Multi-unit pottery kiln - how hot can it go?

If the kiln is rated for 1950 degrees Fahrenheit, then that's about the highest you should fire it to.  The number of rings you use isn't a function of how hot it gets but more a function of how much space the inside of the kiln will have.

To test the kiln, you can just plug it in and turn it on, if it heats up, it works.  As BrownRedHawk stated, you should place some cones in the kiln when it fires to see how hot it gets.  Sounds like your kiln will probably easily fire to cone 06 to 04.


Yes, it should work, though I recommend testing the combination on another piece to be certain.

One of my hobbies involves "painting" resin pieces with chalk pastel; to both protect the surface and provide tooth, and to fix the pieces in place, spray finishes are typically used on the piece. These aren't necessarily sold as "fixative," but they behave in a very similar manner. Finishing touches are then added using a high-gloss varnish over the final matte spray layer, and there are no issues with doing this.

Since the materials you're using (ground, spray, and varnish) are slightly different from the ones I use, however, I would recommend a test run before committing to the final piece, but based on my own experiences, I don't see any reason why it shouldn't work.


Best sort of artificial light for indoor painting

At one time, people would get plant grow lights that mimicked sunlight.  Those were pretty much limited to fluorescent tubes that went in "shoplight" type fixtures.  Those are still available, but "daylight" bulbs are now also readily available in most bulb styles (shape and base) in fluorescent tubes, compact fluorescent, and LED, as a standard choice for color spectrum.  So you can get "daylight" illumination in pretty much any fixture or lamp you're using to light your work.  Note, though, that you can't go by just a "daylight" designation, as this might actually be bluer than sunlight, so yellows won't be accurate.

Bulbs are labeled in a number of different ways.  There are descriptive terms for ranges of color temperature, roughly:

warm white/soft white: 2700K-3000K (yellowish, like incandescent)
cool white/bright white: 3500K-4100K (white)
roughly 3500K-3800K is sometimes labeled "neutral white" because it lacks a color cast.
daylight: 5000K-6500K (bluish)
5000K-5765K is sometimes labeled "full spectrum" because it most closely resembles sunlight; 6500K is more blue/less yellow than actual sunlight.

To get the most accurate color, you might want to use neutral white.  To get colors the most similar to sunlight, look for "full spectrum", or "daylight" close to 5000K.  Going by the color temperature will be a more accurate selection than using the descriptive terms.

You can also look at the Color Rendering Index or CRI number.  It's a scale that goes from 0-100 and reflects the ability to show true colors across the spectrum.  The closer you get to 100, the more accurate colors will be.


If the hairs go out of the ferrule

One idea which I plan to test (without destroying a good brush just for testing purposes) is to inject some kind of glue at the base of the bristles / hairs.

My plan is to use a medical syringe, fill it with some glue (even oil paint should do, I suppose), and fill the base of the hairs (inside the metal "clamp") with that glue. Upon hardening, everything should stay in place together.

Additionally, to prevent losing the hairs as a block, I would stick some small nails through the metal, so in the end these nails would be stuck with the glue.

If the ferrule goes out of the handle

Just screw a screw through the ferrule into the handle. Maybe even two screws, from opposite sides. If you worry that the handle will break due to the pressure of the screws, drill some "guiding" hole first. The diameter of the hole should match the diameter of the "core" of the screw.

Alternatively, use some thin nails.

Or just glue it - see notes below.

Notes:

Always keep the brush with the bristles upwards (or at least diagonally upwards) - to avoid the glue sticking them together.
Use a glue which does not become very rigid / breakable after curing.
If the glue is too "liquid", temporarily wrap the ferrule / handle area with adhesive tape. It will hold the glue until it cures. Remove the tape after the process finished.


Adding a custom paint job to an umbrella

That's an imaginative gift!

The silk screen industry has been applying paint to fabric (umbrellas included) for some time. You might be able to by a small amount from a local shop.

The inks (paints) used are reducible to some degree and may be your answer, as they are both flexible and impervious to water. Your timeline is problematic though, as it does not allow for experimentation and I will not give you a guarantee that one can paint with the medium.


Removing tape adhesive residue from vinyl decals?

Thanks for clarifying that the decals are only shapes with no printing.  Printed decals would be a bear to fix.
The vinyl surface will hold up pretty well to cleaning.  The main issue will be keeping the cleaner away from the edges of the decal.  Many cleaners will affect the adhesive at the edge, or even wick under the decal and affect more than just the edge.
There are a number of things that should remove the residue.  There are adhesive removers like Goo Gone and similar products sold under other brand names.  WD-40 often works.  Rubbing alcohol sometimes works.  You can try limonene (sold as a solvent or citrus cleaner).  In a pinch, mineral oil or baby oil is likely to break down the residue so it can be wiped away.
Oily cleaners, like mineral or baby oil, Goo Gone, and WD-40, will leave an oily residue.  That can be removed with alcohol or soap.
The problem isn't removing the residue, it's avoiding the edge.  What is holding the decal down is probably adhesive that's similar to the residue you're trying to remove.  You'll need to use very little cleaner so there's no free liquid to run where you don't want it.  That includes if you need to clean off any oily residue after removing the sticky residue.
If the decal is flat, position it so it's level and gravity isn't pulling cleaner toward an edge.  Don't apply any liquid directly.  Put a little on a cotton swab (don't saturate the swab), and spread it very thinly on the residue, avoiding the edge.  Give it a few minutes to attack the residue, then wipe it carefully so as not to get any on the edge.  Repeat as necessary.
If this leaves residue along the edge of the decal, clean that in a similar fashion, but being very meticulous not to allow anything to go off the edge.  Move parallel to the edge, going just next to it.
If any material, including softened residue, gets onto the seam of the decal, wipe it immediately.  If the cleaner is oily, immediately clean the seam area with a little soapy water on a swab and let it dry.
Unfortunately, ensuring you don't affect the decal's attachment will turn a simple, quick task into a slow, meticulous one.
When you're done cleaning, if there's any chance cleaner got on a seam, let everything dry for a day, then inspect the decal edges to see if anything looks questionable.  If you're at all worried that an edge may not be secure, you can seal the decal to the surface by coating it with a clear finish.  Something like Krylon Crystal Clear Acrylic won't yellow.  Apply a light mist from different directions to get it against the seam.  Several light mists will seal the edge and smooth the transition so the decal is less likely to be snagged.


How to naturally fade very colorful paper?

I agree with Elmy's comment.  Not just toner, but most commercial inks are probably more stable than the paper they're printed on.  It would be hard to substantially bleach the printing without affecting the paper.

If you just want the image as a light background, you could scan it, lighten it with image processing software, and print it as a faint background on fresh paper.

Another approach you could try is give the pages a very light misting of white paint or semi-pigmented white wood stain.  It would be a challenge to get a uniform coating of the desired transparency; it would be worth practicing on some sacrificial pages.  It's also likely to affect writeability, so you might need to experiment with different kinds of pens, markers, and pencils to see what writes on it acceptably.

Your comment suggests something else you could try.  There is super-fine grit sandpaper (e.g., 2000 grit and higher), that's used for polishing.  You could try very gently buffing the paper with that.  It will remove some of the surface and the ink on it.  However, this will also affect the surface of the paper and change it's writing characteristics, so you might need to experiment with pens, markers, and pencils to see what works best.

I just tried that using 2000 grit sandpaper on a pretty page from a magazine (high quality photo printing on shiny coated paper).  The results were awful.  In this case, the colors might have been laid down sequentially, so rather than lightening everything evenly, it removed almost all of one color before attacking the next color.  Getting it light enough to be a background for writing, the result was ugly, unrecognizable blotches of color.  Also, the printing is only microns thick, so it's impossible to remove it evenly; by the time it was reasonably light, the printing was full of blotchy holes, where almost all of the printing had been removed.  So YMMV depending on the type of paper and the nature of the printing.


How can I cut gemstones in half without a lapidary saw?

There are lapidary materials that can be cut without using specialized saws.  Small raw gemstones are not good candidates, however.

Prior to modern lapidary equipment, cutting small gemstones relied on understanding, and taking advantage of, a stones natural cleavage.  This method gives very little flexibility as to how and where you cut, and will result in a lot of lost material.

Tile saws, dremels, and end-cut bolt cutters can be used to cut gemstone material without the cost of specialized equipment, but all suffer from limitations.

End-cut bolt cutters:  ...can, in a pinch (no pun intended!), cut slabs (sections of gemstone material pre-cut into relatively even thickness slices) to preform for cabochons, but they are most likely to just shatter anything that isn't a flat slab.

Dremels can be fitted with diamond blades to cut gemstone materials with finer precision, but they still have some serious downsides.  The biggest concern is health: cutting stone materials generates dust, which if inhaled, can lead to silicosis, a dangerous and debilitating lung disease. Gem cutters typically mitigate this risk by always keeping material wet while cutting and polishing it.  This keeps the dust within the water, and out of the air.

Dremels may also have difficulty cutting tougher materials, as unless you obtain a variable-speed tool (which tend to be more expensive), it will likely be too fast.  Lapidary saws are designed to cut at a slower speed, to gradually wear away the material without cracking or shattering it, and to keep the blade from binding.

Tile saws also spin too fast for harder lapidary materials.  They also tend to have a much larger kerf.

The kerf is the width of the actual cut, where the blade removed materials:

The larger the kerf, the more material is destroyed by the cutting process.  When dealing with larger, inexpensive material, this may not be a big problem, but for small gemstones, this is likely to be a significant concern.

Ultimately, your best bet is to use specialized saws.  Beginner hobby saws can be relatively affordable, especially if you can obtain one used.  If there is a gem and mineral club nearby that you can join, some of them will have club machines available for members to use.  Even if the club doesn't own machines, members might be willing to help you out.  Just remember that the blades for the machines are expensive, and wear out relatively quickly.  Offering some money to cover wear-and-tear would probably be appropriate.


