I require that we treat our team members with compassion, refraining
  from false speech (teamwork, marketing and sales), and avoid taking
  what is not given (intellectual property, competition, finance).

None of the above is uniquely Buddhist or even religious. Its just ordinary human ethics expected in any ethical workplace. There is no need to ever refer to "Buddhism".

  Well-meaning members of my sangha remind me that this path is
  incommensurate with the living practice of Buddhism. Somewhere in my
  heart, I feel like I've never been living it more than right now. How
  can I reconcile this understanding?

There is nothing to reconcile. Most Westerners don't understand Buddhism very well. They have never studied the Buddhist teachings for laypeople and believe Buddhism only teaches the hardcore teachings for monks & advanced yogis.

For a lay person, earning a living is part of Buddhism; which includes carrying on a business. As long as the business is ethical, the Buddha in the Pali scriptures praised laypeople who are successful in carrying on a business.

  Monks, a lay follower should not engage in five types of business. Which five? Business in weapons, business in human beings, business in
  meat, business in intoxicants, and business in poison.

  Vanijja Sutta

  And what is the bliss of having? There is the case where the son of a good family has wealth earned through his efforts & enterprise, amassed through the strength of his arm, and piled up through the sweat of his brow, righteous wealth righteously gained. When he thinks, 'I have wealth earned through my efforts & enterprise, amassed through the strength of my arm, and piled up through the sweat of my brow, righteous wealth righteously gained,' he experiences bliss, he experiences joy. This is called the bliss of having.

  Anana Sutta

  The wise and virtuous shine like a blazing fire. He who acquires his wealth in harmless ways like to a bee that honey gathers, riches mount
  up for him like ant hill's rapid growth.

  With wealth acquired this way, a layman fit for household life, in portions four divides his wealth: thus will he friendship win.

  One portion for his wants he uses, two portions on his business spends, the fourth for times of need he keeps.

  Sigalovada Sutta


Speaking falsehood is sinful. Does it mean speaking is the truth is no sinful?

This page has extracts from a dozen suttas, which explain what "Right Speech" is.

Being "truthful" is an aspect, but  not the only aspect, of Right Speech: for example speech should also be affectionate and spoken with a mind of good-will, beneficial, and spoken at the right time. Also polite, not divisive, and so on.


You should keep your attention in the 4 foundation of mindfulness from the time you wake to the point you sleep.

Two key elements for a beginner is:

you have to make your body fully sensitive
you have to calm the fabrications

The key ingredient in mindfulness is what ever you sense you should not react with craving and clinging noting the sensation is impermanent.

To make your body sensitive

You should make your body sensitive since all mind matter creates sensations and any changes in the aggregates is sensed through the sensation it creates. So in doing any of the 4 foundation of mindfulness sensation play a key role.
Scan your body from part to part systematically without missing any part until you feel some sensation in the part you examine. Start with small areas and linger on the part during the start but keep increasing the pace you move and the size of the area seeing if you are fully sensitive to any sensation in the whole area when doing so, i.e., when you sense something in the whole area move on to another area systemically - the time to sense any sensation will become shorter and shorter until it becomes instant and through out the body.

Calm the fabrications

You have to calm all fabrication before realising the final goal.

Passive

You keep looking at sensation the fabrications will disappear. First the gross sensations and then pleasant sensation leaving you with neutral sensations. After some practice, mere looking at any fabrication
it disappears.

Active

Calm the breath by looking at the process its speed and length, make the efforts to anchor the mind, if there are body sensations look at it until it disappears (it happens in a short duration) until you have pleasant or neutral sensations

Overcoming some of the hindrances

As I see it, there seams to be some hindrances to your daily practice. They might be the following:

Agitation

If your mind seams very active and restless then more from part to part fast scanning large areas but progressively staying longer and making the area a bit smaller. Note the speed and length or breathing also.

Mental Lethargy

Increase space of scanning to arouse energy. This is also a mental fabrication do generally you should do this in a medium pace (not too long or too short in any part). Do some intentional breathing increasing the length and speed marginally.


If one is using music in order to be able to e.g. concentrate better, then it might not be the best solution. In time it could become a "crutch".

There are many views and discussions about this and ultimately it comes down to personal preference. For some meditators it might be okay to use a crutch in the beginning, which they can later do away with.

For others, they might prefer to learn meditation or to meditate in silence. Their is no definitive answer to this.


How much are stress and anxiety, or their exacerbation, barriers to spiritual practice?

Stress can be broken up into mental and physical phenomena such as thoughts, emotions, muscle tension, pain etc. They are just impersonal phenomena arising and ceasing on their own accord.

Anxiety is a variation of the 4th Hindrance of restlessness and worry (uddhacca-kukkucca). The hindrances are barriers that block one from progressing on the Path, unless one practices to understand and overcome them.

In Vipassana meditation one treats all objects the same. No object is more or less important than the previous or next object.

Just note the phenomena a couple of times and return attention to the abdomen (Burmese Method).


Observing eight precepts in regular life

Simply being in the presence of music or entertainment or sitting in a comfortable chair doesn't break the 8 precepts. Here are the relavent descriptions from the Uposatha Sutta in which the Buddha describes the 8 precepts:

  All of you have given up singing and dancing, the playing of musical
  instruments and the watching of entertainments, which are stumbling
  blocks to that which is wholesome. You do not bedeck yourselves with
  ornaments, flowers or perfume. For all of this day and night, in this
  manner, you will be known as having followed the arahants, and the
  Uposatha will have been observed by you. This is the seventh factor of
  the Uposatha.

  ...

  All of you have given up lying on large or high beds. You are content
  with low beds or beds made of grass. For all of this day and night, in
  this manner, you will be known as having followed the arahants, and
  the Uposatha will have been observed by you. This is the eighth factor
  of the Uposatha.

  http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/an/an08/an08.041.vaka.html

With entertainment it is talking about intentionally seeking out or producing entertainment, not about overhearing or seeing someone else doing it, and the giving up of high beds I think is specifically refering to the use of such beds to sleep. I don't think sitting in a chair counts.

Furthermore whenever we interpret the precepts as laypeople (i.e., not interpreting the rules of Vinaya) we have to focus on the underlying principle and purpose of the precepts to decide between different understandings. The purpose of the eight precepts is to live with the renunciation of sensuality and luxury. As a layperson I think it makes sense to say that as long as you are not actively seeking these things out but merely coming across them, you are still acting in accordance with renunciation.


Which Jatakas illustrate Viriya Paramita

The commentary cites the Maha-Janaka Jataka (539) as the pinnacle of the perfection of effort:

So I will ever do my best to fight through ocean to the shore;
While strength holds out I still will strive, nor yield till I can strive no more."
(Cowell, trans)

Also, the Vaṇṇupatha Jataka (#2) deals with this perfection. There's also one about a bird trying to put out a forest fire that comes to mind, but can't find it right now.


Can everything be explained as the result of Kamma or not?

This is a very good question.
Ven. Thanissaro translated SN 36.21 as saying very clearly below that not everything that happens to us is caused by that which was done before. The sutta gives examples like bile, weather, harsh treatment etc. As you have said correctly, MN 101 reinforces the message of SN 36.21.

So any brahmans & contemplatives who are of the doctrine & view that
whatever an individual feels — pleasure, pain, neither
pleasure-nor-pain — is entirely caused by what was done before — slip
past what they themselves know, slip past what is agreed on by the
world. Therefore I say that those brahmans & contemplatives are
wrong."

And yet, in his commentary to the translation of SN 36.21, he wrote that this is not the correct interpretation of this sutta, citing SN 35.145 as stating that the body and mind is old kamma.
SN 35.145 states that the eyes, ears, nose, tongue, body and mind are old kamma, capable of being felt. But, it doesn't say WHOSE old kamma it is.
The suttas below (SN 12.17 and SN 22.85) answer that question.
So, the eyes, ears, nose, tongue, body and mind definitely arise due to old kamma. After all, they cannot arise spontaneously - they definitely arise due to old kamma. But we cannot ask WHOSE old kamma it is. It is dependently originated - with ignorance as the condition.
This is in line with sabbe dhamma anatta (all phenomena is not self).
Based on the following sutta quotes, if we say that OUR body and mind arises due to OUR own past kamma, that's an indication of self-view and it's also the view of eternalism.
If we say that the old or new kamma is not done by anyone, that's annihilationism. But this is also a type of self-view.
Instead, the Buddha taught dependent origination. That the self is impermanent, changing and dependently originated.
So, there is volition and there is suffering, but we don't connect them to a specific permanent self identity.
In AN 5.57, it is stated that one should have the view of "I am the owner of my kamma, the heir of my kamma; I have kamma as my origin, kamma as my relative, kamma as my resort; I will be the heir of whatever kamma, good or bad, that I do". But this is only skillful means (upaya) to cultivate hiri and otappa (shame and fear of wrongdoing).
From SN 12.17:

“How is it, Master Gotama: is suffering created by oneself?”
“Not so, Kassapa,” the Blessed One said.
“Then, Master Gotama, is suffering created by another?”
“Not so, Kassapa,” the Blessed One said.
“How is it then, Master Gotama: is suffering created both by oneself
and by another?”
“Not so, Kassapa,” the Blessed One said.
“Then, Master Gotama, has suffering arisen fortuitously, being created
neither by oneself nor by another?”
“Not so, Kassapa,” the Blessed One said.
“How is it then, Master Gotama: is there no suffering?”
“It is not that there is no suffering, Kassapa; there is suffering.”
“Then is it that Master Gotama does not know and see suffering?”
“It is not that I do not know and see suffering, Kassapa. I know
suffering, I see suffering.”
“Whether you are asked: ‘How is it, Master Gotama: is suffering
created by oneself?’ or ‘Is it created by another?’ or ‘Is it created
by both?’ or ‘Is it created by neither?’ in each case you say: ‘Not
so, Kassapa.’ When you are asked: ‘How is it then, Master Gotama: is
there no suffering?’ you say: ‘It is not that there is no suffering,
Kassapa; there is suffering.’ When asked: ‘Then is it that Master
Gotama does not know and see suffering?’ you say: ‘It is not that I do
not know and see suffering, Kassapa. I know suffering, I see
suffering.’ Venerable sir, let the Blessed One explain suffering to
me. Let the Blessed One teach me about suffering.”
“Kassapa, if one
thinks, ‘The one who acts is the same as the one who experiences the
result,’ then one asserts with reference to one existing from the
beginning: ‘Suffering is created by oneself.’ When one asserts thus,
this amounts to eternalism.
But, Kassapa, if one thinks, ‘The one who
acts is one, the one who experiences the result is another,’ then one
asserts with reference to one stricken by feeling: ‘Suffering is
created by another.’ When one asserts thus, this amounts to
annihilationism.
Without veering towards either of these extremes, the
Tathagata teaches the Dhamma by the middle: ‘With ignorance as
condition, volitional formations come to be; with volitional
formations as condition, consciousness…. Such is the origin of this
whole mass of suffering. But with the remainderless fading away and
cessation of ignorance comes cessation of volitional formations; with
the cessation of volitional formations, cessation of consciousness….
Such is the cessation of this whole mass of suffering.’”

