What temperature does the Maillard reaction occur?

The Maillard reaction can occur at a wide range of temperatures, but the lower limit is not well-defined.  It can even occur at room temperature, providing some flavoring components (for example) to ripening cheeses and Seranno ham.  At high temperatures (over 300°F/150°C), it will noticeably occur on many foods in a matter of minutes, so you can actually watch things "brown."  At lower temperatures, it may take hours, days, or even years for the effects to be noticeable.  Water inhibits the faster reactions, but at lower temperatures it actually can help the reaction by allowing proteins and sugars more freedom to circulate.

In Harold McGee's On Food and Cooking (revised ed.), he states (p. 779):

  There are exceptions to the rule that browning reactions require temperatures above the boil.  Alkaline conditions, concentrated solutions of carbohydrates and amino acids, and prolonged cooking times can all generate Maillard colors and aromas in moist foods.  For example, alkaline egg whites, rich in protein, with a trace of glucose, but 90% water, will become tan-colored when simmered for 12 hours.  The base liquid for brewing beer, a water extract of barley malt that contains reactive sugars and amino acids from the germinated grains, deepens in color and flavor with several hours of boiling.  Watery meat or chicken stock will do the same as it's boiled down to make a concentrated demiglace.  Persimmon pudding turns nearly black thanks to its combination of reactive glucose, alkaline baking soda, and hours of cooking; balsamic vinegar turns nearly black over the course of years!

Note that while alkaline conditions help, they are clearly not necessary (e.g., balsamic vinegar).  Another standard example for non-alkaline conditions is traditional pumpernickel bread, which is steam baked for 12-24 hours usually at oven temperatures ranging around 225-250°F (110-120°C).  The interior of the bread does not get much above normal boiling temperature, but a significant color change can clearly be seen in such a humid, relatively low-temperature environment.

Interestingly, despite the information in many cooking sources, many of the earliest studies of Maillard reactions were in systems varying from room temperature to slightly above body temperature, from the browning reactions that create the color of soil to internal reactions in the human body that are now thought to contribute significantly to the aging process and some diseases.  Maillard reactions also play a role in the natural changes in moist food observed to happen at room temperature when stored over years, like when you discover a jar or can of food in the back of the pantry and find that the food has turned brownish.

At very high or very low temperatures, Maillard reactions are often secondary to other processes such as caramelization and enzymatic browning.

To summarize, here's a helpful poster that shows effects at various temperatures.  Briefly:

Above 400°F (200°C) - mostly caramelization, with the possibility of burning with prolonged heating
~330°-400°F (165-200°C) - increasing caramelization with higher temps, which uses up sugars and thus inhibits Maillard at the high end of this range
~300-330°F (150-165°C) - Maillard progresses at a fast pace, causing browning noticeably within minutes
~212-300°F (100-150°C) - Maillard gets slower as temperature goes lower, generally requiring many hours near the boiling point of water
~130-212°F (55-100°C) - Maillard requires water, high protein, sugar, and alkaline conditions to advance noticeably in a matter of hours; generally can take days
Below 130°F (55°C) - Enzymatic browning is often more significant in many foods than Maillard, but Maillard will still occur over periods from days or months to years, with progressively longer times at lower temperatures

(In some cases, certain reactions can be activated by a short time at a high temperature, which then can lead to faster browning below boiling or even near room temperature.)

One final, but very important, note: the Maillard reaction is a very general process that occurs between all sorts of amino acids and sugars.  It thus also can produce a lot of different flavor components and products, in addition to the browning.  Different reactions between particular amino acids and sugars will also occur at different rates depending on temperature.

This, I think, may be part of the reason for the confusion among various professional cooking sources about the "minimum" temperatures.  Many of the reactions that produce the classic "Maillard taste" and "Maillard smell" components don't really begin to happen appreciably until about 250°F (120°C), and they won't happen fast until 300°F (150°C) or so.  Maillard reactions at lower temperatures produce different taste and smell components, which often could be characterized as more "earthy."  While browning still happens at a slower pace, the results will actually taste different.  But because reaction products will always depend on the exact amino acids and sugars involved, as well as other conditions (moisture, pH), it's difficult to divide temperature ranges into clear flavor zones.


Why does honey stored with the comb last longer?

Bees add enzymes to honey that prevent crystallization. These enzymes are destroyed by many of the processing techniques, like heating, but such techniques also physically destroy the comb, so they're not used on the honey that is in the comb.

This type of honey is also called raw honey sometimes.

As a side note, crystallized honey is fine for consumption. If you want to get rid of the crystals you can easily do so by heating the jar a bit.


In short, the answer is no, it is NOT safe.

http://www.cnn.com/2009/HEALTH/08/11/food.safety/index.html

  It's tempting to lop off the fuzzy
  patch, but the mold could have spread
  already.

  "Once you're able to see mold on
  bread, it means there's quite a lot of
  mold," said Nelken, a food consultant
  in Woodland Hills, California. "It's
  indicative that there's mold on other
  slices, just not at the level you can
  see it. Why jeopardize your health on
  a slice of bread?"

  Nelken likened mold to jellyfish.
  "Even though you scrape off the head
  of the jellyfish, the tentacles are
  still in the food product."

  Eating moldy bread could cause an
  upset stomach. Although most molds are
  innocuous, it's probably not going to
  taste good, food experts said. The
  U.S. Department of Agriculture Food
  Safety and Inspection Service
  recommends discarding moldy bread and
  baked goods, because of their porous
  texture.


Does anyone know what this dark red colored discharge is from this grilled chicken?

@pb2q is right, it's blood. This happens during processing. When the meat isn't allowed to bleed (i.e.; drain blood) long enough, then some of the blood remains in the muscle structure and cooks along with the chicken. It might look odd, but it's not a concern as far as eating it is concerned. It won't "hurt you".
If it bothers you (as it might for some people), just remind yourself not to buy that brand of chicken again. If one bird from this company was rushed during processing, there's a reasonable chance that they always "rush the process". Easiest solution might be to just switch brands... but please, don't thrown out the Tandori Chicken. I bet it's... delish!


Yes, you can. Here are the ratios of fresh to dry:

Fresh : dried = 4 : 1
1 cup : 1/4cup
1/4 cup : 1 tbsp
1 tbsp : 3/4 tsp
1 tsp : 1/4 tsp

I would suggest you put the dry in some water for a few minutes to rehydrate (similar to the proper usage of dried minced garlic).


In fact, there is some precedent for this. 黒酢, romanized kurozu, is used in sushi at a a Tokyo restaurant called Kyo-zan, which claims to be the originator of the black vinegar sushi style.

It would likely be considered a novelty in Japan, but black vinegar was super-trendy about 6-8 years ago in Japan and all sorts of new uses, including sweetened, flavored versions meant to be diluted with water as a beverage, emerged.

There is even a product called sushi kurozu, which appears to be a diluted, sweetened form of black vinegar. Since rice vinegar is slightly diluted and sweetened for the purpose of making sushi, this seems like a reasonably un-shocking, although novel, possibility.

A recipe in Japanese suggests what appears to me to be a 3:1:1 ratio of black vinegar, mirin and sugar (estimated), plus some additional salt and dried kelp. Simmering all ingredients briefly then aging for a few days in the refrigerator would be best.

There is a history of certain vinegar substitutions in sushi, sometimes for visual effect. For example, ume-zu, which is not technically a fermented vinegar but is used as a somewhat salty, pinkish alternative to vinegar made from the remnants of pickled ume apricots, can be used partially for flavor and partially for its color. I've seen a number of apple vinegar sushi recipes online (in my experience, Japan-made apple vinegar tasted slightly milder than what we call apple cider vinegar in the US). I would not say it's a completely bizarre departure from tradition to experiment with different types of vinegar. For a Japanese palate, a novel vinegar choice would probably be less surprising than, say, the presence of cream cheese.


Why do some quinoa seeds sink and some float?

Air pockets.

It's why wormy beans/grains will also float - the surface tension of the water prevents it from entering into small crevices.

If you have cracks or holes in the grains that contain air, the whole ensemble will less dense than the surrounding water and will therefore float.


What ingredients do you add to your meat to help to reduce (bad) bacteria?

Meats that have been properly stored (refrigerated for short-term storage of up to several days, frozen or canned for long-term storage) and cooked to safe internal temperatures should be free of harmful levels of bacteria, bacterial toxins, and parasites. From the USDA FS&IS "Is It Done Yet?" brochure:

Cook all raw beef, pork, lamb and veal steaks, chops, and roasts to a minimum internal temperature of 145 °F as measured with a food thermometer before removing meat from the heat source. For safety and quality, allow meat to rest for at least three minutes before carving or consuming. For reasons of personal preference, consumers may choose to cook meat to higher temperatures.
Cook all raw ground beef, pork, lamb, and veal to an internal temperature of 160 °F as measured with a food thermometer.
Cook all poultry to a safe minimum internal temperature of 165 °F as measured with a food thermometer.

The USDA site has a wealth of information on food safety, including proper storage and special considerations for at-risk populations (e.g., diabetes, cancer, HIIV/AIDS, organ transplant recipients).

Other concerns are probably best addressed with a health-care professional.


No brown coloring: how to make macaron brown with only red and green coloring powders

I wouldn't try to mix food coloring for something as sensitive as macarons and a color as difficult as brown. Color theory sounds easy enough, but practice is a different beast. The intensity of the pigments varies, there are unexpected interactions, etc. And then you need some solid theoretical and practical background in working with color.

That is not to say that you cannot be successful just trying any likely-looking ratio, but the chance that you get the color you were aiming for instead of some drab mud color is not so good.

Unless you are willing to invest the time and effort needed for several macaron batches doing the R&D (and we can't do it for you, or report to you based on previous experience, because we don't have the exact powders you have), you are better off going some other route.

Order brown food coloring online. There are some great colors available, with very wide palettes and high quality ingredients. There is a reason why professional chefs buy from these palettes and don't mix their own.
Find a recipe for a colored macaron. It can be a chocolate or a coffee macaron. The recipe will already take the added ingredient into consideration, so no tweaking will be needed to achieve the correct texture.

