How can I do the hatching shading technique properly?

What are hatching and cross-hatching?
This article from the Drawing Magazine explains the basic idea of hatching and cross-hatching:

At its most basic, hatching, also called hachure, refers to setting down a pattern of short, rhythmic, parallel lines close together and evenly spaced in order to darken a passage or increase the sense of form in a drawing. The initial “screen” of hatching may be overlaid with subsequent series of lines drawn at contrasting angles, creating crosshatching
and further darkening the value of the area.

... as well as what they can be used for in art:

The basic illusion of hatching is that a sequence of separate lines will read as a solid value from a slight distance. With hachure a draftsman can evoke a middle tone, a core or cast shadow or the atmosphere around a figure, as well as provide a means by which disparate elements of a drawing are unified.

Objectives, techniques, and variations
This online tutorial with pictures and videos tells you some of the basic techniques and variations of the art of hatching and cross-hatching. I'll provide some of the most useful quotes for introductory guidance.

Hatching

Hatching is created when non-crossing lines are used to indicate the value on or around an object. The value added to the object is dependent on the location of a light source. More marks are added in the areas of core shadow and cast shadow, while less marks should exist in lighter areas.
When hatching is used, the lines drawn generally go in the same direction and are mostly parallel with each other. Sometimes, the lines may curve slightly or even a great bit depending on the contours of the object. Lines of this nature are referred to as cross contour lines.
When used correctly, cross contour lines can further the illusion of form by giving the viewer information about the actual 3-dimensional qualities of the object.
By changing the frequency of the use of line, and the amount of space between the lines, the artist can create a full range of value in the drawing. Assuming that an artist is working on white paper, more space between the lines (more paper showing) will lead to lighter values in the drawing. Less space between lines will naturally lead to darker values in the drawing.

Cross hatching

When cross hatching is used, the artist may begin adding value as hatching, but then allow the lines to cross over each other. The more that the lines cross over each other, the darker the value becomes.
Many artists approach the addition of crossing lines as a science, following a specific order of vertical lines, followed by horizontal lines, followed by diagonal lines, and so on.
This method produces very deliberate and controlled marks that are very exact and precise. Others simply cross the lines at random leading to “looser” drawings. Neither way is better, per se. Some looser approaches work better for some subjects, while more rigid approaches are suitable for other subjects.

For a more visual way of learning how to do hatching and cross-hatching, there are various tutorial videos online. Here's one using a calligraphic pen and ink:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AHoqh27vQRw
And another one using a pencil:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HxZwO_tIpns


Binding variously sized pages into a book

A Comparison of Two Possible Solutions:

Binding the larger papers, scrapbooking the smaller ones: You have thought of the unconventional idea of binding the larger memorabilia pages and then using scrapbooking techniques to secure the smaller pages within that bound book.  Unfortunately, it is possible that the bulk that would be added with this technique could be prohibitive, depending on how many smaller pages there are.  For example, if you were to interleave one piece of paper in each gutter of any random bound book, you would have effectively doubled the number of pages, and the book would neither close nor lay normally:

I used the term “unconventional” for your idea, because it would be out of the ordinary to bind the documents you are trying to preserve, as this would irreversibly alter them. The more traditional approach would be to affix the items to archival (lignin / acid free) album pages.

Proposed Alternative: Traditional Scrapbooking in a Post-Bound Album:  In agreement with @ChrisH, below is a list of “pros” for a scrapbooking approach (which is, the use of adhesive or mounting corners to adhere your memorabilia to album pages.)

I am specifically recommending Post-Bound albums, which have special expandable bindings that use 2 or 3 metal binding posts (screw heads on both ends of a post, one stationary, one moveable) to tightly hold the pages between the front and back covers. Using an album with three posts is much sturdier for a thick, heavy project.

Pros:

One can easily achieve the look of a bound book, even on the back of the spine.
Post-Bound scrapbook bindings are expandable, allowing for the addition of more pages by changing to longer post screws.The longest posts I found are these 60 mm posts on the Michael’s website.
The integrity of the memorabilia can not only be preserved, but they can be protected from further damage.
Pages with contents on both sides can be placed in page protector pocket sleeves or in photo sleeves so that both sides are visible.
By not binding the larger memorabilia pieces, one can tap into archival methods for mounting materials:

Photo and Art Mounting Corners made of polypropylene; these are [self-adhesive.][10
Adhesives, all archival, including acrylic-based glue, starch-based glue, or even convenient glue dots.

You can customize the size and weight of album paper to what is best suited to your materials:

SIZES of Scrapbooking paper: The two main sizes for a project such as yours are 12” x 12”, and 8.5” x 11”. 12” x 12” seems more economical, as you can fit in more objects per page. Also there are more choices of paper in the 12” x 12” size. Cons of 12” x 12” are that it is more expensive per page, and that there is a wider selection of binders in the 8.5” x 11” size.
WEIGHT of album paper: This is measured as the fixed weight of 500 sheets of said paper, stacked, then measured in pounds. A stack of 500 sheets of copy paper, for example, weighs about 20 lbs. Therefore, standard copy paper has a listed weight of 20 lbs. (This is the U.S. measurement system. It is measured by GSM in Europe and other parts of the world.)

  Categories of paper by weight:

  10-55 lbs: Light weight paper
  55-85 lbs: Medium weight paper
  85-120 lbs: Heavy weight paper
  120 lbs and up: Extra heavy weight paper

  Choosing the best weight of paper for your application: I think 60 to 80 lb paper would probably be your best range:

  20 lbs: Jot a note, make a copy.
  35 lbs: Print double-sided without it showing through on the other side; no embellishments.
  60-65 lbs:  Heavier than copy paper, but won’t be holding very many embellishments or liquid adhesives; a common weight for
  lighter patterned scrapbook paper, drawing paper, and lightweight card
  stock.
  80 lbs: A base for a card or a sturdy layout page involving liquid adhesives, embellishments, and some mixed media elements; the
  weight of business cards.
  90-110 lbs: High quality invitations or announcements; a  heavy, high quality cardstock, accommodates heavy embellishments,
  paints, paste, ink, mixed media.
  110 lb paper: Standard for cards with lots of embellishments.
  140 lbs: For watercolor painting and mixed media inks; a thick, heavy paper, will  buckle or warp much less than lighter papers
  when wet; holds weighty embellishments.

Although archival scrapbooking materials can be expensive, decent products are out there in an affordable range, especially if you maintain a simple design, which seems to be your intent. When I was new to scrapbooking, the biggest challenge was dealing with the overwhelming quantity of choices.  Going into this project with as clear and specific an idea as possible on what you want the final product to look like will help prevent information overload. Here is an excellent article for beginning scrapbookers, which was a source for quite a bit of the information above, and includes compelling rationale for use of archival materials.
Scrapbooking techniques are very straightforward for a project such as yours. Really once you have researched and chosen your materials, the rest of the task will not require much of a learning curve at all, nor a lot of special equipment, which would both be the case if you were to go the bound book route.


Balsa wood is available from many sources and can often be found at local outlets. Various thickness panels are usually presented in shelf units or organizer caddies, typically in 24" or 36" lengths (0.6/0.9m) and varying widths.

Balsa wood is quite soft and easily cut, more easily than foam core as it is consistent throughout the thickness. There will be weakness parallel to the grain, however, which means gear teeth will break off if too much force is applied.

One could create the model components and then apply a thin layer of PVA glue along with a paper reinforcement layer to mitigate the grain-parallel weakness.

1/8" balsa (3mm) can be cut with a sharp razor knife, but I believe you'll have better strength with 3/16" to 1/4" material (4.75 to 6.35mm), especially if you apply paper reinforcement. If one layer on one side appears insufficient, apply a second layer on the other side. It would then be the equivalent of foam core board with a much stronger inner ply.

Balsa sands to a very smooth surface. You could then apply a thin layer of glue if you require a harder contact area for reduced friction.


Glue/Stick printed labels/stickers onto fabric

You could use self adhesive clear pockets and print the labels to place inside. Available in a range of sizes from A6 to A3 depending on your needs. They are made from durable PVC, you just peel off the protective paper and apply. Self adhesive CD pockets may also work although not as durable as the pvc.


Digital manipulation might still be a good starting point.

If you have the digital film footage from each of these episodes, and if you have good video player software, you should be able to move frame by frame through all the views of her face until you find a smiling one where her face is at the same angle and elevation as in the sad picture.

You can then capture that screen and digitally cut her face out from it.  Try to place most of your cutout lines midway across zones of relatively featureless, flat skin to make the next "merging" step easier.

Once you have her happy face floating in an otherwise transparent image, paste it into a copy of the sad picture, scaling it so that it overlaps and thus replaces the unhappy facial features.  You don't have to get the edges perfect.  Focus instead on placing the eyes correctly and getting the scale right.

You aren't trying to produce a refined piece of digital art; just a crude template to guide your manual painting efforts.

Once you are happy with the digital results, you can print it out or paint from the screen image or even use a digital projector to cast the image onto your canvas for tracing.


A 'finished' artwork is a piece that has been worked to a particular level of detail.    There are various levels of 'finish' from a basic outline to a 'finished' sketch, then from a basic drawing to a highly 'finished' piece of work.
To give an example, an artist might do a rough sketch of an idea and then a more detailed sketch or a colour sketch or even create a study for the whole piece or just a small section of the entire drawing/painting.  From that he/she might create a 'finished' piece for exhibition.  The sketches and studies might be made on cheap paper or canvas (sometimes on the back of an envelope)  but the 'finished' piece would be made on the best quality paper/canvas etc. So in the context of your Bristol board, it is a high quality paper that would be used for 'finished' artwork.  You could make sketches and transfer them to you good quality paper or you could draw directly onto it, it is your choice.


