Data Incubator was founded in 2014 in New York City by Tianhui Michael Li, a former data scientist at local-mobile-social startup Foursquare and Andreessen Horowitz. The company was incubated by Cornell Tech.The company is best known for an 8-week educational fellowship preparing students with Masters and PhD degrees for careers in big data and data science.  The fellowship's expenses are paid for by hiring companies and it remains free for admitted fellows.",49281083,The Data Incubator,T
+125,"In digital communication or data transmission, 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          E
+          
+            b
+          
+        
+        
+          /
+        
+        
+          N
+          
+            0
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle E_{b}/N_{0}}
+   (energy per bit to noise power spectral density ratio) is a normalized signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) measure, also known as the ""SNR per bit"". It is especially useful when comparing the bit error rate (BER) performance of different digital modulation schemes without taking bandwidth into account.
+As the description implies, 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          E
+          
+            b
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle E_{b}}
+   is the signal energy associated with each user data bit; it is equal to the signal power divided by the user bit rate (not the channel symbol rate). If signal power is in watts and bit rate is in bits per second, 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          E
+          
+            b
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle E_{b}}
+   is in units of joules (watt-seconds). 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          N
+          
+            0
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle N_{0}}
+   is the noise spectral density, the noise power in a 1 Hz bandwidth, measured in watts per hertz or joules.
+These are the same units as 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          E
+          
+            b
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle E_{b}}
+   so the ratio 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          E
+          
+            b
+          
+        
+        
+          /
+        
+        
+          N
+          
+            0
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle E_{b}/N_{0}}
+   is dimensionless; it is frequently expressed in decibels. 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          E
+          
+            b
+          
+        
+        
+          /
+        
+        
+          N
+          
+            0
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle E_{b}/N_{0}}
+   directly indicates the power efficiency of the system without regard to modulation type, error correction coding or signal bandwidth (including any use of spread spectrum).",1786306,Eb/N0,E
+126,"A xylotheque or xylothek (from the Greek xylon for ""wood"" and theque meaning ""repository"") is special form of herbarium that consists of a collection of authenticated wood specimens. It is also known as a xylarium (from the Greek xylon for ""wood"" and Latin arium meaning ""separate place""). Traditionally, xylotheque specimens were in the form of book-shaped volumes, each made of a particular kind of wood and holding samples of the different parts of the corresponding plant. While the terms are often used interchangeably, some use xylotheque to refer to these older collections of wooden 'books' and xylarium for modern collections in which some or all of the specimens are in simpler shapes, such as blocks or plaques with information engraved on their surfaces. Many countries have at least one xylotheque with native flora, and some also house flora from other parts of the world.",5114327,Xylotheque,S
+127,"Technosignature or technomarker is any measurable property or effect that provides scientific evidence of past or present technology. Technosignatures are analogous to biosignatures, which signal the presence of life, whether intelligent or not. Some authors prefer to exclude radio transmissions from the definition, but such restrictive usage is not widespread. Jill Tarter has proposed that the search for extraterrestrial intelligence (SETI) be renamed ""the search for technosignatures"". Various types of technosignatures, such as radiation leakage from megascale astroengineering installations such as Dyson spheres, the light from an extraterrestrial ecumenopolis, or Shkadov thrusters with the power to alter the orbits of stars around the Galactic Center, may be detectable with hypertelescopes.",39919360,Technosignature,M
+128,"In algebra and algebraic geometry, given a commutative Noetherian ring 
+  
+    
+      
+        R
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle R}
+   and an ideal 
+  
+    
+      
+        I
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle I}
+   in it, the n-th symbolic power of 
+  
+    
+      
+        I
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle I}
+   is the ideal
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          I
+          
+            (
+            n
+            )
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          ⋂
+          
+            P
+            ∈
+            Ass
+            ⁡
+            (
+            R
+            
+              /
+            
+            I
+            )
+          
+        
+        
+          φ
+          
+            P
+          
+          
+            −
+            1
+          
+        
+        (
+        
+          I
+          
+            n
+          
+        
+        
+          R
+          
+            P
+          
+        
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle I^{(n)}=\bigcap _{P\in \operatorname {Ass} (R/I)}\varphi _{P}^{-1}(I^{n}R_{P})}
+  where 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          R
+          
+            P
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle R_{P}}
+   is the localization of 
+  
+    
+      
+        R
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle R}
+   at 
+  
+    
+      
+        P
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle P}
+  , we set 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          φ
+          
+            P
+          
+        
+        :
+        R
+        →
+        
+          R
+          
+            P
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \varphi _{P}:R\to R_{P}}
+   is the canonical map from a ring to its localization, and the intersection runs through all of the associated primes of 
+  
+    
+      
+        R
+        
+          /
+        
+        I
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle R/I}
+  .
+Though this definition does not require 
+  
+    
+      
+        I
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle I}
+   to be prime, this assumption is often worked with because in the case of a prime ideal, the symbolic power can be equivalently defined as the 
+  
+    
+      
+        I
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle I}
+  -primary component of  
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          I
+          
+            n
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle I^{n}}
+  . Very roughly, it consists of functions with zeros of order n along the variety defined by 
+  
+    
+      
+        I
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle I}
+  .  We have: 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          I
+          
+            (
+            1
+            )
+          
+        
+        =
+        I
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle I^{(1)}=I}
+   and if 
+  
+    
+      
+        I
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle I}
+   is a maximal ideal, then 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          I
+          
+            (
+            n
+            )
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          I
+          
+            n
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle I^{(n)}=I^{n}}
+  .
+Symbolic powers induce the following chain of ideals:
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          I
+          
+            (
+            0
+            )
+          
+        
+        =
+        R
+        ⊃
+        I
+        =
+        
+          I
+          
+            (
+            1
+            )
+          
+        
+        ⊃
+        
+          I
+          
+            (
+            2
+            )
+          
+        
+        ⊃
+        
+          I
+          
+            (
+            3
+            )
+          
+        
+        ⊃
+        
+          I
+          
+            (
+            4
+            )
+          
+        
+        ⊃
+        ⋯
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle I^{(0)}=R\supset I=I^{(1)}\supset I^{(2)}\supset I^{(3)}\supset I^{(4)}\supset \cdots }
+
+Uses
+The study and use of symbolic powers has a long history in commutative algebra. Krull’s famous proof of his principal ideal theorem uses them in an essential way. They first arose after primary decompositions were proved for Noetherian rings.",43456903,Symbolic power of an ideal,M
+129,"Core damage frequency (CDF) is a term used in probabilistic risk assessment (PRA) that indicates the likelihood of an accident that would cause severe damage to a nuclear fuel in a nuclear reactor core. Core damage accidents are considered extremely serious because severe damage to the fuel in the core prevents adequate heat removal or even safe shutdown, which can lead to a nuclear meltdown. Some sources on CDF consider core damage and core meltdown to be the same thing, and different methods of measurement are used between industries and nations, so the primary value of the CDF number is in managing the risk of core accidents within a system and not necessarily to provide large-scale statistics.An assessment of permanent or temporary changes in a nuclear power plant is performed to evaluate if such changes are within risk criteria. For example, the probability of core damage may increase while replacing a component, but the probability would be even higher if that component were to fail because it wasn't replaced. Risk measures, such as core damage frequency and large early release frequency (LERF), determine the risk criteria for such changes.
+This risk analysis allows decision making of any changes within a nuclear power plant in accordance with legislation, safety margins, and performance strategies.
+A 2003 study commissioned by the European Commission remarked that ""core damage frequencies of 5 × 10−5 [per reactor-year] are a common result"" or in other words, one core damage incident in 20,000 reactor years.",16507553,Core damage frequency,E
+130,"Ultra-high temperature processing (UHT), ultra-heat treatment, or ultra-pasteurization is a food processing technology that sterilizes liquid food by heating it above 140 °C (284 °F) – the temperature required to kill bacterial endospores – for 2 to 5 seconds. UHT is most commonly used in milk production, but the process is also used for fruit juices, cream, soy milk, yogurt, wine, soups, honey, and stews. UHT milk was first developed in the 1960s and became generally available for consumption in the 1970s.
+The heat used during the UHT process can cause Maillard browning and change the taste and smell of dairy products. An alternative process is flash pasteurization, in which the milk is heated to 72 °C (162 °F) for at least 15 seconds.
+UHT milk packaged in a sterile container has a typical unrefrigerated shelf life of six to nine months. In contrast, flash pasteurized milk has a shelf life of about two weeks from processing, or about one week from being put on sale.
+
+History
+The most commonly applied technique to provide a safe and shelf-stable milk is heat treatment.",233884,Ultra-high-temperature processing,E
+131,"Chemical engineering is an engineering field which deals with the study of operation and design of chemical plants as well as methods of improving production. Chemical engineers develop economical commercial processes to convert raw materials into useful products. Chemical engineering uses principles of chemistry, physics, mathematics, biology, and economics to efficiently use, produce, design, transport and transform energy and materials. The work of chemical engineers can range from the utilization of nanotechnology and nanomaterials in the laboratory to large-scale industrial processes that convert chemicals, raw materials, living cells, microorganisms, and energy into useful forms and products. Chemical engineers are involved in many aspects of plant design and operation, including safety and hazard assessments, process design and analysis, modeling, control engineering, chemical reaction engineering, nuclear engineering, biological engineering,  construction specification, and operating instructions.
+Chemical engineers typically hold a degree in Chemical Engineering or Process Engineering.",6038,Chemical engineering,E
+132,"Biological dark matter is an informal term for unclassified or poorly understood genetic material. This genetic material may refer to genetic material produced by unclassified microorganisms. By extension, biological dark matter may also refer to the un-isolated microorganism whose existence can only be inferred from the genetic material that they produce. Some of the genetic material may not fall under the three existing domains of life: Bacteria, Archaea and Eukaryota; thus, it has been suggested that a possible fourth domain of life may yet be discovered, although other explanations are also probable. Alternatively, the genetic material may refer to non-coding DNA (so-called ""junk DNA"") and non-coding RNA produced by known organisms.
+
+Genomic dark matter
+Much of the genomic dark matter is thought to originate from ancient transposable elements and from other low-complexity repetitive elements.",35942883,Biological dark matter,S
+133,"The Parnidis Dune (Lithuanian: Parnidžio kopa) is a drifting (semi-permanent) coastal sand dune on the Curonian Spit, southeast  of Nida, Lithuania, near the Lithuania-Russia border of the spit. It is nearly all bare and rising up to 52 metres (171 ft) above sea level. 
+In the past its height was over 60, but it decreased because the dune is steadily moving eastwards and discharging its sands into the Curonian lagoon, prominently  at the Parnidis Cape under the wind-induced saltation.
+
+Ecology
+Based on the dune, the Parnidis Landscape Reserve was created within the Curonian Spit National Park to preserve a unique natural dune landscape, some of which are bare, and some forested, as well as the coastal areas of the dunes at both the Baltic Sea and the Curonian Lagoon. It is the only place with drifting dunes in the National Park. The Parnidis dune is almost bare, but there are many patches of vegetative habitats, which are subject to degradation due to natural and anthropogenic reasons.",72109254,Parnidis Dune,M
+134,"A bioactive terrarium (or vivarium) is a terrarium for housing one or more terrestrial animal species that includes live plants and populations of small invertebrates and microorganisms to consume and break down the waste products of the primary species. In a functional bioactive terrarium, the waste products will be broken down by these detritivores, reducing or eliminating the need for cage cleaning. Bioactive vivariums are used by zoos and hobbyists to house reptiles and amphibians in an aesthetically pleasing and enriched environment.
+
+Enclosure
+Any terrarium can be made bioactive by addition of the appropriate substrate, plants, and detritivores. Bioactive enclosures are often maintained as display terraria constructed of PVC, wood, glass and/or acrylic. Bioactive enclosures in laboratory ""rack"" style caging are uncommon.
+
+Cleanup crew
+Waste products of the primary species are consumed by a variety of detritivores, referred to as the ""cleanup crew"" by hobbyists.",55931886,Bioactive terrarium,S
+135,"This list of science and technology awards for women is an index to articles about notable awards made to women for work in science and the STEM (Science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) fields generally. It includes awards for astronomy, space and atmospheric science; biology and medicine; chemistry; engineering; mathematics; neuroscience; physics; technology; and general or multiple fields.
+
+Astronomy, space, atmospheric science
+Annie Jump Cannon Award in Astronomy – annual award for outstanding contributions to astronomy by a woman within five years of earning a doctorate degree
+Peter B. Wagner Memorial Award for Women in Atmospheric Sciences – awarded annually since 1998, based on paper completion, to a woman studying for a Masters or PhD in atmospheric science at a university in the United States
+
+Biology and medicine
+Elizabeth Blackwell Medal, given by the American Medical Women's Association to a woman physician ""who has made the most outstanding contributions to the cause of women in the field of medicine""
+Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology (FASEB) Excellence in Science Award
+Group on Women in Medicine and Science Leadership Awards, Association of American Medical Colleges
+Margaret Oakley Dayhoff Award from the Biophysical Society, Rockville, Maryland – given to a woman who ""has achieved prominence for 'substantial contributions to science'"" and showing high promise in the early part of her career
+Pearl Meister Greengard Prize – established 2004
+WICB Junior and Senior Awards from Women in Cell Biology (WICB)
+
+Chemistry
+ACS Award for Encouraging Women into Careers in the Chemical Sciences, sponsored by the Camille and Henry Dreyfus Foundation
+Garvan–Olin Medal – annual award that recognizes distinguished service to chemistry by women chemists
+Awards by the Iota Sigma Pi honorary society for women in chemistry:
+Agnes Fay Morgan Research Award
+Anna Louise Hoffman Award for Outstanding Achievement in Graduate Research
+Centennial Award for Excellence in Undergraduate Teaching
+Gladys Anderson Emerson Undergraduate Scholarship
+Members-at-Large Re-entry Award
+National Honorary Member
+Outstanding Young Women in Chemistry award.
+Undergraduate Excellence in Chemistry
+Violet Diller Professional Excellence Award
+
+Engineering
+Sharon Keillor Award for Women in Engineering Education
+Achievement Award of the Society of Women Engineers
+Young Woman Engineer of the Year Award
+
+Mathematics
+Awards by the Association for Women in Mathematics:
+Alice T. Schafer Prize – established 1991
+Biographies of Contemporary Women in Mathematics Essay Contest – established in 2001 for biographical essays
+Emmy Noether Lectures – an honorary lecture award
+M. Gweneth Humphreys Award
+Louise Hay Award for Contributions to Mathematics Education – established 1991
+Ruth I.",8174234,List of science and technology awards for women,M
+136,"Richard Bailey Flavell CBE, FRS (born 11 October 1943) is a British molecular biologist, Chief Scientific Officer of Ceres, Inc., and was director of John Innes Centre from 1987 to 1998.
+
+Life
+He was educated at the University of Birmingham (BSc, 1964 in Microbiology) and at the University of East Anglia (PhD, 1967 focused on the genetics of acetate utilization in Neurospora crassa). Following that he held a Postdoctoral Fellowship at Stanford University, Stanford, California, 1967-69 where he studied mitochondrial structure and function in Neurospora crassa. He then took up an appointment at the Plant Breeding Institute, Cambridge, England in the Department of Cytogenetics under the leadership of Sir Ralph Riley. In the following years he built up a formidable team of plant molecular geneticists that emerged as one of the strongest in the world. The team was one of the first to clone plant DNA, to produce transgenic plants and to determine the structure of a plant mitochondrial genome.
+
+Works
+.Nicholas J.",34027230,Richard B. Flavell,S
+137,"In mathematics, real trees (also called 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          R
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \mathbb {R} }
+  -trees) are a class of metric spaces generalising simplicial trees. They arise naturally in many mathematical contexts, in particular geometric group theory and probability theory. They are also the simplest examples of Gromov hyperbolic spaces.
+
+Definition and examples
+Formal definition
+A metric space 
+  
+    
+      
+        X
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle X}
+   is a real tree if it is a geodesic space where every triangle is a tripod. That is, for every three points 
+  
+    
+      
+        x
+        ,
+        y
+        ,
+        ρ
+        ∈
+        X
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle x,y,\rho \in X}
+   there exists a point 
+  
+    
+      
+        c
+        =
+        x
+        ∧
+        y
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle c=x\wedge y}
+   such that the geodesic segments 
+  
+    
+      
+        [
+        ρ
+        ,
+        x
+        ]
+        ,
+        [
+        ρ
+        ,
+        y
+        ]
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle [\rho ,x],[\rho ,y]}
+   intersect in the segment 
+  
+    
+      
+        [
+        ρ
+        ,
+        c
+        ]
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle [\rho ,c]}
+   and also 
+  
+    
+      
+        c
+        ∈
+        [
+        x
+        ,
+        y
+        ]
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle c\in [x,y]}
+  . This definition is equivalent to 
+  
+    
+      
+        X
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle X}
+   being a ""zero-hyperbolic space"" in the sense of Gromov (all triangles are ""zero-thin"").",371914,Real tree,M
+138,"Active redundancy is a design concept that increases operational availability and that reduces operating cost by automating most critical maintenance actions.
+This concept is related to condition-based maintenance and fault reporting.
+
+History
+The initial requirement began with military combat systems during World War I. The approach used for survivability was to install thick armor plate to resist gun fire and install multiple guns.
+This became unaffordable and impractical during the Cold War when aircraft and missile systems became common.
+The new approach was to build distributed systems that continue to work when components are damaged. This depends upon very crude forms of artificial intelligence that perform reconfiguration by obeying specific rules. An example of this approach is the AN/UYK-43 computer.
+Formal design philosophies involving active redundancy are required for critical systems where corrective labor is undesirable or impractical to correct failure during normal operation.
+Commercial aircraft are required to have multiple redundant computing systems, hydraulic systems, and propulsion systems so that a single in-flight equipment failure will not cause loss of life.
+A more recent outcome of this work is the Internet, which relies on a backbone of routers that provide the ability to automatically re-route communication without human intervention when failures occur.
+Satellites placed into orbit around the Earth must include massive active redundancy to ensure operation will continue for a decade or longer despite failures induced by normal failure, radiation-induced failure, and thermal shock.
+This strategy now dominates space systems, aircraft, and missile systems.
+
+Principle
+Maintenance requires three actions, which usually involve down time and high priority labor costs:
+
+Automatic fault detection
+Automatic fault isolation
+Automatic reconfigurationActive redundancy eliminates down time and reduces manpower requirements by automating all three actions. This requires some amount of automated artificial intelligence.
+N stands for needed equipment.",36727085,Active redundancy,E
+139,"High-power impulse magnetron sputtering (HIPIMS or HiPIMS, also known as high-power pulsed magnetron sputtering, HPPMS) is a method for physical vapor deposition of thin films which is based on magnetron sputter deposition.  HIPIMS utilises extremely high power densities of the order of kW⋅cm−2 in short pulses (impulses) of tens of microseconds at low duty cycle (on/off time ratio) of < 10%.  Distinguishing features of HIPIMS are a high degree of ionisation of the sputtered metal and a high rate of molecular gas dissociation which result in high density of deposited films. The ionization and dissociation degree increase according to the peak cathode power. The limit is determined by the transition of the discharge from glow to arc phase.",10538780,High-power impulse magnetron sputtering,M
+140,"Natural history specimen dealers had an important role in the development of science in the 18th, 19th and early 20th centuries. They supplied the rapidly growing, both in size and number, museums and educational establishments and private collectors whose collections, either in entirety or parts finally entered museums.
+Most sold not just zoological, botanical and geological specimens but also 
+equipment and books. Many also sold archaeological and ethnographic items. They purchased 
+specimens from professional and amateur collectors, sometimes collected themselves as well as acting as agents for the sale of 
+collections. Many were based in mercantile centres notably Amsterdam, Hamburg, and London or 
+in major cities.",33802674,List of natural history dealers,S
+141,"Magnetofection is a transfection method that uses magnetic fields to concentrate particles containing vectors to target cells in the body. Magnetofection has been adapted to a variety of vectors, including nucleic acids, non-viral transfection systems, and viruses. This method offers advantages such as high transfection efficiency and biocompatibility which are balanced with limitations.
+
+Mechanism
+Principle
+The term magnetofection, currently trademarked by the company OZ Biosciences, combines the words magnetic and transfection. Magnetofection uses nucleic acids associated with magnetic nanoparticles. These molecular complexes are then concentrated and transported into cells using an applied magnetic field.
+
+Synthesis
+The magnetic nanoparticles are typically made from iron oxide, which is fully biodegradable, using methods such as coprecipitation or microemulsion.The nanoparticles are then combined with gene vectors (DNA, siRNA, ODN, virus, etc.).",11664690,Magnetofection,S
+142,"Facebook (and parent company Meta Platforms) has been the subject of criticism and legal action. Criticisms include the outsize influence Facebook has on the lives and health of its users and employees, as well as Facebook's influence on the way media, specifically news, is reported and distributed. Notable issues include Internet privacy, such as use of a widespread ""like"" button on third-party websites tracking users, possible indefinite records of user information, automatic facial recognition software, and its role in the workplace, including employer-employee account disclosure. The use of Facebook can have negative psychological and physiological effects that include feelings of sexual jealousy, stress, lack of attention, and social media addiction that in some cases is comparable to drug addiction.Facebook's operations have also received coverage. The company's electricity usage, tax avoidance, real-name user requirement policies, censorship policies, handling of user data, and its involvement in the United States PRISM surveillance program and Facebook–Cambridge Analytica data scandal have been highlighted by the media and by critics.",12878216,Criticism of Facebook,T
+143,"SafetyNET p is a standard for Ethernet-based fieldbus communication in automation technology. SafetyNET p is suitable as a drive bus due to its real-time behaviour, with cycle times of up to 62.5 µs. In accordance with the standard requirements from EN 61508 and EN 61511, it can be used in safety circuits up to and including Category 3, SIL 3.
+
+Origin
+SafetyNET p is a registered trademark of Pilz GmbH & Co. KG and was presented in public for the first time in 2006. Its objective was to enable fieldbus communication on Ethernet in real-time and to simultaneously provide data communication in terms of machinery safety.",40513026,SafetyNET p,E
+144,"A high-resistance connection (HRC) is a hazard that results from loose or poor connections in traditional electrical accessories and switchgear which can cause heat to develop, capable of starting a fire.Glowing connections occur when relatively high current exists in a relatively large resistance object. Heat comes from power dissipation.  This energy, when dissipated in a small junction area, can generate temperatures above 1000 °C (1800 °F) and can ignite most flammable materials.An example extract from the National Union of Teachers (NUT) Fire Safety Brief:
+Electrical equipment should be regularly maintained by competent people.  Machines should not be allowed to overheat.  Care should be taken not to cover machines while they are switched on as this is particularly likely to cause overheating.",40930669,High resistance connection,T
+145,"A concrete mixer (also cement mixer) is a device that homogeneously combines cement, aggregate (e.g. sand or gravel), and water to form concrete. A typical concrete mixer uses a revolving drum to mix the components. For smaller volume works, portable concrete mixers are often used so that the concrete can be made at the construction site, giving the workers ample time to use the concrete before it hardens. An alternative to a machine is mixing concrete by hand.",1219747,Concrete mixer,E
+146,"Dutch elm disease (DED) is caused by a member of the sac fungi (Ascomycota) affecting elm trees, and is spread by elm bark beetles. Believed to be originally native to Asia, the disease was accidentally introduced into America, Europe, and New Zealand. In these regions it has devastated native populations of elms that did not have resistance to the disease. The name ""Dutch elm disease"" refers to its identification in 1921 and later in the Netherlands by Dutch phytopathologists Bea Schwarz and Christine Buisman, who both worked with professor Johanna Westerdijk. The disease affects species in the genera Ulmus and Zelkova, therefore it is not specific to the Dutch elm hybrid.
+
+Overview
+Dutch elm disease (DED) is caused by ascomycete microfungi.",173098,Dutch elm disease,S
+147,"Media Redundancy Protocol (MRP) is a data network protocol standardized by the International Electrotechnical Commission as IEC 62439-2. It allows rings of Ethernet switches to overcome any single failure with recovery time much faster than achievable with Spanning Tree Protocol.
+It is suitable to most industrial Ethernet applications.
+
+Properties
+MRP operates at the data link layer (OSI Layer 2) of Ethernet switches and is a direct evolution of the HiPER-Ring protocol developed by Hirschmann in 1998.
+Hirschmann is now owned by Belden.
+MRP is supported by several commercial industrial Ethernet switches.In an MRP ring, the ring manager is named Media Redundancy Manager (MRM), while ring clients are named Media Redundancy Clients (MRCs).
+MRM and MRC ring ports support three statuses: disabled, blocked, and forwarding. Disabled ring ports drop all the received frames. Blocked ring ports drop all the received frames except the MRP control frames. Forwarding ring ports forward all the received frames.
+During normal operation, the network works in the Ring-Closed status (Figure 1).",38235765,Media Redundancy Protocol,E
+148,"Gass Forest Museum is a government run natural history museum situated at Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India.
+
+History
+Toward the end of the 19th century, an aborted attempt was made by J. A. Gamble, the conservator of forests for Madras Presidency, to establish a forest museum in the province. A few years later in 1902, Gamble's successor as Conservator of Forests Horace Arichibald Gass succeeded in establishing a museum for forestry. It was opened to the public 15 April 1902 by Baron Ampthill, the then Governor of Madras, at that point simply referred to as the Forest Museum at Coimbatore.",28297818,Gass Forest Museum,S
+149,"For environmental remediation, Low-temperature thermal desorption (LTTD), also known as low-temperature thermal volatilization, thermal stripping, and soil roasting, is an ex-situ remedial technology that uses heat to physically separate petroleum hydrocarbons from excavated soils. Thermal desorbers are designed to heat soils to temperatures sufficient to cause constituents to volatilize and desorb (physically separate) from the soil. Although they are not designed to decompose organic constituents, thermal desorbers can, depending upon the specific organics present and the temperature of the desorber system, cause some organic constituents to completely or partially decompose. The vaporized hydrocarbons are generally treated in a secondary treatment unit (e.g., an afterburner, catalytic oxidation chamber, condenser, or carbon adsorption unit) prior to discharge to the atmosphere. Afterburners and oxidizers destroy the organic constituents.",8851414,Low-temperature thermal desorption,T
+150,"The Standard Generalized Markup Language (SGML; ISO 8879:1986) is a standard for defining generalized markup languages for documents. ISO 8879 Annex A.1 states that generalized markup is ""based on two postulates"":
+Declarative: Markup should describe a document's structure and other attributes rather than specify the processing that needs to be performed, because it is less likely to conflict with future developments.
+Rigorous: In order to allow markup to take advantage of the techniques available for processing, markup should rigorously define objects like programs and databases.DocBook SGML and LinuxDoc are examples which used SGML tools.
+
+Standard versions
+SGML is an ISO standard:  ""ISO 8879:1986 Information processing – Text and office systems – Standard Generalized Markup Language (SGML)"", of which there are three versions:
+
+Original SGML, which was accepted in October 1986, followed by a minor Technical Corrigendum.
+SGML (ENR), in 1996, resulted from a Technical Corrigendum to add extended naming rules allowing arbitrary-language and -script markup.
+SGML (ENR+WWW or WebSGML), in 1998, resulted from a Technical Corrigendum to better support XML and WWW requirements.SGML is part of a trio of enabling ISO standards for electronic documents developed by ISO/IEC JTC 1/SC 34 (ISO/IEC Joint Technical Committee 1, Subcommittee 34 – Document description and processing languages) :
+
+SGML (ISO 8879) – Generalized markup language
+SGML was reworked in 1998 into XML, a successful profile of SGML. Full SGML is rarely found or used in new projects.
+DSSSL (ISO/IEC 10179) – Document processing and styling language based on Scheme.
+DSSSL was reworked into W3C XSLT and XSL-FO which use an XML syntax. Nowadays, DSSSL is rarely used in new projects apart from Linux documentation.
+HyTime – Generalized hypertext and scheduling.HyTime was partially reworked into W3C XLink. HyTime is rarely used in new projects.SGML is supported by various technical reports, in particular
+
+ISO/IEC TR 9573 – Information processing – SGML support facilities – Techniques for using SGMLPart 13: Public entity sets for mathematics and science
+In 2007, the W3C MathML working group agreed to assume the maintenance of these entity sets.
+
+History
+SGML descended from IBM's Generalized Markup Language (GML), which Charles Goldfarb, Edward Mosher, and Raymond Lorie developed in the 1960s.",28994,Standard Generalized Markup Language,T
+151,"A field guide is a book designed to help the reader identify wildlife (flora or fauna or funga) or other objects of natural occurrence (e.g. rocks and minerals). It is generally designed to be brought into the ""field"" or local area where such objects exist to help distinguish between similar objects. Field guides are often designed to help users distinguish animals and plants that may be similar in appearance but are not necessarily closely related.
+It will typically include a description of the objects covered, together with paintings or photographs and an index. More serious and scientific field identification books, including those intended for students, will probably include identification keys to assist with identification, but the publicly accessible field guide is more often a browsable picture guide organized by family, colour, shape, location or other descriptors.
+
+History
+Popular interests in identifying things in nature probably were strongest in bird and plant guides.",500948,Field guide,S
+152,"Planetary engineering is the development and application of technology for the purpose of influencing the environment of a planet. Planetary engineering encompasses a variety of methods such as terraforming, seeding, and geoengineering.
+Widely discussed in the scientific community, terraforming refers to the alteration of other planets to create a habitable environment for terrestrial life. Seeding refers to the introduction of life from Earth to habitable planets. Geoengineering refers to the engineering of a planet's climate, and has already been applied on Earth. Each of these methods are composed of varying approaches and possess differing levels of feasibility and ethical concern.
+
+Terraforming
+Terraforming is the process of modifying the atmosphere, temperature, surface topography or ecology of a planet, moon, or other body in order to replicate the environment of Earth.
+
+Technologies
+A common object of discussion on potential terraforming is the planet Mars.",1038273,Planetary engineering,E
+153,"Proprietary firmware is any firmware that has had its use, private modification, copying, or republishing restricted by the producer. Proprietors may enforce restrictions by technical means, such as by restricting source code access, firmware replacement restrictions (by denying complete tooling that may be necessary in order to recompile and replace the firmware), or by legal means, such as through copyright and patents. Alternatives to proprietary firmware may be free (libre) or open-source.
+
+Distribution
+Proprietary firmware (and especially the microcode) is much more difficult to avoid than proprietary software or even proprietary device drivers, because the firmware is usually very specific to the manufacturer of each device (often being unique for each model), and the programming documentation and complete specifications that would be necessary to create a replacement are often withheld by the hardware manufacturer.Many open-source operating systems reluctantly choose to include proprietary firmware files in their distributions simply to make their device drivers work, because manufacturers try to save money by removing flash memory or EEPROM from their devices, requiring the operating system to upload the firmware each time the device is used.  However, in order to do so, the operating system still has to have distribution rights for this proprietary microcode.
+
+Security concerns
+Proprietary firmware poses a significant security risk to the user because of the direct memory access (DMA) architecture of modern computers and the potential for DMA attacks. Theo de Raadt of OpenBSD suggests that wireless firmware are kept proprietary because of poor design quality and firmware defects.",18761238,Proprietary firmware,T
+154,"A Drum handler is a piece of mechanical equipment that is used to securely grip, lift and transport cylindrical modules such as steel drums, barrels, plastic drums and fiber drums.  It has spring-loaded metal arms to create a tight and secure grip. This equipment is commonly used in chemical and petroleum industries, as well as industries that require shipping and storing of cylindrical modules. 
+
+In the rubber tire and tube industry, a drum handler may also refer to a worker who primarily removes drums of rubberized fabric wrapped between layers of canvas for separation from the bias cutter and rolls the drums to the tire-building department, returning empty drums and canvas liner for rewinding.
+
+Description
+The drum handler is usually used for handling a standard size 55-gallon drum container. However, there are models that can handle smaller and bigger capacity drums.",32810809,Drum handler,E
+155,"Braess's paradox is the observation that adding one or more roads to a road network can slow down overall traffic flow through it. The paradox was first discovered by Arthur Pigou in 1920, and later named after the German mathematician Dietrich Braess in 1968.The paradox may have analogies in electrical power grids and biological systems. It has been suggested that, in theory, the improvement of a malfunctioning network could be accomplished by removing certain parts of it. The paradox has been used to explain instances of improved traffic flow when existing major roads are closed.
+
+Discovery and definition
+Dietrich Braess, a mathematician at Ruhr University, Germany, noticed the flow in a road network could be impeded by adding a new road, when he was working on traffic modelling. His idea was that if each driver is making the optimal self-interested decision as to which route is quickest, a shortcut could be chosen too often for drivers to have the shortest travel times possible.",826885,Braess's paradox,M
+156,"Technology is the application of knowledge for achieving practical goals in a reproducible way. The word technology can also mean the products resulting from such efforts,: 117  including both tangible tools such as utensils or machines, and intangible ones such as software. Technology plays a critical role in science, engineering, and everyday life.
+Technological advancements have led to significant changes in society. The earliest known technology is the stone tool, used during prehistoric times, followed by the control of fire, which contributed to the growth of the human brain and the development of language during the Ice Age. The invention of the wheel in the Bronze Age allowed greater travel and the creation of more complex machines.",29816,Technology,S
+157,"Small RNA sequencing (Small RNA-Seq) is a type of RNA sequencing based on the use of NGS technologies that allows to isolate and get information about noncoding RNA molecules in order to evaluate and discover new forms of small RNA and to predict their possible functions. By using this technique, it is possible to discriminate small RNAs from the larger RNA family to better understand their functions in the cell and in gene expression. Small RNA-Seq can analyze thousands of small RNA molecules with a high throughput and specificity. The greatest advantage of using RNA-seq is represented by the possibility of generating libraries of RNA fragments starting from the whole RNA content of a cell.
+
+Introduction
+Small RNAs are noncoding RNA molecules between 20 and 200 nucleotide in length. The item ""small RNA"" is a rather arbitrary term, which is vaguely defined based on its length comparing with regular RNA such as messenger RNA (mRNA).",58990339,Small RNA sequencing,S
+158,"Surface modification is the act of modifying the surface of a material by bringing physical, chemical or biological characteristics different from the ones originally found on the surface of a material.This modification is usually made to solid materials, but it is possible to find examples of the modification to the surface of specific liquids.
+The modification can be done by different methods with a view to altering a wide range of characteristics of the surface, such as: roughness, hydrophilicity, surface charge, surface energy, biocompatibility  and reactivity.
+
+Surface engineering
+Surface engineering is the sub-discipline of materials science which deals with the surface of solid matter.  It has applications to chemistry, mechanical engineering, and electrical engineering (particularly in relation to semiconductor manufacturing).
+Solids are composed of a bulk material covered by a surface. The surface which bounds the bulk material is called the Surface phase. It acts as an interface to the surrounding environment. The bulk material in a solid is called the Bulk phase.
+The surface phase of a solid interacts with the surrounding environment.",486525,Surface modification,E
+159,"It is difficult to determine which programming languages are ""most widely used"" because the meaning of the term varies by context. One language may occupy the most programmer-hours, another may have the most lines of code, a third may utilize the most CPU time, and so on. Some languages are very popular for particular kinds of applications: for example, Python for machine learning, Java for backend server development, C in embedded applications and operating systems; JavaScript in web development and other languages for many kinds of applications.
+
+Methods
+Various counts have been proposed to indicate a language's popularity, each subject to a different bias over what is measured. These counts include the number of:
+
+job advertisements that mention the language
+times the language is mentioned in web searches, as with Google Trends
+estimates of lines of code written in the language –  (which may underestimate languages not often found in public searches)
+references to the language found using a web search engine
+projects in the language on SourceForge and GitHub
+postings in Usenet newsgroups about the language
+commits or changed source lines for open source projects in the language on Open Hub
+courses on the language sold by programming bootcamps
+students enrolled in programming classes teaching the language around the world
+videos on the language on YouTube
+postings on Reddit or Stack Exchange about the language
+
+Indices
+Different Indices calculate a programming language's popularity based on different metrics. For example: The IEEE Spectrum publishes the rankings by taking the data points from an array of matrices including Google, GitHub, Reddit, and Twitter to calculate the overall rank for the 2021 list with keeping in the account factors like job demands, Reliability, and Current trends that sum up to say Python is the top programming language of 2021.",18968719,Measuring programming language popularity,T
+160,"Doctor Doom's Fearfall is a space shot ride located in the Islands of Adventure theme park at Universal Orlando Resort, based on the Marvel Comics supervillain Doctor Doom. The ride opened on May 28, 1999.
+
+History
+In 1991, planning began for a new theme park adjacent to Universal Studios Florida. By the end of 1993, it was decided that one area of the future Islands of Adventure theme park would be themed after Marvel Comics. In 1997, it was confirmed that Doctor Doom's Fearfall would be a part of the new park. On May 28, 1999, Islands of Adventure officially opened to the public, with Doctor Doom's Fearfall being one of its debut attractions.
+
+Experience
+Queue
+Riders first enter a Latverian-themed embassy containing the science laboratory of Doctor Doom.",10631554,Doctor Doom's Fearfall,M
+161,"Geometric modeling is a branch of applied mathematics and computational geometry that studies methods and algorithms for the mathematical description of shapes.
+The shapes studied in geometric modeling are mostly two- or three-dimensional (solid figures), although many of its tools and principles can be applied to sets of any finite dimension.  Today most geometric modeling is done with computers and for computer-based applications. Two-dimensional models are important in computer typography and technical drawing. Three-dimensional models are central to computer-aided design and manufacturing (CAD/CAM), and widely used in many applied technical fields such as  civil and mechanical engineering, architecture, geology and medical image processing.Geometric models are usually distinguished from procedural and object-oriented models, which define the shape implicitly by an opaque algorithm that generates its appearance.  They are also contrasted with digital images and volumetric models which represent the shape as a subset of a fine regular partition of space; and with fractal models that give an infinitely recursive definition of the shape.",4577462,Geometric modeling,M
+162,"Material failure theory is an interdisciplinary field of materials science and solid mechanics which attempts to predict the conditions under which solid materials fail under the action of external loads. The failure of a material is usually classified into brittle failure (fracture) or ductile failure (yield). Depending on the conditions (such as temperature, state of stress, loading rate) most materials can fail in a brittle or ductile manner or both. However, for most practical situations, a material may be classified as either brittle or ductile. 
+In mathematical terms, failure theory is expressed in the form of various failure criteria which are valid for specific materials.",17553405,Material failure theory,M
+163,"Gravity-vacuum transit (GVT) was a form of transportation developed by American inventor Lawrence Edwards in the early 1960s.
+
+Origin
+The origin of this technology is Alfred Ely Beach in 1865. When the U.S. Department of Defense charged all contractors to contemplate what will sustain them if defense funding should taper off, Lockheed Management called for ideas from the troops. Over the long weekend following the assassination of U.S. President John F.",20510073,Gravity-vacuum transit,T
+164,"The Government of Canada's Chief Science Advisor is a post in the Canadian government that was created in 2017 by the Justin Trudeau government. The current advisor is Mona Nemer, who is a specialist in the genetics of heart disease and was vice-president of research at the University of Ottawa for 11 years.  Dr. Nemer served an initial three-year term from September 2017 to September 2020, and has twice been reappointed to additional two-year terms. Her third appointment is scheduled to end in September 2024.
+The Chief Science Advisor is distinct from the discontinued National Science Advisor, which was abolished under the Stephen Harper government in 2008.The main functions of the advisor are to develop guidelines, advise the government on science and improve processes within the government related to scientific research.
+
+Key functions
+In its September 26, 2017 announcement, the Government of Canada defined the following key functions for the Chief Science Advisor:
+
+provide advice on the development and implementation of guidelines to ensure that government science is fully available to the public and that federal scientists are able to speak freely about their work;
+provide advice on creating and implementing processes to ensure that scientific analyses are considered when the Government makes decisions;
+assess and recommend ways to improve the existing science advisory function within the federal government; and
+assess and recommend ways for the Government to better support quality scientific research within the federal system.
+The Advisor provides an annual report to the Prime Minister and the Minister of Science on the state of federal government science which is made public.
+
+Office and reporting
+The Office of the Chief Science Advisor is housed at Innovation, Science and Economic Development and supported by a secretariat.",55355183,Chief Science Advisor (Canada),T
+165,"IDAS (Interactive Defence and Attack System for Submarines) is a medium-range missile currently being developed for the Type 209 and Type 212A submarine class of the German Navy.IDAS technology is based on the IRIS-T air-to-air missile which primarily targets aerial threats, such as ASW helicopters, but also against small or medium-sized surface vessels or coastal land targets. It is currently being developed by Diehl Defence and HDW, which is a part of Thyssenkrupp Marine Systems (TKMS), to be fired from Type 212's torpedo tubes. IDAS will be fibre-optic guided and officially has a range of approx. 40 km. Four missiles will fit in one torpedo tube, stored in a magazine.",7363360,IDAS (missile),T
+166,"Software visualization or software visualisation refers to the visualization of information of and related to software systems—either the architecture of its source code or metrics of their runtime behavior—and their development process by means of static, interactive or animated 2-D or 3-D visual representations of their structure, execution, behavior, and evolution.
+
+Software system information
+Software visualization uses a variety of information available about software systems. Key information categories include: 
+
+implementation artifacts such as source codes,
+software metric data from measurements or from reverse engineering,
+traces that record execution behavior,
+software testing data (e.g., test coverage)
+software repository data that tracks changes.
+
+Objectives
+The objectives of software visualization are to support the understanding of software systems (i.e., its structure) and algorithms (e.g., by animating the behavior of sorting algorithms) as well as the analysis and exploration of software systems and their anomalies (e.g., by showing classes with high coupling) and their development and evolution. One of the strengths of software visualization is to combine and relate information of software systems that are not inherently linked, for example by projecting code changes onto software execution traces.Software visualization can be used as tool and technique to explore and analyze software system information, e.g., to discover anomalies similar to the process of visual data mining. For example, software visualization is used to monitoring activities such as for code quality or team activity. Visualization is not inherently a method for software quality assurance.",3070397,Software visualization,T
+167,"The history of science and technology (HST) is a field of history that examines the understanding of the natural world (science) and the ability to manipulate it (technology) at different points in time. This academic discipline also studies the cultural, economic, and political impacts of and contexts for scientific practices.
+
+Academic study of history of science
+History of science is an academic discipline with an international community of specialists. Main professional organizations for this field include the History of Science Society, the British Society for the History of Science, and the European Society for the History of Science.
+Much of the study of the history of science has been devoted to answering questions about what science is, how it functions, and whether it exhibits large-scale patterns and trends.
+
+History of the academic study of history of science
+Histories of science were originally written by practicing and retired scientists, starting primarily with William Whewell's History of the Inductive Sciences (1837), as a way to communicate the virtues of science to the public.Auguste Comte proposed that there should be a specific discipline to deal with the history of science.The development of the distinct academic discipline of the history of science and technology did not occur until the early 20th century. Historians have suggested that this was bound to the changing role of science during the same time period.After World War I, extensive resources were put into teaching and researching the discipline, with the hopes that it would help the public better understand both Science and Technology as they came to play an exceedingly prominent role in the world.In the decades since the end of World War II, history of science became an academic discipline, with graduate schools, research institutes, public and private patronage, peer-reviewed journals, and professional societies.
+
+Formation of academic departments
+In the United States, a more formal study of the history of science as an independent discipline was initiated by George Sarton's publications, Introduction to the History of Science (1927) and the journal Isis (founded in 1912). Sarton exemplified the early 20th-century view of the history of science as the history of great men and great ideas.",14285,History of science and technology,M
+168,"An atom is a particle that consists of a nucleus of protons and neutrons surrounded by a cloud of electrons. The atom is the basic particle of the chemical elements, and the chemical elements are distinguished from each other by the number of protons that are in their atoms. For example, any atom that contains 11 protons is sodium, and any atom that contains 29 protons is copper. The number of neutrons defines the isotope of the element.
+Atoms are extremely small, typically around 100 picometers across. A human hair is about a million carbon atoms wide.",902,Atom,M
+169,"The Swanberg Dredge is one of several gold mining dredges that dot the landscape near Nome, Alaska.  Also known as the Johnson-Pohl Dredge, this one is located at about mile marker 1 of the Nome-Council Highway just inside the city limits.  The dredge stands in a pond about 200 feet (61 m) north of the highway in a small pond.  It has a barge-like hull with a mostly single-story superstructure, and measures about 60 by 30 feet (18.3 m × 9.1 m), with a draft of 6 feet (1.8 m).  Its metal frame bow gantry extends about 5 feet (1.5 m), and has a digging ladder 40 feet (12 m) long.",46204435,Swanberg Dredge,E
+170,"Chip formation is part of the process of cutting materials by mechanical means, using tools such as saws, lathes and milling cutters.