Given your time and store restraints, I would agree with your choice of a rattle-can/spray can of matte clear coat.  I don't know the brands well enough to recommend one over another.

There is the potential that the clear coat will reactivate the frosted coats, even if they are thoroughly dried and cured.  So apply very light coats from twice the recommended distance and allow each coat to dry before adding the next.  If the frosted coat does reactivate, it will mix with the clear coat and thus dilute or distort the frost.  The less of the clear coat you apply in each protective coat, the less chance of ruining your artwork.

It might be wise to frost up another piece of plastic and after it dries, test the clear coat on it before risking your art.

If you had more time, an art supply shop (or Hobby Lobby), and an airbrush, you would have more options.  Createx Airbrush paints has a product called Intercoat  which would be perfect for this situation.  It provides a non-reactivating layer to protect your existing artwork from the solvents in any paint or clear coat which you might apply over them.  Spraying a layer of Intercoat over your frost paint would lock it in place, allowing you to add a matte clear coat without any risk of reactivation.


What kind of palm leaves or other material can be used for palm weaving?

Various kinds of material can be used for this, including palm, banana, and coconut leaves. In Zanzibar specifically, according to the website Zanzibar Tribal Art, grass and ilala palm are used in their weaving:

  The products of grass and ilala palm weaving (such things as sleeping mats) and basketry are associated with the widest possible range of activities throughout a Zulu’s lifetime, touching virtually every domestic, social, and religious function.  These baskets are evidence of the expertise of these artisans and their ingenuity for using indigenous plants.  Traditionally Zulu women weave the African Zulu baskets using age-old, time-honored methods that are passed on from mother to child.  The patterns, each with their own meaning, vary from decorative bands to intricate triangles, diamonds, zig-zags, and checkerboard motifs.

I don't know how easy such materials would be to find in Central Europe, but apparently it's a strong tradition in Italy, where:

  All over Italy you will find decorative palms that have been exchanged as gifts, hung above doors or been placed in homes for good fortune. The art of palm weaving itself involves twisting the palm leaves into elaborate decorative designs.

More generally, it's a Catholic custom, and done in Catholic communities of various countries including Germany and Poland. According to this blogger (emphasis mine):

  Keeping braided palms around the house is part of this Catholic culture, and I continue to practice it just as my parents and grandparents did. When I was younger, I tended to associate this tradition with yet another oddly rural thing my family still observed, but in reality it is not so much rural as it is a German and Polish Catholic tradition, which makes sense why my family did it. Sadly, it is starting to become a lost art. That is the thing with traditions; they are only continued if they are passed down to the next generation.

So it looks as though palm leaves suitable for weaving should be reasonably easy to acquire in various European countries.


what could be used hanging object such as painting on wall without nails?

Despite the questions in my comment, one answer to your question may be to use 3M Command Adhesive products. These are double sided foam strips with an accessory attached to one side. Sometimes the accessory is a hook made from formed/molded plastic, sometimes it's a metal hook on a strap-like attachment.

Other versions use a velcro-type product on the foam adhesive strip. You attach one piece of the velcro to your frame and the other (foam) velcro to the wall with the 3M adhesive.

Many other accessories exist and most are available in local retail outlets as well as on Amazon.com

The key feature of this product is that when it is necessary to remove the hanging item, one pulls on the tab attached to the foam tape. It stretches and distorts and releases in a controlled manner, creating nearly zero damage to the underlying surface. I say nearly zero, because poorly painted surfaces may crack and peel, but properly painted surfaces will release cleanly.

There are versions of this product that are rated by the weight each strip will hold safely. If you have a 10 kg frame and can find only 5 kg capable strips, get two, and you'll be safe.


What techniques can I use to stop paint getting under masking tape?

There's painters tape designed to seal much better with latex paint (e.g., Frogtape); it has a material that sucks up water and gels on contact so water-based paint can't flow past the edge.  However, it's designed to work with smooth surfaces.  On a rough surface like concrete, high spots keep any kind of tape from making good contact with low spots.
To get a clean edge on a rough surface, there are a few things that will help.

Create an edge with a material that will conform to the texture, like rope caulk, also called caulking cord weatherstrip (e.g., Mortite).  It's a removable clay-like cord that can be pressed into place.  Put a straight-edge where you want the paint edge, and press the rope caulk onto the concrete against the straight-edge.  That may be enough, or you can stick some tape onto the rope caulk to protect a width of concrete.
BTW, whatever you use (tape, rope caulk, etc.), it's better to remove it while the paint is still wet but not runny.  At that stage, the mask will pull off cleanly.  If you wait until the paint is dry, you can mess up the integrity or appearance of the paint edge, and it may make it more difficult to remove the masking material.

Use much thicker paint rather than something watery.  It should be a consistency where a thick application will stay where you put it without running.  Paint used for rough surfaces, like using a stencil to paint symbols on an asphalt roadway, is more like applying paste. That's why it doesn't wick under the edge of the stencil.


Too Much Alcohol Ink, Overshooting the Color Too Dark

The best advice I can give you is to mix the ink with the hardener first, and then mix the tinted hardener with the epoxy. If you have epoxy that uses very little hardener (like "add 10 drops of hardener to 100 grams of epoxy"), then mix the ink with the epoxy before adding the hardener.
That has several advantages:

You can take all the time you want for the first step. Since epoxy and hardener aren't in contact yet, the epoxy won't start curing.
Stirring always traps air bubbles. You can remove the bubbles from the tinted hardener before you mix it with the epoxy.
The finished epoxy will have less color that what you mixed into the hardener.
If you really fumbled and added way too much ink to the hardener, you can try storing some of the tinted hardener in a secure container for a future project. Add more colorless hardener to your mixing cup until you got the color right.

The one big disadvantage is:

Once you mix the hardener with the epoxy, the color will change again. If it doesn't have enough color, you start adding ink again, with the risk of adding too much. But at least you'll have a feeling how much ink you'll need and if a drop might be too much and you want to use a toothpick to add the ink instead.


What is a good color contrast for these pillars

I think there's already a strong contrast in brightness, or luminosity, as the sari is much darker than the light golden pillars.

However, if you want to contrast the hue, then you'll want to find a color on the opposite side of the color wheel.

Since these yellows and oranges are very warm colors, their opposites will be cool purples and blues.

Here's some example color wheels I made. There's thousands out there, and interactive ones where you can select your color and find opposites.

I would add though, that composition isn't always about contrasting colors, but finding complements, as well.

And you can also contrast other elements of color, such as brightness I mentioned earlier, or saturation/chroma which is the intensity of the color. (So, less colorful, more towards grey, is desaturated or lower chroma).


I want to glue shells onto a mirror frame which is very old, dark wood, varnished. What glue should I use?

For simplicity and easiest results I would suggest to use a hot glue gun. Works perfectly for both materials (shells and varnished wood).

Source: I have already produced a very similar mirror frame together with my daughter ;-)


Is there a grade or type of paper that will take glue without wrinkling?

I have some experience with these materials. Paper made with cellulose absorbs the water from the glue and wrinkles. You can try using styrofoam glue or other alcohol-based glue, this way the paper will not soak up with the glue. You just need a thin layer, if you apply a lot of glue the paper may wrinkle. This glue is wet, transparent and allows the use with a paint brush.

Additionally you can use paper made with cotton. I use this kind of paper to paint watercolor and I layer lots of water on top of it. Make sure the paper you're going to use is 100% cotton too! (there are 60% cotton / 40% cellulose watercolor papers that are not that great )


How can I cleanly cut thick plastic straws?

It's worth noting, if you feel like taking a trip to your local hardware store, that they make specialty blades that fit boxcutters. Some of these are designed for laminate.
Most likely, the blades that came in your boxcutter are ok for opening boxes, plastic packagine etc. However, you can buy some designed for cutting laminate, PVC, etc. Look for blades that are thicker and may have a wavy pattern on the edge. These can be especially helpful in working with plastics. The sharper the blade, the less force needed to cut/saw. Like in the kitchen, this is safer than a dull knife that needs lots of force (that ends up slipping into your thumb - Ouch).

Similarly, rather than "homebrew" a solution, for under $10 you should be able to find a cutoff wheel for your dremel made for plastic. They often are serrated, and may have holes through the wheel that lighten in.

They are super helpful and will give a great, square cut (often without burrs).

Watch out for any sharp edges if these will be near a child's mouth. A good wash in soap and water should take care of any residual dust. Those would not be "Good Eats"


Get 2 clear plastic bowls that are the same size and some clear bathtub silicon in a tube. Glue one bowl in the eyeball, this is the iris - paint it so it looks good, glue the other bowl upside down onto it. When the silicon has dried, cut away the excess with a really sharp knife.


Cheap Screw-Valve Connectors for Water-Based Crafts

Here are a couple of simple, inexpensive solutions.  It doesn't beat the free materials cost of recycling used stuff, but it also doesn't require all of the labor to fabricate water-tight connections.

Materials for the first solution would be under a dime per connection based on roughly 1/4" ID plastic tubing.

Get some metal tubing that fits tightly into the acrylic tubing.  It can even be slightly larger than the inner diameter because the plastic tubing can be warmed and stretched.  Copper tubing is fairly inexpensive, and a small roll goes a long way (a 10' roll of 1/4" OD copper tubing is about $5 and will yield 80 connectors).  Cut some pieces roughly 1.5" long.

If you use a tubing cutter, the end will be a little rounded, which is perfect.  If you cut the tubing by other means, use a little sandpaper to smooth any rough or sharp edges, including the end, since these will weaken the plastic tubing.  Use a permanent marker to draw a line around the circumference at the halfway point.

