Navigating the different types of cookware - new kitchen advice

What makes a good pan?

The main properties of a metal pan that are of interest to a cook are:

Evenness of heat distribution. Every burner produces more heat in some spots than others. The better the pan conduct heat, the more this heat is evened out before it is conducted into the food being cooked, which is important to prevent local hotspots in the pan, and resultant burning or uneven cooking of the food. The metals that provide the best heat conduction, in descending order, are silver, copper, aluminum, and finally steel or iron.
Heat retention This can be an advantage or a disadvantage. High heat retention is great for searing, as the pan will not immediately cool when food is placed into as much as a less retentive pan. Highly responsive pans, which change temperature quickly in response to changes in burner level or when taken off the heat are also desirable in other applications as it gives the cook more control.
Ease of maintenance and cleaning You want a pan that is easy to clean and does not require special treatment.
Durability Will the pan stand up to heavy use over many years?
Chemical activity Does the interior surface of the pan interact with food chemically, changing its flavor? Active metals include aluminum and iron, especially in the presence of acid. aluminum can be rendered inactive through anodization (as is used in the famous Calphalon line).
How much does it weigh?  Many folks find very heavy cookware exceptionally inconvenient. However, weight is also related to heat retention, and more mass of metal simply provides more material to retain heat.
Non-stick Is it easy or difficult for food to stick?
Aesthetics Is it pretty?  Or even attractive enough to put out onto a serving table?   This is a personal opinion, so I will not address it further.
Is it ferrous? If you use an induction cook top, only ferrous (iron or steel) pans will interact with the magnetic field to generate heat. The "magnet test"--does a kitchen magnet stick to the pan--will tell you if a pan is ferrous.

Metals commonly used in pots and pans

The various metals used in pots and pans have different advantages and disadvantages under these criteria:

Stainless Steel. Very durable, moderately low conductivity of heat, very maintainable (can go in the dishwasher, for example, if you choose.)
Carbon steel Much rarer than stainless, except perhaps in large stock pots or woks.  Inexpensive, moderately low conductivity of heat, more chemically active than stainless.
Iron. Chemically active (especially with acids), low conductivity of heat, very high heat retention (due to cast iron pans having a lot of mass of metal), heavy.
Copper. Best conductivity of heat of typical metals used in pans, very chemically active with foods, requires maintenance as it will tarnish.
Aluminum. Second best conductivity of heat of typical metals used in pans, chemically active in some circumstances unless anodized.

Construction Methods

Due to the different properties of these metals, in order to take advantage of their strengths, and mitigate their weaknesses, pans are made from one or a combination of metals. The most common are:

Cast iron. Inexpensive, heavy, exceptional heat retention, requires seasoning and careful maintenance. When properly seasoned, food will not stick easily, even eggs. Can rust.
Enamelled cast iron. Expensive, heavy, exceptional heat retention, easier maintenance.  Must be handled with some care as crazing of the enamel can occur, which will reduce the non-stick properties of the lining, and is not attractive. Not chemically active with food due to lining.
Carbon steel. Inexpensive, poor heat distribution (an advantage in woks which desire a hot spot at the centre), requires seasoning and careful maintenance. Can rust.
Aluminum. Excellent conductivity, chemically active with acid foods. Not usually seen in the retail environment, but may be found in restaurant supply stores, especially for large stock pots or pasta boiling pots.
Anodized Aluminum. Moderately heavy, excellent heat conductivity and retention, unique aesthetic, pricey.
Plain stainless steel, not layered. Poor conductivity, excellent maintainability, moderate price.
Copper (lined). Very best conductivity, cannot go in dishwasher, very expensive, unique color (some people find copper pans very attractive). If lined with tin, as is traditional, rather than steel or some other material, must be treated with care and the lining will eventually wear and have to be redone.
Layered or "sandwich" stainless steel with an aluminum or copper disk or core.   Advantages from the steel are excellent maintainability, and from the core, very good conductivity. An excellent compromise, but can be moderately expensive.

On layered pans

There are two ways the layered pans from the last bullet item are produced:

Disk at the bottom. A disk at the bottom of the pan, which only gives good conductivity on the area the disk covers, which may not be the entire bottom.
Entire pan is layered, up the sides. Gives better conductivity across the entire bottom of the pan, and up the sides.

This is a quality differentiator in the market. A poor pan will have a disk that doesn't cover the entire bottom, so the cooking will not be even at the edges.

A quality pan will have a disk that covers to the edge, or even entire pan construction, although for cooktop use, the most important issue is covering the entire bottom of the pan.

Finally, very large pots (stock pots, or for boiling pasta water), the layering makes very little difference, as conductivity is not the key issue--the convection of the water or stock evens out the heat. For stock pots, price is the major issue.

On Non-stick coatings (Teflon or PTFE)

Teflon (a trademark name) or PTFE (the generic name) lined pans are often available for any of the construction materials and methods outlined above. They range in levels of quality, from light cheap pans that are nearly disposable to high quality pans.

They offer the following advantages and disadvantages, in addition to the properties inherent in the base pan construction:

Non-stick. Amazing non-stick properties.  PTFE is one of the lowest friction materials known to mankind at this time.
Care Must be handled with care, such as not abusing them with hard metal utensils which would scratch or damage the non-stick coating.
Cannot be overheated At temperatures above about 500°F (260°C), as the PTFE break down and some of the components are volatile (will vaporize) and are toxic. PTFE coated pans are not broiler-safe for this reason. (Note that PTFE itself is non-toxic, as it reacts chemically with almost nothing, the same reason it is extremely non-stick.)
Cleaning They are very, very easy to clean since nothing will stick to the PTFE.
Durability The PTFE coating will eventually break down, and so the pan will lose its non-stick properties.
Fond development The browned bits at the bottom of the pan, which in in classic French cooking are called the fond, do not develop in a PTFE coated pan, since there is nothing for the fond to stick to. This may be an advantage or disadvantage.

Lids and Handles

The material the lid (if there is one), and handles is made from or covered with is also important.

It is highly desirable that the pot or pan be able to be used on the cooktop, in the oven, and even under the broiler (grill, I believe the British would say).

Non-metal materials that are not oven/broiler safe are a disadvantage. Plastic is especially problematic.  Note that some hard phenolic type plastic materials can go into a moderate (up to about 450°F (230°C)) oven; read the manuals, but I recommend true metal handles.

Earthenware

Earthenware cookware, such as a tagine, is a speciality item that is good for cooking braises, rice and couscous type dishes, and other slow cooking dishes.  It is not a good general purpose item, as it cannot be used for high temperature frying, sautéing, and so on. They are generally used in the oven, although some small number of them are safe on top of the cook top.

Conclusion

Different pan constructions are ideal for different applications.

A typical cook will want an assortment for different applications, although layered stainless steel from a quality manufacturer is often a good compromise across many applications.

Eggs and delicate foods A PTFE coated pan, or a well seasoned cast iron pan.
Searing. Cast iron (enamelled or not), or heavy stainless.
Sautéing Layered stainless, possibly coated with PTFE depending on your desires, or cast iron.
Stir frying. If using a wok, carbon steel is traditional, and is often the best, but this is a unique application.
Braising. Layered stainless or cast iron (see searing for this, as well, as that is often the first step in braising).
Roasting. Stainless, but price and weight tend to be the big factors.
Stock pot or pasta boiler. Big. Inexpensive.
Butter melter Cute. Okay, I own two of these, but I never use them. :-)


Shredded Coconut as a Substitute for...?

My wife loves it toasted.  Toast shredded coconut in a dry pan or oven and put on ice cream and other deserts.  It's really tasty.  Like toasting other nuts be careful as if you blink it may burn.


There were a couple outside possibilities that I saw - though its worth noting the differences in description mean that the dish you had would have to be a variation specific to that restaurant, as far as I know.

One possibility was the cream cheese burfi - it is specifically mentioned to be a tibetan dessert, and the major flavors would be cream cheese, sour cream and milk (which would blend into the fromage blanc), but it is also made with flour, salt, baking powder, and of course sugar - which might give the right flavor profile that you mentioned.  It is traditionally made with nuts (almond and cashew) and also raisins, but this might be a simplified recipe to suit that particular recipe, as I mentioned.

A bit of an outside possibility, but the description for gtor-ma cakes sounded like a possibility - made with parched barley flour and butter, the flavor profile would indeed be strongly of flour and not too sweet (and the fromage blanc with honey would give the whole a sweeter taste for a dessert dish).  Problem is, this cake is usually elaborately decorated as a religious sacrificial offering, mostly in cones (so perhaps not plain squares unless the restaurant was making their own very liberal interpretation of the dish).

Final possibility I saw, was Thue, a traditional dessert that best fits the appearance of the dish, but seems maybe less of a match tastewise.  Thue is made with dri, a harder cheese (like parmesan or something) finely grated, brown sugar, and unsalted butter - mixed into a smooth, slightly crumbly paste and pressed into brick form.  I look at the picture and think this dessert fits, even with a sprinkle of brown sugar on top, but the taste I imagine would be different from what you described, saltier (but still sweet) and rich, and not much like flour since the main component is sharper, drier cheese.  Maybe the flavor profile would be closer to your description if this restaurant also mixed in barley flour, like tsampa or pa, where dri cheese is mixed with barley flour, tea, sugar and butter - but that's a snack and not a dessert.

In the end, I think a better description of what the dish tasted like would help a lot to figure out what's in it - though it can be hard to describe offhand and after the fact, I know - so I though I'd offer up these dishes because maybe one of these descriptions can jog your memory of the tastes enough to guess which it was (or worse comes to worst, make them and find out)?


Why is Pizza Hut breadstick seasoning and garlic butter not a botulism risk?

http://nchfp.uga.edu/how/freeze/garlic_oil.html matches the USDA statements I have seen which says for home use, garlic oil should be made and used fresh, stored at 40 degrees for no more than 4 days.  That of source addresses only the safety issue and if botulism is considered a risk or not.  As Jent suggests, garlic powder, may be an option, or even dried garlic which rehydrates in the oil might be a safer option.  Commercially available garlic oils tend to be considered shelf safe, but those have been likely heat and pressure treated, possibly chemically treated to make is safe, but attempts at this are not recommended at home.