Also from SN 22.85:

"And so, my friend Yamaka — when you can't pin down the Tathagata as a
truth or reality even in the present life — is it proper for you to
declare, 'As I understand the Teaching explained by the Blessed One, a
monk with no more effluents, on the break-up of the body, is
annihilated, perishes, & does not exist after death'?"
"Previously, my friend Sariputta, I did foolishly hold that evil
supposition. But now, having heard your explanation of the Dhamma, I
have abandoned that evil supposition, and have broken through to the
Dhamma."
"Then, friend Yamaka, how would you answer if you are thus asked: A
monk, a worthy one, with no more mental effluents: what is he on the
break-up of the body, after death?"
"Thus asked, I would answer, 'Form is inconstant... Feeling...
Perception... Fabrications... Consciousness is inconstant. That which
is inconstant is stressful (suffering). That which is stressful has
ceased and gone to its end."

Also SN 12.20:

“When, bhikkhus, a noble disciple has clearly seen with correct wisdom
as it really is this dependent origination and these dependently
arisen phenomena, it is impossible that he will run back into the
past, thinking: ‘Did I exist in the past? Did I not exist in the past?
What was I in the past? How was I in the past? Having been what, what
did I become in the past?’ Or that he will run forward into the
future, thinking: ‘Will I exist in the future? Will I not exist in the
future? What will I be in the future? How will I be in the future?
Having been what, what will I become in the future?’ Or that he will
now be inwardly confused about the present thus: ‘Do I exist? Do I not
exist? What am I? How am I? This being—where has it come from, and
where will it go?’


Which buddhist traditions use silent visual applause, instead of clapping, to show appreciation and what is the origin of this practice?

This video says that it's widespread among French and German university students, ecologists, especially left-wing, for example at political assemblies and unions. And it says that an internet search shows that it's part of the "language of signs" but that no-one knows which country it began in.

The page Monks and nuns from the Thich Nhat Hanh collective, in Plum Village, France, pay our school a special visit suggest that Thich Nhat Hahn are:

From France
Teaching 'silent applause'
Teaching 'ecologist' songs such as "I love nature"

So perhaps they adopted the gesture from that milieu (or vice versa): i.e. from European students and young ecologists.


Do domesticated animals have control over their karma?

Are domesticated animals able to generate their own karma

Yes, they commit Kamma just like humans. But their range is limited compared to us. They are unable to commit highly potent good/bad Kamma except on rare occasions. Their minds are clouded by ignorance most of the time. So it's highly unlikely for them to commit a Triple Rooted Kamma required for a perfect human birth.

Examples of animals committing good Kamma(first 2 are highly potent due to the purity of the recipient):

Pārileyyaka the elephant and the monkey who took care of the Buddha in the forest.
Muchalinda the king cobra who sheltered the Buddha from rain in the 6th week after attaining enlightenment
Animals taking care of their offspring.

  their masters to ensure that they are set on the right path? To what extent can he help himself, and to what extent can I?

Yes, the owners can teach them good manners. Train them not to kill other animals, not to steal food from others. The more domesticated the animal is, the less bad Kamma it would commit. Also, you can have it listen to the Dhamma. It's a long shot, but it has worked on some occations. ex: The story of Manduka Devaputta

  My dog, Bronson, has epilepsy and fits on a regular basis, perhaps as
  a result of bad karma?

Yes, it is. This is called the Upattambaka(Supportive) Kamma. In case of lower births, this type of Kamma worsens the living conditions.


What "technically" happens when we chant Nam Myoho Renge Kyo?

The simple explanation is that you are practicing mindful concentration. The latter threefold division of concentration required in the Noble Eightfold Path. Whether you are doing sitting meditation, chanting sutras, calling the name of the Buddhas or Bodhisattvas, or chanting mantras, or even following the monastic discipline Vinaya as a monk. You can't simply concentrate on anything though, importantly it must be Right Mindfulness that is skillful.

  Abandoning the wrong factors of the path "One is mindful to abandon
  wrong view & to enter & remain in right view: This is one's right
  mindfulness...

  "One is mindful to abandon wrong resolve & to enter & remain in right
  resolve: This is one's right mindfulness...

  "One is mindful to abandon wrong speech & to enter & remain in right
  speech: This is one's right mindfulness...

  "One is mindful to abandon wrong action & to enter & remain in right
  action: This is one's right mindfulness...

  "One is mindful to abandon wrong livelihood & to enter & remain in
  right livelihood: This is one's right mindfulness..."

  — MN 117

Chanting holy names is within this criteria, as with Myoho Renge Kyo -the Sublime Dharma of Lotus Sutra, as they do not promote bad unskillful thoughts and encourage positive reverential emotions. (With the added possibility of divine intervention..) The practice of the Noble Eightfold Path is said to lead to liberation from mental afflictions by the purification of mind, speech and action.

As exactly how the exact mechanics of this works, I can't say for certain, but it does work. Abandoning negative thoughts does wonder for the mind and body. At certain level of concentration you enter what is called the Jhana/Chan/Zen where feelings of bliss and peace arise, and is also a state where you can make many realizations. This is certainly possible through chanting.


Can we meet the conditions of good feeling again and again?

There are three feelings:

DN34:1.4.11: sukhā vedanā, dukkhā vedanā, adukkhamasukhā vedanā.
DN34:1.4.11: pleasant, painful, and neutral.

Sukhā vedanā (e.g., "joy of sex") is prone to relishing which leads to suffering.

MN1:172-194.26: Because he has understood that relishing is the root of suffering,

How then should we practice?

DN34:1.2.5: What one thing should be developed?
DN34:1.2.6: Kāyagatāsati sātasahagatā.
DN34:1.2.6: Mindfulness of the body that is full of pleasure.

Note that sātasahagatā is not the same as sukhā vedanā. Indeed sātasahagatā is the subtle ease brought about by the relinquishing of stressful grasping at good feeling.
Sātasahagatā can be understood as "frictionless ease". Sātasahagatā is equally applicable to the sublime ease of meditation and it is also applicable to the spinning of a jet engine at full throttle.
So if "good feeling" means "grasping at pleasure", then yes, we can choose delight and suffering endlessly. Yet if we understand "good feeling" as sātasahagatā then we can also understand that right mindfulness leads to extinguishment.

AN8.63:3.1: Yato kho te, bhikkhu, ayaṁ samādhi evaṁ bhāvito hoti bahulīkato, tato tvaṁ, bhikkhu, imaṁ samādhiṁ savitakkampi savicāraṁ bhāveyyāsi, avitakkampi vicāramattaṁ bhāveyyāsi, avitakkampi avicāraṁ bhāveyyāsi, sappītikampi bhāveyyāsi, nippītikampi bhāveyyāsi, sātasahagatampi bhāveyyāsi, upekkhāsahagatampi bhāveyyāsi.
AN8.63:3.1: When this immersion is well developed and cultivated in this way, you should develop it while placing the mind and keeping it connected. You should develop it without placing the mind, but just keeping it connected. You should develop it without placing the mind or keeping it connected. You should develop it with rapture. You should develop it without rapture. You should develop it with pleasure. You should develop it with equanimity.

Sātasahagata itself must be relinquished on the path. Sātasahagata still is tangled with intention. Notice that the Buddha points to equanimity.


other models analogue of the ''five aggregates''

One = Life, Dukka, Samsara,

Two = Body and Mind, namarupa and vinnana,

five = 5 aggregate  (Skanda),

Twelve = 12 faculties,

Eighteen = 18 Dhathu,


What is Metta-Bhavana and how does one practice it?

'Metta' is good-will & non-hatred. It is wanting other people to be happy. This does not mean to "save" or transform other people into inherently happy people but to abide with non-conflict with other people. The meditation method is below:

  Whatever living beings there may be;  Whether they are weak or strong,
  omitting none, The great or the mighty, medium, short or small,   The
  seen and the unseen, Those living near and far away,  Those born and
  to-be-born. Wishing: In gladness and in safety — May all beings be at ease/be happy! (sabbe sattā bhavantu sukhitattā)

  Let none deceive another,     Or despise any being in any state. Let none
  through anger or ill-will     Wish harm upon another. Even as a mother
  protects with her life    Her child, her only child, So with a boundless
  heart     Should one cherish all living beings.

  Radiating kindness over the entire world:     Spreading upwards to the
  skies, And downwards to the depths;   Outwards and unbounded, Freed
  from hatred and ill-will.     Whether standing or walking, seated or
  lying down Free from drowsiness,  One should sustain this
  recollection. This is said to be the sublime abiding.     By not holding
  to fixed views, The pure-hearted one, having clarity of vision, freed from all sense desires.

  Karaniya Metta Sutta


Vitakka Saṇṭhāna Sutta gives the following 5:

Replace the unwholesome thoughts with wholesome thoughts
Examine the drawback of unwholesome thoughts
One sould forget unwholesome thoughts
One should try to still the source of unwholesome thoughts
Subdue the unwholesome thoughts


Is there an equivalent of heaven and hell in Buddhism?

There is no sense of accumulating sins, per se; your karma (actions) change who you are; there is also no sense that it can ever be too much to recover from (eventually). Eventually, your karma will catch up with you, sending you to heaven or hell, and making it more difficult to accumulate further good or bad karma, until you usually wind up right back where you started, somewhere in the middle. Something like the law of diminishing returns; the better or worse your rebirth, the harder it is to make further corresponding karma.

At any rate, given the infinitude of samsara, there is no such thing as too late; if there is time to accumulate good or evil, there is also time for its effects to wear off.