Insert a piece half way into one side of the plastic tubing to be joined.  Leave the mark visible.  The water isn't under serious pressure, so if you need to stretch the plastic tubing a little, it will probably be water-tight as-is.

If you needed to warm the plastic tubing, wait for it to cool.  Finish the connection by pushing the other side of the metal tubing into the other piece of plastic tubing until the ends of the plastic tubing meet.  The visible mark will let you know if you're pushing the metal tubing farther into the first piece, which you don't want.

If that happens, reposition the metal tubing to the halfway point.  Use a plastic zip tie to tighten the plastic tubing on the first side (under 2 cents if you buy a package of a reasonable quantity).  Position it at half the inserted length of the metal tubing, and use needle nose pliers to pull the zip tie tight (pull it tight by hand, then grab the end with pliers close to the lock, and rotate the pliers against the lock for leverage to pull it tighter).  You can snip off the tail.  The zip tie can be used in any case for extra insurance of a water-tight connection.

On the second side, if you want to add a zip tie, use the removable type there, which will facilitate disconnecting and reusing everything without risking cutting the plastic tubing when cutting off a single-use zip tie.
If you need a ton of connectors and want to save all labor, a ready to use solution is double-sided barb connectors.  For small diameter tubing, this would cost just over a dime per connection (in quantities of 50 or more), with zero fabrication.

Image courtesy Home Depot

You just work the tubing over the barb.  This is intended for a permanent connection and doesn't require any form of clamp; it isn't designed as a quick disconnect.  You can disconnect it, but you will probably need to warm the tubing to soften it, then push the tubing off rather than pull it off (think Chinese finger trap).

If it is an application where you will need to connect and disconnect often, I don't know how well the tubing will hold up to that.  If you use these connectors, I would leave the tubing a number of inches longer than required.  If the connection stops being water-tight due to disconnection/reconnection, snip off the worn end of the tubing to connect a fresh end.


How do I smooth, cut, and drill holes in glass found on the beach?

For drilling glass, drill bits for tiles (the spear-point type) work. Work wet and go slowly. I've seen them down to 3mm. You need to hold the glass steady, but a cordless drill will be adequate.

If you want a smooth (as opposed to facetted) piece, jewellers rouge on a cloth will polish glass, worked by hand, though it might take a while. For a little reshaping, such as to remove a sharp edge, you can use wet/dry paper (silicon carbide paper) or emory cloth. Start coarse and work down to a fine grade before polishing. I'm much more familiar with machine polishing, but that's good for flat surfaces.

If you really need to cut it, small cuts can be made with a dremel or similar, with a carbide cutoff wheel. There are also coarse hand saws for tiles that cut glass. They're like a file made of thick wire (coated in abrasive) in a frame, rather than what you'd it think of as a saw.

Safety glasses are a good idea when cutting or drilling.


Is there a heat resistant glue that's appropriate for adhering twine to glass?

The amount of heat generated by an incandescent light bulb in an enclosure is not particularly great relative to many adhesive types. One can purchase a silicone product known as high temperature RTV (room temperature vulcanizing) which can tolerate temperatures sufficiently high to ignite paper. It's not particularly suited to your project, however, as it is often bright red and would be unsightly if any oozed from between the runs of twine.

Many epoxies are capable of tolerating high temperatures, especially as they can generate uncomfortable levels during curing. If you scuff up the surface of the bottle with coarse sandpaper prior to applying epoxy, the adhesive will adhere well and provide that much more strength.

A local hobby shop will carry various types of epoxy. The faster curing versions, frequently called "five minute epoxy" will harden quickly but be weaker than the fifteen minute or thirty minute version. The longer cure types will also tolerate the higher temperatures better.

I've used the 30 minute cure version frequently. It has to be applied when temperatures are at 70°F or above. Some hobbyists also use a heat lamp or incandescent bulb to speed up curing. Heat guns are used, but with temperatures above 450°F from such a device, one risks burning.


Painting the background first and then adding the ghost indeed sounds like the right procedure. That way you'll ensure the transparency of the ghost is realistic.
Like you mention, be sure to let the background dry long enough first before proceeding with painting the ghost.
To thin down the paint, I'd recommend simply using a little additional oil and even less solvent, or glazing the paint.
Even though increasing the amount of oil will increase the drying period - and you need to store the painting horizontally in a dust-free environment during this time - the risk of ruining the background is minimized. You can add quick-drying medium to speed up the drying process.
Using excessive amounts of oil in relation to pigment and solvent might cause the dried paint to be glossy, so to prevent this you need at least a little thinner in the mix.
It's hard to give straightforward advice on the amounts, though, since there are a lot of variables weighing in here. You can always experiment with processes like these by replicating them using similar materials.
If you use a thinner, paints already applied (in the background) might dissolve, depending on the drying time and pigments used, and mix with the current layer (the ghost), potentially causing both layers to lose their integrity.
As for the type of thinner, it doesn't matter that much when mixed with larger amounts of oil, I think. I've used turpentine and white spirit, and am currently trying out lavender (or spike) oil, which acts as a solvent, but is environment-friendly and non-toxic. It dries somewhat glossier than the other solvents when using it for glazing, in my experience, however. For that matter, if you have a well-ventilated workroom, I suggest white spirit, as it is the most matte-drying, and I think it dries the quickest as well.
Of course, if you plan on ultimately varnishing the painting using a glossy varnish, all these comments on the specularity of the paint mixtures don't really matter.

I also read that thinned paints should not be used as last layer since they tend to crack. So, how can I avoid this?

That's very strange advice, and the context seems quite important to me (e.g. what defines "thinned"?). Can you find that passage again?
As far as I know like almost all other painters, I usually thin all of my paints. The application of oil paints is based on this premise; since oil paints generally are no longer mixed manually by artisans, the manufacture of tubed versions necessitates they be highly concentrated, to facilitate their use (we can't practically increase the concentration, but we can thin it down).
The fat-over-lean rule applies here, meaning the closer you get to the surface layer, the fattier the paint applied should be to prevent it from drying before the underlying layers have dried. This can mean that the oil paints are used increasingly pure from the tube (as opposed to being mixed with thinner, which will make them leaner), but the artist can also decide to add additional oil.


I'm not sure what you're defining as "normal drawing paper" or "sketch paper," but you can ultimately use markers on any surface, however you will experience different results depending on the qualities of the paper.

Weight

Markers will generally soak into the paper and bleed to some degree (with some brands tending to bleed more than others); working with a thicker paper like bristol or watercolor paper will tend to resist bleed-through better than thinner papers like newsprint.

Tooth

You'll generally get a smoother result with a smoother surface, though depending on the result you're looking for, you may like the look of using a paper with more tooth to it. Experiment here to see what you prefer.

Coatings

Some papers (marker pads, for instance) will be coated to prevent bleed-through on a thinner sheet; this can allow for better workability in blending, but may also result in less saturated colors as the ink cannot soak into the surface. This can also create issues with layering multiple colors or extensive blending; again, this may come to personal preference and style.

Absorption

If you're planning on extremely heavy blending, particularly using water and water-based markers, you may wish to consider a paper that is better suited to heavy water applications such as a smooth watercolor paper over a lighter paper that may warp or disintegrate when saturated with water.

Bleed

You may also wish to experiment with the amount of bleeding your chosen markers will exhibit on different papers. All markers will bleed to some degree (except, possibly, on coated papers), but some papers will wick the ink away from where you deposited it more than others. You'll want to find an amount of bleed that works for you, and learn to work with it as you're drawing.


Most 2 part epoxies are food safe once fully cured. You can see these used in kitchen applications like counter tops and bread boards. There are some that advertise as being food safe grade.

Masterbond.com

Reading the product labels both on the product itself and online will help. Some will even reference FDA compliance when it comes to food safety. If you find something that does not quote it, err on the side of caution and consider a different product.

Many epoxies, once cured, can handle high temperatures. So it should be fine to use to glue your mug pieces. Ratings of different products will vary so be sure to make an informed purchase e.g:

3M™ Scotch-Weld™ Epoxy Adhesive EC-2216: Rated to -423°F/-252°C
Masterbond EP21TDCHT: Rated to -100°F/-73°C to +350°F/176°C
LePage® Epoxy Gel: Rated to -9°F/-23°C to 120°F/49°C

Note: the latter is not rated for something like boiling water.

They can take from 24 hours to a couple of days (usually for larger applications). I recently used epoxy to fix my hand made ceramic renaissance mug handle which broke in 4 places.


DIY galvanize copper on stainless steel?

It's apparently easy enough to plate a layer of copper on stainless steel.  The problem is getting a layer thick enough to be visible, and getting it to adhere well.  @fred_dot_u's answer beat me to the discussion in the linked article.  For results suitable for typical industrial use, it generally requires chemicals you might not want to mess with at home.  Even manufacturers farm it out to companies that specialize in it.

That said, what you can reasonably do at home might be adequate for what you need.  Here's an Instructable that describes the typical way to electroplate metals with copper at home.  Stainless steel will be more of a challenge, and the plating may not be durable, but it would be a relatively easy thing to test.

There's also been some work with a gel that you apply to stainless steel and then abrade the surface under the gel to expose metal that is instantly plated.  It immediately forms a layer of copper that's just thick enough to color the surface, and then the process stops.  This video shows the process.

It links to this video that describes the gel and shows it being used in an additional way.  They use some copper wire connected to the stainless steel and embedded in the gel.  The gel acts like an electrolyte, and the wire and stainless steel create a battery that deposits a thicker layer of copper.  Unfortunately, I didn't notice a specific description of how to make the gel, but you may be able to find it by exploring their links.  Just knowing that the stuff exists means it's possible to do it (although they do it in a lab, not at home).