The USDA recommendation I have seen is to mix the garlic and oil and then freeze that in cubes or sheets.  The claim is this will remain semi-pliable, but when I have done it, it froze fairly hard but soft enough I couple cut pieces off to use.  It worked fairly well for me.

I have seen sites claim that storing fresh garlic in oil is safe, but the USDA disagrees.

ETA: On the question of if it is safe to use powered or dehydrated garlic to make garlic oil:  From my looking around, I could not find an authoritative yes or no.  Others might have more luck.  Dried itself is considered safe as everything I found said botulism cannot survive low moisture. But the spores can.  There seems to be disagreement of weather oil provides the moisture needed for the spores to activate though.  Commercially treated product likely is subjected to higher temperatures and treatments to cover this, but that is a statement of likelihood, not something I found lab statements to back.  Also, the type of oil may matter.  I would think that a high quality olive oil might be more susceptible to growth as it is a pure vegetable extract, than would a refined and heat treated oil.  But again, that is just using my logic, not backed by tested evidence.

I have purchased commercial garlic infused oils, and personally, I would go with the frozen or freshly prepared.  The commercial versions had clearly been heat treated as the garlic flavor was barely perceptible for the amount visibly in the oil.  But I like a strong garlic flavor, not subtle.


Cranberry beans on a slow cooker (crock pot)

I've generally had success cooking dried beans in a slow cooker for about 5 hours on high with plenty of water (about 4 c. per 1 lb of beans). While you COULD add everything at once, I wouldn't recommend it, as the rest of your vegetables will become mushy and grainy.

For that exact recipe, I'd cook the beans in the slow cooker, than combine everything on the stovetop for about 45 minutes to get the flavors to combine.


What substitution can I make for blonde cane sugar in macaroons?

Sucanat or turbinado sugar (Sugar in the Raw) would be pretty indistinguishable from blond cane sugar. One of them might actually even be the same thing under a different name.

sucanat

turbinado

Here's a bit more about the subtle differences between sucanat and turbinado. Time article

Here ya go, from Amazon UK evaporated cane juice UK

Also from Amazon UK sucanat UK

And one more turbinado UK


What are the differences between the grades of maple syrup?

The grades reflect how much light can get through some standard quantity of maple.  The darker maple syrups tend to have a stronger maple flavor and tend to be harvested later in the season.  The collected sap needs to be concentrated and purified to make the syrup, which is traditionally done by boiling and skimming off impurities.

The USDA (United States Department of Agriculture) and the CFIA (Canadian Food Inspection Agency) have similar grades for maple syrups:

The CFIA standard requires measuring the grades using green light (560nm) light.


Cooked food / heat and serve meal, long term packaging

The commonest (in my experience - probably variable around the world) consumer DIY approach to this is the one that uses the step that you missed - high temperature (as mentioned by @John Feltz) - namely, pressure canning at 15 PSI (250°F) - in my experience, glass canning jars with metal lids, but flexible packages are evidently consumer-available more commonly that I've seen them around the world (perhaps even here, if I was looking for them.)

I've certainly eaten canned items stored at room temperature well older than 15 months and lived to tell the tale - indeed, I don't consider it anything to think about, other than verifying that the jar is, in fact, still sealed when time comes to use it. This may well not coincide with the most-paranoid recommendations on canned food shelf-life, but surely someone will be along to give the most-paranoid view shortly.


Where can I find a recipe for less-dense coconut bread?

It is quite easy to find the ingredients of the bread from the picture you posted. They are:

  Purified Water, Organic Coconut Flour, Egg Whites, Psyllium, Organic Apple Cider Vinegar, Baking Soda.

J.A.I.L.'s answer already explains part of what makes bread texture what it is: you need raw proteins which form a flexible 3-d mesh to trap the air when they set during baking. You also need a thickener combined with water which makes the whole thing soft instead of rubbery. In wheat bread, the proteins are called gluten (actually a mixture of two different types of protein, both coming from the wheat), and the thickener is starch (also coming from the wheat). In the bread you posted, the protein is the egg white, and the thickener is the psyllum mucilage. Coconut flour doesn't even come into play; it consists mostly of fat and some fiber, but the fiber is not of the rare thickening kind (as opposed to psyllum fiber). It contains nothing helpful for the bread structure, so they obviously use it as a filler. Of course, it will provide you a pleasant mouthfeel, aroma and lots of calories; it just won't give you a bread-like structure.

Conclusion: Trying to build a bread recipe around any nut flour is totally wrong. You have to search for a recipe which has the right balance of protein source, thickening agent and leavening agent. Once you have found it, you can substitute your favorite nut flour (or some other food item) as a filler. By the way, making such recipes from scratch is very hard, because you need not only the combination of ingredients (in this example, it is easily found), but also the correct ratio, and the correct timing for mixing and baking; these artificially-constructed combinations are nowhere as forgiving as wheat doughs when it comes to leavening. I would suggest looking for existing recipes. Sadly, it would be off-topic to give you one here, even if I had one, but I can give you a tip for your search: stay away from the ones which don't have all three things: leavening agent, protein and thickener.

Probable protein sources are: eggs, vital wheat gluten, possibly extracted soy protein (if you can get a source for its raw form). Probable thickeners are: anything described in this e-book. As for leavening mechanisms, the Wikipedia article should give you enough pointers. If you find a recipe which has one of each, it is likely to end up puffy. I must warn you that alternative thickeners have a mouthfeel which is very different from starch, so most breads made from such recipes will probably be much less soft/cottony than white wheat bread, and some of them might have a slightly rubbery or gooey feel. But the good ones will have a decent approximation of bread texture.


Melting yellow cheese for savory pancakes or crêpes

One simple option is to shred the cheese.  The heat moves from the surface of the pancake into the cheese - so a thick slice has to melt all at once, and from the bottom up, and it may not melt in time.  Grated or shredded cheese has a lot more surface area, and warms quicker, and traps heat in the air between the shreds, and so will melt much quicker than sliced or chunked cheese - even if the layer ends up being fairly thick.  Also it will help if you sprinkle it all over the pancake instead of just a row in the middle - again more surface area, the better it melts.

Another option is to warm the cheese just a bit - even if it's just room temperature it will melt quicker than fridge temperature, which might make the difference depending on just how thick the layer you want is.  Of course, there's nothing that says your bowl of shredded cheese can't be put somewhere a bit warmer, like next to the stove, so that it melts really quick when you sprinkle it on the pancake.

Another option, if you know you're only making sour pancakes, is to put some of the cheese into the batter to begin with - not all of it, or it will change the texture and cooking time by a lot, but some of the cheese can be added in without changing too much, and that means the amount added on top can be less, and so will melt quicker.

You might, depending on how runny your pancake batter is, even make filled pancakes - use just a little batter, half a pancake's worth or less, and quickly spread it thin, sprinkle on some of the cheese with your other hand, and immediately top with the second half a pancake's batter (spreading or dabbing it around as best you can), and flip immediately as you've probably been cooking the first side just a tad too long.  Sprinkle more cheese if you want, or add the ham then.  It will work best when the batter is a particular texture, runny enough to spread but thick enough to stay in place... the point is that if you're quick and careful it can be done it is just relentlessly fast and a lot of work.

Or you can make something more like quesadillas - pour the batter, add the cheese and ham, fold in half, and flip back and forth until the center is cooked (the outside won't overcook as much if you can keep flipping it, same basic principle as an omelet).

And, of course, you can make a processed cheese, or a cheese sauce - carefully shred or grate your cheese, add to a white sauce (fry flour and butter, add milk very gradually, add cheese gradually), and add as much cheese as you wish to make it as thick as you please.  The cheese sauce can be poured when warm, or spread when cool, and if you folded in enough cheese it might even be slice-able when cold (this is how processed cheese slices work, cheese thinned just a bit with milk and butter) and again, it will melt much more easily than regular cheese.

And finally, you can warm the finished product.  If you're making just one, turn off the stove as soon as you flip the pancake - the second side will cook in the residual heat, but it will take longer... more time for your cheese to melt without overcooking the second side.  If you're making a few pancakes, you can fold them over and set them aside as you're cooking, and once you're done set them back on the (now turned off) stove once they're all made, and let the residual heat warm them up again... it shouldn't overcook too much since the heat is lower and tapering off, but it should warm them enough to help melt any last cheese (already warmed by the pancake).  And if you're making lots, turn on the oven (or have a pan on very low heat on the other side of the stove), to put the mostly-finished pancakes in, so they can finish warming and melting while you're cooking a whole batch, and you can serve them all at once.


Ingredient Ratios for Homemade Milk Chocolate

Like Sneftel said, whey powder is NOT milk powder. Whey powder is created using curdled and strained milk by-product. It's closer to cheese than it is to milk.

Milk powder is just evaporated milk.

With that out of the way, if I were to create a ratio by making modifications based on your ratio it would be: 30% sugar, 28.5% cacao butter, 21.5% cacao solids, 20% milk powder.

Again, make sure you are using actual milk powder, not whey powder.


Is it better to store chocolate in the fridge or at room temperature?

Chocolate should be stored in a cool, dry area whenever possible.  A cold basement or wine cellar is perfect.

Moist environments, including the refrigerator, can cause the chocolate to bloom.  This is when the cocoa butter separates and you start to see a white film at the top.  It's actually still safe to eat this way and won't even affect the flavour much, it just looks a little odd.

That said, even tempered chocolate (i.e. baking chocolate squares) will melt at hotter room temperatures, so if the air is humid or you're in a hot climate, you'll typically want to refrigerate.  Also, if you've just melted the chocolate to make a coating and haven't tempered it, then you must refrigerate it as it will melt even at colder room temperatures.

Otherwise, it's best not to refrigerate.  It will generally keep for a year or more at 55-60° F (about 13-15° C).


As @GdD said in a comment, it's probably better to just toss it. Although I will say that sweetened condensed milk actually lasts 2-3 weeks if refrigerated properly. After several months though, it's not worth the risk. In the future, you can store an extra half can in the freezer for 2-3 months without issue instead.
That said, sweetened condensed milk is actually just milk that's been reduced with sugar until it's quite thick. You can make a substitute at home by blending together fresh and powdered milk and sugar. I've seen multiple recipes, but have to admit I haven't tried it personally. So you might still be able to make your custard without a run to the store. Good luck!