See the Assu Sutta, SN XV.03:

  From an inconstruable beginning comes transmigration. A beginning
  point is not evident, though beings hindered by ignorance and fettered
  by craving are transmigrating & wandering on.


Is it considered "normal" / "possible" / "bad" / "wrong" the use of Mala Beads for counting breaths while meditating?

Using beads for samadhi sounds weird. Anapanasati is being sensitive to cittasankara and kayasankara before killing them, no beads will ever to this for you.

Generally speaking people cling to their wrong idea that some external objects will clean their citta for them, like some sound, like Om, or some things they see, or even a splash of water will wash all the hindrances and bad karma magically.
But like the buddha said, what matters is to clean the mind and this is done ''by the mind itself'', no objects will do this for you, or way better said, cleaning the citta is done with proper attention, with sati and so on.


Form is not worth considering as self but is it worth considering as non-self?

This question is regarding Anatta. Form is not considered worth identifying as Self because Form is impermanent , changeable and cause of suffering. But can we identify Form as non-self ?

"Not-self" (Anatta), is together with Anicca and Dukkha, known as the Three Characteristics of Existence (of Conditioned Phenomena).
The Five Aggregates, wherein Rupa (material form, physical phenomena) is listed, are subject to the Three Characteristics of Existence.
The uncontrollability of the Aggregates is experientially visible through direct seeing, ie. the practice of Vipassana Meditation. Here it can be seen with ones own eyes, how the Form-aggregate arises and ceases incessantly, based on impersonal causes and conditions.
In the Anattalakkhana Sutta, the Buddha explains how form can be regarded as not-self:

"... Bhikkhus, form is nonself. For if, bhikkhus, form were self, this form would not lead to affliction, and it would be possible to have it of form: ‘Let my form be thus; let my form not be thus.’ But because form is nonself, form leads to affliction, and it is not possible to have it of form: ‘Let my form be thus; let my form not be thus..."
"...What do you think, bhikkhus, is form permanent or impermanent?”—“Impermanent, venerable sir.”—“Is what is impermanent suffering or happiness?”—“Suffering, venerable sir.”—“Is what is impermanent, suffering, and subject to change fit to be regarded thus: ‘This is mine, this I am, this is my self’?”—“No, venerable sir...”
-- SN 22.59


How to think deeply and penetrate into its core?

How to think deeply and penetrate its core? How to think critically? Or how to gain insight?

Regardless a good place to start is to attempt to know something by understanding its binary opposite. You think you know what something is? Every detail of what it is? U memorized it? Backwards and forwards? Now do the same for understanding what it is not. Every detail of what it is not. Or what is there in its absence. Or what is absent in its presence and absence. And what about a non-binary opposite?? Write it all down. Memorize it. until you can repeat it backwards.

Take this example:
You are a man and you want to be popular with women so you learn as much as you can. You worship them you pray fr them you protect them you do everything you can but still they dont notice you.

But you only started learning about women with learning about women. Did you learn about men too? Should you? Are they the same? What are the differences anyways? Genetics?
Ok so youre a man and you know eveyrthing about men.
Do you know about trans women? Trans men? Nonbinary afabs? Binary amab transsexuals?

Maybe youll never know about women. So do give up or do you continue to train in true understanding? Better to be a monk then?


In Saṅgītisutta three types of persons in the world are mentioned: sekkha (learner), asekkha (adept) and nevasekkha nāsekkha (ordinary person or puthujjana)

  Tayo puggalā—sekkho puggalo, asekkho puggalo,
  nevasekkho nāsekkho puggalo
  Saṅgītisutta
  Three kinds of persons, to wit, the learner, the adept, he
  who is neither.
  Saṅgītisutta [en]

A sekha is someone who trains himself in higher virtues, training the mind to a higher degree and training for higher wisdom or basically someone who's training himself in the eightfold path. There are 7 types of sekhas (1) the path to stream-entry; (2) the fruition of stream-entry;
(3) the path to once-returning; (4) the fruition of once-returning;
(5) the path to non-returning; (6) the fruition of non-returning;
(7) the path to arahantship

  Sekho, sekho’ti, bhante, vuccati. Kittāvatā nu kho, bhante, sekho
  hotī”ti? “Sikkhatīti kho, bhikkhu, tasmā sekhoti vuccati.
  Kiñca sikkhati? Adhisīlampi sikkhati, adhicittampi sikkhati,
  adhipaññampi sikkhati. Sikkhatīti kho, bhikkhu, tasmā sekhoti
  vuccatīti.
  Sekkhasutta

  Venerable sir, it is said a trainee. How is one a trainee?
  Bhikkhu, one trains, therefore he is called a trainee.
  In what does he train? He trains in higher virtues,
  training the mind to a higher degree and training for higher wisdom.
  Sekkhasutta [en]

An asekha is someone who's gone beyond the training or basically an arahant.

  Asekho asekho’ti, bhante, vuccati. Kittāvatā bhante, bhikkhu asekho hotī”ti? “Idha, bhikkhu, bhikkhu asekhāya sammādiṭṭhiyā samannāgato hoti, asekhena sammāsaṅkappena samannāgato hoti, ... Evaṃ kho, bhikkhu, bhikkhu asekho hotī”ti
  Paṭhamaasekhasutta

  Venerable sir, it is said, `gone beyond the training' How is the bhikkhu gone beyond the training?
  Here, bhikkhus, the bhikkhu is endowed with perfect right view,
  perfect right thoughts, perfect right speech, perfect right activity,
  perfect right livelihood, perfect right endeavour, perfect right
  mindfulness, perfect right concentration perfect right knowledge and
  perfect right release gone beyond the training. Such a one is gone
  beyond the training.
  Paṭhamaasekhasutta [en]


There is some information about funerals at this link.

When I lived in a forest monastery in Thailand, dead monks & residents were cremated on a pile of wood in the forest & we would practise meditation on the burning corpse.


Craving-clinging leads to volitional actions that can be used for duties. If I let go of craving, how would I do duties to family?

Craving is not required to help your family. You only need compassion(Karuna) and kindness(Metta). Craving only makes you worried and sad.


Can anything in Buddhist theory explain phenomena like Buck Fever?

Angulimala (finger garland) Bandit was probably the most ruthless serial killer during Buddha's time.  I read somewhere but didnt do much research on it that in his previous life he offered food to previous buddha or arahat who was tired and weak from hunger, after that in every life, Angulimala had extraordinary strength than everyone around him.  in one of his lives he was a wild buffalo attacking the domesticated buffaloes.  The villagers got upset and set up a lynching mob to hunt him down.  He was eventually captured, tortured, and killed.  He wanted to take revenge on those who killed him.  Among the villagers, there was a girl who watched the lynching with teary eyes.   She became his mother in his last life (which woulda been his last victim if Buddha didnt intervene) and the villagers became his victims.  However, i dont think he took pleasure in killing but rather was misguided.     Kalayanamitra is certainly a blessing.


What are the alternative titles of Thayodhamma Sutta, it's reference number, subsections where it appear in?

Thayodhamma sutta (Abandon three things at a time).  The Discourse on the Three Things (Regarding Incapability)

To abandon…  1. Birth;  2. Old age;  3. Death

You have to abandon…   1. Greed (passion);  2. Hatred;  3. Delusion

To abandon the above three you have to abandon…  1. Personality view;   2. Doubt;   3. Rituals and observances.

To abandon the above three you have to abandon…  1. Drowsiness of the mind;   2. Following the wrong path;   3. Unwise attention

To abandon the above three you have to abandon…   1. Unmindfulness (wrong mindfulness);   2. Unawareness;   3. Mental distraction.

To abandon the above three you have to abandon…  1. Dislike to see the noble ones;   2. Dislike to hear the noble teachings;   3. Fault-finding mind;

To abandon the above three you have to abandon…  1. Conceit;  2. Unrestraint;   3. Immorality

To abandon the above three you have to abandon….  1. Lack of confidence;  2. Dislike to listen to others;   3. Laziness

To abandon the above three you have to abandon…  1. Unfriendliness;  2. Disobedience;   3. Bad Friends (Asathpurisa Sevanaya)

To abandon the above three you have to abandon…  1. Shamelessness;   2. Fearlessness;   3. Non-diligence.

A Sotāpanna (Pali) or "He who entered(āpanna) the stream(sota)." ‘stream” is a metaphor for the third of the Four Noble Truths, Noble Eightfold Path. A stream which rigidly flows will not stop until it enters the sea. A Sotapanna has completely entered in to the Eight fold Noble Dhamma Path(Has gained the first magga-phala). So he will surely achieve Arhathood within seven births that are born in human and heavenly happy realms and his spiritual development will not descend.

Attainment

Sotapanna is a person who has eliminated the first three bondages (sanyojanas) from the mind.

Those are,

Strong ego or Personality view(sakkaya dhitti)
Doubt(Wichikiccha)
Wrong rituals and observances/ Superstitions(Seelabbatha paramasa)

Thayodhamma sutta(Abandon three things at a time) explains the skills that should be developed to achieve this supreme task.


Generally, zazen has no content - only emptiness.  That said, I'm not sure why you'd limit yourself like that.  If you feel you need to do metta meditation, do metta meditation.  If you feel you need to say amitabhas, say amitabhas.  Zen training has no boundaries.  Adherence to a strict set of practice rules isn't the point.


In becoming a Bhikku with an idea of performing the practice of breathing towards samatha and vipassana (calm and insight) without first attempting kayagata-satipatthana (mindfulness as regards the body), resembles an owner who yokes the still untamed bullock (an adult bovine animal) to the cart or plough without the nose-rope. Such an owner would find oneself unable to drive the bullock at his desire. Because the bullock is wild, and because it has no nose-rope, it will either try to run off the road, or try to break loose by breaking the yoke. So first and foremost comes the practice of Mindfulness of Body – Kayanupassana.

Practice of mindfulness of body is to overcome the drudgery of binding concepts and views that we form about it.  To see the body as it is and to realize what it actually is.  So instead of looking at this body as a beautiful body, ugly body or eternal body a person learns to look at the body as it is and avoid the mental pains that are caused by looking at it otherwise. There are four major sections in the satipattana sutta. In Anapanasati – one gets to these steps in its correct order:
(1) mindfulness of body (kayanupassana)
(2) mindfulness of feelings (vedananupassana)
(3) mindfulness of mind (chittanupassana)
(4) mindfulness of mental behaviors (dhammanupassana).