If you absolutely need to go with your powders, the usual process of discovering the correct ratio is following:

Start with a certain amount of red, maybe 1 gram
Prepare 11 mini pots for color mixing
Use pure red in one pot, 1:1 red with green in the middle pot, pure green in the other end. Vary the scale in the between-pots logarithmically: in pot nr. 5, use 1 part red to 0.5 parts green, in nr. 4, use 1 part red to 0.25 green, etc.
Now you have different amounts in each pot, but at least 1 gram. Prepare a sufficient amount of macaron batter, divide it into 11 batches of known size, and add the same amount of mixed color to each. Leave sufficient batter for 2-3 uncolored batches.
First bake the uncolored batches, so the oven will have reached a steady state of preheatedness before you start with the colored batches.
Bake the colored batches, using exact temperature and timing.
Photograph the results (you have to keep very good track of your batches all the while - label all coloring pots, mixing bowls and baking sheets).
Now you have the hue you like, but not the intensity. Repeat the process, but instead of mixing red and green in a logarithmic scale, add differing amounts of color to each batch in a logarithmic scale.

If everything went well, you now have the color you wanted. If not, you have to repeat until you get consistent results.

A shorter form may work for you, where you start with a random ratio (why not the 1:5 you found somewhere?) and use a Newton method for finding a color good enough for you. Don't forget that the steps will still need to accommodate a nonlinear relationship between pigment amount and perceived color, so if you are looking for a color halfway between the effect of 1:4 and 1:64, it's not 1:34, it's 1:16. You will still need to bake several batches in succession, so it may be more work then doing a lot of batches at once. Anyway, I think you see now why I suggested buying the premade color.

By the way, what I outlined is an already abbreviated method, giving you only one "line" of hues achievable with your colorants. The full method would require you to make a whole color triangle. It is entirely possible that the color you want is not on the straight line between your red and your green, but requires also some yellow or some blue. Or that it is completely outside of the color space of your pigments, so not achievable with that brand.


Gooey is how they are meant to be on the inside, with a thin, crisp, and lightly browned shell, otherwise it's a meringue

Weeping is a common small problem, it shouldn't affect it too much, and can be corrected

Check out my post of how to make them What is the best way to making a great pavlova base?


Can I boil bratwurst in beer to cook them?

Assuming that they are uncooked, you can certainly simmer your brats in beer (don't let them boil, that will burst them). I'd try to get a hold of some Red Hook and use that. Simmer them gently until they are almost done, about 15 minutes. Simmering in beer will only intensify the beeriness of the brat. If you like beer, go for it. If you've got time, do one in advance and see how you like it. You can dilute the beer with water or broth if you find the test brat too strong.

Consider adding some whole spices, garlic and onion to the beer and simmering them for 10 minutes before adding the bratwurst. Here's a recipe for exactly that. (That recipe looks outstanding, BTW)

Cover the pan and let the almost cooked bratwurst cool in the beer (seasoned or not). The recipe I linked to says to cool completely, but just 20 minutes or so is plenty. By then any carry-over cooking is done, but the brats would still be warm.  Then just grill or brown on the stove just for browning, they will already be cooked through, so it's just the browning that you're looking for. Just let your eyes be your guide and don't go past medium heat (again, they will burst if your heat is too high).


Champagne is sparkling wine that is produced in the Champagne region of France. The grapes used in champagne are usually Pinot noir, Chardonnay and Pinot Meunier. I think that there are a few sparkling wines that are grown outside of Champagne, France, that are allowed to be labeled as champagne but for a purist, they aren't actually champagne. The politics are complicated, and you can get an overview of the idea at the champagne wikipedia page.

Spumante, on the other hand, is a sparkling white wine from the Piedmont region of Italy. (It is also called asti or asti spumante.) It's made from the Moscato Bianco grape. More information can be found on the spumante wikipedia page.

I find spumante wines to be very sweet, whereas you can purchase champagnes that are brut (dry), demi-sec (half-dry) and doux (sweet). Most champagnes are pretty dry. Champagnes are also typically sold at a premium, whereas you can find bottles of spumante for about $5.

I think it's a matter of taste for when you want to drink champagne vs. spumante. If the cost is an issue, then champagne should be saved for special occasions. Spumante is good for a meal or occasion that calls for a sweeter sparkling wine. If I want a dry sparkling wine and don't want to shell out for champagne, there is always Prosecco, Cava, or other generic sparkling wines.


What can I use, beside applesauce, to replace fat in baking?

You could replace the applesauce with the fat that it was originally replacing.


Cooking Scrambled Eggs ends up with excess liquid

You've already spotted two of the possible reasons for scrambled eggs to sit in a pool of water: condensation, and the other ingredients in the scramble seeping moisture.  The condensation you can deal with by leaving the eggs to sit (off heat) for 2-3 minutes before plating them.  You're already taking a stab at making the fillings not wet; aside from cooking them well (and making sure to cook off any moisture), some wet fillings (zucchini, tomatoes, etc.) can also benefit from salting and blotting with paper towels.

However, there's another place for moisture to come from, and that's the eggs themselves.  This problem is called "weeping", and affects cooked eggs in all forms (scrambled eggs, quiche, meringues, even boiled eggs).  Over time, as cooked eggs sit, their protein structure squeezes out the water in them.  Various problems can cause that to happen within minutes, as it is in your case.

Here's some tips for avoiding weepy scrambled eggs:

Add very little, or no, extra liquid to the eggs.  This means that if you tend to add milk or cream to your beaten eggs, it should be no more than 2 tsp.
Make sure to scramble the eggs uncovered, so their moisture can escape as steam.
Salt the beaten eggs 15-30 minutes before cooking them, instead of salting them while cooking.  This changes the protein structure of the egg white so that it's less likely to lose moisture.  If you forget, or don't have time, then wait and salt the eggs on the plate; salting them in the pan is almost a guarantee of weeping, in my experience (and Kenji's).
Avoid overcooking the eggs.  If you cook them "dry", they're more likely to weep. If you like your scrambled eggs dry, then cook them until almost firm, and let them continue setting up off-heat.  Try cooking over low-medium heat until you get the hang of things.
In addition to wet fillings, fillings that are very acidic (like fresh tomatoes or tomatillos) can affect the eggs and cause them to weep, so consider adding these as a topping instead of cooked into the eggs.

Some additional references:

Why do Scrambled Eggs get Watery
Serious Eats tips on Scrambled Eggs


Either you've insulated it or your fridge is really cold. I suggest using a thermometer to check your fridge temperature.

Parts of your fridge may be at slightly different temperatures than other parts; it may help to move it to a warmer part of the fridge (if that can be done safely, you don't want it dripping on your produce, for example).

You could use the cold water method to defrost your ground beef if you're going to cook it all once its defrosted. The USDA has thawing instructions. Generally, I'd avoid microwave-thawing ground beef, unless its going into chili or similar, because those cooked bits on the outside prevent forming it into patties, etc.


What does a healthy cast iron skillet look like?

Ideally it should be matte to just-slightly-shiny black and very smooth. This article has some terrific information on the ideal oil to use (flaxseed) and method for seasoning, with actual scientific grounding.


It will freeze indefinitely (say a year) if you take two steps;

1) Seal it up good, no air exposed surfaces. Ideally a freezer bag and then suck all the air out.

2) After it thaws re-whip it just before applying. If you can, thaw it by throwing into the fridge the day before so you have more control over the temperature as you approach the time when you will use it.

Also worth pointing out that the faster it goes to frozen the more stable it will be (less separation of fat/water content, crystals etc.) so put it in the coldest part of your fridge for at least a few hours, then transfer it to the coldest part of your freezer so it makes a fast transition.


Why is my salted butter weeping? And is it safe to eat?

My initial guess was that there may be too much salt for the butter when it is at room temperature. However, 6-10% salt content is considered ideal with respect to curbing bacterial growth, as well as the retention and preserving the integrity of flavor. I highly doubt that your butter is salted to such a high degree that it would actually
Lacking further information, here are a few explanations

Precipitant from within, due to high buttermilk content: One purpose of salting is to remove buttermilk. Perhaps you are using a high buttermilk butter, and as salt facilitates the removal of buttermilk, if the butter was not properly worked relative to salt content you may be seeing either buttermilk or casein precipitant on the surface. Also, the buttermilk may not have been well washed out.
Precipitant from within, due to improper salt/water mixology: Salt should be worked into butter around 58'F, "theoretically butter containing 15% of water should be able to dissolve 5.4% of salt" (source). It is possible that (1) the temperature was not sufficiently high (i.e. to address addition of sea salt as opposed to table salt) to turn the salt into solution, or (2) the carrying capacity of the water was exceeded and salt crystals remained, or (3) the churning cycles were not sufficiently long to incorporate the crystals. These three things would contribute to higher reactivity in the butter than if it were properly dissolved. See explanation of Mottled Butter below for more info.
Precipitant from without, due to non-ideal elements in sea salt: Another explanation is that your sea salt had a high concentration of Calcium Chloride, which can attract water from the atmosphere to the surface of your butter.

Did you perhaps buy Mottled Butter;

Mottled butter is butter which is Uneven in color This unevenness in color may be due to several different causes. It may be due to specks of curd (speckled butter) and it may be due to certain organisms (dappled butter). These causes of mottled butter are not very common in factories where the manufacture of butter is properly carried on. The most common fault of mottled butter is the improper incorporation of salt and the presence of an excessive amount of buttermilk. Mottled butter caused in this way is common...
Whenever there is undissolved granular salt present the moisture is attracted and the color deepened at that particular place source

My guess based on the maount of information you gave about the butter (has sea salt, sweats at room temperature) is not that anyone of these answers is distinctly responsible, but that it is a confluence of the various factors resulting in a mild mottling (perhaps imperceptible to the eye or the palate unless you eat the whole block in one go) that is both attracting moisture from the air, and pressing it out of itself.
I am guessing that if you find the liquid problematic (i.e. does it have a funny taste/smell?) you can put it in the fridge and it will stop sweating/weeping. Otherwise, you run the standard risks of fats and proteins stored with a mild curing at room temperature.


