Proper breaker for my table saw
I am going to start by answering the easy questions first. 

The #14 installed by the motor manufacturer is alright. Since manufactures are not regulated by the NEC but by an entirely different set of rules and regulations. JET is a pretty common manufacturer and I feel fairly safe that they are doing the right thing.

NEC Article 430.7(A)(13) states the if a motor is thermally protected is will be labeled as such or have the designation TP on the nameplate. So according to your picture it is not protected. Also your schematic does not show overloads.

Now the circuit design. To start the nameplate shows and amperage of 14.5 but it also shows a KW of 2.2 which translates to 9.5 amps and it doesn't show an efficiency rating. So to be on the safe side I would use the rating found in NEC Table 430.248 which states to use 17 amps as a full load current. By code we add 25% for startup (NEC Article 430.24) so that makes it 21.25 amps. So we can size the conductors for a 30A circuit which would be a #10 conductors. 

The overcurrent protection which I assume is a molded case circuit breaker is calculated a little different. the "K" designation on the nameplate is a Locked-rotor Code Letter and it gives us a rating from NEC Table 430.7(B) which basically states that if your saw blade locks up it can surge to around 117 amps. Keep in mind there is a duration on this limit. It might be so quick, 1/120th of a second, you won't be able to detect it. This could happen when your blade hits a knot and surges to cut it. So we don't want that to trip the breaker. NEC Article 430.52 and Table 430.52 allow us to increase the size of the overcurrent protection to compensate for this surging. You have to match your delay trip with your surge in order to prevent nuisance tripping.

Most electricians on site are not going to go through the calcs I just gave you. What they are going to do is to install a 30A circuit and protect it with a 40A breaker and call it good unless you start having a problem. 

In conclusion, installing a #10 conductor and 30A breaker would be OK. If you started tripping the breaker while cutting certain lumber you are allowed to increase the breaker at least one size maybe two but I wouldn't go any further without consulting a professional in your area.

It's important to remember that these rules apply only to motor circuits not mixed circuits. For a DIY only install one piece of equipment on one circuit to stay safe. Also the overcurrent protection is designed to protect the motor circuit, not the piece of equipment itself. You might want to install some sort of disconnect or switch with thermal overloads by the saw itself.

Hope this answers some question you might have and stay safe.