Within the first major section on mindfulness of body there are five meditation methods.
(1) mindfulness of breathing (anapanasati)
(2) mindfulness of postures (iriyapatha)
(3) refelection on internal and external impurities and other vital parts (kunapa)
(4) analysis of four elements (dathu)
(5) reflection on nine stages of a dead body (nava seevaththika)

In Anapanasati, with the development of kayanupassana the meditator is in a position to bring vedananupassana to completion. Contemplation of feelings is nothing but becoming mindful of feelings: pleasant, unpleasant or neutral. Here he remains focused on feelings in and of themselves, ardent and mindful. By concentrating on anapanasati to a higher degree, he then brings the cittanupassana to its culmination.  Now he would start to develop dhammanupassana (contemplation of mind contents). To explain how to go about practicing each of these factors is not possible as it will take a lot more than a paragraph or two for each.


Overwhelming thoughts - Mindfulness and awareness

If you have thoughts that are repeating in a loop, most likely you are focusing on them or obsessing over them, intentionally or unintentionally, rather than "not resisting" them.

My understanding of not resisting thoughts is this. If you are practising mindfulness on the breath, then when any thoughts appear, just take note of the fact that the thought appeared, then go back to the breath. This way, you are neither focusing on nor suppressing those thoughts. You are instead, focusing on the breath. As soon as you realize that you left the breath to think of something else, your focus returns to the breath.

If someone tells you "don't think about monkeys", what would appear in your mind when you focus on that? Monkeys. The best way to not think of monkeys is to focus on something else. In this case, we are focusing on the breath and eventually, the mind will stick to the breath and the repetitive thoughts would rarely or never arise.

If you face problems, then you may want to solve them or mitigate their effects, if that's possible. Repetitively thinking about the problem does not actually solve the problem. Instead, it results in depression. Solving a problem and obsessing over a problem are two very separate things.

In the solution process, you may list out actions to take, execute those actions at the appropriate times, then review the outcome of those actions at the appropriate times. In between, while waiting for the "appropriate times" to come, if the repetitive thoughts return, then mindfulness meditation would be helpful to bring peace of mind.

Thanissaro Bhikku instructs in his essay:

  If your mind wanders off, gently bring it right back. If it wanders
  off ten times, a hundred times, bring it back ten times, a hundred
  times. Don't give in. This quality is called ardency. In other words,
  as soon as you realize that the mind has slipped away, you bring it
  right back. You don't spend time aimlessly sniffing at the flowers,
  looking at the sky, or listening to the birds. You've got work to do:
  work in learning how to breathe comfortably, how to let the mind
  settle down in a good space here in the present moment.

This Scientific American article tells us the benefits of mindfulness for depression and anxiety:

  As a remedy for depression and anxiety, mindfulness meditation may
  help patients let go of negative thoughts instead of obsessing over
  them. Training people to experience the present, rather than reviewing
  the past or contemplating the future, may help keep the mind out of a
  depressive or anxious loop.

Basic Breath Meditation Instructions and A Guided Meditation are two essays by Thanissaro Bhikku that instructs one into breath-based mindfulness. If the Five Hindrances disturb you, then there are antidotes mentioned in this essay by Ajahn Brahmavamso. To make mindfulness easier, Thanissaro Bhikku suggests using the "Buddho" word in the second essay. You might find that very helpful.


Hells must corresponding to their evil deeds. But there are uncountable various kamma leting their uncountable corresponding resultants arise in the same seconds, too. Kamma just waiting the proper chance to let their resultants arise.

Most of hell appear in suttanta, but it will be easier to explain the hell by abhidhamma's rule.

In abhidhamma, there are trillion mind moments in a piece of second. Each mind moment must managing, kamma, their mind and mind factors, but only javana-duty mind moments have own resultants, vipaka.  So, we done kamma over many thousands millions times each second.

And each kamma will multiply it's resultants, vipaka, such as just 1 killing mind moment of last life can let uncountable resultant mind moments arise through next life, if that killing mind moment can win to process rebirth-duty, 1st mind moment of each rebirth, of next life.

Another, many kamma can work together by switch their resultants' arising between each other, such as killing mind  moment let its resultants through niraya-man's life, then the other kamma let it's resultants arise
 by make niraya man very hurt his tongue.

Their are uncountable co-working in each second for one's life, such as a second of buddha's life on parinibbana's bed:

Wholesome kamma let budhha's bhavanga mind moment arise.
Each different wholesome kamma let buddha's each organ of 32 organs
look the best beautiful.
Unwholesome kamma let buddha's body sick.
The other wholesome kamma let buddha watch many ariya around the
parinibbana's bed.

These all happened only in a second, by a very various kamma. And this is just the example. In the full situation of this second, there are many various kamma giving their resultants.


Trolley problem and its variants in Buddhist ethics

Traditionally, worrying about this kind of speculative problems is classified as  a form of delusion. Consider the following Zen story:

Huineng's Flag

  Two Zen monks saw a flag wavering in the wind, and could not help having a philosophical debate:
  -- "It is the flag that is wavering," argued one monk.
  -- "No, it's the wind that is wavering!" insisted the other monk.

  Huineng, who happened to pass by, overheard the two monks and remarked, "It's not the flag nor the wind that is wavering. Your minds are wavering!"

In this vein, the most enlightened way to solve the trolley problem would be to stop worrying about it.


Buddhist take on parents staying together for the children?

What would be the guiding principles for figuring this out based on Buddhist principles and Buddha's advice for married couples and the general sentiment of the teachings historically attributed to the Buddha.

As others already mentioned, the teaching is mostly for monastics with some small portion just giving generic advice to the lays. However, one can always use logic and common sense to come up with the best solution for everyone. A common mistake is the automatic assumption about the benefit of sacrificing oneself for the sake of the children, while in reality, there're instances where it's even more harmful to them. Imagine staying with your spouse, but engaging in constant back and forth arguments using harsh, abusive language, Or, on the other extreme, remain completely silent and let the spouse spewing all the nasty words all day long. Both of those stay-together scenarios would actually do more harm to the children than good. So, use one's own intelligence and common sense to evaluate the situation. While it'd obviously be best for parents to try to work things out and stay together, but if that means it'll create a living hell for both parties, and/or it doesn't actually benefit children, or even does more harm to them, then one might have to consider the idea to go one's own separate way, for the sake of everyone involved.


Reconciling anātman and ancestor worship/veneration

Perhaps ancestor worship began as a cultural overlay, but it is possible to use this as an important Buddhist tool.

The Buddhist teacher, Ven. Thich Nhat Hanh often points out that he meditates on the cloud in his tea cup whenever he drinks tea. That is, the water in the tea was a cloud at some point, thus all things inter-are. Cognising the interbeing nature of reality is important to develop compassion and respect for all beings, plants, minerals and elements.

Training the mind to see connections that aren't visible to the senses is important to realize the interbeing nature of reality.

Like a cloud makes tea, ancestors make us. Ancestor veneration in this sense develops in us compassion for beings we can't see or normally perceive and reduces our selfish existence.

In the ultimate reality there is anatta, but in conventional reality we do have ancestors. One must not abandon norms of conventional reality merely because one has understood ultimate reality. It is not nice to live in ultimate reality alone, just as it is not nice to live in conventional (materialistic) reality alone.

We must transcend the conventional and the ultimate, not be attached to either end.

Edit:
Growing very strongly attached to emptiness produces a wisdom that is devoid of compassion. Compassion is most certainly a conventional truth. When the Buddha passed away, many Arahats objected to the first Buddhist council for they believed it was impossible to set down the teachings on emptiness in conventional language. Those who were in the presence of the Buddha could feel the boundless affection and compassion with which the words regarding emptiness were delivered. How can a Sutta even hope to convey that compassionate presence of the Buddha, they bemoaned?

Thus the teachings on emptiness were guarded like a secret, and monks and dharma teachers only revealed the truth of emptiness to a select few when they believed the student was ready. I believe teaching emptiness to someone who isn't ready is a valid ground for expulsion from the order.

See also,

The Integrity of Emptiness
by
Thanissaro Bhikkhu
Emptiness in Theravada Buddhism


Part 1

The nature of the mind is to produce thoughts. Your question about controlling thoughts seems to imply an act of force.

  Very well then, my friend, I will give you an analogy; for there are
  cases where it is through the use of an analogy that intelligent
  people can understand the meaning of what is being said.

  — MN 24

It is similar to asking how does one make a cobra non-poisonous? Sure, one can remove its fangs temporarily until they grow back, but then is it still a real Cobra? If we forget to remove the fangs as and when they grow back, the Cobra will suddenly become dangerous when we least expect it to be, and it will remember the cruelty we inflicted upon it and will have cause to bite.

Taking drugs, or alcohol, or indulging in pleasures and entertainment or even staying busy with a career and family often allows people to temporarily ignore their thoughts, but it always ends in getting bitten by the thoughts when they least expect it, and thus misery endures.

Far better to learn how to not get bitten by the Cobra.

The Buddhist path to not getting bitten by the Cobra is divided into prajna (wisdom), sila (ethics), and samadhi (concentration). It has eight parts, which are also called the Noble eightfold path.

Know that the Cobra always remains poisonous, and how it gets its poison

i.e. understand reality as it is, and whence it gets its fangs from (wisdom)

Don't give the Cobra reason to bite

i.e. don't commit acts that produce poisonous thoughts (ethics)

Learn to leave the Cobra alone

i.e. practice meditation and mindfulness. (concentration)

Part 2

Buddhism or meditation is not a pill one takes and immediately becomes free of thoughts. Learning to not get bitten by thoughts also takes lots of time and patient and wise effort.

The lotus cannot flower without the mud, so it certainly does not help the lotus if it hates the mud. Don't hate the mind that produces sexual thoughts, or develop aversion towards yourself for having them. Nirvana is not obtained by hating Samsara.

Instead, learn that this is natural, but you can slowly learn to handle it. Develop a desire for Nirvana, and practice with a teacher.

Monks often battle sexual thoughts after decades of being celibate, and this isn't because they are ignorant or stupid. It is a tough challenge, but one worth pursuing and succeeding at.

A lot depends on why you want to control those thoughts, and your time line to achieve it in. Some people decide that it's too much to attempt at one go, and remain lay Buddhists who don't take vows of celibacy.

Sexual thoughts that result in a breaking of the precepts on sexual misconduct are more dangerous, and can be treated more easily.