+The formal study of chip formation was encouraged around World War II and shortly afterwards, with increases in the use of faster and more powerful cutting machines, particularly for metal cutting with the new high speed steel cutters. Pioneering work in this field was carried out by Kivima (1952) and Franz (1958).Chip formation is usually described according to a three-way model developed by Franz. This model is best known within the field of machine tool design, although it is also used when an application area, such as woodworking, requires a vocabulary to describe chip formation in more detail than is usually attempted.
+
+Chip classification
+The first three chip types are the original characterisation, by Dr. Norman Franz. The type of chip that forms depends on many factors, of both tool and material.",32534676,Chip formation,E
+171,"Synthetic microbial consortia (commonly called co-cultures) are multi-population systems that can contain a diverse range of microbial species, and are adjustable to serve a variety of industrial, ecological, and tautological interests.  For synthetic biology, consortia take the ability to engineer novel cell behaviors to a population level.
+Consortia are more common than not in nature, and generally prove to be more robust than monocultures. Just over 7,000 species of bacteria have been cultured and identified to date. Many of the estimated 1.2 million bacteria species that remain have yet to be cultured and identified, in part due to inabilities to be cultured axenically. Evidence for symbiosis between microbes strongly suggests it to have been a necessary precursor of the evolution of land plants and for their transition from algal communities in the sea to land.",59987872,Synthetic microbial consortia,S
+172,"FBReader is an e-book reader for Linux, Microsoft Windows, Android, and other platforms.
+It was originally written for the Sharp Zaurus and currently runs on many other mobile devices, like the Nokia Internet Tablets, as well as desktop computers. A preview of FBReaderJ (the Java port) for Google Android was released on April 13, 2008.
+Supported formats include EPUB, FictionBook, HTML, plucker, PalmDoc, zTxt, TCR, CHM, RTF, OEB, mobi without DRM, and plain-text.
+It was formerly free software under the GPL, but since 2015 (v2.7) is proprietary software.
+
+History
+Nikolay Pultsin wrote the first FBReader; the tool was released for the Sharp Zaurus in January 2005, a Maemo port was added in December 2005 for the Nokia 770. FBReader has since had binary packages released for many mobile-device platforms and for most major personal computer operating systems.
+The FBReader name with the FB prefix comes from FictionBook, an e-book format popular in Russia, the country of FBReader's author.The original FBReader was written in C++; however, in 2007 a fork called FBReaderJ was created, which was written in Java. As the Android platform became available in the following years, this fork became the codebase for the Android software application, while the C++ codebase remained in use for other platforms.In 2015 the software for all platforms became closed-source: the old open-source code hasn't been updated since.  The Android app was split into Free and Premium versions, both closed-source, with the Premium version adding integrated support for PDF and for machine translation.
+
+Components
+For easy cross-platform compiling, FBReader uses zlibrary, a cross-platform interface library.",46794518,FBReader,T
+173,"Document modelling looks at the inherent structure in documents. Rather than the structure in formatting which is the classic realm of word-processing tools, it is concerned with the structure in content. Because document content is typically viewed as the ad hoc result of a creative process, the art of document modelling is still in its infancy. Most document modelling comes in the form of document templates evidenced most often as word-processing documents, fillable PDF forms, and XML templates. The particular strength of XML in this context is its ability to model document components in a tree-like structure, and its separation of content and style.
+Document modelling goes beyond mere form-filling and mail-merge to look at the structure of information in, for example, a legal document, a contract, an inspection report, or some form of analysis.
+Document modelling therefore looks at the structures and patterns of the written work, and breaks it down into different options or branches.",6904022,Document modelling,T
+174,"DNA-encoded chemical libraries (DECL) is a technology for the synthesis and screening on an unprecedented scale of collections of small molecule compounds. DECL is used in medicinal chemistry to bridge the fields of combinatorial chemistry and molecular biology. The aim of DECL technology is to accelerate the drug discovery process and in particular early phase discovery activities such as target validation and hit identification.
+DECL technology involves the conjugation of chemical compounds or building blocks to short DNA fragments that serve as identification bar codes and in some cases also direct and control the chemical synthesis. The technique enables the mass creation and interrogation of libraries via affinity selection, typically on an immobilized protein target. A homogeneous method for screening DNA-encoded libraries (DELs) has recently been developed which uses water-in-oil emulsion technology to isolate, count and identify individual ligand-target complexes in a single-tube approach.",22810768,DNA-encoded chemical library,S
+175,"A nuclear clock or nuclear optical clock is a notional clock that would use the frequency of a nuclear transition as its reference frequency, in the same manner as an atomic clock uses the frequency of an electronic transition in an atom's shell. Such a clock is expected to be more accurate than the best current atomic clocks by a factor of about 10, with an achievable accuracy approaching the 10−19 level.
+The only nuclear state suitable for the development of a nuclear clock using existing technology is thorium-229m, a nuclear isomer of thorium-229 and the lowest-energy nuclear isomer known. With an energy of about 8 eV,
+the corresponding ground-state transition is expected to be in the vacuum ultraviolet wavelength region around 150 nm, which would make it accessible to laser excitation. A comprehensive review can be found in reference.
+
+Principle of operation
+Modern optical atomic clocks are by today the most accurate time-keeping devices. Their underlying principle of operation is based on the fact that the energy of an atomic transition (the energy difference between two atomic states) is independent of space and time.",15278157,Nuclear clock,S
+176,"Home economics, also called domestic science or family and consumer sciences (often shortened to FCS or FACS), is a subject concerning human development, personal and family finances, consumer issues, housing and interior design, nutrition and food preparation, as well as textiles and apparel. Much less common today, it was, and is, most commonly taught in secondary school or high school.
+Home economics courses are offered around the world and across multiple educational levels. Historically, the purpose of these courses was to professionalize housework, to provide intellectual fulfillment for women, to emphasize the value of ""women's work"" in society, and to prepare them for the traditional roles of sexes. Family and consumer sciences are taught as an elective or required course in secondary education, as a continuing education course in institutions, and at the primary level.  
+Beginning in Scotland in the 1850s, it was a woman-dominated course, teaching women to be homemakers with sewing being the lead skill.",50649,Home economics,S
+177,"Dance science is the scientific study of dance and dancers, as well as the practical application of scientific principles to dance. Its aims are the enhancement of performance, the reduction of injury, and the improvement of well-being and health.
+
+Overview
+Dance medicine and science as a field of study developed in the 1970s and '80s out of the field of sports medicine. In the early 1980s, the American Dance Festival (ADF) started including dance medicine courses in their coursework for dancers. When ADF moved to Duke University, physicians from Duke University Hospital became interested in dancers. Then, in 1990, the International Association for Dance Medicine and Science (IADMS) was formed by an international group of dance medicine practitioners, dance educators, dance scientists, and dancers.",11275122,Dance science,S
+178,"Passengers is a 2016 American science-fiction romance film directed by Morten Tyldum, written by Jon Spaihts and starring Jennifer Lawrence and Chris Pratt. The supporting cast features Michael Sheen, Laurence Fishburne and Andy García. The film follows two passengers on an immense interstellar spacecraft carrying thousands of people to a colony 60 light years from Earth, when the two are awakened 90 years early from their induced hibernation.
+The script was written in 2007 by Spaihts, but languished in development hell with multiple actors attached and detached from it over the years until Sony Pictures Entertainment acquired its rights in late 2014. Lawrence, Pratt and Tyldum quickly joined the project, and filming took place from September 2015 to February 2016 in Atlanta. It was produced by Village Roadshow Pictures, Start Motion Pictures, Original Film, LStar Capital, Wanda Pictures and Company Films, and was the last film from Columbia Pictures with the involvement of Village Roadshow Pictures.
+Passengers premiered at the Regency Village Theater in Los Angeles on December 14, 2016, and was released theatrically in the United States by Columbia Pictures on December 21, 2016.",44625719,Passengers (2016 film),S
+179,"Gravitational memory effects, also known as gravitational-wave memory effects are predicted persistent changes in the relative position of pairs of masses in space due to the passing of a gravitational wave. Detection of gravitational memory effects has been suggested as a way of validating Einstein's Theory of General Relativity.There are two kinds of predicted gravitational memory effect: a linear phenomenon, first proposed in 1974 by Russian scientists; and a non-linear phenomenon known as the nonlinear memory effect, which was first proposed in the 1990s.Research on the predicted phenomena has been carried out by Ya. B. Zel'dovich and A. G.",64692781,Gravitational memory effect,M
+180,"A bioship is a type of spacecraft or starship described in science fiction as either predominantly or totally composed of biological components, rather than being constructed from manufactured materials. Because of this, they nearly always have a distinctively organic look.
+Bioships are usually quite powerful, and can often regenerate or heal damaged parts.  Some bioships are intelligent or sentient, and some are considered to be lifeforms. Like most organic beings, many bioships contain large amounts of ""scaffolding"" materials to keep their shape, such as the xylem in trees or bone and chitin in animals.
+
+In fiction
+In the science fiction short story ""Specialist"" by Robert Sheckley, published in 1953 in Galaxy magazine, it is revealed that many galactic races are actually capable of symbiotic cooperation to become bioships, with each race forming a different part. Earth, apparently, is one of the planets inhabited by creatures that are supposed to function as FTL (faster than light) drives (Pushers), and, it is stated that all the conflicts and discontent of humanity are due to the fact that, while they have matured, they have nowhere to apply their true purpose.",551450,Bioship,S
+181,"The State of the Art is a short story collection by Scottish writer Iain M. Banks, first published in 1991. The collection includes some stories originally published under his other byline ""Iain Banks"", as well as the title novella and others set in Banks's Culture fictional universe.
+The non-SF stories in the collection are the only non-SF stories published under his Iain M. Banks name.
+
+Editions
+The collection was published in the US in 2004 by Night Shade Books, in hardback (ISBN 1-892389-38-X) and limited editions (ISBN 1-892389-99-1). The limited edition contains work by Banks not found in the UK version.",68851,The State of the Art,E
+182,"Alberto Jesús Laiseca (11 February 1941 – 22 December 2016) was an Argentine author of horror, supernatural fiction, suspense, science fiction, and fantastic literature. He also worked as a TV host and narrator for horror-related projects. Laiseca is considered as one of the most respected and noteworthy writers of his generation.
+
+Biography
+Laiseca was born in Rosario, however, shortly after his birth his family relocated first to Unquillo and later to Camilo Aldao, in the south of Cordoba Province where he lived as a young man until he moved to Santa Fe to pursue a college education. In 1964 he dropped out and went to work as a migrant agricultural worker during the harvests in Mendoza, and in other argentine provinces. Laiseca had a difficult relationship with his father a prominent medical doctor in Camilo Aldao.",56709082,Alberto Laiseca,T
+183,"Operations management is an area of management concerned with designing and controlling the process of production and redesigning business operations in the production of goods or services. It involves the responsibility of ensuring that business operations are efficient in terms of using as few resources as needed and effective in meeting customer requirements.  
+It is concerned with managing an entire production or service system which is the process that converts inputs (in the forms of raw materials, labor, consumers, and energy) into outputs (in the form of goods and/or services for consumers). Operations produce products, manage quality and create services. Operation management covers sectors like banking systems, hospitals, companies, working with suppliers, customers, and using technology.",1993994,Operations management,E
+184,"The International Manufacturing Technology Show (IMTS), first held in Cleveland, Ohio in 1927
+, is a trade show that features industrial machinery and technology. It is the largest manufacturing technology trade show in North America, and in 1990 was renamed from the original ""International Machine Tool Show"" to reflect the growing scope of the show to additional technologies such as welding, lubrication, and materials engineering. The show is managed by the Association for Manufacturing Technology.
+
+An agreement between the AMT and the CECIMO (European Machine Tool Industry Association), which organizes the European-based EMO trade show for the metal working industry, coordinates the IMTS and the EMO such that every even-numbered year the IMTS is held in Chicago, and every odd-numbered year the EMO is held in Europe.
+The next show is scheduled for September 9-14, 2024 at Mccormick Place, Chicago Illinois. https://www.imts.com/show/abouttheshow.cfm
+
+Scale & Exhibitors
+The six-day show is held in even-numbered years at Chicago's McCormick Place and draws attendees and exhibitors from the U.S. and some 119 other countries.",14074754,International Manufacturing Technology Show,E
+185,"This is a list of encyclopedias as well as encyclopedic and biographical dictionaries published on the subject of biology in any language.
+
+Entries are in the English language unless specifically stated as otherwise.
+
+General biology
+Becher, Anne, Joseph Richey. American environmental leaders: From colonial times to the present. Grey House, 2008. ISBN 9781592371198.
+Butcher, Russell D., Stephen E. Adair, Lynn A.",44707607,Bibliography of encyclopedias: biology,S
+186,"Cyborg data mining is the practice of collecting data produced by an implantable device that monitors bodily processes for commercial interests. As an android is a human-like robot, a cyborg, on the other hand, is an organism whose physiological functioning is aided by or dependent upon a mechanical/electronic device that relies on some sort of feedback.Implantable cybernetics and biomechatronics are on course to be proliferated among the global population within the twenty-first century as the markets for implantable electronics are already huge and growing. The global market for artificial cardiac pacemakers (PMs) and implantable cardioverter-defibrillators (ICDs) was approximately €8 billion in 2015, and is growing at 10% per year. Over 350 million people worldwide experience endemic diseases, diabetes, cardiac and renal failure, hearing disorders, and neurological disorders, thus making implantable technologies specific to these uses susceptible to increasingly higher demand. However, for the millions of cyborgs already equipped with body-enhancing technologies, namely PMs and ICDs, the data mining of these technologies pertains to broader topics of data sovereignty, data ownership rights, privacy and security, and medical research and development.
+
+Implantable technologies and their general uses
+According to European Directive 90/385/EEC, an ""active implantable medical device"" is any device that is intended to be used for human beings in the: 1) diagnosis, prevention, monitoring, treatment, or alleviation of disease or injury; 2) investigation, replacement, or modification of the anatomy or of a physiological process; and 3) control of conception.",55906881,Cyborg data mining,S
+187,"Earthquake engineering is an interdisciplinary branch of engineering that designs and analyzes structures, such as buildings and bridges, with earthquakes in mind. Its overall goal is to make such structures more resistant to earthquakes. An earthquake (or seismic) engineer aims to construct structures that will not be damaged in minor shaking and will avoid serious damage or collapse in a major earthquake. 
+A properly engineered structure does not necessarily have to be extremely strong or expensive. It has to be properly designed to withstand the seismic effects while sustaining an acceptable level of damage.
+
+Definition
+Earthquake engineering is a scientific field concerned with protecting society, the natural environment, and the man-made environment from earthquakes by limiting the seismic risk to socio-economically acceptable levels.",2111048,Earthquake engineering,E
+188,"The Birch Creek Charcoal Kilns are a group of beehive-shaped clay charcoal kilns near Leadore, Idaho, built in 1886. They were listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1972.
+The kilns were built in 1886 to produce charcoal to fuel the smelter at Nicholia, which smelted lead and silver ore from the Viola Mine located about 10 miles east of the kilns. The Viola ore deposit was discovered in 1881 and was mined until 1888, when the ore was depleted and the price of lead had fallen. The Nicholia smelter, located about 3 miles west of the mines, had two blast furnaces, each with a daily capacity of 40 short tons (36 t) of ore.A Butte, Montana, man named Warren King built 16 kilns from brick made from local clay, possibly obtained from Jump Creek on the east side of the Birch Creek valley. The beehive-shaped kilns are each about 20 feet (6.1 m) tall and 20 feet (6.1 m) in diameter.",36794333,Birch Creek Charcoal Kilns,E
+189,"Fernico describe a family of metal alloys made primarily of iron, nickel and cobalt. The family includes Kovar, FerNiCo I, FerNiCo II, and Dumet. The name is made up of the chemical symbols of its constituent three elements. ""Dumet"" is a portmanteau of ""dual"" and ""metal,"" because it is a heterogeneous alloy, usually fabricated in the form of a wire with an alloy core and a copper cladding. These alloys possess the properties of electrical conductivity, minimal oxidation and formation of porous surfaces at working temperatures of glass and thermal coefficients of expansion which match glass closely.",549787,Fernico,M
+190,"Design manufacture service (DMS) is a business model that combines contract product design with contract manufacturing as a service to other companies that have insufficient or do not possess the required resources.  Often the customer is focused on other aspects of their business or their existing resources may simply be overloaded. DMS providers may also provide other services such as order fulfillment, logistics and aftermarket service.
+Because of the high skill-levels required in each field, DMS firms specialize in different product categories.  These might include medical devices, medical instruments, automotive, communications, etc.  Typically, these are areas that require a relatively higher level of internal infrastructure or regulatory controls than the customer possesses.",37257277,Design manufacture service,E
+191,"This glossary of statistics and probability is a list of definitions of terms and concepts used in the mathematical sciences of statistics and probability, their sub-disciplines, and related fields. For additional related terms, see Glossary of mathematics and Glossary of experimental design.
+
+A
+admissible decision rule
+
+algebra of random variables
+
+alternative hypothesis
+
+analysis of variance
+
+atomic event
+Another name for elementary event.
+
+B
+bar chart
+
+Bayes' theorem
+
+Bayes estimator
+
+Bayes factor
+
+Bayesian inference
+
+bias
+1.  Any feature of a sample that is not representative of the larger population.
+2.  The difference between the expected value of an estimator and the true value.
+
+binary data
+Data that can take only two values, usually represented by the binary digits 0 and 1.
+
+binomial distribution
+
+bivariate analysis
+A type of quantitative statistical analysis in which exactly two variables are analyzed, for the purpose of determining the empirical relationship between them. Contrast multivariate analysis.
+
+blocking
+In experimental design, the arranging of experimental units in groups (""blocks"") that are similar to one another.",2142850,Glossary of probability and statistics,M
+192,"This is a timeline of achievements in Soviet and United States spaceflight, spanning the Cold War era of nationalistic competition known as the Space Race. 
+This list is limited to first achievements by the USSR and USA which were important during the Space Race in terms of public perception and/or technical innovation. This excludes first uses of specific on-board equipment and new scientific discoveries, or achievements by other countries.
+
+Beginning
+1957–1959
+1960–1969
+1970–1979
+1980–1989
+On 1991 December 31, the United Nations accepted the dissolution of the USSR, which meant the end of the space race.
+
+See also
+List of communications satellite firsts
+List of space exploration milestones, 1957–1969
+Timeline of space exploration
+Timeline of first orbital launches by country
+Timeline of space travel by nationality
+
+Notes
+References
+Bilstein, Roger E. (1996). Stages to Saturn: A Technological History of the Apollo/Saturn Launch Vehicles.",5481113,Timeline of the Space Race,T
+193,"Enterprise mobility management (EMM) is the set of people, processes and technology focused on managing mobile devices, wireless networks, and other mobile computing services in a business context. As more workers have bought smartphone and tablet computing devices and have sought support for using these devices in the workplace, EMM has become increasingly significant.
+The goal of EMM is to determine if and how available mobile IT should be integrated with work processes and objectives, and how to support workers when they are using these devices in the workplace.
+
+Business use of consumer mobile technology
+A 2012 study showed that about two-thirds of smartphone owners used their personal devices for enterprise-related activities. Supporting a wide variety of device types and operating systems can introduce security risks and added costs for businesses.A 2011 survey showed that three quarters of U.K. and U.S. CIOs surveyed considered mobile technology to be a significant security problem, although consumers were generally less concerned.
+
+Security
+Because mobile devices are easily lost or stolen, data on those devices is vulnerable.",19483125,Enterprise mobility management,T
+194,"Network on Terminal Architecture (i.e. NoTA) is a modular service based system architecture for mobile and embedded devices. NoTA enables mobile device makers speed-up their product development by shortening the integration phase. Additionally NoTA makes it possible to quickly bring-in 3rd party innovations into the products due to loosely coupled and functional-driver -less approach.
+NoTA device consists of Service Nodes (SN) and Application Nodes (AN) that communicate through logical Interconnect (IN). IN provides two basic means of communication, namely message based and streaming type.",15791310,Network on Terminal Architecture,T
+195,"Engineering, procurement, and construction (EPC) contracts (a type of turnkey contract) are a form of contract used to undertake construction works by the private sector on large-scale and complex infrastructure projects.
+
+Overview
+Under an EPC contract, a contractor is obliged to deliver a complete facility to a developer who needs only ""turn a key"" to start operating the facility; hence EPC contracts are sometimes called turnkey construction contracts. In addition to delivering a complete facility, the contractor must deliver that facility for a guaranteed price by a fixed date and it must perform to the specified level. Failure to comply with any requirement will usually result in the contractor incurring monetary liabilities. The EPC contractor coordinates all design, procurement and construction work and ensures that the whole project is completed as required and in time. They may or may not undertake actual site work.Various abbreviations used for this type of contract are LSTK for lump sum turn key, EPIC for engineering, procurement, installation & commissioning and EPCC for engineering, procurement, construction and commissioning.",22415560,"Engineering, procurement, and construction",E
+196,"United Media was a large editorial column and comic strip newspaper syndication service based in the United States, owned by the E. W. Scripps Company, that operated from 1978 to 2011. It syndicated 150 comics and editorial columns worldwide. Its core businesses were the United Feature Syndicate and the Newspaper Enterprise Association.
+
+History
+E.",1918246,United Media,T
+197,"Alignments of random points in a plane refers to the study of the relative positions of point that are randomly placed in a planar region. For example, how closely can we expect to find three points lying on a straight line?
+Studies have shown that such near-alignments occur by chance with greater frequency than one might intuitively expect.  This has been put forward as a demonstration that ley lines and other similar mysterious alignments believed by some to be phenomena of deep significance might exist solely due to chance alone, as opposed to the supernatural or anthropological explanations put forward by their proponents. The topic has also been studied in the fields of computer vision and astronomy.
+A number of studies have examined the mathematics of alignment of random points on the plane. In all of these, the width of the line — the allowed displacement of the positions of the points from a perfect straight line — is important.",289860,Alignments of random points,M
+198,"Phosphoproteomics is a branch of proteomics that identifies, catalogs, and characterizes proteins containing a phosphate group as a posttranslational modification.  Phosphorylation is a key reversible modification that regulates protein function, subcellular localization, complex formation, degradation of proteins and therefore cell signaling networks.  With all of these modification results, it is estimated that between 30%–65% of all proteins may be phosphorylated, some multiple times. Based on statistical estimates from many datasets, 230,000, 156,000 and 40,000 phosphorylation sites should exist in human, mouse, and yeast, respectively.Compared to expression analysis, phosphoproteomics provides two additional layers of information.  First, it provides clues on what protein or pathway might be activated because a change in phosphorylation status almost always reflects a change in protein activity.",8715575,Phosphoproteomics,S
+199,"Gottfried Wilhelm (von) Leibniz (1 July 1646 [O.S. 21 June] – 14 November 1716) was a German polymath active as a mathematician, philosopher, scientist and diplomat. He is a prominent figure in both the history of philosophy and the history of mathematics. He wrote works on philosophy, theology, ethics, politics, law, history and philology. Leibniz also made major contributions to physics and technology, and anticipated notions that surfaced much later in probability theory, biology, medicine, geology, psychology, linguistics and computer science.",12281,Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz,M
+200,"The Chicago Medical Society is the medical society for Cook County, Illinois, United States. It was founded in 1850.
+
+History
+The society was founded in 1850 and is one of the oldest medical societies in the United States. The first president was Levi Boone who also served as the mayor of Chicago. It began to publish the Chicago Medical Recorder in 1891, its papers having previously been published in the journals of other medical societies. Among the notable papers published in the journal is Dr.",58186869,Chicago Medical Society,S
+201,"A roadheader, also called a boom-type roadheader, road header machine, road header or just header machine, is a piece of excavating equipment consisting of a boom-mounted cutting head, a loading device usually involving a conveyor, and a crawler travelling track to move the entire machine forward into the rock face.The cutting head can be a general purpose rotating drum mounted in line or perpendicular to the boom, or can be special function heads such as jackhammer-like spikes, compression fracture micro-wheel heads like those on larger tunnel boring machines, a slicer head like a gigantic chain saw for dicing up rock, or simple jaw-like buckets of traditional excavators.
+
+History
+The first roadheader patent was applied for by Dr. Z. Ajtay in Hungary, in 1949. It was invented as a remote operated miner for exploitation of small seam, close walled deposits, typically in wet conditions.
+
+Types
+Cutting Heads:
+
+Transverse - rotates parallel to the cutter boom axis
+Longitudinal - rotates perpendicular to boom axis
+
+Uses
+Roadheaders were initially used in coal mines. The first use in a civil engineering project was the construction of the City Loop (then called the Melbourne Underground Rail Loop) in the 1970s, where the machines enabled around 80% of the excavation to be performed mechanically.They are now widely used in such as tunneling both for mining and municipal government projects, building wine caves, and building cave homes such as those in Coober Pedy, Australia.
+On February 21, 2014, Waller Street, just south of Laurier Avenue collapsed into an 8m-wide and 12m-deep sink-hole where a roadheader was excavating the eastern entrance to Ottawa's LRT O-Train tunnel.",7007246,Roadheader,E
+202,"Microfadeometry is a technique that uses tiny spots of intense light to probe and measure color changes in objects of art that are particularly sensitive to light exposure.
+This process is completed using a recently designed instrument known as a microfading tester. The data from the test is represented by reflectance spectra.
+
+History
+Light-fastness testing dates back to as early as 1733. In the late 19th century with early art conservation studies, Russell and Abney published Action of Light on Watercolors in 1888 sparking a concern with light and the aging of cultural materials. Microfading, as a technique, was first identified in Paul Whitmore’s lab book entry on September 21, 1994. His work on the topic was later published in 1999.
+
+Application
+Before the creation of this technique, recording light-stability information directly from the objects was nearly impossible.",44219945,Microfadeometry,S
+203,"Paper composite panels are a phenolic resin/cellulose composite material made from partially recycled paper and phenolic resin. Multiple layers of paper are soaked in phenolic resin, then molded and baked into net shape in a heated form or press.  Originally distributed as a commercial kitchen surface in the 1950s, it has recently been adapted for use in skateboard parks as well as various other applications, such as residential counters, cabinetry, fiberglass cores, guitar fingerboards, signage, exterior wall cladding, and a variety of architectural applications.
+
+Composition
+There are several manufacturers in North America who use a different composition of materials to form the final product.  One composition is cellulose fiber and phenolic resin (a type of polymer) which is combined and baked for a smooth hard surface.  The natural fibers are made from plant, animal and mineral sources.",3289793,Paper composite panels,E
+204,"A deformity, dysmorphism, or dysmorphic feature is a major abnormality of an organism that makes a part of the body appear or function differently than how it is supposed to.
+
+Causes
+Deformity can be caused by a variety of factors:
+
+Arthritis and other rheumatoid disorders
+Chronic application of external forces, e.g. artificial cranial deformation
+Chronic paresis, paralysis or muscle imbalance, especially in children, e.g. due to poliomyelitis or cerebral palsy
+Complications at birth
+Damage to the fetus or uterus
+Fractured bones left to heal without being properly set (malunion)
+Genetic mutation
+Growth or hormone disorders
+Infection
+Reconstructive surgery following a severe injury, e.g. burn injuryDeformity can occur in all organisms:
+
+Frogs can be mutated due to Ribeiroia (Trematoda) infection.
+Plants can undergo irreversible cell deformation
+Insects, such as honeybees, can be affected by deformed wing virus
+Fish can be found with scoliosis due to environmental factors
+
+Mortality
+In many cases where a major deformity is present at birth, it is the result of an underlying condition severe enough that the baby does not survive very long. The mortality of severely deformed births may be due to a range of complications including missing or non-functioning vital organs, structural defects that prevent necessary function, high susceptibility to injuries, abnormal facial appearance, or infections that eventually lead to death.
+In some cases, such as that of twins, one fetus is brought to term healthy, while the other faces major, even life-threatening defects.",749788,Deformity,S
+205,"A case sealer or box sealer is a piece of equipment used for closing or sealing corrugated boxes.  It is most commonly used for regular slotted containers (RSC) and can involve adhesive (cold water-borne or hot melt adhesive), box sealing tape, or  Gummed (water activated) tape.
+By contrast, a case erector is equipment for setting-up flat (knocked-down) corrugated boxes and applying a closure to the bottom flaps.
+
+Semi-automated
+With semi automatic equipment, the operator typically fills and loads a box at the entrance to the case sealer;  the box may or may not have the bottom flaps previously closed.   The operator closes the top flaps and feeds the box  in or through a machine which automatically applies the closure.  This helps save time and controls the application of the closure materials such as box sealing tape
+
+Fully automated
+Fully automatic equipment is available which does not require an operator. All functions, including closing the flaps, can be automated.
+
+Other
+Case sealers can also be categorized as either adjustable to fit production runs of a uniform box size or random, capable of handling a mixed variety of box sizes without machine adjustment.",46857238,Case sealer,E
+206,"The giant planets constitute a diverse type of planet much larger than Earth. They are usually primarily composed of low-boiling point materials (volatiles), rather than rock or other solid matter, but massive solid planets can also exist. There are four known giant planets in the Solar System: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune. Many extrasolar giant planets have been identified orbiting other stars.
+They are also sometimes called jovian planets, after Jupiter (""Jove"" being another name for the Roman god ""Jupiter""). They are also sometimes known as gas giants.",12733,Giant planet,M
+207,"Etherpad (previously known as EtherPad) is an open-source, web-based collaborative real-time editor, allowing authors to simultaneously edit a text document, and see all of the participants' edits in real-time, with the ability to display each author's text in their own color. There is also a chat box in the sidebar to allow meta communication.
+First launched in November 2008, the software was acquired by Google in December 2009, and released as open source later that month. Further development is coordinated by the Etherpad Foundation.
+
+Features and implementation
+Anyone can create a new collaborative document, known as a ""pad"". Each pad has its own URL, and anyone who knows this URL can edit the pad and participate in the associated chats. Password-protected pads are also possible.",20297788,Etherpad,T
+208,"The Jacobi symbol is a generalization of the Legendre symbol. Introduced by Jacobi in 1837, it is of theoretical interest in modular arithmetic and other branches of number theory, but its main use is in computational number theory, especially primality testing and integer factorization; these in turn are important in cryptography.
+
+Definition
+For any integer a and any positive odd integer n, the Jacobi symbol (a/n) is defined as the product of the Legendre symbols corresponding to the prime factors of n:
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          (
+          
+            
+              a
+              n
+            
+          
+          )
+        
+        =
+        
+          
+            (
+            
+              
+                a
+                
+                  p
+                  
+                    1
+                  
+                
+              
+            
+            )
+          
+          
+            
+              α
+              
+                1
+              
+            
+          
+        
+        
+          
+            (
+            
+              
+                a
+                
+                  p
+                  
+                    2
+                  
+                
+              
+            
+            )
+          
+          
+            
+              α
+              
+                2
+              
+            
+          
+        
+        ⋯
+        
+          
+            (
+            
+              
+                a
+                
+                  p
+                  
+                    k
+                  
+                
+              
+            
+            )
+          
+          
+            
+              α
+              
+                k
+              
+            
+          
+        
+        ,
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \left({\frac {a}{n}}\right)=\left({\frac {a}{p_{1}}}\right)^{\alpha _{1}}\left({\frac {a}{p_{2}}}\right)^{\alpha _{2}}\cdots \left({\frac {a}{p_{k}}}\right)^{\alpha _{k}},}
+  where
+
+  
+    
+      
+        n
+        =
+        
+          p
+          
+            1
+          
+          
+            
+              α
+              
+                1
+              
+            
+          
+        
+        
+          p
+          
+            2
+          
+          
+            
+              α
+              
+                2
+              
+            
+          
+        
+        ⋯
+        
+          p
+          
+            k
+          
+          
+            
+              α
+              
+                k
+              
+            
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle n=p_{1}^{\alpha _{1}}p_{2}^{\alpha _{2}}\cdots p_{k}^{\alpha _{k}}}
+  is the prime factorization of n.
+The Legendre symbol (a/p) is defined for all integers a and all odd primes p by
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          (
+          
+            
+              a
+              p
+            
+          
+          )
+        
+        =
+        
+          {
+          
+            
+              
+                
+                  0
+                
+                
+                  
+                    if 
+                  
+                  a
+                  ≡
+                  0
+                  
+                    
+                    (
+                    mod
+                    
+                    p
+                    )
+                  
+                  ,
+                
+              
+              
+                
+                  1
+                
+                
+                  
+                    if 
+                  
+                  a
+                  ≢
+                  0
+                  
+                    
+                    (
+                    mod
+                    
+                    p
+                    )
+                  
+                  
+                     and for some integer 
+                  
+                  x
+                  :
+                  
+                  a
+                  ≡
+                  
+                    x
+                    
+                      2
+                    
+                  
+                  
+                    
+                    (
+                    mod
+                    
+                    p
+                    )
+                  
+                  ,
+                
+              
+              
+                
+                  −
+                  1
+                
+                
+                  
+                    if 
+                  
+                  a
+                  ≢
+                  0
+                  
+                    
+                    (
+                    mod
+                    
+                    p
+                    )
+                  
+                  
+                     and there is no such 
+                  
+                  x
+                  .
+                
+              
+            
+          
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \left({\frac {a}{p}}\right)=\left\{{\begin{array}{rl}0&{\text{if }}a\equiv 0{\pmod {p}},\\1&{\text{if }}a\not \equiv 0{\pmod {p}}{\text{ and for some integer }}x\colon \;a\equiv x^{2}{\pmod {p}},\\-1&{\text{if }}a\not \equiv 0{\pmod {p}}{\text{ and there is no such }}x.\end{array}}\right.}
+  Following the normal convention for the empty product, (a/1) = 1.
+When the lower argument is an odd prime, the Jacobi symbol is equal to the Legendre symbol.
+
+Table of values
+The following is a table of values of Jacobi symbol (k/n) with n ≤ 59, k ≤ 30, n odd.
+
+Properties
+The following facts, even the reciprocity laws, are straightforward deductions from the definition of the Jacobi symbol and the corresponding properties of the Legendre symbol.The Jacobi symbol is defined only when the upper argument (""numerator"") is an integer and the lower argument (""denominator"") is a positive odd integer.
+
+1. If n is (an odd) prime, then the Jacobi symbol (a/n) is equal to (and written the same as) the corresponding Legendre symbol.2. If a ≡ b  (mod n), then 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          (
+          
+            
+              a
+              n
+            
+          
+          )
+        
+        =
+        
+          (
+          
+            
+              b
+              n
+            
+          
+          )
+        
+        =
+        
+          (
+          
+            
+              
+                a
+                ±
+                m
+                ⋅
+                n
+              
+              n
+            
+          
+          )
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \left({\frac {a}{n}}\right)=\left({\frac {b}{n}}\right)=\left({\frac {a\pm m\cdot n}{n}}\right)}
+  3. 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          (
+          
+            
+              a
+              n
+            
+          
+          )
+        
+        =
+        
+          
+            {
+            
+              
+                
+                  0
+                
+                
+                  
+                    if 
+                  
+                  gcd
+                  (
+                  a
+                  ,
+                  n
+                  )
+                  ≠
+                  1
+                  ,
+                
+              
+              
+                
+                  ±
+                  1
+                
+                
+                  
+                    if 
+                  
+                  gcd
+                  (
+                  a
+                  ,
+                  n
+                  )
+                  =
+                  1.
+                
+              
+            
+            
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \left({\frac {a}{n}}\right)={\begin{cases}0&{\text{if }}\gcd(a,n)\neq 1,\\\pm 1&{\text{if }}\gcd(a,n)=1.\end{cases}}}
+  If either the top or bottom argument is fixed, the Jacobi symbol is a completely multiplicative function in the remaining argument:
+
+4.",97313,Jacobi symbol,M
+209,"Mathematics is a broad subject that is commonly divided in many areas that may be defined by their objects of study, by the used methods, or by both. For example, analytic number theory is a subarea of number theory devoted to the use of methods of analysis for the study of natural numbers.
+This glossary is alphabetically sorted. This hides a large part of the relationships between areas. For the broadest areas of mathematics, see Mathematics § Areas of mathematics. The Mathematics Subject Classification is a hierarchical list of areas and subjects of study that has been elaborated by the community of mathematicians.",34189212,Glossary of areas of mathematics,M
+210,"In science, the concept of a macroscope is the antithesis of the microscope, namely a method, technique or system appropriate to the study of very large objects or very complex processes, for example the Earth and its contents, or conceptually, the Universe. Obviously, a single system or instrument does not presently exist that could fulfil this function, however its concept may be approached by some current or future combination of existing observational systems. The term ""macroscope"" has also been applied to a method or compendium which can view some more specific aspect of global scientific phenomena in its entirety, such as all plant life, specific ecological processes, or all life on earth. The term has also been used in the humanities, as a generic label for tools which permit an overview of various other forms of ""big data"". As discussed here, the concept of a ""macroscope"" differs in essence from that of the macroscopic scale, which simply takes over from where the microscopic scale leaves off, covering all objects large enough to be visible to the unaided eye, as well as from macro photography, which is the imaging of specimens at magnifications greater than their original size, and for which a specialised microscope-related instrument known as a ""Macroscope"" has previously been marketed.",64208794,Macroscope (science concept),M
+211,"In computing, the two primary stylesheet languages are Cascading Style Sheets (CSS) and the Extensible Stylesheet Language (XSL). While they are both called stylesheet languages, they have very different purposes and ways of going about their tasks.
+
+Cascading Style Sheets
+CSS is designed around styling a document, structured in a markup language, HTML and XML (including XHTML and SVG) documents. It was created for that purpose. The code CSS is non-XML syntax to define the style information for the various elements of the document that it styles.
+The language to structure a document (markup language) is a prelimit to CSS.  A markup language, like HTML and less XUL, may define some primitive elements to style a document, for example <emphasis> to bold.",4295428,Comparison of stylesheet languages,T
+212,"Engineering management is the application of the practice of management to the practice of engineering.
+Engineering management is a career that brings together the technological problem-solving ability of engineering and the organizational, administrative, legal and planning abilities of management in order to oversee the operational performance of complex engineering-driven enterprises. A Master of Engineering Management (MEM) is sometimes compared to a Master of Business Administration (MBA) for professionals seeking a graduate degree as a qualifying credential for a career in engineering management.
+
+History
+Stevens Institute of Technology is believed to have the oldest engineering management department, established as the School of Business Engineering in 1908. This was later called the Bachelor of Engineering in Engineering Management (BEEM) program and moved into the School of Systems and Enterprises. Syracuse University established the first graduate engineering management degree in the United States, which was first offered in 1957. In 1967 the first university department explicitly titled ""Engineering Management"" was founded at the Missouri University of Science and Technology (Missouri S&T, formerly the University of Missouri-Rolla, formerly Missouri School of Mines).",551388,Engineering management,E
+213,"Tin Ka Ping  (Chinese: 田家炳; 20 November 1919 – 10 July 2018), also known as K. P. Tin or Tian Jiabing, was a Hong Kong–Chinese businessman and philanthropist. He was the founder and chairman of Tin’s Chemical Industrial Company and the Tin Ka Ping Foundation.
+Tin donated billions of Hong Kong dollars and funded hundreds of schools, dozens of hospitals, and thousands of rural libraries throughout China. He was awarded numerous honours for his philanthropy, including the Order of the British Empire by Queen Elizabeth II, the Grand Bauhinia Medal by the Hong Kong government, a Gold Plate on Contribution to Public Welfare by President Lee Teng-hui of Taiwan, honorary citizenships by more than 80 cities, and honorary doctorate degrees by over ten universities.",42671315,Tin Ka Ping,E
+214,"Mathematical logic is the study of formal logic within mathematics. Major subareas include model theory, proof theory, set theory, and recursion theory. Research in mathematical logic commonly addresses the mathematical properties of formal systems of logic such as their expressive or deductive power. However, it can also include uses of logic to characterize correct mathematical reasoning or to establish foundations of mathematics.
+Since its inception, mathematical logic has both contributed to and been motivated by the study of foundations of mathematics. This study began in the late 19th century with the development of axiomatic frameworks for geometry, arithmetic, and analysis.",19636,Mathematical logic,M
+215,"Astronomy and spirituality have long been intertwined and closely related, mostly after their inception as mainstream subjects. When man started to take off the planet, psychological and cognitive changes were reported by people who directly interacted with outer space, either in visual manner or in exposure, demonstrated a quality of being furiously motivated and concerned about the Earth.
+
+Background
+Even though Astronomy and Spirituality may appear to be two separate topics, they both meet at a common ground, looking for answers in the same area: the cosmos. Both Astronomy and Spirituality have been utilized for many millenniums. Looking at numerous ancient civilizations and their worship of the Sun, Moon, and stars, we can see how many societies related the two in ways that made it appear as if they were one practice.
+
+Ancient Egyptians
+Astronomy is shown to portray the foundations of Ancient Egyptian mythology. They believed that the world as we know it began on a hillside just outside of what would become present-day Cairo.",62662353,Astronomy and spirituality,M
+216,"A rotary kiln is a pyroprocessing device used to raise materials to a high temperature (calcination) in a continuous process.  Materials produced using rotary kilns include:
+
+Cement
+Lime
+Refractories
+Metakaolin
+Titanium dioxide
+Alumina
+Vermiculite
+Iron ore pelletsThey are also used for roasting a wide variety of sulfide ores prior to metal extraction.
+
+Principle of operation
+The kiln is a cylindrical vessel, inclined slightly from the horizontal, which is rotated slowly about its longitudinal axis.  The process feedstock is fed into the upper end of the cylinder.  As the kiln rotates, material gradually moves down toward the lower end, and may undergo a certain amount of stirring and mixing.  Hot gases pass along the kiln, sometimes in the same direction as the process material (co-current), but usually in the opposite direction (counter-current).",6632266,Rotary kiln,E
+217,"Botanical expeditions (sometimes called ""Plant hunting"") are scientific voyages designed to explore the flora of a particular region, either as a specific design or part of a larger expedition. A naturalist or botanist would be responsible for identification, description and collection of specimens. In some cases the plants might be collected by the person in the field, but described and named by a government sponsored scientist at a botanical garden or university. For example, species collected on the Lewis and Clark Expedition were described and named by Frederick Traugott Pursh.
+While accounts of plant collection occur in antiquity, a scientific basis occurred during the Renaissance and was associated with the establishment of botanical gardens and the teaching of botany as a discipline. The practice of botanical expeditions reached a peak in the late 18th and during the 19th century with the systematic organisation of plants into taxonomic classifications.",40390498,Botanical expeditions,S
+218,"BioMotiv is an accelerator company associated with The Harrington Project, an initiative centered at University Hospitals of Cleveland. Therapeutic opportunities are identified through relationships with The Harrington Discovery Institute, university and research institutions, disease foundations, and industry sources. Once opportunities are identified, BioMotiv oversees the development, funding, active management, and partnering of the therapeutic products.
+
+History
+The Harrington Project was launched as an effort to bridge varying aspects of the drug development sphere. In response to recent decline in the number of traditional, early-stage biotechnology venture capital firms, BioMotiv utilizes an asset-centric model to in-license, fund, and manage technologies in-house. Its goal is to address the ""valley of death""  between research, discovery, and early clinical-stage drug development.",42576177,BioMotiv,S
+219,"Cultural hitchhiking is a hypothesized gene-culture coevolutionary process through which cultural selection, sexual selection based on cultural preference, limits the diversity at genetically neutral loci being transmitted in parallel to selective cultural traits. The process is thought to account for exceptionally low diversity in neutral loci such as control regions of the mitochondrial genome unaccounted for by any other selective forces. Simply put, selection for certain learned social and cultural behaviors can manifest in specific shaping of a population’s genetic makeup. While the notion that culture plays a significant role in shaping community genetics is widely accepted in the context of human populations it had not been considered or documented in non-human organisms until the late 1990s. The term was coined by the cetologist Hal Whitehead who studies the cultures and population genetics of matrilineal whale communities.