How can I clean the brush that I am using for burnt pots?

Automatic Dishwasher

I toss a number of my cleaning tools (sponges, brushes, etc) into the dishwasher anytime there's a bit of extra space. If done regularly  it keeps the grime buildup from happening too much.

If yours is REALLY greasy, you might want to try heating some soapy water in a pot and simmer it for a little while. (This will get the pot quite greasy too, so be ready to clean that as well). You can even boil it if the plastic is the right kind. Heat will help dissolve the grease.


The recipe is fine; if you follow it carefully it should work. Things you might mess up:

Baking powder isn't baking soda; make sure you have baking powder.
If you leave the dough alone for hours before baking, the baking powder will expend itself.
It's silly, but make sure you used a tablespoon of baking powder, not a teaspoon.

Working the dough longer won't help - if anything it'll make the biscuits tougher. And double cream is a bit more fat than heavy cream (see this question), but it shouldn't be a big deal.


The method that I learned from an Irish co-worker is to add instant potato flakes.  You're basically making really runny mashed potatoes.  As stew is often thickened by the starch from the outside of whatever potatoes are in there, it won't throw off the flavor.

I've found that I can hold back a potato from the stew that I shred directly into the pot after everything else is cooked to the degree that I want, but while it's still near a simmer.  It will break down in minutes and thicken the stew.  You might need to try it to find out how much potato you need for the viscosity that you like.

I suspect that the amount will change with the type of potato.  I typically use yellow (medium starch) potatoes.  I suspect that russet (starchy/floury) potatoes would work well, but that red (waxy) potatoes may require more and longer cooking to break down.


Prefer the larger, heavier grill.  It's about thermal capacity and grill marks.  You want the grill itself to be hot so that when the meat touches it, it immediately sears the meat on contact.  The bigger the thermal mass, the better this works.

Regardless of what you get, you're going to need to replace the grates every few years, so bear that cost factor in mind.


What does the "operating range" of a thermometer mean?

It's the range at which it will display an accurate reading.

Or in some cases, any reading.

Update : I guess the terminology is different for this thermometer, as it says "Guaranteed accuracy ±2°F to 248°F" suggesting that it can handle 248°F ... so I'm guessing that in this case, it's talking about the ambient air temperature.  (and it's possible that the 190°F limit is like the storage temperature on computers -- you can let it get to 180°F, provided you let it get back to the allowed operating range before use).


Why do you want to brine it? First, there really is no such thing as dry brining.  It is salting. When brining, however, only salt and water penetrates. The result is a moister end product, but, depending on how long you brine, it can also change the texture.  Some people enjoy brined proteins, others don't.  Brining can also be used as a crutch in potential over-cook situations (like turkey, which has parts that cook at different rates).  I would not brine lamb rack.  You are probably going to cook it rare, to medium rare anyway, so there is no chance of drying it out.


Two factors affect the storage of butternut and other winter squash, temperature and humidity. From  Bonnie Plants :

  You’ll see best storage results when you stash squash in a cool, dry spot. For most winter squash, store at 50º to 55º F with relative humidity of 60 to 70 percent.

Obviously, the temperature in our refrigerators is much lower than 50°F - 55°F. And humidity levels can be all over the place, higher or lower than recommended.

To further answer why temperature makes so much difference: winter squash and pumpkins are still alive even after being harvested and continue to 'breathe'. From  NC State :

  Respiration rate of fruit is most effectively controlled by lowering the temperature. For each 10°C (18°F) reduction in fruit temperature, the respiration rate is reduced by approximately one-half. Chilling injury can occur, however, to some fruits at temperatures below 50°F.

Also:

  Whether in a home, garden or commercial planting, special care should be exercised to protect harvested fruit from excessively high (>95°F) and cold (<50°F) temperatures, asphyxiation, and mechanical injuries such as scratches, cuts or bruises. Not only are mechanical injuries unsightly, they also provide an easy entrance for various rot-producing organisms.


temperature settings on my Electric Stove. I do not own a gas stove

Any setting on a stove is a relative estimate. The energy it puts out will have different effects on different sizes of pots and what is in it.

You should get your pot on the stove, bring it just to the boil on a higher setting, then reduce the heat a little at a time.

You will get to a setting where the broth is just barely bubbling. This is simmer, regardless of what the knob says.

And, as another comment said, monitor and add water for a 24 hour cook time.


Can I save an undercooked loaf of pumpernickel?

When a loaf is baked the interior steams. The water in the dough reaches boiling point and gelatinizes the starches in the flour. After baking the dough has largely dried out. While this might be less true for very moist breads such as pumpernickel, I doubt that baking again will have much effect on the remaining uncooked flour. So I'm afraid there is not much you can do at this point.

Toasting may make the bread more palatable, but it won't make the essential chemical change that you need.


What causes sticking and what can I do to reduce food sticking to my cast-iron skillet?

The first rule to keeping food from sticking to cast-iron is to keep it well primed - it sounds like you're doing that already. Beyond that, read these tips for cooking with stainless steel - they'll also apply to cast iron.

To summarize:

Food sticks when chemical bonds form between the food molecules and the metal.
Very hot oil helps to reduce sticking by instantly and continuously heating the food until it's surrounded by a layer of steam from its natural moisture content boiling. Let the oil get nice and hot before adding food.
Very hot oil also binds with the pan, so food can't. This is the principle behind priming the pan in the first place.

I have some theories regarding particular problem foods:

Most of the molecular bonding occurs from proteins. Egg whites are mostly protein.
Frying potatoes creates surfactants in the oil, which cause oil and water to mix. This reduces the effect of the protective layer of steam. (Some people save and re-use cooking oil -- though it can impart a delicious flavor to later meals, it will also build up surfactants if the same oil is used too many times.)
Also, keep in mind that acidic foods like tomatoes will break down the protective patina and may make foods stick more readily.


What you are observing is that the bulk of the price of tomato products is not the tomatoes.

The price of the can and shipping far outweigh the few cents of tomatoes the can contains.

With fresh tomatoes you are still mostly not paying for tomatoes. You are paying for the gas and people to ship and stock your tomato and all the other tomatoes that were shipped with yours and thrown away damaged or unsold.


Why does my bread collapse in my bread machine?

It may be because of the type of yeast being used.  Quick-cooking bread machines (1 hour cycle) typically requires "instant" yeast which rises much faster.  Standard-cooking bread machines (2-3 hour cycle) need regular yeast, which is active longer.  It sounds like you're using instant yeast in a standard recipe; thus the yeast stops working before the bread machine gets to the second rise cycle.  Under-cooking may be because the resultant dough is denser than the machine expects, thus doesn't heat through in time.

Unfortunately the trade names for "Regular Active Dry" yeast and "Instant Dry" yeast can be very confusing.


Replicating Good Seasons brand Italian salad dressing dry mix

Classically a Italian blend would be:

teaspoon dried thyme
teaspoon dried basil
tablespoon dried parsley
tablespoon garlic salt
tablespoon onion powder
tablespoon white sugar
tablespoons dried oregano
teaspoon ground black pepper
teaspoon celery salt
teaspoon salt

The just add water/oil/vinegar to make into dressing.


Why does room temperature coffee taste so bad, even to asnomics?

The initial statement is too broad. It is not true that room temperature / cold coffee tastes awful. It is highly dependent on how good the roasted coffee is. This is why coffee cuppers drink coffee at room temperature.

ANY defects in the coffee are amplified as it cools. This is why almost everyone likes hot coffee. Unless you have really good coffee, you can detect off flavors and bitterness as it cools. With really good coffee, the flavors actually improve /expand as it cools.

Source - I roast my own coffee every week on a Hottop roaster. I drink coffee black, and I can drink my coffee cold with no problem. Can't say that about Starbucks, Dunkin Donuts, etc.


Since the enamel on the outside is OK, it sounds like you didn't get it hot enough to damage the pan itself. So, its probably salvageable.

Check the manual for what they say you can clean it with. For example, if you can use steel wool, soak in soapy water overnight, then apply a lot of elbow grease, that will probably remove a lot of it. Even if you can't use steel wool on it, after a soak one of the non-scratch sponges will probably still help.

Google informs me there are specialty cleaners intended to remove carbon deposits from porcelain/vitreous enamel. You could give one a try if the long soak + elbow grease doesn't work. Make sure to thoroughly remove the cleaner after use, as of course you don't want to be eating it.

The pot may be permanently darkened. That shouldn't affect cooking performance.


Bottling cream-based salad dressing. Preservative advice?

Switch out the cream.
Mayo is stable, cream is not. Yogurt as a replacement may give you a slight extension (higher pH).

There's no issue using garlic powder.


Search terms for potatoes inside of a bun

I'm pretty sure what you are talking about is simply a stuffed or filled bun.  They come stuffed with a wide variety of sweet and savory fillings.  Often they will be named by what they are filled with followed by the word "pan", denoting bread.

Examples can be seen here and here


Sponge Cake vs (UK) Angel Cake: what's the difference

Simply the diference between is that the angel food cake has a lot of egg white, along with flour,sugar,salt, and vainilla, and optional also lemon peel and other ingredient. and its characterized because of the white color, non fat, and non chemical leaveners, which makes it a very "light" cake. By the other hand the sponge cake contains chemical leaveners that might not ve needed to use chemical leaveners, because you can use beaten eggs whites along with beaten yolks instead or use both as well, i recomend you use both for a really nice spongy results. And contains fat such like butter, margarine, or oil. And there the whole eggs are mixed together with sugar, or separated eggs to form a meringue and then beat the yolks with the other half of sugar and combine these with the dry ingredients with the folding method to avoid loss of air as posible to get as result a very spongy cake. or just beat the whole eggs with sugar, then the fat, liquid ingredients and then dry ingredients, for a more dense and less delicate to do and less fluffy cake. imo it doesnt take so palatable or tasty to me the light cake rather than the greasy,and flavory spongy cake.


the sugar content of raw corn on the vs cooked corn on the cob

This is a difficult question, as there are many different varieties of corn on the cob -- the stuff sold in the United States is typically significantly sweeter than that grown in Europe.

