Can I use foil bubble insulation inside the house on exterior walls?
Although it is technically possible, doing so will be a waste of time and money. The radiant barrier itself is only effective if it is facing open space; if one side is touching the wall and the other is covered in fabric, then there is no benefit. The bubble wrap itself has an insulation value of maybe R-1, so it will offer very little insulation for the cost and effort required.

Even if you leave the foil exposed on the interior side, the added benefit is pretty small. There are very, very few scenarios where a radiant barrier provides cost effective insulation compared to traditional alternatives.

In your case, assuming you're in the US, I would recommend contacting your local  Weatherization Assistance Program. If you have a very limited income and a house with no insulation, it's likely you'll qualify to receive significant insulation improvements free of charge.