Why you can't reverse cheese curdling in fondue?

Most proteins undergo irreversible structural changes when heated. The exact temperature where this happens depends on the protein. In most cases, no covalent bonds are broken or formed during this 'denaturation' process.
But the irreversible nature of the changes means that there's no good way to rescue a curdled fondue sauce (or a curdled egg custard).

Other components present in the environment of the protein (like alcohol, salt) can influence the denaturation process.

In your case, when you first get the wine to simmer, your temperature might just be too high from the start to prevent denaturation of the cheese proteins, suggested temperatures for melting cheese are around 150F (~66°C). And of course, different cheeses have had different treatments during production (some are already heated to 50-55°C), and can have different behaviour when heated. And duration plays a role (the denaturation isn't instantanuous).


Getting meatballs done is a matter of raising them to the correct internal temperature. 30 minutes seems like a long time even for large meatballs, but it depends on many factors. The best way is to pull the biggest one out and test it, first see if it's firm or squishy - firm means it's getting close to done. If it's firm stick an instant read thermometer into the very center of it, if the temperature is at or above 160F (70C) then they are all done. If you test a medium size one the larger ones may need a little longer.

Incidentally, boiling meatballs is not the only way to do it, and my least favorite because some of the flavor is lost to the water. You can bake them, fry them, or cook them in a sauce as well. Cooking them in a sauce imparts flavor to the sauce, you'll get the fat from the meat too, though.


Those at the store should be heavy and 2/3 full of milk or more. So shake them and listen, and also judge the weight, holding them in one hand.

Once you buy a coconut, place it between a rock or three. Make one slice with a large heavy knife to remove the top and the top hull inside the outer hull. Pour out the milk and chill if you wish. Then cut the coconut in half. Scoop out the meat. It should be firm but soft. Place that on a plate or eat with your hands.

When harvesting, after dropping a bunch of coconuts, you select the ones whose outer hull is 1/3 to 1/4 brown. Those you sell locally. The green ones you take to the road to sell to the waiting trucks. Those are for shipment.

All extra coconuts should be saved for making coconut rum. The outer and inner hulls are saved for cooking and coconut charcoal. Any that drop from the tree and split open go into the rum also, or can be used as pig fodder.


Sure. Dried oregano, basil, marjoram (probably no more than two out of three of those), onion powder and red pepper flakes would all go just fine.


How do you stop tomato sauce from splattering?

You can lower the temperature to simmer and reduce your sauce, it will take a longer time, but will do the job.

or

Have a look at splatter screens at your local stores (or online)

or

Or just put the pot lid on with a wooden spoon to keep it slightly ajar.


I would heat within 3 days.  From that point on, first flavor will decay, then quality of tortillas...then, say after about a week, they will get progressively nasty.


Mould in water when making preserved duck eggs

When my mom made salted eggs, we always put it in the fridge.


How do I translate microwave cooking instructions to fanless conventional oven instructions?

Lots of plastic are quite "transparent" to microwaves, but may turn really nasty when exposed to direct heat or the oven (the rest will turn nasty in microwave too; no such thing as oven-safe plastic...)  So, first step - move the meal to oven-safe dishes.

The expected time grows about x6; medium-high heat. Instead of "perforate the film" cover the dish. Remove the cover for the remaining time.

Also, for a lot of "ready to serve, just microwave it" dishes, a skillet is a better choice - unless the dish is "structured" like lasagna, you can get it hot when heating it in a skillet (stirring occasionally) in about 2-3 times the microwave time.


Rack vs Baking Pan vs Roasting Pan and Position

A higher-sided pan can end up holding more moisture in near the food, and prevent it from cooking up quite as quickly than in a sheet pan.  This won't be as noticeable in a convection oven.

If something calls for placing it directly on the rack, it likely won't crisp up if you put it in a pan for this reason, as well as reflecting (shiny) or absorbing (dark metal) the radiant heat before it gets to the food.  Glass dishes will let the radiant heat through, so the bottom will brown a bit better, but there's still the moisture issue.

If by 'roasting pan' you mean a rack suspended above a pan, then it'll be a little between the two -- you won't have the food necessarily steam underneath as much, but you still have a pan there to deflect radiant heat.

As for location in the oven, it'll often affect how quickly the top of the food cooks vs. the bottom.  (closer to the top element means the top will cook more quickly)


Adding Instant Yeast to dry bread mix for later use

Active dry yeast will lose quality quickly once it is opened.

When you portion the yeast into your flour it will be exposed to oxygen and moisture from the air and flour. Even in vacuuming out the air there will still be some moisture in the flour. Some of the yeast will come out of dormancy and will consume their adjacent food and die.

How much yeast you lose will be variable- probably dependent on how fast you work, how well your vacuum sealer works, the ambient humidity that day, how long and at what temperature the mix is stored before use, etc.

There are plenty of anecdotes of regular people and even pastry chefs leaving yeast at room temperature for a few days with no loss of quality. It is hard to find scientifically observed shelf life numbers because the recommendation is to refrigerate or freeze yeast immediately upon opening. I suspect that it will be hard to find a definitive answer that fits your specific use case.

If you can portion your yeast in an environment free of moisture or air, if your customers will be using your mixes within a few days, or if the mixes will be refrigerated or frozen you should be fine. Otherwise your mixes will sometimes fail to rise.


Pizza bulk fermentation vs proofing (2nd cycle)

I honestly don't really see much of an advantage in splitting into separate dough balls for the second 24 hours of refrigeration.  It sounds like OP is going to take the final dough balls out of the fridge, let them warm up some, then shape, the rise until ready to bake.

My standard pizza recipe tends to be retarded in the refrigerator for 1-3 days, after which I remove it, split into balls, let rest, then shape, then rise a bit at room temperature until I'm ready to bake.  I've tried recipes that required me to separate the dough first in the fridge (or to do it as OP does, in the middle of the refrigerated part of the process), but I've never seen an advantage to it in the way the dough behaved.

The only advantage I can see of splitting into dough balls after the first 24 hours is then after day 2 you can just remove the number of dough balls you plan to use for one pizza bake.  You could potentially let others in the fridge for more time (even a couple more days) until ready to use, or you could even freeze some of them individually for future use.

If you're not planning on that, or planning on baking basically straight out of the fridge (which I don't recommend), there's not a strong advantage to splitting dough into smaller pieces early.


What types of meat should I pound and why?

Meat is pounded as a mechanical means of tenderizing by damaging the connective tissues. It also makes the meat thinner and flatter, which helps the meat cook faster and more evenly.
Pound tougher meats (cheaper steaks), and meats of uneven thickness (chicken breasts). Avoid pounding the bones in the meat. You don't want little pieces of bone chipping off into meal. Don't pound already tender pieces (premium cuts, dry aged steaks).
Think tenderize, not pulverize. You should not be making any holes in it.

If you're going to marinate, do that after pounding.
Wrapping the meat in wax paper first will help prevent a big mess.
Do both sides of the meat.


Can I substitute Hong Kong curry cuttlefish with pre-cooked Joya octopus?

Yes you can, please try it and report back.
When using precooked octopus, you need to cut them in small bite size pieces and add them to the curry at the last moment so they get up to proper temperature and soak up the flavors of the curry.
Remember that when substituing ingredients, the original recipe might not taste or feel the same as the original recipe.
Next time, please link to a recipe; it'll make answering easier.


Jicama moldy on the outside but white inside, is this safe to eat?

Rinse it off after skinning it and you will be fine. mold won't be able to penetrate jicama very far.


Most hot sauces are pretty inhospitable to foodborne illnesses, and can safely stay in the cupboard rather than the refrigerator. Nevertheless, the flavors in the sauces will break down over time, storing them in the fridge as opposed to room temperature will slow deterioration and keep the sauces fresher longer. If you use your sauces quickly enough then you probably won't notice a difference, but if you like to keep them around for awhile it's worth the fridge space.

There is an argument that making hot sauce cold will dull the flavor, and this is true. However, given how small the amounts used are they will come up to temperature very quickly, a dash of cold sauce on hot food will be warm by the time you get it to your mouth, so it's not a good reason to keep hot sauces in the cupboard.

The only time I would store a hot sauce at room temperature is if it will thicken up too much to come out of the bottle easily (presuming it does not say it requires refrigeration of course). Then I will keep it in the cupboard (not exposed to sunlight).


Why bring steaks to room temp before grilling

Giving your steak a hard sear in a ripping hot cast iron pan (which usually is heavy enough to hold a lot of heat) probably takes a minute or two on each side. I personally find that throwing steak directly from the fridge into the pan, seasoning before I put it in the pan, will give me a sear no problem, but the interior won't have time to come up to the temperature I want - about 55-57 °C (130 to 135 degrees F)for medium rare, 49-51 °C (120-125 F) for rare. That's why I rest it for about 20-30 min before searing, during which I do my other prep work. If your method gives you the internal temperature you want, no problem.

I think you will get a steak that is cold in the middle though if it's too big, i.e., if it is heavier and thus needs more time to warm up internally, even in a very hot pan.


How do you correctly soften butter for spreading?

If you want to turn your cold butter spreadable quickly, patience is about your only option. You can try microwaving it very briefly, and maybe on the "defrost" setting, but you run a strong risk of melting it too much.

If I'm thinking of the same thing you are, a butter conditioner is really just a unit that allows you to keep your butter in the fridge but still keep it closer to room temp--so that's more about storage than turning hard butter into spreadable butter on the spot.

A storage option that allows you to keep your butter fresh for a pretty long period, but still leave it out on the counter so it's soft, is a butter bell. You can look them up online--many shops have them. It's basically an inverted cup that sits inside a larger one with a little water at the bottom. The butter is packed into the inverted cup and stays put when you place the cup so the edges are under the water in the other cup. The water keeps air out so the butter stays fresh even at room temperature. You could do the same thing by mashing a bunch of butter into a teacup, then setting it upside down in a saucer full of water. If it's too hot in your house, though, the butter will slip out of the inverted cup, so I mostly only use our butter bell in the winter.