Once cut, corn starts a process that will convert its sugars to starch.  To make store-bought corn taste like fresh cut corn, they've specifically bred corn varieties that are extra sweet.  'Sweet' corn used to have a sugar concentration of around 10%.  Today's 'Supersweet' varietals are closer to 30%, and the sugar lasts longer after it's been harvested.

Cooking stops the breakdown of the sugars, so if you cook freshly cut corn, it'll have more sugar than a similar ear that's let sit for a few days (in transit, in a grocery store, etc.)

If you're buying raw corn on the cob in the grocery store, it will likely have less sugar in it than that same variety sold as cooked corn, simply because they'd have cooked it within a day of the harvest, if not the same day.

However, variety can play just as much of a role, as 'sweet corn' cooked an hour after harvest might still have less sugar than raw 'supersweet corn' a day after harvest.


What would be a good sub for pineapple, any other fruit or veggie for a strawberry pineapple mint salsa

Kiwi.

Don't knock it until you try it. It will have a similar acidity and texture to pineapple. Use ripe kiwi and maybe a touch extra lime juice!


Why does inside of cooked canned chicken always taste cold?

The product you're using is made of "mechanically separated meat", aka "white slime". It's produced by pumping or centrifuging ground chicken bones through a sieve to separate remaining bits of flesh. While chemically similar to regular meat, mechanically separated meat has lost its meat-like texture during the separation process. It tastes mushy because it is mush. Frying it will dehydrate and brown the surface, giving it a more palatable texture, but no amount of cooking will approximate the texture of regular chicken; it had that texture once, and then industrial food processing was done to it.
The pink color has nothing to do with rawness, or with chicken-ness for that matter. That product is designed as a lower-quality, less-expensive alternative to tinned formed pork products like Spam. In order to "sell" it as a Spam substitute, colorings are added to make it look approximately like ham (or, at least, less like mechanically separated chicken).
Incidentally, it is also possible (though perhaps harder) to buy tinned chicken which is just tinned chicken, not mechanically separated meat slurry. The texture of that is basically the same as that of boiled chicken.


Is Manganese Violet suitable as a food coloring?

As absolutely no-one uses it as a food additive, that should give you some considerable concern.
Aside from that, it's not water-soluable.
The Environmental Working Group (EWG) has a factsheet

Classified as expected to be toxic or harmful

Cameo* (a pigment/paint/colour authority) says this:

Hazards and Safety
Toxic. Inhalation or ingestion of manganese can cause a nervous system disorder.

For lists of approved food additives - see Wikipedia; E number
*Cameo - The Conservation and Art Materials Encyclopedia Online (CAMEO) is an electronic database that compiles, defines, and disseminates technical information on the distinct collection of terms, materials, and techniques used in the fields of art conservation and historic preservation.


If the stock has safely been held (under refrigeration for less than 3 days, less than 2 hours cumulative in the "danger zone" [40F - 140F, 4.5C - 60C]), then it would be considered safe before freezing or refreezing. It is always safe to freeze food that was safe to begin with.

Freezing, and especially refreezing, can sometime negatively affect quality, but I wouldn't expect a noticeable effect on broth. Freeze away, as soon as possible after making it or getting it home.

Some people freeze broth in ice trays, then store the cubes in the freezer. That way, you only pull out of the freezer what you need that day. Food that was safe when frozen and stays frozen (at 0F, -17C, normal home freezer temperature or lower), will stay safe indefinitely.


Chinese rice vermicelli tastes of chemicals

I've made rice vermicelli many times, and I've never smelled anything like what you describe.  I suggest throwing out the ones you have, and buying a different brand (or maybe shopping at a different store).


Kitchen aid artisan: won't turn on lower speeds

all non-pro Kitchenaid mixers have plastic gears, if used properly it should not be an issue.
According to this, the plastic gear is a "safeguard" :
"This gear is designed to shear or break apart should the machine bind up and protects the motor from burning up or otherwise become damaged. They are available for all models through Amazon or other vendors and easily replaced by anyone with a little mechanical aptitude."
You said that you made a larger batch, maybe it pushed the motor too hard and something had to break.
You should try to get it fixed.


One other factor that might've been different, along with size variation in your eggs, is their freshness. Fresh eggs will have a higher water content than older eggs. The other times it set fine, did you use freshly laid eggs?


If they stay too long, they soak up water, get soggy or mushy and finally disintegrate, leaving you with a rather weird kind of lumpy potato soup.


Capturing wild yeast for sourdough: Is this healthy yeast or contamination?

That appears to be mold and you should get rid of it. I've seen similar methods online, but fruit, water, and sugar appears to be a method of making a starter for home-brewed alcohol rather than sourdough bread.
To make a sourdough starter using fruit, you should use flour and water and remove the fruit. The yeast are only present on the surface of the fruit, and so you only need to "rinse" the yeast off of the fruit. I've seen people shake their chosen fruit with the flour and then remove before adding water. Alternatively, I've seen the fruit soaked or stirred in the water before being removed, at which point flour is added.
Honestly though, you don't need to use fruit. Flour and water will with time and attention create a starter on their own.
Here's an article that shows the progress of an all-purpose flour based starter, a whole-wheat based starter, and a wild grape starter also based on all-purpose flour. They actually found that the whole-grain flour had an easier time attracting wild yeast than the grape starter.
https://www.kingarthurflour.com/blog/2016/09/24/wild-grape-sourdough-starter


Why do sungold kiwis never sting the tongue, while green kiwis can?

The "sungold" kiwifruits are certainly a specific cultivar of kiwi. I don't know enough to tell you if all the green kiwis you are buying are from the same cultivar or not.

Also, notice that cultivars of the same plant are rarely "pure" enough to always have the exact same chemical characteristics, and sometimes even a pure cultivar will express different levels of a given chemical in different growing conditions. For an example of the first, I have observed peppers from the same seed stock, sown in the same bed, to have different heat, sometimes it can even happen that two different fruits of the same plant have different heat. For the second, a watermelon's sugar content will be very dependent on the amount of sun received during growth.

Kiwifruit contains an enzyme which attacks protein, and that's what produces the stinging - your mouth's proteins are being injured. The levels in kiwi are much lower than in fruits like pineapple though, so frequently the effect is not present at noticeable levels. I don't know of a very special reason why they are never noticeable in the sungold variety, it's possible that it was bred for this purpose (along with the higher sugar content) or just that it is an evolutionary spandrel.


Sorbet are typically acidic(from the fruit juices) and contain sugar. Both of these act as preservatives in addition to the extremely cold temperatures that sorbets are kept at. So it is perfectly okay to melt your sorbet ice block. However when you melt the sorbet block, you will want to do it slowly. Fruit/herb flavors are very volatile so if the mixture is over heated, the flavoring will break down and the taste will deteriorate.

When refreezing your mixture, you might want to consider adding a little more sugar into the mixture to prevent it from freezing so hard in the future. Sorbet sugar by concentration is usually around 20-30%. If your sorbet is sweet enough, then you may also add a little tasteless alcohol like vodka to prevent the sorbet from freezing too hard.


Can I use baking powder in place of baking soda for dipping pretzels?

No, you cannot use baking powder to dip pretzels. To get their characteristic color and crust, pretzels are traditionally boiled in lye. Another alkaline solution, i.e. those containing a base, can be used as well. Let's look at how baking soda and powder are used as leavers:

Baking soda is a base (namely sodium bicarbonate) that releases carbon dioxide gas when mixed with an acid. That's why, in a recipe like buttermilk pancakes, acidic buttermilk can mix with baking soda to produce bubbles of gas that leaven the pancake.
Baking powder is a mixture of baking soda with a dry acidic substance. When mixed with water, it makes carbon dioxide gas all by itself.

Baking powder mixed with water will not be alkaline, since it contains both an acid and a base. Thus it won't work for boiling pretzels. Unfortunately, there aren't very many bases in your kitchen cabinets. While it is easy to substitute acids, the only bases you are likely to bake with are lye and baking soda.

If you skip the dipping step entirely, you will get plain rolls instead of pretzels. Boiling in plain water, or water with honey or barley malt syrup, will give you a more bagel-like crust. But to get a true pretzel, you really must boil in an alkaline solution.


blanching slightly frozen fresh garden carrots

freezing and thawing will break cells and make the carrots (in that case) a little bit mushy.
Other than that, blanch away; I don't see any problems with that.


What's the best way to cook BBQ ribs in the oven and grill?

The goal with ribs is "low and slow" cooking to break down connective tissue.  But a quick sear will help to lock in juices and provide a good smoky flavor.  I find it's preferable to do this first so that the smokiness can work its way into the meat over the slow cook to come.

After seasoning, I would start with a sear on your grill over direct heat (8-10 minutes per side).  Then, either move to a very low indirect heat on the grill and cover, which will provide a more smoky flavor, or transfer to your oven at a very low temperature (most home ovens go down to about 250F which is what I'd use).  Baste both sides every half hour or so if you're using sauce.  It should take about 2-3 hours at this low temperature to get good results, although you can let it go a lot longer if you want.  I would have no problem at all cooking ribs for 6, 8, or 10 hours assuming you've got the time.

If you're cooking on the grill the whole time, the smoke will help create a delicious glaze.  If in the oven and the glaze isn't as thick as you'd like by the time you're ready to serve, you can crank on the broiler and place the ribs underneath for just a couple minutes to dry out the glaze a bit.

You do not need to wrap them in foil during cooking if you have quality ribs and cook them slow.  The only time I'd wrap them in foil would be at the very end once you have finished cooking, in order to keep them warm until you're ready to serve.


When sautéing vegetables, should I wait for the oil to heat up first?