How about making the final project mask directly from papier-mache without all the casting:

Cover the skull in clingfilm to protect it;
Papier-mache parts of it (if you try to do it in one go you won't be able to take the thing out, naturally);
Glue the parts together;
Alter it as you desire - cut some bits here, add some bits there, sand it;
Paint it, if needed

Paper-mache masks are light, resilient (as long as they are not too thin) and you can waterproof them with a spray if you wish.


Thread slipping out of tension discs, off spring, upper lever or bobbin thread slips out of tension

That sounds frustrating! The easy things to do first are to be sure you are using good quality thread; rethread your machine, both top thread and bobbin thread; replace your needle with a new one and make sure it's inserted all the way and in the right direction (the flat side toward the back is how I insert mine); make sure you have the correct bobbin size, that the bobbin is inserted correctly, and that the bobbin thread was filled correctly (not loose or crooked).  From there, if these haven't solved your problem, you need to check your bobbin and thread tensions.  Most machines have a little screw on the bobbin case that you can loosen or tighten.  Adjusting the top thread tension is different on different machines, but I've used machines with those tension disks you mention and suggest you make sure you start out with the thread between the disks and not to the side. Then adjust the tension by tightening or loosening the disks, there is usually a thumb screw for that.  If you have the User's Guide for your machine, there should be a section about thread and bobbin tension, how to adjust them, and a table showing ranges of tensions for commonly used fabric types.  If you don't have that Guide, you may have to experiment.  You may also have to experiment every time you sew on different thickness and fabric types.  Good luck!


Is regular "wood glue" suitable for lighter woods (e.g. balsa)?

Wood glues are fine for balsa.
While there are stronger glues, the added strength is usually unnecessary and strong enough should be sufficient. It is hard to generalize but "white" glues, like Elmers, are just PVA glues that are advertised as craft or general glues. There are also yellow PVA glues, which Elmers also makes (and the one I generally use for my indoor projects), that are geared more towards wood. However there is many similarities between them and in some cases the yellow is just colour added (FYI white vs. yellow is a large debate.).
A common adage among wood workers is that the glue joint is stronger than the wood itself and that is true. Also true is that balsa is one of the weakest hardwoods but it is ideal for a great deal of applications.  Go ahead and use either white/yellow glue for this. Some people would even use cyanoacrylate or CA glues, like Super/Crazy glue (as well as some other glues),  for their balsa models.
What is more important is how you apply the glue.
You said that you had a clean break which is great. Whether or not this is the case for you I would recommend not removing splinters from the break. You want to glue joint to be as free of gaps as possible. Remove splinters from the break can introduce weak points where the glue might not get the best adhesion. Make sure when you put the staircase back together that you apply glue on both sides of the break enough to cover the entire surface area.
If possible you want to clamp the work, or apply pressure in some way as clamps might be excessive for balsa, to force some of the excess glue out from the joint (you don't need a lot in the joint). Clean the extra that does come out. Let it sit for as long as the glue states on the product label.


What fabric is appropriate for an ironing board cover?

You can buy "heat-resistant fabric" by the yard at large fabric stores in the utility fabrics section (literally called "ironing board fabric" at a popular chain) or online (several sources came up on a search), for about the same price as cotton duck or canvas, often for less. Measure the board and be sure to allow fabric to tuck under and attach to the bottom in the same way as the original cover. It is strong but not bulky or very stiff, silver-gray, and easy to work with, also often used for potholders. If needed, you should replace the cotton padding while you are at it, with cotton batting, from the same sources.


What hand sewing needles are best for beading?

For beading projects, the specific needles I have used are Size 10-13 Beading Needles. The longest one I have is 5.5 cm or just under 2 1/4 in. I had success  with these and used them to add extra beading into my wedding gown.

The specific brand I have is Sew-ology. On the back of the package it says, "Ideal for beadwork and sequins", so this is likely what you are looking for, although I am not familiar with the specific quilting needle you referenced.


How to start a pencil portrait without using an outline of features?

I would begin by constructing the form and mass of the head, as often seen in figure drawing construction:

Images from Andrew Loomis's "Drawing the Head and Hands". Loomis is a very well-known figure artist and illustrator with a variety of instructional books that are very helpful.

This construction, in drawing from the mind, is usually done by understanding some sort of system of proportions and then altering features to add character. Proportions would compare head height to width, or divide head height into sections to place features (seen in the images above), but it can get much more complex.

By understanding these general relationships of constructing a figure, you begin to see how real heads and faces compare and vary.

One popular method of achieving this development of form is called blocking-in. You can see a quality example of blocking-in using the Atelier method at GeorgetownAtelier.com. Depiction of bust of bare derriere in spoiler block, from that website.

You can start your base block-in similar to drawing an initial outline. But, instead of just focusing on the silhouette, think about the form in 3D. The outline will guide you on the proportions to use as you develop your other planes and shapes.

Then slowly add details, keeping your sketch light. You can measure placements of features, such as:

Where is the top arch of the eyebrow compare to the ears?
If you draw a straight vertical line on the side of the nostril wing, how far is the corner of the eye? (Or vice-versa)
Compared to the length of the nose, what's the distance between the tip of the nose to the bottom of the chin?
What degree of angle is it from the outside corner of the eye to the tip of the nose?
If you draw a straight vertical line on corner of the mouth, how does it compare to the center of the eye?

These are pretty limited examples. The key to getting an accurate portrait of a real person is by getting the proportions and placements correct for their anatomy. Since you can start with height or width, you can scale the other dimensions based on that, and then scale every other proportion on others you know you did "right".

The more you analyze the geometry, the more accurate you'll be.

Measuring this way can be done with classical techniques such as using your pencil as a measuring stick, which can also be aided by a plumb line for getting objective verticals. Or, if you working from a 2D source, such as a photo, you can take accurate measurements of distances and angles using rulers and protractors.


Chemically etch (frost) acrylic (plexiglass)?

I scoured the web looking for a simple way to etch acrylic plates and glasses, the way I etch glass plates and glasses using a stencil and etching cream. Could not find anything. Then it hit me - acetone!
Well, I tried applying it the same way I would etching cream and made a big mess.
So what I needed was more control. Instead of straight acetone, I took nail polish remover (with 98% acetone) and a cotton round. I dabbed a little nail polish remover on the cotton, then folded it over on itself to soak up extra. Finally, after applying the stencil, I dabbed the cotton onto the acrylic, rinsed to get any extra off the stencil, and removed the stencil. It came out beautifully, looking exactly like etched glass! (The photo is my test piece, the mess is on the opposite side of the logo shown.)


What is the name of the palette that apprentice painters would use?

Do you remember if it was referring to a specific technique (such as oil painting) or pigments in general?

It could be the Velázquez palette*. This is a limited palette consisting of a blue, an ochre and a yellow pigment (with optional black) - for example ultramarine blue, burnt sienna and yellow sienna. With these pigments it's possible to mix a large number of hues (browns, greens, yellows, blues), enough for example to paint naturally looking landscapes. The lack of bright reds might be a limitation for some subjects, but I'd say you could made do if necessary.

I don't know whether these pigments were sold in sets, but at least both siennas should be really cheap, as it's basically a fancy clay.

The only other named palette I associate with apprentices would be Grisaille, which is a grey/sepia monochrome that was used for value studies and underpainting.

*The linked page is sort of broken; Handprint still uses frames so it's not possible to link to the page properly. Here's the whole palette page with sidebar.


What is the "fine art term" for office printer as medium?

Chris H's comment is the answer in a nutshell: the description should include the medium, and depends on the type of printing. If it's an inkjet print, you can state that; if it's a laser print, the artwork's description could say so. You can also just say 'digital print', combining all digital printing possibilities.

Often the type of paper - if exceptional or otherwise deemed important for the artwork - is also included in the description (e.g. 'giclée print on 210 gr Hahnemuhle Albrecht Durer paper').

Ultimately, though, you describe the print in as much detail as you think is right towards your audience or clients. In some instances you could even be emphatically vague about it if you think it accentuates (the concept of) a particular artwork.
The 'office' in 'office printer' doesn't matter for the technology used, as far as it concerns the quality of the prints, but if you think that fact is important for understanding your piece, it's completely fine to include that.

You can also have a look here and here to see what terminology is used (which also includes vague terms like 'pigment' and 'photo print').


Kite string is a product. It is designed to be strong and light to enable kites to fly under optimum conditions. For ordinary kites, ordinary kite string is sufficient.
High performance kites (large lift capability, stunt/performing kites) require higher breaking strength while retaining light weight.
Spectra line is constructed of high density polyethylene and is quite light and strong. I have used 1 mm thick x 2 mm wide Spectra line which had a breaking strength of 700 pounds. Another feature of this type of line is that it has very low stretch.
In the case of multi-line stunt kites, it's critical to have the lines remain at a specific length in flight. Spectra does this well.
Spectra is a brand name and the product can be found under other names.


As fixer1234 mentioned, in your photo reference, all the hair falls in the darkest area of the spectrum of light values. It actually won't matter once your drawing is complete: once all the light values are on a similar scale, just filling the silhouette of the hair with the darkest value you've used elsewhere in your drawing will create an effect similar to that in the photograph - the flat character won't stand out anymore since we humans are accustomed to images having a limited value range. A famous (and quite rare) art historical example of this, is Vermeer's Girl with a Pearl Earring:

See how the nose bridge just disappears into the cheek? Yet, it's not conspicuous at all (this is actually one of the reasons the artist David Hockney convincingly reasoned Vermeer used a camera obscura to paint most of his works. But that's a different story altogether :).

If you do want to draw it, you first have to understand the structure of the hair. For this, you can easily find reference material online. Here is an image that shows at least a little of how her braids are structured:

Hatching is a viable option, if you follow the direction of the hair as it curves around the volume of the braids. As the light source in your image is on the right, you can add slightly lighter patches on the right sides of the 'lobes', by hatching with less pressure, by leaving small gaps as you hatch so the paper shines through, or by using an (kneadable) eraser.