+Cultural hitchhiking has been proposed as a cause for reduced genetic diversity at certain loci in prehistoric  Homo sapiens, dolphins, killer whales, and sperm whales.Cultural hitchhiking is a significant hypothesis because it investigates the relationship between population genetics and culture.",63657352,Cultural hitchhiking,S
+220,"Packaging engineering, also package engineering, packaging technology and packaging science, is a broad topic ranging from design conceptualization to product placement.  All steps along the manufacturing process, and more, must be taken into account in the design of the package for any given product.  Package engineering  is an interdisciplinary field integrating science, engineering, technology and management to protect and identify products for distribution, storage, sale, and use. It encompasses the process of design, evaluation, and production of packages.  It is a system integral to the value chain that impacts product quality, user satisfaction, distribution efficiencies, and safety.",7710805,Packaging engineering,E
+221,"New Guinea, lying within the tropics and with extensive mountain areas, comprises a wide range of ecoregions. These include rainforests, grasslands and mangrove.
+
+Terrestrial ecoregions
+New Guinea is in the Australasian realm, which also includes the islands of Wallacea to the west, the Bismarck Archipelago, Solomon Islands, and Vanuatu to the east, and Australia and New Zealand.Sea levels were lower during the Ice Ages, which exposed the shallow continental shelf and connected New Guinea to Australia into a single land mass. Several nearby islands, including the Aru Islands, most of the Raja Ampat Islands, and Yapen, were also connected to the mainland, which allowed the flora and fauna of New Guinea and the continental shelf islands to mix.
+
+Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests
+Central Range montane rain forests
+Huon Peninsula montane rain forests
+Northern New Guinea lowland rain and freshwater swamp forests
+Northern New Guinea montane rain forests
+Southeastern Papuan rain forests
+Southern New Guinea freshwater swamp forests
+Southern New Guinea lowland rain forests
+Vogelkop–Aru lowland rain forests
+Vogelkop montane rain forests
+
+Tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands
+Trans-Fly savanna and grasslands
+
+Montane grasslands and shrublands
+Central Range sub-alpine grasslands
+
+Mangrove
+New Guinea mangroves
+
+Freshwater ecoregions
+Vogelkop–Bomberai
+New Guinea North Coast
+New Guinea Central Mountains
+Southwest New Guinea - Trans-Fly Lowland
+Papuan Peninsula
+
+Marine ecoregions
+The oceans around New Guinea are part of the Central Indo-Pacific marine realm. The realm is divided into marine provinces, which are further divided into marine ecoregions.
+Western Coral Triangle province
+Papua
+Eastern Coral Triangle province
+Bismarck Sea
+Solomon Sea
+Southeast Papua New Guinea
+Sahul Shelf province
+Gulf of Papua
+Arafura Sea
+
+See also
+Fauna of New Guinea
+
+References
+
+Robin Abell, Michele L. Thieme et al.",30110638,Ecoregions of New Guinea,S
+222,"In mathematics, a field is a set on which addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division are defined and behave as the corresponding operations on rational and real numbers do. A field is thus a fundamental algebraic structure which is widely used in algebra, number theory, and many other areas of mathematics.
+The best known fields are the field of rational numbers, the field of real numbers and the field of complex numbers. Many other fields, such as fields of rational functions, algebraic function fields, algebraic number fields, and p-adic fields are commonly used and studied in mathematics, particularly in number theory and algebraic geometry. Most cryptographic protocols rely on finite fields, i.e., fields with finitely many elements.
+The relation of two fields is expressed by the notion of a field extension. Galois theory, initiated by Évariste Galois in the 1830s, is devoted to understanding the symmetries of field extensions.",289878,Field (mathematics),M
+223,"In engineering, technical peer review is a well defined review process for finding and correcting defects conducted by a team of peers with assigned roles. Technical peer reviews are carried out by peers representing areas of life cycle affected by material being reviewed (usually limited to 6 or fewer people). Technical peer reviews are held within development phases, between milestone reviews, on completed products, or on completed portions of products. A technical peer review may also be called an engineering peer review, a product peer review, a peer review/inspection or an inspection.
+
+Overview
+The purpose of a technical peer review is to remove defects as early as possible in the development process. By removing defects at their origin (e.g., requirements and design documents, test plans and procedures, software code, etc.), technical peer reviews prevent defects from propagating through multiple phases and work products and reduce the overall amount of rework necessary on projects.",21603604,Technical peer review,E
+224,"Physical science is a branch of natural science that studies non-living systems, in contrast to life science. It in turn has many branches, each referred to as a ""physical science"", together called the ""physical sciences"".
+
+Definition
+Physical science can be described as all of the following:
+
+A branch of science  (a systematic enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe).A branch of natural science – natural science is a major branch of science that tries to explain and predict nature's phenomena, based on empirical evidence. In natural science, hypotheses must be verified scientifically to be regarded as scientific theory.  Validity, accuracy, and social mechanisms ensuring quality control, such as peer review and repeatability of findings, are amongst the criteria and methods used for this purpose. Natural science can be broken into two main branches: life science (for example biology) and physical science.",23638,Outline of physical science,M
+225,"Modular design, or modularity in design, is a design principle that subdivides a system into smaller parts called modules (such as modular process skids), which can be independently created, modified, replaced, or exchanged with other modules or between different systems.
+
+Overview
+A modular design can be characterized by functional partitioning into discrete scalable and reusable modules, rigorous use of well-defined modular interfaces, and making use of industry standards for interfaces. In this context modularity is at the component level, and has a single dimension, component slottability. A modular system with this limited modularity is generally known as a platform system that uses modular components. Examples are car platforms or the USB port in computer engineering platforms.  
+In design theory this is distinct from a modular system which has higher dimensional modularity and degrees of freedom.",2577605,Modular design,E
+226,"In mathematics, arithmetic geometry is roughly the application of techniques from algebraic geometry to problems in number theory. Arithmetic geometry is centered around Diophantine geometry, the study of rational points of algebraic varieties.In more abstract terms, arithmetic geometry can be defined as the study of schemes of finite type over the spectrum of the ring of integers.
+
+Overview
+The classical objects of interest in arithmetic geometry are rational points: sets of solutions of a system of polynomial equations over number fields, finite fields, p-adic fields, or function fields, i.e. fields that are not algebraically closed excluding the real numbers. Rational points can be directly characterized by height functions which measure their arithmetic complexity.The structure of algebraic varieties defined over non-algebraically closed fields has become a central area of interest that arose with the modern abstract development of algebraic geometry. Over finite fields, étale cohomology provides topological invariants associated to algebraic varieties.",1973177,Arithmetic geometry,M
+227,"Algebraic number theory is a branch of number theory that uses the techniques of abstract algebra to study the integers, rational numbers, and their generalizations. Number-theoretic questions are expressed in terms of properties of algebraic objects such as algebraic number fields and their rings of integers, finite fields, and function fields. These properties, such as whether a ring admits unique factorization, the behavior of ideals, and the Galois groups of fields, can resolve questions of primary importance in number theory, like the existence of solutions to Diophantine equations.
+
+History of algebraic number theory
+Diophantus
+The beginnings of algebraic number theory can be traced to Diophantine equations, named after the 3rd-century Alexandrian mathematician, Diophantus, who studied them and developed methods for the solution of some kinds of Diophantine equations. A typical Diophantine problem is to find two integers x and y such that their sum, and the sum of their squares, equal two given numbers A and B, respectively:
+
+  
+    
+      
+        A
+        =
+        x
+        +
+        y
+         
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle A=x+y\ }
+  
+
+  
+    
+      
+        B
+        =
+        
+          x
+          
+            2
+          
+        
+        +
+        
+          y
+          
+            2
+          
+        
+        .
+         
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle B=x^{2}+y^{2}.\ }
+  Diophantine equations have been studied for thousands of years. For example, the solutions to the quadratic Diophantine equation  x2 + y2 = z2 are given by the Pythagorean triples, originally solved by the Babylonians (c. 1800 BC).",174705,Algebraic number theory,M
+228,"The Eastern Agricultural Complex in the woodlands of eastern North America was one of about 10 independent centers of plant domestication in the pre-historic world. Incipient agriculture dates back to about 5300 BCE. By about 1800 BCE the Native Americans of the woodlands were cultivating several species of food plants, thus beginning a transition from a hunter-gatherer economy to agriculture. After 200 BCE when maize from Mexico was introduced to the Eastern Woodlands, the Native Americans of the eastern United States and adjacent Canada slowly changed from growing local indigenous plants to a maize-based agricultural economy. The cultivation of local indigenous plants other than squash and sunflower declined and was eventually abandoned.",3992015,Eastern Agricultural Complex,S
+229,"A playpen is a piece of furniture in which an infant or young toddler is placed to prevent self-harm when her/his parent or guardian is occupied or away. The earliest use of the word ""playpen"" cited in the Oxford English Dictionary is 1902.
+
+History
+Playpens were traditionally made of wood, and consisted of a flat rectangular platform, usually square in shape, with vertical bars on four sides, so that the child can see out. The floor of the playpen is usually a soft mat. The walls of the playpen are usually higher than the height of the child, so as to avoid climbing injuries; playpens may also have a detachable lid. There are many more modern and portable designs.
+Modern playpens are portable and typically consist of a basic metal and plastic support system and mesh, soft plastic or nylon sides.",1940864,Playpen,T
+230,"Crysis 2 is a first-person shooter video game developed by Crytek, published by Electronic Arts and released in North America, Australia and Europe in March 2011 for Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 3, and Xbox 360. Officially announced on June 1, 2009, the game is the second main installment of the Crysis series, and a sequel to the 2007 video game Crysis, and its expansion Crysis Warhead. The story was written by Richard Morgan, while Peter Watts was consulted and wrote a novel adaptation of the game. It was the first game to showcase the CryEngine 3 game engine and the first game using the engine to be released on consoles. A sequel, Crysis 3, was released in 2013.",14421816,Crysis 2,S
+231,"A vibratory feeder is an instrument that uses vibration to ""feed"" material to a process or machine. Vibratory feeders use both vibration and gravity to move material. Gravity is used to determine the direction, either down, or down and to a side, and then vibration is used to move the material.  They are mainly used to transport a large number of smaller objects.
+A belt weigher are used only to measure the material flow rate but weigh feeder can measure the flow material and also control or regulate the flow rate by varying the belt conveyor speed.
+
+Industries Served
+Versatile and rugged vibratory bowl feeders have been extremely used for automatic feeding of small to large and differently shaped industrial parts. They are the oldest but still commonly used automation machine available for aligning and feeding machine parts, electronic parts, plastic parts, chemicals, metallic parts, glass vials, pharmaceuticals, foods, miscellaneous goods etc.",26174708,Vibrating feeder,E
+232,"The anthroposphere (sometimes also referred as the technosphere) is that part of the environment that is made or modified by humans for use in human activities and human habitats. It is one of the Earth's spheres. The term was first used by nineteenth-century Austrian geologist Eduard Suess. The contemporary concept of the technosphere was first proposed as a concept by American geologist and engineer Peter Haff, of Duke University. It has been estimated that as of 2016 the total weight of the anthroposphere - that is, human generated structures and systems - was 30 trillion tons.The anthroposphere can be viewed as a human-generated equivalent to the biosphere, which is why some authorities consider it synonymous with the noosphere.",7371134,Anthroposphere,T
+233,"A space elevator, also referred to as a space bridge, star ladder, and orbital lift, is a proposed type of planet-to-space transportation system, often depicted in science fiction. The main component would be a cable (also called a tether) anchored to the surface and extending into space. An Earth-based space elevator cannot be constructed with a tall tower supported from below due to the immense weight—instead, it would consist of a cable with one end attached to the surface near the equator and the other end attached to a counterweight in space beyond geostationary orbit (35,786 km altitude). The competing forces of gravity, which is stronger at the lower end, and the upward centrifugal force, which is stronger at the upper end, would result in the cable being held up, under tension, and stationary over a single position on Earth. With the tether deployed, climbers (crawlers) could repeatedly climb up and down the tether by mechanical means, releasing their cargo to and from orbit.",29192,Space elevator,T
+234,"Computer-aided lean management, in business management, is a methodology of developing and using software-controlled, lean systems integration.  Its goal is to drive innovation towards cost and cycle-time savings.  It attempts to create an efficient use of capital and resources through the development and use of one integrated system model to run a business's planning, engineering, design, maintenance, and operations.
+
+Overview
+Computer-Aided Lean Management (CALM) is a management philosophy that uses computational software  to reduce risk and inefficiencies.  CALM acts on uncertainties and business inefficiencies to increase profitability through the use of computational decision-making tools that enable opportunities for additional value creation.  It is based on the application of software to enable continuous improvement through an Integrated System Model (ISM) of the business’s physical assets, business processes, and machine learning.",20341886,Computer-aided lean management,E
+235,"Animal science is described as ""studying the biology of animals that are under the control of humankind"". It can also be described as the production and management of farm animals. Historically, the degree was called animal husbandry and the animals studied were livestock species, like cattle, sheep, pigs, poultry, and horses. Today, courses available look at a broader area, including companion animals, like dogs and cats, and many exotic species. Degrees in Animal Science are offered at a number of colleges and universities.",2035308,Animal science,S
+236,"Cas12a (CRISPR associated protein 12a, previously known as Cpf1) is a subtype of Cas12 proteins and an RNA-guided endonuclease that forms part of the CRISPR system in some bacteria and archaea.  It originates as part of a bacterial immune mechanism, where it serves to destroy the genetic material of viruses and thus protect the cell and colony from viral infection. Cas12a and other CRISPR associated endonucleases use an RNA (termed a crRNA in the case of Cas12a) to target nucleic acid in a specific and programmable matter. In the organisms from which it originates, this guide RNA is a copy of a piece of foreign nucleic acid (i.e. phage) that previously infected the cell.It is of interest to researchers because it can be used to make highly targeted modifications of DNA or RNA, similar to the better known CRISPR-Cas9 system.",48343282,Cas12a,E
+237,"Robot welding is the use of mechanized programmable tools (robots), which completely automate a welding process by both performing the weld and handling the part.  Processes such as gas metal arc welding, while often automated, are not necessarily equivalent to robot welding, since a human operator sometimes prepares the materials to be welded.  Robot welding is commonly used for resistance spot welding and arc welding in high production applications, such as the automotive industry.
+
+History
+Robot welding is a relatively new application of robotics, even though robots were first introduced into U.S. industry during the 1960s. The use of robots in welding did not take off until the 1980s, when the automotive industry began using robots extensively for spot welding.",33790312,Robot welding,E
+238,"A biosimilar (also known as follow-on biologic or subsequent entry biologic) is a biologic medical product that is almost an identical copy of an original product that is manufactured by a different company. Biosimilars are officially approved versions of original ""innovator"" products and can be manufactured when the original product's patent expires. Reference to the innovator product is an integral component of the approval.Unlike with generic drugs of the more common small-molecule type, biologics generally exhibit high molecular complexity and may be quite sensitive to changes in manufacturing processes. Despite that heterogeneity, all biopharmaceuticals, including biosimilars, must maintain consistent quality and clinical performance throughout their lifecycle.Drug-related authorities such as the European Medicines Agency (EMA) of the European Union, the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA), and the Health Products and Food Branch of Health Canada hold their own guidance on requirements for demonstration of the similar nature of two biological products in terms of safety and efficacy. According to them, analytical studies demonstrate that the biological product is highly similar to the reference product, despite minor differences in clinically inactive components, animal studies (including the assessment of toxicity), and a clinical study or studies (including the assessment of immunogenicity and pharmacokinetics or pharmacodynamics).",12924448,Biosimilar,S
+239,"In mathematics, the nth cyclotomic polynomial, for any positive integer n, is the unique irreducible polynomial with integer coefficients that is a divisor of 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          x
+          
+            n
+          
+        
+        −
+        1
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle x^{n}-1}
+   and is not a divisor of 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          x
+          
+            k
+          
+        
+        −
+        1
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle x^{k}-1}
+   for any k < n. Its roots are all nth primitive roots of unity 
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          e
+          
+            2
+            i
+            π
+            
+              
+                k
+                n
+              
+            
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle e^{2i\pi {\frac {k}{n}}}}
+  , where k runs over the positive integers not greater than n and coprime to n (and i is the imaginary unit). In other words, the nth cyclotomic polynomial is equal to
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          Φ
+          
+            n
+          
+        
+        (
+        x
+        )
+        =
+        
+          ∏
+          
+            
+              
+                
+                  gcd
+                  (
+                  k
+                  ,
+                  n
+                  )
+                  =
+                  1
+                
+                
+                  1
+                  ≤
+                  k
+                  ≤
+                  n
+                
+              
+            
+          
+        
+        
+          (
+          
+            x
+            −
+            
+              e
+              
+                2
+                i
+                π
+                
+                  
+                    k
+                    n
+                  
+                
+              
+            
+          
+          )
+        
+        .
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \Phi _{n}(x)=\prod _{\stackrel {1\leq k\leq n}{\gcd(k,n)=1}}\left(x-e^{2i\pi {\frac {k}{n}}}\right).}
+  It may also be defined as the monic polynomial with integer coefficients that is the minimal polynomial over the field of the rational numbers of any primitive nth-root of unity (
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          e
+          
+            2
+            i
+            π
+            
+              /
+            
+            n
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle e^{2i\pi /n}}
+   is an example of such a root).
+An important relation linking cyclotomic polynomials and primitive roots of unity is
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          ∏
+          
+            d
+            ∣
+            n
+          
+        
+        
+          Φ
+          
+            d
+          
+        
+        (
+        x
+        )
+        =
+        
+          x
+          
+            n
+          
+        
+        −
+        1
+        ,
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \prod _{d\mid n}\Phi _{d}(x)=x^{n}-1,}
+  showing that x is a root of 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          x
+          
+            n
+          
+        
+        −
+        1
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle x^{n}-1}
+   if and only if it is a d th primitive root of unity for some d that divides n.
+
+Examples
+If n is a prime number, then 
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          Φ
+          
+            n
+          
+        
+        (
+        x
+        )
+        =
+        1
+        +
+        x
+        +
+        
+          x
+          
+            2
+          
+        
+        +
+        ⋯
+        +
+        
+          x
+          
+            n
+            −
+            1
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          ∑
+          
+            k
+            =
+            0
+          
+          
+            n
+            −
+            1
+          
+        
+        
+          x
+          
+            k
+          
+        
+        .
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \Phi _{n}(x)=1+x+x^{2}+\cdots +x^{n-1}=\sum _{k=0}^{n-1}x^{k}.}
+  If n = 2p where p is an odd prime number, then
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          Φ
+          
+            2
+            p
+          
+        
+        (
+        x
+        )
+        =
+        1
+        −
+        x
+        +
+        
+          x
+          
+            2
+          
+        
+        −
+        ⋯
+        +
+        
+          x
+          
+            p
+            −
+            1
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          ∑
+          
+            k
+            =
+            0
+          
+          
+            p
+            −
+            1
+          
+        
+        (
+        −
+        x
+        
+          )
+          
+            k
+          
+        
+        .
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \Phi _{2p}(x)=1-x+x^{2}-\cdots +x^{p-1}=\sum _{k=0}^{p-1}(-x)^{k}.}
+  For n up to 30, the cyclotomic polynomials are:
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            
+              
+                
+                  Φ
+                  
+                    1
+                  
+                
+                (
+                x
+                )
+              
+              
+                
+                =
+                x
+                −
+                1
+              
+            
+            
+              
+                
+                  Φ
+                  
+                    2
+                  
+                
+                (
+                x
+                )
+              
+              
+                
+                =
+                x
+                +
+                1
+              
+            
+            
+              
+                
+                  Φ
+                  
+                    3
+                  
+                
+                (
+                x
+                )
+              
+              
+                
+                =
+                
+                  x
+                  
+                    2
+                  
+                
+                +
+                x
+                +
+                1
+              
+            
+            
+              
+                
+                  Φ
+                  
+                    4
+                  
+                
+                (
+                x
+                )
+              
+              
+                
+                =
+                
+                  x
+                  
+                    2
+                  
+                
+                +
+                1
+              
+            
+            
+              
+                
+                  Φ
+                  
+                    5
+                  
+                
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+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\Phi _{1}(x)&=x-1\\\Phi _{2}(x)&=x+1\\\Phi _{3}(x)&=x^{2}+x+1\\\Phi _{4}(x)&=x^{2}+1\\\Phi _{5}(x)&=x^{4}+x^{3}+x^{2}+x+1\\\Phi _{6}(x)&=x^{2}-x+1\\\Phi _{7}(x)&=x^{6}+x^{5}+x^{4}+x^{3}+x^{2}+x+1\\\Phi _{8}(x)&=x^{4}+1\\\Phi _{9}(x)&=x^{6}+x^{3}+1\\\Phi _{10}(x)&=x^{4}-x^{3}+x^{2}-x+1\\\Phi _{11}(x)&=x^{10}+x^{9}+x^{8}+x^{7}+x^{6}+x^{5}+x^{4}+x^{3}+x^{2}+x+1\\\Phi _{12}(x)&=x^{4}-x^{2}+1\\\Phi _{13}(x)&=x^{12}+x^{11}+x^{10}+x^{9}+x^{8}+x^{7}+x^{6}+x^{5}+x^{4}+x^{3}+x^{2}+x+1\\\Phi _{14}(x)&=x^{6}-x^{5}+x^{4}-x^{3}+x^{2}-x+1\\\Phi _{15}(x)&=x^{8}-x^{7}+x^{5}-x^{4}+x^{3}-x+1\\\Phi _{16}(x)&=x^{8}+1\\\Phi _{17}(x)&=x^{16}+x^{15}+x^{14}+x^{13}+x^{12}+x^{11}+x^{10}+x^{9}+x^{8}+x^{7}+x^{6}+x^{5}+x^{4}+x^{3}+x^{2}+x+1\\\Phi _{18}(x)&=x^{6}-x^{3}+1\\\Phi _{19}(x)&=x^{18}+x^{17}+x^{16}+x^{15}+x^{14}+x^{13}+x^{12}+x^{11}+x^{10}+x^{9}+x^{8}+x^{7}+x^{6}+x^{5}+x^{4}+x^{3}+x^{2}+x+1\\\Phi _{20}(x)&=x^{8}-x^{6}+x^{4}-x^{2}+1\\\Phi _{21}(x)&=x^{12}-x^{11}+x^{9}-x^{8}+x^{6}-x^{4}+x^{3}-x+1\\\Phi _{22}(x)&=x^{10}-x^{9}+x^{8}-x^{7}+x^{6}-x^{5}+x^{4}-x^{3}+x^{2}-x+1\\\Phi _{23}(x)&=x^{22}+x^{21}+x^{20}+x^{19}+x^{18}+x^{17}+x^{16}+x^{15}+x^{14}+x^{13}+x^{12}\\&\qquad \quad +x^{11}+x^{10}+x^{9}+x^{8}+x^{7}+x^{6}+x^{5}+x^{4}+x^{3}+x^{2}+x+1\\\Phi _{24}(x)&=x^{8}-x^{4}+1\\\Phi _{25}(x)&=x^{20}+x^{15}+x^{10}+x^{5}+1\\\Phi _{26}(x)&=x^{12}-x^{11}+x^{10}-x^{9}+x^{8}-x^{7}+x^{6}-x^{5}+x^{4}-x^{3}+x^{2}-x+1\\\Phi _{27}(x)&=x^{18}+x^{9}+1\\\Phi _{28}(x)&=x^{12}-x^{10}+x^{8}-x^{6}+x^{4}-x^{2}+1\\\Phi _{29}(x)&=x^{28}+x^{27}+x^{26}+x^{25}+x^{24}+x^{23}+x^{22}+x^{21}+x^{20}+x^{19}+x^{18}+x^{17}+x^{16}+x^{15}\\&\qquad \quad +x^{14}+x^{13}+x^{12}+x^{11}+x^{10}+x^{9}+x^{8}+x^{7}+x^{6}+x^{5}+x^{4}+x^{3}+x^{2}+x+1\\\Phi _{30}(x)&=x^{8}+x^{7}-x^{5}-x^{4}-x^{3}+x+1.\end{aligned}}}
+  The case of the 105th cyclotomic polynomial is interesting because 105 is the least positive integer that is the product of three distinct odd prime numbers (3*5*7) and this polynomial is the first one that has a coefficient other than 1, 0, or −1:
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            
+              
+                
+                  Φ
+                  
+                    105
+                  
+                
+                (
+                x
+                )
+              
+              
+                
+                =
+                
+                  x
+                  
+                    48
+                  
+                
+                +
+                
+                  x
+                  
+                    47
+                  
+                
+                +
+                
+                  x
+                  
+                    46
+                  
+                
+                −
+                
+                  x
+                  
+                    43
+                  
+                
+                −
+                
+                  x
+                  
+                    42
+                  
+                
+                −
+                2
+                
+                  x
+                  
+                    41
+                  
+                
+                −
+                
+                  x
+                  
+                    40
+                  
+                
+                −
+                
+                  x
+                  
+                    39
+                  
+                
+                +
+                
+                  x
+                  
+                    36
+                  
+                
+                +
+                
+                  x
+                  
+                    35
+                  
+                
+                +
+                
+                  x
+                  
+                    34
+                  
+                
+                +
+                
+                  x
+                  
+                    33
+                  
+                
+                +
+                
+                  x
+                  
+                    32
+                  
+                
+                +
+                
+                  x
+                  
+                    31
+                  
+                
+                −
+                
+                  x
+                  
+                    28
+                  
+                
+                −
+                
+                  x
+                  
+                    26
+                  
+                
+              
+            
+            
+              
+              
+                
+                
+                
+                −
+                
+                  x
+                  
+                    24
+                  
+                
+                −
+                
+                  x
+                  
+                    22
+                  
+                
+                −
+                
+                  x
+                  
+                    20
+                  
+                
+                +
+                
+                  x
+                  
+                    17
+                  
+                
+                +
+                
+                  x
+                  
+                    16
+                  
+                
+                +
+                
+                  x
+                  
+                    15
+                  
+                
+                +
+                
+                  x
+                  
+                    14
+                  
+                
+                +
+                
+                  x
+                  
+                    13
+                  
+                
+                +
+                
+                  x
+                  
+                    12
+                  
+                
+                −
+                
+                  x
+                  
+                    9
+                  
+                
+                −
+                
+                  x
+                  
+                    8
+                  
+                
+                −
+                2
+                
+                  x
+                  
+                    7
+                  
+                
+                −
+                
+                  x
+                  
+                    6
+                  
+                
+                −
+                
+                  x
+                  
+                    5
+                  
+                
+                +
+                
+                  x
+                  
+                    2
+                  
+                
+                +
+                x
+                +
+                1.
+              
+            
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\Phi _{105}(x)&=x^{48}+x^{47}+x^{46}-x^{43}-x^{42}-2x^{41}-x^{40}-x^{39}+x^{36}+x^{35}+x^{34}+x^{33}+x^{32}+x^{31}-x^{28}-x^{26}\\&\qquad \quad -x^{24}-x^{22}-x^{20}+x^{17}+x^{16}+x^{15}+x^{14}+x^{13}+x^{12}-x^{9}-x^{8}-2x^{7}-x^{6}-x^{5}+x^{2}+x+1.\end{aligned}}}
+
+Properties
+Fundamental tools
+The cyclotomic polynomials are monic polynomials with integer coefficients that are irreducible over the field of the rational numbers. Except for n equal to 1 or 2, they are palindromes of even degree.
+The degree of 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          Φ
+          
+            n
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \Phi _{n}}
+  , or in other words the number of nth primitive roots of unity, is 
+  
+    
+      
+        φ
+        (
+        n
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \varphi (n)}
+  , where 
+  
+    
+      
+        φ
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \varphi }
+   is Euler's totient function.
+The fact that 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          Φ
+          
+            n
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \Phi _{n}}
+   is an irreducible polynomial of degree 
+  
+    
+      
+        φ
+        (
+        n
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \varphi (n)}
+   in the ring 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          Z
+        
+        [
+        x
+        ]
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \mathbb {Z} [x]}
+   is a nontrivial result due to Gauss. Depending on the chosen definition, it is either the value of the degree or the irreducibility which is a nontrivial result.",171992,Cyclotomic polynomial,M
+240,"In the field of optics, transparency (also called pellucidity or diaphaneity) is the physical property of allowing light to pass through the material without appreciable scattering of light. On a macroscopic scale (one in which the dimensions are much larger than the wavelengths of the photons in question), the photons can be said to follow Snell's law. Translucency (also called translucence or translucidity) allows light to pass through, but does not necessarily (again, on the macroscopic scale) follow Snell's law; the photons can be scattered at either of the two interfaces, or internally, where there is a change in index of refraction. In other words, a translucent material is made up of components with different indices of refraction. A transparent material is made up of components with a uniform index of refraction.",351077,Transparency and translucency,E
+241,"Most of the terms listed in Wikipedia glossaries are already defined and explained within Wikipedia itself. However, glossaries like this one are useful for looking up, comparing and reviewing large numbers of terms together. You can help enhance this page by adding new terms or writing definitions for existing ones.
+This glossary of calculus is a list of definitions about calculus, its sub-disciplines, and related fields.
+
+A
+Abel's test
+A method of testing for the convergence of an infinite series.
+absolute convergence
+An infinite series of numbers is said to converge absolutely (or to be absolutely convergent) if the sum of the absolute values of the summands is finite. More precisely, a real or complex series 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            ∑
+            
+              n
+              =
+              0
+            
+            
+              ∞
+            
+          
+          
+            a
+            
+              n
+            
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \textstyle \sum _{n=0}^{\infty }a_{n}}
+   is said to converge absolutely if 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            ∑
+            
+              n
+              =
+              0
+            
+            
+              ∞
+            
+          
+          
+            |
+            
+              a
+              
+                n
+              
+            
+            |
+          
+          =
+          L
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \textstyle \sum _{n=0}^{\infty }\left|a_{n}\right|=L}
+   for some real number 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          L
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \textstyle L}
+  . Similarly, an improper integral of a function, 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            ∫
+            
+              0
+            
+            
+              ∞
+            
+          
+          f
+          (
+          x
+          )
+          
+          d
+          x
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \textstyle \int _{0}^{\infty }f(x)\,dx}
+  , is said to converge absolutely if the integral of the absolute value of the integrand is finite—that is, if 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            ∫
+            
+              0
+            
+            
+              ∞
+            
+          
+          
+            |
+            
+              f
+              (
+              x
+              )
+            
+            |
+          
+          d
+          x
+          =
+          L
+          .
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \textstyle \int _{0}^{\infty }\left|f(x)\right|dx=L.}
+  
+absolute maximum
+The highest value a function attains.
+absolute minimum
+The lowest value a function attains.
+absolute value
+The absolute value or modulus |x| of a real number x is the non-negative value of x without regard to its sign.",53252845,Glossary of calculus,M
+242,"Computing is any goal-oriented activity requiring, benefiting from, or creating computing machinery. It includes the study and experimentation of algorithmic processes, and development of both hardware and software. Computing has scientific, engineering, mathematical, technological and social aspects. Major computing disciplines include computer engineering, computer science, cybersecurity, data science, information systems, information technology, digital art and software engineering.The term computing is also synonymous with counting and calculating. In earlier times, it was used in reference to the action performed by mechanical computing machines, and before that, to human computers.
+
+History
+The history of computing is longer than the history of computing hardware and includes the history of methods intended for pen and paper (or for chalk and slate) with or without the aid of tables.",5213,Computing,T
+243,"The Association for Strengthening Agricultural Research in Eastern and Central Africa (ASARECA) is an organization aimed at advancing agricultural research and development in the Eastern and Central Africa region. Established in 1994, ASARECA brings together the National Agricultural Research Institutes from its ten member countries – Burundi, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Madagascar, Rwanda, Sudan, Tanzania, and Uganda.
+
+History and background
+ASARECA was established in order to support and improve the effectiveness of agricultural research in the Eastern and Central African region. The organization was created through cooperation among the national agricultural research institutes of the member countries to address shared agricultural concerns. ASARECA has been promoting research and innovation for sustainable agriculture since it was founded.
+
+Mission and objectives
+The main objective of ASARECA is to promote market-oriented agricultural research that boosts the region of Eastern and Central Africa's income creation, economic development, food security, and export competitiveness. To take advantage of size and scope economies, the organization attempts to strengthen regional cooperation in agricultural research.",73885268,Association for Strengthening Agricultural Research in Eastern and Central Africa,S
+244,"The Beijing Schmidt CCD Asteroid Program (SCAP) was an astronomical survey to search for near-Earth objects. It was conducted during the 1990s, at the Xinglong Station in Xinglong County, Chengde, Hebei province, China  and resulted in the discovery of more than a thousand numbered minor planets.Funded by the Chinese Academy of Science, the survey is sometimes also called BAO Schmidt CCD Asteroid Program and NAOC Schmidt CCD Asteroid Program, referring to the Beijing Astronomical Observatory (BAO) and National Astronomical Observatory of China (NAOC), respectively.The instrument that SCAP used to detect near-Earth objects was a 60/90 cm Schmidt telescope. Equipped with a 2048×2048 CCD camera, this telescope was installed at the BAO Xinglong station in Hebei province, China.In a conversation with Space.com contributor Michael Paine, SCAP head Jin Zhu said that the program's allotted time to use the Schmidt telescope was significantly reduced to make room for the observatory's other projects.
+
+Discoveries
+From 1995 to 1999, SCAP detected one new comet and 2460 new asteroids and observed 43860 other asteroids, making it the fifth largest asteroid observation project at that time. Five of the asteroids it discovered were NEAs, two of which were considered potentially hazardous asteroids (PHAs). In 2002, an NEA was discovered near Earth's moon.
+
+Notable objects
+List of discovered minor planets
+See also
+List of minor planet discoverers § Discovering dedicated institutions
+
+References
+External links
+WELCOME TO Xinglong Station of NAOC webpage for the station where SCAP was conducted.",774551,Beijing Schmidt CCD Asteroid Program,M
+245,"In mathematics, Diophantine geometry is the study of Diophantine equations by means of powerful methods in algebraic geometry. By the 20th century it became clear for some mathematicians that methods of algebraic geometry are ideal tools to study these equations. Diophantine geometry is part of the broader field of arithmetic geometry.
+Four theorems in Diophantine geometry which are of fundamental importance include:
+Mordell–Weil theorem
+Roth's theorem
+Siegel's theorem
+Faltings's theorem
+
+Background
+Serge Lang published a book Diophantine Geometry in the area in 1962, and by this book he coined the term ""Diophantine Geometry"". The traditional arrangement of material on Diophantine equations was by degree and number of variables, as in Mordell's Diophantine Equations (1969). Mordell's book starts with a remark on homogeneous equations f = 0 over the rational field, attributed to C.",502205,Diophantine geometry,M
+246,"Allometric engineering is the process of experimentally shifting the scaling relationships, for body size or shape, in a population of organisms. More specifically, the process of experimentally breaking the tight covariance evident among component traits of a complex phenotype by altering the variance of one trait relative to another. Typically, body size is one of the two traits. The measurements of the two traits are plotted against each other and the scaling relationship can be represented as: 
+  
+    
+      
+        l
+        o
+        g
+        (
+        y
+        )
+        =
+        m
+        l
+        o
+        g
+        (
+        x
+        )
+        +
+        l
+        o
+        g
+        (
+        b
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle log(y)=mlog(x)+log(b)}
+  . Manipulations of this sort alter the scaling relationships either by shifting the intercept (b), slope (m) or both to create novel variants (see: Allometry, for more details).",30906179,Allometric engineering,S
+247,"Pregnancy over the age of 50 has, over recent years, become possible for more women, and more easily achieved for many, due to recent advances in assisted reproductive technology, in particular egg donation. Typically, a woman's fecundity ends with menopause, which, by definition, is 12 consecutive months without having had any menstrual flow at all. During perimenopause, the menstrual cycle and the periods become irregular and eventually stop altogether, but even when periods are still regular, the egg quality of women in their forties is lower than in younger women, making the likelihood of conceiving a healthy baby also reduced, particularly after age 42. The female biological clock can vary greatly from woman to woman. A woman's individual level of fertility can be tested through a variety of methods.In the United States, between 1997 and 1999, 539 births were reported among mothers over age 50 (four per 100,000 births), with 194 being over 55.The oldest recorded mother to date to conceive was 73 years.",1151454,Pregnancy over age 50,S
+248,"Algebraic geometry is a branch of mathematics which classically studies zeros of multivariate polynomials. Modern algebraic geometry is based on the use of abstract algebraic techniques, mainly from commutative algebra, for solving geometrical problems about these sets of zeros.
+The fundamental objects of study in algebraic geometry are algebraic varieties, which are geometric manifestations of solutions of systems of polynomial equations. Examples of the most studied classes of algebraic varieties are lines, circles, parabolas, ellipses, hyperbolas, cubic curves like elliptic curves, and quartic curves like lemniscates and Cassini ovals. These are plane algebraic curves. A point of the plane lies on an algebraic curve if its coordinates satisfy a given polynomial equation.",1997,Algebraic geometry,M
+249,"The genotype of an organism is its complete set of genetic material. Genotype can also be used to refer to the alleles or variants an individual carries in a particular gene or genetic location. The number of alleles an individual can have in a specific gene depends on the number of copies of each chromosome found in that species, also referred to as ploidy. In diploid species like humans, two full sets of chromosomes are present, meaning each individual has two alleles for any given gene. If both alleles are the same, the genotype is referred to as homozygous.",12796,Genotype,S
+250,"Agronomy is the science and technology of producing and using plants by agriculture for food, fuel, fiber, chemicals, recreation, or land conservation. Agronomy has come to include research of plant genetics, plant physiology, meteorology, and soil science. It is the application of a combination of sciences such as biology, chemistry, economics, ecology, earth science, and genetics. Professionals of agronomy are termed agronomists.
+
+History
+Plant breeding
+This topic of agronomy involves selective breeding of plants to produce the best crops for various conditions. Plant breeding has increased crop yields and has improved the nutritional value of numerous crops, including corn, soybeans, and wheat.",186725,Agronomy,S
+251,"Bioconvergence is a multidisciplinary method in life science. It uses the synergy between biotech, engineering and computerized systems to address unresolved challenges, like speeding up diagnostic processes, creating more advanced materials, or advancing drug development. 
+Along with healthcare, bioconvergence assists in the improvement of various sectors such as agriculture, energy, food, security, climate, etc. McKinsey research predicts that more than half of the impact of bioconvergence will be outside of healthcare, in areas such as agriculture, aquaculture and food, consumer products and services (such as DNA and microbiome testing), novel materials, chemistry and energy. According to McKinsey, bioconvergence solutions currently being developed could have an economic impact of up to US$4 trillion per year over the next 10 to 20 years.
+
+Implications
+Bioconvergence uses methods from disciplines such as biology, chemistry, physics, engineering, medicine, mathematics, agriculture, computational sciences and artificial intelligence (AI), in order to solve challenges across several sectors.
+
+Healthcare
+Bioconvergence technologies in healthcare include translational medicine, enabling the extraction of hidden insights from massive data sets; neuromorphic computing, who seeks to emulate the biological neural structure of the brain to achieve unparalleled levels of processing performance and energy efficiency; creation of digital twins for clinical trials; and biochips such as organ on a chip"" (OOC).",72797009,Bioconvergence,E
+252,"Geoprofessions is a term coined by the Geoprofessional Business Association to connote various technical disciplines that involve engineering, earth and environmental services applied to below-ground (""subsurface""), ground-surface, and ground-surface-connected conditions, structures, or formations. The principal disciplines include, as major categories:
+
+geomatics engineering
+geotechnical engineering;
+geology and engineering geology;
+geological engineering;
+geophysics;
+geophysical engineering;
+environmental science and environmental engineering;
+construction-materials engineering and testing; and
+other geoprofessional services.Each discipline involves specialties, many of which are recognized through professional designations that governments and societies or associations confer based upon a person's education, training, experience, and educational accomplishments. In the United States, engineers must be licensed in the state or territory where they practice engineering. Most states license geologists and several license environmental ""site professionals."" Several states license engineering geologists and recognize geotechnical engineering through a geotechnical-engineering titling act.
+
+Geotechnical-engineering specialties
+Although geotechnical engineering is applied for a variety of purposes, it is essential to foundation design. As such, geotechnical engineering is applicable to every existing or new structure on the planet; every building and every highway, bridge, tunnel, harbor, airport, water line, reservoir, or other public work.",31071816,Geoprofessions,M
+253,"Interchangeable parts are parts (components) that are identical for practical purposes. They are made to specifications that ensure that they are so nearly identical that they will fit into any assembly of the same type. One such part can freely replace another, without any custom fitting, such as filing. This interchangeability allows easy assembly of new devices, and easier repair of existing devices, while minimizing both the time and skill required of the person doing the assembly or repair.
+The concept of interchangeability was crucial to the introduction of the assembly line at the beginning of the 20th century, and has become an important element of some modern manufacturing but is missing from other important industries.
+Interchangeability of parts was achieved by combining a number of innovations and improvements in machining operations and the invention of several machine tools, such as the slide rest lathe, screw-cutting lathe, turret lathe, milling machine and metal planer.  Additional innovations included jigs for guiding the machine tools, fixtures for holding the workpiece in the proper position, and blocks and gauges to check the accuracy of the finished parts.",908518,Interchangeable parts,E
+254,"The Nitro Nobel Gold Medal is an explosives industry award given by the Nitro Nobel Company of Sweden (now part of Dyno Nobel).The medal is gold, and features the same obverse as the Nobel Prize, but a different reverse. The medal has sometimes been confused with the Nobel Prize.
+The award has only been given three times since its creation in 1967. The recipients are:
+
+1967 — Dr. Robert W. Van Dolah, for the development of a theory he developed to explain the accidental initiation of liquid explosives
+1968 — Dr.",9162240,Nitro Nobel Gold Medal,E
+255,"Tidal heating (also known as tidal working or tidal flexing) occurs through the tidal friction processes: orbital and rotational energy is dissipated as heat in either (or both) the surface ocean or interior of a planet or satellite. When an object is in an elliptical orbit, the tidal forces acting on it are stronger near periapsis than near apoapsis. Thus the deformation of the body due to tidal forces (i.e. the tidal bulge) varies over the course of its orbit, generating internal friction which heats its interior. This energy gained by the object comes from its orbital energy and/or rotational energy, so over time in a two-body system, the initial elliptical orbit decays into a circular orbit (tidal circularization) and the rotational periods of the two bodies adjust towards matching the orbital period (tidal locking).",5903656,Tidal heating,M
+256,"Business and technology alignment, or just technology alignment, corrects terminology and assumptions used in business to better match those of technology and standards anticipated in the technology strategy and technology roadmaps.
+
+Changes terminology
+When technology is changing very rapidly in an industry, the aligning of business terms to the distinctions that the technology requires tends to dominate any enterprise taxonomy development effort. In such circumstances, consultants or specific technology training is usually required, as the organization lacks the internal skills or experience with the technologies that it expects to be using soon.
+
+Example: government
+In government, for example, citizen use of the Internet and the increased availability of remote work has presented special challenges and opportunities, typically called ""e-government"". At the same time, internal operational efficiencies have become more of a priority due to rising competition between jurisdictions. Often the first step is to limit the number of different departments or agencies involved. By ""consolidating the technology operations of 91 state agencies into the Virginia Information Technology Agency, the State of Virginia estimates an eventual savings of nearly $100 million a year."" - [1] 
+""Similarly, the U.S.",2028016,Technology alignment,T
+257,"Motor Industry Software Reliability Association (MISRA) is an organization that produces guidelines for the software developed for electronic components used in the automotive industry. It is a collaboration between vehicle manufacturers, component suppliers and engineering consultancies.  In 2021, the loose consortium restructured as The MISRA Consortium Limited.
+
+Aim
+The aim of this organization is to provide important advice to the automotive industry for the creation and application of safe, reliable software within vehicles. The safety requirements of the software used in Automobiles is different from that of other areas such as healthcare, industrial automation, aerospace etc. The mission statement of MISRA is ""To provide assistance to the automotive industry in the application and creation within vehicle systems of safe and reliable software"".
+
+Formation
+MISRA was formed by a consortium of organizations formed in response to the UK Safety Critical Systems Research Programme.",22799050,Motor Industry Software Reliability Association,T
+258,"Mathematics is a field of study that investigates topics such as number, space, structure, and change.
+
+Philosophy
+Nature
+Definitions of mathematics – Mathematics has no generally accepted definition. Different schools of thought, particularly in philosophy, have put forth radically different definitions, all of which are controversial.
+Language of mathematics is the system used by mathematicians to communicate mathematical ideas among themselves, and is distinct from natural languages in that it aims to communicate abstract, logical ideas with precision and unambiguity.
+Philosophy of mathematics – its aim is to provide an account of the nature and methodology of mathematics and to understand the place of mathematics in people's lives.Classical mathematics refers generally to the mainstream approach to mathematics, which is based on classical logic and ZFC set theory.
