Is there poetry in Pali, and where can I read it, in translation and in original?

If you googled for Pali poetry, the first result is this page. There are at least 35 Pali poems on that page.
Andrew Olendzki extracted these Pali poems from the Pali Canon and translated them, as he explained here:

Here you will find many poems
that I have translated from the
Pali over the years. .....
These poems all come from various parts of the Pali Canon: Theragatha,
Therigatha, Dhammapada, Udana, Itivuttaka, Samyutta Nikaya, etc. They
are listed here from the newest to oldest, and I will add new
translations from time to time to the top of the list.

Side note:
With details found in this answer, you will find that the original meaning of the word "pāli" itself is "canon", originating from the commentaries upon the Pali Canon. People from centuries ago couldn't even remember the original name of this dialect or language, so they mistakenly called it "Pāli", thinking the term "pāli-bhāsā" (which actually means language of the canon) actually referred to a name - Pali language. The term "bhāsā" means language. By the way, there is no upper case or lower case in Pali.
So you will find that Pali is used only in the Pali Canon, commentaries upon the canon and also later writings related to the canon like the Visuddhimagga. So, it's very unlikely that you will find non-Buddhist poems in Pali. Pali is not a common literary language unlike Classical Sanskrit.


Why Lankavatara Sutra was replaced with Diamond Sutra by 5th patriarch?

Many of the early Chinese patriarchs and their works are partially or completely shrowded in mystery. For example, it was probably not Hui-Neng, but his disciple Fahai who recorded the teachings and dialogues of his master. The work most closesly associated with the 5th patriarch is the East_Mountain_Teaching, the first "really Chinese" collection of teachings not based on translations of Sanskrit texts.

The Diamond Sutra you are referring to is just a section of the works of Hongren and Hui-Neng, the latter is called the Platform Sutra, referring to the platform on which the master would sit during his discourses. The Platform Sutra actually contains discourses on the Diamond and the Lankavatara Sutra, as well as many other Sutras. So does the East Mountain Teaching collection of the 4th and 5th Patriarch.

It's indeed true the popularity of the Lankavatara Sutra declined, but this evolution started long before Hongren and Hui-Neng. Early masters of the Chan tradition were referred to as "Laṅkāvatāra masters", as this is one of the texts that Bodhidharma supposedly brought with him from India. This sutra was probably written around 350 CE, but in China this is not the most copied edition. Two subsequent editions with many commentaries and additions were made between 500 CE and 700 in collective volumes called the Taisho Tripitaka. Scholars nowadays think that the Lavankatara Sutra declined in popularity because of certain chapters that were based on Theravada values, such as eating meat and the "Thrice Clean" practice.

The first Chinese translation of the Diamond Sutra dates to the early 5th Century, but the version that supposedly caused Hui-Neng's enlightenment experience was brought to China in the 7th century by a monk called Xuanzang. Also consider that the printing press in China was invented in the first half of the 9th century. The oldest surviving printed text we actually have is a version of the Diamond Sutra from Dunhuang. This would certainly have been a major factor in its distribution and therefore its popularity.

So, in conlusion, the popularity of the Lavankatara Sutra in China was set in motion long before Hongren and Hui-Neng. The subsequent (heavily edited and commented) editions of this sutra were both created by imperial edict, which would have had considerably more influence on Chinese Buddhhism as a whole in stead of just the Chan school.


Information requested on Buddhist monks self-immolation mental technique

From the question I assume you are new to Buddhism so will answer accordingly.

There is no scientific explanation for feeling pain let alone not feeling it. However, there are explanations. Indeed, the whole of Buddhist doctrine might be seen as an explanation of how to transcend suffering. You would need to study the 'Four Noble Truths'.

A very famous case is the horrific crucifixion and torture of the Sufi sage Al Hallaj. It seemed not to bother him and he expresses disappointment when one of his students sheds tears for him, for it gives away his lack of understanding that there is nobody there to suffer.