In short

Yellow carpenters/wood glue or white craft glue should both work fine for kids projects. I found yellow glue to be a little stronger.

I think it is important to give the glue time to cure / dry. Following the instructions on the bottle would be important to ensure you are using the glue properly.

When gluing macaroni make sure the entire surface, where the noodle is contacting the paper, is also covered in glue for best adhesion (No exposed ends). You don't want to hide the glue. A good dollop of glue that also surrounds the noodle works best.

  it's hard to get it to stick without an obscene amount of glue or decoupage.

I am actually not sure why you had issues. That being said I don't know what you consider obscene and what glues you used and your specific paper.

Forward

While not a comprehensive experiment as I was testing with products and materials that I had available. I do think between the two of these you should have a good basis for choice though. My breakage tests also are slightly flawed as I don't have the tools to measure pressure exerted nor the ability to make each break with the exact same circumstances. There are other glues that I could have used, however, given my findings, I think the issues would have been the same.

Glues not tested

There are things that I could not test with and choose not use.

I don't think a glue stick or glue dots would be good for this. Hot glue gun could work and even double sided tape. In the case of the latter you might have an aesthetics issue. Gorilla glue or PVA's would also work. Gorilla Glue is an expands while it dries, which I know from experience, so it might not be what you want to use here as it might warp the work.

Test materials and setup

I tested with 3 different paper stocks. Canvas paper, thin cardstock and printer paper. For glues I used carpenters glue (Yellow) and white craft glue. These glues can be considered kid safe and non-toxic. Consult product labels to be sure.

I used brand-less macaroni that I purchased specifically to do macaroni art. The glue was applied with different consistencies to see if the amount of glue was important.

Procedure

For each piece of paper I logically divided it into 8 parts. Each glue was given an indicator box and 3 spots where the glue was applied lightly, heavy and an in-between consistency. The white glue had nozzle so I was able to apply it easily. My yellow glue nozzle broke ages ago so I used a craft stick to apply it. The two below pictures show how much of each glue was applied.

I then proceeded to add one piece of macaroni to each glue site. I made sure that the macaroni was lying flat to the paper to increase the gluing surface area. This picture shows the tests in a completed a drying state. The glue is still wet as this point.

The drying times for each glue was 30-35 minutes. The carpenters glue recommended 24 to allow a full cure. I waited 12 hours before I tested and I think that is fair.

Strength test

I mentioned earlier that this needs to be taken with a grain of salt so I don't suggest using this as a thesis source. This also doesn't cover long term durability1. Here is a picture of the macaronis after I put in effort to remove them all.

From left to right: printer paper, light cardstock, canvas paper

To remove the noodles I used my thumb and pushed from the side of the noodles. There were some that I could not remove like that an had to grab from the end. If the end was not glue I was able to grab under it and pull. If the end were completely glued I would not have been able to do that and it should have been harder to pull off.

Findings

I found the yellow caprenters glue to be better than the white craft glue but not by much. In all cases the glue held and the paper failed. As you can see in some pictures the noodles actually broke. I found the canvas paper to hold onto the noodles better. Likely that is because it was thicker and had a textured surface. The printer paper failed easier. In the printer paper's defense the glue still help to the paper rather well. Still, it was the weakest as I expected it to be.

The glues warped the printer paper significantly and the cardstock somewhat. While I do notice that the other side of the canvas was wet the overall shape was not change i.e. it remained flat.

In short if I was to choose, based on best results, my option would be yellow glue with the canvas paper. I would use enough glue to cover the entire noodle and have enough to sightly pool around it (My heavy option pictured above). The cardstock I used was perfectly fine though.

1: I do have a tangential case I can refer to for this though. 3 years previous to this post I made a anniversary gift for my wife that was macaroni art. I used the exact same macaroni (from the same box) and yellow carpenters glue. This was applied to a small section of wood. My wife displays this in our living room as she thinks its funny. After 3 years none of the pieces have fallen off (This has not been in direct sunlight the entire time). A couple noodles shattered from a fall a while back but the macaroni portion that was glued did not.


Creative embroidery technique to fix a damaged knitted sleeve

I know this is not an embroidery solution per se, but what about binding the edges of the sleeve with something like a light weight felt (use real wool felt, not the kind you played with as a kid), and sewing the binding in place using a saddle stitch?

If you are concerned about losing the elasticity in the cuffs, you could also use knit bias tape, which should allow you to retain some of the stretch.

I am still hunting for a picture that shows something similar to what I am imagining. If I find one, I will add it.

In the meantime, hunting for photos led to another possibility when I stumbled on this picture:

Obviously that is a lot more embroidery than you are talking about--but what if you did some sort of embroidered embellishment around the sleeve edges to disguise the uneven edges?

Before starting either of these options, I suggest sewing a line of stay stitching about 1/2 inch from the cuff edges to help prevent additional raveling.  If you have access to a sewing machine, I would use that, as it will be more consistent, but you could also use a line of running stitches done by hand to accomplish the same thing.

ETA:  Still no pictures of a bound sleeve, but here is another idea.  What about using a beaded blanket stitch, something like this:

The beads will be irregular anyway, so the unevenness of the edge should be much less noticeable. I would use larger beads and a heavier thread/embroidery floss.

Still not able to find a picture of exactly what I am talking about, but I did find a picture of a similar type of treatment that could also work.  This woman was sewing a boiled wool jacket (you can find her blog entry here), and wanted to add some embellishment to the sleeve cuffs.  So, she cut a strip of fabric the correct length to go around the cuff and used decorative stitches to topstitch the new fabric to the outside of the jacket cuff. Because boiled wool/felt won't ravel, you don't have to worry about the edges of this additional piece.  You could do something similar with your sweater cuffs-creating an outer cuff of felt and attaching that to the outside of your sweater cuffs to hid the raveled edges.


How do I replace a rotten wood base to a plaster statue?

Looks like the original plaster covered the wooden base, which makes for excellent repair possibilities. Though removing the existing base may prove tricky.

As a result you may not want to remove it at all. As Fixer1234 points out you may run into some additional problems if any of the armature is under tension from how it was attached to the wood, something we won't know until it either has or hasn't caused additional damage on removal of the base. As a result you could leave the base in place, and apply a wood hardener, which come in many brands but are resins and epoxies designed for filling in the damaged parts of wood making it firm again. Since the wood itself is not part of the visible statue, you could save a lot of trouble simply by leaving it in place and letting the plaster restoration cover it.

In the situation that the wood is really crumbling away, as in you can peel it off with your fingers, the wood hardener won't work very well. Though at that point removing it should be pretty easy.

In all of the below possibilities, use hand tools. The vibration of a power drill or other tool might help shake the base loose, but it is more likely to do damage to the statue. Additionally you may want to trace the outline of the original base before pulling it off, in case it is destroyed in removing it.

After she is completely dry. I would lay her on something soft and look underneath the wooden base to see if there is any obvious attachment to the rest of the statue, you may find that an armature has been bolted to the wooden base and goes through the plaster statue to help support it from falling under its own weight.

If you can find a bolt remove it. Then give the base a bit of a jiggle see if it just comes loose. Not much, just enough to shake loose any plaster touching the wood. It is quite possible that even if there is a bolt, it is not the only thing holding the armature to the base. So...

If you don't see anything bolted, or the jiggle didn't pop off the base. The armature likely is many smaller, still heavy, wires that fit into holes drilled into the wooden base, and probably glued into place. For 20 pounds at 49 inches I would guess that she is hallow. Which is useful as you can probably get an idea of where the armature is attached to the base if you can see inside. Looks like the damage between her feet might offer a place to look. If you can identify any attachments to the base you may have some luck pulling the wood out from behind them. If it is really rotten wood it will come away quickly, and even mostly ok wood can be removed with careful scraping from some wood carving tools, such as a gouge or a small chisel.

If you're not finding how the base is attached you might want to trim off bits of it in layers. If the wood is significantly rotten, it will fall away by itself. Otherwise either without a hammer, or with the lightest tap of a hammer put the chisel at parallel with the grain of the wood near the bottom and twist it a little bit to pull a chip off. It would be slow, but you could potentially pull the whole base off in chips. I would only really do this if the wood is rotten to the point that it is easy to do, if it is still pretty hard, I would get impatient and rely too much on the hammer.

Once you have the base off, a new one will be fairly straight forward. Take your tracing, or the original base, and place it on a new piece of wood of the right thickness. Trace out the oval shape. You can cut it out with a hand saw, just cut out corners until it sufficiently resembles an oval. If you're comfortable working with them, a table saw or jigsaw would work as well.

If there were holes drilled in the original for the armature to fit in, put some chalk on the bottom of each armature wire and bump the fresh base into them so there is a chalk mark for where to drill the holes. If there was a larger rod bolted through the base, drill the hole for this first (can use the chalk method here too) then go back for the smaller wires if they are also present such that the base can now reach them without getting caught on the main support.

The best part about it, is if the cut for the new base isn't perfect, it will be covered by plaster when you're done, so no one will see it. As such you shouldn't need to make a jig or similar to cut it out, by eye should be fine.


How do you make the winged sonobe module?

Take two ordinary modules and join them together with one of their tabs in one of the other's pockets, forming the analogue of a triangular pyramid but with two sides only.

You obtain a subassembly that looks and works like a single Sonobe module, with the same tabs and pockets in the same position (the unused half of each module) and an additional triangular fin (formed by the joined halves of the modules) protruding from the outer side.

Make a plain old pyramidated octahedron with these assemblies replacing the regular modules and you'll get the 8 pyramids and 12 fins in the photo.


There are specialist leather glues available that are ideal for this application (on Amazon, for example), but if you don't want to buy glue just for one small join then ordinary contact adhesive will do a good job. Epoxy resin will also join the leather, but is less flexible.