Trying to find a sewing pattern or style name for this style of dess

A company that makes them, Lindy Bop, calls them their "Ophelia" style dress and they have a similar one that's called "Sloane". It's a vintage style from the 50s - "Rockabilly swing".

The description of the bodice they use in various places include:

  Sweetheart neckline with ruched satin inset
  a sweetheart neckline with turquoise ruched bust panel.
  sweetheart neckline with contrasting crossover ruched bust panel

Google search returns a fair number of similar dresses when you search for "Rockabilly dress"... including the image that you posted, which is on a site here where they describe it as "ACEVOG Women’s 1950s V Neck Vintage Cut Out Retro Party Cocktail Swing Dresses"

Other than that, I'm not sure there's a specific name for the style.


Sourcing or making smooth edged glass tiles

I agree with Elmy's comment about glass being a bad choice for this application.  But if you are intent on using it, here are some ideas.

Microscope slides are roughly the width you want and can be cut to length.  A skilled glass cutter (say someone who makes windows or works with stained or leaded glass), can quickly cut strips and pieces from a sheet.
Glass corners and edges can be ground smooth by doing it under water.  You can even cut glass microscope slides to length with a scissors this way; snip them submerged in a basin of water.
You can melt glass in a microwave kiln.  Microwave kilns are relatively inexpensive to buy or even make yourself, and can melt glass and metals in a home microwave oven.  Melted glass jewelry is commonly made in these.


i'm having trouble drawing anthropomorphic animal heads

I'd suggest you look up comparative anatomy, with regards to the species you are merging (a human and whatever animal/animals you have in mind), and the body part you have problems with (like the jaw, or the skull as a whole, etc).


What are the different types of pencils used to make pencil drawing?

There are H ( hard) grades ; H to 6H , HB, and B (soft) types; B to 4B (?). The B grades get about as soft as using charcoal; The hard types can cut some papers. I expect there is much more specific info on the internet.


How best to fill the bottom of a PVC Tee with resin, plaster or some other material?

Operating with a two stage fill is a good start. Consider also that the dead space at the bottom need not be anything special, generally speaking. Cut cardboard, stuffed newspaper, just about anything at hand. Create your 1 and 2 shapes all in one step or in pieces, as you like.

Once in place, seal the top surfaces of 1 and 2 with a flat component, perhaps another piece of custom fit cardboard or two.

This now forms the desired surface onto which you can pour food safe resin available at craft stores and hobby shops and online resources.

The last layers are to reduce the amount of leakage into the mass below as well as to reduce the amount required. Even some modeling clay to seal the edges on the inner pipe may be required.

The food safe resin provides for safe pellet access. You can pour in multiple passes and angle changes to get the thickness you require.


Is it possible to make a scissor-like hinge out of cardboard?

Small brass eyelets could be quite durable in this application.

These are sold for card-making and scrapbooking and used to appear on certain kinds of office supplies in very similar applications. They might also be sold at leather crafting outlets.

They would require a hole be punched in the cardboard first, for best wear characteristics. Also, how far you set them is critical to getting the right resistance to rotation of the two cardboard pieces.

Their use requires a punch and die that would be sold at the same place for a few dollars. It's possible there is a pliers-like version as well.


It isn't clear what your objective is, whether you're trying to achieve a different writing result, or it's just that you've only found the complete pens for sale and want a way to reuse the body.

Forget trying to refill rollerball cartridges.  They are a complicated system designed to work together.  The ink needs to be just the right viscosity and other characteristics to be properly dispensed at a certain rate, and then dry quickly without spreading (and it's different from other kinds of inks).  Also, the rollerball tip wears with use.  If it isn't designed with the right long-lasting materials to be refillable, it will (hopefully) last just long enough to ensure you can use up the ink in the cartridge before it starts blobbing or leaking.

The cartridge is similar in size and shape to some other ones.  The writing experience and color characteristics will be different for different brands.  If you are looking for that difference, you can probably find some other refills that will fit.  However, Pilot does sell refills.  The listing on Pilot's web site gives the refill number.  Pilot makes nine ink colors and two point sizes for that pen. They should be available from online retailers and office supply stores.  I went on Amazon and searched "pilot precise v5 refills", and there was a good selection.

Note, though, that in small quantities, you will pay almost as much for the refills as buying the whole pens in a 12-pack.  Buying refills by the dozen will save you about half the cost of the whole pens.


Can I make primer from student grade acrylics?

In short: No, you cannot make an effective primer out of paint.

Primer is not just "paint without pigment," and the purpose of it isn't as a base coat; the purpose of primer is to prepare your surface to accept your paint. Some surfaces are too porous to take paint properly (wood, masonry), other may have issues with the paint adhering properly (plastic, metal). By using a primer designed for that specific surface, you alter the surface to allow your paint to adhere properly.

When painting miniatures, a spray primer designed for miniatures of your type (plastic, metal, or resin) will give you the best results, as it is able to be easily applied to small areas without reducing or masking detail. Note that you should in fact be using a miniature primer, as many general purpose primers will "fill in" fine detail areas. There are a number of companies that produce supplies for miniature painting; these will be your best bets for purchasing a suitable primer. If you purchase from one of their retail stores, they can also answer questions for you about how best to use their products; if you are unable to purchase them in-store, I have also found their customer service people to be responsive and helpful via email.

You may be able to find a brush-on primer that will work, but you will likely end up with a thicker base coat that may reduce your detail; you'll want to practice with it until you can use a light enough touch. You will not be able to "make primer" that will be effective in any way; in this case, you do need the right tool for the job.


How do I get a perfect finish to hair clips painted with acrylic paint?

A transparent protective layer would be ideal. I propose acryllic based coatings because they bond well with the painting and are soft enough to not chip away when bumped into. They are also elastic enough to not indent permanently, unless you have a go at them with a sharp object.
Glossy acryllic varnish or Mod Podge are ideal.
Instead of slapping a single, thick coat on the hair clip, you should apply several thin coats and let each coat dry completely. 4 or more thin coats, applied evenly with a soft and wide brush give you a better result than 1 or 2 thick coats. To avoid enclosing dust an other particles in the varnish, put the object under a cover like a plastic box to dry.


How can I make my own grass tufts for miniatures?

You can use a cheap paint brush.

Preparation

Use a flat, broad brush used for home decorations or an old brush you no longer use for crafting. Stiff bristles with a light color are preferable.

Seperate a small amount of bristles to one side. You can permanently bend them by applying some force or you can cover the remaining bristles with masking tape. Apply paint to the selected bristles and let it dry completely if desired.

Application

Put a drop of glue onto a flat surface (not your terrain). Grab your seperated bristles with your non-dominant hand and don't let go until they are glued to the terrain. Cut the bristles to the desired length with a pair of scisors. You should end up with a staight cut. Dab the cut edge of the bristles into your prepared glue and place it onto your terrain. Hold it a few seconds to allow the glue to set. As long as the glue is somewhat wet, you can change the shape of the tuft using a toothpick.


How can I paint 1000 wooden balls that are 1" each?

Painting by immersion would be fairly easy, but drying would be harder.  Industrially I suspect they'd be kept moving with warm air.

They'd be too expensive for this quantity, and come in sets of too many colours, but some wooden balls are available dyed.  If the ones you can get are pale wood, this may be an option, and drying would be more even than with paint.  You'd soak them a bit then dry them in a tray shaking frequently (or rearranging frequently if you use the support I suggest for spraying.

They could be sprayed.  It would be worth getting a proper sprayer and I'm more familiar with rattle-cans, but the key common factor is that however you spray you do lots of light coats drying in between. You'd rotate between coats so coverage was even. Reusable plastic egg trays are probably the best support, unless you get through huge amounts of eggs packed in plastic trays.  This would take quite a lot of elapsed time, but not much active time - you'd spray a coat in a few minutes even over hundred of balls, then do something else while it dries.

But while looking online I found that 2 cm painted balls are available wholesale.  Given your quantities you may be able to find them ready-made after all.


Does Cyanoacrylate glue inhibit Mold Star silicone?

cyanoacrylate itself will not, however many brands of cyanoacrylate have additives which can.
Sulfur is your problem. P-silicon and sulfur do not mix.
I work primarily with fossils and use completely additive free cyanoacrylate, the downside it has to be used quickly as it has no stabilizers.
We don't use much platinum based silicon just becasue even trace amounts of sulfur in the fossils themselves can prevent it from setting up, but I have used to for artifacts. Likewise trace sulfur in the glue will also prevent it from setting. Any sulfur at all prevents P-silicon from setting up and many brands of cyanoacrylate glue use sulfur based stabilizers. many accelerator sprays also contain sulfur so don't use them if you can help it.
tin based silicon tends to be more chemically forgiving, but has greater shrinkage as it ages (months to years).
So you can switch silicon or find additive free cyanoacrylate.


Is there a tool that will make a rounded cut in flat metal wire?

As you're only working in thin aluminium, I suggest a gouge chisel.  It will need sharpening fairly often (a diamond file is probably easiest) to go through easily but should do a good job.  Use scrapwood clamped down securely as your anvil.

I don't have a gouge, but I've tested a straight chisel successfully. My scrap aluminium is 3mm thick and a cut of about 8mm long took a couple of blows with a carpenter's mallet on the back of my roughest (not very sharp, as well as chipped) chisel.  This is bigger than your cut, so you should be able to do it in a single blow.  An offcut of oak worktop was a much better anvil than softwood: the cut was easier and the burr on the back much less. If doing a lot you may wish to make a jig, or at least attach a fence/length guide.

The heavy-duty nail clippers you were thinking of do exist, but I suspect that they'd push the strip out when you squeeze them.

There are also curved tin snips, but ones as curved as this old pair are rare nowadays.