The explanation would be the ability of human beings to discover that the self that suffers is not real and to stand apart from their thoughts, feelings, sensations and emotions. We can all do this to some extent and find ourselves forced to do it situations of great pain. Many people come to Buddhist practice and that of other traditions by way of lengthy painful experiences. They discover that the pain may be viewed objectively without any sense of ownership such that they can say 'There is pain', and not 'I am in pain'.

A full explanation would require delving into the nature of consciousness and personhood and this would take us beyond 'scientific consciousness studies' and academic philosophy, while an understanding of the explanation would require a lot of practice and personal research.

This ability to transcend suffering is in the nature of consciousness. The comment by Aurobindo below indicates that it is a recognition that only our 'surface being' suffers, and this allows practitioners to display great feats of suffering. But it cannot be a theory. It has to be a reality for us or it is not the case for us. Thus practice is required for such feats, not book-learning.

"One might almost say that our surface being is only the deeper eternal self in us throwing itself out as the adventurer in Time, a gambler and speculator in infinite possibilities, limiting itself to the succession of moments so that it may have all the surprise and delight of the adventure, keeping back its self-knowledge and complete self-being so that it may win again what it seems to have lost, reconquering all itself through the chequered joy and pain of an aeonic passion and seeking and adventure." (Sri Aurobindo, The Life Divine)

Thus to overcome suffering would mean realising that our surface being is a construction, much as Dennett describes it, and not our true being. For a truly realised being there would be no suffering and no person to suffer, and this is the meaning of the Four Noble Truths.

On a personal note, aged seventeen I suffered a lot of intense pain for a period due to an operation that went wrong. I had no choice but to distance myself from it and found that this is possible. It was only four decades later that I discovered Buddhism and found an explanation. There is more to human being (or perhaps less) than the natural sciences are able to discover. Hence the placebo effect may be effective in reducing pain. For a full reduction the Buddha's medicine would have to be ingested. A truly skilled monk may self-immolate without the slightest worry about pain and death. They are past all that nonsense.

Whether we believe this is not important since believing it isn't going to help. But even if we know nothing about Buddhist teachings the next time we're in great pain it may be a good chance to perform some experiments. In practice it is said that we discover not simply that we do not suffer but that there is nobody to suffer. Regrettably this knowledge is not easily won, but even a little familiarity with the skills required will help us when we are in pain.

The natural science may be able to verify that the behaviour of some people indicates an ability to transcend pain but is not able to study consciousness so cannot provide an explanation. The science of Yoga, however, as described by Patanjali, or Buddhist practice allows us to know the explanation and make it our reality.

Aurobindo (ibid) also says this.

"In our ordinary life this truth is hidden from us or only dimly glimpsed at times or imperfectly held and conceived. But if we learn to live within, we infallibly awaken to this presence within us which is our more real self, a presence profound, calm, joyous and puissant of which the world is not the master - a presence which, if it is not the Lord Himself, is the radiation of the Lord within. We are aware of it within supporting and helping the apparent and superficial self and smiling at its pleasures and pains as at the error and passion of a little child."

You may find some interesting youtube videos on this topic but I don't know of any on this exact topic. Any decent book on meditation ought to cover the main points and explain the abilities of these self-immolating monks.

Here are some suttas about giving up pleasure and pain.


Where can I find a Buddist Monastery that practice hard training?

Following are some pointers:

https://www.dhamma.org/en/index
http://www.internationalmeditationcentre.org/global/index.html
http://www.buddhanet.info/wbd/
https://www.paaukforestmonastery.org/
https://forestsangha.org/

With regard to the 1st 2 links, there are 10-day courses. In the case of the 1st link, you can progress to longer courses up to 60 days. 3rd link lists many other monasteries and centres which some may allow you to stay up to a year. 4th links gives meditation centres in the Pa Auk tradition which is the best if you are looking to master Jhana. 5th link gives monasteries in the Thai Forrest tradition.


All things we see are labeled by us human beings but are not the label,  they are just what they are. So when practicing mindfulness(involving seeing, perceiving, knowing and understanding for the purpose of transcending suffering), one experiences things directly as they are with no assumptions, labels, stories or judgements. In other words no "arbitrary conceptions".