In addition to the fact that some oils get quite a bit hotter than other, (so that hot with one oil isn't the same as hot with another), there is an in-between here that some cooks rank as a default option whenever inexperience prevails, namely warm oil. Regardless of which oil one is using, this can be achieved by applying an initial lower temperature to the sauté pan and then cranking up the heat once the vegetable(s) are in the pan and can be visually assessed for how they're performing.

Hot oil with vegetables high in water content risks splattering or worse (fire) when suddenly introduced. It is also easy to burn more delicate ingredients such as garlic (burn, in this case, meaning no more than browning). Meanwhile, ingredients porous in nature (such as mushrooms) added to cool oil are certain to absorb (and retain) more of it than you would perhaps hope for. Stated here, (The Reluctant Gourmet),

  There really is no ideal temperature. It really depends on what you are sautéing and what you plan to do with the ingredients when you are done.

Since it's not therefore difficult to see that a rule of thumb toward how hot cannot be established, (though no saucier recommends cool, nor the wiki on Sautéing), decisions must be based on knowledge which is specific to the ingredient(s). If uncertain, go with in-between.


Do I need to clean an oven that's not been used in 10 years?

It should be fine to use.  It is probably dusty, perhaps greasy from other kitchen sources.  If it's self cleaning, go for it (and avoid using any harsh cleaners) It might get smoky at first, so you should have ventilation possible (window, fan, or whatever)
If not self cleaning, give it a good wiping-out with an ammonia based cleaner or use commercial oven cleaner(nasty stuff). If its possible that you have mice, you should probably make sure that they aren't nesting in the cabinet- get a technician if you aren't comfortable removing panels, etc. And buy an oven thermometer to check the oven thermostat. Self-cleaning or not, it will probably be smoky at first. Good luck.


Can flour be used interchangeably with starch?

No, flour and starch are very different things.

Starch is a molecule consisting of a chain of glucose rings. It is one of the main ways plants store energy. In practice, it is extracted from many different grains and tubers such as potato, wheat, tapioca and corn.

Flour is a food ingredient made from milling a grain very finely, and frequently also removing the outer hull of the grain. If nothing else is specified, saying just "flour" denotes non-whole-grain wheat flour.

It so happens that starch is a molecule present in large amount in many flours. Wheat flour is about 90% starch, and rice flour is close to 100%. But it is still incorrect to assume interchangeability, for the same reason that "pan" and "iron" are not interchangeable words even when you are holding a pan made from 100% iron.

In the cases where starch is less than 100%, it is even worse to use the terms interchangeably, because the parts which are present in a smaller amount often determine the properties of the flour, making it act much differently than pure starch in the kitchen. For example, white wheat flour contains around 10% gluten, which allows you to make risen bread with it.

Update

As for interchangeable usage: There are a few corner cases, as Jolenealaska's comment point out. For example, there are applications where you only need the properties of pure starch, but you can substitute a flour which is not 100% starch, and the remaining ingredients won't get into the way. Thickening is one such application, another one is preventing dough from sticking. But in general, you cannot assume that starch can be substituted for flour or the other way round. You'd have to know how it works in your recipe so you can judge if the substitution is possible.

As for the word use, some starches don't need to be extracted by a special process, because the plant part in question already consists of starch and nothing else. They are produced by milling this plant part, and they are both a flour and a starch at the same time. The prevalent use of the word "starch" or "flour" is then a matter of cultural accident, and, as David Richerby notes, it can happen that different languages or dialects pick a different term, but this happens rarely. The terms are usually distinct and not ambiguous, especially for plants where you use both, such as wheat flour and wheat starch.

Appendix: nitty gritty details on the special case of corn

The corn flour case is a very complicated one. There you have many words whose meaning can overlap:

corn starch is only the milled inner part of the kernel. It is a flour which is also a starch. It can be modified, and then it shouldn't be technically considered a flour any more.
cornflour is the UK term for the milled inner part of the corn kernel, as David Richerby points out. However, in many countries the word (or its literal translation) is used for whole grain corn flour, which is yellow, and chemically has other ingredients than pure starch.
the milled whole corn kernel is sometimes also called polenta.
polenta also can be a word for corn semolina, which is also a milled kernel, but the particle size is larger than a flour.
yet another meaning of polenta is a pap cooked from a milled whole kernel of either size (semolina or flour).
the pap cooked from pure corn starch is never a polenta, it is a pudding or blanchmange. These words are also used when the pap is cooked from pure starch extracted from another plant.


How do I stop the pressure cooker from clogging up when cooking lentils?

You may need to add more oil, say a generous tablespoon. Also, I don't think you should need to soak those lentils first, the pressure cooker should be more than able to take them apart without any advance soak. Also be sure to use plenty of water. At least 8 cups for 1 pound of beans.


How can I tell if my acorn squash is ripe before cutting it open?

First, as a gardener who's grown these, I can tell you that acorn squash — like all winter squash —  need to be left on the vine to ripen. After picking, they will get a little sweeter as they sit for a couple weeks, but if picked too early, they won't actually continue to ripen.

That said, there's no great trick to picking a good one. If you see some some orange color in the skin, it's almost certainly ripe, though they can still be mature when all green, too.

Ideally, you should be able to trust that the farmer harvested these properly, but if you're getting unripened winter squash, someone probably screwed up out in the field. If you think the store gives a damn, it's probably worth mentioning that you're getting some bad ones.


Distinguishing the size of tablecloths when folded?

I would fold them into a different shape that reflects the size of the cloth.  For example, if you were to do a flag fold, the smallest triangle should be the smallest table cloth.


Cooking Time vs Burner Size on an electric smooth top stove

A small pan on an oversized burner wastes a lot of heat.  Some more may be coupled into the pan but much will go into the room (so not wasted completely).  It might damage the handle, especially with something low like a frying pan, as this heat is mainly radiated (the glass is meant to absorb very little).  The inner burner may be so much weaker than the outer that even a fraction of the power of the outer is a significant increase compared to just the inner.  I seem to recall using one with a 600W inner and 1200W outer - if even 1/4 of the power of the outer went into the pot it would be 50% more heat. The specs for yours don't go into quite enough detail but it looks like the inner might be 1200W and the outer 1800W, so not as marked as my example but it still makes a difference. As the heat is radiant, some heat will enter the sides of the pan, contributing to faster, if not very efficient, heating.

But when you say "cook quicker", how are you measuring cookedness? Is this a rate of reduction in volume (which would scale with power absorbed to a good approximation)?  Or is it a subjective done-ness (which has more to do with time-at-temperature, so quite strongly affected by how quickly it reaches temperature). Coming to the boil quicker means you could use both until it boils then simmer using the inner ring only (assuming it's not finished when it first comes to the boil). This is likely to be more marked if you're starting from cold, as the additional power of the outer will cover some of the losses involved in warming up the surrounding parts of the stove.


Are there any guidelines for converting cooking recipes from Regular Ovens to Convection?

The forced movement (convection) of the hot air by fans is what improves the cooking in a convection oven.  The beautiful part is that it allows you to cook on ANY or EVERY single rack in your oven.  Here are the adjustments you'll need to make:

For baked goods you typically drop the temperature by 25°F (10°C).  If the recipe says to bake at 350°F then you'd bake at 325°F in a convection oven.  This is most important in baked goods so that the interior has a chance to cook through before the exterior is overcooked or burnt.

You also need to decrease the baking time by 10-15 PERCENT.  To make it easier to determine when to check, I usually suggest checking the item about 5-10 minutes earlier than the shorter time indicated in the recipe.  If a recipe says bake 25-30 minutes, then check it at about 20 minutes.  It may need a bit more time but you'll be pretty close.

When roasting meats and vegetables you can use the above method OR you can leave it at the regular temperature and then cook for 25-30 PERCENT less time.

In the instance of method #1 for meat you'll get less shrinkage and less chance of possibly drying it out.

In the instance of method #2 for meat, it will cook quicker and get better browning and therefore a bit more flavor.

A third option to take advantage of both methods is to cook it at the reduced temperature for most of the time but then turn it up 25-50°F for the last 20-30 minutes of cooking to improve the browning.


Do salt or vinegar in the boiling water help peeling eggs?

A chemist here.

I do add baking soda (Sodium bicarbonate). I am satisfied with it as I never got the white stuck to the shell since I do this. However I can't say that the same eggs would have done otherwise without baking soda.

A possibile reason is that the adhesion of the inner coagulated white to the calcium carbonate shell is modulated by pH. In other words rising the pH of the cooking water by a salt with alkaline hydrolysis - such as baking soda - mimicks the conditions of not extra fresh eggs.*

Note that adding table salt (Sodium chloride) cannot work this way as for the pH is let unchanged. I never tried as for I cannot think of an obvious mechansm for why It should work.**

Concerning adding vinegar (a solution of acetic acid in water): the common explaination is that the shell is softened by dissolution. This would also prevent the inner to shell adhesion as well make the shell itself prone to peel off.

I haven't tried this, neither.

*Eggs which are not very fresh undergo changes resulting in a higher pH and are easy to peel.

**The behaviour of proteins is affected by several parameters such as pH, temperature, ionic content. I cannot exclude that adding table salt is indeed effective.

Starting the cooking in already warm tough not necessarily boiling watet is reported effective too. Rationale is that a fast albume coagulation results in the white to inner shrink without setting on the the film near the shell. Worth a try...


What can I do to prevent big holes in the bottom of bread loaves?

When I had a similar result many years ago, I finally figured out that the problem was a combination of how I shaped the loaves and letting them over rise in the pan.  It also looks to me that these loaves were twisted when formed.  If so, perhaps try a different method of shaping them such as a braid, for a similar look.  Moreover, check your recipe for how much the dough should rise in the pan before going into the oven.  Some call for rising to the level of the bread pan, some call for an inch (rarely more) above the edge of the pan.  Finally, make sure your oven is fully preheated, especially if using a baking stone.


I've never seen ground rabbit, but I've eaten rabbit many times in Spain grilled in the BBQ or in a Paella. Rabbit can compare to chicken. The meat is a bit tougher than chicken but not gamey at all. At least the farm rabbits I ate.