Many people also swear by Barge cement, but I've not used either so can't really comment as to their effectiveness.

Avoid superglue and PVA, which will both do a poor job of sticking the leather together and will make it brittle (superglue moreso than PVA).

However, bear in mind that gluing is normally not as strong as stitching or riveting; if you expect the join to be under any kind of tension I would recommend that you stitch or rivet it instead. (thanks to Matt for reminding me of this)

Sources: experience, here, here and here


vacuum forming/thermoforming elastic materials?

I'm not aware of any flexible rubbers which can be formed by vacuforming.  In my experience, when you start with a flat sheet of flexible rubber and press it against a mold, it pretty much returns to being a flat sheet of rubber when the pressure is released.

You can however cast flexible rubber (in liquid form) into a mold with your desired hollow hemisphere shape and then let it cure in the mold.  This will result in your hemisphere being the natural shape of the rubber to which it will return after each deformation.

You will want to use a two part mold (one part to provide the outer shape of the bowl and the other to occupy the hollow interior while the foam is curing).  Two nesting bowls can be used together as the mold with the difference in the bowl sizes defining the wall thickness of your final rubber part.


Assuming this is a  commercial skein, I don't generally have issues. I am usually able to pull out the center of a skein. I would never guarantee that you can do this though.

This can be manufacturer specific. There is no mandate to ensure that you can get a center pull from a skein. However, when it comes to most of the skeins of the following style:

Image from paradisefibers.com

I can go in a grab the middle chunk and find the end in there. Sometimes you can find ones where they are specifically assembled for you to do this i.e. there is a tail stick out from the center. In many cases there is not a simple thread to pull but a small unorganized ball that you have to unravel first so don't give up too soon when looking for it. Once you unravel that chunk or ball then the rest is easy.


Where can I buy a new drop-in Bobbin case electric contact spring?

The reason you can't find any part numbers or additional information is because that part of the machine is not considered a "user serviceable" area. As you appear to be inexperienced with sewing machines in general, I would strongly recommend that you not attempt to repair this part yourself. There are many sewing machine repair shops available that can do the repair for you.


Personal opinion: it looks good as-is.  The hair gouges stand out, providing good contrast.  If you try to polish the scratches and are successful, it will become just a textured surface that won't have enough gouges to be good-looking hair texture.  Also, the polished snout contrasts with the hair, making it more realistic.  I think trying to polish the hair will degrade the appearance rather than improve it.  But that's just me; it's your pig.  :-)

The closeup pictures in the link show some of the detail in the gouges.

They look white because the surface of the gouges is very irregular and grainy.  That won't be fixed by buffing, it would require smoothing the surface of each gouge, which would be really difficult and very time consuming.

A more practical approach would be to fill the gouges to create a smooth outer surface on the pig.  If the filler is translucent or a color that contrasts with the stone, the hair lines will be visible, but the surface will look polished.  A material like a hard wax might be good (paraffin or even colored wax pencils used for filling wood scratches).  Apply it as you would if you were filling wood scratches.  You can warm the soapstone with a heat gun on a low setting to melt the wax and it will self-level in the gouges.  When the pig is cold (room temperature), you can buff the surface.


Have you removed the protective (oil) coating of your nibs? Some people burn their nibs (over a candle, for example), but doing this they also re-temper the metal of the nib. (Don't do this if your nib is attached to plastic, of course.) I'd recommend to remove the coating with a Q-tip soaked in nail polish remover (acetone) (you can even try lemon/lime juice).

Some reviews of Manuscript calligraphy kits are pretty bad. If nothing works, maybe try a better nib (e.g. Brause dip nibs with Indian ink).


Taper Head Bolt seems to be the most technical way I can find it referred as. As common, "Water Bottle Cage Bolts" is used.

Taper cap bolt

M5x12mm Titanium Hex Key Washer Taper Head Bolt Bike MTB Water Bottle Cage Screw

MCTi Mountain MTB Bike Water Bottle Cage Titanium Allen Hex Tapered Head Bolts Screw M5x12mm Washer Head 4 Packed Colorful

Bolts & Fasteners 6pcs Titanium Ti Rainbow M5x20 Bolts Allen Hex Tapered Head Screw

Precision Anodized Water Bottle Cage Bolts

Titanium M5x12mm with Washers Bicycle Water Bottle Cage Hex Bolts Pack of 4

Alloy Water Bottle Cage Bolts


Will alcohol based paint ruin my brushes?

It depend on your brushes and if :

they contain glue or not to hold the hair
the hair are in synthetic material (should not be your case since you have kolinsky sable brushes)

In both case I would not use turpentine or other solvent on the brush since it will damage the glue and hair will go out and if the hairs are synthetic it will damage them.

The safest would be to have an old brush of the same brand of the one you intend to wash and make a test on them.


I have trouble drawing a sunlight/shadow line

Basically, you'll want to use a perspective-based method of drawing shadows, such as the technique I demonstrated here:
How to calculate the shadow direction, size, and transparency?

However, you'll need to be doing a modification on your perspective lines to match the distortion you're doing for the perspective in general. If I'm reading your sketch correctly, you've drawn a warped/wavy grid that represents the perspective, so your light perspective lines would have to "snap" to that same grid. In the end, this just means the the shadows that fall on the ground or objects will curve along the same paths as everything else, and be as "straight" as your sidewalk is.

Keep in mind, though, that the sun is very high in the sky, which likely means that your light source point will be well off your page (unless you're drawing the sun in a low position like setting/rising, then it may very well be on your page).


Is the canvas used in pre-made packs the same as plain canvas pieces?

No, they are the same. But there are A LOT of different ready made canvases to choose from, prices ranging from pennies a square inch to tens of dollars per square inch. Price depends very much on materials and construction that went into building the pre-stretched canvas.

Most important thing to know is what your own needs are as an artist. If you like to paint on burlap then buy burlap canvas. If you like the feel of Belgian linen buy Belgian linen. Once you know what your needs are then seek out what will satisfy that need and buy it at the best possible price.

Get to know the artist you are.

Get to know the prices people will be charging you to be that artist.

Here's a list of the things I like to look at when buying store bought ready made pre-stretched canvases.

The frame the canvas is sitting on, what material is it made from, how are the corner joints made (are they fixed or free floating), are there cross braces, lap joints on the cross braces? Learn the language of carpentry.1
What is the material stretched across the frame, Burlap, Cotton or Linen? Is this a material I like to paint on? What's the weave pattern and thread count? Did I like the results of my work the last time I painted on this fabric? Learn how to identify fabric weaves.2
How was the canvas stretched and fastened? Are the staples (or tacks) on the back (gallery wrap 3) or on the sides of the frame? Are the staples stainless or galvanized?
How was the surface sealed and primed? How many layers of primer was put on? What was the primer? Do I like painting on this type of primer 4
Is the canvas on sale and do I have good experience with it? When I bough this canvas the last time did I end up liking the results? What did I pay the last time? And what is the price today? Am I getting screwed or is this a good price? 5.

It's a huge draw back buying something you don't like, at a price you could have gotten cheaper elsewhere, that meets none of your likes or needs.


How can I draw right angles with just a ruler?

You can use the 3-4-5 method of creating right angles.

Begin with a construction line and mark a zero point and a 3 point. Make a mark. Notice that I'm not using units of measure. You can use millimeters (preferred) or inches or anything in between.

Draw from the zero point at a right angle as closely as possible. Measure from the zero point to a 4 point. Make a mark.

Measure from one of the marks to the other and it should be a 5 point. If so, you have your right angle.

If not, you will have to erase or otherwise ignore the second line and create yet another.

I prefer using metric measurements for this type of project.  You can adjust the numbers to fit your workspace. Let's say that you have a small piece of paper on which you wish to create your square.

The first line could be 90 mm long (3 * 30), while the second line would be 120 mm (4 * 30) and the points should be 150 mm apart (5 * 30).

Instead of drawing the second line as described above, consider to have a piece of paper with the length necessary for the conditions (120 mm) and position it with the zero point on the first line. Move the paper in an arc until it meets with your 150 mm point on the ruler. You can then mark the base paper with your points for a perfect square without having to erase misplaced lines.

As noted in the image below, greater accuracy is gained with larger distances. The quality of the measuring instrument also plays a factor, but only a minor part.


Staining vs transparent watercolor paints

Usually you can't, as the packaging generally doesn't show this information.

What you can do, is

test the watercolour out in the store, which is often possible (if no direct means are given, you can ask an employee),
look up some reviews and see if they refer to the staining properties, or
look up or into the brand's colour charts:

Some brands or ranges offer colour charts which tell you the staining levels using triangular symbols similar to the square shapes of the transparency level, like in the lower right corner here:

source

Where △ = non-staining, ◭ = semi-staining, and ▲ = staining.

Others might use numbers to indicate the level, as is shown here:

The four symbols underneath every colour indicate

lightfastness (using Roman numerals I - IV),
the staining level (using Arabic numerals 1 - 4, going from no staining to the highest level, respectively),
granulation (Y/N), and
transparency level (⚪, ◑, ⚫).


Can I bake oven-bake clay with embedded lobster clasps?