One thing to note about butter itself: Some butters are more spreadable at cooler temperatures. The Irish and French butters we can get here are much closer to spreadable at refrigerator temperatures than the regular US supermarket brands. I'm not sure what the difference is, though.


It seems really unlikely it somehow rusted shut or anything like that while you were boiling, so it seems most likely that there's just a partial vacuum inside. While boiling, it'd have been full of hot air and steam, and now that's all cooled down, and the steam has condensed, so it could shrink down you end up with low pressure inside sucking the lid down. It's a bit surprising that the seal is good enough to hold the pressure for this long, though!

In any case, if that's it, assuming there's still liquid in it, I'd try just heating it again. That would increase the pressure inside, hopefully back up to normal, enough to let you get the lid off. I'd also try twisting and angling it, because if that's it, all you need is a tiny opening to equalize pressure.

If this does turn out to have been the issue, you could probably avoid it in the future by opening the lid immediately when it's done.


I have a coarse pepper grinder, and it says not to grind over steaming pots, why is that?

There are two possibilities I can see:

The steam can wet the pepper in the mill and cause it to cake in the grinding mechanism
There's an over-protective lawyer worried someone will scald themselves and blame the grinder company.

Which of the two is your guess. Personally I use my grinder over steaming pots all the time and I've never had any problems, but YMMV.


These don't look like scratches to me, more like heat damage. You are either using it for the wrong tasks (e.g. steak), or using it improperly (e.g. preheating it), or the extremely frequent use is simply too much and tires the material.

Without knowing more about your cooking habits, we can't tell you what to change.

Edit: just realised you are using it 3 times a week, not 3 times a day. Scratch the last reason (too frequent use).


How to grate cinnamon using a microplane

I think using a microplane to grate hard spice is only useful for small amount, either it will take you a long time (as you experienced) or will damage your microplane (render it blunt).

The best way to grind spices is with a electric grinder (coffee grinder), even with that, grinding harder spices like cinnamon is difficult.

https://www.seriouseats.com/2018/02/the-best-spice-grinders.html


This year, I slow cooked corned beef for about 8 hours in my crock pot.  The slow cooker was set to high for the first 4 hours and set to low for the last 4.  The meat didn't "fall apart" when I took it out, rather it kept its form and allowed me to slice it (against the grain).

I should mention that I had the corned beef submerged in a water/beer mixture during the entire cooking process.  I used 1 bottle of beer (optional) and filled the rest of the slow cooker with water until the beef was submerged.


Authentic Asian Sweet & Sour Sauce - Recipe

You're only going to get an approximate answer to this because there isn't "one sauce" that is sweet and sour, even in Vancouver.  Instead, there are multiple sauces that fit that description, having both acid and sugar in them.  Common ingredients include any of white sugar, brown sugar, honey, vinegar (of several kinds), soy sauce, lemon juice, plum puree, ginger, ketchup, various sour fruits, and spices.

This blog has multiple recipes for sweet-and-sour sauces from Sichuan, which might suit what you're looking for.


How to add maple and brown sugar to cream of wheat

Just sprinkle the brown sugar and drizzle maple syrup on the cooked cereal. It's better that way than the flavored packets anyway. Start with a little of each and add more until it is as flavored as you want it. No need to mix it in, that it is a bit separate from the cereal is nice. BTW, peanut butter is good that way too, in addition to one or both of the other ingredients you mention.


Can I swap soy milk for cream in a chicken pot pie?

Yes, you can use soy milk, but it will definitely affect the flavor. If you like the flavor of soy milk, go ahead, but I don't find it that appealing.

Instead, I suggest using full fat coconut milk or coconut cream (you can find it in the international foods aisle in most grocery stores). I have used this subsitution several times before, and it will give a hint of coconut taste, but I think the overall flavor for your recipe would be richer.

Another alternative is to just use an additional 1/4 c. of broth and leave out the cream or any dairy substitute all together.

Edit: I'm not 100% sure on the texture, but soy milk is fairly "watery" compared to cream, so, again, I think a richer/fattier "milk" would be better.


What variety of tomato is typically used in Italian, canned, peeled tomatoes?

Based on what they say on their web page they use both early and late varieties. The type of tomato therefore probably changes throughout the canning season. Since they source their produce locally (they are based in Livorno) I would guess that two of the varieties are Pisanello and Perino (the last variety is similar to Roma).

Here's an overview of the most cultivated varieties in Tuscany (in Italian).


You do not need to make a roux. While your proposed technique of adding flour directly to milk will almost certainly lead to clumps, there are other ways to incorporate flour, butter, and milk: namely, a beurre manié.
First, let's explore why flour clumps in hot liquid. As explained in this Seattle Times cooking advice column, flour will immediately gelatinize when added -- forming a sort of gel-like barrier that encases clumps of flour. No amount of stirring will break up these clumps. A simple fix is to use Wondra or a similar product. This flour is specially formulated to avoid clumping; I am not familiar with the details of their process, but I know that the product can be directly whisked into a sauce without clumping. It is fairly popular in America for making gravies.
But, with standard flour, the best fix is to work in fat: it works as a lubricant, keeping particles of flour separated for long enough to incorporate into the sauce. As you know, one method to accomplish this is to make a roux: flour is added to hot fat and stirred until incorporated. Only then is liquid slowly added. An alternative is to make a beurre manié: a mix of cold butter and flour that is added, uncooked, to the sauce.
Both a roux and a beurre manié provide sufficient lubrication to prevent clumps; however, many chefs prefer roux for a variety of reasons.

Making a roux requires less mechanical action. Working cold flour and butter requires a lot of stirring or kneading. A roux, on the other hand, can be quickly whisked together with less resistance. This is ultimately a personal preferences: you may find one or the other workflow easier.

Some people think a beurre manié tastes "floury". The hot butter in a roux lets you "cook out" the floury taste, some say. Not everyone agrees: this cook tried both methods, and in a taste test, saw no discernible difference. If a sauce thickened with beurre manié tastes good to you, go for it.

In the same vein, a roux lets you toast the flour. Dishes that use "dark roux" (like gumbos, etouffée, or Japanese curry) rely on this toasty flavor for depth, color, and balance. In this case, you cannot substitute a beurre manié without losing flavor.

The beurre manié has a bit of a bad reputation as a "shortcut" or inferior option to the roux. But, if you are struggling with roux, or just want to try a different process, I encourage you to give it a shot. If you do get some clumps, you can always just strain the sauce through a fine sieve.


If evaporated milk is mixed with water, does it have the same calcium and vitamin D amounts as regular milk?

If 100g of evaporated milk contains 250 mg of calcium and milk 120mg then yes, adding 100g of water and then using half of liquid yeld the same amount of calcium.

But, depending on the brand and region ecaporated milk usually contains added vitamin D so  one could assume that even diluted the Vit D content would be higher than in regular milk.


Wood versus marble rolling pin 'performance'

Yes, in my experience it is almost impossible to coat a marble rolling pin with flour. However, like flour many doughs tend to stick less to the very smooth surface, and because a marble rolling pin can stay colder for a longer time than a wooden one, some doughs get much less sticky, e.g. if they contain lots of butter.

If you have problems with dough sticking to your rolling pin, try dusting the dough with a thin layer of flour instead of the rolling pin.


This is an interesting question. Personally I would throw it out, the discoloration and resulting taste are the result of a chemical reaction with the pan.

The brownish discoloration is a sign that the Aluminium (Al, the chemical symbol for the element from here on), is being attacked by a chemical reaction. This is most likely by an acid, though salts can also cause this to happen. In both cases what is happening is that the Al is being converted into the cation Al3+. Al3+ is bio-available and considered to be the main source of Al toxicity in humans. Acute Al toxicity results in non-specific symptoms, like confusion, muscle weakness, and bone pain, however normal exposure is not considered harmful. Not a lot of long-term data has been produced, but there are potential links to things like Alzheimer's disease, and breast cancer.

The European Food Safety Authority has a limit of 1 mg/kg of body weight/week for intake from foods. This paper suggests in passing that some people are often at or beyond the EFSA limit, but this might not result in any problems, also mentioned in that paper is that the WHO has a provisional limit of 2 mg/kg/week.

Now, as to how much of the Al has dissolved into your cake, and how much you are ingesting if you ate the whole cake is impossible to estimate without measuring the Al content of the cake and syrup. Generally you will be able to taste the metallic taste of Al and other metals when they dissolve to this sort of level, though in this case, the already strong taste of rum might well overpower the metallic taste.


Granulated, hardened homemade caramel sauce

Most likely, it crystallized because something with a sugar crystal on it contacted the caramel while it was cooling.  This is why you need to change spoons a couple times while making the caramel, and take other steps.

If your caramel sauce is just sugar and water, you can remelt it, adding a water to it.  However, if you added cream to it, it's a bit tricky, because those dairy products will burn at caramelization temperature.  You may be better starting over.

However, there's another possibility: if you overcooked your caramel, it will have turned into toffee, which is also grainy and hard.  In this case, enjoy your toffee, because there's no turning it back into caramel.  You'll know that this was your problem because it's an intense dark brown.


Can over proofed dough be harmful to breathe in?

.... There's no way to know for sure (since we can't test it) but it was probably CO2 (Carbon Dioxide)... Yeast creates CO2  when it converts sugars... that's how you can bottle carbonate beers.

  The breaking down of sugars, or fermentation, produces alcohol and carbon dioxide as by-products. Fermentation turns fruit juices into wine and helps turn wort (diluted grain mash) into beer or whiskey. The carbon dioxide produced by fermentation makes the bubbles in beer and some kinds of wine, and causes bread to rise. As bread bakes, the alcohol produced by fermentation evaporates.

We brew beers and we've had our freezer, which we use for a fermentation fridge, fill with the gas when we're brewing and the fermenting overflows. When we have to get into the freezer to clean it out, we have to be really careful as the carbon dioxide is heavier than air, so it stays in the freezer for a while... the same thing would be true of your large, covered mixer bowls. It can make you light-headed because your brain is suffering from oxygen deficiency.