If there is verbal thinking happening in one's mind, it is experienced as just a formation and the meaning of the words are conceptual so one doesn't need  to process the content, meaning or "story" of the thinking  even though we are so used to a kind of instant understanding of the conceptual meaning.

If there is pain or pleasure it is a kind of assumption,  judgment or arbitrary conception when we react to it with aversion or clinging. When we are not seeing like this we are in a way just sleeping through life on autopilot in an impulse and arbitrary way.

Even if one could see like this at all times it doesn't mean they must stop understanding all concepts all the time of course.


I agree with Dulan's reply. We should heed what “Leave that which makes you doubt” means - that is to refrain from that which you are uncertain. The following example of a "Analogy of Serial Killer" will show you how we can knowingly or unknowingly be involved in 'killing' kamma.

Suppose we have a serial killer in a certain city who has raped and killed many women so that no woman dares to venture outdoor at night. The whole city is in uproar and the citizens demand that the authorities do their duty and catch the killer. So the police, after several months of pains taking effort, finally nabs the culprit. After this is a long trial and then the judge passes the death sentence on him. On the appointed day the killer is led to the execution platform where the executioner pulls the lever to end the killer’s life.

All this now leads to the question: “Who is involved in the evil kamma of killing a human being (i.e. the serial killer)?” According to the law of kamma-vipaka, the executioner bears the heaviest offence because he intentionally carried out the killing. Next would be the judge for pronouncing the death sentence. These two persons are directly involved in the killing kamma of the execution of the serial killer. The police are only indirectly involved and not responsible for the execution. How about the citizens? Ultimately the serial killer was executed to protect the citizens, i.e. he was executed for the sake of the citizens, or the citizens were the main beneficiaries of the execution. So are the citizens responsible for the killing kamma involved? No, because they did not ask for the execution of the serial killer. But they could be if they demanded his execution. The scenario is similar to the slaughter of animals for food.

The persons who slaughter the animals bear the heaviest killing kamma. The persons who breed animals for slaughter are also involved in the killing kamma. They are like the judge who condemned the man to be executed. But the people who buy the meat of animals already slaughtered are not involved in the kamma of killing even though, like the citizens of the city above, they are the main beneficiaries. But if someone orders a live animal to be slaughtered for its meat, then killing kamma is involved for him.


The important thing is to start training.

Don't dwell on the past.

Angulimalla killed a bunch of people and still managed to not let it stop him from reaching Arahantship and your past should't be turned into a hindrance for you.

Angulimalla did stop doing stuff he would later regret and just trained.

If instead he thought 'i must make  amends for this bad thing i did otherwise [ie serve the families, help out the orphans etc etc]' he would never have made it to max lvl. He could be a nanny.

He also did not escape his kamma, which he had to endure:

  MN86:17.2: Now at that time someone threw a stone that hit Aṅgulimāla, someone else threw a stick, and someone else threw gravel.  Then Aṅgulimāla—with cracked head, bleeding, his bowl broken, and his outer robe torn—went to the Buddha. The Buddha saw him coming off in the distance, and said to him,  “Endure it, brahmin! Endure it, brahmin! You’re experiencing in this life the result of deeds that might have caused you to be tormented in hell for many years, many hundreds or thousands of years.”


I think we should differentiate Buddhism from New Age movements, they may share some goals (happiness), some tools (meditation) and some teachings, however they are very different in some key aspects, usually the ones related to money, intoxocants, sexuality and "enjoying life" (generally speaking)

There are new age gurus and teachers trying to reconcile the Buddha's teachings with our modern society and other believes, some of them attract a lot of people, I do respect them, but I don't see it as "New Age Buddhism", I see it as "New Age movements with some Buddhists teachings inside".


Chanda (Desire) is the first of the Four iddhipada. An important reading in this regard is the Iddhipada Samyutta - The connected sayings on the four bases of spiritual power. Iddhipaada can be defined as the state of reaching completeness or perfection. Iddhiya: of attaining completion or perfection; pado: root or basis. The root or basis of attaining completion or perfection. Hence it is called iddhipada. Desire is considered one of the iddhipada, the bases of success.  It is said:

  By chanda iddhipada (Chanda Samadhi Padhana Sankhara Samannagata iddhipada) is meant desire to obtain, desire to attain, desire to reach, desire to fulfil, desire to accomplish, The desire indicated here is extreme or excessive desire. There is nothing within or without one's personality that can obstruct that desire. It is the kind of desire that evokes the thought, 'If I do not attain this accomplishment in this life, I shall not rest content. It is better that I die rather than that I shall not attain it.'

