Is there any name for common sense / knowledge integrity constraints?
You're going beyond the scope of referential constraints with this (good) question. What you are looking for is more to do with Ontologies and Archetypes than RDBMS constraints. You could also check out this page which is on "Intelligent Databases" and gives as an example, medical records.

Check out the OpenEHR (Open Electronic Health Record here) whereby the system goes beyond data storage (essentially AIUI, your question). It's a fascinating area, touching on machine learning and artifical intelligence. It is far from a trivial problem - and in particular with medical records with all sorts of different regulatory frameworks and privacy concerns. Doctors, surgeons, dentists and pharmacists have different "views" of a patient - how to tease all these out is a major issue in the field. It will come as no surprise that the OpenEHR system is one of many competing in this fascinating and challenging area.

From the OpenEHR (what is page)


  What is openEHR?
  
  Abstract architecture image openEHR is a virtual community working on
  interoperability and computability in e-health. Its main focus is
  electronic patient records (EHRs) and systems.
  
  The openEHR Foundation has published a set of specifications defining
  a health information reference model, a language for building
  'clinical models', or archetypes, which are separate from the
  software, and a query language. The architecture is designed to make
  use of external health terminologies, such as SNOMED CT, LOINC and
  ICDx. Components and systems conforming to openEHR are 'open' in terms
  of data (they obey the published openEHR XML Schemas), models (they
  are driven by archetypes, written in the published ADL formalism) and
  APIs. They share the key openEHR innovation of adaptability, due to
  the archetypes being external to the software, and significant parts
  of the software being machine-derived from the archetypes.
  
  The essential outcome is systems and tools for computing with health
  information at a semantic level, thus enabling true analytic functions
  like decision support, and research querying.