Seeing the suffering of the person who is the victim of the misconduct and developing compassion for them is a very effective way to control this.

For example, if one is cheating on one's spouse, reading an internet forum where partners who get cheated on express their suicidal emotions, can for example be very sobering and shake one up to resolve to never do it.

Watching a hard hitting documentary on sex workers, and their conditions, and listening to them speak of their psychological issues, again often leading them to commit suicide can make one resolve never to visit one, and so on.

I recall a Dharma talk by Ajahn Chah who uses the same Cobra analogy.


What is the difference between concentration and mindfulness practice ?

From what I understood, each of these practices are clearly different

Calm meditation deals with developing the Jhana factors which are:

Movement of the mind onto the object (vitakka)
Retention of the mind on the object (vicāra)
Joy (pīti)
Happiness (sukha)
One-pointedness (ekaggatā)

The object of calm can be conceptual object or one relating to ultimate realities (rupa, citta, cetasika and nirvana). If it is relating to ultimate realities then insight also develops.

Insight is based on meditation on the ultimate realities. The practice to understand the nature of the realities is through Satipatthana which are:

mindfulness of the body (kāya)
mindfulness of feelings or sensations (vedanā)
mindfulness of mind or consciousness (citta)
mindfulness of dhammās

Here you bring your mind in tune with the universal characteristics which results in wise attention. This helps you understand causality (Four Noble Truths, Dependent Arising, Conditional Relations):

  As such, bhikshus, the instructed noble disciple closely and wisely attends to dependent arising itself,
  thus:

  Imasmiṁ sati, idaṁ hoti; „When this is, that is;

  imass’uppādā, idam uppajjati. with the arising of this, that arises.

  Imasmiṁ asati idaṁ na hoti; When this is not, that is not;

  imassa nirodhā idaṁ nirujjhati. with the ending of this, that ends.‟

  Bhikshus, dependent on pleasant contact, a pleasant feeling arises.
  With the ending of the pleasant contact, the pleasant feeling that arose in dependent on that pleasant
  contact, ceases, is stilled.

  Bhikshus, dependent on painful contact, a painful feeling arises.
  With the ending of the painful contact, the painful feeling that arose in dependent on that painful
  contact, ceases, is stilled.

  Bhikshus, dependent on neutral contact, a neutral feeling arises.
  With the ending of the neutral contact, the neutral feeling that arose in dependent on that neutral
  contact, ceases, is stilled.

Assutava Sutta 2

Also wise attention is forerunner of cultivating the Noble Eightfold Path which leads to insight. Also it is one of the most essential ingredient in developing insight and insight meditation.

  Dawn, bhikshus, is the forerunner, the harbinger of sun-rise.
  Even so, bhikshus, for a monk this is the forerunner, the harbinger of the arising of the noble eightfold
  path, that is, accomplishment in wise attention.

  Bhikshus, when a monk is accomplished in this wise attention, it is to be expected that he will
  cultivate the noble eightfold path, develop the noble eightfold path.

Yoniso Manasikāra Sampadā Sutta

Insight  practice can be combined with calmness practice as in Saṅkhitta Dhamma Sutta:

  When, bhikshu, this samadhi has been cultivated, well cultivated by you, then you should
  train yourself thus:

  "I will dwell exertive, clearly aware, mindful,
  observing [contemplating] ________ the in the _________ [body | feeling | mind | dhamma],
  removing covetousness and displeasure [discontent] in regard to the world."

  Thus, bhikshu, you should train yourself.

  When, bhikshu, this samadhi has been cultivated, well cultivated by you, then, you, bhikshu,

  THE 1ST DHYANA:

  should cultivate this samadhi with initial application, with sustained application;

  should cultivate this samadhi without initial application, with only sustained application;

  THE 2ND DHYANA:

  should cultivate this samadhi without initial application, without sustained application;

  should cultivate this samadhi with zest;

  THE 3RD DHYANA:

  should cultivate this samadhi zest-free;

  should cultivate this samadhi attended by comfort;

  THE 4TH DHYANA:

  should cultivate this samadhi attended by equanimity

Both are needed for liberation.

  And what, bhikshus, is the path leading to the unconditioned?

  Calm and insight [Samatha and vipassana]—this is called the path leading to the unconditioned.

(Mūla) Samatha Vipassanā Sutta

Both calm and insight is needed to get to the final goal. They may not develop at the same space or level at the same time.

  (1) “insight preceded by calm” samatha,pubb’angama vipassanā

  (2) “calm preceded by insight” vipassana,pubb’angama samatha

  (3) “calm coupled with insight” samatha,vipassana,yuga.naddha

  (4) “a mind seized by dharma-restlessness” dhamm’uddhacca,viggahita manasa

(Yuga,naddha) Paṭipadā Sutta

Also the development of both gives arise to psychic powers as in

  In that case, Vaccha, cultivate two higher teachings: calm and insight. Vaccha, when these two
  teachings—calm and insight—are cultivated further, they bring about a penetration of the many elements
  (dhātu).

  ...

Mahā Vaccha,gotta Sutta

When one develops without the other then the following advice is given in finding a suitable teacher / technique:

  (1) A meditator who is able to attain only calm should consult an insight-attainer.

  (2) A meditator who is able to attain only insight should consult a calm-attainer.

  (3) A meditator who is unable to attain both should consult one skilled in both.

  (4) A meditator who is able to attain both should work for awakening.

(Samatha Vipassanā) Samādhi Sutta 3

When I focus on my breath, I am naturally distracted by all kind of things

To get over distraction you have to practice

Movement of the mind onto the object (vitakka)
Retention of the mind on the object (vicāra)

More effort and energy you put into it lesser distraction you will get from external distraction going forward.

Being mightful about the breath should be inline with the techniques in Anapanasati Sutta to get the benefits.

Also if your mind gets distracted then you have to:

know where you mind wanders away
each new object or through has a sensation of pleasantness, unpleasantness or neutral sensation associated with it. Get to know this sensation and wait for it to subside otherwise this itself and memories it trigger means the distractions will continue.
Bring back to the object of meditation

And when I try to practice mindfulness, I can't help but focusing on my breath

Mindfulness of the breath is also insight and Satipatthana meditation.

First Tetrad: Contemplation of the Body (kāya)

Discerning the in and out breathing
Discerning long or short breaths
Experiencing the whole body (sabbakāaya)
Calming bodily formations

Second Tetrad: Contemplation of the Feeling (vedanā)

Being sensitive to rapture (pīti)
Being sensitive to pleasure (sukha)
Being sensitive to mental fabrication (citta-saṃskāra)
Calming mental fabrication

Third Tetrad: Contemplation of the Mind (citta)

Being sensitive to the mind
Satisfying the mind
Steadying the mind
Releasing the mind

Fourth Tetrad: Contemplation of the Mental Objects (dhammā)

Dwelling on impermanence
Dwelling on dispassion
Dwelling on cessation
Dwelling on relinquishment

Source: Anapanasati Sutta

But having said this ...

Movement of the mind onto the object (vitakka)
Retention of the mind on the object (vicāra)

... will help you keep your focus on a chosen object, may it be the breath or one of the Satipatthana.

I am wondering why concentration and mindfulness are referred to as distinct practices

The techniques are different but should be practiced together as highlighted above.

Also see: Samatha and Vipassanā by Piya Tan.


How can I escape the suffering of losing my Father?

Let go of what is going to cause the suffering. I.e. your attachment towards him. Practice Satipattana meditation.


Does freedom from birth and death mean there is no freedom to experience birth and death without desire?

Existence is suffering. Cessation of existence is a realization of the truth of the cessation of suffering.

“Just as, mendicants, even a tiny bit of fecal matter still stinks, so too I don’t approve of even a tiny bit of continued existence, not even as long as a finger snap.” AN1.329

“One perception arose and another perception ceased in me: ‘The cessation of existence is nibbāna; the cessation of existence is nibbāna.’ Just as, when a fire of twigs is burning, one flame arises and another flame ceases, so one perception arose and another perception ceased in me: ‘The cessation of existence is nibbāna; the cessation of existence is nibbāna.’ On that occasion, friend, I was percipient: ‘The cessation of existence is nibbāna.’” AN10.7

When you say;

the cycle of birth and death produces suffering but ,once the truth is realized suffering has no power ,so living in this world shouldn't be any longer a problem.

You are slipping by the definition of suffering as all conditioned phenomena;

Monks, there are these three kinds of suffering.[1] What three? Suffering caused by pain,[2] suffering caused by the formations (or conditioned existence),[3] suffering due to change.[4] It is for the full comprehension, clear understanding, ending and abandonment of these three forms of suffering that the Noble Eightfold Path is to be cultivated..." SN45.165

Even the existence of what can be grasped with wrong view to be an Arahant or personal and belonging to an Arahant, that is classed as suffering.
The Arahants are disenchanted with suffering and thus with the breakup of the body do not take up another body and their consciousness does not become established in any sphere of existence, they abandon all being;

These two Nibbāna-elements were made known
By the Seeing One, stable and unattached:
One is the element seen here and now
With residue, but with the cord of being destroyed;
The other, having no residue for the future,
Is that wherein all modes of being utterly cease.

Having understood the unconditioned state,
Released in mind with the cord of being destroyed,
They have attained to the Dhamma-essence.
Delighting in the destruction (of craving),
Those stable ones have abandoned all being. Iti44

Existence is a truth and it's cessation is also a true principle to be realized and when known as it actually is, it is known to be the highest bliss also called Asoka [Sorrowless] state.

It's hard to see the unaffected,
for the truth is not easily seen.
Craving is pierced
in one who knows;
For one who sees,
there is nothing. Ud8.2

Cessation of the conditioned depends on the unconditioned element, if there was no unconditioned then the cessation principle wouldn't be possible.