"Can you" is a different question from "is that the best way".  I think the answer is you can, but it probably isn't the best way.
Embedding the clasp, then baking
The metal in the clasp shouldn't interfere with the clay's hardening or properties.  The clasps don't typically have a finish that would be damaged by the heat, and even cheap pot metal shouldn't melt at the clay's baking temperature.
One potential issue that comes to mind is that metal expands and contracts with temperature more than the clay once it's hardened.  Cold isn't likely to be a problem.  While the charms are baking, they will be exposed to far higher temperature than they will see later.  So expansion won't be an issue.  But when the charms cool after baking, the clasp will shrink slightly and might be looser than you expect (captured but not "bonded" to the clay).
I see a bigger potential issue being ease of breakage.  You mention that you're thinking about selling the charms.  If you're making them just for yourself, you can be very careful how you handle it.  If it breaks, you can make another.  If you sell them, customers will be disappointed if they easily break, and a reputation for quality will help your business grow.
There will be a lot of leverage at the attachment point in the clay.  Lobster clasps are normally attached with a ring, which allows the clasp to move in any direction without stressing what it's attached to.  If the clasp is embedded in the charm, the clay will be much thinner around the clasp.  If the charm is thin, it won't take much pressure on the clasp to break the clasp out of the charm unless you build up the clay thicker around the attachment point.
Attaching the clasp after baking
As mentioned above, these clasps are designed to be attached with a ring, which leaves the clasp free to move without putting stress on what it's attached to.  You can drill a hole in the charm for a ring after it's baked, or make a hole in the clay with something like a toothpick before you bake it.
If your objective is to have the clasp rigidly held in the charm, gluing it to the surface of the charm isn't a good solution.  I wouldn't trust hot glue, there are better adhesives.  However, it won't look good (and you're thinking about selling them).  If you want a rigid attachment, you might as well bake it in initially, but with building up the attachment area so there's a reasonable thickness of clay around the clasp.
You might find complications doing it that way, like getting the clasp to lay parallel because of differences in thickness.  You could play around with finding something the right thickness to shim under the clasp or charm for alignment while it's baking, or you could make a thick-walled pocket in the clay to glue in the clasp after baking.
If you go that route, hot glue probably wouldn't be the best way to hold it in.  The pocket will be tiny, and it will be hard to get hot glue into it, at least without messy cleanup.  Epoxy would commonly be used for this, but I'd be tempted to use something like clear silicone adhesive/caulk.  That will remain rubbery, which will provide a little additional protection against breakage.
Gluing procedure
If you glue in the clasp, it will be hard to get the glue to flow into the clasp's ring loop because there probably won't be much clearance between the clasp and the sides of the pocket.  Use a procedure like this:

Fill the pocket half to two-thirds full with glue.

Depending on the size of the clasp's loop and the viscosity of the glue, use one of these two methods:

Fill the clasp's loop with glue, then slowly push the clasp into the pocket.
Or, push the clasp's loop halfway in, fill the loop starting with the leading side so air isn't trapped, then continue to fill the loop as you push it into the pocket.

This will force the glue in the pocket into the nooks and crannies and allow air to escape.  It will also displace some glue from the pocket that you can push back in to backfill around the clasp at the top of the pocket.  You may need to add more glue to the top of the pocket once the clasp is all the way in.

Wipe away any excess and clean up the charm before the glue cures.


What you are looking for is called spring steel or spring-tempered wire. Tempering is a process where the wire is hardened by heating which allows the resulting spring steel to return to its original shape, despite significant deflection or twisting. When you bend a spring wire, it will maintain a strong, circular loop without kinking anywhere along its circumference.

Product Search: Spring Tempered Wire

To close the the loop, you can use a wire crimp sleeve. They come in many many lengths and diameters, so it shouldn't be too difficult to find one that fits your needs.

Product Search Wire Crimp Sleeve


How to repair scruffed sides of a hardback book cover?

I usually get them covered by another binding (a cute paper or inverted blank side of the paper of a calendar) or seal the edges with transparent scotch  tape (half inside of the cover, and half outside) to prevent it from further fraying.


Tips and Tricks for Sealing Ceramic Coffee Mugs

I would wrap a line of masking tape around the edge of the cup on the outside at the top, because this modgepodge gloss appears not to be food safe. I would also wrap at the bottom for aesthetic reasons.

Although it is water soluble, do not dilute it.

Put the mug to be painted upside down on stick it on a plastic cup. Use the biggest, softest synthetic brush you can find and quickly brush downward in an even stroke from tape to tape. With the next stroke, overlap by 1/16” or 2mm and work your way around. Depending on the viscosity you may need more or less paint.

Personally I would dip the entire outside of the mug in polyester resin. That water-based stuff probably won’t hold up to abrasion and if it isn’t food safe I wouldn’t want to accidentally drink a chip. Something like this would work. Use an S-hook to hold the handle, dip it in the mixed resin, hang above the dipping container for five minutes and then place on a coaster to cure. Use in a well ventilated area and don’t get it on your skin or in your eyes.


Removing creases from an oil painting canvas

Stretching it properly on the right sized frame should be enough to remove the creases, no water required. Properly is:

Procuring a support of the right dimensions. The original frame on which the work was painted would be the best.
Centering the painting on the support, and tacking (stapling) the work
to the frame at the midpoint of each edge. This will be on the back of the work so put something on the table to protect the painting. Or, more challenging, do not place flat on table at all instead keeping in on the edge of the frame and only resting on the unworked edge of the painting under it on that side.
Stretch and tack (staple) the painting outward from the centers balancing the tension by working one center to edge, then the opposite side center to edge, and so on...

It may require some force to get the right tension but do not use too much or you will twist the frame. When stretching raw canvas water does help loosen the fibers and will dry much tighter and smoother. However it would be best to avoid water of any type on the finished piece. It could cause damage possibly staining the work, separating the paint from the canvas, encouraging mold and so on.


Is it possible to make a collapsible origami bellow/sleeve without using glue?

It is not a problem about origami so much as a problem of topology. If you are starting with a sheet of material its topology is genus 0. The shape you want, a sleeve, is genus 1 like a donut. The two are topographically unique and you cannot get from 0 to 1 without connecting the sheet to itself at some point, thus the glue.

If you had a seamless tube of fiberglass material, then you could get into the folding process that would give you the sleeve shape you want, but it is impossible with a flat sheet.


What type of stitch is a perfect fit for elastic materials (as close as possible to Nike's sport gear for running)?

Stitching a stretchy fabric requires a stretch stitch, to allow the seam to stretch with the fabric itself. Multiple types of stretch stitch are available to the home sewer, though some require specialized machines to achieve.

ZigZag Stitch

The back and forth motion of the needle in doing a zigzag stitch allows the seam to have some give and stretch with the fabric. The more back and forth, the more stretch, so shorter stitches will provide more flexibility. This can be achieved with any basic sewing machine, and is the most accessible.

Stretch Stitch

Some machines will have a "lightning bolt" shaped stretch stitch setting. This is similar to a zigzag, but with an extra step backwards to add even more give to the stitch. It will also look closer to a straight line than a zigzag. This is the next most accessible, as it's available on many, but not all, standard sewing machines.

Twin Needle Stitch

This stitch will require a special double needle to be added to your machine; you'll also thread it with both a spool and a bobbin of thread at the same time, separating the threads when you reach the needle. The upper layer will have a double row of stitching, while underneath the bobbin will have a zigzag format allowing the seam to stretch. This is likely the closest to what you're looking for, and can be accomplished with most standard sewing machines. (I cannot promise that the twin needles will be compatible with all machines.)

Overlock

Overlock stitching is what is often seen on the inside of commercially produced garments; it's a stitch with loops of thread wrapping around the raw edges of the fabric. It has a very large amount of stretch, but requires a specific machine (known as either an overlock machine or a serger), and is only useable on inner seams, as sergers also trim the edge of the fabric as they work. While the trimming can typically be deactivated, the edge wrap still leaves the machine only suitable for seams, not top-stitching. (As an anecdotal note, this is what I most often use for stretchy fabrics.)

Cover Stitch

This is likely what Nike and other companies are actually using. This requires a cover stitch machine or a convertible serger. The stitch produced is something of a cross between the twin needle and overlock stitches, and is suitable for hems and top stitching on stretchy materials.

You can see examples of these stitches and greater detail (as well as finding a link with details on twin needle stitching) here, which is also where I took the order of stitches and some technical details from.


What are the different pencil/pen holding techniques for drawing? Which should be followed in which case?

There is a previous discussion here: What exercises can I do to improve the line quality of my drawings?
Holding a pencil is mostly up to the artist's preference.
Discussed in the link above, if you want to have shorter strokes or finer detail, you would want to use more of the fingertips. If you want a more fluid motion in a line/drawing, you would want to use more of your elbow.
Holding the pencil closer to the tip would also help more for finer detail, while holding it towards the middle of the pencil, would be for longer strokes.
Holding a pencil or pen in my own experience, the hand/fingers can start to get stiff/or arthritic over time. Finding myself holding the pencil differently (than we were taught in school) is for comfort, more than a specific effect.


Is there a discernible difference between tube and pan watercolors?

There can be more textural/quality difference between two different pigments of the same brand and type of watercolor than there is between, say, a tube of ultramarine blue vs. a pan of ultramarine blue from the same manufacturer.

The difference between the types of watercolors really comes down to technique: the way you use tube colors is quite different from the way you use pan colors. But you can use this to your advantage. For example, you can use the pan colors for light washes, and use the more concentrated tube colors for adding outlines and details. To someone who doesn't know what kind of paint you used, it'll just look like you used more water in some parts and less water in other parts (and if you come right down to it, that'll be exactly what you did).

If there is a huge disparity in quality between the types of paint - for example, if the pan colors are a dollar-store find meant for children, while the tubes are top-of-the-line artist's grade - that difference will probably be apparent in the finished product: the lower quality paints will look washed-out and chalky, and may be under-bound (so they come right off the paper when dry). But if both types are student-grade or better, then a competent artist will have no trouble creating a seamless piece of art using both types. It's just that most artists develop a preference for one over the other.


What size / length needles for beginner knitting?

It depends on what you are knitting, but you probably need needles that are 60 or 80 cm (24 or 32 inches).

The most commonly used sizes for circular knitting needles are 40, 60, and 80 cm (16, 24, or 32 inches), as measured from tip to tip.  If you buy needles in those lengths, it is likely that you will be able to re-use them for other projects in the future.