So I would say that yes, you should be able to use this ground meat as a substitute of chicken in a sauce and I don't even think that you will ever notice the difference.

If you are going to make hamburgers (and I would do just to be able to say that I ate a rabbit hamburger), maybe you could mix the meat with chopped onion, breadcrumbs and egg to make it moister.


Official cocktail recipes vs typical glass sizes

Despite what many bars, convenience stores, and fast food restaurants would have you believe, drink glasses are not intended to be "filled to the brim" (or even close). This is particularly true of cocktails and other spirits. The 'head space' allows the drinker to swirl (or, if they have had a few, 'slosh') the drink around to remix the cocktail ingredients as they seek the bottom of the glass. Any water that has melted into the drink will be diluted into the mix, and the drink may be more directly exposed to any remaining ice in order to chill the liquid just as it is consumed. Thus, the 'standard glass' has been designed to exceed the standard drink. Of course, always wanting 'as much as we can get' people tend to expect their neat scotch to be filled to the brim...just like the self-serve uber-drink from the local gas station.

In the absence of an official rule book for pouring drinks into glasses I can offer some references you might look to, including the fact that a Google Image search of "Full Cocktail Glass" almost universally shows images of drinks with significant air on top. Commentaries from self-appointed experts at the bar as well as amateurs chiming in with their thoughts tend to corroborate this view. For my part, if more than two members of the family say the word "reunion", Jack Daniels stock jumps five points...so I can at least pretend expertise...

Even a beer glass (a pilsner) is designed to make room for a head on the 'proper' serving.


How to translate a baking recipe for box mixes for cast iron skillets?

I follow the directions on the package, with one modification: when preheating the oven, I preheat the skillet in there as well.

I add the batter or dough to the warm skillet then bake. I use the baking time on the box as a reference, but monitor by eye toward the end. It usually is done within -5 to +3 minute range as listed on the box.

I've done this with Jiffy corn bread, cake mixes, brownie mixes, etc. Usually very good result. Sometimes the bottom crust is thicker, but the kids liked that. I've never had anything come out as a complete disaster.

Oh.. I also spray the pan with non-stick just before pouring the batter.


Making miso in a jar too big for the amount of paste. Is it a problem?

I have been into miso for a short time, so I am far from being an expert and I won't attempt a complete answer. However, let me raise two points which I think are relevant:

It is common to remove and dispose the thin dark layer that was in contact with the air when harvesting the miso. The reason is that LAB bacteria present in the air often proliferate on that layer, yielding a rancid and acid layer of miso which you are not looking for. A larger pot will likely have a bigger surface cross section which will yield a bigger layer in contact with the air. In other words: putting little miso in a large pot will yield you less finished product. In my opinion it is a pity to think you will be throwing away a good proportion of something you waited months to make!
According to the Noma Guide to Fermentation, you should put a weight of about 50% the total mass of the miso during the fermentation process. I believe that what is really relevant here is not the mass on the top of the 'miso cake' but rather the pressure exerted on cake. If that is correct, using a big pot for a small cake will probably require you to put more than 50% of the cake weight in order to get the same pressure 50% mass would exert in a smaller pot (and in the extreme case to distribute it well accross the surface).

Maybe you have already crossed these videos, but if you have not I recommend watching this, this and its follow up to see the recipients and weights they use.


Is there a difference between brown and white champignons?

Check this site: What’s the difference between cremini and white mushrooms?

Brown(Baby Bella or Cremini) mushrooms have earthier flavor than the whites, you could use them based on your dishes' style or presentation.

And the storing should be the same. Put them in some brown bag with normal temperature and do not freeze them. Slightly wipe the dust or dirt just before cooking, no need to wash by water.


What is the best way to infuse mint into a tomato sauce?

Mint likes oil. And it likes water. And it likes alcohol. Like most complex flavors, mint is complicated.

The greener, vegetal notes are going to be from compounds like chlorophyll, and will be alcohol and very weakly water soluble. The astringent, sharper notes are going to from compounds like menthol, which are oil soluble.

In general, the faster flavors, the ones that hit fast and fade faster, are water soluble, while the ones that linger are oil soluble. Mint flavor is sold both as an extract, in a base of water or alcohol, and as an essential oil, in a base of... oil.

As for cooking, I would skip the tomatoes entirely, and do a mint and parsley pesto with walnuts and olive oil. Why? I like mint.


Why does rye flour dough require more water?

You are correct that higher-protein flours are capable of absorbing more water.  However, protein is not the only thing that affects water absorption.  In addition, according to Bakerpedia, there are:

starches & pentosans
enzymes
flour grind

Rye flour, while low in protein, is very high in water-absorbing pentosans.  Hence the need and ability to add more water.


Can you substitute white wine with rose?

If the rose is dry this should work. The combination of flavours you've listed should go well with a dry wine


What will happen if I substitute beef liver for pork liver in sausage?

Well, at least here in germany it really is common to make liverwurst with beef liver (or more often and expensive: calf liver). So go ahead - you really won't regret it! Taken the percentage of actual liver in liverwurst you won't taste any difference, though I'd say beef liver tastes better.


How to safely reuse glass bottles to store oils

Yes, it is safe.

Just wash the bottle with dish soap and hot water.

Unless you do not use the oil in the new bottle frequently, degradation from light should not be an issue; you could store that bottle in a cupboard when not in use (or get a dark glass booze bottle)

Personally, I would try to use a small bottle than a 750ml bottle.


Are there any dishes that can only be cooked with a microwave?

Yes!

In 1969, the physicist Nicholas Kurti gave a talk in which he demonstrated a variant of Baked Alaska called "Frozen Florida": a shell of frozen meringue around a center of hot liquor. This was done by chilling the meringue and the liquor together, then cooking in a microwave oven which had a rotating platter and no stirring fan. Because the microwave beam was always heating the center but only intermittently heating any given part of the meringue, and because the meringue was low-density and frozen, the liquor could be heated while the meringue remained frozen.

(The idea was broadly similar to, and presumably inspired by, radiation therapy for cancer, in which a tightly focused beam of radiation revolves around a particular spot which may be deep inside the subject's body: only that single spot is always being energized by the beam, so it receives much more energy than the rest of the body does.)


What to look for when buying muffin tins?

In general, the darker the color of the metal of the muffin tin the more it will brown its contents.  You also want to look for a thick, durable metal as this will aid in even cooking.  Finally, look for a tin with large, wide handles; the last thing you want to be doing is sticking your thumbs into a muffin when trying to insert/remove the tin from the oven!  Most muffin tins these days are non-stick, so it may be hard to find one that is not.  With that said, non-stick technology has advanced a bit since the Teflon-only days.  For example, many modern non-stick pans/tins instead use other metals and ceramics that are not known to be harmful.  Furthermore, some modern muffin tins are marketed as "metal-safe", meaning that one can use a metal utensil on them (e.g., to extract the muffins from the tin) without damaging the non-stick coating.  Finally, muffin tins will likely never be heated to the temperatures at which the "dangerous" non-stick coatings release harmful gasses.


Need to remove germ from garlic or onion?

So... I was always taught that you remove it because it's bitter. I generally remove it if it's big enough.

However, there seems to be some contention as to whether this is true (and to what degree it's true). See:
http://www.examiner.com/article/remove-the-garlic-germ-few-do-this-anymore
and
http://ruhlman.com/2011/02/garlic-germ/

In short, there are mixed teachings as to whether you should remove it. But essentially the germ DOES affect the taste of garlic. Some call it bitter, some call it "more garlicky". Ruhlman suggests that if you're hitting it with heat immediately, then there isn't a point in removing it. If he's doing something that will have the garlic sitting around, then he doesn't.

From this what I'd suggest (and what I'm going to try doing from now on) is to ignore it and if you notice a difference in taste, or more importantly find the result objectionable. then take it out next time. Otherwise don't bother as you won't know the difference.


Pan Am imports  Company.   Imports 80% of the rice into Puerto Rico. Majority comes from California. I have had California rice in the Philippines.  Also called American rice here. Sold here also. A lighter fluffy rice with mid starch. Does this sound like it? Long grain rice. Used here for special traditional Spanish dish's.  Also imports some rice from China to Puerto Rico. It is a different rice than your Midwest rices I have had that also. On the guessing side. California rice. Most from there is exported. Not sold in much of America.


You don't need to worry about trying to bake hollow bread.

The typical way of doing this is to bake a stout, crusty French bread into a boule. You can use commercial yeast, but I recommend sourdough if you can.

Once baked, and cooled, you just cut a circular hole in the top of the boule and remove a big chunk. The larger the hole, the larger the portion of soup. If you were to actually hollow this out, you'd end up with a rather huge portion of soup. The finished product should end up looking exactly like those shown in this blog post.


Spices are generally comprised of bark, buds, fruit, seeds or stems of plants.  They are almost always dried.  Garlic is not a spice, rather, it is a vegetable, like onions or shallots.  You can, of course, get dried garlic, onions, or shallot.  But the drying process does not make it a spice.  While spices have a fairly long shelf life, they should be used when fresh.  Purchasing whole spices and grinding them yourself increases the shelf life, as ground spices, with more surface area, lose freshness more quickly.


Can a masticating juicer make good hummus?

In the meantime, I do have a masticating fruit juicer, and I am quite happy with the results it produces, including hummus. The skins of the chickpeas are somewhat a problem, but either peeling them or cooking with a pinch of soda in the pressure cooker is sufficient to get a very creamy hummus.
I still use the food processor for small portions, because the masticating juicer is a PITA to build up and then clean, but making large batches of thick hummus and freezing them turned out to be a good strategy. I also have to note that I make the hummus much thicker than standard, a bit claylike, and either eat it as-is (because I sometimes enjoy the texture that way) or mix it with more oil or liquid after it has thawed, saving space in the freezer. And the juicer works much better for this thick hummus than the food processor, which has trouble moving the substance around at that viscosity. For that, and for the general quality of hummus overall, I am very glad I got the juicer.


