Are there name and literature for this SAT-like problem?
The problem, as specified, takes at least exponential time to solve: merely outputting a string $x$ that satisfies $f(x)=1$ takes $\Theta(n)$ time (since $x$ is $n$ bits long), and this is exponential in the length of the input in the worst case (if $f$ has a short description, then the input length is $\Theta(\lg n)$ bits.  This is a consequence of the fact that $n$ is specified in binary.

If $n$ is specified in unary and the running time of $f$ is guaranteed to be polynomial in $n$, the problem is NP-hard, and the corresponding decision problem is NP-complete.  It is at least as hard as SAT, because any SAT formula can be encoded as a program $f$.  Also, it is no harder than SAT, as any program whose running time is polynomial in $n$ can be expressed as a circuit of size polynomial in $n$; then the problem becomes equivalent to CircuitSAT, which is also NP-complete by a standard reduction (basically, the Tseitin transform).

So the unique aspects of this problem come from (a) the fact that $n$ is expressed in binary, and (b) the lack of any guarantee on the running time of $f$.



For your last question, you have to be a little bit careful.  If you fix $f$ and specify $n$ in unary, the problem seems unlikely to require $\Omega(2^n)$ time.  In particular, there is an infinite advice string $A$ such that the answer to the input $n$ is $A_n$.  This shows that there is a non-uniform polynomial time algorithm for this problem, if you fix $f$ and express $n$ in unary (i.e., the problem is in P/poly); this would be surprising, as it implies NP is contained in NP/poly, which is not expected to occur.  To avoid trivial situations like this, you might want to treat the description of $f$ as part of the input, rather than fixing $f$.

This suggests we ask whether there exists a class of functions $f$ such that the problem requires $\Omega(2^n)$ time, yet where every function $f$ in the class can be computed in $O(n)$ time.  I suspect the answer to that is likely to be yes if the strong exponential time hypothesis is true; simply take as your class of functions the set of SAT formulas of size $O(n)$.  Note that this doesn't follow immediately from the strong exponential time hypothesis, due to the extra restriction that the formulas have size $O(n)$, but I would venture a guess that this restriction does not help algorithms solve SAT more efficiently.  That said, the strong exponential time hypothesis is a very strong assumption.

Also, if we could prove that the answer to this question is yes, then I suspect we'd obtain a proof that the strong exponential time hypothesis is true.  In particular, since $f$ can be computed in $O(n)$ time, there is a circuit that computes it in $O(n)$ time, so it can be expressed as a SAT formulas with $O(n)$ variables (using the Tseitin transform).  If we knew that there was no algorithm to solve the resulting class of SAT instances in $O(2^n)$ time, then we'd know there is no algorithm to solve all SAT instances in $O(2^n)$ time, which implies the strong exponential time hypothesis.  I think.