Here's the fact sheet on CO2 inhalation:

  Inhalation: Low concentrations are not harmful. Higher concentrations can affect respiratory function and cause excitation followed by depression of the central nervous system. A high concentration can displace oxygen in the air. If less oxygen is available to breathe, symptoms such as rapid breathing, rapid heart rate, clumsiness, emotional upsets and fatigue can result. As less oxygen becomes available, nausea and vomiting, collapse, convulsions, coma and death can occur. Symptoms occur more quickly with physical effort. Lack of oxygen can cause permanent damage to organs including the brain and heart.

And, because it's a byproduct of the yeast activation, it can smell really strongly of yeast, and have a really off smell, despite the gas itself being odorless.


Can I selectively breed my sourdough starter?

Yes, but it might have other effects that make it less effective as a leaven.

When I was experimenting with sourdough in the past year or so after a long hiatus, I had a pretty good batch going and parked half in the fridge, then had some life events that caused the part that was out to be left 24 or more, not 12 hours between feedings, and it turned very, very sour - but it also didn't do much for raising the bread.

Unless you are fixated on getting there via sourdough, I'd suggest picking up some citric acid if you like your bread "as sour as possible" - though even that might do in your yeast if you use too much - of course, there's always really sour flatbread, I suppose, by either method.


What's the proper way to dispose of used fats & oils?

Never down the drain.  We've had a few incidents in my neighborhood where the sewer pipes were clogged with fat, and a few people's basements flooded with sewage as a result.

For fats that solidify, let them do so, then pitch them in your regular garbage. Chill grease in the fridge if you need to get it to harden up. For ones that don't solidify, pour them into a sealable (hopefully non-recyclable) bottle, and throw the whole container away with your regular garbage.

It's possible that your area might accept cooking fats & oils as part of a recycling effort. Ours does for motor oil (I live in Maryland).

For restaurants, some places (eg, the state of Maryland) require a system for catching grease that's been washed down the sink. It's my understanding that they're fairly expensive (a couple thousand dollars US), but the fines for not having one installed may be even more, and they won't let new restaurants open without one.


What are the consequences of not rinsing hermetic lentils prior to use?

The only consequence is that you will eat the liquid in which they were. They will taste different with it. Also, if you cook them, they may be more prone to sticking, because of starch and other stuff sticking to the surface. This is not an issue in salads, though.

You probably already know the consequences anyway, since you have been eating them that way already.


Are the molecular gastronomy additives kosher?

Most gelling agents are derived from flora of some kind - usually plants or algae. Since they aren't derived from any animal, they are kosher and also vegan.

The primary exception is gelatin, which is derived from animal bones.  Gelatin is as kosher as the animal it came from and the conditions under which it was prepared; genuine kosher gelatin does exist (usually produced from fish bones) but it is somewhat difficult to find in most areas.  If you see it, you'll know, because it will be labeled as kosher.  Beware of "KoJel" and other kosher gelatin "substitutes", as they are usually some other additive or combination of additives, such as agar and/or carrageenan.

Here's a quick (incomplete) list of where some of the additives come from:

Agar - algae
Alginate - algae
Carrageenan - seaweed
Gelatin - animal bones (not kosher unless specifically indicated)
Gellan - bacteria
Guar gum - beans
Lecithin - beans (soy)
Methylcellulose - various plants
Pectin - fruit and other plants
Xanthan gum - bacteria

As you can see, there's nothing in there to make it unkosher.

Of course in practice it depends how strict you are.  Some of these things may be prepared in facilities where they may come into contact with unkosher foods - so if you're orthodox, you might have to seek out products that have the K stamp.  Good luck finding them.


Does storing meat in plastic alter how long it takes to go off?

The question is 'plastic vs. what else?'

I admit I've never done side-by side tests to prove it, but from my observations, when the deli I went to switched from butcher paper to zip-top plastic bags, sliced lunchmeats wouldn't last in the fridge as long.  They'd start getting slimy around two weeks.**

I've noticed the same thing (although longer time frames) with firm and hard cheeses, and my solution for those has been to wrap the cheese in a paper towel, then put it back in the plastic bag.

I suspect that the issue is moisture buildup (you open the packet, let in cold air, it condenses in the freezer, etc.), and if this is the case, then other non-porous materials (glass, metal), would be equally bad for storage, especially as you can't then squeeze them to remove the air.  The butcher paper always stays at roughtly the size of the item being wrapped.

... but still, even if we did experiments, to say it's always bad, we'd have to also test raw meats, ground and whole (and for moisture, many stores put those little diaper pads in the containers), tightly vs. loosely wrapped, and a few other variables.

** Some health person is going to complain 'but you're not supposed to keep meat in the fridge for 2 weeks ... this was well preserved items like sweet bologna)


Advice for making/keeping shredded chicken moist?

The first issue I see is that you are over cooking your chicken breast.  20 minutes in a pressure cooker is really over doing it.  Even a little over cooking dries chicken breast.  Chicken breast needs to be cooked more precisely.  A pressure cooker is not the correct tool for the job.  So you first need to correct your initial cooking.  You should get a good thermometer, ensure it is calibrated, and cook your chicken breast to an internal temperature of 160F (71C).  You can remove the chicken breast from the cooking surface when it is a couple of degrees below that.  Let it rest 10 to 15 minutes, and the heat will carry over and you will reach the final target temperature.  This will allow you to begin with moist chicken.


Is there a way to quantify smoke in meat while cooking?

Well... yes. There are analytic chemistry techniques used to measure the concentration of phenols, which are the primary contributors to a "smoky" flavor. You could test samples taken from the meat at different depths to measure penetration. You'd need a reasonably well-outfitted chemistry lab to do a good job of this.
Honestly, though, objective measurements are not the right way to go about this. There's a reason food scientists do both chemical and organoleptic tests. Objective chemical measurements are always going to be an imperfect approximation of subjective experience. If the color of the test strip tells you something's not very smoky, and your tongue tells you it is, which are you going to believe?
If what you're looking for is a way to reliably compare the results of multiple attempts over time, just take small samples and freeze them, then compare them [using your tongue] once you're back at max taste.


Can we use baking powder instead of activated yeast for making pizza dough?if yes than in which proportion we can use it?

You can certainly make pizza dough with baking powder. However, adapting a yeast recipe to baking powder will be very difficult. I would suggest searching for a pizza dough recipe that already uses baking powder rather than trying to adapt your recipe.


Is asparagus generally recognized as the best vegetable, and why?

Don't really like to define one vegtable as better than another, but Asparagus has always had a reputation as a luxury item. A combination of the expense of producing it (You cannot get a high yield, plus it takes a number of years to develop a productive asparagus bed) and a relatively short season (At least in the UK) meant it would be a rare treat for most people. Of course now with it imported from all round the world, it is much less so.


How can I ensure that scrambled eggs will be fully cooked?

Temperature is the only foolproof way to determine doneness. Unfortunately it's not very practical to carry a thermometer over to your friend's house for brunch.

There are other indicators, of course, and you have mentioned the good ones for eggs.

I will add, however, that some indicators can be deceiving. For example, eggs releasing a pool of liquid is actually a sign of over-cooked eggs. The protein matrix is tightening to the point that it's actually expelling water. This is different than runny, uncooked egg.

Similarly, browning isn't necessary for the cooking of an egg (frankly, it's often detrimental). So while browned egg is likely more cooked than not-browned egg, it may also be less done on the inside.

They are clues you can use to identify doneness but none of them are guarantees.

I'd suggest sticking to fried eggs if that's what you enjoy and are more comfortable with.

So to answer your enumerated questions directly:

1) Scrambled eggs cooked to a typical doneness are moist, not-browned, and not expelling excessive liquids on to the plate. If the eggs are not done, they will not be "set" into curds and will be noticeably slimy.

That said, cook them how you like them.

2) Cooking time is dependent on cooking temperature. It's really not a good way to judge doneness. It works better for large cuts of meat or something that will take a lot of cooking time. An individual egg cooking time will vary. Yes, adding additional ingredients (mass) will slow it down.

Overall it will take just a couple of minutes tops. If you start with a hot pan, you can scramble an egg in just a few seconds.

Note: I'm talking about the scrambled eggs you typically see in American diners that look similar to the photos you posted. French style scrambled eggs are creamy in consistency and lack the large curds. Doneness is a little more difficult to judge in that dish.


Is there a difference between mirin (미림) and mijak (미작)?

No. Mirin is a sweet saki for cooking, with a very neutral flavour. Mijak is a ginger flavored wine. If you are cooking a dish that calls for mirin and ginger, you can skate by using mijak. Otherwise, no.


Can you substitute honey for sugar in a pickling brine?

Sugar is not critical to the pickling process - it exists primarily as a flavorant.
Pickling preservation requires one of two methods - either immersion in vinegar of a sufficiently low pH to kill off unwanted bacteria, or through natural fermentation with probiotic strains of bacteria.
Honey is known to have antiseptic and antimicrobial properties. When using natural fermentation, one might think that there may be a risk that the added honey will kill off probiotic bacteria before they establish a stable population, allowing other unsavory bacteria to grow. However, most brine-based recipes already include known antimicrobial herbs such as mustard seeds, garlic, cinnamon, or cloves. Honey shouldn't be any different than the addition of these spices.
When using vinegar to pickle, there is no reason to be concerned about adding honey.
Regardless, it is important to note that honey will have a distinctly different flavor profile from pure sugar. Perhaps try it in a small batch before committing to "large scale" production.


Aquafaba in cooking generally refers to chickpea aquafaba, but the term generally applies to the liquid in which any legume seeds have been cooked. It contains starches and proteins which allow it to foam when whipped. I have seen aquafaba mostly used for foams in cooking, but it can serve as a replacement for egg whites in many recipes. Adding cream of tartar will greatly stabilize the foam.

Here is a scientific description of aquafaba from wikipedia.

  Legume seeds, or pulses, are primarily composed of carbohydrates (starch, sugars, and fiber), proteins (albumins and globulins), and water. The carbohydrates are found in greater quantities than the proteins, while the starches consist mostly of amylose and amylopectin. A typical nutritional composition of chickpeas, is listed as 19% protein, 61% carbohydrate, 6% lipids, and 14% water. However, these amounts are approximate and can vary by variety.[22] During the process of cooking legume seeds, the starches in the seed are gelatinized, allowing the soluble parts of the seed to leach out into the cooking water. More material can be extracted from the seeds, if both the cooking temperature and pressure are increased, as well as extending the cooking period.