One way to develop Chanda is by developing Citta as an iddhipada. Citta iddhipada (Citta Samadhi Padhana Sankhara Samannagata iddhipada) means: attachment to iddhi when one comes in contact with the sasana (Buddha's Dispensation) and hears the Dhamma. It is attachment that is extremely ardent and strong.

  ...One attains satisfaction and tranquillity only when one's mind is absorbed in matters connected with the iddhi. It is like the absorption of the alchemist engaged in the transmutation of the baser metals into gold or silver. Such an alchemist has no interest in anything else but his alchemy. He forgets to sleep or whether he had slept or eaten. He does not notice anything when out walking. Citta is great absorption or attachment of this nature.

For this you require Viriya (great energy and effort.)

  A person with this viriya is infused with the thought that the aim can be attained by energy and effort. He is not discouraged even though it is said to him that he must undergo great hardships. He is not discouraged even though he actually has to undergo great hardships. He is not discouraged even though it is said to him that he must put forth effort for many days, months, and years. He is not discouraged even though he actually has to put forth effort for such long periods.


What is the mental factor of Adhimokkkha (determination) use for?

In the Mahasi tradition (and perhaps others), resolutions are used when training the mind so that a certain type of insight (vipassana stage) arises during the practice -- most often the supramundane stage (cessation/fruition, magga-phala-nana), but also the lower stages (from A&P up to equanimity). The object of the resolution is stated in the mind (or aloud) before the practice, then let go. See Mahasi's great Practical Insight Meditation for details on that.


From personal experience:

If we don't counteract we might become a hopeless victim of the developing delusion, creating an object-subject tension. But counteraction should not create opposition or more tension, but a middle way in solving the slight or major disturbance. How it is done varies from mind to mind.

I never understood the 'letting go' part - repeated as a mantra everywhere - one can let everything through, but if one does not chase the thieves of delusion, anger, wrath, ignorance away that arise during life and rarely ever during meditation, he or she will eventually succumb to them.

That is why  often meditation was advised as a remedy to counter the pollutants in life, by conscious mental effort to tame the incessant monkey of the jumping mind. Difference  between rigour and mindless drill is often confused.

It was - I think - always a question of discipline supported by inner truth.  In worst cases we may start recognizing the pollutants as regular in our mental continuum, thus not even recognizing them as something opposed to development and realization.

I would argue that:

Ad. 1: If we simply observe the arising delusion we might be swept in, with poisons developing, if we counteract we create opposite tension, making psychological space for it to fill it later; Perhaps the method is to find higher grounds in mental state (as if climbing a mountain), and then neutralizing the poisons with light effort by analysis of causes and conditions and supporting the analysis with scriptural thought and "good speech, good thought, good action"; If the thoughts are polluted, the speech is polluted, is the speech is polluted so is action, it works the other way around: good action improves thought and speech by synchronizing them.

Ad. 2 Dissolving mental habits is difficult if they are long-lasting, clusters of these are difficult to immediadately cut through (although it happens sometimes) one has to find not the opposition and be stranded in duality but something akin to trancendent Third, that neutralizes both; Between love an hatred, for example, one finds a paternal and a maternal mind towards beings that feel both releasing oneself from the duality.


Persevering Through Very Difficult Periods

What I discovered only a few years ago, after 25 years of practicing Dharma...is that when things get really rough, it works best to get into absolute here-and-now mode.

Meaning, I don't think about my situation, don't compare, don't analyze, just live one step at a time, one breath at a time, do what's obviously required at the moment, and that's it.

This puts me in pure suchness. Things are such and not otherwise. There's no judgement on my side, nor longing for things to be otherwise. There's just suchness.