+Constructive mathematics asserts that it is necessary to find (or ""construct"") a mathematical object to prove that it exists. In classical mathematics, one can prove the existence of a mathematical object without ""finding"" that object explicitly, by assuming its non-existence and then deriving a contradiction from that assumption.
+Predicative mathematics
+
+Mathematics is
+An academic discipline – branch of knowledge that is taught at all levels of education and researched typically at the college or university level. Disciplines are defined (in part), and recognized by the academic journals in which research is published, and the learned societies and academic departments or faculties to which their practitioners belong.
+A formal science – branch of knowledge concerned with the properties of formal systems based on definitions and rules of inference. Unlike other sciences, the formal sciences are not concerned with the validity of theories based on observations in the physical world.
+
+Concepts
+Mathematical object — an abstract concept in mathematics; an object is anything that has been (or could be) formally defined, and with which one may do deductive reasoning and mathematical proofs.",33543938,Outline of mathematics,M
+259,"Mazzaella is an extinct genus of Late Triassic ozarkodinid conodonts in the family Gondolellidae. They are found in mid-Julian sediments of the Tethys Ocean, including strata in Europe (Germany, Hungary, Italy) and Turkey.
+The type species of Mazzaella, Mazzaella carnica, was originally designated as Epigondolella carnica Krystyn (1975). It has been used as an index fossil, defining the middle of three Julian conodont biozones according to a 2018 update to Tethyan conodont biostratigraphy. The genus also includes a rarer species, Mazzaella baloghi, originally Metapolygnathus baloghi Kovacs (1977).Mazzaella appears to be a descendant of Metapolygnathus (Quadralella) auriformis. Relative to Metapolygnathus, Mazzaella has a moderately elongated free blade and strong platform nodes.",50803620,Mazzaella (conodont),S
+260,"Folate targeting is a method utilized in biotechnology for drug delivery purposes.  This Trojan Horse process, which was created by Drs. Christopher P. Leamon and Philip S. Low, involves the attachment of the vitamin, folate (folic acid), to a molecule/drug to form a ""folate conjugate"".",24801892,Folate targeting,S
+261,"An optical comparator (often called just a comparator in context) or profile projector is a device that applies the principles of optics to the inspection of manufactured parts. In a comparator, the magnified silhouette of a part is projected upon the screen, and the dimensions and geometry of the part are measured against prescribed limits. It is a useful item in a small parts machine shop or production line for the quality control inspection team. 
+The measuring happens in any of several ways. The simplest way is that graduations on the screen, being superimposed over the silhouette, allow the viewer to measure, as if a clear ruler were laid over the image.",15939976,Optical comparator,E
+262,"In mathematics, the system of hyperreal numbers is a way of treating infinite and infinitesimal (infinitely small but non-zero) quantities.  The hyperreals, or nonstandard reals, *R, are an extension of the real numbers R that contains numbers greater than anything of the form
+
+  
+    
+      
+        1
+        +
+        1
+        +
+        ⋯
+        +
+        1
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle 1+1+\cdots +1}
+   (for any finite number of terms).Such numbers are infinite, and their reciprocals are infinitesimals.  The term ""hyper-real"" was introduced by Edwin Hewitt in 1948.The hyperreal numbers satisfy the transfer principle, a rigorous version of Leibniz's heuristic law of continuity.  The transfer principle states that true first-order statements about R are also valid in *R. For example, the commutative law of addition, x + y = y + x, holds for the hyperreals just as it does for the reals; since R is a real closed field, so is *R.",51429,Hyperreal number,M
+263,"Bioresource engineering is similar to biological engineering, except that it is based on biological and/or agricultural feedstocks. Bioresource engineering is more general and encompasses a wider range of technologies and various elements such as biomass, biological waste treatment, bioenergy, biotransformations, bioresource systems analysis, bioremediation and technologies associated with Thermochemical conversion technologies such as combustion, pyrolysis, gasification, catalysis, etc.
+Bioresource engineering also contains biochemical conversion technologies such as aerobic methods, anaerobic digestion, microbial growth processes, enzymatic methods, and composting.  Products include fibre, fuels, feedstocks, fertilisers, building materials, polymers and other industrial products, and management products e.g. modelling, systems analysis, decisions, and support systems. 
+Bioresource engineering is a discipline that is usually very similar to environmental engineering.
+The impact of urbanization and increasing demand for food, water and land presents bioresource engineers with the task of bridging the gap between the biological world and traditional engineering.",24697657,Bioresource engineering,E
+264,"Geomatics is defined in the ISO/TC 211 series of standards as the ""discipline concerned with the collection, distribution, storage, analysis, processing, presentation of geographic data or geographic information"". Under another definition, it consists of products, services and tools involved in the collection, integration and management of geographic (geospatial) data. It is also known as geomatic(s) engineering (geodesy and geoinformatics engineering or geospatial engineering). Surveying engineering was the widely used name for geomatic(s) engineering in the past.
+
+History and etymology
+The term was proposed in French (""géomatique"") at the end of the 1960s by scientist Bernard Dubuisson to reflect at the time recent changes in the jobs of surveyor and photogrammetrist. The term was first employed in a French Ministry of Public Works memorandum dated 1 June 1971 instituting a ""standing committee of geomatics"" in the government.The term was popularised in English by French-Canadian surveyor Michel Paradis in his The little Geodesist that could article, in 1981 and in a keynote address at the centennial congress of the Canadian Institute of Surveying (now known as the Canadian Institute of Geomatics) in April 1982.",1021524,Geomatics,E
+265,"The Michigan Life Sciences Corridor (MLSC) is a $1 billion biotechnology initiative in the U.S. state of Michigan. 
+The MLSC invests in biotech research at four Michigan institutions: the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor; Michigan State University in East Lansing; Wayne State University in Detroit; and the Van Andel Institute in Grand Rapids. 
+The Michigan Economic Development Corporation administers the program.  It began in 1999 with money from the state's settlement with the tobacco industry.",3693303,Michigan Life Sciences Corridor,S
+266,"Chemistry and physics are branches of science that both study matter. The difference between the two lies in their scope and approach. Chemists and physicists are trained differently, and they have different professional roles, even when working in a team. The division between chemistry and physics becomes diffused at the interface of the two branches, notably in fields such as physical chemistry, chemical physics, quantum mechanics, nuclear physics/chemistry, materials science, spectroscopy, solid state physics, solid-state chemistry, crystallography, and nanotechnology.
+
+Scope
+Physics and chemistry may overlap when the system under study involves matter composed of electrons and nuclei made of protons and neutrons. On the other hand, chemistry is not usually concerned with other forms of matter such as quarks, mu and tau leptons and dark matter.
+Although fundamental laws that govern the behaviour of matter apply to both in chemistry and physics, the disciplines of physics and chemistry are distinct in focus:
+Physics is concerned with nature from a huge scale (the entire universe) down to a very small scale (subatomic particles).",33615960,Comparison of chemistry and physics,M
+267,"Oncomatryx Biopharma S. L. is a pharmaceutical biotechnology company that develops personalized treatments against invasive cancer as well as tests for its early detection. Established by Laureano Simón, PhD, Oncomatryx thus engages twofold in the fight against invasive kinds of cancer, such as pancreatic cancer or invasive breast cancer, all of which have high mortality rates.
+Oncomatryx's research focuses on peritumoral stroma, which has been found to take part in promoting cancer invasiveness and curtailing treatment efficacy.
+
+Laureano Simón
+Laureano Simón began his business career in 2000 with the creation of Progenika Biopharma S.A., a personalized medicine company which was acquired by Grifols in February 2013.Dr. Simón holds a Ph.D.",41756826,Oncomatryx,S
+268,"A safety valve is a valve that acts as a fail-safe. An example of safety valve is a pressure relief valve (PRV), which automatically releases a substance from a boiler, pressure vessel, or other system, when the pressure or temperature exceeds preset limits. Pilot-operated relief valves are a specialized type of pressure safety valve. A leak tight, lower cost, single emergency use option would be a rupture disk.
+Safety valves were first developed for use on steam boilers during the Industrial Revolution. Early boilers operating without them were prone to explosion unless carefully operated.
+Vacuum safety valves (or combined pressure/vacuum safety valves) are used to prevent a tank from collapsing while it is being emptied, or when cold rinse water is used after hot CIP (clean-in-place) or SIP (sterilization-in-place) procedures.",304612,Safety valve,E
+269,"Naval architecture, or naval engineering, is an engineering discipline incorporating elements of mechanical, electrical, electronic, software and safety engineering as applied to the engineering design process, shipbuilding, maintenance, and operation of marine vessels and structures. Naval architecture involves basic and applied research, design, development, design evaluation (classification) and calculations during all stages of the life of a marine vehicle. Preliminary design of the vessel, its detailed design, construction, trials, operation and maintenance, launching and dry-docking are the main activities involved. Ship design calculations are also required for ships being modified (by means of conversion, rebuilding, modernization, or repair). Naval architecture also involves formulation of safety regulations and damage-control rules and the approval and certification of ship designs to meet statutory and non-statutory requirements.
+
+Main subjects
+The word ""vessel"" includes every description of watercraft, mainly ships and boats, but also including non-displacement craft, WIG craft and seaplanes, used or capable of being used as a means of transportation on water.",76653,Naval architecture,E
+270,"A vacuum truck, vacuum tanker, vactor truck, vactor, vac-con truck, vac-con is a tank truck that has a pump and a tank. The pump is designed to pneumatically suck liquids, sludges, slurries, or  the like from a location (often underground) into the tank of the truck. The objective is to enable transport of the liquid material via road to another location. Vacuum trucks transport the collected material to a treatment or disposal site, for example a sewage treatment plant.
+A common material to be transported is septage (or more broadly: fecal sludge) which is human excreta mixed with water, e.g. from septic tanks and pit latrines.",23853763,Vacuum truck,E
+271,"Adobe Shockwave (formerly Macromedia Shockwave and MacroMind Shockwave) is a discontinued multimedia platform for building interactive multimedia applications and video games. Developers originate content using Adobe Director and publish it on the Internet. Such content could be viewed in a web browser on any computer with the Shockwave Player plug-in installed. MacroMind originated the technology; Macromedia acquired MacroMind and developed it further, releasing Shockwave Player in 1995. Adobe then acquired Shockwave with Macromedia in 2005.",907976,Adobe Shockwave,T
+272,"Fabre's Book of Insects is a non-fiction book that is a retelling of Alexander Teixeira de Mattos' translation of Jean-Henri Fabre's Souvenirs entomologiques. It was retold by Mrs. Rodolph Stawell and illustrated by Edward Detmold. It talks about insects in real life, mythology and folklore.
+
+Reception
+A Times Higher Education review says, ""It was Fabre's Book of Insects, extracts from that extraordinary man's Souvenirs entomologiques, ""retold"" – and with an exemplary clarity and simplicity which made me feel enlisted and embraced but never patronised – by a Mrs Rudolph Stawell. Years later I read the full Souvenirs themselves and wondered why I had not done so long before, as soon as I could read French.",21026476,Fabre's Book of Insects,S
+273,"Sociotechnical systems (STS) in organizational development is an approach to complex organizational work design that recognizes the interaction between people and technology in workplaces. The term also refers to coherent systems of human relations, technical objects, and cybernetic processes that inhere to large, complex infrastructures. Social society, and its constituent substructures, qualify as complex sociotechnical systems.The term sociotechnical systems was coined by Eric Trist, Ken Bamforth and Fred Emery, in the World War II era, based on their work with workers in English coal mines at the Tavistock Institute in London. Sociotechnical systems pertains to theory regarding the social aspects of people and society and technical aspects of organizational structure and processes. Here, technical does not necessarily imply material technology.",231202,Sociotechnical system,T
+274,"In business, diffusion is the process by which a new idea or new product is accepted by the market. The rate of diffusion is the speed with which the new idea spreads from one consumer to the next. Adoption is the reciprocal process as viewed from a consumer perspective rather than distributor; it is similar to diffusion except that it deals with the psychological processes an individual goes through, rather than an aggregate market process.
+
+Theories
+There are several theories that purport to explain the mechanics of diffusion:
+
+The two-step hypothesis – information and acceptance flows, via the media, first to opinion leaders, then to the general population
+The trickle-down effect – products tend to be expensive at first, and therefore only accessible to the wealthy social strata – in time they become less expensive and are diffused to lower and lower strata.
+The Everett Rogers Diffusion of innovations theory – for any new idea, concept, product or method, there are five categories of adopters:
+Innovators – venturesome, educated, multiple info sources;
+Early adopters – social leaders, popular, educated;
+Early majority – deliberate, many informal social contacts;
+Late majority – skeptical, traditional, lower socio-economic status;
+Laggards – neighbors and friends are main info sources, fear of debt.
+The Chasm model developed by Lee James and Warren Schirtzinger - Originally named The Marketing Chasm, this model overlays Everett Rogers' adoption curve with a gap between early adopters and the early majority. Chasm theory is only applicable to discontinuous innovations, which are those that impose a change of behavior, new learning, or a new process on the buyer or end user. And the pre-requisite for a chasm or gap to exist in the adoption lifecycle is the innovation must be discontinuous.
+Technology driven models – These are particularly relevant to software diffusion.",242495,Diffusion (business),T
+275,"Human nutrition deals with the provision of essential nutrients in food that are necessary to support human life and good health. Poor nutrition is a chronic problem often linked to poverty, food security, or a poor understanding of nutritional requirements. Malnutrition and its consequences are large contributors to deaths, physical deformities, and disabilities worldwide. Good nutrition is necessary for children to grow physically and mentally, and for normal human biological development.
+
+Overview
+The human body contains chemical compounds such as water, carbohydrates, amino acids (found in proteins), fatty acids (found in lipids), and nucleic acids (DNA and RNA). These compounds are composed of elements such as carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and phosphorus.",93827,Human nutrition,S
+276,"In space exploration, in situ resource utilization (ISRU) is the practice of collection, processing, storing and use of materials found or manufactured on other astronomical objects (the Moon, Mars, asteroids, etc.) that replace materials that would otherwise be brought from Earth.ISRU could provide materials for life support, propellants, construction materials, and energy to a spacecraft payloads or space exploration crews. It is now very common for spacecraft and robotic planetary surface mission to harness the solar radiation found in situ in the form of solar panels. The use of ISRU for material production has not yet been implemented in a space mission, though several field tests in the late 2000s demonstrated various lunar ISRU techniques in a relevant environment.ISRU has long been considered as a possible avenue for reducing the mass and cost of space exploration architectures, in that it may be a way to drastically reduce the amount of payload that must be launched from Earth in order to explore a given planetary body. According to NASA, ""in-situ resource utilization will enable the affordable establishment of extraterrestrial exploration and operations by minimizing the materials carried from Earth.""
+
+Uses
+Water
+In the context of ISRU water is most often sought directly as fuel or as feedstock for fuel production. Applications include its use in life support either directly by drinking, for growing food, producing oxygen, or numerous other industrial processes, all of which require a ready supply of water in the environment and the equipment to extract it.",5333892,In situ resource utilization,E
+277,"Tony Tony Chopper (トニートニー・チョッパー, Tonī Tonī Choppā), otherwise known as “Cotton Candy Lover”, is a fictional character in the manga series One Piece created by Eiichiro Oda. He is the sixth member to join and the doctor of the Straw Hat Pirates. Chopper is frequently featured on official merchandise, serving as a mascot for the series.
+The power of the Zoan-type Human-Human Fruit (ヒトヒトの実, Hito Hito no Mi) provides him with the ability to transform into a full-sized reindeer or a reindeer-human hybrid.[ch. 140] A drug he calls ""Rumble Ball"" (ランブル・ボール, Ranburu Bōru) enables him to perform even more transformations for a short time.[ch. 149][ch.",642391,Tony Tony Chopper,M
+278,"Hydrogenated starch hydrolysates (HSHs), also known as polyglycitol syrup (INS 964),  are mixtures of several sugar alcohols (a type of sugar substitute). Hydrogenated starch hydrolysates were developed by the Swedish company Lyckeby Starch in the 1960s. The HSH family of polyols is an approved food ingredient in Canada, Japan, and Australia. HSH sweeteners provide 40 to 90% sweetness relative to table sugar. 
+Hydrogenated starch hydrolysates are produced by the partial hydrolysis of starch – most often corn starch, but also potato starch or wheat starch.",11548654,Hydrogenated starch hydrolysates,M
+279,"An early adopter or lighthouse customer is an early customer of a given company, product, or technology. The term originates from Everett M. Rogers' Diffusion of Innovations (1962).
+
+History
+Typically, early adopters are customers who, in addition to using the vendor's product or technology, also provide considerable and candid feedback to help the vendor refine its future product releases, as well as the associated means of distribution, service, and support. Early adoption could also be referred to as a form of testing in the early stages of a project. 
+
+The relationship is synergistic.",900498,Early adopter,T
+280,"A flat-panel display (FPD) is an electronic display used to display visual content such as text or images. It is present in consumer, medical, transportation, and industrial equipment.
+Flat-panel displays are thin, lightweight, provide better linearity and are capable of higher resolution than typical consumer-grade TVs from earlier eras. They are usually less than 10 centimetres (3.9 in) thick. While the highest resolution for consumer-grade CRT televisions was 1080i, many flat-panel displays in the 2020s are capable of 1080p and 4K resolution.
+In the 2010s, portable consumer electronics such as laptops, mobile phones, and portable cameras have used flat-panel displays since they consume less power and are lightweight. As of 2016, flat-panel displays have almost completely replaced CRT displays.
+Most 2010s-era flat-panel displays use LCD or light-emitting diode (LED) technologies, sometimes combined.",293396,Flat-panel display,E
+281,"Lean software development is a translation of lean manufacturing principles and practices to the software development domain. Adapted from the Toyota Production System, it is emerging with the support of a pro-lean subculture within the agile community. Lean offers a solid conceptual framework, values and principles, as well as good practices, derived from experience, that support agile organizations.
+
+Origin
+The expression ""lean software development"" originated in a book by the same name, written by Mary Poppendieck and Tom Poppendieck in 2003. The book restates traditional lean principles, as well as a set of 22 tools and compares the tools to corresponding agile practices. The Poppendiecks' involvement in the agile software development community, including talks at several Agile conferences  has resulted in such concepts being more widely accepted within the agile community.
+
+Lean principles
+Lean development can be summarized by seven principles, very close in concept to lean manufacturing principles:
+Eliminate waste
+Amplify learning
+Decide as late as possible
+Deliver as fast as possible
+Empower the team
+Build integrity in
+Optimize the whole
+
+Eliminate waste
+Lean philosophy regards everything not adding value to the customer as waste (muda).",1902163,Lean software development,E
+282,"Parabiosis is a laboratory technique used in physiological research, derived from the Greek word meaning ""living beside."" The technique involves the surgical joining of two living organisms in such a way that they develop a single, shared physiological system. Through this unique approach, researchers can study the exchange of blood, hormones, and other substances between the two organisms, allowing for the examination of a wide range of physiological phenomena and interactions. Parabiosis has been employed in various fields of study, including stem cell research, endocrinology, aging research, and immunology.
+
+Physiology
+Parabiotic experiments
+Parabiosis combines two living organisms which are joined surgically and develop single, shared physiological systems. Researchers can prove that the feedback system in one animal is circulated and affects the second animal via blood and plasma exchange.
+Parabiotic experiments were pioneered by Paul Bert in the mid-1800s. He postulated that surgically connected animals could share a circulatory system.",26305461,Parabiosis,S
+283,"Francine ""Francie"" Calfo is a fictional character on the television series Alias, portrayed by Merrin Dungey from 2001–03 and again in 2006. Initially the best friend of lead character Sydney Bristow (Jennifer Garner), Francie is murdered by a lookalike assassin named Allison Doren, who assumes her identity.
+
+Character overview
+As the series begins in the 2001 pilot episode ""Truth Be Told"", Francie is Sydney Bristow's best friend and roommate. Sydney is a covert agent for a black ops division of the CIA called SD-6, a fact she struggles to hide from her friends. Francie acts as an occasional sounding board and confidante for some of Sydney's personal issues, and eventually decides to open a restaurant. Francie and her friend Will Tippin realize their attraction to each other, and decide to start a relationship.
+Sydney, having learned that SD-6 is not a sanctioned CIA division but is in fact a covert cell of a transnational organized crime syndicate, manages to destroy the entire organization in the Season 2 episode ""Phase One"" (2003).",558045,Francie Calfo,E
+284,"Cerebellar peduncles connect the cerebellum to the brain stem. There are six cerebellar peduncles in total, three on each side:
+
+Superior cerebellar peduncle is a paired structure of white matter that connects the cerebellum to the mid-brain.
+Middle cerebellar peduncles connect the cerebellum to the pons and are composed entirely of centripetal fibers.
+Inferior cerebellar peduncle is a thick rope-like strand that occupies the upper part of the posterior district of the medulla oblongata.The peduncles form the lateral border of the fourth ventricle, and form a distinctive diamond –  the middle peduncle forming the central corners of the diamond, while the superior and inferior peduncles form the superior and inferior edges, respectively.
+
+Structural origin
+The superior cerebellar peduncles (brachia conjunctiva) emerge from the cerebellum and ascend to form the lateral portion of the roof of the fourth ventricle, where they enter the brainstem below the inferior colliculi. They are bridged by the superior medullary velum. The superior cerebellar peduncles represent the main output route from the cerebellum, and as such, most of their fibers are efferent. A relatively small afferent contribution is present.",4649152,Cerebellar peduncle,S
+285,"This article contains a list of the most studied restriction enzymes whose names start with G to K inclusive.  It contains approximately 90 enzymes.
+The following information is given:
+
+Enzyme: Accepted name of the molecule, according to the internationally adopted nomenclature, and bibliographical references. (Further reading: see the section ""Nomenclature"" in the article ""Restriction enzyme"".)
+PDB code: Code used to identify the structure of a protein in the PDB database of protein structures. The 3D atomic structure of a protein provides highly valuable information to understand the intimate details of its mechanism of action.
+Source: Organism that naturally produces the enzyme.
+Recognition sequence: Sequence of DNA recognized by the enzyme and to which it specifically binds.
+Cut: Cutting site and DNA products of the cut. The recognition sequence and the cutting site usually match, but sometimes the cutting site can be dozens of nucleotides away from the recognition site.
+Isoschizomers and neoschizomers: An isoschizomer is an enzyme that recognizes the same sequence as another.",27459241,List of restriction enzyme cutting sites: G–K,S
+286,"East China University of Science and Technology (ECUST, simplified Chinese: 华东理工大学; traditional Chinese: 華東理工大學; pinyin: Huádōng Lǐgōng Dàxué) is a public research university with two campuses located in Shanghai, China. Established in 1952 as East China Institute of Chemical Technology, it has evolved from an institution with a strong focus on chemical engineering into a comprehensive university that covers a wide range of academic disciplines.It is a National Key University of China constructed by the Double First Class University Plan and the former Project 211. 
+ECUST is ranked between the top 301-400 among world universities according to ARWU 2021.
+
+History
+Founded in 1952 with chemistry faculty inherited from Jiaotong University, AuroraUniversity, Utopia University, Soochou University and Jiangnan University.
+
+Xuhui Campus
+The main campus is located on Meilong Road in Xuhui District, in the southwest of downtown Shanghai and 17 kilometers from Hongqiao Airport, with an area of approximately 415,000 m2 and 21 dorms capable of accommodating 15,000 students. Most of the departments are easily reached from the Front Gate, behind which Pandeng Road directly leads to the Main Building. Out of the built-up space, classrooms take up 56,000 m2 and laboratories 118,000 m2.",919364,East China University of Science and Technology,T
+287,"Hydrophosphination is the insertion of a carbon-carbon multiple bond into a phosphorus-hydrogen bond forming a new phosphorus-carbon bond.  Like other hydrofunctionalizations, the rate and regiochemistry of the insertion reaction is influenced by the catalyst.  Catalysts take many forms, but most prevalent are bases and free-radical initiators.  Most hydrophosphinations involve reactions of phosphine (PH3).
+
+Acid-base routes
+The usual application of hydrophosphination involves reactions of phosphine (PH3).  Typically base-catalysis allows addition of Michael acceptors such as acrylonitrile to give tris(cyanoethyl)phosphine:
+PH3  +  3 CH2=CHZ  →  P(CH2CH2Z)3 (Z = NO2, CN, C(O)NH2)Acid catalysis is applicable to hydrophosphination with alkenes that form stable carbocations.",43807943,Hydrophosphination,E
+288,"Oil Mines Regulations-1984(OMR 1984) replaces the Oil Mines Regulations-1933, with effect from October 1984 to deal with matters for the prevention of possible dangers in oil mines in India.
+OMR 1984 was Published in 1986 by Directorate General of Mines Safety, Ministry of Labour in Dhanbad, Jharkhand.
+
+Salient Features
+Chapter-1 PriliminaryShort Title; Extent; Application and; Definitions. (Reg 1–2)
+
+Chapter-IIReturns, Notices and Plans. (Reg 3–9) 
+
+Chapter-III : Inspectors, Management and DutiesQualifications; Appointment; General Management and; Duties of Pe
+ns Employed in Mines for various functions. (Reg 10–23) 
+
+Chapter-IV : Drilling and WorkoverReg 24- Derricks; 25- Derrick platforms and floors; 26- Ladders; 27- Safety belts and life lines; 28- Emergency escape device; 29- Weight indicator; 30- Escape exits; 31- Guardrails, handrails and covers; 32- Draw-works; 33- Cathead and cat line; 34-  Tongs; 35-  Safety chains or wire lines; 36- Casing lines; 37-  Rigging equipment for material handling; 38- Storage of materials; 39- Construction and loading of pipe-racks; 40-  Rigging-up and rig dismantling; 41-  Mud tanks and mud pumps; 42-  Blowout preventer assembly; 43-  Control system for blowout preventers; 44-  Testing of blowout preventer assembly; 45-  Precautions against blowout; 46-  Precautions after a blowout has occurred; 47-  Drilling workover and other operations; 48-  Precautions during drill stem test. 
+
+Chapter-V: ProductionWell completion, Testing and Activation (Reg 49–50)
+Group Gathering Station and Emergency Plan (Reg 51-51A)
+Precautions during acidizing operations; fractu operations and; loading and unloading of petroleum tankers.",51149398,Oil Mines Regulations-1984,T
+289,"Crawl ratio is a term used in the automotive world to describe the highest gear ratio that a vehicle is capable of. Note that gear ratio, also known as speed ratio, of a gear train is defined as the ratio of the angular velocity of the input gear to the angular velocity of the output gear, and thus a higher gear ratio implies a larger speed reduction, i.e. the input speed is reduced more at the output. The highest gear ratio is obtained at either first gear or reverse gear, but only first gear is typically taken into consideration while talking about crawl ratio. A potentially confusing terminology is that although a better crawl ratio is achieved by a higher gear ratio, it is common to refer to a better crawl ratio as “lower crawl ratio” rather than “higher crawl ratio” because it’s for driving at lower speeds.
+The crawl ratio is aptly named because when a vehicle is driven using the lowest gear (i.e.",6286739,Crawl ratio,E
+290,"Developmental systems theory (DST) is an overarching theoretical perspective on biological development, heredity, and evolution. It emphasizes the shared contributions of genes, environment, and epigenetic factors on developmental processes. DST, unlike conventional scientific theories, is not directly used to help make predictions for testing experimental results; instead, it is seen as a collection of philosophical, psychological, and scientific models of development and evolution. As a whole, these models argue the inadequacy of the modern evolutionary synthesis on the roles of genes and natural selection as the principal explanation of living structures. Developmental systems theory embraces a large range of positions that expand biological explanations of organismal development and hold modern evolutionary theory as a misconception of the nature of living processes.
+
+Overview
+All versions of developmental systems theory espouse the view that:
+
+All biological processes (including both evolution and development) operate by continually assembling new structures.
+Each such structure transcends the structures from which it arose and has its own systematic characteristics, information, functions and laws.
+Conversely, each such structure is ultimately irreducible to any lower (or higher) level of structure, and can be described and explained only on its own terms.
+Furthermore, the major processes through which life as a whole operates, including evolution, heredity and the development of particular organisms, can only be accounted for by incorporating many more layers of structure and process than the conventional concepts of ‘gene’ and ‘environment’ normally allow for.In other words, although it does not claim that all structures are equal, development systems theory is fundamentally opposed to reductionism of all kinds.",8355930,Developmental systems theory,S
+291,"Simulation in manufacturing systems is the use of software to make computer models of manufacturing systems, so to analyze them and thereby obtain important information. It has been syndicated as the second most popular management science among manufacturing managers. However, its use has been limited due to the complexity of some software packages, and to the lack of preparation some users have in the fields of probability and statistics.
+This technique represents a valuable tool used by engineers when evaluating the effect of capital investment in equipment and physical facilities like factory plants, warehouses, and distribution centers. Simulation can be used to predict the performance of an existing or planned system and to compare alternative solutions for a particular design problem.
+
+Objectives
+The most important objective of simulation in manufacturing is the understanding of the change to the whole system because of some local changes. It is easy to understand the difference made by changes in the local system but it is very difficult or impossible to assess the impact of this change in the overall system.",50048068,Simulation in manufacturing systems,E
+292,"In probability theory, the Brownian tree, or Aldous tree, or Continuum Random Tree (CRT) is a random real tree that can be defined from a Brownian excursion. The Brownian tree was defined and studied by David Aldous in three articles published in 1991 and 1993. This tree has since then been generalized.
+This random tree has several equivalent definitions and constructions: using sub-trees generated by finitely many leaves, using a Brownian excursion, Poisson separating a straight line or as a limit of Galton-Watson trees.
+Intuitively, the Brownian tree is a binary tree whose nodes (or branching points) are dense in the tree; which is to say that for any distinct two points of the tree, there will always exist a node between them. It is a fractal object which can be approximated with computers or by physical processes with dendritic structures.
+
+Definitions
+The following definitions are different characterisations of a Brownian tree, they are taken from Aldous's three articles. The notions of leaf, node, branch, root are the intuitive notions on a tree (for details, see real trees).
+
+Finite-dimensional laws
+This definition gives the finite-dimensional laws of the subtrees generated by finitely many leaves.
+Let us consider the space of all binary trees with 
+  
+    
+      
+        k
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle k}
+   leaves numbered from 
+  
+    
+      
+        1
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle 1}
+   to 
+  
+    
+      
+        k
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle k}
+  .",298408,Brownian tree,M
+293,"An antibody microarray (also known as antibody array) is a specific form of protein microarray. In this technology, a collection of captured antibodies are spotted and fixed on a solid surface such as glass, plastic, membrane, or silicon chip, and the interaction between the antibody and its target antigen is detected. Antibody microarrays are often used for detecting protein expression from various biofluids including serum, plasma and cell or tissue lysates. Antibody arrays may be used for both basic research and medical and diagnostic applications.
+
+Background
+The concept and methodology of antibody microarrays were first introduced by Tse Wen Chang in 1983 in a scientific publication and a series of patents, when he was working at Centocor in Malvern, Pennsylvania.  Chang coined the term “antibody matrix” and discussed “array” arrangement of minute antibody spots on small glass or plastic surfaces.",5655436,Antibody microarray,S
+294,"Reliability engineering is a sub-discipline of systems engineering that emphasizes the ability of equipment to function without failure. Reliability describes the ability of a system or component to function under stated conditions for a specified period of time. Reliability is closely related to availability, which is typically described as the ability of a component or system to function at a specified moment or interval of time.
+The reliability function is theoretically defined as the probability of success at time t, which is denoted R(t). In practice, it is calculated using different techniques and its value ranges between 0 and 1, where 0 indicates no probability of success while 1 indicates definite success. This probability is estimated from detailed (physics of failure) analysis, previous data sets or through reliability testing and reliability modeling.",1724836,Reliability engineering,T
+295,"Process engineering is the understanding and application of the fundamental principles and laws of nature that allow humans to transform raw material and energy into products that are useful to society, at an industrial level. By taking advantage of the driving forces of nature such as pressure, temperature and concentration gradients, as well as the law of conservation of mass, process engineers can develop methods to synthesize and purify large quantities of desired chemical products. Process engineering focuses on the design, operation, control, optimization and intensification of chemical, physical, and biological processes. Process engineering encompasses a vast range of industries, such as agriculture, automotive, biotechnical, chemical, food, material development, mining, nuclear, petrochemical, pharmaceutical, and software development. The application of systematic computer-based methods to process engineering is ""process systems engineering"".
+
+Overview
+Process engineering involves the utilization of multiple tools and methods.",601958,Process engineering,E
+296,"In physics, the twin paradox is a thought experiment in special relativity involving identical twins, one of whom makes a journey into space in a high-speed rocket and returns home to find that the twin who remained on Earth has aged more. This result appears puzzling because each twin sees the other twin as moving, and so, as a consequence of an incorrect and naive application of time dilation and the principle of relativity, each should paradoxically find the other to have aged less. However, this scenario can be resolved within the standard framework of special relativity: the travelling twin's trajectory involves two different inertial frames, one for the outbound journey and one for the inbound journey. Another way of looking at it is to realize the travelling twin is undergoing acceleration, which makes him a non-inertial observer. In both views there is no symmetry between the spacetime paths of the twins.",31429,Twin paradox,T
+297,"A flexible manufacturing system (FMS) is a manufacturing system in which there is some amount of flexibility that allows the system to react in case of changes, whether predicted or unpredicted. 
+This flexibility is generally considered to fall into two categories, which both contain numerous subcategories.
+
+The first category is called as routing flexibility, which covers the system's ability to be changed to produce new product types, and ability to change the order of operations executed on a part.
+The second category is called machine flexibility, which consists of the ability to use multiple machines to perform the same operation on a part, as well as the system's ability to absorb large-scale changes, such as in volume, capacity, or capability.Most flexible manufacturing systems consist of three main systems:
+
+The work machines which are often automated CNC machines are connected by
+By a material handling system to optimize parts flow and
+The central control computer which controls material movements and machine flow.The main advantages of a flexible manufacturing system is its high flexibility in managing manufacturing resources like time and effort in order to manufacture a new product.
+The best application of a flexible manufacturing system is found in the 'production of small sets of products like those from a mass production.
+
+Advantages
+Reduced manufacturing cost
+Lower cost per unit produced,
+Greater labor productivity,
+Greater machine efficiency,
+Improved quality,
+Increased system reliability,
+Reduced parts inventories,
+Adaptability to CAD/CAM operations.
+Shorter lead times
+Improved efficiency
+Increase production rate
+
+Disadvantages
+Initial set-up cost is high,
+Substantial pre-planning
+Requirement of skilled labor
+Complicated system
+Maintenance is complicated
+
+Flexibility
+Flexibility in manufacturing means the ability to deal with slightly or greatly mixed parts, to allow variation in parts assembly and variations in process sequence, change the production volume and change the design of certain product being manufactured.
+
+Industrial FMS communication
+An industrial flexible manufacturing system consists of robots, computer-controlled Machines, computer numerical controlled machines (CNC), instrumentation devices, computers, sensors, and other stand alone systems such as inspection machines. The use of robots in the production segment of manufacturing industries promises a variety of benefits ranging from high utilization to high volume of productivity. Each Robotic cell or node will be located along a material handling system such as a conveyor or automatic guided vehicle. The production of each part or work-piece will require a different combination of manufacturing nodes.",5167489,Flexible manufacturing system,E
+298,"In programming, a docstring is a string literal specified in source code that is used, like a comment, to document a specific segment of code. Unlike conventional source code comments, or even specifically formatted comments like docblocks, docstrings are not stripped from the source tree when it is parsed and are retained throughout the runtime of the program. This allows the programmer to inspect these comments at run time, for instance as an interactive help system, or as metadata.
+Languages that support docstrings include Python, Lisp, Elixir, Clojure, Gherkin, Julia and Haskell.
+
+Implementation examples
+Elixir
+Documentation is supported at language level, in the form of docstrings. Markdown is Elixir's de facto markup language of choice for use in docstrings:
+
+Lisp
+In Lisp, docstrings are known as documentation strings. The Common Lisp standard states that a particular implementation may choose to discard docstrings whenever they want, for whatever reason.",4225907,Docstring,T
+299,"In mathematics, Fatou components are components of the Fatou set.  They were named after Pierre Fatou.
+
+Rational case
+If f is a rational function
+
+  
+    
+      
+        f
+        =
+        
+          
+            
+              P
+              (
+              z
+              )
+            
+            
+              Q
+              (
+              z
+              )
+            
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle f={\frac {P(z)}{Q(z)}}}
+  defined in the extended complex plane, and if it is a nonlinear function (degree > 1)
+
+  
+    
+      
+        d
+        (
+        f
+        )
+        =
+        max
+        (
+        deg
+        ⁡
+        (
+        P
+        )
+        ,
+        
+        deg
+        ⁡
+        (
+        Q
+        )
+        )
+        ≥
+        2
+        ,
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle d(f)=\max(\deg(P),\,\deg(Q))\geq 2,}
+  then for a periodic component 
+  
+    
+      
+        U
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle U}
+   of the Fatou set, exactly one of the following holds:
+
+  
+    
+      
+        U
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle U}
+   contains an attracting periodic point
+
+  
+    
+      
+        U
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle U}
+   is parabolic
+
+  
+    
+      
+        U
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle U}
+   is a Siegel disc:  a simply connected Fatou component on which f(z) is analytically conjugate to a Euclidean rotation of the unit disc onto itself by an irrational rotation angle.
+
+  
+    
+      
+        U
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle U}
+   is a Herman ring: a double connected Fatou component (an annulus) on which f(z) is analytically conjugate to a Euclidean rotation of a round annulus, again by an irrational rotation angle.
+
+Attracting periodic point
+The components of the map 
+  
+    
+      
+        f
+        (
+        z
+        )
+        =
+        z
+        −
+        (
+        
+          z
+          
+            3
+          
+        
+        −
+        1
+        )
+        
+          /
+        
+        3
+        
+          z
+          
+            2
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle f(z)=z-(z^{3}-1)/3z^{2}}
+    contain the attracting points that are the solutions to 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          z
+          
+            3
+          
+        
+        =
+        1
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle z^{3}=1}
+  . This is because the map is the one to use for finding solutions to the equation 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          z
+          
+            3
+          
+        
+        =
+        1
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle z^{3}=1}
+   by Newton–Raphson formula. The solutions must naturally be attracting fixed points.
+
+Herman ring
+The map
+
+  
+    
+      
+        f
+        (
+        z
+        )
+        =
+        
+          e
+          
+            2
+            π
+            i
+            t
+          
+        
+        
+          z
+          
+            2
+          
+        
+        (
+        z
+        −
+        4
+        )
+        
+          /
+        
+        (
+        1
+        −
+        4
+        z
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle f(z)=e^{2\pi it}z^{2}(z-4)/(1-4z)}
+  and t = 0.6151732... will produce a Herman ring.",10422205,Classification of Fatou components,M
+300,"Fairbanks International Airport (IATA: FAI, ICAO: PAFA, FAA LID: FAI) is a state-owned public-use airport located three miles (5 km) southwest of the central business district of Fairbanks, a city in the Fairbanks North Star Borough of the United States state of Alaska. It is located in the South Van Horn census-designated place. Fairbanks is the smallest city in the United States with regularly scheduled non-stop international flights, as Condor offers weekly flights to Frankfurt during the summer tourist season. Air North is another international airline with flights (to Canada).
+
+History
+Early years
+The airport opened in 1951 and took over existing scheduled airline traffic to Fairbanks, which had previously used Ladd Army Airfield. Alaska Airlines used Fairbanks as its main hub in the 1950s, with service to Seattle and Portland as well as intrastate service to Anchorage, Nome and other destinations.",295107,Fairbanks International Airport,T
+301,"Biostasis or Cryptobiosis is the ability of an organism to tolerate environmental changes without having to actively adapt to them. Biostasis is found in organisms that live in habitats that likely encounter unfavorable living conditions, such as drought, freezing temperatures, change in pH levels, pressure, or temperature. Insects undergo a type of dormancy to survive these conditions, called diapause. Diapause may be obligatory for these insects to survive. The insect may also be able to undergo change prior to the arrival of the initiating event.
+
+Microorganisms
+Biostasis in this context is also synonymous for viable but nonculturable state.",42940,Biostasis,S
+302,"Zoe Heriot (sometimes spelled Zoe Herriot) is a fictional character played by Wendy Padbury in the long-running British science fiction television series Doctor Who. A young astrophysicist who lived on a space wheel in the 21st century, she was a companion of the Second Doctor and a regular in the programme from 1968 to 1969. Zoe appeared in 8 stories (48 episodes).
+
+Character history
+Zoe first appears in the serial The Wheel in Space, where she is the librarian on board Space Station W3, also known as the Wheel. When the Cybermen attack, she aids the Doctor and Jamie in defeating them before stowing away aboard the TARDIS. In David Whitaker's script for The Wheel in Space, Zoe's last name is spelled ""Heriot"", but the double-""r"" misspelling is also seen in reference works.
+Zoe's age is not given in the series, but according to initial publicity she was fifteen when she joined the TARDIS crew.",1326206,Zoe Heriot,M
+303,"VisSim is a visual block diagram program for simulation of dynamical systems and model-based design of embedded systems, with its own visual language. It is developed by Visual Solutions of Westford, Massachusetts. Visual Solutions was acquired by Altair in August 2014 and its products have been rebranded as Altair Embed as a part of Altair's Model Based Development Suite. With Embed, you can develop virtual prototypes of dynamic systems. Models are built by sliding blocks into the work area and wiring them together with the mouse.",3545503,VisSim,T
+304,"A Short Message Service Center (SMSC) is a network element in the mobile telephone network. Its purpose is to store, forward, convert and deliver Short Message Service (SMS) messages.
+The full designation of an SMSC according to 3GPP is Short Message Service - Service Center (SMS-SC).
+
+Basic trajectories
+SMS can be directed in several ways:
+
+From mobile to another mobile - referred to as MO-MT (Mobile Originated - Mobile Terminated)
+From mobile to a content provider (also known as Large Account / ESME) - referred to as MO-AT (Mobile Originated - Application Terminated)
+From application to a mobile - referred to as AO-MT (Application Originated - Mobile Terminated)
+
+Operation
+The tasks of an SMSC can be described as
+
+Reception of text messages (SMS) from wireless network users
+Storage of text messages
+Forwarding of text messages
+Delivery of text messages (SMS) to wireless network users
+Maintenance of unique time stamps in text messagesWhen a user sends a text message (SMS message) to another user, the message gets stored in the SMSC (Short Message Service Center), which delivers it to the destination user when they are available. This is a store and forward option.
+An SMS center (SMSC) is responsible for handling the SMS operations of a wireless network. 
+
+When an SMS message is sent from a mobile phone, it will first reach an SMS center.
+The SMS center then forwards the SMS message towards the destination.
+The main duty of an SMSC is to route SMS messages and regulate the process. If the recipient is unavailable (for example, when the mobile phone is switched off), the SMSC will store the SMS CAR message.
+It will forward the SMS message when the recipient is available and the message's expiry period is not exceeded.SMSCs can be used to interface with other applications, for example a spreadsheet can interface with the SMSC allowing messages to be sent SMS from an Excel spreadsheet, or to send an SMS from Excel.",2601173,Short Message service center,T
+305,"In physics, specifically for special relativity and general relativity, a four-tensor is an abbreviation for a tensor in a four-dimensional spacetime.
+
+Generalities
+General four-tensors are usually written in tensor index notation as
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          A
+          
+            
+            
+              ν
+              
+                1
+              
+            
+            ,
+            
+              ν
+              
+                2
+              
+            
+            ,
+            .
+            .
+            .
+            ,
+            
+              ν
+              
+                m
+              
+            
+          
+          
+            
+              μ
+              
+                1
+              
+            
+            ,
+            
+              μ
+              
+                2
+              
+            
+            ,
+            .
+            .
+            .
+            ,
+            
+              μ
+              
+                n
+              
+            
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle A_{\;\nu _{1},\nu _{2},...,\nu _{m}}^{\mu _{1},\mu _{2},...,\mu _{n}}}
+  with the indices taking integer values from 0 to 3, with 0 for the timelike components and 1, 2, 3 for spacelike components. There are n contravariant indices and m covariant indices.In special and general relativity, many four-tensors of interest are first order (four-vectors) or second order, but higher-order tensors occur. Examples are listed next.
+In special relativity, the vector basis can be restricted to being orthonormal, in which case all four-tensors transform under Lorentz transformations. In general relativity, more general coordinate transformations are necessary since such a restriction is not in general possible.