  Whipped aquafaba

  Once the legumes are cooked and filtered out, the water-soluble part left is aquafaba. Comparing the final composition of a cooked seed with a raw seed shows that under normal cooking conditions, approximately 5% of the initial dry weight has been transferred to the cooking water. The dry matter consisted mainly of carbohydrates (sugars, soluble and insoluble fibre) and protein. That ratio of soluble material is approximately the same ratio as found in the raw seed, However, fat and starch were not detected. A concentration of 5% dry weight to water is typical for aquafaba, but the solution can also be reduced to increase the concentration to 10% or more, depending on the application. This can be especially useful for applications where emulsification and viscosity are more important than foaming capabilities. The concentration can also be tailored to produce a more stable foam using less aquafaba by carefully filtering non-soluble material from the solution and adjusting the concentration to the application.

  The first peer-reviewed publication using the term "aquafaba" was recently published by Martin Reaney's group at the University of Saskatchewan (Canada). In this research, they have found that chickpea aquafaba from different commercial sources produces foams that vary in both properties (volume and stability of foam) and chemical composition. 1H-NMR was used to analyze the composition of aquafaba. NMR analysis revealed that the foam contained mainly polysaccharides, sucrose and protein. Protein separations by membrane filtration followed by SDS-PAGE and peptide mass fingerprinting were used to identify aquafaba proteins contributing to foaming properties. Reaney's group research showed that most of aquafaba proteins belonged to known heat soluble proteins such as late embryogenesis abundant proteins and dehydrins. Identified proteins also included heat shock protein, defensin, histone, nonspecific lipid transfer protein and superoxide dismutase. Major storage proteins provicillin and leguminin were also present. In 2015, it was theorized that the most likely agent that caused the liquid to foam was saponins. However, the group's research has shown that aquafaba foaming property is a result of the presence of saponins, carbohydrates and protein fractions.[citation needed]

  In general, the composition of aquafaba depend on: 1. processing methods (soaking, cooking and industrial dehydration), 2. conditions (pH, temperature, pressure and treatment duration), 3. genotype (Kabuli or Desi chickpeas), 4. additives, 5. protein concentration, and 6. carbohydrate type and concentration.


How to make store bought whole multi grain bread softer?

What I've done in the past is mist some water on both sides of the bread slices, then put them in the microwave for 10-15 seconds (alternatively, an oven set at 300F/150C for 5-10 minutes will do it too).

Experiment with the amount of water (but keep it low) and cooking times. You should get much softer (and warm) bread slices out of it.


Are sundried tomatoes regulated in the EU?

There's a ONU/CEE (in french) norm about dried tomatoes.

In PDF:
http://www.unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/trade/agr/standard/dry/dry_f/19DriedTomatoes_f.pdf

I am not certain if that is what you are looking for.

I did not find an English version.


How do I avoid botulism formation when vacuum sealing and freezing raw chopped vegetables?

I suppose dropping the bags in liquid nitrogen for a few minutes, and then storing in the freezer might suffice.

mostly fish, but not a bad read:
http://www.fda.gov/downloads/Food/GuidanceRegulation/UCM252416.pdf

Edit post clarification of the question:

Liquid nitrogen is still fun if you can find an excuse, and highly effective.

In a less drastic direction, simply doing the processing on pre-cooled (below 38F, preferably 33F) vegetables (and preferably in a walk-in cooler held below 38F) should keep things out of the botulism growth zone, and putting them in a -20F freezer for long enough (do some test runs where you actually stick a thermometer in a test bag) to get the center of the mass down below 0F before transfer to a 0F freezer (assuming that's your standard freezer temperature) would likely suffice. A cold brine step might help freezing get started faster but would be messy as compared to just using a -20F freezer (perhaps with racks to separate bags and extra air circulation, so you don't have bags packed together until after they are frozen through.) Depending on scale, maybe just size the -20F unit for a days production and clear it out at the start of each day after holding product overnight.

If processing in a warmer environment, you'll want to minimize time between "being held pre-cooled" and "being packed and frozen" - and especially "time between being vacuum-packed and being frozen." But giving the workers warm coats and hot coffee (and breaks) while working in a cooler will be safest. You will also need to sanitize any equipment on a regular schedule, which will be more often if they are not cold (and you'll need to check the temperature of the food contact parts of any machines when they have been running for a while.)


Can I substitute cornstarch for commercially prepared clear glaze?

Unfortunately no. Cornstarch will cook up white while tapioca starch cooks up remarkably clear.
You may be able to find tapioca starch at your local Asian market or if your grocery store has a decent organic or gluten-free section.
That said, if you speifically need to avoid tapioca for some reason, you could try arrowroot powder. I haven't seen it myself, but I've read that it also cooks up clear, but maybe not as thick as tapioca.


I think (as is so often the case with preprocessed meat) it will often depend on who you buy it from. I often buy kosher prepared birds (which are always pre-brined salted) and I've never had any complaints. The nice thing about kosher preparation, is that it is done according to very specific rules, under strict supervision. It's not a factory process.

On the other hand, I cannot abide the brined birds from major poultry companies. Their primary goal is to increase the weight of the bird, not the flavor.

Factory prep seeks to minimize time and cost. They will use cheap ingredients (largely just water and salt, with no added herbs) and they will use whatever process takes the least time, most likely injection, which has the added benefit that they can force more liquid (and therefore weight) into the meat than would normally come from absorption. They'll likely insta-freeze it, so wait time is probably not an issue, but freezing causes its own issues.

I would say, for best results, take your time. A nice leisurely soak, real salt, and no pressure on the meat. For best results (talking turkey here) look for "Natural" or "Minimally Processed": if it says that, you shouldn't have to worry about competing additives.


How can I warm bread making ingredients to room temperature?

To answer the question as stated: please don't use a microwave. You risk overdoing it. You don't want to cook your eggs or melt the butter. A water bath should work well. You can also set your oven to the lowest setting (should be around 50°C/120°F) and put them in it (no preheating), but then you must really check on them very frequently. Out of the two, I prefer the water bath. @Elendil's suggestion for a thermometer is also great.

A side warning: I doubt that the dense bread is due to such small changes in ingredient temperature. You can easily start with cold ingredients, you just have to give the bread more time to rise. And kneading will easily raise the temperature of your dough from 65 to 85 °F. It is OK to warm the ingredients if you want to, but I suspect the problem is somewhere else, probably either in an incorrect raising/proofing process, or in a bad flour ratio (which could be due to a bad recipe or to measuring by volume instead of by weight).


Possible to make sourdough starter quickly?

You aren't going to be able to get a sourdough starter from flour to ready-to-bake in 24 hours. You could easily make a poolish or pâte fermentée in that time, and get some of the flavor. You might also be able to use some yogurt whey or another source of lactic acid to get some of the sour flavor. Unfortunately, a sour starter is something that you kind of need to keep going and have on hand.


How to tell when roasted bell peppers are ready to skin?

Once roasted, rather than immediately plunging into cold water, place the peppers in a container with a tight fitting lid, or a bowl covered with plastic wrap. Let them steam for 15–20 minutes or until they cool. This will help the skins come off more easily.


Up to a point, the more you can knead your dough the finer the texture of the bread.  It is theoretically possible to knead to the point where the gluten structure falls apart.  I've read that while it is unlikely when kneading by hand, it is easy to do with a machine mixer (it's never happened to me).  However, the pita bread I've eaten wasn't anything like regular bread in hole structure so I don't see the benefit of extra kneading (both before and after).
A problem with kneading after a rise is that most of the gas formed is pressed out, and if there isn't enough food (sugar) left for the yeast, the final rise won't be good.  Again, for pita bread this doesn't seem like an issue.  Maybe the pita bread flat structure is actually helped by kneading a lot of the gas out after rising.


Is it possible to join two thin steaks together on the grill?

It will not work. (*)

The two internal sides in the middle will steam and will not taste good.

I suggest to just cook them as quickly as possible in a hot pan.

(*) There is a chemical called "Transglutaminase" that acts like a meat glue that could be used to do that, but it is overkill.


Brand new grill pan was seasoned but food taste rancid/metallic?

You probably used too much oil when seasoning and maybe the wrong kind of oil. When seasoning you want the thinnest layer of oil possible, and you want to season several times. I use cold-pressed flaxseed oil and season my pans five times using this method:

thoroughly clean and dry the pan. some pans (like carbon steel) come with a layer of wax to protect them from rust and this must be removed before seasoning. one manufacturer suggests cooking potato skins, salt, and oil with constant stirring for 15 minutes, then a second time to remove this. do your best to get the pan prepped properly before seasoning.
put a small amount of flaxseed oil on a paper towel and coat the entire pan, inside and out including the handle. then use a second, dry paper towel to remove the oil. there will be a very thin layer left. you want to get it as dry as possible. there will still be a micro layer of residual oil left on the pan after this step even if it seems to be too dry. it's not.
crank your oven to 550°F and let it heat up fully. then turn the pan upside down (so any oil, of which there should be none, will drip out) and leave in for an hour. then turn off the oven and let it cool compeletely.
repeat steps 2-3 five times.
depending on the pan you may want to hold off cooking eggs or things that stick easily until you have used the pan for a while.

To answer your question of how to fix:
1. Clean your pan again using soap and steel wool and get off all your existing cooked oil. Dry thoroughly.
2. Follow seasoning steps above.


I don't think there is a baking reason behind the design.  Here is a loaf pan from 1897, for example.  Perhaps the popularity of the rectangular loaf can be traced back to the Pullman Palace Car Company in 1868. In the same article the author points out that early 18th century European bakers were using square tin pans to create loaves with minimal crust. I would suggest that this was more of a style preference, as opposed to physics.


Making salad dressing without acid or high fat or capsaicin

Acids and spices are generally used to add flavor to the mostly flavorless salad.

