Elastic queries available in SQL Server 2017
As the doc says its still in preview with limitations. So no, sql server 2017 on premise does not have that feature as of now.

Once it is in GA, it might be available in sql server (possibly with a Service pack or in newer version of sql server).

Other features like Query Store and adaptive join, etc were first avilable in Azure and then they got into onpremise SQL Serve, so I believe if a feature is featured in Azure, it will eventually get into onpremise sql server may be through a service pack or new version of the software.