+
+Examples
+First-order tensors
+In special relativity, one of the simplest non-trivial examples of a four-tensor is the four-displacement
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          x
+          
+            μ
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          (
+          
+            
+              x
+              
+                0
+              
+            
+            ,
+            
+              x
+              
+                1
+              
+            
+            ,
+            
+              x
+              
+                2
+              
+            
+            ,
+            
+              x
+              
+                3
+              
+            
+          
+          )
+        
+        =
+        (
+        c
+        t
+        ,
+        x
+        ,
+        y
+        ,
+        z
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle x^{\mu }=\left(x^{0},x^{1},x^{2},x^{3}\right)=(ct,x,y,z)}
+  a four-tensor with contravariant rank 1 and covariant rank 0. Four-tensors of this kind are usually known as four-vectors.",3038928,Four-tensor,E
+306,"Cultured meat (also known as cultivated meat among other names) is a form of cellular agriculture where meat is produced by culturing animal cells in vitro.Cultured meat is produced using tissue engineering techniques pioneered in regenerative medicine. Jason Matheny popularized the concept in the early 2000s after he co-authored a paper on cultured meat production and created New Harvest, the world's first nonprofit organization dedicated to in-vitro meat research.Cultured meat has the potential to address the environmental impact of meat production, animal welfare, food security and human health, in addition to its potential mitigation of climate change.
+In 2013, Mark Post created a hamburger patty made from tissue grown outside of an animal. Since then, other cultured meat prototypes have gained media attention: SuperMeat opened a farm-to-fork restaurant called ""The Chicken"" in Tel Aviv to test consumer reaction to its ""Chicken"" burger, while the ""world's first commercial sale of cell-cultured meat"" occurred in December 2020 at Singapore restaurant 1880, where cultured meat manufactured by US firm Eat Just was sold.While most efforts focus on common meats such as pork, beef, and chicken which constitute the bulk of consumption in developed countries, companies such as Orbillion Bio focused on high-end or unusual meats including elk, lamb, bison, and Wagyu beef. Avant Meats brought cultured grouper to market in 2021, while other companies have pursued different species of fish and other seafood.The production process is constantly evolving, driven by companies and research institutions. The applications for cultured meat led to ethical, health, environmental, cultural, and economic discussions.",511626,Cultured meat,S
+307,"A loom is a device used to weave cloth and tapestry. The basic purpose of any loom is to hold the warp threads under tension to facilitate the interweaving of the weft threads. The precise shape of the loom and its mechanics may vary, but the basic function is the same.
+
+Etymology and usage
+The word ""loom"" derives from the Old English geloma, formed from ge- (perfective prefix) and loma, a root of unknown origin; the whole word geloma meant a utensil, tool, or machine of any kind.  In 1404 ""lome"" was used to mean a machine to enable weaving thread into cloth.
+By 1838 ""loom"" had gained the additional meaning of a machine for interlacing thread.
+
+Weaving Loom
+Weaving is done by intersecting the longitudinal threads, the warp, i.e. the ones stretched on the loom (from the Proto-Indo-European *werp, ""to bend"") with the transverse threads, the weft, i.e.",25850328,Loom,E
+308,"""Fat Camp"" is the fifteenth episode of the fourth season of the animated television series South Park, and the 63rd episode of the series overall. ""Fat Camp"" originally aired in the United States on December 6, 2000 on Comedy Central. In the episode, Cartman is sent to lose weight at a fat camp where he discovers a different way to earn money. Meanwhile, Kenny starts doing crazy, disgusting acts for cash in a parody of the television show Jackass.
+
+Plot
+During a science class, the boys dare Kenny to eat a manatee's spleen, which Kenny does in exchange for money. He then continues to undertake all manner of bizarre acts for more money, such as eating his own vomit.",2669022,Fat Camp (South Park),S
+309,"Medical or medicinal cannibalism is the consumption of parts of the human body, dead or alive, to treat or prevent diseases. The medical trade and pharmacological use of human body parts and fluids often arose from the belief that because the human body is able to heal itself, it can also help heal another human body. Much of medical cannibalism applied the principles of sympathetic magic, for example that powdered blood helps bleeding, human fat helps bruising, and powdered skulls help with migraines or dizziness. Medical cannibalism has been documented especially for Europe and China.
+
+History
+Europe
+If one includes the drinking of human blood in one's understanding of ""cannibalism"" (which the Ancient Romans themselves would not have done), then medical cannibalism in Europe can be traced back to Ancient Rome, where the blood of wounded gladiators was sometimes drunk out of a belief that it could cure epilepsy.Medical cannibalism in Europe reached its peak in the sixteenth century, with the practice becoming widespread in Germany, France, Italy, and England. At that time, most ""raw materials"" for the practice came from mummies stolen from Egyptian tombs; additionally skulls were taken from Irish burial sites and gravediggers sometimes robbed and sold body parts.",63386663,Medical cannibalism,S
+310,"Moscow Society of Naturalists (Russian: Московское общество испытателей природы (MOIP))  is one of Russia's oldest learned societies.
+In 1805 it was founded as the Imperial Society of Naturalists of Moscow (Société Impériale des Naturalistes de Moscou) under the auspices of two noblemen, Mikhail Muravyov and Alexis Razumovsky, by Johann Fischer von Waldheim in 1805. Princess Zenaǐde Wolkonsky made a gift of her own library to the society. It was organised under the auspices of the Moscow State University (MSU) and included many members of the university staff amongst its members.The tasks of the society were considered to be the development of general scientific problems of natural science, the study of the natural resources of Russia, including ""the discovery of such works, which could constitute a new branch of Russian trade.""From the very beginning of its existence, the society began organizing expeditions and excursions to study the nature of Russia and collect natural history collections. MOIP organized expeditions to explore Altai, the Urals, the Caucasus, Kamchatka and other regions of Russia. After the study, the materials of the expeditions were transferred to the corresponding museums and offices of Moscow University.",31635301,Moscow Society of Naturalists,S
+311,"Spheroidal wave functions are solutions of the Helmholtz equation that are found by writing the equation in spheroidal coordinates and applying the technique of separation of variables, just like the use of spherical coordinates lead to spherical harmonics. They are called oblate spheroidal wave functions  if oblate spheroidal coordinates are used and prolate spheroidal wave functions  if prolate spheroidal coordinates are used.
+If instead of the Helmholtz equation, the Laplace equation is solved in spheroidal coordinates using the method of separation of variables, the spheroidal wave functions reduce to the spheroidal harmonics. With oblate spheroidal coordinates, the solutions 
+are called oblate harmonics and with prolate spheroidal coordinates, prolate harmonics. Both type of spheroidal harmonics
+are expressible in terms of Legendre functions.
+
+See also
+Oblate spheroidal coordinates, especially the section Oblate spheroidal harmonics, for a more extensive discussion.
+Oblate spheroidal wave function
+
+References
+Notes
+BibliographyC. Niven On the Conduction of Heat in Ellipsoids of Revolution.",16801419,Spheroidal wave function,M
+312,"Sports science is a discipline that studies how the healthy human body works during exercise, and how sport and physical activity promote health and performance from cellular to whole body perspectives. The study of sports science traditionally incorporates areas of physiology (exercise physiology), psychology (sport psychology), anatomy, biomechanics (sports biomechanics), biochemistry, and kinesiology. Sports scientists and performance consultants are growing in demand and employment numbers, with the ever-increasing focus within the sporting world on achieving the best results possible. Through the scientific study of sports, researchers have developed a greater understanding of how the human body reacts to exercise, training, different environments, and many other stimuli.
+
+Origins of exercise physiology
+Sports science can trace its origins to ancient Greece. The noted ancient Greek physician Galen (131–201) wrote 87 detailed essays about improving health (proper nutrition), aerobic fitness, and strengthening muscles.New ideas upon the working and functioning of the human body emerged during the Renaissance as anatomists and physicians challenged the previously known theories.",1118651,Sports science,S
+313,"The cornerstone of the Estonian cosmological research is the Tartu Observatory which was founded in 1812. The observatory itself has a long tradition of studying galaxies and theoretically modeling the structure of the universe and its formation. Till today this facility is Estonia's main research centre for astronomy and atmospheric physics, with fundamental research focusing on physics of galaxies, stellar physics and remote sensing of the Earth's atmosphere and ground surface. The observatory has also played a vital role in catapulting the career of Jaan Einasto, one of the most famous and eminent Estonian astrophysicists and one of the discoverers of ""Dark Matter"" and of the cellular structure of the Universe.
+
+Mir involvement
+During the Cold war Estonia was associated with and active in the extensive space program of the USSR. In the early 1970s The first Soviet Saljut type space station was equipped with the Estonian built Mikron a shining night clouds observer device.",22614305,Space science in Estonia,S
+314,"Cellulose insulating material plants are used for the production of a natural building insulation material known as cellulose insulation.
+
+Assembly
+Cellulose insulating material plants essentially exist of a feeding unit with primary reduction of the raw material, a dosing system for adding flame retarding agent, a defibration unit, a dedusting unit and the packaging unit.
+
+Function
+The raw material is given loose or in bales into the primary reduction unit (for example a shredder). After this reduction, the flame retardant is added. 
+The core of the cellulose insulating material plant is a Whirlwind Mill. This mill is able to fray out the material, what leads to fluffy, optimally defibrated flocks that contain only very small amounts of dust. Furthermore the flame retardant is stuck to the flocks during the defibration process.",24179739,Cellulose insulating material plant,E
+315,"Virtual engineering (VE) is defined as integrating geometric models and related engineering tools such as analysis, simulation, optimization, and decision making tools, etc., within a computer-generated environment that facilitates multidisciplinary collaborative product development. Virtual engineering shares many characteristics with software engineering, such as the ability to obtain many different results through different implementations.
+
+Description
+The concept
+A virtual engineering environment provides a user-centered, first-person perspective that enables users to interact with an engineered system naturally and provides users with a wide range of accessible tools. This requires an engineering model that includes the geometry, physics, and any quantitative or qualitative data from the real system. The user should be able to walk through the operating system and observe how it works and how it responds to changes in design, operation, or any other engineering modification. Interaction within the virtual environment should provide an easily understood interface, appropriate to the user's technical background and expertise, that enables the user to explore and discover unexpected but critical details about the system's behavior.",9425248,Virtual engineering,E
+316,"AI safety is an interdisciplinary field concerned with preventing accidents, misuse, or other harmful consequences that could result from artificial intelligence (AI) systems. It encompasses machine ethics and AI alignment, which aim to make AI systems moral and beneficial, and AI safety encompasses technical problems including monitoring systems for risks and making them highly reliable. Beyond AI research, it involves developing norms and policies that promote safety.
+
+Motivations
+AI researchers have widely different opinions about the severity and primary sources of risk posed by AI technology – though surveys suggest that experts take high consequence risks seriously. In two surveys of AI researchers, the median respondent was optimistic about AI overall, but placed a 5% probability on an “extremely bad (e.g. human extinction)” outcome of advanced AI.",72360809,AI safety,T
+317,"In programming language theory and proof theory, the Curry–Howard correspondence (also known as the Curry–Howard isomorphism or equivalence, or the proofs-as-programs and propositions- or formulae-as-types interpretation) is the direct relationship between computer programs and mathematical proofs. 
+It is a generalization of a syntactic analogy between systems of formal logic and computational calculi that was first discovered by the American mathematician Haskell Curry and the logician William Alvin Howard. It is the link between logic and computation that is usually attributed to Curry and Howard, although the idea is related to the operational interpretation of intuitionistic logic given in various formulations by  L. E. J.",254299,Curry–Howard correspondence,T
+318,"An Air Data Inertial Reference Unit (ADIRU) is a key component of the integrated Air Data Inertial Reference System (ADIRS), which supplies air data (airspeed, angle of attack and altitude) and inertial reference (position and attitude) information to the pilots' electronic flight instrument system displays as well as other systems on the aircraft such as the engines, autopilot, aircraft flight control system and landing gear systems. An ADIRU acts as a single, fault tolerant source of navigational data for both pilots of an aircraft. It may be complemented by a secondary attitude air data reference unit (SAARU), as in the Boeing 777 design.This device is used on various military aircraft as well as civilian airliners starting with the Airbus A320 and Boeing 777.
+
+Description
+An ADIRS consists of up to three fault tolerant ADIRUs located in the aircraft electronic rack, an associated control and display unit (CDU) in the cockpit and remotely mounted air data modules (ADMs). The No 3 ADIRU is a redundant unit that may be selected to supply data to either the commander's or the co-pilot's displays in the event of a partial or complete failure of either the No 1 or No 2 ADIRU. There is no cross-channel redundancy between the Nos 1 and 2 ADIRUs, as No 3 ADIRU is the only alternate source of air and inertial reference data.",7019701,Air data inertial reference unit,T
+319,"Apple Inc. workers around the globe have been involved in organizing since the 1990s. Apple worker organizations have been made up of retail, corporate, and outsourced workers. Employees have joined trade unions and formed works councils in Australia, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, United Kingdom and the United States.
+The majority of industrial labor disputes (including union recognition) involving Apple occur indirectly through its suppliers and contractors, notably Foxconn plants in China and to a lesser extent, Brazil and India.
+In 2021, Apple Together, a solidarity union, sought to bring together the company's global worker organizations. In the 2020s, a surge in new organizing took place in Australia, United Kingdom and the United States.
+
+Industrial composition
+Apple was founded in 1976, and has become the most valuable corporation in the world, being valued over $1 trillion in 2018, and in 2020 becoming the first American company to be valued over $2 trillion.",68590260,Apple and unions,E
+320,"Autologous CD34+ enriched cell fraction that contains CD34+ cells transduced with retroviral vector that encodes for the human ADA cDNA sequence, sold under the brand name Strimvelis, is a medication used to treat severe combined immunodeficiency due to adenosine deaminase deficiency (ADA-SCID).ADA-SCID is a rare inherited condition in which there is a change (mutation) in the gene needed to make an enzyme called adenosine deaminase (ADA). As a result, people lack the ADA enzyme. Because ADA is essential for maintaining healthy lymphocytes (white blood cells that fight off infections), the immune system of people with ADA-SCID does not work properly and without effective treatment they rarely survive more than two years.Strimvelis is the first ex vivo autologous gene therapy approved by the European Medicines Agency (EMA).
+
+Medical uses
+Strimvelis is indicated for the treatment of people with severe combined immunodeficiency due to adenosine deaminase deficiency (ADA-SCID), for whom no suitable human leukocyte antigen (HLA)-matched related stem cell donor is available.
+
+Treatment
+The treatment is personalized for each person; hematopoietic stem cell (HSCs) are extracted from the person and purified so that only CD34-expressing cells remain. Those cells are cultured with cytokines and growth factors and then transduced with a gammaretrovirus containing the human adenosine deaminase gene and then reinfused into the person. These cells take root in the person's bone marrow, replicating and creating cells that mature and create normally functioning adenosine deaminase protein, resolving the problem.",50035369,Strimvelis,S
+321,"The activated sludge process is a type of biological wastewater treatment process for treating sewage or industrial wastewaters using aeration and a biological floc composed of bacteria and protozoa. It uses air (or oxygen) and microorganisms to biologically oxidize organic pollutants, producing a waste sludge (or floc) containing the oxidized material.
+The activated sludge process for removing carbonaceous pollution begins with an aeration tank where air (or oxygen) is injected into the waste water. This is followed by a settling tank to allow the biological flocs (the sludge blanket) to settle, thus separating the biological sludge from the clear treated water. Part of the waste sludge is recycled to the aeration tank and the remaining waste sludge is removed for further treatment and ultimate disposal.
+Plant types include package plants, oxidation ditch, deep shaft/vertical treatment, surface-aerated basins, sequencing batch reactors (SBRs). Aeration methods include diffused aeration, surface aerators (cones) or, rarely, pure oxygen aeration.
+Sludge bulking can occur which makes activated sludge difficult to settle and frequently has an adverse impact on final effluent quality.",1411188,Activated sludge,E
+322,"Criminal investigation is an applied science that involves the study of facts that are then used to inform criminal trials. A complete criminal investigation can include searching, interviews, interrogations, evidence collection and preservation, and various methods of investigation. Modern-day criminal investigations commonly employ many modern scientific techniques known collectively as forensic science.
+Criminal investigation is an ancient science that may have roots as far back as c. 1700 BCE in the writings of the Code of Hammurabi. In the code, it is suggested that both the accuser and the accused had the right to present evidence they collected.",5236980,Criminal investigation,S
+323,"A wearable generator is an article of clothing that contains some form of electrical generation system built in. The concept encompasses a variety of generation systems intended to supply small amounts of power to keep portable electronics in a good state of charge through natural motions of the body.
+
+Summary
+There are many great projects related to wearable technology or wearable power generation. One concept, for example, is an article of clothing that has the ability to convert the movements of the wearer into electricity using nano-ion pumps. It is based on nanotechnology and has the ability to generate electricity for the purposes of building muscle mass and improving coordination. Emergency workers like firemen and paramedics could use chest-implanted sensors to create a floor plan of unfamiliar buildings; making a rookie perform his job as efficiently as a veteran.",39533958,Wearable generator,T
+324,"System for Cross-domain Identity Management (SCIM) is a standard for automating the exchange of user identity information between identity domains, or IT systems.
+One example might be that as a company onboards new employees and separates from existing employees, they are added and removed from the company's electronic employee directory. SCIM could be used to automatically add/delete (or, provision/de-provision) accounts for those users in external systems such as Google Workspace, Office 365, or Salesforce.com. Then, a new user account would exist in the external systems for each new employee, and the user accounts for former employees might no longer exist in those systems.
+In addition to simple user-record management (creating and deleting), SCIM can also be used to share information about user attributes, attribute schema, and group membership. Attributes could range from user contact information to group membership. Group membership or other attribute values are generally used to manage user permissions.",44657216,System for Cross-domain Identity Management,T
+325,"Acoustical engineering (also known as acoustic engineering) is the branch of engineering dealing with sound and vibration. It includes the application of acoustics, the science of sound and vibration, in technology. Acoustical engineers are typically concerned with the design, analysis and control of sound.
+One goal of acoustical engineering can be the reduction of unwanted noise, which is referred to as noise control. Unwanted noise can have significant impacts on animal and human health and well-being, reduce attainment by students in schools, and cause hearing loss. Noise control principles are implemented into technology and design in a variety of ways, including control by redesigning sound sources, the design of noise barriers, sound absorbers, suppressors, and buffer zones, and the use of hearing protection (earmuffs or earplugs).
+
+Besides noise control, acoustical engineering also covers positive uses of sound, such as the use of ultrasound in medicine, programming digital synthesizers, designing concert halls to enhance the sound of orchestras and specifying railway station sound systems so that announcements are intelligible.
+
+Acoustic engineer (professional)
+Acoustic engineers usually possess a bachelor's degree or higher qualification in acoustics, physics or another engineering discipline.",299813,Acoustical engineering,E
+326,"The social positioning method (SPM) studies space-time behaviour by analysing the location coordinates of mobile phones and the social characteristics of the people carrying them. The SPM methods and experiments were developed in Estonia by Positium and Institute of Geography University of Tartu during 2003-2006.The biggest advantage of mobile positioning-based methods is that mobile phones are widespread, positioning works inside buildings, and collection of movement data is done by a third party at regular intervals. Positioning data is digital; it is easy to trace many people at the same time and it is possible to analyse movements in real time. The disadvantage of mobile positioning today is relatively low preciseness, the boom in the generation of phones with a GPS will raise positioning accuracy.
+The most important problems of SPM are related to data security, as well as concerns about non-authorized personal surveillance. These problems can be solved with further development of location-based services (LBS) and relevant legal and organisational regulation.",4148166,Social positioning method,T
+327,"Lysozyme PEGylation is the covalent attachment of Polyethylene glycol (PEG) to Lysozyme, which is one of the most widely investigated PEGylated proteins. 
+The PEGylation of proteins has become a common practice of modern therapeutic drugs, as the process is capable of enhancing solubility, thermal stability, enzymatic degradation resistance, and serum half-life of the proteins of interest. Lysozyme, as a natural bactericidal enzyme, lyses the cell wall of various gram-positive bacteria and offers protection against microbial infections. Lysozyme has six lysine residues which are accessible for PEGylation reactions. Thus, the PEGylation of lysozyme, or lysozyme PEGylation, can be a good model system for the PEGylation of other proteins with enzymatic activities by showing the enhancement of its physical and thermal stability while retaining its activity.",64536357,Lysozyme PEGylation,S
+328,"In general relativity, the metric tensor (in this context often abbreviated to simply the metric) is the fundamental object of study. The metric captures all the geometric and causal structure of spacetime, being used to define notions such as time, distance, volume, curvature, angle, and separation of the future and the past.
+In general relativity, the metric tensor plays the role of the gravitational potential in the classical theory of gravitation, although the physical content of the associated equations is entirely different.  Gutfreund and Renn say ""that in general relativity the gravitational potential is represented by the metric tensor.""
+
+Notation and conventions
+This article works with a metric signature that is mostly positive (− + + +); see sign convention. The gravitation constant 
+  
+    
+      
+        G
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle G}
+   will be kept explicit. This article employs the Einstein summation convention, where repeated indices are automatically summed over.
+
+Definition
+Mathematically, spacetime is represented by a four-dimensional differentiable manifold 
+  
+    
+      
+        M
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle M}
+   and the metric tensor is given as a covariant, second-degree, symmetric tensor on 
+  
+    
+      
+        M
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle M}
+  , conventionally denoted by 
+  
+    
+      
+        g
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle g}
+  .",2145168,Metric tensor (general relativity),E
+329,"Melamine foam is a foam-like material consisting of a melamine-formaldehyde condensate. It is the active component of a number of abrasive cleaner sponges, notably the Magic Eraser.
+It is also used as thermal insulation and as a soundproofing material.
+
+Properties
+The open-cell foam is microporous and its polymeric substance is very hard, so that when used for cleaning it works like extremely fine sandpaper, getting into tiny grooves and pits in the object being cleaned. 
+On a larger scale, the material feels soft because the reticulated foam bubbles interconnect. Its structure is a 3D network of very hard strands, when compared to the array of separate bubbles in a material such as styrofoam.Being microporous it also effectively absorbs sound waves. 
+Being open-cell, it entrains countless air bubbles, giving it low thermal conductivity and thereby making it an effective insulator.
+
+Cleaning
+In the early 21st century, it was discovered that melamine foam is an effective abrasive cleaner.",4010566,Melamine foam,T
+330,"The antennas contained in mobile phones, including smartphones, emit radiofrequency (RF) radiation (non-ionizing ""radio waves"" such as microwaves); the parts of the head or body nearest to the antenna can absorb this energy and convert it to heat. Since at least the 1990s, scientists have researched whether the now-ubiquitous radiation associated with mobile phone antennas or cell phone towers is affecting human health. Mobile phone networks use various bands of RF radiation, some of which overlap with the microwave range. Other digital wireless systems, such as data communication networks, produce similar radiation.
+In response to public concern, the World Health Organization (WHO) established the International EMF (Electric and Magnetic Fields) Project in 1996 to assess the scientific evidence of possible health effects of EMF in the frequency range from 0 to 300 GHz. They have stated that although extensive research has been conducted into possible health effects of exposure to many parts of the frequency spectrum, all reviews conducted so far have indicated that, as long as exposures are below the limits recommended in the ICNIRP (1998) EMF guidelines, which cover the full frequency range from 0–300 GHz, such exposures do not produce any known adverse health effect.",1272748,Wireless device radiation and health,T
+331,"StarTram is a proposed space launch system propelled by maglev technology. The initial Generation 1 facility is proposed to launch cargo only from a mountain peak at an altitude of 3 to 7 kilometres (9,800 to 23,000 ft) using an evacuated tube remaining at local surface level. Annual orbital lift was estimated at approximately 150,000 tons. More advanced technology is required for a Generation 2 system for passengers, with a longer track instead gradually curving up at its end to the thinner air at 22 kilometres (72,000 ft) altitude, supported by magnetic levitation, reducing g-forces when each capsule transitions from the vacuum tube to the atmosphere. A SPESIF 2010 presentation stated that Generation 1 could be completed by the year 2020 or later if funding began in 2010, and Generation 2 by 2030 or later.
+
+History
+James R.",23102251,StarTram,T
+332,"Dynamic combinatorial chemistry (DCC); also known as constitutional dynamic chemistry (CDC) is a method to the generation of new molecules formed by reversible reaction of simple building blocks under thermodynamic control. The library of these reversibly interconverting building blocks is called a dynamic combinatorial library (DCL). All constituents in a DCL are in equilibrium, and their distribution is determined by their thermodynamic stability within the DCL. The interconversion of these building blocks may involve covalent or non-covalent interactions. When a DCL is exposed to an external influence (such as proteins or nucleic acids), the equilibrium shifts and those components that interact with the external influence are stabilised and amplified, allowing more of the active compound to be formed.
+
+History
+By modern definition, dynamic combinatorial chemistry is generally considered to be a method of facilitating the generation of new chemical species by the reversible linkage of simple building blocks, under thermodynamic control.",24519232,Dynamic combinatorial chemistry,M
+333,"A number of animals are capable of aerial locomotion, either by powered flight or by gliding. This trait has appeared by evolution many times, without any single common ancestor. Flight has evolved at least four times in separate animals: insects, pterosaurs, birds, and bats. Gliding has evolved on many more occasions. Usually the development is to aid canopy animals in getting from tree to tree, although there are other possibilities.",4014603,Flying and gliding animals,S
+334,"Jordan's rule (sense 1) is an ecogeographical rule that describes the inverse relationship between water temperature and meristic characteristics in various species of fish. The most commonly observed relationship is that fin ray, vertebrae, or scale numbers increase with decreasing temperature. The rule is named after David Starr Jordan (1851–1931), the father of American ichthyology.Jordan's law (or rule) (sense 2) is also an ecogeographical rule (named after the same scientist) that states: ""‘[g]iven any species in any region, the nearest related species is not likely to be found in the same region nor in a remote region, but in a neighbouring district separated from the first by a barrier of some sort’ This ""rule"" is frequently violated (see discussion in Fitzpatrick & Turelli 2007), but when patterns are consistent with Jordan's rule (sense 2), this suggests an important role for allopatric speciation in the diversification of the clade in question. Jordan himself wrote: ""To this generalization Dr. Allen, in a late number of Science, gives the name of 'Jordan's Law.' The present writer makes no claim to the discovery of this law.",13961741,Jordan's rule,S
+335,"A formal minor-planet designation is, in its final form, a number–name combination given to a minor planet (asteroid, centaur, trans-Neptunian object and dwarf planet but not comet). Such designation always features a leading number (catalog or IAU number) assigned to a body once its orbital path is sufficiently secured (so-called ""numbering""). The formal designation is based on the minor planet's provisional designation, which was previously assigned automatically when it had been observed for the first time. Later on, the provisional part of the formal designation may be replaced with a name (so-called ""naming""). Both formal and provisional designations are overseen by the Minor Planet Center (MPC), a branch of the International Astronomical Union.Currently, a number is assigned only after the orbit has been secured by four well-observed oppositions.",7378144,Minor-planet designation,M
+336,"This article contains a list of 3D printers.
+
+Metrics
+Some important 3D printer metrics include:
+
+Print technology: 3D printing processes encompasses a variety of methods which each have their own unique challenges.
+Length of production run and support: 3D printers often require adjustments and parts replacement. A long production run often means that spare parts are also available.
+Maximum build volume: Defines how large parts that are possible to print on a given printer. Often measured in millimeters, but sometimes in inches or centimeters instead.
+Minimum layer resolution: Defines the resolution of the print (usually the vertical resolution). Often measured in micrometers (µm). The actual resolution of a printer can usually be adjusted within an interval.
+Print speed: Defines how fast the printer is, and is usually measured in millimeters per second (mm/s).",43643043,Comparison of 3D printers,T
+337,"The SOECN (Sindicato de Obreros y Empleados Ceramistas de Neuquén) is a ceramist workers' union based in Neuquén province, Argentina. It is known for being one of the first unions in Argentina to employ a method of rank-and-file unionism, representing the workers of the FaSinPat cooperative.
+
+Style of Unionism
+SOECN was formed by the workers of the Zanon Ceramics factory in Neuquén in 2000. The SOECN employs a style of class-conscious unionism which seeks a political agenda beyond the workplace. The SOECN's constitution is grounded on three basic principles: worker's democracy, class autonomy, and internationalism and anti-imperialism. It employs a horizontal, minimally bureaucratic, and de-centralized form of organization.",39459730,SOECN,E
+338,"The Lancashire Loom was a semi-automatic power loom invented by James Bullough and William Kenworthy in 1842.  Although it is self-acting, it has to be stopped to recharge empty shuttles. It was the mainstay of the Lancashire cotton industry for a century.
+
+John Bullough
+John Bullough (1800–1868) was from Accrington, often described as a simple-minded Westhoughton weaver. Originally a handloom weaver, unlike others of his trade Bullough embraced new developments such as Edmund Cartwright's power loom (1785). While colleagues were busy rejecting new devices such as in the power-loom riots that broke out in Lancashire in 1826, Bullough improved his own loom by inventing various components, including the ""self-acting temple"" that kept the woven cloth at its correct width, and a loose reed that allowed the lathe to back away on encountering a shuttle trapped in the warp.",21264572,Lancashire Loom,E
+339,"Microsoft Compiled HTML Help is a Microsoft proprietary online help format, consisting of a collection of HTML pages, an index and other navigation tools. The files are compressed and deployed in a binary format with the extension .CHM, for Compiled HTML. The format is often used for software documentation.
+It was introduced as the successor to Microsoft WinHelp with the release of Windows 95 OSR 2.5 and consequently, Windows 98. Within the Windows NT family, the CHM file support is introduced in Windows NT 4.0 and is still supported in Windows 11. Although the format was designed by Microsoft, it has been successfully reverse-engineered and is now supported in many document viewer applications.
+
+History
+Microsoft has announced that they do not intend to add any new features to HTML Help.
+
+File format
+Help is delivered as a binary file with the .chm extension.",1749833,Microsoft Compiled HTML Help,T
+340,"Taguchi methods (Japanese: タグチメソッド) are statistical methods, sometimes called robust design methods, developed by Genichi Taguchi to improve the quality of manufactured goods, and more recently also applied to engineering, biotechnology, marketing and advertising.  Professional statisticians have welcomed the goals and improvements brought about by Taguchi methods, particularly by Taguchi's development of designs for studying variation, but have criticized the inefficiency of some of Taguchi's proposals.Taguchi's work includes three principal contributions to statistics:
+
+A specific loss function
+The philosophy of off-line quality control; and
+Innovations in the design of experiments.
+
+Loss functions
+Loss functions in the statistical theory
+Traditionally, statistical methods have relied on mean-unbiased estimators of treatment effects: Under the conditions of the Gauss–Markov theorem, least squares estimators have minimum variance among all mean-unbiased linear estimators. The emphasis on comparisons of means also draws (limiting) comfort from the law of large numbers, according to which the sample means converge to the true mean. Fisher's textbook on the design of experiments emphasized comparisons of treatment means.
+However, loss functions were avoided by Ronald A. Fisher.
+
+Taguchi's use of loss functions
+Taguchi knew statistical theory mainly from the followers of Ronald A.",442079,Taguchi methods,E
+341,"The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to second-language acquisition:
+Second-language acquisition –  process by which people learn a second language. Second-language acquisition (often abbreviated to SLA) also refers to the scientific discipline devoted to studying that process. Second language refers to any language learned in addition to a person's first language, including the learning of third, fourth, and subsequent languages. It is also called second-language learning, foreign language acquisition, and L2 acquisition.
+
+What is second-language acquisition?
+Second-language acquisition can be described as all of the following:
+
+Language acquisition – process by which humans acquire the capacity to perceive and comprehend language, as well as to produce and use words and sentences to communicate. Language acquisition is one of the quintessential human traits, because nonhumans do not communicate by using language.
+Academic discipline – branch of knowledge that is taught or researched at the college or university level.",39813996,Outline of second-language acquisition,S
+342,"A sound reinforcement system is the combination of microphones, signal processors, amplifiers, and loudspeakers in enclosures all controlled by a mixing console that makes live or pre-recorded sounds louder and may also distribute those sounds to a larger or more distant audience. In many situations, a sound reinforcement system is also used to enhance or alter the sound of the sources on the stage, typically by using electronic effects, such as reverb, as opposed to simply amplifying the sources unaltered.
+A sound reinforcement system for a rock concert in a stadium may be very complex, including hundreds of microphones, complex live sound mixing and signal processing systems, tens of thousands of watts of amplifier power, and multiple loudspeaker arrays, all overseen by a team of audio engineers and technicians. On the other hand, a sound reinforcement system can be as simple as a small public address (PA) system, consisting of, for example, a single microphone connected to a 100-watt amplified loudspeaker for a singer-guitarist playing in a small coffeehouse.  In both cases, these systems reinforce sound to make it louder or distribute it to a wider audience.Some audio engineers and others in the professional audio industry disagree over whether these audio systems should be called sound reinforcement (SR) systems or PA systems.  Distinguishing between the two terms by technology and capability is common, while others distinguish by intended use (e.g., SR systems are for live event support and PA systems are for reproduction of speech and recorded music in buildings and institutions).",764380,Sound reinforcement system,T
+343,"Vehicles that are powered by fossil fuels, such as gasoline (petrol), diesel, kerosene, and fuel oil are set to be phased out by a number of countries. It is one of the three most important parts of the general fossil fuel phase-out process, the others being the phase-out of fossil fuel power plants for electricity generation and decarbonisation of industry.Many countries and cities around the world have stated they will ban the sale of passenger vehicles (primarily cars and buses) powered by fossil fuels such as petrol, liquefied petroleum gas, and diesel at some time in the future. Synonyms for the bans include phrases like ""banning gas cars"", ""banning petrol cars"", ""the petrol and diesel car ban"", or simply ""the diesel ban"". Another method of phase-out is the use of zero-emission zones in cities.
+A few places have set dates for banning other types of vehicles, such as fossil-fuelled ships and lorries.
+
+Background
+Reasons for banning the further sale of fossil fuel vehicles include: reducing health risks from pollution particulates, notably diesel PM10s, and other emissions, notably nitrogen oxides; meeting national greenhouse gas, such as CO2, targets under international agreements such as the Kyoto Protocol and the Paris Agreement; or energy independence. The intent to ban vehicles powered by fossil fuels is attractive to governments as it offers a simpler compliance target, compared with a carbon tax or phase-out of fossil fuels.
+The automotive industry is working to introduce electric vehicles to adapt to bans with varying success and it is seen by some in the industry as a possible source of money in a declining market.",55503807,Phase-out of fossil fuel vehicles,T
+344,"A geometric separator is a line (or another shape) that partitions a collection of geometric shapes into two subsets, such that proportion of shapes in each subset is bounded, and the number of shapes that do not belong to any subset (i.e. the shapes intersected by the separator itself) is small.
+When a geometric separator exists, it can be used for building divide-and-conquer algorithms for solving various problems in computational geometry.
+
+Separators that are lines
+General question
+In 1979, Helge Tverberg raised the following question. For two positive integers k, l, what is the smallest number n(k,l) such that, for any family of pairwise-disjoint convex objects in the plane, there exists a straight line that has at least k objects on one side and at least l on the other side?
+The following results are known.
+
+Obviously, n(1,1)=1.
+Hope and Katchalski proved that  n(k,1) ≤ 12(k-1)  for all  k ≥ 2.
+Villanger proved that n(2,2) = ∞: he showed an infinite family of pairwise-disjoint segments such that no straight line has two segments in each side. Pach and Tardos showed a simpler construction using only unit segments, and another construction using only discs (or squares).
+
+Separators for axes-parallel rectangles
+Given a set of N=4k disjoint axis-parallel rectangles in the plane, there is a line, either horizontal or vertical, such that at least N/4 rectangles lie entirely to each side of it (thus at most N/2 rectangles are intersected by the separator line).
+
+Proof
+Define W as the most western vertical line with at least N/4 rectangles entirely to its west. There are two cases:
+
+If there are at least N/4 rectangles entirely to the east of W, then W is a vertical separator.
+Otherwise, by moving W slightly to the west, we get a vertical line that intersects more than N/2 rectangles.",41620938,Geometric separator,M
+345,"The term ""technological evolution"" captures explanations of technological change that draw on mechanisms from evolutionary biology. Evolutionary biology has one of its roots in the book “On the origin of species” by Charles Darwin. In the style of this catchphrase, technological evolution might describe the origin of new technologies.
+
+Combinatoric theory of technological change
+The combinatoric theory of technological change states that every technology always consists of simpler technologies and a new technology is made of already existing technologies. One notion of this theory is that this interaction of technologies creates a network. All the technologies which interact to form a new technology can be thought of as complements, such as a screwdriver and a screw which by their interaction create the process of screwing a screw.",1174964,Technological evolution,T
+346,"A quad chart is a form of technical documentation used to briefly describe an invention or other innovation through writing, illustration and/or photographs. Such documents are described as ""quad"" charts because they are divided into four quadrants laid out on a landscape perspective. They are typically one-page only; their succinctness facilitates rapid decision-making. Though shorter, quad charts often serve in a similar capacity to white papers and the two documents are often requested alongside one another.
+
+History
+Quad charts as a genre were developed by the United States Department of Commerce's National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration in an attempt to improve budgeting and planning systems, and became widely used in the Administration's National Weather Service. The genre's development was parallel to that of display boards, also an early tool used by the NWS for staff communication.
+In the early 2000s, software was developed to allow automated creation of quad charts as a means of saving time for technical writers who would otherwise spend long periods of time drafting them.
+
+Significance
+Both government agencies and large businesses often require submission of a quad chart on the part of potential contractors as part of the contract bidding process.",38570790,Quad chart,T
+347,"Survivability is the ability to remain alive or continue to exist.  The term has more specific meaning in certain contexts.
+
+Ecological
+Following disruptive forces such as flood, fire, disease, war, or climate change some species of  flora, fauna, and local life forms  are likely to survive more successfully than others because of consequent changes to their surrounding biophysical conditions.
+
+Engineering
+In engineering, survivability is the quantified ability of a system, subsystem, equipment, process, or procedure to continue to function during and after a natural or man-made disturbance; for example a nuclear electromagnetic pulse from the detonation of a nuclear weapon.
+For a given application, survivability must be qualified by specifying the range of conditions over which the entity will survive, the minimum acceptable level or post-disturbance functionality, and the maximum acceptable downtime.
+
+Military
+In the military environment, survivability can be defined as the ability to remain mission capable after a single engagement. Engineers working in survivability are often responsible for improving four main system elements:
+Detectability - the inability to avoid being aurally and visually detected as well as detected by radar (by an observer).
+Susceptibility - the inability to avoid being hit (by a weapon).
+Vulnerability - the inability to withstand the hit.
+Recoverability - longer-term post-hit effects, damage control, and firefighting, capability restoration, or (in extremis) escape and evacuation.The European Survivability Workshop introduced the concept of ""Mission Survivability"" whilst retaining the three core areas above, either pertaining to the ""survivability"" of a platform through a complete mission, or the ""survivability"" of the mission itself (i.e. probability of mission success). Recent studies have also introduced the concept of ""Force Survivability"" which relates to the ability of a force rather than an individual platform to remain ""mission capable"".
+There is no clear prioritisation of the three elements; this will depend on the characteristics and role of the platform.",41764,Survivability,E
+348,"Electrical steel (E-steel, lamination steel, silicon electrical steel, silicon steel, relay steel, transformer steel) is speciality steel used in the cores of electromagnetic devices 
+such as motors, generators, and transformers because it reduces power loss. It is an iron alloy with silicon as the main additive element (instead of carbon). The exact formulation is tailored to produce specific magnetic properties: small hysteresis area resulting in low power loss per cycle, low core loss, and high permeability.
+Electrical steel is usually manufactured in cold-rolled strips less than 2 mm thick.  These strips are cut to shape to make laminations which are stacked together to form the laminated cores of transformers, and the stator and rotor of electric motors. Laminations may be cut to their finished shape by a punch and die or, in smaller quantities, may be cut by a laser, or by wire electrical discharge machining.
+
+Metallurgy
+Electrical steel is an iron alloy which may have from zero to 6.5% silicon (Si:5Fe).",3737589,Electrical steel,M
+349,"In recent years, 3D printing has developed significantly and can now perform crucial roles in many applications, with the most common applications being manufacturing, medicine, architecture, custom art and design, and can vary from fully functional to purely aesthetic applications. 
+
+3D printing processes are finally catching up to their full potential, and are currently being used in manufacturing and medical industries, as well as by sociocultural sectors which facilitate 3D printing for commercial purposes. There has been a lot of hype in the last decade when referring to the possibilities we can achieve by adopting 3D printing as one of the main manufacturing technologies. Utilizing this technology would replace traditional methods that can be costly and time consuming. There have been case studies outlining how the customization abilities of 3D printing through modifiable files have been beneficial for cost and time effectiveness in a healthcare applications.There are different types of 3D printing such as Fused filament fabrication (FFF), Stereolithography (SLA), Selective Laser Sintering (SLS), polyjet printing, Multi-Jet Fusion (MJF), Direct Metal Laser Sintering (DMLS), and Electron Beam Melting (EBM).
+For a long time, the issue with 3D printing was that it has demanded very high entry costs, which does not allow profitable implementation to mass-manufacturers when compared to standard processes.",53292889,Applications of 3D printing,E
+350,"Industrial engineering is an engineering profession that is concerned with the optimization of complex processes, systems, or organizations by developing, improving and implementing integrated systems of people, money, knowledge, information and equipment. Industrial engineering is central to manufacturing operations.Industrial engineers use specialized knowledge and skills in the mathematical,  physical and social sciences, together with the principles and methods of engineering analysis and design, to specify, predict, and evaluate the results obtained from systems and processes. There are several industrial engineering principles followed in the manufacturing industry to ensure the effective flow of the systems, processes and operations.This includes:
+
+Lean Manufacturing
+Six Sigma
+Information Systems
+Process Capability
+Define, Measure, Analyze, Improve and Control (DMAIC).These principles allow the creation of new systems, processes or situations for the useful coordination of labor, materials and machines and also improve the quality and productivity of systems, physical or social. Depending on the subspecialties involved, industrial engineering may also overlap with, operations research, systems engineering, manufacturing engineering, production engineering, supply chain engineering, management science, management engineering, financial engineering, ergonomics or human factors engineering, safety engineering, logistics engineering or others, depending on the viewpoint or motives of the user.
+
+History
+Origins
+Industrial engineering
+There is a general consensus among historians that the roots of the industrial engineering profession date back to the Industrial Revolution.  The technologies that helped mechanize traditional manual operations in the textile industry including the flying shuttle, the spinning jenny, and perhaps most importantly the steam engine generated economies of scale that made mass production in centralized locations attractive for the first time.",23535218,Industrial engineering,E
+351,"Thermophyte (Greek thérmos = warmth, heat + phyton = plant)  is an organism which is tolerant or thriving  at high temperatures. These organisms are categorized according to ecological valences at high temperatures, including biological extremely. Such organisms included the hot-spring taxa also.A large amount of thermophytes are algae, more specifically blue-green algae, also referred to as cyanobacteria. This type of algae thrives in hot conditions ranging anywhere from 50 to 70 degrees Celsius, which other plants and organisms cannot survive in. Thermophytes are able to survive extreme temperatures as their cells contain an “unorganized nucleus”.
+As the name suggests, thermophytes are found in high temperatures.",52841665,Thermophyte,S
+352,"In number theory, a factorion in a given number base 
+  
+    
+      
+        b
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle b}
+   is a natural number that equals the sum of the factorials of its digits. The name factorion was coined by the author Clifford A. Pickover.
+
+Definition
+Let 
+  
+    
+      
+        n
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle n}
+   be a natural number.  For a base 
+  
+    
+      
+        b
+        >
+        1
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle b>1}
+  , we define the sum of the factorials of the digits of 
+  
+    
+      
+        n
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle n}
+  , 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          SFD
+          
+            b
+          
+        
+        :
+        
+          N
+        
+        →
+        
+          N
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \operatorname {SFD} _{b}:\mathbb {N} \rightarrow \mathbb {N} }
+  , to be the following:
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          SFD
+          
+            b
+          
+        
+        ⁡
+        (
+        n
+        )
+        =
+        
+          ∑
+          
+            i
+            =
+            0
+          
+          
+            k
+            −
+            1
+          
+        
+        
+          d
+          
+            i
+          
+        
+        !
+        .
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \operatorname {SFD} _{b}(n)=\sum _{i=0}^{k-1}d_{i}!.}
+  where 
+  
+    
+      
+        k
+        =
+        ⌊
+        
+          log
+          
+            b
+          
+        
+        ⁡
+        n
+        ⌋
+        +
+        1
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle k=\lfloor \log _{b}n\rfloor +1}
+   is the number of digits in the number in base 
+  
+    
+      
+        b
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle b}
+  , 
+  
+    
+      
+        n
+        !
