Is there research on algorithmic design patterns?
There are many general techniques and meta-theorems. Unlike software engineering, in TCS we don't want to repeat things similar to what the others did, we want to create something new or solve an unsolved problem, so it's not as easy as using lazy propagation in software development. Here I provide some examples but it's surely way far from the complete list. 


Parametrised complexity: kernelization, iterative compression, bidimentionality, ...
Approximation algorithms: randomised rounding, scaling, ... 
In graph theory, based on structural hierarchies of graphs like bounded tree width graphs/excluded minor graphs/ bounded expansion graphs / nowhere dens graphs, there are different tools (like decompositions) and meta theorems (like Courcelle theorem).