What techniques exist to create larger sheets of origami paper from smaller ones?

According to this thread on the Origami Forum, you probably want to use some form of adhesive, such as tape, glue, spray adhesive, or methyl cellulose to join the sheets.  It will create double-thickness at some points and texture differences (tape, for example, doesn't fold the same way paper does), and of course seams, so you do want to make sure those seams won't show in a prominent area of the finished model, or that you only used the joined paper for practice, and not a display model.


Adhesive suggestions for pebbles and shells on cardboard

I would think that some standard silicone would be strong and cheap. They are all guaranteed to stick to cement, bricks... And pebbles and shells are made of similar materials.

Of course, you need to clean the pebbles and shells properly, before applying any glue.


Rollers in various widths with a fast drying acrylic.

I would insert a piece of card inside each pillow to stop the design running through to the other side and to keep the fabric straight. Your challenge is to keep the fabric flat.

To speed the drying process, or to store or display finished or unclaimed works, rather than using a table, find some sort of rack arrangement, or use the sides of the marquee with bulldog clips.

A hair dryer will speed up the drying process.


Can this origami figure actually be made?

Looking at Robert J. Lang's Opus 822, Northern Mockingbird, it's entirely possible to create a base for a bird model that incorporates flaps for head, wings, tail, and legs.  How easy it might be to do without being Lang or knowing a technique to create a base with the appropriate flaps for those features (e.g., circle-packing), I don't know.


How can I make this costume mouth open and close?

As a basic strategy, you might consider having the elastic/spring hold the mouth open, and use something controlled by your mouth to close it when you close your own mouth. That way you could make him talk in a realistic way by simply opening your mouth each time you say a word, which of course you'd want to do anyway :)

As far as mechanism is concerned, a "string" (tensile member) of some sort might be easiest. My mind goes to a cable of the sort used on bicycle hand-brakes, where the cable runs through a housing. This would give you flexibility to position the actuator anywhere you wanted without having to worry about keeping the "cable" tight. The cables they use for gear shifters are lighter gauge and would still be plenty strong enough. Maybe you could adapt a set of costume teeth (maybe vampire type or something) to act as the actuator. That would fit in your mouth but still allow you to speak and you could maneuver them in and out of your mouth I expect without too much trouble, even without use of your hands.

Maybe the "mouth controller" end of the cable could just pull the bottom lip in when you close the teeth, perhaps with a coil spring (ball-point pen type, maybe longer) doing the needful to open the mouth on the return stroke.


What material can be used to create a mold for pouring any molten metal without problems?

For use with the widest range of metals, a properly prepared ceramic mold is your best bet. It can tolerate high temperatures and capture fine details well. However, these are commonly single-use molds that are broken to remove the cast object.

Rather than trying to find a "silver bullet," you're better off targeting your specific needs for each case. If you're casting a single sculpture in bronze or aluminum from a wax base ("lost wax" casting), use the ceramic mold. If you're doing a styrofoam master sculpt to cast ("lost foam" casting), use sand. For precious metals, use kiln-dried plaster. For low-temperature metals in one-off casts, plaster works well; for multiple casts, a heat-resistant rubber or some metals will work better.


How to salvage dry poster and acrylic paint?

Depends on the binder. If it's acrylic/latex, it can't really be reconstituted. For poster paint, there's a good chance the binder is gum arabic, in which case you can just add water, or grind it (on a slab with a glass muller, or failing that with a mortar and pestle) and then add water.

If you want to experiment, you can try grinding the dry latex paint. If you can get the particle size small enough, you could add the binder of your choice (acrylic again, gum arabic, heck even white glue could work) to make a lower-quality, but possibly still useful paint. But this is probably not worth the effort unless it was very expensive acrylic paint.


How I can protype clothes without making them fullsize?

What you're looking for is called a "mockup" or "mock."
It's very common to make a prototype of a garment from cheap fabric first, then test the fit and, if everything's alright, repeat the process with the expensive fabric. The mockup fabric should be at least similar to the final fabric in terms of stretchiness and heaviness.
Usually the mockup is the same size of the finished garment, because the whole idea behind making a mockup is to test how well it fits. If you want this to be a surprise and not test the fit, you could do a smaller mockup.
When you tested the size and found any problem, you adjust the mockup until it fits. You can sew seams tighter if there is bulkiness or you can piece on another strip of fabric if it's too tight. Once the mockup fits, you mark all the seams on the fabric. Then you pick it apart again and adapt your pattern to the same seams you marked on the mockup. That way you make sure the final garment will fit well.
People usually use cotton muslin or leftover fabrics that are sold cheap for their mockups. You can often find fabrics with Christmas prints or children's patterns for a reduced price in online shops. You can also use old bedclothes or tablecloths if you don't want them anymore, or have a look at second hand shops that might sell tablecloths or curtains for cheap.


What material can I use for hardcover book panels when binding?

I would strongly consider what is usually used for covers in these types of books. Hardboard or millboard. They are both similar materials that I would suggest for this. Unfortunately their names are sometimes used interchangeably so I would like to clarify a little what they are. Then you should be able to make a informed choice.

Millboard is what you would find if you were to take a simple binder or traditional hardcover book apart. It is also heavier than millboard so keep that in mind. Side Note: Doing just that is a great way to get perfectly sized materials!

Hardboard is, like its name suggests, a very hard rigid and dense board. It is similar to both MDF and particle board. These come in thin sheets that would be perfect for binding. I talk about hardboard a little more over at Woodworking.SE

I would lean towards millboard as it is more forgiving to bending than hardboard. Hardboard will hardly move at all. Both are perfectly adequate for binding leather. I have made 5 books that were leather bound.

  However, I want to bump up the quality of the binding

If you wanted to do something else to bump up your game I would suggest using actual leather for you book covers. It is really easy to come by if you are no picky about colours. Local secondhand stores are usually where I source my leathers. Jackets might be tempting for their size but they are usually too expensive. Skirts are the best best at being both cheap and containing large enough swatches to cover your book panels.


How can I define the three axes and their purpose in an isometric projection?

Let's imagine we are going to paint this bowl of fruits on the table that contains an apple, a banana and a pineapple. To help us with the borders, we put this wooden frame around the bowl. As you can see the whole bowl with all the nice fruit can be seen within the frame. If you close one of your eyes, you will even be able to see the picture that we are supposed to paint.

Now, have both of your eyes open again and you see the real bowl of fruit within the frame.

Get up close on the frame and see that the banana is actually extending out of the frame and towards us.

These are the axis of projection. The X and Y are parts of the frame. X is the long bottom part. Y is the left/right shorter parts, the verticals, going up from the bottom to the top.

The third axis is how the banana is protruding against us. We could put a ruler in the left lowermost corner of the frame corners just to be able to measure how far the banana or the pineapple leaves are protruding at different places. That ruler is Z.


Does boat polyester resin works well for insect/flower encapsulating?

Disclaimer: I have no first-hand experience with industrial resins (like boat resin), but I used craft resin (like crystal epoxy resin) several times.

There are 2 aspects to keep in mind when choosing your resin:

The properties of the resin
Your own health

Material properties

For pouring and encasing objects in resin, you usually want a crystal clear resin with a low viscosity (very thin), to avoid air bubbles in the cast. To cover a big object like a boat in resin as a protective layer, the color is less important, but you want a thicker resin so it doesn't drip off.

The problem with pouring thick, viscous resins is that it's almost impossible to remove all the air bubbles without a vacuum or pressure chamber. This leaves you with a cloudy result (because of micro air bubbles) or with very annoying bubbles in tight spaces (like the petals of a flower). It can also displace light objects while being poured on them.

The yellowish color usually intensifies over time. You end up with something looking like amber. If that's what you're looking for, go for it, but it makes things harder to see inside.

Lastly, every kind of resin has a minimal and maximal pouring thickness. If you pour less, it takes forever to cure or doesn't cure at all. If you pour more, the material heats up to a boil and bubbles away (because of the chemical reaction). Many resins have a minimal thickness of 0, but some industrial resins need several millimeters thickness and your cast may be too small for it. Have a look at the packaging to get more information.

Health Considerations

Most polyester resins stink to hell and you really shouldn't inhale the fumes. The packages usually instruct you to only use it in very well ventilated areas and additionally wear a mask with a filter (not the simple dust mask but a real filter mask). Don't forget goggles and gloves*.

Epoxy resin doesn't stink much at all, but you shouldn't directly inhale the fumes either. An open window, goggles and gloves* are sufficient.

Don't forego the gloves, resins can cause allergic reactions that can manifest several hours after skin contact.

*: Depending on the resin you use, you need gloves of different materials. I use nitrile gloves for epoxy resin, but I don't know for sure if they're safe for polyester resin.

If gloves are categorized as "safe" for certain chemicals, they resist those chemicals for a minimum of 8 hours. You should always use fresh gloves because after those 8 hours chemicals permeate the gloves.


How can I improve my binding process to get a better result?

You could punch holes through the leaves, and sew, using an asian-style bind, or use overcast sewing before binding. You will need an awl, or drill/drill press to punch holes through the paper before sewing, though, and of course, you're losing more of the edge of the paper than using folded signatures and the book won't open flat.  But you will have a proper sewn binding that doesn't rely on glue to keep the pages in, and will be more archival in quality.


It's a flat cap, colloquially more commonly seen as "newsboy cap" in North America. Other areas will have other common names for it, including (as seen on Wikipedia) "scally cap," "bunnet," "Dai cap," "paddy cap," "cheese-cutter," and "driving cap."

You're most likely to find patterns or instructions under the names "flat cap," "newsboy cap," and "driving cap."


Frosting on a glass surface to have specific patterns

TL/DR

Use a sponge and cut it to shape.