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle n!}
+   is the factorial of 
+  
+    
+      
+        n
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle n}
+   and 
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          d
+          
+            i
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          
+            
+              n
+              
+                mod
+                
+                  
+                    b
+                    
+                      i
+                      +
+                      1
+                    
+                  
+                
+              
+              −
+              n
+              
+                mod
+                
+                  
+                    b
+                    
+                      i
+                    
+                  
+                
+              
+            
+            
+              b
+              
+                i
+              
+            
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle d_{i}={\frac {n{\bmod {b^{i+1}}}-n{\bmod {b^{i}}}}{b^{i}}}}
+  is the value of the 
+  
+    
+      
+        i
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle i}
+  th digit of the number. A natural number 
+  
+    
+      
+        n
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle n}
+   is a 
+  
+    
+      
+        b
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle b}
+  -factorion if it is a fixed point for 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          SFD
+          
+            b
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \operatorname {SFD} _{b}}
+  , i.e.",13247379,Factorion,M
+353,"A Hebrew keyboard (Hebrew: מקלדת עברית mikledet ivrit) comes in two different keyboard layouts. Most Hebrew keyboards are bilingual, with Latin characters, usually in a US Qwerty layout. Trilingual keyboard options also exist, with the third script being Arabic or Russian, due to the sizable Arabic- and Russian-speaking populations in Israel.
+
+Layouts
+Standard Hebrew keyboard
+Standard Hebrew keyboards have a 101/104-key layout.  Like the standard English keyboard layout, QWERTY, the Hebrew layout was derived from the order of letters on Hebrew typewriters. The layout is codified in SI-1452 by SII.",6145986,Hebrew keyboard,T
+354,"A smokestack industry is a basic, usually cyclical, manufacturing industry. The factories stereotypically used in such industries that have flue gas stacks, hence the name, and produce a high volume of pollution. During the earliest era of electric power development, coal fired electric stations in urban areas were common prior to the use of Alternating current for lighting as Direct current electricity could only travel short distances.Example industries include:
+
+Iron and steelworks
+Automotive industry
+Chemical industry
+Electric industrySmokestacks are large industrial chimneys used in the process of combusting mostly fossil fuels in furnaces with the goal of producing steam to drive generators for electricity, for the smelting ores, or as a separation or refinery process.  The carefully constructed circular stacks were used to both increase the flow of combustible air but also isolate exhaust gases, carbon dioxide and pollutants from ground level releases during ever larger industrial activities.  The difference in temperature between the bottom inside and outside of the stack helped to increase the rate air flow through the furnace known as the stack effect.
+
+History
+Smokestacks were first used during industrial revolution between the 18th century and 19th centuries and were known to foul the airs in most larger cities but were most noted in large industrial centers like Manchester England or Pittsburgh Pennsylvania.",14352573,Smokestack industry,E
+355,"In computer vision, pattern recognition, and robotics, point-set registration, also known as point-cloud registration or scan matching, is the process of finding a spatial transformation (e.g., scaling, rotation and translation) that aligns two point clouds. The purpose of finding such a transformation includes merging multiple data sets into a globally consistent model (or coordinate frame), and mapping a new measurement to a known data set to identify features or to estimate its pose. Raw 3D point cloud data are typically obtained from Lidars and RGB-D cameras. 3D point clouds can also be generated from computer vision algorithms such as triangulation, bundle adjustment, and more recently, monocular image depth estimation using deep learning. For 2D point set registration used in image processing and feature-based image registration, a point set may be 2D pixel coordinates obtained by feature extraction from an image, for example corner detection.",40374554,Point-set registration,E
+356,"Failure mode and effects analysis (FMEA; often written with ""failure modes"" in plural) is the process of reviewing as many components, assemblies, and subsystems as possible to identify potential failure modes in a system and their causes and effects. For each component, the failure modes and their resulting effects on the rest of the system are recorded in a specific FMEA worksheet. There are numerous variations of such worksheets. An FMEA can be a qualitative analysis, but may be put on a quantitative basis when mathematical failure rate models are combined with a statistical failure mode ratio database. It was one of the first highly structured, systematic techniques for failure analysis.",981631,Failure mode and effects analysis,E
+357,"In the domain of systems engineering, Specialty Engineering is defined as and includes the engineering disciplines that are not typical of the main engineering effort.  More common engineering efforts in systems engineering such as hardware, software, and human factors engineering may be used as major elements in a majority of systems engineering efforts and therefore are not viewed as ""special"".  
+Examples of specialty engineering include electromagnetic interference, safety, and physical security.Less common engineering domains such as electromagnetic interference, electrical grounding, safety, security, electrical power filtering/uninterruptible supply, manufacturability, and environmental engineering may be included in systems engineering efforts where they have been identified to address special system implementations. These less common but just as important engineering efforts are then viewed as ""specialty engineering"".
+However, if the specific system has a standard implementation of environmental or security for example, the situation is reversed and the human factors engineering or hardware/software engineering may be the ""specialty engineering"" domain. 
+The key take away is; the context of the system engineering project and unique needs of the project are fundamental when thinking of what are the specialty engineering efforts.",5548333,Specialty engineering,E
+358,"In category theory, a branch of mathematics, an ∞-groupoid is an abstract homotopical model for topological spaces. One model uses Kan complexes which are fibrant objects in the category of simplicial sets (with the standard model structure). It is an ∞-category generalization of a groupoid, a category in which every morphism is an isomorphism.
+The homotopy hypothesis states that ∞-groupoids are equivalent to spaces up to homotopy.: 2–3
+
+Globular Groupoids
+Alexander Grothendieck suggested in Pursuing Stacks: 3–4, 201  that there should be an extraordinarily simple model of ∞-groupoids using globular sets, originally called hemispherical complexes. These sets are constructed as presheaves on the globular category 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          G
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \mathbb {G} }
+  . This is defined as the category whose objects are finite ordinals 
+  
+    
+      
+        [
+        n
+        ]
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle [n]}
+   and morphisms are given by
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            
+              
+                
+                  σ
+                  
+                    n
+                  
+                
+                :
+                [
+                n
+                ]
+                →
+                [
+                n
+                +
+                1
+                ]
+              
+            
+            
+              
+                
+                  τ
+                  
+                    n
+                  
+                
+                :
+                [
+                n
+                ]
+                →
+                [
+                n
+                +
+                1
+                ]
+              
+            
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\sigma _{n}:[n]\to [n+1]\\\tau _{n}:[n]\to [n+1]\end{aligned}}}
+  such that the globular relations hold
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            
+              
+                
+                  σ
+                  
+                    n
+                    +
+                    1
+                  
+                
+                ∘
+                
+                  σ
+                  
+                    n
+                  
+                
+              
+              
+                
+                =
+                
+                  τ
+                  
+                    n
+                    +
+                    1
+                  
+                
+                ∘
+                
+                  σ
+                  
+                    n
+                  
+                
+              
+            
+            
+              
+                
+                  σ
+                  
+                    n
+                    +
+                    1
+                  
+                
+                ∘
+                
+                  τ
+                  
+                    n
+                  
+                
+              
+              
+                
+                =
+                
+                  τ
+                  
+                    n
+                    +
+                    1
+                  
+                
+                ∘
+                
+                  τ
+                  
+                    n
+                  
+                
+              
+            
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\sigma _{n+1}\circ \sigma _{n}&=\tau _{n+1}\circ \sigma _{n}\\\sigma _{n+1}\circ \tau _{n}&=\tau _{n+1}\circ \tau _{n}\end{aligned}}}
+  These encode the fact that 
+  
+    
+      
+        n
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle n}
+  -morphisms should not be able to see 
+  
+    
+      
+        (
+        n
+        +
+        1
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle (n+1)}
+  -morphisms.",40965675,∞-groupoid,M
+359,"Netzler & Dahlgren Co AB, or NDC for short, was a Swedish company founded in 1962 by Göran Netzler and Anders Dahlgren. The initial business idea was to build customized electronics equipment. Over the years, NDC evolved into a technology platform provider (navigation, hardware, software) for AGV (automated guided vehicle) builders. Danaher acquired NDC in 2001.
+
+History
+The first years
+NDC began producing specially built electronics equipment on a small scale for a variety of industries, for example, manufacturing and marine. The number of owners grew in the 1960s to include Ingvar Bergström, Arne Nilsson and Jan Jutander.
+At the beginning of the 1970s, NDC had some 30 employees and started to attract big companies such as Getinge, Tetra Pak and Volvo.",48621885,NDC Netzler & Dahlgren Co AB,E
+360,"Doubling is a textile industry term synonymous with combining. It can be used for various processes during spinning. During the carding stage, several sources of roving are doubled together and drawn, to remove variations in thickness. After spinning, yarn is doubled for many reasons. Yarn may be doubled to produce warp for weaving, to make cotton for lace, crochet and knitting.",42802461,Doubling (textiles),E
+361,"Fallout is a RTÉ two-part fictional, doom laden, docudrama. It deals with the nuclear fallout following a hypothetical disaster in the Sellafield Nuclear Reprocessing Plant in Cumbria on the British coast of the Irish Sea. The docu-drama suggests that, due to a changing wind direction, Ireland would bear the brunt of the British accident. The docu-drama was based on the false premise, that such an accident as depicted in the drama could happen and that parts of Ireland would need to be evacuated following a serious accident at Sellafield. Dr Ann McGarry, chief executive of the Radiological Protection Institute of Ireland, said: ""The scenario envisaged in the programme is not realistic and grossly exaggerates the amount of radioactivity that could reach Ireland.",4869152,Fallout (2006 TV series),T
+362,"Cardiophysics is an interdisciplinary science that stands at the junction of cardiology and medical physics, with researchers using the methods of, and theories from, physics to study cardiovascular system at different levels of its organisation, from the molecular scale to whole organisms. Being formed historically as part of systems biology, cardiophysics designed to reveal connections between the physical mechanisms, underlying the organization of the cardiovascular system, and biological features of its functioning.
+Zbigniew R. Struzik seems to be a first author who used the term in a scientific publication in 2004.
+One can use interchangeably also the terms cardiovascular physics.
+
+See also
+Medical physics
+Important publications in medical physics
+Biomedicine
+Biomedical engineering
+Physiome
+Nanomedicine
+
+References
+Books
+Kohl, Peter; Sachs, Frederick; Franz, Michael R. (2011). Cardiac Mechano-Electric Coupling and Arrhythmias.",38849672,Cardiophysics,S
+363,"In signal processing, a signal is a function that conveys information about a phenomenon. Any quantity that can vary over space or time can be used as a signal to share messages between observers. The IEEE Transactions on Signal Processing includes audio, video, speech, image, sonar, and radar as examples of signals. A signal may also be defined as any observable change in a quantity over space or time (a time series), even if it does not carry information.In nature, signals can be actions done by an organism to alert other organisms, ranging from the release of plant chemicals to warn nearby plants of a predator, to sounds or motions made by animals to alert other animals of food. Signaling occurs in all organisms even at cellular levels, with cell signaling.",275871,Signal,E
+364,"Rear Admiral Sir Home Riggs Popham, KCB, KCH (12 October 1762 – 20 September 1820), was a Royal Navy commander who saw service against the French during the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars. He is remembered for his scientific accomplishments, particularly the development of a signal code that was adopted by the Royal Navy in 1803.
+
+Early life
+Childhood
+Home Popham was born in Gibraltar on 12 October 1762, the fifteenth child of Joseph Popham, British consul at Tétouan in Morocco, and his first wife Mary, née Riggs. It is likely that the child's first name was chosen to honour Gibraltar's former Governor William Home.  Mary Popham died an hour after Home was born, from complications associated with the birth. Nine months later Joseph married Catherine Lamb, who became responsible for raising Home and his siblings.",637427,Home Riggs Popham,E
+365,"An hourglass (or sandglass, sand timer, or sand clock) is a device used to measure the passage of time. It comprises two glass bulbs connected vertically by a narrow neck that allows a regulated flow of a substance (historically sand) from the upper bulb to the lower one by gravity. Typically, the upper and lower bulbs are symmetric so that the hourglass will measure the same duration regardless of orientation. The specific duration of time a given hourglass measures is determined by factors including the quantity and coarseness of the particulate matter, the bulb size, and the neck width.
+Depictions of an hourglass as a symbol of the passage of time are found in art, especially on tombstones or other monuments, from antiquity to the present day. The form of a winged hourglass has been used as a literal depiction of the Latin phrase tempus fugit (""time flies"").
+
+History
+Antiquity
+The origin of the hourglass is unclear.",4166493,Hourglass,T
+366,"Unibuddy is an EdTech company that provides a student engagement platform for higher education institutions. The platform allows prospective and current students to connect with student ambassadors and alumni from the same or similar courses, providing a peer-to-peer support network enabling prospective students to learn about life at a particular university, including course information, accommodation, and student life. Unibuddy was founded in 2015 by Kimeshan Naidoo and Diego Fanara and is headquartered in London, United Kingdom.
+
+Products
+Unibuddy's main product is Chat, a student engagement platform that enables higher education institutions to connect prospective and current students with student ambassadors and alumni. The platform includes features such as one-to-one messaging, group chat, and video calling, as well as a range of tools for student ambassadors to manage their interactions with prospective students. In 2022, Unibuddy focussed on its newest Community product to help higher education institutions create belonging and to help students connect with each other over common interests.
+
+Partnerships
+Unibuddy has partnerships with over 600 higher education institutions around the world, including the University of Cambridge, NYU, Imperial College London and Arizona State University.",72512142,Unibuddy,M
+367,"Alnylam Pharmaceuticals, Inc. is an American biopharmaceutical company focused on the discovery, development and commercialization of RNA interference (RNAi) therapeutics for genetically defined diseases. The company was founded in 2002 and is headquartered in Cambridge, Massachusetts. In 2016, Forbes included the company on its ""100 Most Innovative Growth Companies"" list.
+
+History
+The company is a spin-off from the Max Planck Institute for Biophysical Chemistry. In 2002, Alnylam was founded by scientists Phillip Sharp, Paul Schimmel, David Bartel, Thomas Tuschl, and Phillip Zamore, and by investors Christoph Westphal and John Kennedy Clarke; John Maraganore was the founding CEO.",40448087,Alnylam Pharmaceuticals,S
+368,"An oncolytic virus is a virus that preferentially infects and kills cancer cells. As the infected cancer cells are destroyed by oncolysis, they release new infectious virus particles or virions to help destroy the remaining tumour. Oncolytic viruses are thought not only to cause direct destruction of the tumour cells, but also to stimulate host anti-tumour immune system responses. Oncolytic viruses also have the ability to affect the tumor micro-environment in multiple ways.The potential of viruses as anti-cancer agents was first realised in the early twentieth century, although coordinated research efforts did not begin until the 1960s. A number of viruses including adenovirus, reovirus, measles, herpes simplex, Newcastle disease virus, and vaccinia have been clinically tested as oncolytic agents.",1723667,Oncolytic virus,S
+369,"Chip formation is part of the process of cutting materials by mechanical means, using tools such as saws, lathes and milling cutters.
+The formal study of chip formation was encouraged around World War II and shortly afterwards, with increases in the use of faster and more powerful cutting machines, particularly for metal cutting with the new high speed steel cutters. Pioneering work in this field was carried out by Kivima (1952) and Franz (1958).Chip formation is usually described according to a three-way model developed by Franz. This model is best known within the field of machine tool design, although it is also used when an application area, such as woodworking, requires a vocabulary to describe chip formation in more detail than is usually attempted.
+
+Chip classification
+The first three chip types are the original characterisation, by Dr. Norman Franz. The type of chip that forms depends on many factors, of both tool and material.",32534682,Chip formation,E
+370,"Sokol and Sokol-2 were Soviet 35 mm photo camera brands. In 1966–1986, more than 400,000 were produced by LOMO. Some were exported to Europe. The price of the camera in 1977 was 145 rubles, almost one and a half times more expensive than the mirror ""Zenith-E"" with interchangeable optics. For Soviet photographers, Sokol proved to be too expensive, and for professional photography it was unsuitable.",30735054,Sokol (camera),T
+371,"Space is a three-dimensional continuum containing positions and directions. In classical physics, physical space is often conceived in three linear dimensions. Modern physicists usually consider it, with time, to be part of a boundless four-dimensional continuum known as spacetime. The concept of space is considered to be of fundamental importance to an understanding of the physical universe. However, disagreement continues between philosophers over whether it is itself an entity, a relationship between entities, or part of a conceptual framework.
+Debates concerning the nature, essence and the mode of existence of space date back to antiquity; namely, to treatises like the Timaeus of Plato, or Socrates in his reflections on what the Greeks called khôra (i.e.",27667,Space,M
+372,"The Nadal formula, also called Nadal's formula, is an equation in railway design that relates the downward force exerted by a train's wheels upon the rail, with the lateral force of the wheel's flange against the face of the rail. This relationship is significant in railway design, as a wheel-climb derailment may occur if the lateral and vertical forces are not properly considered.The Nadal formula is represented by:
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          (
+          
+            
+              L
+              V
+            
+          
+          )
+        
+        
+          =
+        
+        
+          (
+          
+            
+              
+                tan
+                ⁡
+                (
+                δ
+                )
+                −
+                μ
+              
+              
+                1
+                +
+                μ
+                ∗
+                tan
+                ⁡
+                (
+                δ
+                )
+              
+            
+          
+          )
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \left({\frac {L}{V}}\right){=}\left({\frac {\tan(\delta )-\mu }{1+\mu *\tan(\delta )}}\right)}
+  
+In this equation, L and V refer to the lateral and vertical forces acting upon the rail and wheel, δ is the angle made when the wheel flange is in contact with the rail face, and μ is the coefficient of friction between the wheel and the rail.Typically, the axle load for a railway vehicle should be such that the lateral forces of the wheel against the rail should not exceed 50% of the vertical down-force of the vehicle on the rail. Put another way, there should be twice as much downward force holding the wheel to the rail, as there is lateral force which will tend to cause the wheel to climb in turns. This ratio is accomplished by matching the wheelset with the appropriate rail profile to achieve the L/V ratio desired. If the L/V ratio gets too high, the wheel flange will be pressing against the rail face, and during a turn this will cause the wheel to climb the face of the rail, potentially derailing the railcar.
+
+Wagner Formula
+The Nadal formula assumes the wheel remains perpendicular to the rail—it does not take into account hunting oscillation of the wheelset, or the movement of the wheel flange contact point against the rail.A variation of the Nadal formula, which does take these factors into consideration, is the Wagner formula.",27480090,Nadal formula,S
+373,"Douez v Facebook Inc., 2017 SCC 33 is a Supreme Court of Canada case which analyzes the enforceability of forum selection clauses in consumer facing contracts.
+
+Background
+In 2011, Facebook introduced a “sponsored stories”  feature which used the name and photo of Facebook users to advertise products and companies to other users. Facebook is headquartered in California, while the representative plaintiff resided in British Columbia. The plaintiff alleged that the use of her name and likeness without obtaining prior consent violated British Columbia’s provincial Privacy Act and sought to certify her class. Facebook’s terms and conditions included a clause reading:""You will resolve any claim, cause of action or dispute (claim) you have with us arising out of or relating to this Statement or Facebook exclusively in a state or federal court located in Santa Clara County. The laws of the State of California will govern this Statement, as well as any claim that might arise between you and us, without regard to conflict of law provisions.",66812466,Douez v. Facebook,T
+374,"Project engineering includes all parts of the design of manufacturing or processing facilities, either new or modifications to and expansions of existing facilities.  A ""project"" consists of a coordinated series of activities or tasks performed by engineers, designers, drafters and others from one or more engineering disciplines or departments.  Project tasks consist of such things as performing calculations, writing specifications, preparing bids, reviewing equipment proposals and evaluating or selecting equipment and preparing various lists, such as equipment and materials lists, and creating drawings such as electrical, piping and instrumentation diagrams, physical layouts and other drawings used in design and construction. A small project may be under the direction of a project engineer. Large projects are typically under the direction of a project manager or management team.",13324782,Project engineering,E
+375,"Vicki L. Sato is a retired professor of management practice at Harvard Business School and a professor of the practice in the department of molecular and cell biology at Harvard University. Since 2021, she has been a member of the President’s Council of Advisors on Science and Technology (PCAST).
+
+Background and career
+She earned her A.B. in Biology from Radcliffe College and her A.M. and Ph.D.",38165465,Vicki Sato,S
+376,"The FAO Country Profiles is a multilingual web portal which repackages the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) information archive on its global activities in agriculture and food security in a single area and catalogues it exclusively by country and thematic areas.
+The organization aims to offer decision-makers, researchers and project formulators around the world a fast and reliable way to access country-specific information on national food security situations without the need to search individual databases and systems. It aids FAO's database by providing a simple interface containing interactive maps and charts.
+
+Background
+FAO has highlighted information and Knowledge sharing as priority areas in fighting hunger and achieving food security. In this context, FAO identified countries could improve their national programs on agriculture and food security if they accessed FAO's information through a cross-sectoral (or interdisciplinary) country-based approach. Despite the existence of a large number of country-based information systems in FAO, the information managed by the various systems lacked integration. Information was generated and used in a circumscribed manner and tailored to a specific system, department or sector.
+The FAO Country Profiles portal, initially called FAO Country Profiles and Mapping Information System, was launched in 2002 responding to the Organization's need to provide FAO web site's users an easy to use mechanism to find FAO country-specific information without the need to search individual FAO web sites, databases or systems.",24515769,FAO Country Profiles,T
+377,"Engineering tolerance  is the permissible limit or limits of variation in:
+
+a physical dimension;
+a measured value or physical property of a material, manufactured object, system, or service;
+other measured values (such as temperature, humidity, etc.);
+in engineering and safety, a physical distance or space (tolerance), as in a truck (lorry), train or boat under a bridge as well as a train in a tunnel (see structure gauge and loading gauge);
+in mechanical engineering, the space between a bolt and a nut or a hole, etc.Dimensions, properties, or conditions may have some variation without significantly affecting functioning of systems, machines, structures, etc. A variation beyond the tolerance (for example, a temperature that is too hot or too cold) is said to be noncompliant, rejected, or exceeding the tolerance.
+
+Considerations when setting tolerances
+A primary concern is to determine how wide the tolerances may be without affecting other factors or the outcome of a process.  This can be by the use of scientific principles, engineering knowledge, and professional experience. Experimental investigation is very useful to investigate the effects of tolerances: Design of experiments, formal engineering evaluations, etc.
+A good set of engineering tolerances in a specification, by itself, does not imply that compliance with those tolerances will be achieved.  Actual production of any product (or operation of any system) involves some inherent variation of input and output.",522062,Engineering tolerance,E
+378,"The regulation of artificial intelligence is the development of public sector policies and laws for promoting and regulating artificial intelligence (AI); it is therefore related to the broader regulation of algorithms.  The regulatory and policy landscape for AI is an emerging issue in jurisdictions globally, including in the European Union and in supra-national bodies like the IEEE, OECD and others. Since 2016, a wave of AI ethics guidelines have been published in order to maintain social control over the technology. Regulation is considered necessary to both encourage AI and manage associated risks. In addition to regulation, AI-deploying organizations need to play a central role in creating and deploying trustworthy AI in line with the principles of trustworthy AI, and take accountability to mitigate the risks.",63451675,Regulation of artificial intelligence,T
+379,"Patrick ""Pat"" Michael Hayes (October 26, 1942 - May 2, 2011) was a politician in Ontario, Canada. He served as a New Democratic member of the Legislative Assembly of Ontario from 1985 to 1987, and again from 1990 to 1995.
+
+Background
+Hayes was born in Maidstone Township, Ontario. He was the 13th child in a family of 18 children. He did not complete high school, instead he got a job at Ford Motors. Hayes reflected on his early life choices.",1637007,Patrick Michael Hayes,E
+380,"Engineering psychology, also known as Human Factors Engineering, is the science of human behavior and capability, applied to the design and operation of systems and technology.
+As an applied field of psychology and an interdisciplinary part of ergonomics, it aims to improve the relationships between people and machines by redesigning equipment, interactions, or the environment in which they take place. The work of an engineering psychologist is often described as making the relationship more ""user-friendly.""
+
+History
+Engineering psychology was created from within experimental psychology. Engineering psychology started during World War I (1914). The reason why this subject was developed during this time was because many of America's weapons were failing; bombs not falling in the right place to weapons attacking normal marine life. The fault was traced back to human errors.",7578771,Engineering psychology,E
+381,"Co-creation, in the context of a business, refers to a product or service design process in which input from consumers plays a central role from beginning to end. Less specifically, the term is also used for any way in which a business allows consumers to submit ideas, designs or content. This way, the firm will not run out of ideas regarding the design to be created and at the same time, it will further strengthen the business relationship between the firm and its customers. Another meaning is the creation of value by ordinary people, whether for a company or not.
+
+Co-Creation Typology
+Aric Rindfleisch and Matt O'Hern define customer co-creation in digital marketing as ""a collaborative NPD (new product development) activity in which customers actively contribute and/or select the content of a new product offering"" and state that, like all NPD processes, it consists of two steps, namely contribution (of content) and selection (of the best contributions).Rindfleisch and O'Hern categorize different types of co-creation in digital marketing based on how strict the requirements on submissions are (fixed vs. open) and if the selection is done by the customers themselves or by the firm (firm-led vs.",7598275,Co-creation,T
+382,"Artificial nails, also known as fake nails, false nails, acrylic nails, nail extensions or nail enhancements, are extensions placed over fingernails as fashion accessories. Many artificial nail designs attempt to mimic the appearance of real fingernails as closely as possible, while others may deliberately stray in favor of an artistic look.
+Artificial nails require regular upkeep; it is recommended that they are attended to, on average, every two weeks, however they may last over one month. Nonetheless, their versatility in terms of shape, size, design and comparatively high durability are some advantages they hold over other types of manicures.
+
+Types
+Artificial nails are an extension, not a replacement, of natural nails. There are two main approaches to creating artificial nails—tips and forms:
+
+tips are heavyweight ""nail""-shaped plastic plates glued on the end of the natural nail, or glued on top of the entire nailbed if it is a full cover tip or ""press-on"", and can have gel, dip or acrylic added on top;
+forms are shaped sheets with a sticky edge that is effectively attached to the tip of the finger and wrapped around the entirety of the nail to form an extension, for more creative control over what shape the artificial nail will beAtop these, either acrylic, hard gel, or any combination of both may be applied. Tips are available in many different designs, ranging from solid colors like gel or regular nail polish to graphic designs such as animal prints and metallic colors.",21347855,Artificial nails,T
+383,"Technology strategy (information technology strategy or IT strategy) is the overall plan which consists of objectives, principles and tactics relating to use of technologies within a particular organization.  Such strategies primarily focus on the technologies themselves and in some cases the people who directly manage those technologies.  The strategy can be implied from the organization's behaviors towards technology decisions, and may be written down in a document. The strategy includes the formal vision that guide the acquisition, allocation, and management of IT resources so it can help fulfill the organizational objectives.Other generations of technology-related strategies primarily focus on: the efficiency of the company's spending on technology; how people, for example the organization's customers and employees, exploit technologies in ways that create value for the organization; on the full integration of technology-related decisions with the company's strategies and operating plans, such that no separate technology strategy exists other than the de facto strategic principle that the organization does not need or have a discrete 'technology strategy'.
+A technology strategy has traditionally been expressed in a document that explains how technology should be utilized as part of an organization's overall corporate strategy and each business strategy.  In the case of IT, the strategy is usually formulated by a group of representatives from both the business and from IT.",2906805,Technology strategy,T
+384,"PVSRIPO, or PVS-RIPO, is the name of a modified polio virus that has recently shown promise for treating cancer. It is the focus of clinical trials being conducted at Duke University.PVS-RIPO consists of a genetically modified nonpathogenic version of the oral poliovirus Sabin type 1. The internal ribosome entry site (IRES) on the poliovirus was replaced with the IRES from human rhinovirus type 2 (HRV2), to avoid neurovirulence. Once administered, the virus enters and begins replicating within cells that express CD155/Necl5, which is an onco-fetal cell adhesion molecule that is common across solid tumors.A website at Duke University describes many of properties of PVSRIPO, and historical background about using viruses to oppose cancer. According to that website,
+
+The FDA approved clinical trials with PVS-RIPO in brain tumor patients recently.",46275516,PVSRIPO,S
+385,"The European Congress of Conservation Biology (ECCB) is a series of professional meetings organised by the Society for Conservation Biology – Europe Section. The aim of ECCBs is to facilitate the exchange on conservation science and nature conservation practice and policy with the aim of promoting conservation of biological diversity in Europe. The congresses are opened by the environmental minister of the host country, attended by high level policy makers from the EC, and by prominent scientists, including Fellows of the Royal Society.
+
+Past and future meetings
+1st ECCB − 2006, Eger, Hungary. Held with 1000 participants. Its subject  ""Diversity for Europe"" reflecting the variability of Europe’s biology and culture, and also the diversity of ways nature conservation acts.
+2nd ECCB − 2009, Prague, Czech Republic.",30734268,European Congress of Conservation Biology,S
+386,"ReFLEX is a wireless protocol developed by Motorola, used for two-way paging, messaging, and low-bandwidth data.  It is based on the FLEX one-way paging protocol, adding capabilities for multiple forward channels, multiple return channels, and roaming.  It originally came in two variants, ReFLEX25 and ReFLEX50. ReFLEX50 was originally developed to support a messaging service launched by MTEL in the mid 1990s, while ReFLEX25 was developed several years later to provide an upgrade path for traditional one-way paging carriers.  The 50 and 25 signified 50 kHz and 25kHz channel spacing, although in reality both variants supported flexible channel configurations.",3925586,ReFLEX,T
+387,"In mathematical logic, a term denotes a mathematical object while a formula denotes a mathematical fact. In particular, terms appear as components of a formula. This is analogous to natural language, where a noun phrase refers to an object and a whole sentence refers to a fact.
+A first-order term is recursively constructed from constant symbols, variables and function symbols.
+An expression formed by applying a predicate symbol to an appropriate number of terms is called an atomic formula, which evaluates to true or false in bivalent logics, given an interpretation.
+For example, 
+  
+    
+      
+        (
+        x
+        +
+        1
+        )
+        ∗
+        (
+        x
+        +
+        1
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle (x+1)*(x+1)}
+   is a term built from the constant 1, the variable x, and the binary function symbols 
+  
+    
+      
+        +
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle +}
+   and 
+  
+    
+      
+        ∗
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle *}
+  ; it is part of the atomic formula 
+  
+    
+      
+        (
+        x
+        +
+        1
+        )
+        ∗
+        (
+        x
+        +
+        1
+        )
+        ≥
+        0
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle (x+1)*(x+1)\geq 0}
+   which evaluates to true for each real-numbered value of x.
+Besides in logic, terms play important roles in universal algebra, and rewriting systems.
+
+Formal definition
+Given a set V of variable symbols, a set C of constant symbols and sets Fn of n-ary function symbols, also called operator symbols, for each natural number n ≥ 1, the set of (unsorted first-order) terms T is recursively defined to be the smallest set with the following properties:
+every variable symbol is a term: V ⊆ T,
+every constant symbol is a term: C ⊆ T,
+from every n terms t1,...,tn, and every n-ary function symbol f ∈ Fn, a larger term f(t1, ..., tn) can be built.Using an intuitive, pseudo-grammatical notation, this is sometimes written as:
+
+t ::= x | c | f(t1, ..., tn).The signature of the term language describes which function symbol sets Fn are inhabited. Well-known examples are the unary function symbols sin, cos ∈ F1, and the binary function symbols +, −, ⋅, / ∈ F2. Ternary operations and higher-arity functions are possible but uncommon in practice.",24885593,Term (logic),M
+388,"A cyborg ()—a portmanteau of cybernetic and organism—is a being with both organic and biomechatronic body parts. The term was coined in 1960 by Manfred Clynes and Nathan S. Kline.
+
+Description and definition
+""Cyborg"" is not the same thing as bionics, biorobotics, or androids; it applies to an organism that has restored function or, especially, enhanced abilities due to the integration of some artificial component or technology that relies on some sort of feedback, for example: prostheses, artificial organs, implants or, in some cases, wearable technology. Cyborg technologies may enable or support collective intelligence. A related, possibly broader, term is the ""augmented human"".",20756967,Cyborg,S
+389,"Shrink-fitting is a technique in which an interference fit is achieved by a relative size change after assembly. This is usually achieved by heating or cooling one component before assembly and allowing it to return to the ambient temperature after assembly, employing the phenomenon of thermal expansion to make a joint. For example, the thermal expansion of a piece of a metallic drainpipe allows a builder to fit the cooler piece to it. As the adjoined pieces reach the same temperature, the joint becomes strained and stronger.
+Other examples are the fitting of a wrought iron tyre around the rim of a wooden cart wheel by a wheelwright, or of a steel tyre to the wheel of a railway engine or rolling stock. In both cases the tyre will be heated and expands to slightly greater than the wheel's diameter, and is fitted around it.",6569417,Shrink-fitting,M
+390,"IPv4 address exhaustion is the depletion of the pool of unallocated IPv4 addresses. Because the original Internet architecture had fewer than 4.3 billion addresses available, depletion has been anticipated since the late 1980s, when the Internet started experiencing dramatic growth. This depletion is one of the reasons for the development and deployment of its successor protocol, IPv6. IPv4 and IPv6 coexist on the Internet.
+The IP address space is managed globally by the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA), and by five regional Internet registries (RIRs) responsible in their designated territories for assignment to end users and local Internet registries, such as Internet service providers. The main market forces that accelerated IPv4 address depletion included the rapidly growing number of Internet users, always-on devices, and mobile devices.
+The anticipated shortage has been the driving factor in creating and adopting several new technologies, including network address translation (NAT), Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) in 1993, and IPv6 in 1998.The top-level exhaustion occurred on 31 January 2011.",6852935,IPv4 address exhaustion,T
+391,"In mathematics, near sets are either spatially close or descriptively close. Spatially close sets have nonempty intersection. In other words, spatially close sets are not disjoint sets, since they always have at least one element in common. Descriptively close sets contain elements that have matching descriptions. Such sets can be either disjoint or non-disjoint sets.",23110101,Near sets,M
+392,"Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) is a physical phenomenon in which nuclei in a strong constant magnetic field are perturbed by a weak oscillating magnetic field (in the near field) and respond by producing an electromagnetic signal with a frequency characteristic of the magnetic field at the nucleus. This process occurs near resonance, when the oscillation frequency matches the intrinsic frequency of the nuclei, which depends on the strength of the static magnetic field, the chemical environment, and the magnetic properties of the isotope involved; in practical applications with static magnetic fields up to ca. 20 tesla, the frequency is similar to VHF and UHF television broadcasts (60–1000 MHz). NMR results from specific magnetic properties of certain atomic nuclei. Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy is widely used to determine the structure of organic molecules in solution and study molecular physics and crystals as well as non-crystalline materials.",25110709,Nuclear magnetic resonance,S
+393,"Pinger, Inc. is a US Telecom provider for free texts, pictures, calls, and voicemails. Pinger was founded in 2005 by former Palm, Inc. managers Greg Woock (CEO of Pinger, Inc) and Joe Sipher.  The company was founded in 2006 and is headquartered in San Jose, California.
+
+Products
+The company has released several apps, mostly being available on  iOS, Android, Microsoft Windows and Macintosh.
+
+Textfree
+Textfree is an app that allows user to call and text using a real phone number for free.",37838876,Pinger,T
+394,"Kinetic exchange models are multi-agent dynamic models inspired by the statistical physics of energy distribution, which try to explain the robust and universal features of income/wealth distributions.
+Understanding the distributions of income and wealth in an economy has been a classic problem in economics for more than a hundred years. Today it is one of the main branches of econophysics.
+
+Data and basic tools
+In 1897, Vilfredo Pareto first found a universal feature in the distribution of wealth. After that, with some notable exceptions, this field had been dormant for many decades, although accurate data had been accumulated over this period.  Considerable investigations with the real data during the last fifteen years (1995–2010) revealed that the tail (typically 5 to 10 percent of agents in any country) of the income/wealth distribution indeed follows a power law. However, the majority of the population (i.e., the low-income population) follows a different distribution which is debated to be either Gibbs or log-normal.
+Basic tools used in this type of modelling are probabilistic and statistical methods mostly taken from the kinetic theory of statistical physics.",27008781,Kinetic exchange models of markets,S
+395,"Unsuccessful transfer or abortive transfer is any bacterial DNA transfer from donor cells  to recipient cells that fails to survive transduction and conjugation. In all cases, the transferred fragment could be diluted  during  the proliferation phase. Failures in the integration of the transferred DNA in the genetic material of the recipient cells may be due to:
+
+Failure of the incoming DNA to form a circular molecule;
+Post-circularisation, the circular molecule is wrong for maintenance, making this transfer occurs as plasmids. Genes that are located on the corresponding part of the DNA can express in the recipient cells.
+
+Dictionary definition
+Rieger, Michaelis, and Green, in 1976 stated:
+
+""'abortive transfer – any DNA transfer from bacterial donor to recipients cells that fails to establish the incoming  DNA as part of the hereditary material of the recipient. A.",53145866,Unsuccessful transfer,S
+396,"Construction engineering, also known as construction operations, is a professional subdiscipline of civil engineering that deals with the designing, planning, construction, and operations management of infrastructure such as roadways, tunnels, bridges, airports, railroads, facilities, buildings, dams, utilities and other projects. Construction engineers learn some of the design aspects similar to civil engineers as well as project management aspects.
+At the educational level, civil engineering students concentrate primarily on the design work which is more analytical, gearing them toward a career as a design professional. This essentially requires them to take a multitude of challenging engineering science and design courses as part of obtaining a 4-year accredited degree. Education for construction engineers is primarily focused on construction procedures, methods, costs, schedules and personnel management. Their primary concern is to deliver a project on time within budget and of the desired quality.
+Regarding educational requirements, construction engineering students take basic design courses in civil engineering, as well as construction management courses.
+
+Work activities
+Being a sub-discipline of civil engineering, construction engineers apply their knowledge and business, technical and management skills obtained from their undergraduate degree to oversee projects that include bridges, buildings and housing projects.",50705,Construction engineering,E
+397,"A recuperator is a special purpose counter-flow energy recovery heat exchanger positioned within the supply and exhaust air streams of an air handling system, or in the exhaust gases of an industrial process, in order to recover the waste heat. Generally, they are used to extract heat from the exhaust and use it to preheat air entering the combustion system. In this way they use waste energy to heat the air, offsetting some of the fuel, and thereby improve the energy efficiency of the system as a whole.
+
+Description
+In many types of processes, combustion is used to generate heat, and the recuperator serves to recuperate, or reclaim this heat, in order to reuse or recycle it. The term recuperator refers as well to liquid-liquid counterflow heat exchangers used for heat recovery in the chemical and refinery industries and in closed processes such as ammonia-water or LiBr-water absorption refrigeration cycle.
+Recuperators are often used in association with the burner portion of a heat engine, to increase the overall efficiency. For example, in a gas turbine engine, air is compressed, mixed with fuel, which is then burned and used to drive a turbine.",1040953,Recuperator,E
+398,"Tygon® is a brand name for a family of flexible polymer tubing consisting of a variety of materials to be used ""across a range of specialized fluid transfer requirements"". The specific composition of each type is a trade secret. Some variants have multiple layers of different materials. Tygon is a registered trademark of Saint-Gobain Corporation. It is an invented word, owned and used by Saint-Gobain and originated in the late 1930s.",13324152,Tygon tubing,E
+399,"Artificial plants are imitations of natural plants used for commercial or residential decoration. They are sometimes made for scientific purposes (the collection of glass flowers at Harvard University, for example, illustrates the flora of the United States). Artificial plants vary widely from mass-produced varieties that are distinguishable from real plants by casual observation to highly detailed botanical or artistic specimens.
+Materials used in their manufacture have included painted linen and shavings of stained horn in ancient Egypt, gold and silver in ancient Rome, rice-paper in China, silkworm cocoons in Italy, colored feathers in South America, and wax and tinted shells. Modern techniques involve carved or formed soap, nylon netting stretched over wire frames, ground clay, and mass-produced injection plastic mouldings. Polyester has been the main material for manufacturing artificial flowers since the 1970s.",2622866,Artificial plants,T
+400,"The Student Spaceflight Experiments Program (SSEP) provides an opportunity for student groups from upper elementary school through university to design and fly microgravity experiments in low Earth orbit (LEO). SSEP is a program of the National Center for Earth and Space Science Education (NCESSE, a project of the Tides Center), the Arthur C. Clarke Institute for Space Education, and the private space hardware company NanoRacks. SSEP operates under a Space Act Agreement between the sponsoring organizations and NASA, allowing the  International Space Station (ISS) to be utilized as a national laboratory.
+
+History
+The program was launched in June 2010, by NCESSE in the U.S. and by the Clarke Institute internationally.",44104302,Student Spaceflight Experiments Program,S
+401,"In engineering, a design choice is a possible solution to a problem. Given a design task and a governing set of criteria (design specifications), several conceptual designs may be drafted. Each of these preliminary concepts is a potential design choice. Many never advance beyond the preliminary phase; those that are developed to the point at which they could be applied become the pool from which the final selection is made. This process stems from the principle that there is usually no uniquely right way of accomplishing any task.",237141,Design choice,E
+402,"Permit-to-work (PTW) refers to a management system procedure used to ensure that work is done safely and efficiently. It is used in hazardous industries, such as process and nuclear plants, usually in connection with maintenance work. It involves procedured request, review, authorization, documenting and, most importantly, de-conflicting of tasks to be carried out by front line workers. It ensures affected personnel are aware of the nature of the work and the hazards associated with it, all safety precautions have been put in place before starting the task, and the work has been completed correctly.
+
+Implementation
+Instructions or procedures are often adequate for most work activities, but some require extra care. A permit-to-work system is a formal system stating exactly what work is to be done, where, and when.
+Permit-to-work is an essential part of control of work (CoW), a structured communication mechanism to reliably communicate information about hazards, control measures, and so on.",37096441,Permit-to-work,E
+403,"Matthew Campbell-Hill is a health tech consultant and former GB wheelchair fencing athlete, winning bronze medals at the Wheelchair Fencing World Cup in 2014 and World Championships in 2019. He was Chair of the Challenge Group for the UK government's Anti-Doping Tailored Review published in 2018 and a case study for the Lord Holmes Review published in 2019.
+
+Biography
+Campbell-Hill was born in Scotland in 1979 and grew up in Oxfordshire.
+He was a member of The National Youth Choir of Great Britain (Bass 1) when The Armed Man: A Mass for Peace was premiered at The Royal Albert Hall, London, on 25 April 2000. The first official recording was released on CD during the Summer of 2000 with the National Youth Choir of Great Britain performing with The London Philharmonic Orchestra, conducted by Karl Jenkins. He recently performed with The National Youth Choir of Great Britain Alumni on Shenandoah, a mass virtual recording released in August 2020.
+
+Wheelchair fencing
+Following a spinal injury, Campbell-Hill joined Truro Fencing Club in 2009 and competed in Wheelchair Fencing for Great Britain. He competed in the men's épée (2014–2015) and men's sabre (2013–2015) teams, achieving bronze with the sabre team at a World Cup in Malchow, Germany, 2014.",65210118,Matthew Campbell-Hill,S
+404,"Chemistry: A Volatile History is a 2010 BBC documentary on the history of chemistry presented by Jim Al-Khalili. It was nominated for the 2010 British Academy Television Awards in the category Specialist Factual.
+
+Episode 1: Discovering the Elements
+Introduction
+Only in the last 200 years have we known what an element is – a substance that cannot be broken down further by chemical reaction.
+The Ancient Greeks, with no way of breaking open substances, could only base their ideas of the elements on what they could see: Earth, Fire, Water and Air.
+In the 16th century alchemists were busy trying to turn base metals like lead, into gold.
+
+Paracelsus and the tria prima
+It was the Swiss alchemist and surgeon Paracelsus who first challenged the Ancient Greek idea of four elements.
+In 1526 Paracelsus was in Basel, when the famous printer Frobenius was told he would have to have his leg amputated in a life-saving operation. Instead of accepting the received wisdom, he called upon Paracelsus who cured him in the unconventional way of using his alchemical knowledge. This established him as a radical thinker, giving weight to his ideas, principal amongst which was the idea that the world was actually made of three elements: the tria prima comprising salt, sulphur and mercury.