To adapt recipes for your relative, you could try:

Use less sauce or dressing. Of cause the fat content of a dressing is high, but if you drizzle just a little bit over the salad, the overall fat content is much lower. Use less sauce to reduce the absolute amount of fat.
Use oils with a strong taste. You'll need much less oil and can greatly improve the taste of a salad if you use oils with a strong taste like sesame oil, walnut oil or peanut oil.
Add herbs or spices instead of oils. That's how the capsaicin usually gets into a salad, but there are very tasty alternatives: salt, parmesan or a similar grated cheese, oregano, garlic or bears garlic, chives, basil leaves, mint leaves, cress, coriander leaves or finely chopped fennel all add taste to a boring salad without any fat. There are so many more ingredients you could use that the combinations are endless.


can you use metal pans in combo convection/microwave ovens

Can... possibly, if they don't spark too much.

Be used successfully... no.
They will block the microwaves, making the exercise rather futile.

If you're using only conventional heat, then fine, but not if you need the microwave energy.


Carrot soup and avoiding the use of a blender?

One way to modify the recipes (but you won't get the smooth texture of the original recipes) is to cut the onion and carrot a lot smaller than the original recipe ask for. You want to almost dice it. When you are frying the onion and carrot in the pan, do it for like 1-2 min rather than the whole 5 minutes. And finally you will need to cook it in the stock for much longer than the recipe asks. You want to bring the stock to a boil then let it simmer covered to allow the carrot to become really soft. Then use something with a big flat surface(a large wooden spoon or something similar) to help you mash the rest against the side of the stock pot. The results will come out a lot lumpier than the orginal recipes but some texture and "unblended" bits of carrot is actually pretty good in carrot soup.


What is "Fish Sauce" typically used for?

I grew up with a Vietnamese mother that used to put fish sauce in nearly everything. While I can't exactly recommend all of her uses (she once used it in a texas beef chili -- was not good), there are a few techniques that are good to know.

A common method to create a savory sauce is to use fish sauce with sugar at a 2:1 ratio. For example, you can make Dau phu sot ca chua by sauteeing fried tofu with diced tomatoes and adding 2tbsp of fish sauce to 1tbsp of sugar. This ratio can also be used in stir-fries. I would make sure to turn on your air vents when doing this -- the smell of fish sauce hitting a hot pan is... different than what most people are used to.

It works as a savory salt alternative in a lot of dishes. I use it to season fried rice instead of using salt or soy sauce. It generally is a good idea to add this during the cooking process, so the liquid can reduce and meld with the food.

It can also be used to quick brine ground pork for savory asian dishes. I'd add somewhere in the vicinity of a tbsp per pound of ground pork. I use this technique when making Thai Krapao. There are probably other marinating/brining applications, but I don't have much personal experience with that.

You can also use fish sauce to create a wide variety of dipping sauces -- in general it is paired with something sweet (sugar or rice vinegar) to help balance out the saltiness. It is also commonly watered down (Nuoc cham) in vietnamese dipping sauces to keep it from being too overpowering.

On a personal note, my favorite use is straight up on crispy fried eggs (slightly runny yolk) over white rice. It isn't for everyone, but it's something I've been making and enjoying for years.


How can vegans alleviate the effects of spicy food?

I have done no testing of this at all but I was surprised to find on this site that they recommend trying a spoon full (or cube of) sugar.

  Perhaps the easiest way of calming down a flaming mouth is by sucking on a sugar cube or holding a teaspoon of sugar in your mouth. This helps by absorbing the spicy oil that is coating your mouth, as well as giving you a different, strong taste to concentrate on. A bit of mind-trickery and science combined!

Other things I've eaten in the past include starches, like bread or rice.

Here's a fun infographic and most of the items on it are vegan:

from here


Is it valid to claim that a jam contains no preservatives?

From the FDA site: "The term 'chemical preservative' as defined by 2l CFR 101.22(a)(5), 'means any chemical that, when added to food tends to prevent or retard deterioration thereof, but does not include common salt, sugars, vinegars, spices or oils extracted from spices, substances added to food by direct exposure thereof to wood smoke, or chemicals applied for their insecticidal or herbicidal properties'.'

So that seems pretty straightforward. Legally, they don't have to claim sugars or acids as preservatives.


Should I reheat my eggs before using in recipe?

The time in the oven should be plenty for heating the eggs.


You cannot make mozzarella without some form of rennet.  It can be natural rennet, synthetic, or vegetable-based rennet, but you need it to get the correct cheese texture.
This goes for the vast majority of cheeses.  The only ones you can make without any type of rennet are the soft, heat-and-acid-set cheeses such as ricotta, farmer cheese, chevre, and paneer.


Steamer with single vent instead of bottom holes

I have a stainless steel steamer/juicer similar to the one picture w/o perforation. It has a tube that dispels the juice into any container you choose right from the middle pan as it extracts.  I purchased mine from Amazon and it is a product of Cook N Home.


The recipe on my bag of brown rice says:

1:2 ratio of rice and water
No salt in the water
Cook for 35 minutes
Rest for 5 minutes
Remove any surplus water

They always come out good and soft :-)


What makes small tea leaves better than big tea leaves?

Before I answer this question, the focus on small leaves and young buds is mainly relevant for green and white teas.

This category of teas are very lightly processed and are therefore very 'raw'. Using very large leaves would result in a more bitter brew. Therefore small tips and buds are the best and result in more delicate brews.

The smaller leaves are also picked in early Spring. As the temperatures are low, they grow slower and are thus richer in flavor.

These Spring buds have less supply, while there's less demand. As you can imagine, that results in higher prices.


Is there any reason not to decrystallize honey?

I'm just a humble beekeeper.  I went about my business doing what I do, ignorant of other ways or ideas.  I sell my honey at a local food co-op, being the only local beekeeper who can meet their demand.  I did a taste-tasting event one day where I got to interact with those who buy honey.  WOW! What an eye opening experience.  There were folks who would not ever consider buying my honey because it was liquid (I just harvested it three days ago!) and instead opted for the "raw" honey that had traveled thousands of miles and through various customs agents to get to their shopping cart.

Bees make liquid honey.  Honey naturally crystallizes. Not all honey crystallizes at the same time. As a relatively small time beekeeper, I extract all my own honey.  I get it from the bees, and spin it out a few hours later.  I keep the room I extract in a balmy 80 degrees and have no problem extracting it or bottling it at this temp.  I have never even heard of "heating" my honey to extract it... I guess the HUGE producers have to do that, they don't tend their own bees, but contract with commerical beekeepers.  They are harvesting days to weeks after the honey has been taken from the bees.

In summertime a beehive can easily be over 100 degrees inside.  Yes, it can be over 100 degrees where the honey is when the bees have it.  I call this the biological norm temp.

The previous responders were right in that compounds in the honey do denature when it's heated.  I couldn't find the link, but there is a good article on the half-life of enzymes in honey at various temperature... at high heat, they can disappear quickly.  But at temperatures below 110, they are relatively stable... at 90 even more so.  If I need to decrystallize honey, I stay around 90-100 degrees and decrystallize slowly.  Again, 90-100 degrees is within the biological norm for honey; I don't feel I compromise the integrity of my honey with heat.

P.S. There is no USDA definition for "raw honey".  As a beekeeper, I find it a meaningless term.  One person could live in a climate where he harvests and bottles at 100 degrees, and another could harvest on day that is 60 degrees, but heat her harvesting and bottling area up to 90 degrees.  Is his "raw" but hers not raw because she heated her working space?

P.S.S.  Buy from small time beekeepers... they don't have the fancy equipment to heat or "cook" honey.


Why is bacon commonly baked in a cold oven?

As the oven heats up, the bacon will slowly warm, and slowly start to render its fat.  This minimizes the curling from shrinkage.  It is not absolutely necessary, and makes the total time to the bacon being done shorter, if you start timing from when the oven is turned on.

For more insight, see the various answers to Cooking Buffet-style Bacon


In America that sauce is hoisin sauce or possibly (very much less likely) duck sauce or plum sauce. Any of these can be found for purchase easily, or they can be made from scratch.


Is this canning method safe to use for spaghetti sauce? (Boiling the sauce in the jars in the oven)

No, it is not safe. You need a pressure canner. That's what the USDA says about anything containing meat:

  There are no safe options for canning these foods listed below in a boiling water canner.

See http://nchfp.uga.edu/how/can_04/soups.html for a table of pressures and processing times.


Is carnival glass safe for serving food?

Don't use any food containing:

alcohol
acids (lemon juice, vinegar, ...)
oils (butter, mayonnaise, cream, ...)

So a salad without oil&vinegar should be safe for daily use, but ice cream, punch, pie (contains butter) etc are to be avoided.  The health effects should be minimal, but you'll definitely ruin granny's beautiful set in the long run...  ;-)


Can fermented dosa batter cause bacillus cereus poisoning?

I don't have a completely definitive answer. However generally, fermentation produces lactic acid which inhibits the growth of harmful bacteria, which is why it is a successful food preservation method.  The yeast and bacteria that are responsible for the fermentation are often naturally occurring on many raw foods.  For example with lacto-fermented vegetables often all you have to do is submerge them in a salt solution and the naturally occurring yeast and beneficial bacteria will usually just do their thing and begin the fermentation process, which inhibits the growth of bacteria.

This is similar to how sourdough starter works, you simply add water to flour and the naturally occurring yeasts are activated.  As the starter ferments, lactic acid is produced, which reduces the pH of the solution, which inhibits the growth of bacteria.  This is why you end up with sourdough starter rather than something spoiled. This is also why fermented foods (pickles, sourdough bread, etc) are generally sour in flavor.

Incidentally this same thing is true of wine grapes, if you harvest ripe wine grapes and just leave them somewhere, fermentation will begin because of the naturally occurring yeasts on the fruit, which will eventually produce wine.  These yeasts are variable and can be mixed with various bacteria and produce uneven results, so wine makers generally do not roll the dice and add their own preferred yeast instead. But I suspect that this is how wine was made for thousands of years before that technology was developed.

Back to dosa, the dosa batter is usually prepared by combining dal and rice and sometimes salt with water.  The dal especially typically has a significant amount of lactic acid bacteria, and the salt, if used, inhibits the growth of harmful bacteria.  Many recipes call for fenugreek seeds (not ground fenugreek), which usually contain naturally occurring yeast which helps kick off the fermentation. The rice is usually raw (soaked) before it is ground, and so has not had a chance to sit cooked at room temperature to develop harmful bacteria. The goal of the recipe is to ensure the beneficial fermentation happens instead of the growth of harmful bacteria.  The recipe is pretty foolproof which is why dosa have become a dietary staple in such large parts of the world.