Loved an excuse for a quick experiment. So, the patterns in the video are made from an Epson salt solution with the following ingredients per the linked video.

  1/2 cup of hot/boiling water
  1/3 cup of Epson salts
  Teaspoon of dishwashing liquid

I tried a few different techniques to make specific patterns. The basic idea is to control the amount of liquid applied. Too much and it will bleed and drip down.

Napkin snowflake

Picture taken after solution was applied

So I wanted to try something that would hold liquid and not tear easily after it was cut. Most common napkins are frail so I used a heavier duty one. Any absorbent cloth would work but napkins are easier to come by.

Tried to keep my face and dirty kitchen out of the picture. You don't need more detail to know it looks awful

This didn't turn out quite good at all. It was hard to get the right amount of liquid applied and keep the detail. Only my first attempt mind you. Read onto sponge for and improved version of what I was trying for here.

Sponge

This is where I think you will get the most out of this project. This sponge I used for testing is perforated as you can see. I wanted to test fine details with this application.

Look at the detail!

The level of detail retained from this application was next to perfect. I would highly recommend sponges for your application. You can pick some up cheap and cut them to shape. This will make it very easy to get applied control and maintain shape.

Napkin ball

I know you are likely looking for more detail oriented designs but for completness sake I wanted to make larger items so I just balled up a napkin to make a heart design. This way my wife should not get made when she sees what I have done to the kitchen windows.

 I jumped the gun for the photo but it did eventually fill out nice

This worked as well as I would have hoped. The shape I made is what appeared on the window. It did bleed from the bottom so perhaps too much liquid was used. Easy to clean after the fact though with some water.

Fingers

Much like in the video using fingers would be a useful tool as well. In the video it is shown drawing after the solution was applied to the window. The difference with me is I used my finger to apply the solution to the window surface.

Expected results here as well. Design showed well except where some bleeding occurred. I made a happy face which ended up looking more like a horseshoe. Other pictures are a star, the characters A&C and an isometric box (that is not in the picture at all).

I recommend the sponge for sure because it helps with easy controlled application. Once you get a feel for the amount of liquid you can easily get the design you want without the salt solution creeping.


Where can I find super short pen refills?

You may be hard-pressed to be able to find a term or type of supplier than easily allows you to purchase the refills of the correct length. They're likely specialty pieces being manufactured directly by the companies making novelty products.

However, it's possible to cut disposable refills down to your desired length (as long as they aren't the metal-case refills) using a sharp utility knife.

This DIY Hacks and How-Tos video demonstrates cutting the disposable refills down to size. As you can see from the video, even cutting mid-ink doesn't cause the ink to spill out. There is a little spillage on the tip from the process, but that should be all.

The reason why this works, is because the ink is already prone to staying inside the refill tube. There are 3 main things keeping the ink in the tube:

The viscosity of the ink. It is thick and does not "like" to flow.
The surface tension of the ink. It has a high surface tension.
The adhesive force between the ink and the tube itself.

These all combine to make the ink not want to flow backwards out the tube, even when cut. The surface tension and adhesive force is strong enough to resist the flow of gravity (as seen by the fact that you can buy a pack of point-up pens that have been hanging for months, and there's no spillage). The adhesive force is actually strong enough to make the surface of the ink concave instead of convex (if you've even done the trick with filling a cup with water over the brim without spilling, you'll notice the result is a convex surface).

Since you're only adjusting the length of the refill tube, you are not changing any of the 3 properties listed.

So, you can buy standard refills and cut them to length. Just make sure to clean the ends of both pieces, and properly dispose of the end without the ballpoint. If you'd like, you can also extra the ink from the extra ends to play around with. The King of Random extracted ink from 1000 pens for this purpose. I link the video as extra evidence that the ink doesn't just leak out, even when they remove the ballpoint, but they had to physically push it out with a rod small enough to fit in the cartridge.


What does "work as dropped stitch" mean in knitting pattern?

That instruction (usually) means the last row at the top of the shoulder on the arm is knit w/ the same stitches as instructed to use thus far, except those two stitches as specified. In the case of the center and 5th, you don't actually "knit" them, not even a 'slip' stitch, which would result in the same number of stitches in that final row, and possibly a 'bump' at the shoulder when joined. You just drop them off the needle. The last row then ends as 3 stitches that are fairly compact, including your cast off, and is similar to doing a small tuck at the top of the arm in sewing so the shoulder is flat. There will be no need to 'gather' together as you sew the arm in place.

That is my first, and strongest, impression of what that instruction is asking. I'm an intermediate to highly skilled knitter, though I wouldn't go so far as to say "expert". I have to admit, that line would have me second guessing the intent of the author. My further thoughts on it, as I considered it a little longer, are as follows:

It seems as if they are instructing you to drop those two stitches as part of casting off, and I must say I do find that highly unusual. The cast off won't add any real "structure" and simply results in your last row being nicely flat, without curling in on you. That gives me the impression of leaving a hole in the very center of the shoulder at the arm seam. A very bulky sweater with chunky yarn may well need that exact thing, though that style of sweater doesn't usually call for a seam at the shoulder at all.

Sometimes, when a pattern calls for a "drp st", I will combine the specified stitch(es) into the previous or next one, and knit both as just one (as in reducing) if the yarn or pattern results in a stretchy/loose type garment style. In that case the 'dropped' stitch can look much more like a 'hole', or can result in a 'pointy' bump at the curve of the shoulder. You will have to judge that for yourself, according to the type of pattern you have.

The way the wording is, as you've given it, I don't blame you for needing clarification. Sometimes different regions will give stitch names like that but can mean something other than what you've learned. If there is a 'legend' of what each stitch name is, usually that 'dropped st' is written as "drpst" or "drp st" with a brief description of how to form it. I would have to see the pattern, go by the instruction style, and maybe determine the area of the world it originated from. I can tell you that 'cast off' does not 'add' a row, but it feels as if they are telling you to knit one more row "before" cast off (?). Depending on the pattern and garment style, of course, but I would err on the side of caution, and try doing a count of the rows you have for the arm and where it attaches, or the number of stitches called for at the circumference before joining. Also, look for a specified number of rows in earlier directions in the pattern, if there are several size options to choose from before starting, etc etc.

I hope that helps, and doesn't give you more confusion. The beauty of knitting, unless the pattern is very advanced and intricate, is the ability to adapt in what you know and are comfortable with. It will still look fabulous. There is so much room for originality.


Dressmaking and pattern layout: folded vs open fabric?

When given pieces that are too wide for the folded fabric (see piece E in your diagram), pattern cutting layouts will show cutting on a single thickness of fabric, rather than a folded piece. This is very common when the pieces won't fit the standard width of fabric in the correct orientation without unfolding it.

"Precise matching" of pieces isn't particularly critical in most patterns; the size of the pieces is sufficient to compensate for any small differences in the cut pieces. It's also more likely to have minimal differences in the two pieces when they're cut separately, as fabric can shift or be wrinkled on the lower layer, leading to a misshapen piece.


In my experience fresh epoxy will bond with already cured resin just fine.

Both the cured and fresh epoxy should be the same chemicals. I have no experience with layering different types of resin.
Given that the surface of the cured resin is clean (no dust or oily residue) and both batches have the same color you cannot see the individual layers after the fresh resin cured.
Given the first batch of resin cured right (the resin to hardener ratio was right and it's not still soft or sticky) I was never able to seperate individual layers of resin without breaking the object. You cannot "fix" a batch of resin that doesn't cure because of wrong mixing ratios by pouring more resin on top. You can only stabilize slightly bendy resin.
If you expect the joint to come under tension, you should roughen the cured surface with coarse sandpaper. This gives the fresh resin a bigger surface to bond to but will become invisible if you remove the dust before pouring.
You should keep surface tension in mind. Pouring fresh resin over only part of a cured object creates a visible transition and the fresh surface will reflect light differently because surface tension pulls it into a different shape. I highly recomment covering the entire surface of a cured object with a thin layer of fresh resin to repair dents or holes. Pour enough resin that the surface tension cannot pull the fresh resin away from corners or high edges (happened to me several times)

When I craft with resin I often cover objects in several thin layers of epoxy. In videos you often see people grinding and polishing their epoxy jewelry to a shine in a long process. If you don't need perfectly even surfaces, you can pour a thin layer of epoxy on top instead and archive a finish that's clear and shiny without the trouble of polishing.


What can I do to finish intersecting plane models with minimal buckling?

Yes, paper may play a role here. Typical Kami paper (I assume this is what you mean by "square origami paper stock") is rather thin which means it is easy for the outer, visible layer to become crumpled and embossed with the pattern of the layers below when you squeeze multiple layers together. An example is visible as a diagonal line on the yellow unit in the picture. Thin paper may also wrinkle and deform as you force the flaps inside pockets. In my opinion even plain colored copy paper is often better since it's somewhat thicker and stiffer. You could also try stiffer papers such as Tant or Elephant Hide. They will make it harder to leave marks on the paper as you move it around, but on the other hand the extra stiffness may make connecting the units even harder as it's harder to bend the units as you wrestle with them.