+Paracelsus did not succeed in convincing the establishment – instead he managed to enrage them by burning their established medical texts, and eventually had to flee Switzerland for Germany.
+It was, however, the alchemical pursuit for gold that led to the first breakthrough in the hunt for new elements.
+
+Hennig Brand and the icy noctiluca
+In 1669 Hennig Brand was looking for a way of extracting gold from the human body, and struck upon the idea of using urine, thinking that urine might contain some part of the 'life force' vital to sustaining human life. To get rid of the unimportant parts, primarily water, Brand boiled the urine for several days until he was left with a thick paste.",29952420,Chemistry: A Volatile History,M
+405,"Biofiltration is a pollution control technique using a bioreactor containing living material to capture and biologically degrade pollutants.  Common uses include processing waste water, capturing harmful chemicals or silt from surface runoff, and microbiotic oxidation of contaminants in air. Industrial biofiltration can be classified as the process of utilizing biological oxidation to remove volatile organic compounds, odors, and hydrocarbons.
+
+Examples of biofiltration
+Examples of biofiltration include:
+
+Bioswales, biostrips, biobags, bioscrubbers, Vermifilters and trickling filters
+Constructed wetlands and natural wetlands
+Slow sand filters
+Treatment ponds
+Green belts
+Green walls
+Riparian zones, riparian forests, bosques
+Bivalve bioaccumulation
+
+Control of air pollution
+When applied to air filtration and purification, biofilters use microorganisms to remove air pollution. 
+The air flows through a packed bed and the pollutant transfers into a thin biofilm on the surface of the packing material. Microorganisms, including bacteria and fungi are immobilized in the biofilm and degrade the pollutant.",1156603,Biofilter,S
+406,"The Southwest Iberian Mediterranean sclerophyllous and mixed forests is a Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub ecoregion in southwestern Europe. It occupies the southwestern Iberian Peninsula, encompassing coastal lowlands and mountains in portions of Portugal and Spain.
+The ecoregion has a Mediterranean climate, moderated by the influence of the Atlantic Ocean. Summer temperatures tend to be cooler than other Mediterranean climate regions, and winter frosts are rare below 1500 metres.
+
+Geography
+The ecoregion occupies the coastal lowlands and hills in Portugal and southwestern Spain, including the lower basins of the Tagus, Guadiana, and Guadalquivir rivers. The city of Lisbon is at the mouth of the Tagus, and the cities of Seville and Cordoba lie in the valley of the Guadalquivir. Other cities in the ecoregion include Cadiz on the Atlantic, and Málaga on the Alboran Sea.
+The ecoregion is bounded on the east by the Iberian sclerophyllous and semi-deciduous forests, which occupies most of interior Spain and Portugal's interior southeast.",63900874,Southwest Iberian Mediterranean sclerophyllous and mixed forests,S
+407,"Project commissioning is the process of ensuring that all systems and components of a building or industrial plant are designed, installed, tested, operated, and maintained according to the owner's or final client's operational requirements. A commissioning process may be applied not only to new projects but also to existing units and systems subject to expansion, renovation or revamping. In practice, the commissioning process is the integrated application of a set of engineering techniques and procedures to check, inspect and test every operational component of the project: from individual functions (such as instruments and equipment) up to complex amalgamations (such as modules, subsystems and systems).
+Commissioning activities in the broader sense applicable to all phases of the project from the basic and detailed design, procurement, construction and assembly until the final handover of the unit to the owner, sometimes including an assisted operation phase.
+
+Objective and impact
+The main objective of commissioning is to effect the safe and orderly handover of the unit from the constructor to the owner, guaranteeing its operability in terms of performance, reliability, safety and information traceability. Additionally, when executed in a planned and effective way, commissioning normally represents an essential factor for the fulfillment of schedule, costs, safety and quality requirements of the project.
+
+Commissioning management systems
+For complex projects, the large volume and complexity of commissioning data, together with the need to guarantee adequate information traceability, normally leads to the use of powerful IT tools, known as commissioning management systems, to allow effective planning and monitoring of the commissioning activities.
+
+Independent discipline
+There is currently no formal education or university degree which addresses the training or certification of a Project Commissioning Engineer. Various short and online training courses are available, but they are designed for qualified engineers.",22946554,Project commissioning,E
+408,"Although diamonds on Earth are rare, extraterrestrial diamonds (diamonds formed outside of Earth) are very common. Diamonds small enough that they contain only about 2000 carbon atoms are abundant in meteorites and some of them formed in stars before the Solar System existed. High pressure experiments suggest large amounts of diamonds are formed from methane on the ice giant planets Uranus and Neptune, while some planets in other planetary systems may be almost pure diamond. Diamonds are also found in stars and may have been the first mineral ever to have formed.
+
+Meteorites
+In 1987, a team of scientists examined some primitive meteorites and found grains of diamond about 2.5 nanometers in diameter (nanodiamonds). Trapped in them were noble gases whose isotopic signature indicated they came from outside the Solar System.",55118655,Extraterrestrial diamonds,M
+409,"A mode of toxic action is a common set of physiological and behavioral signs that characterize a type of adverse biological response. A mode of action should not be confused with mechanism of action, which refer to the biochemical processes underlying a given mode of action. Modes of toxic action are important, widely used tools in ecotoxicology and aquatic toxicology because they classify toxicants or pollutants according to their type of toxic action. There are two major types of modes of toxic action: non-specific acting toxicants and specific acting toxicants. Non-specific acting toxicants are those that produce narcosis, while specific acting toxicants are those that are non-narcotic and that produce a specific action at a specific target site.
+
+Types
+Non-specific
+Non-specific acting modes of toxic action result in narcosis; therefore, narcosis is a mode of toxic action.",39392026,Modes of toxic action,S
+410,"In mathematical physics, the Dirac delta distribution (δ distribution), also known as the unit impulse, is a generalized function or distribution over the real numbers, whose value is zero everywhere except at zero, and whose integral over the entire real line is equal to one.The current understanding of the unit impulse is as a linear functional that maps every continuous function (e.g., 
+  
+    
+      
+        f
+        (
+        x
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle f(x)}
+  ) to its value at zero of its domain (
+  
+    
+      
+        f
+        (
+        0
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle f(0)}
+  ), or as the weak limit of a sequence of bump functions (e.g., 
+  
+    
+      
+        δ
+        (
+        x
+        )
+        =
+        
+          lim
+          
+            b
+            →
+            0
+          
+        
+        
+          
+            1
+            
+              
+                |
+              
+              b
+              
+                |
+              
+              
+                
+                  π
+                
+              
+            
+          
+        
+        
+          e
+          
+            −
+            (
+            x
+            
+              /
+            
+            b
+            
+              )
+              
+                2
+              
+            
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \delta (x)=\lim _{b\to 0}{\frac {1}{|b|{\sqrt {\pi }}}}e^{-(x/b)^{2}}}
+  ), which are zero over most of the real line, with a tall spike at the origin. Bump functions are thus sometimes called ""approximate"" or ""nascent"" delta distributions.
+The delta function was introduced by physicist Paul Dirac as a tool for the normalization of state vectors. It also has uses in probability theory and signal processing. Its validity was disputed until Laurent Schwartz developed the theory of distributions where it is defined as a linear form acting on functions.
+The Kronecker delta function, which is usually defined on a discrete domain and takes values 0 and 1, is the discrete analog of the Dirac delta function.
+
+Motivation and overview
+The graph of the Dirac delta is usually thought of as following the whole x-axis and the positive y-axis.: 174  The Dirac delta is used to model a tall narrow spike function (an impulse), and other similar abstractions such as a point charge, point mass or electron point. For example, to calculate the dynamics of a billiard ball being struck, one can approximate the force of the impact by a Dirac delta.",4753149,Dirac delta function,M
+411,"Kinesiology (from Ancient Greek  κίνησις (kínēsis) 'movement', and  -λογία -logía 'study of') is the scientific study of human body movement. Kinesiology addresses physiological, anatomical, biomechanical, pathological, neuropsychological principles and mechanisms of movement. Applications of kinesiology to human health include biomechanics and orthopedics; strength and conditioning; sport psychology; motor control; skill acquisition and motor learning; methods of rehabilitation, such as physical and occupational therapy; and sport and exercise physiology. Studies of human and animal motion include measures from motion tracking systems, electrophysiology of muscle and brain activity, various methods for monitoring physiological function, and other behavioral and cognitive research techniques.
+
+Basics
+Kinesiology studies the science of human movement, performance, and function by applying the fundamental sciences of Cell Biology, Molecular Biology, Chemistry, Biochemistry, Biophysics, Biomechanics, Biomathematics, Biostatistics, Anatomy, Physiology, Exercise Physiology, Pathophysiology, Neuroscience, and Nutritional science. A bachelor's degree in kinesiology can provide strong preparation for graduate study in biomedical research, as well as in professional programs, such as medicine, dentistry, physical therapy, and occupational therapy.
+The term ""kinesiologist"" is not a licensed nor professional designation in many countries, with the notable exception of Canada.",545909,Kinesiology,S
+412,"The Environmental Science Center is a research center at Qatar University and was established in 1980 to promote environmental studies across the state of Qatar with main focus on marine science, atmospheric and biological sciences. For the past 18 years, ESC monitored and studied Hawksbill turtle nesting sites in Qatar.
+
+History
+in 1980 it was named Scientific and Applied Research Center (SARC).
+in 2005 it was restructured and renamed Environmental Studies Center (ESC).
+in 2015, the business name was changed to Environmental Science Center (ESC) to better reflect the research-driven objectives.
+
+Research clusters
+The ESC has 3 major research clusters that cover areas of strategic importance to Qatar. The clusters are:
+
+Atmospheric sciences cluster
+Earth sciences cluster
+Marine sciences cluster with 2 majors:Terrestrial Ecology
+Physical and Chemical Oceanography
+
+UNESCO Chair in marine sciences
+The first of its kind in the Arabian Gulf region, United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) have announced the establishment of the UNESCO Chair in marine sciences at QU's Environmental Science Center. The chair is aiming to providing sustainable marine environment in the Arabian Gulf and protection of marine ecosystems.
+
+Inventions
+Marine clutch technology.
+Mushroom artificial reef technology  (mushroom forest).
+
+Accreditation
+The ESC labs have been granted ISO/IEC 17025 by American Association of Laboratory Accreditation (A2LA), affirming their status as world-class facilities operating to best practice.
+
+Facilities
+ESC is the home of wide range of facilities. The most notable one is the mobile labs on board the JANAN Research Vessel.JANAN is a 42.80 m.",73091262,Environmental Science Center,S
+413,"The American National Standards Institute (ANSI  AN-see) is a private nonprofit organization that oversees the development of voluntary consensus standards for products, services, processes, systems, and personnel in the United States. The organization also coordinates U.S. standards with international standards so that American products can be used worldwide.
+ANSI accredits standards that are developed by representatives of other standards organizations, government agencies, consumer groups, companies, and others. These standards ensure that the characteristics and performance of products are consistent, that people use the same definitions and terms, and that products are tested the same way. ANSI also accredits organizations that carry out product or personnel certification in accordance with requirements defined in international standards.The organization's headquarters are in Washington, D.C.",659,American National Standards Institute,T
+414,"In solid mechanics, a stress concentration (also called a stress raiser or a stress riser or notch sensitivity) is a location in an object where the stress is significantly greater than the surrounding region. Stress concentrations occur when there are irregularities in the geometry or material of a structural component that cause an interruption to the flow of stress. This arises from such details as holes, grooves, notches and fillets. Stress concentrations may also occur from accidental damage such as nicks and scratches.
+The degree of concentration of a discontinuity under typically tensile loads can be expressed as a non-dimensional stress concentration factor 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          K
+          
+            t
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle K_{t}}
+  , which is the ratio of the highest stress to the nominal far field stress. For a circular hole in an infinite plate, 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          K
+          
+            t
+          
+        
+        =
+        3
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle K_{t}=3}
+  .",681185,Stress concentration,E
+415,"A fixture is a work-holding or support device used in the manufacturing industry. Fixtures are used to securely locate (position in a specific location or orientation) and support the work, ensuring that all parts produced using the fixture will maintain conformity and interchangeability. Using a fixture improves the economy of production by allowing smooth operation and quick transition from part to part, reducing the requirement for skilled labor by simplifying how workpieces are mounted, and increasing conformity across a production run.
+
+Compared with a jig
+A fixture differs from a jig in that when a fixture is used, the tool must move relative to the workpiece; a jig moves the piece while the tool remains stationary.
+
+Purpose
+A fixture's primary purpose is to create a secure mounting point for a workpiece, allowing for support during operation and increased accuracy, precision, reliability, and interchangeability in the finished parts. It also serves to reduce working time by allowing quick set-up, and by smoothing the transition from part to part. It frequently reduces the complexity of a process, allowing for unskilled workers to perform it and effectively transferring the skill of the tool maker to the unskilled worker.",5633026,Fixture (tool),E
+416,"Ecological facilitation or probiosis describes species interactions that benefit at least one of the participants and cause harm to neither. Facilitations can be categorized as mutualisms, in which both species benefit, or commensalisms, in which one species benefits and the other is unaffected. This article addresses both the mechanisms of facilitation and the increasing information available concerning the impacts of facilitation on community ecology.
+
+Categories
+There are two basic categories of facilitative interactions:
+
+Mutualism is an interaction between species that is beneficial to both. A familiar example of a mutualism is the relationship between flowering plants and their pollinators. The plant benefits from the spread of pollen between flowers, while the pollinator receives some form of nourishment, either from nectar or the pollen itself.
+Commensalism is an interaction in which one species benefits and the other species is unaffected.",4329538,Ecological facilitation,S
+417,"A certificate of analysis (COA) is a formal laboratory-prepared document that details the results of (and sometimes the specifications and analytical methods for) one or more laboratory analyses, signed—manually or electronically—by an authorized representative of the entity conducting the analyses. This document gives assurances to the recipient that the analyzed item is what it is designated to be, or has the features advertised by the producer. The design and content of a COA may be based upon a set of requirements identified by the lab, by regulatory-driven requirements, and/or by standards developed by standard developing organizations. The COA is used in a wide variety of industries, including but not limited to the agriculture, chemical, clinical research, food and beverage, and pharmaceutical industries.
+
+Use in various industries
+The COA is typically used in industries where the quality of a produced good is of significant importance and the COA recipient needs assurances of that quality. By extension, this often means regulations, standards, and/or guidelines are in place to better ensure analyses are approved and reported correctly.",63679051,Certificate of analysis,E
+418,"Xenoarchaeology, a branch of xenology dealing with extraterrestrial cultures, is a hypothetical form of archaeology that exists mainly in works of science fiction. The field is concerned with the study of the material remains to reconstruct and interpret past life-ways of alien civilizations. Xenoarchaeology is not currently practiced by mainstream archaeologists due to the current lack of any material for the discipline to study.
+
+Etymology
+The name derives from Greek xenos (ξένος) which means 'stranger, alien', and archaeology 'study of ancients'.
+Xenoarchaeology is sometimes called astroarchaeology or exoarchaeology, although some would argue that the prefix exo- would be more correctly applied to the study of human activities in a space environment.Other names for xenoarchaeology, or specialised fields of interest, include Probe SETI (Search for Extra-Terrestrial Intelligence), extraterrestrial archaeology, space archaeology, SETA (Search for Extra-Terrestrial Artifacts), Dysonian SETI, Planetary SETI, SETT (Search for Extra-Terrestrial Technology), SETV (Search for Extra-Terrestrial Visitation), extraterrestrial anthropology, areoarchaeology and selenoarchaeology.
+
+Justification
+It is arguably the case that, due to the immense distances between stars, any evidence we discover of extraterrestrial intelligence, whether it be an artifact or an electromagnetic signal, may come from a long-vanished civilization. Thus the entire SETI project can be seen as a form of archaeology. Additionally, due to the extreme age of the universe, there may be a reasonable expectation for astrobiology research to produce evidence of extinct alien life prior to the discovery of alien life itself.The study of alien cultures might offer us glimpses into our own species' past or future development.Vicky Walsh argued for the existence of ""exo-artifacts"" using the principle of mediocrity and the Drake equation.",896750,Xenoarchaeology,T
+419,"The Suedono Tile Kiln ruins (水殿瓦窯跡, Suedono kawara kama ato)  is an archaeological site with the ruins of a Kamakura period kiln, located in the Numagami neighborhood of the city of Misato, Saitama Prefecture in the Kantō region of Japan. It was designated a National Historic Site of Japan in 1931.
+
+Overview
+Kawara (瓦) roof tiles made of fired clay were introduced to Japan from Baekche during the 6th century along with Buddhism. During the 570s under the reign of Emperor Bidatsu, the king of Baekche sent six people to Japan skilled in various aspects of Buddhism, including a temple architect. Initially, tiled roofs were a sign of great wealth and prestige, and used for temple and government buildings. The material had the advantages of great strength and durability, and could also be made at locations around the country wherever clay was available.",67730577,Suedono Tile Kiln,E
+420,"The missing heritability problem is the fact that single genetic variations cannot account for much of the heritability of diseases, behaviors, and other phenotypes. This is a problem that has significant implications for medicine, since a person's susceptibility to disease may depend more on the combined effect of all the genes in the background than on the disease genes in the foreground, or the role of genes may have been severely overestimated.
+The missing heritability problem was named as such in 2008 (after the ""missing baryon problem"" in physics). The Human Genome Project led to optimistic forecasts that the large genetic contributions to many traits and diseases (which were identified by quantitative genetics and behavioral genetics in particular) would soon be mapped and pinned down to specific genes and their genetic variants by methods such as candidate-gene studies which used small samples with limited genetic sequencing to focus on specific genes believed to be involved, examining single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs). While many hits were found, they often failed to replicate in other studies.
+The exponential fall in genome sequencing costs led to the use of genome-wide association studies (GWASes) which could simultaneously examine all candidate-genes in larger samples than the original finding, where the candidate-gene hits were found to almost always be false positives and only 2-6% replicate; in the specific case of intelligence candidate-gene hits, only 1 candidate-gene hit replicated, the top 25 schizophrenia candidate-genes were no more associated with schizophrenia than chance, and of 15 neuroimaging hits, none did. The editorial board of Behavior Genetics noted, in setting more stringent requirements for candidate-gene publications, that ""the literature on candidate gene associations is full of reports that have not stood up to rigorous replication...it now seems likely that many of the published findings of the last decade are wrong or misleading and have not contributed to real advances in knowledge"".",34853851,Missing heritability problem,S
+421,"A vacuum airship, also known as a vacuum balloon, is a hypothetical airship that is evacuated rather than filled with a lighter-than-air gas such as hydrogen or helium. First proposed by Italian Jesuit priest Francesco Lana de Terzi in 1670, the vacuum balloon would be the ultimate expression of lifting power per volume displaced. (Also called ""FLanar"", combination of F. Lana and the Portuguese word ""flanar,"" which means wandering.)
+
+History
+From 1886 to 1900 Arthur De Bausset attempted in vain to raise funds to construct his ""vacuum-tube"" airship design, but despite early support in the United States Congress, the general public was skeptical. Illinois historian Howard Scamehorn reported that Octave Chanute and Albert Francis Zahm ""publicly denounced and mathematically proved the fallacy of the vacuum principle""; however, the author does not give his source.",20418621,Vacuum airship,T
+422,"Clean-room design (also known as the Chinese wall technique) is the method of copying a design by reverse engineering and then recreating it without infringing any of the copyrights associated with the original design. Clean-room design is useful as a defense against copyright infringement because it relies on independent creation. However, because independent invention is not a defense against patents, clean-room designs typically cannot be used to circumvent patent restrictions.
+The term implies that the design team works in an environment that is ""clean"" or demonstrably uncontaminated by any knowledge of the proprietary techniques used by the competitor.
+Typically, a clean-room design is done by having someone examine the system to be reimplemented and having this person write a specification. This specification is then reviewed by a lawyer to ensure that no copyrighted material is included. The specification is then implemented by a team with no connection to the original examiners.
+
+Examples
+Phoenix Technologies sold its clean-room implementation of the IBM-compatible BIOS to various PC clone manufacturers.Several other PC clone companies, including Corona Data Systems, Eagle Computer, and Handwell Corporation, were litigated by IBM for copyright infringement, and were forced to re-implement their BIOS in a way which did not infringe IBM's copyrights.",75034,Clean room design,E
+423,"The National Operating Committee on Standards for Athletic Equipment (NOCSAE, pronounced /'nɒxsi/ NOKH-see) is a nonprofit standards organization which develops standards for the manufacture of certain protective athletic equipment in the sports of baseball, football, hockey, lacrosse, and polo. NOCSAE conducts and funds scientific research and collects and analyzes data relating to standards development.The organization's office is in Overland Park, Kansas. The NOCSAE annual operating budget is primarily funded through licensing fees NOCSAE charges to manufacturing companies that have had their equipment certified compliant to standards by a third-party certifying organization.
+
+History
+In 1967, the National Collegiate Athletic Association's Equipment and Injuries Committee recommended the establishment of an organization capable of collecting and organizing data on injuries to the head, neck, and spine that were related to football helmets. This Committee was responding to the deaths of 32 players in American organized football. In 1968, NOCSAE was officially organized through the combined efforts of the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA), the American College Health Association, the National Federation of State High School Associations (NFHS), and the Sports Fitness Industry Association (SFIA), to develop a football helmet standard effective in reducing or eliminating fatalities from head injuries such as skull fractures and subdural bleeding.",37077867,National Operating Committee on Standards for Athletic Equipment,T
+424,"The Prusa i3 is a family of fused deposition modeling 3D printers, manufactured by Czech company Prusa Research under the trademarked name Original Prusa i3. Part of the RepRap project, Prusa i3 printers were called the most used 3D printer in the world in 2016. The first Prusa i3 was designed by Josef Průša in 2012, and was released as a commercial kit product in 2015. The latest model (Prusa MK4 on sale as of March 2023) is available in both kit and factory assembled versions. The Prusa i3's comparable low cost and ease of construction and modification made it popular in education and with hobbyists and professionals, with the Prusa i3 model MK2 printer receiving several awards in 2016.The i3 series is released under an open source license, so many other companies and individuals have made variants of the printer.
+
+Models
+RepRap Mendel
+First conceived in 2009, RepRap Mendel 3D printers were designed to be assembled from 3D printed parts and commonly available off-the-shelf components (referred to as ""vitamins,"" as they cannot be produced by the printer itself).",50921584,Prusa i3,M
+425,"Dying is the final stage of life which will eventually lead to death. Diagnosing dying is a complex process of clinical decision-making, and most practice checklists facilitating this diagnosis are based on cancer diagnoses.
+
+Signs of dying
+The National Cancer Institute in the United States advises that the presence of some of the following signs may indicate that death is approaching:
+Drowsiness, increased sleep, and/or unresponsiveness (caused by changes in the patient's metabolism).
+Confusion about time, place, and/or identity of loved ones; restlessness; visions of people and places that are not present; pulling at bed linens or clothing (caused in part by changes in the patient's metabolism).
+Decreased socialization and withdrawal (caused by decreased oxygen to the brain, decreased blood flow, and mental preparation for dying).
+Decreased need for food and fluids, and loss of appetite (caused by the body's need to conserve energy and its decreasing ability to use food and fluids properly).
+Loss of bladder or bowel control (caused by the relaxing of muscles in the pelvic area).
+Darkened urine or decreased amount of urine (caused by slowing of kidney function and/or decreased fluid intake).
+Skin becoming cool to the touch, particularly the hands and feet; skin may become bluish in color, especially on the underside of the body (caused by decreased circulation to the extremities).
+Rattling or gurgling sounds while breathing, which may be loud (death rattle); breathing that is irregular and shallow; decreased number of breaths per minute; breathing that alternates between rapid and slow (caused by congestion from decreased fluid consumption, a buildup of waste products in the body, and/or a decrease in circulation to the organs).
+Turning of the head toward a light source (caused by decreasing vision).
+Increased difficulty controlling pain (caused by progression of the disease).
+Involuntary movements (called myoclonus), increased heart rate, hypertension followed by hypotension, and loss of reflexes in the legs and arms are additional signs that the end of life is near.
+
+Cultural perspectives on dying
+How humans understand and approach the process dying differs across cultures. In some cultures, death is the complete termination of life. In other cultures, death can include altered states of being, like sleep or illness. In some traditions, death marks the transition into a different kind of existence, or involves a cyclic pattern of death and rebirth.",212879,Dying,S
+426,"The Fairbanks Exploration Company Gold Dredge No. 5 was a historic gold mining dredge in a remote area of Fairbanks North Star Borough, Alaska, north of the city of Fairbanks.  It was last located on Upper Dome Creek, shortly northeast of the mouth of Seattle Creek, about 20 miles (32 km) north of Fairbanks, prior to its being scrapped c. 2012.  The dredge was manufactured by the Bethlehem Steel Company in 1928, shipped in pieces to Alaska, and assembled by the Fairbanks Exploration Company on Cleary Creek, where it was used until 1942.",45369901,Fairbanks Exploration Company Gold Dredge No. 5,E
+427,"A blasting mat is a mat usually made of sliced-up rubber tires bound together with ropes, cables or chains. They are used during rock blasting to contain the blast, prevent flying rocks and suppress dust.
+
+Use
+Blasting mats are used when explosives are detonated in places such as quarries or construction sites. The mats are placed over the blasting area to contain the blast, suppress noise and dust as well as prevent high velocity rock fragments called fly rock (or flyrock) from damaging structures, people or the environment in proximity to the blast site. The amount of fly rock can be reduced by proper drilling in the bedrock for the explosives, but in practice it is hard to avoid.Mats can be used singly or in layers depending on the size of the blast charge, the type of mat and the amount of protection needed. They can be used horizontally on the ground or vertically hanging from cranes or attached to structures.",47894032,Blasting mat,E
+428,"MolecularLab is an Italian website of science, specialized in science, biotechnology, molecular biology, with news, forums, and events. With over 4 million page views in May 2009 it is the most visited Italian science webzine.
+
+Purpose
+MolecularLab has several objectives:
+
+Providing the latest news and important discoveries in the biotechnology, medical, and molecular fields
+Developing the building of a community, allowing the encounter and cultural exchange among researchers, teachers, and companies
+Deepening techniques of molecular biology and cellular technologies with an educational section for university students, enriched with video and interactive animations
+
+History
+The site was founded in 2001 with the publication of notes from a degree course. In 2003 the Molecularlab.it site was created and then has gradually added new features: to the didactics was added daily news and then a community. It was the first news organization specializing on Italian science daily.One of the features of this site has been the intensive use of systems for distribution of news: custom feeds to be updated on certain categories or topics, News Ticker and widgets to spread to other sites, an ICS file to sync with the events reported by MolecularLab, and other tools as plugins to search the site by the browser. Since January 2006 MolecularLab is in partnership with World Community Grid to promote the use of computers in biomedical research.
+During the first years, the comments associated to the news were free making it possible for users to open discussions of interest.",24704614,MolecularLab,S
+429,"Architectural management falls into two distinct parts, office management and project management (Brunton et al., 1964; Emmitt, 1999a & 1999b). Office management provides an overall framework within which individual projects are commissioned, designed and completed. Both parts have the same objectives but are typically addressed by separate management systems. Office management involves the allocation and financing of resources, principally premises, trained staff and computer systems, and on establishing and charging appropriate fees for the services rendered. Project management focuses on timescales, developing a design from initial concept to working drawings, and managing the construction process (see for example Emmitt, 2014).
+The essence of architectural management is to ensure that work on a project is cost-effective, to achieve a balance between profitability and design quality.
+
+Development
+Standard management techniques and tools, borrowed mainly from repetitive industrial processes, have not always fitted comfortably with the image of the architect as a creative individual, rather than a professional member of a business team.",24354071,Architectural management,E
+430,"Teletext, or broadcast teletext, is a standard for displaying text and rudimentary graphics on suitably equipped television sets. Teletext sends data in the broadcast signal, hidden in the invisible vertical blanking interval area at the top and bottom of the screen. The teletext decoder in the television buffers this information as a series of ""pages"", each given a number. The user can display chosen pages using their remote control.
+In broad terms, it can be considered as Videotex, a system for the delivery of information to a user in a computer-like format, typically displayed on a television or a dumb terminal, but that designation is usually reserved for systems that provide bi-directional communication, such as Prestel or Minitel.
+Teletext was created in the United Kingdom in the early 1970s by John Adams, Philips' lead designer for video display units. Public teletext information services were introduced by major broadcasters in the UK, starting with the BBC's Ceefax service in 1974.",1926240,Teletext,T
+431,"Neontology is a part of biology that, in contrast to paleontology, deals with living (or, more generally, recent) organisms. It is the study of extant taxa (singular: extant taxon): taxa (such as species, genera and families) with members still alive, as opposed to (all) being extinct. For example: 
+
+The moose (Alces alces) is an extant species, and the Irish elk (Megaloceros giganteus) is an extinct species.
+In the group of molluscs known as the cephalopods, as of 1987 there were approximately 600 extant species and 7,500 extinct species.A taxon can be classified as extinct if it is broadly agreed or certified that no members of the group are still alive. Conversely, an extinct taxon can be reclassified as extant if there are new discoveries of living species (""Lazarus species""), or if previously known extant species are reclassified as members of the taxon.        
+Most biologists, zoologists, and botanists are in practice neontologists, and the term neontologist is used largely by paleontologists referring to non-paleontologists.",2436363,Neontology,S
+432,"Microsoft Windows is a computer operating system developed by Microsoft. It was first launched in 1985 as a graphical operating system built on MS-DOS. The initial version was followed by several subsequent releases, and by the early 1990s, the Windows line had split into two separate lines of releases: Windows 9x for consumers and Windows NT for businesses and enterprises. In the following years, several further variants of Windows would be released: Windows CE in 1996 for embedded systems; Pocket PC in 2000 (renamed to Windows Mobile in 2003 and Windows Phone in 2010) for personal digital assistants and, later, smartphones; Windows Holographic in 2016 for AR/VR headsets; and several other editions.
+
+Personal computer versions
+A ""personal computer"" version of Windows is considered to be a version that end-users or OEMs can install on personal computers, including desktop computers, laptops, and workstations.
+The first five versions of Windows–Windows 1.0, Windows 2.0, Windows 2.1, Windows 3.0, and Windows 3.1–were all based on MS-DOS, and were aimed at both consumers and businesses. However, Windows 3.1 had two separate successors, splitting the Windows line in two: the consumer-focused ""Windows 9x"" line, consisting of Windows 95, Windows 98, and Windows Me; and the professional Windows NT line, comprising Windows NT 3.1, Windows NT 3.5, Windows NT 3.51, Windows NT 4.0, and Windows 2000.",2533580,List of Microsoft Windows versions,T
+433,"Engineering physics, or engineering science, refers to the study of the combined disciplines of physics, mathematics, chemistry, biology, and engineering, particularly computer, nuclear, electrical, electronic, aerospace, materials or mechanical engineering. By focusing on the scientific method as a rigorous basis, it seeks ways to apply, design, and develop new solutions in engineering.
+
+Overview
+Unlike traditional engineering disciplines, engineering science/physics is not necessarily confined to a particular branch of science, engineering or physics. Instead, engineering science/physics is meant to provide a more thorough grounding in applied physics for a selected specialty such as optics, quantum physics, materials science, applied mechanics, electronics, nanotechnology, microfabrication, microelectronics, computing, photonics, mechanical engineering, electrical engineering, nuclear engineering, biophysics, control theory, aerodynamics, energy, solid-state physics, etc. It is the discipline devoted to creating and optimizing engineering solutions through enhanced understanding and integrated application of mathematical, scientific, statistical, and engineering principles. The discipline is also meant for cross-functionality and bridges the gap between theoretical science and practical engineering with emphasis in research and development, design, and analysis.
+It is notable that in many languages the term for ""engineering physics"" would be directly translated into English as ""technical physics"".",740540,Engineering physics,E
+434,"Terminator: Dark Fate is a 2019 American science fiction action film directed by Tim Miller and written by David S. Goyer, Justin Rhodes, and Billy Ray from a story by James Cameron, Charles H. Eglee, Josh Friedman, Goyer, and Rhodes. Cameron also produced the film with David Ellison. It is the sixth installment in the Terminator franchise and a direct sequel to Terminator 2: Judgment Day (1991), ignoring the events of Rise of the Machines (2003), Salvation (2009), and the reboot Genisys (2015), following the return of creative control to Cameron.
+The film stars Linda Hamilton and Arnold Schwarzenegger as Sarah Connor and the T-800 Terminator, respectively, reuniting the actors after 23 years.",61903099,Terminator: Dark Fate,T
+435,"Industrial and production engineering (IPE) is an interdisciplinary engineering discipline that includes manufacturing technology, engineering sciences, management science, and optimization of complex processes, systems, or organizations. It is concerned with the understanding and application of engineering procedures in manufacturing processes and production methods. Industrial engineering dates back all the way to the industrial revolution, initiated in 1700s by Sir Adam Smith, Henry Ford, Eli Whitney, Frank Gilbreth and Lilian Gilbreth, Henry Gantt, F.W. Taylor, etc. After the 1970s, industrial and production engineering developed worldwide and started to widely use automation and robotics.",43282531,Industrial and production engineering,E
+436,"Herbar Digital is a research project at the Fachhochschule Hannover (FHH) from 2006 to 2011 for rationalising the virtualization of botanical document material and their usage by process optimization and automation.
+
+Research project
+Conservatively estimated, 500 million dried plants — so called herbar specimens — are stored in herbariums at botanic gardens across the world under scientifically controlled conditions. The aim of the third-party-funds financed research project is to automate the process of virtualization of herbar specimens and their management to make them digitally accessible to botanists and biologists. An examplary solution for the example herbarium of the botanic Garden in Berlin-Dahlem (ca. 3.5 million plant specimens) will allow to generalize the applied structure, software and technique to a level from that general reference solutions for efficient high-resolution scanning of any object of museum quality can be derived.
+
+Workflow
+Herbar specimens have been scanned for some time at different spaces. However, the degree of automation of these solutions is very low, so that only a small number of herbarium specimens can be scanned each day.",23591181,Herbar Digital,S
+437,"A Pedersen current is an electric current formed in the direction of the applied electric field when a conductive material with charge carriers is acted upon by an external electric field and an external magnetic field. Pedersen currents emerge in a material where the charge carriers collide with particles in the conductive material at approximately the same frequency as the gyratory frequency induced by the magnetic field. Pedersen currents are associated with a Pedersen conductivity related to the applied magnetic field and the properties of the material.
+
+History
+The first expression for the Pedersen conductivity was formulated by Peder Oluf Pedersen from Denmark in his 1927 work ""The Propagation of Radio Waves along the Surface of the Earth and in the Atmosphere"", where he pointed out that the geomagnetic field means that the conductivity of the ionosphere is anisotropic.
+
+Physical explanation
+When a moving charge carrier in a conductor is under the influence of a magnetic field 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          B
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \mathbf {B} }
+  , the carrier experiences a force perpendicular to the direction of motion and the magnetic field, resulting in a gyratory path, which is circular in the absence of any other external force. When an electric field 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          E
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \mathbf {E} }
+   is applied in addition to the magnetic field and perpendicular to that field, this gyratory motion is driven by the electric field, leading to a net drift in the direction 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          E
+        
+        ×
+        
+          B
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \mathbf {E} \times \mathbf {B} }
+   around the guiding center and a lack of mobility in the direction of the electric field. The charge carrier undergoes a helical motion whereby a charge carrier at rest acquires motion in the direction of the electric field according to Coulomb's law, gains a velocity perpendicular to the magnetic field, and subsequently is pushed in the direction 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          v
+        
+        ×
+        
+          B
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \mathbf {v} \times \mathbf {B} }
+   due to the Lorentz force (as 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          v
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \mathbf {v} }
+   is in the direction of 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          E
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \mathbf {E} }
+  , 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          v
+        
+        ×
+        
+          B
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \mathbf {v} \times \mathbf {B} }
+   is initially in the same direction as 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          E
+        
+        ×
+        
+          B
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \mathbf {E} \times \mathbf {B} }
+  .) The motion will then oscillate backwards against the electric field until it again reaches a velocity of zero in the direction of the electric field, before again being driven by the electric and magnetic fields, forming a helical path.",74371509,Pedersen current,M
+438,"ChoKyun Rha (October 5, 1933 – March 2, 2021) was a Korean-born American food technologist, inventor, and professor of biomaterials science and engineering at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). She was the first Asian woman awarded tenure at MIT.
+
+Early life
+ChoKyun Rha was born in Seoul, the daughter of SaeJin Rha and Young Soon Choi Rha. Her father was a physician and dean of the medical school at Seoul National University. She moved to the United States in 1956, and attended Miami University in Ohio, before enrolling at MIT as an undergraduate. She finished a bachelor's degree in 1962, with a senior thesis on the storage of dried scallions.",69540685,ChoKyun Rha,S
+439,"The Hayes-Wheelwright Matrix, also known as the product-process matrix, is a tool to analyze the fit between a chosen product positioning and manufacturing process.
+The first dimension of the matrix, the product lifecycle, is a measure of the maturity of the product or market. It ranges from highly customized products with low volumes, to highly standardized products with high volume. The second dimension, the process lifecycle, is a measure of the maturity of the manufacturing process. It ranges from highly manual processes with high unit costs (job shop) to highly automated process with low unit costs (continuous flow).
+Companies can occupy any position in the matrix. However, according to the framework, they can only be successful if their product lifecycle stage is consistent with their process lifecycle stage.
+It was developed by Robert H.",58818220,Hayes-Wheelwright matrix,T
+440,"The American Naturalist is the monthly peer-reviewed scientific journal of the American Society of Naturalists, whose purpose is ""to advance and to diffuse knowledge of organic evolution and other broad biological principles so as to enhance the conceptual unification of the biological sciences.""  It was established in 1867 and is published by the University of Chicago Press. The journal covers research in ecology, evolutionary biology, population, and integrative biology. As of 2018, the editor-in-chief is Daniel I. Bolnick. According to the Journal Citation Reports, the journal had a 2020 impact factor of 3.926.
+
+History
+The journal was founded by Alpheus Hyatt, Edward S.",149247,The American Naturalist,S
+441,"Engineering biology is the set of methods for designing, building, and testing engineered biological systems which have been used to manipulate information, construct materials, process chemicals, produce energy, provide food, and help maintain or enhance human health and environment.
+
+History
+Rapid advances in the ability to genetically modify biological organisms have advanced a new engineering discipline, commonly referred to as synthetic biology. This approach seeks to harness the power of living systems for a variety of manufacturing applications, such as advanced therapeutics, sustainable fuels, chemical feedstocks, and advanced materials. To date, research in synthetic biology has typically relied on trial-and-error approaches, which are costly, laborious, and inefficient.
+
+References
+Bibliography
+H.R.4521 - America COMPETES Act of 2022https://www.congress.gov/congressional-record/2022/03/17/senate-section/article/S1237-5
+
+Schuergers, N., Werlang, C., Ajo-Franklin, C., & Boghossian, A. (2017). A Synthetic Biology Approach to Engineering Living Photovoltaics.",54041957,Engineering biology,T
+442,"The technological innovation system is a concept developed within the scientific field of innovation studies which serves to explain the nature and rate of technological change. A Technological Innovation System can be defined as ‘a dynamic network of agents interacting in a specific economic/industrial area under a particular institutional infrastructure and involved in the generation, diffusion, and utilization of technology’.The approach may be applied to at least three levels of analysis: to a technology in the sense of a knowledge field, to a product  or an artefact, or to a set of related products and artifacts aimed at satisfying a particular (societal) function’. With respect to the latter, the approach has especially proven itself in explaining why and how sustainable (energy) technologies have developed and diffused into a society, or have failed to do so. Technology improves throughout the years, and so do we.
+
+Background
+The concept of a technological innovation system was introduced as part of a wider theoretical school, called the innovation system approach. The central idea behind this approach is that determinants of technological change are not (only) to be found in individual firms or in research institutes, but (also) in a broad societal structure in which firms, as well as knowledge institutes, are embedded.",23371634,Technological innovation system,T
+443,"Semantic interoperability is the ability of computer systems to exchange data with unambiguous, shared meaning. Semantic interoperability is a requirement to enable machine computable logic, inferencing, knowledge discovery, and data federation between information systems.Semantic interoperability is therefore concerned not just with the packaging of data (syntax), but the simultaneous transmission of the meaning with the data (semantics). This is accomplished by adding data about the data (metadata), linking each data element to a controlled, shared vocabulary. The meaning of the data is transmitted with the data itself, in one self-describing ""information package"" that is independent of any information system. It is this shared vocabulary, and its associated links to an ontology, which provides the foundation and capability of machine interpretation, inference, and logic.
+Syntactic interoperability (see  below) is a prerequisite for semantic interoperability.",7233280,Semantic interoperability,T
+444,"The fixed-point lemma for normal functions is a basic result in axiomatic set theory stating that any normal function has arbitrarily large fixed points (Levy 1979: p. 117). It was first proved by Oswald Veblen in 1908.
+
+Background and formal statement
+A normal function is a class function 
+  
+    
+      
+        f
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle f}
+   from the class Ord of ordinal numbers to itself such that:
+
+  
+    
+      
+        f
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle f}
+   is strictly increasing: 
+  
+    
+      
+        f
+        (
+        α
+        )
+        <
+        f
+        (
+        β
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle f(\alpha )<f(\beta )}
+   whenever 
+  
+    
+      
+        α
+        <
+        β
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \alpha <\beta }
+  .
+
+  
+    
+      
+        f
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle f}
+   is continuous: for every limit ordinal 
+  
+    
+      
+        λ
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \lambda }
+   (i.e. 
+  
+    
+      
+        λ
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \lambda }
+   is neither zero nor a successor), 
+  
+    
+      
+        f
+        (
+        λ
+        )
+        =
+        sup
+        {
+        f
+        (
+        α
+        )
+        :
+        α
+        <
+        λ
+        }
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle f(\lambda )=\sup\{f(\alpha ):\alpha <\lambda \}}
+  .It can be shown that if 
+  
+    
+      
+        f
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle f}
+   is normal then 
+  
+    
+      
+        f
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle f}
+   commutes with suprema; for any nonempty set 
+  
+    
+      
+        A
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle A}
+   of ordinals,
+
+  
+    
+      
+        f
+        (
+        sup
+        A
+        )
+        =
+        sup
+        f
+        (
+        A
+        )
+        =
+        sup
+        {
+        f
+        (
+        α
+        )
+        :
+        α
+        ∈
+        A
+        }
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle f(\sup A)=\sup f(A)=\sup\{f(\alpha ):\alpha \in A\}}
+  .Indeed, if 
+  
+    
+      
+        sup
+        A
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \sup A}
+   is a successor ordinal then 
+  
+    
+      
+        sup
+        A
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \sup A}
+   is an element of 
+  
+    
+      
+        A
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle A}
+   and the equality follows from the increasing property of 
+  
+    
+      
+        f
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle f}
+  . If 
+  
+    
+      
+        sup
+        A
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \sup A}
+   is a limit ordinal then the equality follows from the continuous property of 
+  
+    
+      
+        f
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle f}
+  .
+A fixed point of a normal function is an ordinal 
+  
+    
+      
+        β
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \beta }
+   such that 
+  
+    
+      
+        f
+        (
+        β
+        )
+        =
+        β
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle f(\beta )=\beta }
+  .
+The fixed point lemma states that the class of fixed points of any normal function is nonempty and in fact is unbounded: given any ordinal 
+  
+    
+      
+        α
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \alpha }
+  , there exists an ordinal 
+  
+    
+      
+        β
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \beta }
+   such that 
+  
+    
+      
+        β
+        ≥
+        α
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \beta \geq \alpha }
+   and 
+  
+    
+      
+        f
+        (
+        β
+        )
+        =
+        β
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle f(\beta )=\beta }
+  .
+The continuity of the normal function implies the class of fixed points is closed (the supremum of any subset of the class of fixed points is again a fixed point).",404343,Fixed-point lemma for normal functions,M
+445,"Affinity (taxonomy) – mainly in life sciences or natural history – refers to resemblance suggesting a common descent, phylogenetic relationship, or type. The term does, however, have broader application, such as in geology (for example, in descriptive and theoretical works), and similarly in astronomy (for example, see ""Centaur object"" in the context of 2060 Chiron's close affinity with icy comet nuclei.)
+
+Basis
+In taxonomy the basis of any particular type of classification is the way in which objects in the domain resemble each other. A resemblance of a type that seems appropriate to the classification that we propose, we may call an affinity, and when we decide how to classify say, a specimen of rock or butterfly, we justify our decision according to the affinities that we observe. 
