Using capacitors to make LED lighted dice
If you connect a capacitor to a resistor such as a small LED, and then in case it in epoxy, but then place it on a inductive charger such as a wireless phone charger, will the capacitor charge and then release light?

Nope.
In order to receive the AC magnetic field emitted by the wireless phone charger, you need a coil. These chargers are basically high frequency transformers, except they're in two pieces with primary coil on one side and secondary coil on the other side, whereas the usual transformer is in one piece with both coils wound on the same magnetic core. But the principle is the same. So, you need a coil.
Also it is likely the wireless charger will go into some sort of powersave mode when there is no phone on it, which means it has a means to detect a phone, so if you want it to turn on, you'll probably have to fake this. For example the Qi wireless charging protocol is pretty involved, charger and device communicate, this needs a microcontroller, etc.
If you want simple, use fluorescent marbles and a &quot;black light&quot; emitter.
If you want LEDs, you could DIY a wireless power transfer solution. If you only need a couple mA to light a LED and don't care about efficiency, it will probably be much simpler than getting a microcontroller to talk to an off the shelf charger.