The other important aspect is technique. With tightly-knit models it is usually really hard to insert the last unit or two, so some level of imperfection is probably unavoidable. But there are some things you can do to reduce visible artifacts:

Strive for more symmetry as you fold. Instead of just inserting the last flap into its pocket when everything else is already in place, try to close the last vertex where three modules meet in a single step. So instead of two tabs fully inserted and one not at all, try to start with a loose assembly where all three flaps are just barely inserted into their pockets. Then, slowly try to tighten it, inserting the flaps deeper and deeper, all at the same time and trying to keep is as symmetric as possible. At one point the flaps should snap and all fall into their positions simultaneously. This technique requires at least moderately stiff paper and might not work with Kami (but give it a try). It may require a lot of coordination but often this technique allows one to close corners which would be impossible to close by manipulating just a single flap.
When folding, sometimes you have to make inexact folds on purpose in order to accommodate paper thickness. Diagrams are sometimes drawn with "perfect", zero-thickness paper in mind. Actual paper has non-negligible thickness and when you fold five layers, they are about ½ mm thick which can already be significant. So sometimes when you fold an edge to a point, you should actually fold a little bit before it so that it gets into the right place later when more paper layers accumulate.
Practice. Some tricks are just muscle memory and hard to explain to others but you will come up with such tricks yourself and develop techniques that suit you well as you fold more.
Cheat. Sometimes you can leave out the last flap by folding it back below the unit instead of into its pocket, and no one will notice. In a model with strong locks, one missing lock will not significantly affect the model's stability and may not be easy to spot visually, either.


For how long can oil paint be worked into?

There is no simple answer, it depends on many factors like the temperature of where you live, sun and wind exposure, the amount and type of oil, the thickness of the paint, the color pigment itself.

Obviously, the more you wait the harder it will be, but within a week should be fine. White spirit is not recommended it will attack and unsaturate the color, better use a painting medium. You also run the risk of violating lean over fat by using a variable quantity of white spirit.

There are also mediums that delay the drying time, but the easiest way is to use oil as a medium.


What is the name of this painting genre?

To me, this seems like it is charcoal pencil art.  Google that term and check out the Images it brings up.  They are very similar.

The way this is created is the artist uses a charcoal pencil to draw on the paper, then smudges the charcoal into the picture they want to make.  The powder is actually the charcoal.  In this case, the light color comes from the paper the eye/face is drawn on.


What should I look for when getting a treadle sewing machine second hand?

Brand, Model, Functionality and Missing Parts

Singer is first choice, White second, and other brands should be
purchased only if complete (check for bobbins, presence of operating
manual, and condition of moving parts). Singers are more numerous
and, therefore, parts for them are more readily available ...  if
not from dealers, then from other old machines.
Singer made various models, and accessories are not equally easy to
find in all cases. If the machine you're considering comes with only
one or two bobbins, for instance, make sure they're the disc variety
rather than the scarcer long type.
Look over the machine carefully. A few small parts may be missing,
but such pieces are generally replaceable. Major hardware, however,
is more difficult to obtain or repair. Move the treadle to be sure
it functions, and check the rods that connect it to the wheel. See
if the skirt guard — a handy item — is in place. And, no matter what
its condition, if you come on an unusable machine for free or a
couple of dollars, take it. It may be a fine source of parts.
If you're at an auction and overhear some woman saying that she
wants a treadle operated sewer because the cast iron base makes a
nice table or the drawers make pretty flower boxes, outbid her if
you can. This sort of thing is being done far too often, and it's a
terrible waste of good sewing machines.


How can I create a custom lamp shade frame?

What materials you use depends on the design of the lamp shade you want to make – is it a hanging ceiling lamp, a desk lamp, etc. How sturdy the frame needs to be depends on what material it is supposed to support (paper, wood, glass, plastic, etc.)  For example, if you are making a paper lamp shade, then the coat hanger wire should be fine (like in those paper lantern lamp shades). If it needs to support glass or other heavy material, then you may need stronger wire, or whatever you can make a sturdier frame out of.

(I’ve made a hanging lamp shade out of just skewer sticks and paper, so again, it all depends on what design you have in mind.)


Prevent black colored pencil from blending into adjacent colors

Lots of good advice here, but you may also want to consider using a fixative to preserve the drawing as you work it. Fixative, found in convenient to use spray cans although you can get it in liquid form, chemically bonds and protects the pigments applied to the paper. It is nearly a requirement when working in pastels and I regularly use it to protect my graphite pencil drawings. Look for workable spray fix in this case.

So you would draw the dark details, spray fix them, then work the light areas and there will be no smudges. The reverse is possible as well but sometimes the fix will darken light colors.

Fix is toxic so spray outside or have good ventilation.


How can I safely cut pieces off a small wooden cube?

Jigsaw is a poor choice of tool for this given the size of the finished product and that it is a roughing tool more designed for cutting sheet goods.

Tools to consider

Bandsaw

If the polyhedron was a little larger and your valued the tolerance of the finished product I would most certainly suggest the bandsaw as you can use a mitre slide and a custom sled with a proper angle to get all of the cuts accurately. However the tiny size hinders the success of that size you cannot clamp that small and that is too close for the fingers.

Coping saw and/or sandpaper

It might take a little practice but if you are up to using hand tools then I would suggest a coping saw and sandpaper. Use the saw to get the larger sides cut and then just sandpaper to get the triangle faces done. It is small enough to not take too much effort.

Notes on mass production

As per the comments it looks like you are going to try and mass produce these. I still think sanding would be safer but I suppose you could use a disk sander to speed up the process. Just keep in mind that it is still a power tool that can hurt you so always be mindful of that. Don't sacrifice in an attempt to increase efficiency.

I would consider making a small ramp of jig that would give you a 60 degree angle. Looking at an edge view from the wiki that can help ensure the best angles when sanding. You can try and use a set of small squeeze clamps to help keep your fingers out of harms way. Those might become less useful as you form your cube since the sides will be made smaller and there will be less to grip.

Perhaps this product already exists if you are interested

If you do need that many I would look to see if someone already has these machined and sells them. I found this seller on Etsy that makes what appears to be the correct polyhedral. This one as well

Something like a bead supplier could have these and they could likely be finished as well with varnish too.

Woodworking.SE

If you do nail down a process/procedure based on tools available but still need more help consider coming over to woodworking.se and asking there.


What is the name of the following kinds of patterns?

The mathematical term for this kind of pattern would be pmm wallpaper pattern.  There are seventeen types of repeating planar patterns, and this is one of the simplest ones.

The characteristics of the pattern are based on it having perpendicular symmetry axes through the centers of each of the tessellation units.  There are also 180 degree rotation symmetries about these centers, with no additional glide reflection symmetries.


I would lean toward using acid-free tissue paper.  It comes in all sizes and you can cut out sheets large enough to separate your drawings.  I think this is similar to what my sisters use.

Of course one of the things that could help preserve them is spray a fixative on them, to help keep them from smudging.

Last if you need a physical container, there are plenty of different shaped plastic boxes, many big box stores have different options for $5-10 a piece.  Combined with the acid-free tissue paper you can store quite a few drawings in a safe location away from the elements, dust etc.


I don't recommend leaving your cross stitched projects sandwiched between glass. This compresses/flattens the stitches which can make them look odd.

Taking the piece to a reputable framing shop is probably the best idea unless you make a lot of projects and want to learn how to do it yourself or if the project is relatively small. A good shop should know how to properly block the cloth to keep it square but check with them to be certain they have experience with this.

The steps for framing yourself are generally laid out in an article here and a similar one here. The basic process is:

Prepare the piece

Wash the piece to remove oils - be careful of running colors, particularly if you didn't prewash the thread.
Iron to remove wrinkles - from the back, on soft cloth to prevent flattening stitches.

Mount the piece.

Block it onto an acid-free foam core board using straight pins, keeping some tension as you go around to keep the piece flat - use the lines of the fabric to help keep things straight.
Fold the edges around the back of the foam and secure with pins or stitching.

At this point, they simply recommend putting it in a frame either with or without glass... but I strongly encourage you to go a couple of steps further.

I highly recommend glass as it will prevent incidental dust and oils from getting on the piece. You just spent hours making it - protect it! The glass (if you get UV glass), can prevent the piece from fading, which is very important as the dyes used may not all fade at the same rates. Reds are well known to fade more quickly than other colors.

I also recommend adding at least one matting layer to put some space between the work and the glass, again, to prevent the stitches from being flattened.


Screen printing can be done successfully on felt, but it takes a little bit of experimentation due to the rougher texture of the fabric. Screen printing is also useful for making multiple copies of an image - unsure if you plan to make just one or multiple.


Depends. There is not one drawing style to follow. But if a learned technique helps you accomplish your task then, sure why not. That's the point of an education. An education teaches you how to use available tools to solve problems.

Math, Science, History, Literature, Philosophy and Art classes are all there to educate you about what had come before and how people have worked through those problems and come to a solution.

Education in different art styles and techniques is important because that knowledge empowers you by giving you the ability to solve problems you will encounter in your artistic pursuits.

When you are sitting in a class and learning a techique think of it as your are adding to your tool set. The tools are there to help you accomplish your goals.

Your goals can be accomplished by any number of application of techniques, tools and materials.

An education teaches you about the tools available and how others have solved the same, or similar, problems to what you have in front of you.

When making your art you will run into your own problems.

To finish that work of art you will need to come up with a solution.

An education shows you the tools and how to possibly solve your problem.

Your artistic goals are your own.

Your tools are there to serve you.

Not the other way around.


Yes, it is absolutely possible to completely fixate the pigment on its support, but there is a lot of difference in quality between brands and purposes. So, yes, you probably have a low-quality or inappropriate one - assuming your support is not wet or too smooth, which can both impede the fixation.
A couple of coatings is usually the recommended application. Apply the fixative evenly, about 30 cm perpendicular to the paper.
I stumbled upon this blog post on jacksonart.org with an extensive comparison of several brands and types, offering information and insight in the process.


Making foil numbered digipak CD cases at home

If you do not require the thickness apparent in the provided image, you may be satisfied with laser foil, also called heat transfer foil. The laser aspect is somewhat misleading, as it uses a laser printer (or toner-based copier) to bond the foil to the paper.