How can I keep delicate food from sticking to the grill?

Other people have answered similarly but definitely make sure your cooking surface is VERY HOT before the food hits the surface. Cold food+cold metal=sticking!

In addition to this, you should also make sure you don't start trying to flip too early. Let the food cook and get a good sear on one side before you try to flip. If you do this with a hot surface, you shouldn't have any problems with sticking.

One more thing, it's important that the grill surface is clean, so cleaning your grill religiously after you finish using it each time, and then oiling it lightly before you use it, can be a huge help in this area.


It sounds like the breadmaker is not cooking properly.  If the bread dough feels correct but is the baked loaf is fragile and sticky inside, it is under-cooked.  This could be a result of problems with a thermostat, heating element, or possibly the timer.

To solve this problem, try taking the bread maker out of equation by baking in an oven.  Use an inverted, oiled sheet pan, and hand-shape the dough (The Fresh Loaf has instructions), or use an appropriately-sized loaf pan.  Check the bread 5 minutes before it should be cooked (to make sure it doesn't over-bake due to using oven instead of bread-maker), and keep checking it every 5 or so minutes until done.

If this solves the problem, use the breadmaker for mixing and not baking... or replace/repair it.


I have an unopened package of mozzeralla cheese that is a month past it's "Best By" date, is it safe to eat?

Mozzarella costs what, $4 tops? Weigh up that cost versus food poisoning and you have your answer. As always, if in doubt, throw it out.


There are better references in Wikipedia, to be sure.

Apparently, the Romans ate the Sarpa Salpa, a type of bream, for it's hallucinatory effects. These hallucinations are caused by a toxin called ichthyoallyeinotoxism, present in the plankton and algae the fish eats.

It's best to avoid these toxins as the hallucinations are said not to be pleasant.


How to convert knife edge angle "ratios" into degrees?

I found this on  chefknivestogo  and I think it explains it quite well.

RAY <> A "50/50" usually references an edge. So on the cutting edge, it is an even 50/50 "V". It can be 50/50 at 12 degrees or 50/50 @20, but each sides angle is equivocal.
A double bevel is a knife design created by grinding. So from the spine to the cutting edge, there is a blade face that has been ground (most of the time). It can be a flat grind, a convex grind, a hollow grind, and any of these grinds can be symmetric (50/50) or asymmetric. So for instance, my Ginsanko Hiromoto Western Deba has an asymmetrical semi convex grind. It has a flat ground left blade face at around 30% of the total included angle and the right side blade face has a distinctly convex grind that is the other 70% of the total included angle, but the actual cutting edge has an asymmetry, as well. The actual cutting edge does not look like a "V" as it is, in fact, a 60/40 right-handed bias. It's a particularly unique blade, but exemplifies your point, quite well. :mrgreen:

In short, the numbers like 50/50 or 70/30 represent the percentage of the included angle on each side of the blade. So, for a 50/50 knife with an included angle of 50°, it would be ground to a 25° edge angle on each side of the blade. See diagram below:


How much time do I need to achieve a smokey flavor in bbq?

Smoking time depends very much on what you are smoking and the size if it.

It is possible to smoke meat too much, it is important not to strangle the original flavor of what you are smoking.

Mussels for example, should only have a couple of minutes, since they have a very delicate flavor. Fillet of trout should have some 20 minutes, sausages a couple of hours depending on the stuffing and a whole ham even longer, maybe a day or two.

Smoke is not necessarily most effective at the beginning of the cooking process. Some meats may benefit from being cooked first, followed by smoking for flavor.

When I make spare ribs for a lot of people it can be cumbersome to do it on the barbecue. Instead I divide the process up.

Boil the meat
Smoke the meat (to give it the taste of barbecue)
Marinate the meat
Finish under the broiler


Whipping cream that has been frozen won't whip

Sorry, no.

Whipping cream that has been frozen is perfectly fine to use in many dishes, but it won't whip.

As far as I know, this is irreversible, so no, you can't make the cream "whipable". If you are very lucky, you will get it to a sort of semi-stiff stage, but nothing that would be suitable for cake decorating or similar.

Not part of your question, but possibly interesting for next time:
Whipped cream can be frozen, so if you have leftovers, you could pipe little tufts or similar, freze them and use them to decorate desserts.


Best practices for seasoning cast iron, currently getting mild food poisoning

Seasoning pans is a method for preventing rust, and it has nothihng to do with food safety. It is done once in a pan's lifetime, and only repaired if it flakes off.

There is no prescription in food safety to cook in sterilized vessels. The germs you eat come from the food, not from the pans. Even if a colony were to form in the pan at some point (what would it eat in a clean pan?) it would be killed in the same cooking process that kills the colonies that live in the raw food.

Nobody but your doctor can tell if your tummyache is indeed caused by food poisoning or something else. So, if you have symptoms, go get yourself checked.

If you really have recurring food poisoning (and not some unrelated illness), you must be hurting standard food safety practices in rather blatant ways. Normally, breaking does rules only rarely results in actual symptomatic illness. You can read our short primer on food safety, including the questions linked from it, to see if you are breakding any of the rules explained there: https://cooking.stackexchange.com/tags/food-safety/info. The pans are not related at all.


I find that a silicone spatula is frequently better at getting the pan clean than a stiff spatula like a wooden one. If your rice is slightly burnt into the bottom, you might have to use both - scratch it off with the wooden spatula, then collect with the silicone one.


Can I halve a macaron recipe and expect the same cooking temperature and time?

You might see a tiny reduction in cooking time due to the smaller thermal load, but this is more a theoretical than a practical point. The difference will be smaller than normal variation between ovens. Check for doneness as you would usually, and you will be fine.


I see no problem with your plans. You will - obviously - get a somewhat different taste, depending on which type of sunflower oil you use.

For the refined, basically tasteless oil, the pesto might be a bit blander and the taste of your other ingredients more pronounced.
If you are using a cold-pressed unfiltered oil, you'll get the nutty undertones of the sunflower seeds, which will work well with a classic basil / pine nut / parmesan type of pesto.

Note that many commercially sold pesto jars use only a small amout of genuine olive oil and often also skimp on the pine nuts, cheaper neutral oils and sunflower seeds are a frequent stand-in. So you should be absolutely fine.


After how long is boiled milk tea consumable?

Probably not. Perishable food and drinks are considered unsafe after being in the danger zone (40°F - 140°F, 5°C - 60°C) for more than 4 hours (EDIT: when I was a cook in Massachusetts, four hours was the cut off. Apparently the USDA recommends two hours). And note: that's a cumulative four hours over the course of the foodstuff's lifetime, not four hours in a row. If the milk sits on the counter for an hour, then it's boiled and put into tea which then sits out for three hours, it's considered unsafe.

  Leaving food out too long at room temperature can cause bacteria (such
  as Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella Enteritidis, Escherichia coli
  *O157:H7*, and Campylobacter) to grow to dangerous levels that can cause
  illness. Bacteria grow most rapidly in the range of temperatures
  between 40 °F and 140 °F, doubling in number in as little as 20
  minutes. This range of temperatures is often called the "Danger Zone."

  Keep Food Out of the "Danger Zone"

  Never leave food out of
  refrigeration over 2 hours. If the temperature is above 90 °F, food
  should not be left out more than 1 hour.  Keep hot food hot — at or
  above 140 °F. Place cooked food in chafing dishes, preheated steam
  tables, warming trays, and/or slow cookers. Keep cold food cold — at
  or below 40 °F. Place food in containers on ice.

Also crucial to remember when food safety is concerned: FAT TOM. FAT TOM is a mnemonic device which stands for:

Food
Acidity
Time
Temperature
Oxygen
Moisture

All of those things are a factor in the growth of bacteria. With room-temperature milky tea that's been sitting out all day, we've got the full gamut:

Nutrients from the milk (food)
If it's milky tea, it you probably didn't put lemon in it, because let's face it, that'd be gross unless you have a thing for curdled milk.
Time - you said it's been there since this morning
Temperature - at room temperature
Oxygen - I doubt this is space tea or that it was stored in a vacuum.
Moisture - it's a cup of infused water and milk. Doesn't get much more moist than that.

Remember: When in doubt, throw it out.


You can't directly make whole milk out of lowfat milk and milkfat. But if you like, you can try adding back some fat to the recipe -- melted butter or vegetable oil -- at the concentration of, I suppose, 2.5%. (If the recipe already includes one of these, just increase the amount.) The result will not be quite the same, but will be very close.

In a yeasted bread, though, the difference between 1% and whole milk probably won't be significant. I'd just use the 1% milk, and see what happens.


What are the equivalent amounts of these sweeteners?

I had always wanted an "artificial" sweetener that worked for me, but I have always been extremely sensitive to them. Not that they give me headaches or anything like that, I just find them vile. The aftertaste especially was just nasty to me.

Then one day I was offered a water with a couple of drops of flavoring. It was like drinking lemonade. Sugar sweetened lemonade! Well, it obviously wasn't sugar sweetened, because that would have taken more than a couple of drops. I'm a naturally curious food nerd, so I read the label of the drops. The drops were the brand name Dasani, and the sweeteners were sucralose and acesulfame potassium (Ace K). I had never heard of Ace K, and I already knew I didn't like sucralose (alone). This was not boding well, but I was intrigued. So, I used every bit of Google-fu that I had (and a lot that I didn't) to learn this:

Pure sucralose is about 600 times as sweet as sugar (by weight). Ace K is about 200 times as sweet as sugar (also by weight). Combine them, and they become "sweeter than the sum of their parts". This is not within the scope of your question, but I will tell you this too (also borne out by my lengthy research): Ace K works beautifully to wipeout the aftertaste that other artificial sweeteners tend to have, particularly sucralose and aspartame (nutrasweet). So, by combining Ace K and another sweetener (I recommend sucralose), you get two benefits. Number one, it takes less of each to sweeten whatever it is you're trying to sweeten, and number two, you knockout the aftertaste of the sweeteners.

