Can a capacitor be briefly charged above its voltage rating?
Draw out your circuit and do the analysis.

Assuming you mean 120VAC -> rectifier -> resistor -> supercap, and you've got magic hands to unplug the cap when it reaches a certain voltage, it's theoretically possible- the voltage rating of the cap only "cares" about the actual voltage across the cap, and in this case the line voltage is across both the cap and the resistor. However, it's a horrible idea. Please don't hurt yourself.