The base concept in the above described process is that toner is printed in the normal manner on paper or card stock. The laser transfer foil is then attached to the surface to cover the printed area. The layers are then fed through the printer, printing nothing on the second pass. The fusing drum heats the pre-printed portion, causing the foil to merge with it. When cooled (seconds later), the foil is removed except for the melted segments.

Using the same foil, one can perform similar results with a laser engraver/cutter.

If you are not considering high production levels, an inexpensive monochrome laser printer and rolls of the foil may do as you require. The thickness of the cardboard has to be minimized to no more than the maximum capacity of the printer.

The debossing (opposite of embossing) portion would complicate matters, although manual stamping after the foil is applied may work. I don't believe that a laser printer will perform well in areas of paper that has become recessed due to debossing, which would prevent the laser foil from bonding.

As you can see in the above photo, the material can be applied to a wood surface. It's unlikely that the wood was run through a laser printer prior to the foil application!


The name and way of making
The English word shoelace is a bit old fashioned, from the time strips of leather were used, which are still called lace in the knotting world.

Most shoelaces are braided these days.
The American shoestring is more appropriate, as long as you take braided string.

Modern shoelaces are braided, in the round, around a core for the round ones and without a core for the flat ones.

Braiding by hand
Here (my own site, not commercial) you find instructions how to braid with 8 strands, in the round. This is not the only site online with those instructions. If you want different ones, (or if the site is down) you can google for instructions.

As a beginner braider you will likely not be able to braid that many strands out of the hand, even as an experienced braider I have to work up to it.
If you want to work up to it, here you find several easier braids with which to work up to it.

Machines do not use just 8 strands, 16 strands are more likely, often 16 groups of two or more strands.

Using tools
If you want to braid 'proper' shoe laces by hand, you may want to look into working on a disk.
The disks are available under the name of Kumihimo disks.
'Proper' Kumihimo is done on a wooden frame in the shape of a stool.
This wikipedia page has a good photo of a traditional set-up as well as a good basic description of what the different items are.

And even with kumihimo disks or frames you will have to work up to a braid as intricate as shoelaces.

Braiding on a kumihimo frame by a young boy.
Photos cropped to protect anonimity. Photos by Willeke, free to use for all.

Making it fat and round
Whatever way you shape the braid, for the fat round laces you will also have to learn to braid around a core. This is a string of the right diameter or, more often used in commercial braids, a bunch of thin string that are kept together at the top of the braid and often suspended above or below for you to braid around.
In the photos there would be a set of strands suspended above the frame and allowed to drop into the braid at the same speed as braiding.
With a braiding disk you would hold the strands and move them around as you are braiding.
And with hand-held braids you would tie the core with the outer layer to your fixed point and braid around them. In the first link I give the core is mentioned in the instructions and is part of the pictures.

Weaving
Braiding with this many strands is closely related to weaving, the resulting string is a weave, but in the round with the strands on the diagonal.
If you would twist a series of strands around a tube, spiralling one way, you would be able to weave the other spiral in, by going over one, under one, all the way.
It will be hard to get it tight and neath and you would likely have to tighten the weave later.
The core would go through or instead of the tube.

Having done the kind of work, I have to say that learning to braid is much easier.

Aglets, the hard bits at the ends
For 'real' shoelaces you also need to add aglets, I direct you to the site of Ian Fieggen to find out how to make them.

Would I do it
I would not make my own shoelaces, even though I have the knowledge and skills. Laces in the shops are relatively cheap, durable and available in many different variations and designs.
Making your own is going to be a lot of work, likely to result in lower quality and lower durability.
In fact, it is the other way around, I use commercially made shoelaces to train myself in braiding, they are very handy for that. Come in many nice colours and have aglets, the hard bits at the end that protect the ends and aid in feeding through strands to test the weaves.

How do I know
I am a member of the International Guild of Knot Tyers, whom do include braiding as part of our field of interest. My personal interest in braiding goes back at least 40 years, likely longer.
There is also an international organization for braiders, the Braid Society I am not a member but I do know several people who are.

PS, while I do not make my own shoe laces, I know people who make their own out of commercial string, see my answer on The Great Outdoors.


Can I turn this cast iron grill into a usable firepot with possible tuyere?

Will this be mounted inside a larger 'table' made with firebricks, refractory, or something else or do you intend it to be 'free standing' as is?  If free standing it should be suitable for light use (demonstrations and such) but I would keep to hand crank blowers as an air source.  I knew a smith who used a cast iron frying pan as a demonstration forge (he cut a hole in the bottom for the tuyere) and what you have looks similar in thickness.

It certainly could be used as the basis for a blacksmithing forge and IMHO would be no less efficient than a brake drum.


How to get velvety soft finish on hard toys?

Flocking
In short, flocking is the application of thousands of miniature fibers onto a surface. I'm fairly certain this is the general approach for what you are seeing on those dolls pictures.
Flocking is used to give something that velvety/soft appearance and feel. It's also very easy to do and gives your project a professional look. Flocking is used in a variety of different crafting genres, other than dolls, as well e.g. miniature terrain and bandsaw boxes.
Tools and materials
For this you only really need a few tools. Flocking fibres, some sort of applicator (optional but it really helps with uniform distribution) and a work space to contain free fibres. A very basic explanation is you paint or glue a surface and before it dries apply flocking fibres to the surface. Using paint of the same colour as your flocking can help give a uniform appearance and help hide the colour of the working surface and gaps in the adhered flocking fibres.
Typically flocking is applied as a single colour. For the sections that have multiple colours you would need to try and mask the areas you don't want to colour. An easier solution is to paint, where you already applied flock, in your desired colour.
Some people even make their own flocking to help keep costs down.


Browse your local bookstore and have a look at the most popular formats for hardcover books, mass market and trade paperbacks before you decide (if you are looking to publish and sell your book).
When it comes to copies for your own use, pick the format that is most comfortable to your eye / reading style (and your wallet, of course, some formats are more expensive to produce).
Most decent desktop publishing software have a selection of standard/ popular layouts for book and booklet printing you can use, even MS Publisher has some that are not too bad.


What can I use to make watercolour brushes?

THE BRUSHES
Animal hair
While it will be hard (or unethical) to come by kolinsky, wolf, red sable, or even badger or squirrel hair, some types of hair that are appropriate for watercolouring can be acquired more easily:

Boar bristles (taken from the ears of hogs) are commonly associated with acrylic and oil paint use, as they are very coarse and not particularly absorbent, but they are very sturdy and can be used to add texture or to lift colour.
Similarly, ox hair (taken from the ears of cows) is quite rough, and also has limited possibility when it comes to watercolouring.
The coarse hair of ponies is soft and strong (see this answer as well).
Japanese sumi brushes make use of goat hairs, which are soft, quite absorbent, and can be used to make pointed brushes, probably making this your best brush hair.

Some of these can probably be found online; as-is, or as part of a product that you can take apart. Alternatively, there might be someone in your neighborhood that breeds any of these animals.
Note, however, that all of these easier attainable animal hairs (except goat) cannot be shaped into pointed brushes as the hairs are of equal width along their shafts. For finer brushwork I'm afraid you have to resort to using blends or synthetic fibers (or find a place rich with any of the above-mentioned wild animals and really scare them).
Synthetic material
Most of the mentioned hairs can be replaced by synthetic variants, but I'm not sure it's easy to find those sold wholesale, as (I presume) they are usually produced by brush manufacturers themselves. And while making your own blend of synthetic hairs from household products and toys might be fun and educational, it is probably more time-consuming and wasteful than it is productive.
You can always buy brushes and take them apart to create custom brushes, and blend different types of hairs to get satisfying properties, but that might not be what you are aiming for.

THE FERRULES
For the ferrules, you can use (non-corrosive) metal plates, string or (non-corrosive) wire, plastic, or feather quills.
These should all be easy to come by. You can use the quills from duck or goose feathers, but those of most other relatively large birds should be fine too.
You can use epoxy to fix the hairs in place.

THE HANDLES
Finally, the handles are usually made of wood or bamboo, but acrylic is also quite common. They are sealed and coated, to protect them against the (artistic) elements.
The handle is traditionally fixed to the ferrule with glue, but here epoxy could also be a viable or even sturdier alternative.

For more information, see here or here


Is there a way to make a complex model easier to fold during the learning phase?

A couple of things that come to mind:

Don't try to run if you cannot walk yet. In other words: do some simple projects first. You obviously like the finished results of the more complex ones better. But by trying easier ones first, you gain experience on how to read the diagrams, and you're practising the techniques for precise folds. Plus: better a nicely finished 'easy' project and the feeling that you succeeded, than a complex ball of paper and you giving up completely, don't you think?
Larger paper makes things easier to see and to fold. I know dollar bills come in only one size, so you'll need to cut your own piece of paper. Make sure the proportions match.
If you insist on folding the complex item, try to figure out till which point you still understand the steps; you must absolutely be sure whether folds go up or down, or maybe between two parts of the paper. Your result may look similar, but if it's not completely the same, you'll find out sooner or later. So, check and double check and maybe ask someone else if they notice any differences.

Good luck, wishing you a lot of fish.


There is no standard quality ranking for artist oil paints, however, generally, they are sold as Professional, Artist or Student grade with different brands having their own names. Price also is usually an indicator.

I think it is more useful to think of paint in terms of purity rather than quality.

The top end manufacturers are pigment makers firstly, the rarer the material and the more complex the manufacturing process the more expensive the pigment and thus the paint. (See Lapis lazuli, rose madder, mummy brown for examples). The most expensive paint contains one expensive pigment with oil added. A cheaper paint in the same range will be exactly the same quality only with a pigment that is easier to produce.

Budget paints will have two or more cheap pigments (and possibly filler) mixed together to resemble a single pigment.