60cm and 80cm are very versatile (and commonly used) lengths for circular knitting needles, as they allow you to knit comfortably, both flat and in the round.  For knitting flat, these lengths are ideal because they are a manageable length that is not likely to tangle.  These sizes will also accommodate larger objects in the round (like sweaters), or you can use the magic loop method to knit smaller objects in the round (like hats).


It looks very much like a potpourri holder. It is certainly a lovely little piece. I would recommend that you look after it carefully, and make sure that it comes to no harm. The ceramicist appears to be Edith Rimington, of Flintshire, Wales, although I have not been able to find out anything about her on the Internet. This is a piece that may appreciate in value, but I would definitely keep it for its simple charm.

I think that we should avoid confusing Edith Rimington with the English surrealist artist, Edith Rimmington (1902 – 1986). I doubt if they are the same person.


When drawing shapes made from overlapping spheres, how should I draw the lines that indicate curvature near the intersection?

If I understood the problem well, I would say above examples are using "the rule" of line weight.

It took me some time to find these videos. Since I am not an expert on this subject, I thought letting professionals explain it was much better idea. I have been given advice to try an summarize the content of the video. I somehow find it unfair towards artist. However, I will try to add more details by using the knowledge I have. However, consider watching these videos done by artists who are really experienced in that field:

  how to think about line weight video.
  Line Weight (CtrlPaint.com)
  and
  Line Weight: when to vary it and why?.

What is line weight and what can it do?

To simplify, line weight is the weight you put on your pencil while drawing and thus producing darker or lighter lines.

To be precise:

  Weight refers to the strength, heaviness, or darkness of a line
  against the background. It can be achieved through different
  thicknesses, intensities, and sometimes even different patterns -
  dashes, dots etc. Traditionally, you would generate a heavier line by
  applying more pressure, or by angling the pencil to produce a thicker
  line. Today, you can find pens with different nib sizes, and pencils
  and leads with different hardness to aid the process of producing
  different line weights.

To indicate closer objects, overlapping edges or stronger parts of an objects as well as curves where the shadow would fall, thicker line is used.

To indicate objects in the distance, edges of the objects behind other objects or to draw parts where a light would fall, thinner line is used.

To analyze this drawing lets take a look at thicker lines.
Thicker the line, more weight it has. Following what I stated above, I have concluded that light, on this particular drawing, comes from upper right corner.

First thick line is on his right arm, exactly where your arrow is pointing. It is under the arm, which means an indication of shadow.
Another is on his back, precisely under your left arrow. That means, shadow is falling on his left side. If you inspect drawing more, you will see that most of thick lines are on the left side or "under" his clothing.
The line under his coat is also thick, which indicates that his coat, or jacket, has been lifted as he is trying to throw the bowling ball.

One big hint to this is the shadow artist drew on the left leg of this character. Where the darkest areas are, artist drew couple of parallel lines to indicate it.

We can do the same by following lighter (thinner) lines.

Lets take a look at the area where you left arrow is pointing.
It is  indicating curvature. Obviously, our character has "stronger back". However, that particular part of the line is lighter because the light is hitting that part of the character's body.

Applying this reasoning to other parts of the same drawing (or other drawings) will show the pattern which will become easily recognized further on.

Now, these sketches are using the exact same rule. I am not sure is the "rule" right word to use. Maybe approach, principle or technique would suit it better.

Look at lighter lines: that is where the light is hitting the object. You will see, that on the opposite side heavier line is drawn. This does not always have to be this way. It all depends on how many light sources you have, what object your are trying to represent and so on.

However, the pattern is there.

Lets summarize it with some examples

So, by varying the weight of the line we can indicate:

Curvatures (but also pointy things!)
Shadows and light
Distance - adds depths, adds more dimension to the drawing.

Example 1:

To add stronger muscle, artist is using heavier line. That makes perfect sense if we think about it in this way: If a person is standing in such a way that light is hitting them from the right side, left side of that person's body will be more dark. The further the body part from the light is, the darker it gets. So, if we want to draw someone who has huge muscles, or any curves to generalize it, the bigger the curve is, further away from the light source is positioned which means it is darker. On the other side, if curvature is being hit by the light, bigger the curvature, lighter the line is, because, now, our body part is getting closer to that light.
In real life this can be seen. The more we lit one side of the object, the lines of that side are becoming more or less noticeable (depending on the background)because of the reflection of that light.

Image taken from www.researchgate.net.

Example 2:

Heavier line is on the side where shadow is cast. Lighter line is on the side where light is hitting the surface/arm.

Example 3:

Further away, lines get lighter.

These steps are applied in the drawings you posted.
However, these steps do not have to be followed precisely. Sometimes, you can just vary the weight of the line and get nice results.

P.S. Screenshots are taken from videos I posted above.


Are "oil colours" the same as "oil paints," or am I buying pigments by accident?

Basically, adding oil to ground pigment will turn it into oil paint; adding acrylic to ground pigment will turn it into acrylic paint; adding water to pigment will turn it into water colours...

So, this should be oil paint if it contains oil, and not just pigment.

(Where did you find this? Isn't there a description to the product? An image? If this is what you've been looking at, yes this is oil paint.)


Spray-painting polystyrene for outdoor use

First of all, using regular spray paint on polystyrene will melt the material, damaging it significantly!

So, before anything else, I'd suggest either coating your polystyrene head, or using a polystyrene-safe spray paint.

To coat the polystyrene object, use gesso (or another acrylic primer), plaster, a polystyrene-safe primer spray paint, or even white glue.
Now you can safely apply the fake stone layer. You can opt for a spray paint that's suitable for outdoor use, or use your current spray paint, and coat it afterwards.
After the recommended amount of drying time, you can protect your creation with, for example, a clear acrylic coating spray.


Pastels, that is chalk pastels, are easy and beautiful media for blending or creating translucent effects like smoke, as you know.   However, they are fragile and will blow away or fall off if not sealed.  Even then they will be sensitive to the environment, especially fingers.

That said, I'd bet you would be successful with a semi-permanent spray fixative.  You'll be able to go over it, if you must, but your smoke effect will gain longevity.

Because you may be working over graphite, the surface may have that greasy action, but be persistent.  Consider using pastel pencils.


What's the term for the opposite drawing style to hyperrealism?

These are simply portrait sketches. There's not, to the best of my knowledge, a specific term for the technique other than "sketching".

Sketching doesn't just mean an unfinished work, a doodle, or lack of detail. I think this phrasing from Painting.About.Com defines it well:

  A sketch is painting or drawing capturing the essence of an object or scene, giving an idea or outline of it or simply a part thereof. How quickly or slowly a sketch is completed depends on the individual artist. Some work very quickly and roughly, others slowly and in great detail.

So, in these portraits, capture the eyes and certain features is just part of getting that essence of the person. Eyes are a very defining facial feature, and they're very humanizing and expressive. Adding detail to them is an easy way to make the drawing "pop".

The three examples you've given are distinctly different personal styles. As you seen in the top, it's more defined by outlines, hatching and cross-hatching.  The second works more with fluid lines and varying tones. The last one is kept very loose, using "scribbles" and high-energy lines that go outside of the bounds for the hair, contrasted with well-defined edges and hatching for the face.

I wouldn't really consider any of these the opposite of hyperrealism, either. You can go much further away from that, such as gesture drawing and cartooning.

If there is a specific term for this, I've never heard anyone use it. This is the type of art I'm most interested in, so I've seen a lot of it and followed artists for years with no mention. I've also not heard anything used in any art class or tutorial I've taken.

At most, I think you'll be able to break down some individual techniques or concepts, somewhat like I did a couple paragraphs ago. If you're particularly focused on the beauty aspect of them, you may think of them as fashion, beauty or glamour portraits.

(As a side note, the first one you've listed is actually the most detailed of the three, which is especially obvious if you look at the lips, but there's many more details than that.)


What is the purpose of different needle felting needles?

Here is a Felting Needle Chart, via Paradise Fibers, which describes each needle type, gauge, blade style, fiber type, and uses:

Additionally, here is a very helpful YouTube reviewing the types of Felting Needles, demonstrating their various uses, and mentioning safety when Felting.


Real spiders have 2 joints in each leg. Yours has 1 joint in the front and hind legs, and none in the middle legs. Drawing these joints correctly would make the shape much more recognizable as a spider, even without the context of the web.
A very simplistic shape with only one leg joint:

And here a more natural shape with 2 leg joints:

Although the shape of the body is almost the same, the first one resembles an ant or some other generic insect. The second one is unmistakeably a spider.

the legs have 2 joints each

the 2 front legs face towards the head, the 2 hind legs away from the head

all legs join the body very close to the head

Try googling "spider icon" for inspiration.


How to use a protractor if you can't see what you are measuring?

The angle between the ruler part and the the semicircular part is the same as the angle indicated on the scale.  This is because the centreline of the ruler is parallel to its edge.
In more detail:

Image from Wikimedia Commons user Krishnavedala
Consider line a to be the top edge of the ruler in the picture and line b the centreline.  Line t, the transversal, is the base of the semicircle.  The top right θ where a and t meet is the angle you want to measure.  The bottom left θ is the angle the pointer makes with the semicircle.
This is a useful protractor for setting an angle or measuring a physical object with some thickness. For work purely on paper I'd prefer the clear plastic sort, marking in pencil and then using a steel rule for cutting if necessary.
Say you want to measure the interior angle of the parallelogram shown in freehand blue in this picture (imagine it drawn on paper under the ruler).

You align the protractor as shown, so the edges highlighted in thin red  run along the lines you're interested in.  Then the other angle in red is what you read off.  This is a copy of the first red angle, rotated and enlarged (hence thicker), but not distorted.  You can see that this runs through the pivot and point to the pointer, aligned with its groove.