There is that dimension, monks, where there is neither earth, nor water, nor fire, nor wind; neither dimension of the infinitude of space, nor dimension of the infinitude of consciousness, nor dimension of nothingness, nor dimension of neither perception nor non-perception; neither this world, nor the next world, nor sun, nor moon. And there, I say, there is neither coming, nor going, nor staying; neither passing away nor arising: unestablished,[1] unevolving, without support .[2] This, just this, is the end of stress. Ud8.1

There is, monks, an unborn — unbecome — unmade — unfabricated. If there were not that unborn — unbecome — unmade — unfabricated, there would not be the case that escape from the born — become — made — fabricated would be discerned. But precisely because there is an unborn — unbecome — unmade — unfabricated, escape from the born — become — made — fabricated is discerned. [Ud8.3] (https://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/kn/ud/ud.8.03.than.html)

When cessation principle is realized it is known as pleasant and any existence in the light of it is categorically known as suffering.
It is as if a tired person was offered a seat just to have that seat pulled out from underneath him, not knowing better, might think; 'This good person is offering me a seat out of kindness, why don't i accept?'. So he accepts, time and again, not understanding as it actually is, that it is out of cruelty and for the purpose of suffering that he is offered a seat.
If later the tired person the was offered a stable relief then he would discern the cruelty in what was previously offered and if offered to take a seat would pass on the offer, discerning the deal as suffering.
Therefore the mind of one who has realized the cessation principle realizes the truth of suffering, the truth of arising of suffering, the truth of it's cessation & the path to the cessation; and thus inclines to Nibbana which is the utter extinguishment of the conditioned & of the causes which beget the conditioned existence.

There he said to the monks, "This Unbinding is pleasant, friends. This Unbinding is pleasant."
When this was said, Ven. Udayin said to Ven. Sariputta, "But what is the pleasure here, my friend, where there is nothing felt?"
"Just that is the pleasure here, my friend: where there is nothing felt. AN9.34

Now it's possible, Ananda, that some wanderers of other persuasions might say, 'Gotama the contemplative speaks of the cessation of perception & feeling and yet describes it as pleasure. What is this? How can this be?' When they say that, they are to be told, 'It's not the case, friends, that the Blessed One describes only pleasant feeling as included under pleasure. Wherever pleasure is found, in whatever terms, the Blessed One describes it as pleasure.'" MN59


Can a person choose to reincarnate as a human instead of a god?

From Awareness Itself by Ajaan Fuang Jotiko, compiled by his disciple Thanissaro Bhikkhu:

A group of laypeople who had studied the Abhidhamma together came to
Ajaan Fuang to try out his version of mental training, but when he
told them to sit, close their eyes, and focus on the breath, they
immediately backed off, saying that they didn't want to practice
concentration, for fear that they'd get stuck on jhana and end up
being reborn in the Brahma worlds. He responded, "What's there to be
afraid of? Even non-returners are reborn in the Brahma worlds. At any
rate, being reborn in the Brahma worlds is better than being reborn as
a dog."


I think your question itself has an answer.

  These devas enjoy sense pleasures created by others for them

The closer a being gets to Nibbana, the less sense pleasure he/she will create for Mara. That's probably why he doesn't like beings attaining Nibbana. But he seems to encourage beings to do general good deeds and aspire for heavenly existences.

The Paranimmita Wasawarti realm where the Mara is at has a lifespan of 9216000000 human years. So his next life is not going to come for a long time. But when it does, it'll most probably be one of the hells. Not human realm where one can be a monk. He'll probably be around to trouble Buddha Maitreya as well.


People get sick and die next to me - my karma?

Your grandfather in the hospital is not because of bad karma. It is because of the aging & decaying of the physical body. The Blessed One declared:

All that is dear & beloved there must be change, separation & severance. Of that which is born, come into being, compounded & subject to decay, how can one say: 'May it not come to dissolution!'
Mindful and clearly comprehending, reflect in this way: 'Impermanent are all compounded things. How could this be otherwise?'
Maha-parinibbana Sutta: Last Days of the Buddha

Buddhism states, even when there is death, the good karma a person has done will bring good results & the bad karma person has done will bring bad results. Therefore, when your grandfather is in hospital, you should think about the good karma your grandfather did in his life. To quote:

These beings — who were endowed with bad conduct of body, speech & mind, who reviled noble ones, held wrong views and undertook actions
under the influence of wrong views — with the break-up of the body,
after death, have re-appeared in the plane of deprivation, the bad
destination, the lower realms, in hell.
But these beings — who were endowed with good conduct of body, speech & mind, who did not revile noble ones, who held right views and
undertook actions under the influence of right views — with the
break-up of the body, after death, have re-appeared in the good
destinations, in the heavenly world.
Bhaya-bherava Sutta: Fear & Terror

If your grandfather dies, you must think about his good karma and you must make merits & dedications for him. The scriptures state:

In five ways, a child should minister to his parents:
(i) Having supported me I shall support them,
(ii) I shall do their duties,
(iii) I shall keep the family tradition,
(iv) I shall make myself worthy of my inheritance,
(v) furthermore I shall make offerings in honor of my departed relatives.
Sigalovada Sutta: The Layperson's Code of Discipline

In conclusion, the only bad karma that is occurring is your not having right view in the mind about the Dhamma. Even if your grandfather in hospital causes you grief & sadness, as a Buddhist, you must also have Dhamma in your mind, as the Buddha taught, as follows:

There are these five facts that one should reflect on often, whether one is a woman or a man, lay or ordained. Which five?
1. 'All are subject to aging. Have I gone beyond [am I peace with] aging?
2. 'All are subject to illness. Have I gone beyond illness?'
3. 'All are subject to death. Have I gone beyond death?'
4. I will eventually be separated from all that is dear and appealing to me.'
5. 'I am the owner of my actions, heir to my actions, born of my actions, related through my actions and have my actions as my arbitrator. Whatever I do, for good or for ill, to that I will be the heir.'
Upajjhatthana Sutta: Subjects for Contemplation
Click here for Alternate translation.


Giri-m-Ananda Sutta has details of how to overcome illness. At a superficial level you can start as following and go deeper as in the Sutta. Also there is a book Meditation on Perception: Ten Healing Practices to Cultivate Mindfulness by Bhante Henepola Gunaratana which might be of interest.

Contemplation of impermanence - When you experience any discomfort look at this as "this will also pass". Even in a terminal illness
Contemplation of anatta (absence of a permanent self or soul) - detach your self from the pain
Contemplation of foulness (asubha) - look at your body part by part from head to foot and foot to head
Contemplation of disadvantage (danger) - everyone is prone to illness
Contemplation of abandonment - contemplate on non evil thoughts
Contemplation of detachment - benefits of being without attachments
Contemplation of cessation - destruction from craving and relief from creating fabrications
Contemplation of distaste for the whole world - abandoning latent tendencies.
Contemplation of impermanence of all component things - develop revulsion
Mindfulness of in-breathing and out-breathing - see Anapana Sati

With regard to sleep deprivation try Metta Bhavana. One benefit of this is you sleep easy.

Also remember pain is not pain unless you make it your pain. There is the physical sensation feeling and the mental cognising that this is my pain. The latter is bigger than the physical pain hence try look at the pain as mere pain. See: Vedenaupassana in Satipatthanas. You may also try taking a course at: http://dhamma.org/


MN 38: How do aging-&-death cease when the eye sees a form?

Most probably imagine "ceases" to mean something like "ends". The fact is, "ceases" is a translation of "nirodha" which means "make it so it won't arise", "remove a necessary cause of arising" (what I call "prevent" or "dis-enable" in short). So the meaning of the passage is, when the eye sees a form, ear hears a sound etc. - if there is no like/dislike or craving/aversion modality established, then the cause that would normally push the wheel of D.O. to keep on spinning is not created. Because the cause is not created, the chain of events starting from the cause is not started. If this is only done occasionally with one form, then the other occasions would still give rise to the chain of events -- would push the wheel on spinning. But if this is done consistently for all forms, sounds, dharmas etc. - then the chain of D.O. is nirodha (prevented).

It is prevented because, as is explained in standard D.O. descriptions, enabled by Ignorance arise Tendencies. These tendencies are exactly the tendencies to like/dislike and to act based on this liking/disliking. Such tendencies feed and grow the entity-centric thinking and acting. This entity-centric thinking and acting gradually hardens into I-making, which culminates in death.

When stimuli like forms, sounds, dharmas etc. are taken "as-is", without forming personal attitude to them, the entity-centric thinking and acting is not perpetuated. Because it is not perpetuated, the I-making is not perpetuated. When I-making is not perpetuated - death does not apply.


There's some talk about that here -- A Happy Married Life:
A Buddhist Perspective

THE HUSBAND
The Buddha, in reply to a householder as to how a husband should minister to his wife declared that the husband should always honor and respect his wife, by being faithful to her, by giving her the requisite authority to manage domestic affairs and by giving her befitting ornaments. This advice, given over twenty five centuries ago, still stands good for today.
Knowing the psychology of the man who tends to consider himself superior, the Buddha made a remarkable change and uplifted the status of a woman by a simple suggestion that a husband should honor and respect his wife. A husband should be faithful to his wife, which means that a husband should fulfill and maintain his marital obligations to his wife thus sustaining the confidence in the marital relationship in every sense of the word. The husband, being a bread-winner, would invariably stay away from home, hence he should entrust the domestic or household duties to the wife who should be considered as the keeper and the distributor of the property and the home economic-administrator. The provision of befitting ornaments to the wife should be symbolic of the husband's love, care and attention showered on the wife. This symbolic practice has been carried out from time immemorial in Buddhist communities. Unfortunately it is in danger of dying out because of the influence of modern civilization.

That's a reference to DN 31

"In five ways should a wife as the western direction be respected by a husband: by honoring, not disrespecting, being faithful, sharing authority, and by giving gifts.
"And, the wife so respected reciprocates with compassion in five ways: by being well-organized, being kindly disposed to the in-laws and household workers, being faithful, looking after the household goods, and being skillful and diligent in all duties.
In this way, the western direction is protected and made peaceful and secure.


Different realms,Different beings,Different times - How do they understand what we are saying?

But now the times have changed "Pali" as a language is dead.

Depends on how you define what "dead" means or, the language is dead to whom. To many Pali scholars like Ven. Bodhi, Ven. Thanissaro, Ven. Analayo, etc. Pali is very much alive and they constantly use it as the source reference to their sutta translation works. Thanks to the effort of many venerable scholars, the suttas have been translated to many different languages in the world. As we speak, there're monks and lay people around the world who are reciting the Tipitaka in Pali, English, French, German, etc. right now.

  Is there any mentioning on how beings in different realms understand a single language, I mean even we don't use "Pali" now so how does it happen?