The oil is basically a medium to get the pigment from the tube to the canvas, cure, harden and then leave the pigments in as pure a condition as possible. Different oils are used, the most common is heat-treated linseed, I have also used walnut oil and safflower oil. The different oils have different effects on drying time, consistency, and finish, but this is a good thing as it provides flexibility and creativity which in my opinion is the essence of oil painting.

I have read that safflower oil separates in the tube and that linseed oil goes hard over time. I would say that that is just a common problem that relates to ageing or poor storage.

You can find a list of popular brands looking online, if you are a student you could start with something like Monte Mart, Maries, or if you had a bit more money to spend you could look at the Winsor and Newton Winton range.

If you are serious and want to keep going you will probably be able to answer your own question by that time and discover brands like: Blockx, Michael Harding, M.Graham, Sennelier... I use M.Graham and Art Spectrum.


What are the key disciplines of realistic drawing?

Definition of drawing

Drawing is the technique of putting marks on a surface to create an illusion of the thing or things to be represented. Drawing can be done with pencil and paper, digital drawing tablet or even a piece of silver wire on gessoed panel.

  It sounds pedantic, but one of the fundamentals of drawing is remembering that a
  drawing is a representation of a thing and not the thing itself.

Emphasize the details

A well-crafted drawing emphasizes the features of the thing being drawn, those features that define it. This emphasis is made by the juxtaposition of a range of values (shades) and sometimes colors (tints). It can, for example, be accomplished with shading, cross-hatching, stippling and/or variable-width line-work. Indeed, the tool(s) being used will give the drawing specific characteristics that can be aesthetically interpreted.

  An ink contour drawing of a banana can be executed in several
  well-placed lines, whereas a shaded pencil drawing of the same subject
  can literally be composed of thousands of marks of the same intensity layered upon one another to “build up form”.

Seeing is forgetting

When learning the skill of drawing, it helps to compare details, like the distance between the eyes of the model’s face as related to the width of the mouth, and how those distances relate to the diagonal distance from the outer corner of the right eye, the left nostril and the point where the upper and lower lips meet in the left hand corner of the mouth. Then a comparison is made between the real face and the drawing of the face, adjustments are made and recompared. Then, the next comparison is made between the lips and the ears, for example and the process continues.

  Even if you are drawing a tattered zombie with a tree stump as a club on a  battlefield surrounded by forest elf cavalry mounted upon giant mutant
  frogs, things like proportion, perspective and shading are still
  necessary skills to have mastered before the drawing could be considered realistic. However, if you have no idea how frogs
  should be saddled, you should get some visual resources (like frog
  pictures and saddles) and use drawing to figure out how it should look. Sketching is one way of finding answers.

Start generic and generate detail

In many classical life drawing courses there is a warm-up phase, where the model changes the pose every several minutes. There is simply not enough time to do a completely detailed drawing, so these warmups make the artist look at the whole subject to capture the feeling of the pose, the emotion of the body language. This is like sketching, trying to “figure” out the body. Then there are somewhat longer poses, perhaps 5-10 minutes. In which details can be focused upon. And then after a break, there might be one or two longer poses in which “finished” drawings (perhaps including backgrounds etc.) can be made.

  If you take this life drawing example as a model for creating
  realistic drawings you should: first create a general volume in
  perspective space for your subjects, then pay attention to details
  that bring out the specific character and then apply finishing touches
  like shading.

Light and dark

Shadows and highlights are what make a drawing seem realistic. Here, you would do well to study the works of the old masters like da Vinci and Michelangelo. Especially the folds of fabric and the glisten of metal are hard to master but rather important if you want to succeed to make drawings of things that appear realistically drawn.

  If you set up a still life for material studies, be sure to include a
  light source that you don’t move until each study is finished. Then
  move the light and make the same material study. The casting of
  shadows and reflections of edges within shadows are phenomena that you
  should pay attention to.

Colors change with different neighbors

If you only have one color, you are making a monochrome drawing, which can also be interesting and realistic. The thing about color is that it is really quite challenging to learn about palettes, warm colors versus cold colors, etc.

  This is one place where every teacher will have their own opinion,
  which is good and should remind you that the feeling of a
  drawing can really be defined by the colors you choose. A good place
  to begin is to choose a highlight color (i.e. the color temperature of
  the light source), a shadow color (i.e. the basic color of the material minus the highlight color) and a midrange color (the basic material value of what
  you are depicting) and experiment with shades of each. This is also one of
  the bridges from drawing to painting, but I’ll ignore that for the
  time being...)

A few tips

The darkest black is next to the brightest white. (Contrast pushes adjacent values further than their respective absolute values.)
Use black sparingly, if it all. It is better to have a deeply dark and vibrant color than mere black.
Treat materials  that you are depicting uniquely. (Don’t use the same shading technique on both metal and skin, for example.)
Don’t draw people or objects from photos, use real things and people. You will find that understanding the volumetrics make your drawings more than just mere copies.
Do draw architecture and landscapes from photos, because this will help your understanding of perspective.
Find a community. (This really helps you generate feedback, see your work in a new light and push yourself to keep working.)
Learn to recognize the point where the drawing is good and have the courage to stop.
Once you have good technique you may begin to break the rules.

*seeing is forgetting the name of the thing one sees is a great book about Robert Irwin that I totally recommend. It is not about drawing per sé, but a book I really enjoyed reading when I was in Art School and gives great insight into one of the most formidable artists of our time.


How can I stop my air drying clay from losing its shape as it dries?

You could use a support armature to hold up your sculpture while it dries.

I notice, in your photo, there is something that looks pink icing. That might be how that artist hid where the armature was inserted to hold up their sculpture. After the sculpture dried the armature was removed and the hole that was left behind was hidden by the icing.


Custom name too long for christmas stocking when using duplicate stitch

Several suggestions:

Knit a matching strip in a thinner yarn at a tighter gauge. Sew the strip onto the stocking after stitching letters onto it. That way you have more stitches per inch, so you can fit more letters in using duplicate stitch. Since the letters will be shorter, arrange them diagonally so they don't look lost in the middle of that tall strip.

Use a skinnier font. It looks like your pattern makes the letters four stitches wide. Most letters can be made three stitches wide, as in this skinny cross stitch font:

Look at other Christmas stocking patterns for ideas about how to fit a longer name on a stocking. This one has some 6- and 7-letter examples. It uses lowercase for all but the first letter. You can get away with making lowercase letters skinnier than uppercase, especially because "Geraldine" has an L and an I, each of which can be one stitch wide.

Here's an example where they squeezed "Savanna" onto a stocking:

Add a vertical white stripe next to the tree, joining the top and bottom horizontal white stripes. I would start the stripe at the center of the front of the leg. You might need to slightly offset the Christmas tree towards the back of the sock. Work the name down the vertical stripe, and fill in the now blank top white stripe with matching holly leaves from the bottom white stripe. (Sorry about the terrible Microsoft Paint job, but it should give the idea of how the layout would work.) I think the vertical stripe will look like an intentional design element, not something slapped on. Depending on how the stitch count works out, you might start the name in the top white stripe or just below that stripe, and extend it into the bottom white stripe or not.

Embroider the letters instead of doing duplicate stitch. Type "GERALDINE" into a word processor, and play with the font size until it fits in the required space. Try different fonts; some fonts are skinnier than others. In Microsoft Word, if you make a "word art" object, you can also control the spacing between letters. Print out the name, put tracing paper over the page, and trace the letters. Pin the tracing paper on the stocking, stitch through the paper, then rip off the paper.

Embroider or ink the name on a piece of fabric. Sew the fabric onto the stocking. For the fabric, use soft flannel, fleece or felt.

Make the white strip double-height. Split the name into two lines. You could reduce the amount of red under the tree to keep the stocking a similar length. (I don't actually love this idea, but I thought it was worth including for comparison.)
  GERAL
  DINE


Does anybody know the name of the perspective most people paint in?

You are assuming that most paintings use this certain perspective, which is not the case. A subset of paintings do and those are landscape paintings which all of your examples consist of. This style typically uses two point perspective with the horizon parallel to the top and bottom of the frame. This could be considered landscape perspective.

The common sense explanation is that this is how we normally see the world, and many artists are simply seeking to capture what they see, especially naive and/or traditional landscape painters as in the pictures above. Plus by selecting a specific genre of painting they by definition have the same perspective.

However there are plenty of examples of "landscape" paintings that do not limit themselves to that POV, including landscapes painted from the birds-eye POV as in the last image. I would say in this day and age, with abstract, pop-art, cubism, and all the other genres there are probably as many if not more paintings that do not use traditional landscape perspective than those that do.


Doing a google on "Mackinnon & Saunders" and "stop-motion" and "materials for puppets" yields that foam latex underneath and silicone molded skins (often made from a plasticine sculpture; and that the mold can take longer than the sculpt) are often used over the amatures on the models that they make for feature films. The main issue is going to be putting in movement capability for expressiveness on the face.

Mackinnon & Saunders made adjustable face mechanisms for the puppets on The Corpse Bride that eliminated the need for face replacement that had been used on Nightmare Before Christmas and Coraline, and that single wire you've got for the ear may not allow you to, say, curl over a tip, with any control. So you may still need to build interior support over the armature that can take repeated small movements.

This blog entry lists a bunch of other materials that are probably easier to acquire and use:

  Urethane foam is also known as cushion foam or upholstery foam. It's generally done by glueing foam on to an armature and shaping with scissors. A skin can be made covered with clothing sewn from fabric. Heads can be made from hard materials like polymer clay or wood, or cast from resin. Hands can be made by coating wire with liquid latex. This is a good simple way to make puppets—easier to animate than clay.

You may want to take a look around a stop-motion animation messageboard, like this one:

http://www.stopmotionanimation.com/forum


What are distinct facial features that can be considered while drawing an Indian and Caucasian teenage girl?