So, to get started, you need a gram scale (they're not just for chemists and drug dealers):

This one is mine, $10

You also need pure sucralose, 50 grams lasted me over two years, $19, 100 grams is only $3 more

and

Ace K, the smallest amount on Amazon might last a lifetime, 1 pound, $13

Use the gram scale and mix the sweeteners 50/50 by weight. Pull your shirt over your mouth and nose or wear a mask to mix them, otherwise you will taste sweet for days. A scant 1/8 teaspoon of the combo will sweeten an entire double-strength, 12 cup pot of coffee (which I mix with milk to create iced coffee). You can also bake with it. It's amazing stuff. To me (artificial sweetener phobic), it's indistinguishable from sugar.

EDIT: Yoplait has recently started advertising that their light yogurt is aspartame free. What are they using instead? Ace K and sucralose.


If it's safe to eat the shrimp, it should be safe to eat the head. The US food authorities (FDA) have, in a way, approved of the shrimp you have bought, so it's safe to eat.


Estimating sugar & cream for a coffee service

My company runs several coffee events per month. Here are some of my formulations that are a result of doing coffee tastings and events around Seattle:

3-oz of coffee by weight, brewed with 62oz water will yield and aiprot or a standard 12-cup pot of coffee (60-oz brewed coffee or 7 servings if you are using 8-oz hot cups). For coffee gigs I bring 1-pound of regular and 3-oz of decaf coffee per 25 guests. So for 50 guests you will need 2-pounds of regular and decaf is never more than 20% (even after dinner). So for 50 guests you will only need a half pound of decaf. And will probably not use more that one pot of decaf coffee.

Cream: 1-pint half & half per 25 guests. We just put the carton of half & half in a small bowl of ice. We use Organic Valley half & half with the little plastic cap/spout. It works well and is one less thing to clean up after the gig.

Sugar: 5 packets per 25 guests.

If you are worried about getting hit hard with coffee drinkers just double all of the above.


How long is cooked hamburger able to sit in a crockpot?

food is safe so long as the Crockpot is on, and functioning correctly. The food will maintain a simmer as long as its on, which is too hot for bacteria.


There is apparently evidence that some of the flavour compounds in honey deteriorate during heating:
http://www.ibrabee.org.uk/component/k2/item/1837-effect-of-heat-on-honey

The text suggests that honey should not be heated to more than 50 degrees Celsius (122 degrees Fahrenheit). So it might be wise to let the tea cool down a bit before adding the honey. Having said that, I usually put the honey in immediately after removing the tea leaves and it tastes fine to me. The flavour of the honey is clear and pronounced and I have never felt that anything was missing.


How do you prevent salmon from falling apart when frying?

The best technique I've found for frying fish is not to flip it at all. I start the fish on the stove, skin down, then I finish cooking it in the oven. You need an oven safe frying pan of course, cast iron or a high-temperature non-stick works well. You get a nice crispy skin this way.

If you are set on flipping then you need to be gentle, think of it as turning over, not flipping. Get your spatula completely under the fish and lift it off the pan a bit, then putting your fingers on top of the piece roll it over, last let it gently drop onto the pan - keeping your fingers off the surface of course.


How can I get the smokey flavour in Hor Fun?

Another option is Smoked Paprika. As Jolene wisely cautions, those liquid smoke products are very strong. And even though it might be "natural" smoke flavor, it can lend a "synthetic" taste to delicate foods.

Smoked Paprika has a much more subtle smokiness. Of course, it will also add color and additional flavor of its own. It sounds to me like this would work well with the recipe you linked, but you might try adding it first to just a small amount of your dish and see if you like the taste.

In any case, Smoked Paprika is an inexpensive addition to your spice rack that can be used to enhance many foods with a bit of smokey flavor.


Do sifting and whisking do the exact same thing?

Sifting and whisking are not the same thing. Sifting breaks up lumps in dry powder ingredients, mixed powdered ingredients, and makes the flour less dense. Some people would say sifting makes flour "airier". I measured the volume of flour before and after sifting and I found a significant increase in volume for the same weight of flour post-sifting. Sift flour when making light sponges, or if your flour has gotten densely packed over time.

Whisking is just a way of quickly mixing dry ingredients together, it doesn't break up lumps like sifting or mix things as effectively as sifting, but for many recipes it doesn't matter.


What alternatives are there to tomato based pizza sauces?

Suggestions I have would be a basil pesto sauce, bbq, or a sweet chili sauce.  I have not tried this, but rather than ranch, I wonder if you could do something with caesar?


Is it possible to freeze wine for future use?

I tried freezing leftover wine many years ago, and it does work. You can just freeze it in the original bottle.

The flavors are somewhat muted compared to the same wine unfrozen. Not recommended for drinking the wine, but it is acceptable for cooking purposes.


Pea protein in a yeast dough. No rise in oven?

The use of legume flours like pea flour is known to compromise gluten formation in the dough, leading to poor gas retention. See, for instance, this article on the use of gram flour in wheat bread. It's not clear from your question what percentage of pea flour you're using, but based on that data I wouldn't advise more than ten percent. You could try adding additional wheat gluten to the dough to compensate. You should also be measuring by relative mass, not by how 'sticky' the dough feels.


My sourdough starter is bubbling but not rising, suggestions?

If the starter is "bubbling nicely" then you may be already there.

Bread rises because the CO2 produced by the yeast is trapped by the protein in the dough. If you see bubbles then your starter is already producing the necessary CO2.

A starter has so much water in it that the protein doesn't trap the gas- thus you see bubbles rise to the surface. If you expect your starter to trap the gas and expand then it would have to have more protein. This isn't required for a starter to work.

You should be able to use the starter in a bread dough and that bubbling will turn into rising.


Biscuits (cookies) turning out more cake-like than biscuity

The recipe calls for self-raising flour, which has a raising agent in it which causes the dough to rise in the oven. Risen bakes will be soft, so you'd be better off using plain flour. I'm surprised a recipe for this type of cookie would call for self-raising flour. Most recipes call for the butter and sugar to be creamed, that's simply beating the butter and sugar together until it's light and creamy. I'm not sure if you'd get the same result with xylitol, however you could still cream the butter to get it light and fluffy.


Proper preparation of veggies for an egg scramble

Those 4 vegetables (and fungi) all require different cooking times. Chop the onion and pepper into dices of roughly the same size, to ensure even cooking. Get them frying, with a little salt which will help to soften them, over a medium heat while you slice the mushrooms, then add those: it is more or less impossible to overcook a mushroom incidentally.

Once the onion has softened but still has some bite, chop the tomato and add that, then add your eggs more or less straight away - the tomato doesn't need much cooking.


Some stainless steel more stainless than others

Yes, there are different blends to make 'stainless' steel and some are more resistant to rust (higher chromium and nickel content), or to pitting (higher molybdenum content) or hold an edge better (eg, 'surgical steel'), but to my knowledge, all of them are prone to pitting if they've exposed to salt water for a long enough period of time.

The exception to this is if the water is boiled before the salt is added, as it's a chemical reaction between the steel, salt, and dissolved oxygen.  This is why many recipes for cooking pasta tell you to wait until the water is boiling before you add salt.

Salt can also speed up the rusting of stainless steel, so it's a good idea to rinse things off if you're not going to clean them right away.  Salad dressings typically contain a fair bit of salt, but it's also quite possible that the bowl is a lower chromium steel.

update: Although there's now another system for grading stainless for the building trades, you'll often see stainless steel sold mentioning '18/10', which is a more rust resistant blend.


Making baking powder substitute with baking soda and powdered citric acid

Yes, I have found several sources that say that citric acid is about 4 times the strength of cream of tartar. So, mix 1 teaspoon of baking soda and 1/2 teaspoon of citric acid and use a 1/2 teaspoon of the mixture.

That should work. Let us know!

EDIT: Oops, I should have mentioned this before the OP accepted. Hopefully, he'll realize, or see this. That substitution will approximate single action baking powder, so don't dilly-dally before cooking! (Difference Between Double and Single Action Baking Powder)

2nd EDIT: Just to be extra confident, I compared the reaction (according to the method of David Lebovitz) of 1/4 tsp of my recommended mixture with boiling water and 1/2 tsp of new Rumford Baking Powder with boiling water. The results seemed identical.

3rd EDIT: I actually found this question pretty intriguing. While I could find plenty of evidence that it should work (including my own little water experiment), I couldn't find anything definitive that said it does work.

Well, it just so happens that I had some cream in the fridge, and I have been meaning to try America's Test Kitchen's cream biscuits. With nothing in them but flour, sugar, baking powder, salt and cream; they should be perfect for comparing real baking powder with the substitution.

SO:

I made biscuits.

They taste as identical as they look. (pretty yummy too)

I can now say with authority, the substitution works. 1 tsp fresh Rumford Brand Baking Powder = 1/2 tsp of a mixture of 1 tsp baking soda and 1/2 tsp citric acid.


How can I turn rolled oats into flour without a food processor?

You could use a mortar and pestle, if you have a good (and large) one - though it would take a lot of time and grinding to make it work, and probably small batches to fit your mortar and pestle size, it is doable, especially if this is a one-time use.  you would probably not want to do this often, though.

You might try a blender, it's very similar to a food processor if you happen to have one.  I would not recommend an immersion blender, as the oats (and flour) would fly everywhere (as opposed to liquid which holds together a bit more), but a regular blender should work well (also, keep it covered, though).

If you have a coffee grinder, that's also a possibility - it is intended to turn beans into powder, this is just a different grain.  You might want to make sure it's quite clean unless you want coffee flavored cookies, though.

And final option, if you have a spice grinder, that should also work.  Some people get a spare coffeee grinder for the job, or if you have a little hand crank grinder (like some people use for pepper or cinnamon or such), that would also work - though again, lots of work and small batch sizes, but possibly worth it for one time.

Additionally, if you toast the oats a bit, they should be dryer and easier to grind (and toasting gives a bit of flavor) - this will help especially if you're using one of the hand methods, like mortar and pestle or tiny spice grinder.