Add salt. Sodium interacts with chemical pathways in the taste buds and affects how other flavours are perceived; one of these interactions is that it balances bitterness.

The interactions can be summarised in a chart:


The easiest remedy is just to cut it into smaller pieces, so you don't feel overwhelmed when eating a single piece.

Cocoa powder is slightly bitter, so cutting it back might actually make the fudge taste sweeter.  Instead, you could take small portions of the the fudge, roll them into balls, then roll them in cocoa powder to make chocolate truffles.


Why does roasting add a flavour to the peanuts?

That great taste comes from the compounds produced by the Maillard reaction.  It not one reaction but many that occur when the building blocks of proteins and sugars react as food is heated.  Many new compounds are produced giving the cooked food a richer range of flavors.  The pyrazines produced by the Maillard reaction give roasted peanuts their characteristic aroma, in particular cyclohexapyrazine.

To produce pyrazines, you need to heat your peanuts above 70C, with 110C to 170C (230F - 340F) suggested by most cookbooks.  For unshelled peanuts at 110C it can take up to ten minutes for the amount of pyrazines produced to reach its peak.  If the peanuts are not dry, you may need to add up to 20 minutes of oven time (longer on a tawa) at a lower temperature to dry them.   Color will be your guide.  The flavor of the pyrazines will be masked by oxidizing oils in the peanuts, so keeping them in an airtight container helps preserve that nutty-cracker-peanut flavor.


Is aluminum pressure cooker reactive? Will it give "off" flavors?

Provided the surface is bare aluminum, it can create off flavors primarily when cooking acidic foods. To avoid this, many aluminum pans are either coated with stainless steel or anodized for a less reactive outer coating. If your pan is bare aluminum, it should be fine for most cooking applications, but you may not want to use it to cook lower pH foods.

Cooking with Aluminum


How can I make a panna cotta based on Jelly bellys?

Grant Achatz does quite a lot with popcorn at Alinea. One of his recipes is available as part of the preview of his book on Google Books and is just about readable. Looks like he goes with the steeping method (although he's using water). I ate at Alinea recently and there was a popcorn soup on the menu that tasted exactly like popcorn, so it's probably a good place to start (continue?).

A friend once made a "Movie Theatre" Panna Cotta. It was a normal panna cotta, but he served it with a Coca Cola syrup (just heavily reduced Coke) and some home made Cracker Jacks. It was delicious. So good luck with yours.

Edit:
The basics of the recipe:

Cook 100g uncooked popcorn kernels (he does it stove top with 25g canola oil)
Add to 750g water, 7g kosher salt, 90g butter, 75g sugar. Simmer for 5 minutes
Strain through china cap, blend, strain through chinoise.


If a US recipe specifies 'vegetable oil' what type of oil should I use in the UK?

Peanut (groundnut) oil is a great option.

In the US vegetable oil generally means soybean oil or a soybean oil blend. The main things are that it be neutral (little or no taste of its own), with a high smoke point. On those scores, you can't do much better than peanut oil.

I have not used rice bran oil.

Yellow squash generally means this:

(the long one)

It can also mean the other yellow vegetable in the picture or this:

What it is not, is butternut:

That is a different flavor entirely. Yellow squash is more like zucchini, butternut squash is more like pumpkin.

Welcome to Seasoned Advice.


Sourdough starter stopped growing, is it normal?

Nothing that happens in a starter in the first few days is normal, in the sense that it doesn't behave like a mature starter. During this time, the bacterial flora in the starter is in constant flux, and you need to wait until the desired bacteria have prevailed, which will take some time.

It is not impossible to do something wrong, but you will only know it when the starter has stabilized, or rather failed to. Until then, just keep the regime exactly as prescribed, no matter what visible changes happen.


I would still suggest using asafoetida (also known as "hing").  Bloom it in just a couple tsp of vegetable oil,and then add it to the paste.  Since your marinade already has fat in it from the yogurt and buttermilk, a little extra fat from the oil won't change it significantly.  Frying spices in oil separately and adding them to liquid is a common Indian food technique, called a "tarka" or "tadka".  And asafoetida really is the best garlic substitute ... that's the whole reason it exists, as a food.
In terms of obtaining it, your best bets where you are (your profile says Rocky Mountains) is either to find a grocery store with a substantial Indian food aisle (there are Indian groceries in almost every major Western US and Canadian city), or online ordering.  The nice thing about hing is that a little goes a long way, and it keeps for a long time if it stays dry, so the one little jar you buy should be good for dozens of dinners with your sister.
Substitution ratio: 1/2 tsp is equivalent to 2 cloves garlic, or 2/3 cup minced onion.


American equivalent for British chocolate terms

The closest US equivalent to British plain chocolate is semi-sweet. If a recipe calls for, say, 5oz of plain chocolate, it will mean chocolate in bar form (unless chips are specified of course).

Obviously if the chocolate is for melting it doesn't matter what form it comes in.

Cocoa powder and chocolate syrup mean the same thing in Britain as they do in the US, incidentally.


Can you make thin crispy dosa without urad dal?? Can I use any other lentils in their place?

Urad dal is the most common legume used in traditional dosa recipes but it is by no means the only legume used.

Recipes for traditional dosa will sometimes use other high protein legumes such as chana dal. This variety of chickpea, or other chickpea varieties, may be easier to find.

My experience with Scandinavian countries leads me to believe that legumes in general are much less popular. You might have better luck just ordering urad dal online.


I have many years of BBQ experience smoking briskets.
I would not recommend spruce as a cooking/smoke wood for brisket or for anything.
It will not taste very well. Too much creosote.
Use oak, hickory, mesquite or any fruit or nut wood.
If you are cooking the brisket via another heat source and using the spruce needles as a flavoring agent, that may work. Not very appealing to me, but.


Don't eat it as-is. It contains cyanide.

Bitter almonds are the definitely poisonous thing you've probably heard of; they contain enough cyanide that just a few could kill a small child (according to On Food and Cooking). The poison is released when the kernels are broken, as defensive mechanism. The variety we eat is a "sweet" safe version which doesn't have cyanide. Other stone fruit kernels are essentially like bitter almonds; the plants are closely related.

Fortunately it's pretty hard to accidentally eat bigger kernels (apricots, peaches, and nectarines) that could carry enough to really be harmful. Smaller things like cherries of course don't contain as much, so it's no big deal if you accidentally swallow some, but you still shouldn't go out of your way to eat them.

The key almond flavor you're familiar with from almond extract is benzaldehyde, a byproduct of the cyanide production - unfortunately the poison and the delicious flavor come together. (The plants actually produce amygdalin, which is then broken down into sugar, benzaldehyde, and hydrogen cyanide.) The extraction of the benzaldehyde is a chemical process that you can't really do at home, so you can't just make almond extract/oil directly from them.

The best general reading article about bitter almonds I found was The Case of the Tasty But Poisonous Nut, from the LA Times in 2002. A few notable parts:

  The lethal dose of raw bitter almonds depends on the size of the nuts, their concentration of amygdalin and the consumer's sensitivity. But scientists estimate that a 150-pound adult might die from eating between 10 and 70 raw nuts, and a child from ingesting just a few.

  Schrade, who studied organic chemistry at Yale, learned that because hydrocyanic acid vanishes into the air when heated, cooking destroys the poison in bitter almonds and allows them to lend their flavor to a wide range of dishes, both traditional and modern.

  The FDA clarified the agency's position recently, saying that it would allow bitter almonds to be shipped interstate to professional chefs and bakers, as long as their dishes were cooked to be nontoxic.

  In any case, although it may be safe for most adults to nibble a raw bitter almond to experience its intense flavor, that would be unpleasant to most people. The nuts are not meant to be eaten as a snack food like regular almonds: They're used as a spice, like nutmeg or cinnamon.

So in summary: it sounds like fully roasting the kernel would make it safe, but since it should be something like a bitter almond, you probably don't want to just eat it like that, but rather incorporate it into something. And of course, I'm still unsure of the exact definition of "fully roasting" for complete safety. Dharini's comment below links to a suggestion that you need 10-15 minutes at 350°F, or possibly less if you've already removed the kernel from the pit, but other (also unreputable) sources I found recommended as much as 20 minutes in a "warm oven" for bitter almonds. Finally, the recipes at the end of the LA Times article are presumably safe, if you want to use them as starting points. (Obviously the risk is lower if you're just trying to eat a single kernel, but I don't want to make any unfounded recommendations.)


How can I tell if katsuobushi is made from bonito or the real deal?

I suspect that what you have here is a translation issue:
There are a range of fish called "Bonito", which are largely fish from the mackerel family. However, one of the fish also known as Bonito is the Skipjack Tuna (Katsuwonus pelamis), which goes under a range of names including Arctic Bonito, Bonito, Ocean Bonito (see the huge variety of local names listed according to the FAO here)
To quote the site:

UK : Bonito ,  Striped bellied bonito ,  Striped bellied tunny .
USA : Arctic bonito ,  Bonito ,  Mushmouth ,  Ocean bronito ,  Oeeanie bonito ,  Oeeanie skipjack ,  Skipjack ,  Skipjack tuna ,  Skippy ,  Striped bonito ,  Striped tuna ,  Victor fish ,  Watermelon ,  Hawaii: Aku ,  Aku kinai .

As food labeling requirements are reasonably strict in both the USA and Japan, I suspect that if you see it labeled as Skipjack in Japanese, then it almost certainly is Skipjack (well, so long as you can rely on the fisheries people to be properly identifying their species), and what you are seeing is just the local variant name which someone has decided is the name for this type of fish in the USA.


How to make silky smooth chocolate like galaxy bar or dairy milk bar?

Very short answer: you can't.

Making smooth chocolate bars is an industrial process, not replicable in the home, at least not with reasonable amounts of effort and money. You need specialized know-how, equipment, and access to the proper raw materials.

Also, compound chocolate is not suited for making chocolate bars. It is a different end product, meant to be used as a cheaper and easier-to-melt alternative to proper chocolate bars, it is not a raw material for chocolate bars.