+Other resemblances we dismiss as being out of context or at least non-cogent; for example, in deciding whether to classify a lizard as having closer affinities to a snake than to a table, biologists rely on affinities such as the scales, blood, physiology, vertebral anatomy, and reproductive system as being more relevant than the possession of four ""feet"".
+
+Application and obstacles
+Analysing and determining the proper classification of an organism, a rock, or an astronomic object according to a particular system is often a difficult and treacherous procedure. Problems in such fields of study have tripped up whole generations of workers in recent centuries.",31638583,Affinity (taxonomy),S
+446,"""The Cowboy Captain of the Cutty Sark"" is a 1998 Scrooge McDuck comic by Don Rosa. The story takes place between The Buckaroo of the Badlands and Raider of the Copper Hill in the series The Life and Times of Scrooge McDuck making it part 3B.
+The story was first published in the Danish Anders And & Co. #1998-52 and 1998–53; the first American publication was in Uncle Scrooge #318, in February 1999.
+
+Plot
+The story takes place in August 1883. Scrooge exports some cattle from Montana to Indonesia but encounters a thief and meets his old friend Ratchet Gearloose from his Riverboat days. Then he becomes part of a spectacular trip aboard the clipper ship Cutty Sark on August 26, 1883.",20372305,The Cowboy Captain of the Cutty Sark,S
+447,"The system size expansion, also known as van Kampen's expansion or the Ω-expansion, is a technique pioneered by Nico van Kampen used in the analysis of stochastic processes. Specifically, it allows one to find an approximation to the solution of a master equation with nonlinear transition rates. The leading order term of the expansion is given by the linear noise approximation, in which the master equation is approximated by a Fokker–Planck equation with linear coefficients determined by the transition rates and stoichiometry of the system.
+Less formally, it is normally straightforward to write down a mathematical description of a system where processes happen randomly (for example, radioactive atoms randomly decay in a physical system, or genes that are expressed stochastically in a cell). However, these mathematical descriptions are often too difficult to solve for the study of the systems statistics (for example, the mean and variance of the number of atoms or proteins as a function of time). The system size expansion allows one to obtain an approximate statistical description that can be solved much more easily than the master equation.
+
+Preliminaries
+Systems that admit a treatment with the system size expansion may be described by a probability distribution 
+  
+    
+      
+        P
+        (
+        X
+        ,
+        t
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle P(X,t)}
+  , giving the probability of observing the system in state 
+  
+    
+      
+        X
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle X}
+   at time 
+  
+    
+      
+        t
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle t}
+  .",29803312,System size expansion,M
+448,"In computer science, a Fibonacci heap is a data structure for priority queue operations, consisting of a collection of  heap-ordered trees. It has a better amortized running time than many other priority queue data structures including the binary heap and binomial heap. Michael L. Fredman and Robert E. Tarjan developed Fibonacci heaps in 1984 and published them in a scientific journal in 1987.",254142,Fibonacci heap,M
+449,"Regulatory science is the scientific and technical foundations upon which regulations are based in various industries – particularly those involving health or safety. Regulatory bodies employing such principles in the United States include, for example, the FDA for food and medical products, the EPA for the environment, and the OSHA for work safety.
+""Regulatory science"" is contrasted with regulatory affairs and regulatory law, which refer to the administrative or legal aspects of regulation, in that the former is focused on the regulations' scientific underpinnings and concerns – rather than the regulations' promulgation, implementation, compliance, or enforcement.
+
+History
+Probably the first investigator who recognized the nature of regulatory science was Alvin Weinberg, who described the scientific process used to evaluate effects of ionizing radiation as trans science. The origin of the term regulatory science is unknown. It was probably coined sometimes in the late 1970s in an undated memorandum prepared by A. Alan Moghissi, who was describing scientific issues that the newly formed US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) was facing.",30272334,Regulatory science,S
+450,"Plant collecting is the acquisition of plant specimens for the purposes of research, cultivation, or as a hobby. Plant specimens may be kept alive, but are more commonly dried and pressed to preserve the quality of the specimen. Plant collecting is an ancient practice with records of a Chinese botanist collecting roses over 5000 years ago.Herbaria are collections of preserved plants samples and their associated data for scientific purposes. The largest herbarium in the world exist at the Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, in Paris, France. Plant samples in herbaria typically include a reference sheet with information about the plant and details of collection.",4576518,Plant collecting,S
+451,"In chemistry, a crossover experiment is a method used to study the mechanism of a chemical reaction. In a crossover experiment, two similar but distinguishable reactants simultaneously undergo a reaction as part of the same reaction mixture. The products formed will either correspond directly to one of the two reactants (non-crossover products) or will include components of both reactants (crossover products). The aim of a crossover experiment is to determine whether or not a reaction process involves a stage where the components of each reactant have an opportunity to exchange with each other.
+The results of crossover experiments are often straightforward to analyze, making them one of the most useful and most frequently applied methods of mechanistic study. In organic chemistry, crossover experiments are most often used to distinguish between intramolecular and intermolecular reactions.Inorganic and organometallic chemists rely heavily on crossover experiments, and in particular isotopic labeling experiments, for support or contradiction of proposed mechanisms.",40913419,Crossover experiment (chemistry),M
+452,"Diglycidyl resorcinol ether, also called Resorcinol diglycidyl ether (RDGE)  is a liquid aromatic organic chemical compound and chemically a glycidyl ether.The formula is C12H14O4 and the CAS Registry Number 101-90-6. It is one of a number of glycidyl ethers available commercially that are used to reduce the viscosity of epoxy resins. These are then further used in coatings, sealants, adhesives and elastomers. It has the CAS Registry Number 101-90-6. It has the IUPAC name 2-[[3-(oxiran-2-ylmethoxy)phenoxy]methyl]oxirane and is registered on TSCA (Toxic Substances Control Act of 1976) as  Oxirane, 2,2'-[1,3-phenylenebis(oxymethylene)]bis-.",70877331,Diglycidyl resorcinol ether,M
+453,"In colloidal chemistry, flocculation is a process by which colloidal particles come out of suspension to sediment in the form of floc or flake, either spontaneously or due to the addition of a clarifying agent. The action differs from precipitation in that, prior to flocculation, colloids are merely suspended, under the form of a stable dispersion (where the internal phase (solid) is dispersed throughout the external phase (fluid) through mechanical agitation) and are not truly dissolved in solution.
+Coagulation and flocculation are important processes in water treatment with coagulation aimed to destabilize and aggregate particles through chemical interactions between the coagulant and colloids, and flocculation to sediment the destabilized particles by causing their aggregation into floc.
+
+Term definition
+According to the IUPAC definition, flocculation is ""a process of contact and adhesion whereby the particles of a dispersion form larger-size clusters"". Flocculation 
+is synonymous with agglomeration and coagulation / coalescence.Basically, coagulation is a process of addition of coagulant to destabilize a stabilized charged particle. Meanwhile, flocculation is a mixing technique that promotes agglomeration and assists in the settling of particles. The most common used coagulant is alum, Al2(SO4)3·14H2O.
+The chemical reaction involved:
+
+Al2(SO4)3 · 14 H2O → 2 Al(OH)3(s) + 6 H+ + 3 SO2−4 + 8 H2ODuring flocculation, gentle mixing accelerates the rate of particle collision, and the destabilized particles are further aggregated and enmeshed into larger precipitates.",41310111,Flocculation,E
+454,"Arithmetic dynamics is a field that amalgamates two areas of mathematics, dynamical systems and number theory. Part of the inspiration comes from complex dynamics, the study of the iteration of self-maps of the complex plane or other complex algebraic varieties. Arithmetic dynamics is the study of the number-theoretic properties of integer, rational, p-adic, or algebraic points under repeated application of a polynomial or rational function. A fundamental goal is to describe arithmetic properties in terms of underlying geometric structures.
+Global arithmetic dynamics is the study of analogues of classical diophantine geometry  in the setting of discrete dynamical systems, while local arithmetic dynamics, also called p-adic or nonarchimedean dynamics, is an analogue of complex dynamics in which one replaces the complex numbers C by a p-adic field such as Qp or Cp and studies chaotic behavior and the Fatou and Julia sets.
+The following table describes a rough correspondence between Diophantine equations, especially abelian varieties, and dynamical systems:
+
+Definitions and notation from discrete dynamics
+Let S be a set and let F : S → S be a map from S to itself. The iterate of F with itself n times is denoted
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          F
+          
+            (
+            n
+            )
+          
+        
+        =
+        F
+        ∘
+        F
+        ∘
+        ⋯
+        ∘
+        F
+        .
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle F^{(n)}=F\circ F\circ \cdots \circ F.}
+  A point P ∈ S is periodic if F(n)(P) = P for some n ≥ 1.
+The point is preperiodic if F(k)(P) is periodic for some k ≥ 1.
+The (forward) orbit of P is the set
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          O
+          
+            F
+          
+        
+        (
+        P
+        )
+        =
+        
+          {
+          
+            P
+            ,
+            F
+            (
+            P
+            )
+            ,
+            
+              F
+              
+                (
+                2
+                )
+              
+            
+            (
+            P
+            )
+            ,
+            
+              F
+              
+                (
+                3
+                )
+              
+            
+            (
+            P
+            )
+            ,
+            ⋯
+          
+          }
+        
+        .
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle O_{F}(P)=\left\{P,F(P),F^{(2)}(P),F^{(3)}(P),\cdots \right\}.}
+  Thus P is preperiodic if and only if its orbit OF(P) is finite.
+
+Number theoretic properties of preperiodic points
+Let F(x) be a rational function of degree at least two with coefficients in Q.",17584701,Arithmetic dynamics,M
+455,"Applied economics is the study as regards the application of economic theory and econometrics in specific settings. As one of the two sets of fields of economics (the other set being the core), it is typically characterized by the application of the core, i.e. economic theory and econometrics to address practical issues in a range of fields including  demographic economics, labour economics, business economics, industrial organization, agricultural economics, development economics, education economics, engineering economics, financial economics, health economics, monetary economics, public economics, and economic history. From the perspective of economic development, the purpose of applied economics is to enhance the quality of business practices and national policy making.The process often involves a reduction in the level of abstraction of this core theory. There are a variety of approaches including not only empirical estimation using econometrics, input-output analysis or simulations but also case studies, historical analogy and so-called common sense or the ""vernacular"".",5944849,Applied economics,S
+456,"A universal gateway is a device that transacts data between two or more data sources using communication protocols specific to each.  Sometimes called a universal protocol gateway, this class of product is designed as a computer appliance, and is used to connect data from one automation system to another.
+
+Typical applications
+Typical applications include:
+M2M Communications – machine to machine communications between machines from different vendors, typically using different communication protocols.  This is often a requirement to optimize the performance of a production line, by effectively communicating machine states upstream and downstream of a piece of equipment.  Machine idle times can trigger lower power operation.  Inventory Levels can be more effectively managed on a per station basis, by knowing the upstream and downstream demands.
+M2E Communications – machine to enterprise communications is typically managed through database interactions.",29072679,Universal gateway,E
+457,"This article describes shape analysis to analyze and process geometric shapes.
+
+Description
+Shape analysis is the (mostly) automatic analysis of geometric shapes, for example using a computer to detect similarly shaped objects in a database or parts that fit together. For a computer to automatically analyze and process geometric shapes, the objects have to be represented in a digital form. Most commonly a boundary representation is used to describe the object with its boundary (usually the outer shell, see also 3D model). However, other volume based representations (e.g. constructive solid geometry) or point based representations (point clouds) can be used to represent shape.
+Once the objects are given, either by modeling (computer-aided design), by scanning (3D scanner) or by extracting shape from 2D or 3D images, they have to be simplified before a comparison can be achieved.",16576796,Shape analysis (digital geometry),M
+458,"A Crookes tube (also Crookes–Hittorf tube) is an early experimental electrical discharge tube, with partial vacuum, invented by English physicist William Crookes and others around 1869-1875, in which cathode rays, streams of electrons, were discovered.Developed from the earlier Geissler tube, the Crookes tube consists of a partially evacuated glass bulb of various shapes, with two metal electrodes, the cathode and the anode, one at either end. When a high voltage is applied between the electrodes, cathode rays (electrons) are projected in straight lines from the cathode. It was used by Crookes, Johann Hittorf, Julius Plücker, Eugen Goldstein, Heinrich Hertz, Philipp Lenard, Kristian Birkeland and others to discover the properties of cathode rays, culminating in J.J. Thomson's 1897 identification of cathode rays as negatively charged particles, which were later named electrons. Crookes tubes are now used only for demonstrating cathode rays.
+Wilhelm Röntgen discovered X-rays using the Crookes tube in 1895.",1930784,Crookes tube,T
+459,"Edmund Andrews (April 22, 1824 – January 22, 1904) was an American doctor, a pioneer in surgery and medical education of the Western United States. He was one of the founders of the Medical Department of the Northwestern University.
+
+Biography
+Andrews was born in Putney, Vermont, a son of Betsy Lathrop and Rev. Elisha D. Andrews, the Congregational minister of that town. There, and in Rochester, New York, he received his preliminary education.",32975984,Edmund Andrews (surgeon),S
+460,"Pure mathematics is the study of mathematical concepts independently of any application outside mathematics. These concepts may originate in real-world concerns, and the results obtained may later turn out to be useful for practical applications, but pure mathematicians are not primarily motivated by such applications. Instead, the appeal is attributed to the intellectual challenge and aesthetic beauty of working out the logical consequences of basic principles.
+While pure mathematics has existed as an activity since at least ancient Greece, the concept was elaborated upon around the year 1900, after the introduction of theories with counter-intuitive properties (such as non-Euclidean geometries and Cantor's theory of infinite sets), and the discovery of apparent paradoxes (such as continuous functions that are nowhere differentiable, and Russell's paradox). This introduced the need to renew the concept of mathematical rigor and rewrite all mathematics accordingly, with a systematic use of axiomatic methods. This led many mathematicians to focus on mathematics for its own sake, that is, pure mathematics.
+Nevertheless, almost all mathematical theories remained motivated by problems coming from the real world or from less abstract mathematical theories.",457210,Pure mathematics,M
+461,"Ezra Michener (1794 - 1887) was an American botanist and medical doctor who lived in Chester County, Pennsylvania, USA for most of his life. In addition to writing a book, he made extensive collections of plants and fungi that are now in national collections.
+
+Early life, education and personal life
+Michener was the fifth child of Mordecai and Alice (née Dunn) Michener. He was born on the family farm. He was not educated at a school but was taught by some local people and also self-taught.
+He became interested in plants and spent time at Harmony Grove, a botanic garden begun in the mid-1770s by the self-taught botanist John Jackson (1748–1821), developed further by later generations of his family and which survived into the early twentieth century as the area developed into a horticultural company. It was well known at the time and also housed the Farmers Library.",73356430,Ezra Michener,S
+462,"CoWord is a software add-on to Microsoft Word to enable multiple users to edit the same document over the Internet with MS Word. It is a part of the CoOffice suite of collaboration tools for Microsoft Office.
+CoWord can be considered as a collaborative real-time editor, with the editor being MS Word (which is not distributed with CoWord). To use CoWord, users need to supply their own copies of MS Word.As of August 2010, CoWord has become CodoxWord, released by CodoxWare.
+
+Technology
+One of the main challenges in building collaborative real-time editors is in concurrency control. The concurrency control technology used by CoWord is Operational transformation. Operational transformation (OT) can incorporate concurrent changes made to replicas of the same document.",12109800,CoWord,T
+463,"The Flash (Bartholomew Henry ""Barry"" Allen) is a superhero appearing in American comic books published by DC Comics. He is the second character known as the Flash, following Jay Garrick. The character first appeared in Showcase #4 (October 1956), created by writer Robert Kanigher and penciler Carmine Infantino.Like other heroes who go by The Flash, Barry is a ""speedster"", with powers that derive mainly from his superhuman speed. He wears a distinct red and gold costume treated to resist friction and wind, traditionally storing the costume compressed inside a ring. Originally created as a reimagining of the popular 1940s superhero The Flash (Jay Garrick), the success of Barry Allen's Flash comic book helped to bring about the Silver Age of Comic Books, and contributed to a large growth in DC Comics' stable of science fiction comics and characters.",1257797,Flash (Barry Allen),M
+464,"""The investigation of the useful plants of Formosa"" was a project that was initiated by the Government-General of Taiwan in 1905. This project was funded by money allocated by the government. Takiya Kawakami was appointed as the chief of the project, and Bunzo Hayata was entrusted to carry out the plant appraisal. Several assistants were recruited to collect plant samples. The investigation was being published as the “A List of Plants of Formosa” and the “Icones Plantarum Formosanarum”, serving as an important foundation for subsequent Taiwan plants investigation.
+
+Project content
+The project began in 1905.",74555157,Draft:The investigation of the useful plants of Formosa,S
+465,"The subject of physical mathematics is concerned with physically motivated mathematics and is considered by some as a subfield of mathematical physics.
+According to Margaret Osler the simple machines of Hero of Alexandria and the ray tracing of Alhazen did not refer to causality or forces. Accordingly these early expressions of kinematics and optics do not rise to the level of mathematical physics as practiced by Galileo and Newton.
+The details of physical units and their manipulation were addressed by Alexander Macfarlane in Physical Arithmetic in 1885. The science of kinematics created a need for mathematical representation of motion and has found expression with complex numbers, quaternions, and linear algebra.
+At Cambridge University the Mathematical Tripos tested students on their knowledge of ""mixed mathematics"". ""... [N]ew books which appeared  in the mid-eighteenth century offered a systematic introduction to the fundamental  operations of the fluxional calculus and showed how it could be applied to a wide range of mathematical and physical problems.",32439784,Physical mathematics,M
+466,"OCRopus is a free document analysis and optical character recognition (OCR) system released under the Apache License v2.0 with a very modular design using command-line interfaces.
+OCRopus is developed under the lead of Thomas Breuel from the German Research Centre for Artificial Intelligence in Kaiserslautern, Germany and was sponsored by Google.
+
+Description
+OCRopus was especially designed for use in high-volume digitization projects of books, such as Google Books, Internet Archive or libraries. A large number of languages and fonts are to be supported. However, it can also be used for desktop and office applications or for application for visually impaired people.
+The main components of OCRopus are formed:
+
+analysis of the document layout
+optical character recognition
+use of statistical language modelsSingle or multiple scripts are available for these components. The modular approach allows individual workflows to be used and individual steps to be exchanged.
+By default, OCRopus comes with a model for English texts and a model for text in Fraktur. These models refer to the script and are largely independent of the actual language.",11556084,OCRopus,E
+467,"Rapid tooling (RT) denotes manufacturing on a slim timeline. Some of the main advantages to rapid tooling trades is that it decreases the time and cost of the product. With rapid tools being fast and easily reproducible, it requires less stock for finished tools. These tools will be produced on demand and are available almost immediately. Special tools or tools where no supplier is existing on the market any more can be reproduced without bigger design and production efforts.",49466458,Rapid tooling,E
+468,"Michael Byster (born March 5, 1959) is an American mental calculator, and math educator. He worked as a commodity trader until he quit his job to devote himself to teaching children his methods. He has spoken to over 10,000 classrooms for free and continues to mentor kids. Mike is able to do many arithmetic problems in his head at very fast speeds. During a study done years ago, Byster was claimed to have one of the fastest mathematical minds in the world.
+
+Biography
+Early life
+Byster was raised along with his older sister in the Chicago suburb of Skokie, Illinois.",8494021,Mike Byster,M
+469,"Jargon Software Inc. is a computer software development company that specializes in development and deployment tools and business applications for mobile handheld devices such as Pocket PC and Symbol PDA devices.
+The company is based in Minneapolis, Minnesota, United States, and is a privately held Minnesota corporation. It markets its products both directly and through selected resellers to corporate, governmental and other organizations around the world.
+
+History
+Jargon Software was formed in 1997 to create an Internet application architecture that would overcome the inherent limitations of traditional web-enabling technologies, not require long and complicated download and installation procedures, insulate the application from the turbulent times that lie ahead, and offer an upgrade path to emerging technologies. The company was originally named Viking Software Corp. The name was changed to Jargon Software in late 1998 in light-hearted recognition of the many buzzwords pertaining to the technology that underlies the company's products.",1751434,Jargon Software,T
+470,"Rich Communication Services (RCS) is a communication protocol between mobile telephone carriers and between phone and carrier, aiming at replacing SMS messages with a text-message system that is richer, provides phonebook polling (for service discovery), and can transmit in-call multimedia. It is part of the broader IP Multimedia Subsystem. Google added support for end-to-end encryption for all chats in their own RCS-based app, Messages.It is also marketed as Advanced Messaging, chat features, joyn, SMSoIP,  Message+, and SMS+.In early 2020, it was estimated that RCS was available from 88 operators in 59 countries with approximately 390 million users per month.
+
+History
+The Rich Communication Suite industry initiative 
+was formed by a group of industry promoters in 2007. In February 2008 the GSM Association officially became the project home of RCS and an RCS steering committee was established by the organization.
+The steering committee specified the definition, testing, and integration of the services in the application suite known as RCS. Three years later, the RCS project released a new specification – RCS-e (e = 'enhanced'), which included various iterations of the original RCS specifications.",16742756,Rich Communication Services,T
+471,"In control theory, Ackermann's formula is a control system design method for solving the pole allocation problem for invariant-time systems by Jürgen Ackermann. One of the primary problems in control system design is the creation of controllers that will change the dynamics of a system by changing the eigenvalues of the matrix representing the dynamics of the closed-loop system. This is equivalent to changing the poles of the associated transfer function in the case that there is no cancellation of poles and zeros.
+
+State feedback control
+Consider a linear continuous-time invariant system with a state-space representation
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            
+              x
+              ˙
+            
+          
+        
+        (
+        t
+        )
+        =
+        A
+        x
+        (
+        t
+        )
+        +
+        B
+        u
+        (
+        t
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\dot {x}}(t)=Ax(t)+Bu(t)}
+  
+
+  
+    
+      
+        y
+        (
+        t
+        )
+        =
+        C
+        x
+        (
+        t
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle y(t)=Cx(t)}
+  where x is the state vector, u is the input vector, and A, B and C are matrices of compatible dimensions that represent the dynamics of the system. An input-output description of this system is given by the transfer function
+
+  
+    
+      
+        G
+        (
+        s
+        )
+        =
+        C
+        (
+        s
+        I
+        −
+        A
+        
+          )
+          
+            −
+            1
+          
+        
+        B
+        =
+        C
+         
+        
+          
+            
+              Adj
+              ⁡
+              (
+              s
+              I
+              −
+              A
+              )
+            
+            
+              det
+              (
+              s
+              I
+              −
+              A
+              )
+            
+          
+        
+         
+        B
+        .
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle G(s)=C(sI-A)^{-1}B=C\ {\frac {\operatorname {Adj} (sI-A)}{\det(sI-A)}}\ B.}
+  Since the denominator of the right equation is given by the characteristic polynomial of A, the poles of G are eigenvalues of A (note that the converse is not necessarily true, since there may be cancellations between terms of the numerator and the denominator). If the system is unstable, or has a slow response or any other characteristic that does not specify the design criteria, it could be advantageous to make changes to it.",54426651,Ackermann's formula,E
+472,"Livermore loops (also known as the Livermore Fortran kernels or LFK) is a benchmark for parallel computers. It was created by Francis H. McMahon from scientific source code run on computers at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. It consists of 24 do loops, some of which can be vectorized, and some of which cannot. 
+The benchmark was published in 1986 in Livermore fortran kernels: A computer test of numerical performance range.The Livermore loops were originally written in Fortran, but have since been ported to many programming languages.",21297877,Livermore loops,T
+473,"The following is a comparison of e-book formats used to create and publish e-books.
+The EPUB format is the most widely supported e-book format, supported by most e-book readers except Amazon Kindle devices. Most e-book readers also support the PDF and plain text formats. E-book software can be used to convert e-books from one format to another, as well as to create, edit and publish e-books.
+
+Format descriptions
+Formats available include, but are not limited to:
+
+Broadband eBooks (BBeB)
+The digital book format originally used by Sony Corporation.  It is a proprietary format, but some reader software for general-purpose computers, particularly under Linux (for example, Calibre's internal viewer), have the capability to read it.  The LRX file extension represents a DRM encrypted eBook.",12115370,Comparison of e-book formats,T
+474,"PowerFleet (formerly I.D. Systems, Inc.) is an American company headquartered in Woodcliff Lake, New Jersey, with offices located around the globe and a technology innovation center in Israel. The company is a global provider of wireless IoT and M2M solutions for securing, controlling, tracking, and managing high-value enterprise assets such as industrial trucks, tractor trailers, intermodal shipping containers, cargo, and vehicle and truck fleets.
+
+Overview
+PowerFleet was formed on October 3, 2019 when I.D. Systems acquired Pointer Telocation Ltd. and their subsidiary brand Cellocator, and subsequently rebranded the new company as PowerFleet Inc.PowerFleet provides a technology suite that delivers telematics, asset tracking, freight visibility, and driver behavior reporting and modification.
+
+History
+I.D.",40037692,PowerFleet,T
+475,"Bacillus isolates have a variety of biotechnological applications.
+
+Nattō-derived
+Nattō-derived Bacillus isolates include nootropics pyrazine and tetramethylpyrazine, as well as the anticoagulant enzyme nattokinase.
+
+Biotechnology
+Bacillus is utilized in the production of the chemotherapy medicine L-asparaginase. Bacillus subtilis is utilized in the production of hyaluronic acid and α-amylase. Bacillus thuringiensis isolates are utilized as biopesticides.
+Bacillus megaterium has been an important industrial organism for decades. It produces penicillin amidase used to make synthetic penicillin, various amylases used in the baking industry and glucose dehydrogenase used in glucose blood tests. B.",42426935,Bacillus isolates,S
+476,"The Implementation Rules are regulations of the PRC, which set the framework of the valid product standards. For each product group there is a specific implementation rule, which is set by the Chinese authorities.
+
+Content of the Implementation Rules
+The Implementation Rules include 12 or 13 chapters, which determine the scope of the product certification. The following table provides an overview of the most common contents of the Implementation Rules:
+
+Scope
+Terms and definitions
+Standards for certification
+Certification pattern
+Individual product units
+Certification commission
+Certification procedure
+Certificates
+Approval procedure
+Certification logo
+Fees
+Responsibilities
+Certification rules
+
+Update of the Implementation Rules
+In 2014, the Implementation Rules have been updated, so that from 2015 some changes have come into effect. For example, some product groups, which were previously grouped under one Implementation Rule, are now divided and subject to some different Implementation Rules. Furthermore, new products have been added, which are now subject to the mandatory certification.",47111027,Implementation Rule,T
+477,"Human decontamination is the process of removing hazardous materials from the human body, including chemicals, radioactive substances, and infectious material.
+
+General principle
+People suspected of being contaminated are usually separated by sex, and led into a decontamination tent, trailer, or pod, where they shed their potentially contaminated clothes in a strip-down room. They then enter a wash-down room where they are showered. Finally, they enter a drying and re-robing room to be issued clean clothing, a jumpsuit, or other attire. Some more structured facilities include six rooms (strip-down, wash-down and examination rooms, for each of men's and women's side as per attached drawing). Some facilities, such as Modecs, and many others, are remotely operable, and function like ""human car washes"".",1004399,Human decontamination,S
+478,"Genelux Corporation  is a late clinical-stage public company (Nasdaq: GNLX) developing a pipeline of next-generation oncolytic viral immunotherapies for patients suffering from aggressive and/or difficult-to-treat solid tumor types. The Company’s most advanced product candidate, Olvi-Vec (olvimulogene nanivacirepvec), is a proprietary, modified strain of the vaccinia virus (VACV), a stable DNA virus with a large engineering capacity. 
+The core of Genelux’s discovery and development efforts revolves around the company's proprietary CHOICE™ platform from which the Company has developed an extensive library of isolated and engineered oncolytic vaccinia virus immunotherapeutic product candidates, including Olvi-Vec.
+The company is currently entered its pivot Phase 3 study in Platinum resistant/refractory ovarian cancer (PRROC).  Trial design based on VIRO-15 Phase 2 trial which showed independent anti-tumor activity of Olvi-Vec and reversal of platinum resistance in the TME.
+
+Locations
+Genelux Corp. is headquartered in Westlake Village, California, with a additional facilities in San Diego, California.
+
+Olvi-Vec
+Genelux’s lead oncology compound is Olvi-Vec (formally GL-ONC1, clinical grade formulation of the laboratory strain GLV-1h68), c is a proprietary, oncolytic vaccinia virus, modified to increase its safety, tumor selectivity and therapeutic potential.",47161560,Genelux Corporation,S
+479,"The history of General Motors (GM), one of the world's largest car and truck manufacturers, dates back more than a century and involves a vast scope of industrial activity around the world, mostly focused on motorized transportation and the engineering and manufacturing that make it possible. Founded in 1908 as a holding company in Flint, Michigan, as of 2012 it employed approximately 209,000 people around the world. With global headquarters at the Renaissance Center in Detroit, Michigan, United States, General Motors manufactures cars and trucks in 35 countries. In 2008, 8.35 million GM cars and trucks were sold globally under various brands. Current auto brands are Buick, Cadillac, Chevrolet, GMC, Baojun, and Wuling.",10561838,History of General Motors,E
+480,"A brain–brain interface is a direct communication pathway between the brain of one animal and the brain of another animal.
+Brain to brain interfaces have been used to help rats collaborate with each other. When a second rat was unable to choose the correct lever, the first rat noticed (not getting a second reward), and produced a round of task-related neuron firing that made the second rat more likely to choose the correct lever.In 2013, Rajesh Rao was able to use electrical brain recordings and a form of magnetic stimulation to send a brain signal to Andrea Stocco on the other side of the University of Washington campus. In 2015, researchers linked up multiple brains, of both monkeys and rats, to form an ""organic computer"".It is hypothesized that by using brain-to-brain interfaces (BTBIs) a biological computer, or brain-net, could be constructed using animal brains as its computational units. Initial exploratory work demonstrated collaboration between rats in distant cages linked by signals from cortical microelectrode arrays implanted in their brains. The rats were rewarded when actions were performed by the ""decoding rat"" which conformed to incoming signals and when signals were transmitted by the ""encoding rat"" which resulted in the desired action.",47285767,Brain–brain interface,S
+481,"The National Astronomy Meeting (NAM) is an annual scientific conference of astronomers, usually held in the British Isles. It is sponsored and coordinated by the Royal Astronomical Society (RAS), and functions as the primary annual meeting of the society. NAM is one of the largest professional astronomy conferences in Europe, with typically around 600 delegates attending.Each NAM includes a variety of plenary and parallel sessions discussing the latest research in astronomy (and related fields), public lectures, community sessions and a press office to promote the results presented at the meeting to journalists and the public.The meetings began when the RAS decided to hold some of its scientific meetings outside London, where the society is based. Known as the 'out of town' meetings, the first was held in 1948. The meetings ran in most years until 1966, when they were discontinued.The RAS resumed the series in 1976.",37260700,National Astronomy Meeting,M
+482,"Nooter Eriksen, also known as Nooter/Eriksen or N/E, is a supplier of heat recovery steam generators (boiler technology), which are mostly found in combined cycle gas turbine power stations (CCGTs). These are also found in combined heat and power (CHP) systems, which tend to have a much smaller power output than CCGT stations. Nooter Eriksen is a subsidiary of CIC Group, also owning Nooter Construction, the Wyatt Group.
+
+History
+Nooter Corporation was established in 1896. Nooter/Eriksen Cogeneration Systems was established in 1987 when Eriksen Engineering (headed by Vernon Eriksen) was taken over by the Nooter Corporation. Vernon Eriksen had joined Econotherm Corporation in 1985, which became Eriksen Engineering.
+In the 1990s the market for heat-recovery steam generators for combined cycle gas turbines started.",35786293,Nooter/Eriksen,E
+483,"Material extrusion-based additive manufacturing (EAM) represents one of the seven categories of 3d printing processes, defined by the ISO international standard 17296-2. While it is mostly used for plastics, under the name of FDM or FFF, it can also be used for metals and ceramics. In this AM process category, the feedstock materials are mixtures of a polymeric binder (from 40% to 60% by volume) and a fine grain solid powder of metal or ceramic materials. Similar type of feedstock is also used in the Metal Injection Molding (MIM) and in the Ceramic Injection Molding (CIM) processes. The extruder pushes the material towards a heated nozzle thanks to
+
+the controlled axial movement of a piston inside a heated barrel,
+or the controlled axial rotation of a screw inside a heated barrel,
+or the controlled rotation of two feeding rollers.
+
+History
+R&D developments
+In 1995, the Fraunhofer IFAM designed a Rapid Prototyping system, starting from a powder‐binder mixture which is squeezed out through a computer‐controlled nozzle.",59686459,Material extrusion-based additive manufacturing,E
+484,"A biologist is a scientist who conducts research in biology. Biologists are interested in studying life on Earth, whether it is an individual cell, a multicellular organism, or a community of interacting populations. They usually specialize in a particular branch (e.g., molecular biology, zoology, and evolutionary biology) of biology and have a specific research focus (e.g., studying malaria or cancer).Biologists who are involved in basic research have the aim of advancing knowledge about the natural world. They conduct their research using the scientific method, which is an empirical method for testing hypotheses. Their discoveries may have applications for some specific purpose such as in biotechnology, which has the goal of developing medically useful products for humans.In modern times, most biologists have one or more academic degrees such as a bachelor's degree plus an advanced degree like a master's degree or a doctorate.",2537522,Biologist,S
+485,"Applied ecology is a sub-field within ecology that considers the application of the science of ecology to real-world (usually management) questions. It is also described as a scientific field that focuses on the application of concepts, theories, models, or methods of fundamental ecology to environmental problems.
+
+Concept
+Applied ecology is an integrated treatment of the ecological, social, and biotechnological aspects of natural resource conservation and management. Applied ecology typically focuses on geomorphology, soils, and plant communities as the underpinnings for vegetation and wildlife (both game and non-game) management.
+Applied ecology includes all disciplines that are related to human activities so that it does not only cover agriculture, forestry and fisheries but also global change. It has two study categories. The first involves the outputs or those fields that address the use and management of the environment, particularly for its ecosystem services and exploitable resources.",1254336,Applied ecology,S
+486,"A dark-sky preserve (DSP) is an area, usually surrounding a park or observatory, that restricts artificial light pollution. The purpose of the dark-sky movement is generally to promote astronomy. However, astronomy is not the only objective of conserving a dark sky. A dark night sky is associated with many facets of history, philosophy, religion, societal development, poetry, song, mathematics, and science. Different terms have been used to describe the areas as national organizations have worked independently to create their programs.",8721871,Dark-sky preserve,M
+487,"A flowchart is a type of diagram that represents a workflow or process. A flowchart can also be defined as a diagrammatic representation of an algorithm, a step-by-step approach to solving a task.
+The flowchart shows the steps as boxes of various kinds, and their order by connecting the boxes with arrows. This diagrammatic representation illustrates a solution model to a given problem. Flowcharts are used in analyzing, designing, documenting or managing a process or program in various fields.
+
+Overview
+Flowcharts are used to design and document simple processes or programs. Like other types of diagrams, they help visualize the process.",527453,Flowchart,T
+488,"Cultural analytics refers to the use of computational, visualization, and big data methods for the exploration of contemporary and historical cultures. While digital humanities research has focused on text data, cultural analytics has a particular focus on massive cultural data sets of visual material – both digitized visual artifacts and contemporary visual and interactive media.  Taking on the challenge of how to best explore large collections of rich cultural content, cultural analytics researchers developed new methods and intuitive visual techniques that rely on high-resolution visualization and digital image processing. These methods are used to address both the existing research questions in humanities, to explore new questions, and to develop new theoretical concepts that fit the mega-scale of digital culture in the early 21st century.
+
+History
+The term ""cultural analytics"" was coined by Lev Manovich in 2007. After 2016, this term started to be increasingly used by other researchers, and many University programs in cultural analytics were gradually established.",21416606,Cultural analytics,T
+489,"== 1952 ==
+Radushkevich and Lukyanovich publish a paper in the Soviet Journal of Physical Chemistry showing hollow graphitic carbon fibers that are 50 nanometers in diameter.
+
+1955
+Hofer, Sterling and McCarney observe a growth of tubular carbon filaments, of 10–200 nm in diameter.
+
+1958
+Hillert and Lange observe a growth of nanoscale tubular carbon filaments from n-heptane decomposition on iron at about 1000 °C.
+
+1960
+Roger Bacon grows ""graphite wiskers"" in an arc-discharge apparatus and use electron microscopy to show that the structure consist of rolled up graphene sheets in concentric cylinders.
+Bollmann and Spreadborough discuss friction properties of carbon due to rolling sheets of graphene in Nature. Electron microscope picture clearly shows MWCNT.
+
+1971
+M.L. Lieberman reports growth of three different graphitic like filaments; tubular, twisted, and balloon like. TEM images and diffraction data shows that the hollow tubes are multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNT).
+
+1976
+A. Oberlin, Morinobu Endo, and T.",7452748,Timeline of carbon nanotubes,T
+490,"The geologic time scale or geological time scale (GTS) is a representation of time based on the rock record of Earth. It is a system of chronological dating that uses chronostratigraphy (the process of relating strata to time) and geochronology (scientific branch of geology that aims to determine the age of rocks). It is used primarily by Earth scientists (including geologists, paleontologists, geophysicists, geochemists, and paleoclimatologists) to describe the timing and relationships of events in geologic history. The time scale has been developed through the study of rock layers and the observation of their relationships and identifying features such as lithologies, paleomagnetic properties, and fossils. The definition of standardized international units of geologic time is the responsibility of the International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS), a constituent body of the International Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS), whose primary objective is to precisely define global chronostratigraphic units of the International Chronostratigraphic Chart (ICC) that are used to define divisions of geologic time.",12967,Geologic time scale,S
+491,"In astronomy, axial tilt, also known as obliquity, is the angle between an object's rotational axis and its orbital axis, which is the line perpendicular to its orbital plane; equivalently, it is the angle between its equatorial plane and orbital plane. It differs from orbital inclination. 
+At an obliquity of 0 degrees, the two axes point in the same direction; that is, the rotational axis is perpendicular to the orbital plane. 
+The rotational axis of Earth, for example, is the imaginary line that passes through both the North Pole and South Pole, whereas the Earth's orbital axis is the line perpendicular to the imaginary plane through which the Earth moves as it revolves around the Sun; the Earth's obliquity or axial tilt is the angle between these two lines. 
+Over the course of an orbital period, the obliquity usually does not change considerably, and the orientation of the axis remains the same relative to the background of stars.",91173,Axial tilt,M
+492,"A barcode printer is a computer peripheral for printing barcode labels or tags that can be attached to, or printed directly on, physical objects. Barcode printers are commonly used to label cartons before shipment, or to label retail items with UPCs or EANs.The most common barcode printers employ one of two different printing technologies.  Direct thermal printers use a printhead to generate heat that causes a chemical reaction in specially designed paper that turns the paper black. Thermal transfer printers also use heat, but instead of reacting the paper, the heat melts a waxy or resin substance on a ribbon that runs over the label or tag material.  The heat transfers ink from the ribbon to the paper.",1726718,Barcode printer,E
+493,"William Moreton Condry MA, MSc (1 March 1918 – 30 May 1998), was a naturalist who was born in Birmingham, England.He earned degrees from the University of Birmingham, in French, from the University of London, in Latin, and from Aberystwyth University, in history.Like his parents, he was a pacifist, and, being a conscientious objector worked as a forester in Herefordshire during World War II. He married a woman called Penny in 1946. The next year the West Wales Field Society (later the Dyfed Wildlife Trust) appointed him as their warden for Mid Wales, a post he held until 1956. He also edited their journal, Field Notes.He was warden at the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds's Ynys-hir reserve from its inception in 1969, until his in 1982, he and Penny having lived at Ynys Edwin cottage there since 1959 at the invitation of Hugh Mappin, the owner of the estate. Condry was one of the main forces in the preservation of the red kite in Wales.",12985677,William Moreton Condry,S
+494,"Naturhistorieselskabet - the Society for Natural History - was a private society that was the only institution to offer education in natural history in Denmark in the late 18th century. The spirit of the Age of Enlightenment and an escalating agricultural crisis, led the king and the Danish elite to call foreign experts on economy, including botany and silviculture, to the country. The autonomous University of Copenhagen, on the other hand, was reluctant to employ foreign experts in little-established disciplines. Naturhistorieselskabet was formed in 1788 in order to ensure education in botany, zoology and mineralogy based on private funds. For example, Martin Vahl lectured in botany.",18400577,Naturhistorieselskabet,S
+495,"A thin-film transistor (TFT) is a special type of field-effect transistor (FET) where the transistor is made by thin film deposition. TFTs are grown on a supporting (but non-conducting) substrate.  A common substrate is glass, because the traditional application of TFTs is in liquid-crystal displays (LCDs). This differs from the conventional bulk metal oxide field effect transistor (MOSFET), where the semiconductor material typically is the substrate, such as a silicon wafer.
+
+Design and manufacture
+TFTs can be fabricated with a wide variety of semiconductor materials. Because it is naturally abundant and well understood, amorphous or polycrystalline silicon were (and still are) used as the semiconductor layer.",199410,Thin-film transistor,E
+496,"Microfluidic cell culture integrates knowledge from biology, biochemistry, engineering, and physics to develop devices and techniques for culturing, maintaining, analyzing, and experimenting with cells at the microscale. It merges microfluidics, a set of technologies used for the manipulation of small fluid volumes (μL, nL, pL) within artificially fabricated microsystems, and cell culture, which involves the maintenance and growth of cells in a controlled laboratory environment. Microfluidics has been used for cell biology studies as the dimensions of the microfluidic channels are well suited for the physical scale of cells (in the order of magnitude of 10 micrometers). For example, eukaryotic cells have linear dimensions between 10 and 100 μm which falls within the range of microfluidic dimensions. A key component of microfluidic cell culture is being able to mimic the cell microenvironment which includes soluble factors that regulate cell structure, function, behavior, and growth.",50311973,Microfluidic cell culture,M
+497,"In mathematics an even integer, that is, a number that is divisible by 2, is called evenly even or doubly even if it is a multiple of 4, and oddly even or singly even if it is not.  The former names are traditional ones, derived from ancient Greek mathematics; the latter have become common in recent decades.
+These names reflect a basic concept in number theory, the 2-order of an integer: how many times the integer can be divided by 2. This is equivalent to the multiplicity of 2 in the prime factorization.
+
+A singly even number can be divided by 2 only once; it is even but its quotient by 2 is odd.
+A doubly even number is an integer that is divisible more than once by 2; it is even and its quotient by 2 is also even.The separate consideration of oddly and evenly even numbers is useful in many parts of mathematics, especially in number theory, combinatorics, coding theory (see even codes), among others.
+
+Definitions
+The ancient Greek terms ""even-times-even"" (Ancient Greek: ἀρτιάκις ἄρτιος) and ""even-times-odd"" (Ancient Greek: ἀρτιάκις περισσός or ἀρτιοπέριττος) were given various inequivalent definitions by Euclid and later writers such as Nicomachus. Today, there is a standard development of the concepts. The 2-order or 2-adic order is simply a special case of the p-adic order at a general prime number p; see p-adic number for more on this broad area of mathematics.",2481457,Singly and doubly even,M
+498,"James Whatman (1702–1759), the Elder, was a paper maker, born in Kent, who made revolutionary advances to the craft in England. He is noted as the inventor of wove paper (or Vélin), an innovation used for high-quality art and printing. The techniques continued to be developed by his son, James Whatman the Younger (1741–1798). At a time when the craft was based in smaller paper mills, his innovations led to the large scale and widespread industrialisation of paper manufacturing.
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+Life
+Whatman was the last child and only son of Mary and James Whatman. His father was a tanner and his son inherited the business in 1726 when his mother died.",29798287,James Whatman (papermaker),E
+499,"Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences is an annual peer-reviewed scientific journal published by Annual Reviews, which broadly covers  Earth and planetary sciences, including geology, atmospheric sciences, climate, geophysics, environmental science, geological hazards, geodynamics, planet formation, and solar system origins. The co-editors are Katherine H. Freeman (Pennsylvania State University) and Raymond Jeanloz (University of California, Berkeley). As of 2023, Journal Citation Reports gives the journal a 2022 impact factor of 14.9. As of 2023, it is being published as open access, under the Subscribe to Open model.
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+History
+The Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences was first published in 1973 by the nonprofit publisher Annual Reviews.",16094953,Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences,M