Depends on which realm it is. To the devas in the heavenly worlds, due to the great merits they've generated, many would possess supernatural powers to be able to communicate with humans (Ex: the conversation of the householder Citta with many devas in SN 41.10). If it's the lower realms, then it obviously much tougher due to the tremendous suffering and ignorance throughout these realms. The Buddha in MN 129 used a very famous simile to make the point:

  The Buddha: Suppose a man threw into the sea a yoke with one hole in it, and the east wind carried it to the west, and the west wind carried it to the east, and the north wind carried it to the south, and the south wind carried it to the north. Suppose there were a blind turtle that came up once at the end of each century. What do you think, bhikkhus? Would that blind turtle put his neck into that yoke with one hole in it?”

  The Bhikkhus:“He might, venerable sir, sometime or other at the end of a long period.”

  The Buddha:“Bhikkhus, the blind turtle would sooner put his neck into that yoke with a single hole in it than a fool, once gone to perdition, would take to regain the human state, I say. Why is that? Because there is no practising of the Dhamma there, no practising of what is righteous, no doing of what is wholesome, no performance of merit. There mutual devouring prevails, and the slaughter of the weak.


How does one hold themself in full awareness during new complicated and complex learning?

Awareness is your most natural or primary form of existence, and it is always in existence effortlessly throughout your experience.
When you are deep in work that is familiar to you, you get immersed or in a "flow" state because your mind agrees with the work for one reason or another, and therefore it is at ease being identified with the work. This clears the way for you to fully take the seat of your natural state of awareness and experience its effortlessness. Any relevant thought flows freely out of this pure awareness. Your mind and awareness are at one with the work.
When the work is new, surprising, or complicated, your mind takes the lead and begins to identify with the challenge, trouble, or effort it is experiencing. This identity is cemented through conscious or subconscious thoughts like "I have to figure this out!" or "I can't figure this out!".  This creates an energy of effortful strain that blocks the feeling of flow that you experience when you are fully in the seat of your awareness.
In order to fully take the seat of your effortless awareness while doing complicated work, you need to see that the work has nothing to do with your true, purest identity, which is the awareness itself. The attachment to "having to figure it out" must be let go so that you can relax, be open, and in acceptance of any possible outcome whether or not it may be deemed favorable.
While this may seem simple conceptually, it's not necessarily easy because of the habitual nature of the mind to create or attach to an identity that is not awareness. It often does this when it is taken off guard by high-contrast / reactive situations.
Meditation is a great way to confirm through experience that you are not your mind, thoughts or effort, and to build your mind's trust that it can detach from any other false identity. This will allow you to fully take the seat of your most pure identity, awareness.
Occasionally try looking directly at your awareness - become aware of your awareness - and try being aware of it in the context of your thoughts and identification tendencies.
This direct experience or "seeing" will gradually (and sometimes quickly) change the mind's habitual nature so that it won't react because of its identification position relative to the work. This trust within the mind will eventually draw you fully into the seat of awareness without a meditative exercise. This will enable you to undertake the thought process with great clarity and without a strenuous feeling, no matter the complexity of the work or situation.


Was Buddha had a expected food poisoning?

This is documented in the Mahaparinibbana Sutta's story about the meal containing sukara-maddava served by Cunda to the Buddha, which is presumed to be the cause of dysentery experienced by the Buddha.
The Mahaparinibbana Sutta is sutta 16 of the Digha Nikaya of the Sutta Pitaka of the Pali Canon, which is the sutta explaining the events leading to the Buddha's passing away and events that occurred after that.
The Pali Canon is the authoritative canonical scripture of Theravada Buddhism, and is an Early Buddhist Text. Please read this answer for details.
In this footnote, sukara-maddava is explained:

Sukara-maddava: a controversial term which has therefore been left
untranslated. Sukara = pig; maddava = soft, tender, delicate. Hence
two alternative renderings of the compound are possible: (1) the
tender parts of a pig or boar; (2) what is enjoyed by pigs and boars.
In the latter meaning, the term has been thought to refer to a
mushroom or truffle, or a yam or tuber. K.E. Neumann, in the preface
to his German translation of the Majjhima Nikaya, quotes from an
Indian compendium of medicinal plants, the Rajanigantu, several plants
beginning with sukara.
The commentary to our text gives three alternative explanations: (1)
the flesh from a single first-born (wild) pig, neither too young nor
too old, which had come to hand naturally, i.e., without intentional
killing; (2) a preparation of soft boiled rice cooked with the five
cow-products; (3) a kind of alchemistic elixir (rasayanavidhi).
Dhammapala, in his commentary to Udana VIII.5, gives, in addition,
young bamboo shoots trampled by pigs (sukarehi maddita-vamsakaliro).


Is our surroundings affecting our ability to concentrate the mind?

Natural surroundings such as forests or jungles or the like might be more conducieve to meditation practice due to their natural tranquility. In Asia a lot of temples are purposely build in such places due to e.g. the calming effect they have on the mind.
Natural surroundings also limit external reality and sense-inputs which is conducieve to introspection.

It might be more difficult (depending on the skill-level of the meditator) to cultivate Jhanas in a busy and hectic city environment or in a place that is torn apart by war and conflict.


Atheism is not a religion. It's just a view that says there are no deities. Atheism is harmless & compatible with Buddhism when it just means there is no creator/almighty God who is responsible for our fates. But it becomes extremely dangerous and contradictory to Buddhism when it grows into nihilism & materialism.

On the other hand, Buddhism is a comprehensive religion with vast number of texts containing in depth teachings and clear guidance on the nature of phenomena and their workings. It teaches the causes of these phenomena, what we need to aim for, and how to achieve that which needs be achieved.

These teachings include deities, non-humans, hells, heavens, rebirth, karma etc. & also guidance on how to make the household life successful. Buddhism also has rules & rituals associated with it.


Vijñāna and Śūnyatā... How are they seen as different?

The way these relate, according to instructions I received, and my limited understanding:

In ontological reality nothing exists by itself; everything is part of some process and relationship; In fact in Mahayana Buddhism we say that delineating these processes and relationships into distinct entities is a function of the mind. Same processes and relationships can be delineated in a multitude of ways, even though most of the time we assume there is only one, or only one right way to delineate them. Entities do not have (are empty of) inherent existence and are delineations made by the mind. We call this situation "Emptiness" (Śūnyatā).

The mind itself exists as (informational) phenomenon emerging from interaction of processes and relationships. So mind itself is not something fixed that has essence - it's fluid and ephemeral. We say, mind itself is empty.

Since "entities" do not exist as anything apart from the mind, and mind itself does not exist apart from the interaction of processes and relationships, we can see that mind and entities are of the same emergent nature. In other words, the latent regularities inherent in the interaction of processes and relationships give rise to mind as reflection and representation, culminating in delineation of entities.

So mind and its delineated entities emerge as virtual aspect of regularities inherent to the ontological reality. Mind and entities are virtual. This virtuality is what we call Emptiness. In this sense we can roughly say that mind is emptiness and emptiness is mind. Or, more precisely, that the nature of mind is emptiness. So in the absolute sense they are inseparable.

However, when we speak in the conventional sense, mind refers to representation, and when we speak about vijnana we specifically mean representation that develops in the case of sentient beings. The capacity for representation is one of the five components making up the subjective realm of the so-called sentient being, along with stimuli, imprints/tendencies, concepts of entities, and feelings. Vijnana is that which emerges from imprints/tendencies in response to stimuli and underlies the process of delineation and evaluation of entities, as well as the feelings that fall out of that. So in conventional use the meaning of "Vijnana" is rather specific.

While Emptiness (Śūnyatā) is a much more broad concept. It refers to the global situation that ontological reality does not have any sort of absolute point of reference, whether local or global, and that whatever virtual stuff that emerges, emerges from relationships and interactions, and that therefore all phenomena, including the ones we deal with in our human realms do not have any sort of inherent solidity.


Where to find multilingual and/or beautifully typeset Buddhist texts?

Beautifully typed texts - http://dharmafarer.org/, also http://www.thripitakaya.org/ and http://pitaka.lk/ but in Singhala
Multilingual texts - https://suttacentral.net/ (you can say it is also beautifully formated), http://www.buddha-vacana.org/ (English and French)


Doubt and contradiction in buddhas teaching

No need to worry about this scenario. Even during the Buddha's time, at the peak of the Dhamma, how many people attained enlightenment and how many did not? By the way, with or without enlightenment, the universe will go thru periods of birth, decay, and destruction. It's inevitable that one day life as we know it will cease to exist. And one day, life will spring up again. Hence the endless cycle of Samsara.
Well, as the saying goes, there's a big difference between knowing the path and walking the path.
One can equanimously execute countermeasures to incapacitate a rapist or molester without letting anger arises. Matter of fact, martial arts practitioners are trained to keep a cool head. Anger, rage, fear, etc. only cloud one's mind and make it much harder to handle rough situations.


Anattani anattāti (Seeing) non-self as non-self

asubhaṃ asubhataddasuṃ; Unattractiveness as unattractiveness

Sammādiṭṭhisamādānā, (he is) holding on to right view.

dukkhaṃ upaccagun”ti. (He is) above sufferings


Is pain comprised of the four great elements?

No! Patavi, Apo, Tejo, Vayo are elements of Rupa. Pain is a sensation caused by those elements coming into contact with the sense doors while the the mind is present.


Why should progress in meditation lead to rebirth in a more worldly setting?

As I have understood, Heavenly and Hellish realms are determined by state of mind. It is well said that two people can be walki g down the same street and one is in hell and other is in heaven. Heaven and hell is the way we experience this universe.
So if you do meditation and you get born in a monastry world setting and it is still heavenly as it will all be experienced.


Uncertainty occurs because of causes. There is no difference between uncertainty and cause & effect.

Death is certain, life is uncertain: maranam niyatam, jivitam aniyatam
It disintegrates, monk, that is why it’s called ‘the world’: lujjatīti kho, bhikkhu, tasmā lokoti vuccatī
'Many are the [possible] causes of my death. A snake might bite me, a scorpion might sting me, a centipede might bite me. That would be how my death would come about. That would be an obstruction for me. Stumbling, I might fall; my food, digested, might trouble me; my bile might be provoked, my phlegm... piercing wind forces [in the body] might be provoked. That would be how my death would come about.


does wealth refer here to spiritual qualities and virtues ?

Wealth here literally means the wealth from householders. The background story to the verse might be helpful here: https://www.tipitaka.net/tipitaka/dhp/verseload.php?verse=155


Does being Emotionial generate new sankaras?

You just finished a retreat. Give everything time to settle down. Currently, you are taking it all far too seriously.