Here are images of the averages of faces of Caucasian and Indian women.
They are based on images of individuals of an older age than what you're looking for, but should still give a good idea of the major lineaments of women at younger ages:

On the left is an average of young Caucasian women made using this online tool.
In the middle are the two pre-averaged 'portraits' of both Indian and South-Indian women.*
On the far right is an average based on the middle two made in Photoshop.

Impressions:

The shape of the face of Caucasian women is more elongated.
All facial features of Indian women are larger in relation to the size of their faces.
The mouths of Indian women are more plump: their lower lips especially are more pronounced, and the corners of their mouths lie deeper (and/or their cheeks are rounder).

As a side note, I'd like to suggest that in conjunction with (or instead of) this rather theoretical approach, you might want to draw live portraits of individuals. This way, you'll learn to see the individual characteristics, and keep your observations (and artistic interpretation) from being pre-informed.

* source
- These photographs are part of research conducted by Drs. Lisa DeBruine and Ben Jones at the Face Research Lab at the University of Glasgow Institute of Neuroscience and Psychology.
- Rather than downsizing all images, I've enlarged the three images on the right to be of a size similar to the left most image. This might misleadingly emphasize a sharpness of the features of the Caucasian average.


Do oil pastels work better on paper with more teeth?

Oil pastels work well on paper with a fairly high tooth level. It helps it "grab" the color -- a "toothier" paper is better than a smoother paper.

I'll borrow this diagram I used in a similar answer. You want pretty rough paper (but not quite the roughest), but somewhat smoother than you might have used for regular pastels.

Image from Hello Artsy: How to choose quality drawing paper


What are the common abbreviations in crochet patterns and more importantly what do they mean?

There are about nine or ten main stitches that are the most commonly used and, of them, four or five are probably used the most.
Most common US stitch abbreviations:

ch - chain
bpsc (or bpdc, bptc) - back post single crochet (double crochet, triple crochet)
dc - double crochet
dtr - double treble crochet
hdc - half double crochet
fpsc (or fpdc, fptc) - front post single crochet (double crochet, triple crochet)
sc - single crochet
sl st or ss - slip stitch
tc - treble crochet
trtc - triple treble crochet

Most common UK stitch abbreviations:

ch - chain
dc - double crochet
dtr - double treble crochet
htr - half treble crochet
rtrb - raised treble back
rtrf - raised treble front
ss - slip stitch
tr - treble crochet

Other standard, non-stitch related abbreviations:
These may be used on their own or in conjunction with the abbreviations above.

bp - back post
dec - decrease
fp - front post
inc - increase
rep - repeat
rnd(s) - round(s)
RS - right side
st - stitch
tog - together
WS - wrong side
yo/yoh - yarn over/yarn over hook

Also, many patterns use an asterisk (*) to mark a repeated section of work.
There are other terms that some sites may define like pc (popcorn) or cl (cluster) but these should be defined in your pattern because what each pattern considers a popcorn stitch or cluster will vary greatly. They are non-standard, so look for a section in the instructsion that breaks up these terms into their smaller parts for you.


What is a good set of tools for a beginner in leather working?

The specific tools you need will depend on exactly what you want to do and the material you're working with; the list below covers both the tasks required to make a bag and the tools necessary to complete them, and assumes that you're using normal, veg-tanned, undyed leather.
Task: Cutting
You'll need some way of cutting the leather to shape. I like to use an ordinary scalpel, with a fresh blade, but a craft knife or Stanley knife will also do. You'll also need something to cut on and a steel ruler to keep your lines straight. For thin (<2mm) leather, chunky fabric scissors will also work but won't leave as neat an edge.
Shaping
Veg tanned leather can be moulded by soaking it in water (which I assume you have access to) and forming it to the desired shape. No additional tools needed.
Task: Sewing
To attach your bits of leather you'll either need to sew or rivet it together. If you're sewing you'll need a pricking iron, awl or stitch punch to make holes in the leather (you can't just sew straight through with a needle like you can with fabric) and a thick needle and strong thread.
You may also want a stitch groover to make a groove for the stitching to sit in. This keeps it from sticking out above the surface of the leather, which helps protect the stitching from wear and tear (think the stitching on the soles of shoes, for example).
Task: Riveting
If instead you want to rivet the leather, you'll need an appropriately sized hole punch and a hammer, or a pair of punch pliers to make the holes for the rivets to go through. You'll then need rivets to go in these holes and a rivet setter or pair of rivet setting pliers to fix them in place.
The above tools are all that are strictly necessary for a functional item; those below will help make it look better and last longer
Task: Finishing & Dyeing
There are lots of different ways of finishing leather, but most come down to some combination of dyes and oil based finish. For more information, see this previous question
Task: Edge Finishing
It's normal to bevel and slick the edges of a piece of leather using edge bevellers and edge slickers
Task: Embossing & Carving
To emboss (technically deboss, as the design is lowered not raised) you'll need stamps and a hammer. Carving can be done with any kind of knife, but there are specialist knives specifically designed for it too.
Task: Lining
If you want to line your bag with a layer of fabric, then you'll need fabric scissors and a needle & thread as a minimum.
I don't know where you live, so can't recommend any brands to you, but I personally buy from LeProvo here in the UK. Their site also contains pictures of all the tools listed above, which should help you to match their names to their forms.


It is easier to learn to use oil paint or acrylic paint?

Oil paint dries slowly and mixes well on canvas (A thin paint will stick to a thick paint). It also adds texture but shows brush strokes. You are going to want to work in a ventilated area.

Acrylic dries very quickly and dries flat, diminishing brush stroke visibility. Once dried it remains flexible and can be painted over quite easily. When wet it is soluble to water but becomes insoluble once dried.

I recommend acrylic as an introduction as it is easier to work with and is more forgiving. Another solution would be to start with water colors like gouache or aquarelle. These mediums are easier to clean and more portable, but can't be painted over like you can do with acrylic.


Spray paint, by design is in a pressurized container, to belabor the obvious. When used, the material is converted to an aerosol by the pressure, which then travels some distance at a good speed.

If you are attempting to spray it in a cup, a good portion of that force will result in back-spray, pushing the paint out of the cup. This is undesirable.

A couple methods can be used to mitigate this problem. One is to use a large container, not a cup, something bucket sized and hold the nozzle near the edge of the bucket. Spray in a direction to cause rotation of the pressure as well as angled slightly downward, to keep the spray in the bucket. A portion of the spray will be wasted by coating the side of the bucket, making this a less than optimum method.

Another option is to find a nozzle from a product using "spray straws" that direct the substance. Common sources are compressed air cans, also known as computer dusters, lubricants such as WD-40 and others. If the nozzle and straw come from such products, be sure to clean the material thoroughly to avoid paint contamination.

A suitable receptacle for this method might be a tall soft drink can or even a wide mouth tallish jar. Position the spray straw in a manner similar to the bucket method, pointing slightly downward and in a rotational manner. You will get some back spray, as the pressure has to go somewhere. You can reduce that problem by spraying under a rag or similar open-weave cloth or through a hole in the fabric.

Spray paint is also more volatile, and you will likely have shorter working time with the paint that collects before it dries or becomes too thick to use.


I'd be tempted to have it laminated (it would take a big roll laminator; schools, libraries, or print shops may have them and the cost would be nominal).  As long as the paper is exposed to air and humidity, it will continue to deteriorate.  It will eventually become brittle.  Laminating it will keep it together in its current condition and allow you to handle it and examine it up close without worrying about it starting to fall apart.  It may be possible to laminate the sections into one continuous piece, or the sections could be laminated separately and mounted next to each other.  After lamination, you can mount them for display, and will have a lot of flexibility in the type of adhesive.


I do agree with needing a layer of something on the inside of the lens cap.
But it needs to be rather firm, not squizy or easily distorted. Most foams would just not do the job.

Sometimes you can get hold of professional packaging foams that are smooth and rather sturdy on the surface and allow compression from the top (when the sheet lays flat on the table.) Those would do the job if you can get the edge to sit wider than the outside of the filter.

In my view easier is using sticky tape on the inside rim of the filter. You can add that one layer at a time and cut to the right dimensions, so not sticking out of the cap, when you have enough layers.
Many kinds of sticky tape will do, I would go for the paper kind that people use when painting the house, which is crepe like in structure.
It gives a better hold than most of the plastic tapes and it is kinder, as in not scratching the outside of the filter.

Whatever tape you use, add one layer at a time and test between adding.
Make sure you take away any glue that may be pushed out from under or between the layers of tape.

If you find you need several layers and having added them one at a time made the thing untidy, take all out and apply the number of layers you ended up using. Specially overlap or gaps where the layer meets going round it likely to mesh up tidy fit.
You might find it easier to stick a layer or a few layers of tape on the outer ring of the filter.

The easier option is to go to a camera shop and get a new lens cap from them, which has worked several times for me. For use of filters and for lost lenscaps.


How would I identify the type of paper being used in a folded origami?

You pretty much can't, unless it's specifically listed in the description of the piece.  The sheer variety of papers used worldwide, and the fact that some creators, like Michael LaFosse, make their own paper specifically for the model they're folding, means that your chances of accurately identifying the paper used is going to be very very tough, especially if you can't judge the thickness, sizing, or the fiber content by touch.

That said, the appearance of some papers is very characteristic, and if you have experience with kami, elephant hide, Canson watercolor paper, various craft papers, tissue foil, etc., some of those may be self-evident. Every origami folder tends to be intimately familiar with kami (so-called "origami paper") and can usually identify it on sight both from appearance and usage.

Characteristics of the paper that might lead to identification would be the surface texture being shiny or matte (surface sizing), fiber appearance/color, thickness/weight, and, of course, the size.