SQL Server's Equivalent in MySQL's binary log
SQL Server's transaction log is for SQL Server's internal uses, and Microsoft doesn't really give us an API to use it for other purposes.

For SQL Server 2012, the closest built-in tool is the undocumented fn_dump_dblog function (linking to a Paul Randal post - former developer at Microsoft), but make sure you read about the gotchas in there about hidden worker threads that don't go away. I wouldn't rely on that for regular data change polling.

If you describe your business goal in more detail (what you want to do with the data changes), you'll get better answers about the right feature or third party tool to use instead. For example, if you're looking for compliance auditing, there's one set of tools, but if you're looking to debug an application, I'd recommend a different set of tools.