Can I use the power from a computer to run my board?
Officially, an USB device has 1 power unit (100mA) when nothing more was negotiated.  It's slightly more complicated if you add standby power requirements to the equation, since this power is time limited, but I have yet to see a host that enforces this.

After the 1 power unit (100mA) you can ask for more. This can be rejected.
However, many PC USB 2.0 ports are always capable of 500mA unless otherwise specified. An USB 3.0 can negotiate up to 900 mA, most likely this will be available without special enumeration.

Higher voltages with USB PD Type C are not possible, you must use an USB PD Controller for that.

One other consideration is the maximum inrush specification. I recall for USB 2.0 this being 4.7uF, which is quite low.



Enough XY-problem. You are talking about an industrial PC. This is most likely fed from a 24V uninterrupted supply bus which you can also use for this. That is much more suitable and standard way of doing things.