Obviously, you had an arduous experience. Tears of relief; possibly some catharsis. There is no need to be concerned.

Give 'anicca' ('impermanence') a long term view; such as one month for those 'sankharas' to settle down.

'Sankhara' does not (exclusively) mean 'intention'. 'Sankhara' is any kind of mental formation, including non-intentional or automatic instinctual emotions.

For example. when the mind goes into 'shock' due to an accident, this is not intentional.

Similarly, during an intense retreat, emotions will arise that are not intentional.

It appears that a few emotions, more or less, is not going to increase or reduce the sankharas stored within your mind in any significant way.

I suggest, for the next few weeks, to forget the teachings you heard & return to some ordinary activity, particularly some physical exercise to burn off & settle the emotions & hyperactivity.


What are the 5 cords of sensual pleasures?

The five kāmaguṇa are:

color
sound
smell
flavor
phoṭṭhabba (=temperature, matter, and vayo).

They tie the kāma-person to live in kāma-bhava.

kāma means "living in kāma loka"; and guṇa means "a binder".

So, the five kāmaguṇa are things that kāma-taṇha (addicting to drug), and bhava-taṇha (addicting to becoming, born to be, future birth).

See the first part of the mahadukkhakkhandhasutta for more information:

  Now what, monks, is the allure of sensuality? These five strings of sensuality. Which five? Forms cognizable via the eye — agreeable, pleasing, charming, endearing, fostering desire, enticing. Sounds cognizable via the ear... Aromas cognizable via the nose... Flavors cognizable via the tongue... Tactile sensations cognizable via the body — agreeable, pleasing, charming, endearing, fostering desire, enticing. Now whatever pleasure or joy arises in dependence on these five strands of sensuality, that is the allure of sensuality.


I had the same problem as you with romanticising monk life. Of course the day to day living of a monk varies a lot depending on whether they live in a monastery, a cave, or the forest. Despite having many hours in the day for their own practice I often see monks telling of how they have little free time.

This book called The Broken Buddha which was written by an ex-monk exposes the reality about monasticism in thailand/sri lanka/burma http://www.buddhistische-gesellschaft-berlin.de/downloads/brokenbuddhanew.pdf

Reading that drove away a lot of my dreaming of monk life because I realised the type of people I would be living with if ordaining in Asia. I still strive for a monastic lifestyle but not because of romanticised ideas.


View of Thervada and Mahayana Buddhism on where Conciousness is located

According to buddhism, consciousness (vinnana) are characterized as originating from the ayatanas, our senses (eyes, ears, nose, tongue, touch, and mind).

Even though there needs to be a physiological base for our consciousness, there are more prerequisites for consciousness to establish itself, meaning that it emerges in the mind when any of these six different senses makes contact with external sense objects (for example ear - sound).

In other words, it's not until internal sense bases "contacts" with external sense objects that consciousness manifests itself through declarative cognitions.

According to the buddhist concept of dependent origination, to define consciousness therefore isn't just a matter of where it might be localized, there also has to be cognitions/perceptions in order to properly determine what it is.


What Buddhist materials explain how to understand one's irrational feelings?

According to Buddhist dependent origination, depending on contact feeling arise, depending on feeling craving arise, depending on craving clinging arise, etc...

The feelings that arise is a result of past conditioning and when there is contact the past feeling that was conditioned arise, be that attachment, revulsion or neutral feeling. The practice to recondition how we look at a person, others and ourself included, is the 32 parts of the body practice of which the link is one example.
Google for ways to practice the 32 parts of the body.


Do artists/entertainers accumulate positive merit when people enjoy their craft?

According to the Talaputra Sutta, one time an actor approached the Buddha and asked him if he would go to heaven with the devas because he made people happy and forget their worries.
The Buddha tried to dodge answering, but at the actor's insistence, he had to tell him that he'd probably go to hell or the animal realms.

See also:

This question: Will actors really go to hell?
My answer to Are actions in computer games bad for karma?


How this quote by Mahathma Ghandi is compatable with non-violence teaching of Buddhism?

It's a common missinterpretation that Ghandi-like approaches, Mahātmā (Maha Atma, "great Ego, great selfishness"), of kind of passive aggressivism goes allong with the good teachings of the Buddha.

For a large he used affliction to "force" people, like with his well known extortion by hunger strike. It's merely unattentive to put exortions and alike under non-violent. Non-violence has it's root in the mind, has being impotent (for becoming and desire) as case. When one acts with big desire, big potence, yet cover one self with the cloak of non-violence one might become the hero of fools, playing with their affections.

Another outwardly indication, as a result if one has rightly developed metta one might prove:

  One sleeps easily, wakes easily, dreams no evil dreams. One is dear to human beings, dear to non-human beings. The devas protect one. Neither fire, poison, nor weapons can touch one. One's mind gains concentration quickly. One's complexion is bright. One dies unconfused and — if penetrating no higher — is headed for the Brahma worlds.

Those common views, that "non-violent" aggression and actions of politic and "manipulation", yet most for an opinion, one side, and in opposition, are merely a notion of secular approaches and in Mahayana spheres often accepted "doing evil for a good", which is common tolerated by normal people, given the titel "hero" to one taking side.

There are NO of such "heros" who had not caused a mass on suffering, and if we think on what Maha-Atmas approach caused on wars and death in the following, to what has been giving rise to ripe, it's merely the observation of blind to gratify such as good.

Virtue which is not based on right view can not be real virtue but falls for the most into the frame of just another hypocrisy.

So in this regard it's possible better (althought aggressive as well) to listen more on such as Oshos statements on heros, like Ghandi (not, it's merely vulgar speech or better provoking)

As for the Buddha and his Dhamma, uprooting the flag, the potence, as well as giving up holding to being, becoming and birth (and its effect death) clearly contradicts not only the words but also the conduct of what ever might cover himself with non-violence, yet still on a fight and after win in the world and outwardly.

In somehow it seems in this way merely like a selfreflection, this quote, by him.

Opposing ones leader, father and mother, contemplatives, disrespect toward them, even if covert in "non-violence", leads to violence and to the other extrem on the same coin.

The Pema, love-sutta might explain it well.

It shows the four kind of tools to win fools in politic in detail:

  These four things are born. Which four? Affection is born of affection. Aversion is born of affection. Affection is born of aversion. Aversion is born of aversion....

and the notions in levels of having become really non-violent, with the attributs of the Arahat at last:

  "And how does a monk not burn? There is the case where a monk's conceit of 'I am' is abandoned, its root destroyed, made like a palmyra stump, deprived of the conditions of development, not destined for future arising. This is how a monk doesn't burn."

To be outardly potent and give birth and becoming, is not the noble intent seen within the Noble Ones, but to uproot and destry the Linga at its root, cut it of, for oneself.

Jesus-like self-sacrify, martyr of all kind, the wise and the Dhamma does not see as prais worthy but merely as "impotence" to be winner over one self and have failed to even trace the cause of suffering in ones own heart.

Understanding the quote in this way in regard of potence, than it fits to the Dhamma, for one who ignores the real enemy within one self, fighting outwardly, has put a cloak of ignorance, with favoring colors above ones ability (potence) to get a real hero.

So to rephrase:

  "It is better to accept anatta, if there is mahatma in our hearts, than to put on the cloak of anatta to cover incapacity (to uproot it). Mahatma is any day preferable to incapacity. There is hope for a Mahatma man to realice Anatta. There is no such hope for those incapable to see, those without faith in the path, those not after cutting of Mahatma."

[Note: This is a gift of Dhamma, not meant for commercial use or other lower wordily gains by ways of exchange or trade]


Where does the consciousness (cittas) originate inside the body?

Space is a derived quality of matter, so consciousness cannot be said to take up or exist in space. To say that the mind arises here or there is not really proper in an ultimate sense. Consciousness can arise based on physical entities, and hadaya vatthu is the base for both the mind element and mind consciousness element. This doesn't mean that consciousness arises in the hadaya vatthu.

  According to the Pali commentators, the heart serves as the physical support for all cittas other than the two sets of fivefold sense consciousness, which take their respective sensitivities
  as their bases. In the canonical Abhidhamma the heart-base is not expressly mentioned. The Patthāna, the last book of the Abhidhamma Pitaka, simply speaks of “that matter in dependence on which the mind element and mind-consciousness element occur”. The Commentaries, however, subsequently specify “that matter” to be the heart-base, a cavity situated within the physical heart. (Comprehensive Manual of Abhidhamma 144–5 , Bodhi et al)


I interpret this as a modern science question about nutritional completeness (so I don't see how adding "from a Buddhism perspective" changes the the nature of the question).

Some lay Buddhists prefer to be vegetarian, in which case I could recommend Wikipedia's Vegetarian nutrition article as an introduction to the nutritional aspects of that choice.

In summary, some of the nutrients which a naive vegetarian/vegan diet can eventually lack include protein, iron, zinc, vitamin B12, and calcium.

You may find that you must deliberately include, in your diet, substances which the average person is warned they have too much of: for example (iodized) salt, and oil.

Conventional scientific advice includes that you should have a varied diet (even if that diet is vegetarian).

IMO, beware that the diet which sustains you for a week or month or year might not be adequate to sustain you for decades. Vitamin/mineral pills might help. If your doctor knows you're vegetarian, he/she may help to monitor your health (e.g. measuring serum ferritin and whatnot occasionally).

The dietary rules for monks might be different (e.g. perhaps they eat whatever they're given).

I suppose there are other aspects of diet that are important:

How much?
When?
For what purpose?
With whom?

You presumably know that the Middle Way suggests you don't get too heavily into asceticism.

On the subject of "rice and beans" here's a recipe I use:

cooked (optionally canned) of beans, well rinced (or iirc lentils have more iron than other beans)
cooked rice (quantity depends on your caloric need)
tinned sweet corn, well rinced (ditto)
plenty of chopped raw vegetables: red or green pepper, onion, apple, celery
oil (e.g. olive oil), lemon juice, and salt

The vegetables in this dish are robust (adding e.g. sliced cucumber would make it more perishable) so IMO you can keep it in the refrigerator for 2 days (and thus prep it once and eat it for 3 days in a row).

What you were saying about amino acids is called the "complementary protein" theory. Here is a claim about that:

  While the idea that we need to combine proteins from different plant sources at every single meal has been refuted, it is still important to stress that in order to get proper nutrition one needs to eat variety of different plant foods every day, so that in each 24-hour period one gets all the essential amino acids.