When you are fully in this mode, it is actually quite peaceful, despite the rough situation. Suchness is peaceful, because it is just so. There's no conflict in my attitude to it. I am just such, and I do what I do, at the moment.

It is actually a very advanced state, suchness. No need to practice anything else. To be in full peace, without inner conflict, despite the circumstances - is quite an achievement.


Lovingkindness and Compassion of the Buddha?

You've asked about metta.

The deepest example of metta does not use the word metta.

In SN6.1, we hear that Brahmā Sahampati kneels and asks the Buddha to teach the Dhamma.

  Sir, let the Blessed One teach the Dhamma! Let the Holy One teach the Dhamma!

To which the Buddha humbly replied:

  Thinking it would be troublesome, Brahmā, I did not teach the sophisticated, sublime Dhamma among humans.

The Buddha spent the rest of his life teaching. Now that is the very definition of metta.


What will the Satipatthana Sutta teach me?

The Satipatthana Sutta is a famous Buddhist scripture attributed to the Buddha (although it is unlikely it was actually spoken by the Buddha but instead is a compiling of various teachings of the Buddha). The Satipatthana Sutta is used for instruction in very basic meditation training (rather than used for very advanced training).
The Satipatthana Sutta is often interpreted and thus taught differently by different teachers.
The word 'satipatthana' means 'establishing mindfulness'. Establishing 'mindfulness' means to 'bring to mind' the Buddhist teachings in relation to experience. In terms of formal 'satipatthana' practise, it means to not have greed, grief or attachment towards experience. The Satipatthana Sutta says as its core practise:

he lives clearly comprehending and mindful, having overcome, in this world, covetousness and grief.
he lives detached and clings to nothing in the world.

Satipatthana practice includes the natural experiencing of four objects:
(i) the breathing & body;
(ii) pleasant, painful & neutral feelings;
(iii) the mind, its moods or, otherwise, its clarity; and
(iv) various realities ('dhamma'), such as impermanence, the nature of suffering & peace, etc.
These four objects of meditation experience are used to train mindfulness; so to remember to not cling or have greed or grief towards these four objects.
Importantly, continuously experiencing the breathing & body with a non-attached and non-judging mind causes the breathing to calm & the body to relax. In short, it feels peaceful & calm.
Ideally, Satipatthana requires having normal breathing and being able to sit still with back upright (either cross-legged on the floor or in a chair without leaning against the back of the chair) for about 30 to 60 minutes. Having normal breathing means not having a blocked nose or any other chronic breathing abnormality. Having normal breathing & sitting upright allows the breathing to relax & calm while keeping the mind alert and non-drowsy.
I am listening to Stephen Procter, here. If Stephen is offering a free guided meditation program then you have nothing to lose to do it. His teachings sound reasonable to me.


If you build in difference to reach higher jhana won't that make it hard to enter jhana?

The jhana of the Buddha is born from letting go (SN 48.10). When the peace of letting go is always known, the vibrations of rapture will feel unsatisfactory compared to the peace of letting go (i.e., the Nibbana element). Thus, the mind will not cling to the vibrations of rapture and the rapture will lose its energy as the body (rupa) relaxes even more.

The rapture of jhana is merely nervous system bliss arising from the dissolution of sankharas or stress previously stored in the physical body. That is why they are called "rupa jhana"; because the bliss is based on the relaxation of the neurology of the physical body that stores and is stressed by unwholesome mentality.


https://www.britannica.com/topic/Bka-gyur says,

Bka’-’gyur, (Tibetan: “Translation of the Buddha-Word”), also spelled Bkaḥ-ḥgyur, Kagyur, Kan-gyur, or Kanjur, the collection of Tibetan Buddhist sacred literature representing the “Word of the Buddha”—as distinct from the Bstan-’gyur (“Translation of Teachings”), or collection of commentaries and miscellaneous works. This body of canonical literature contains more than 1,000 works, most of them originally written in Sanskrit and most translated (with great care) after the 8th century. They were gathered together in the 13th century, and the collection has been published in 100 volumes.
The Bka’-’gyur begins with a vinaya (“monastic discipline”) section, the only group of works having much in common with the Pāli literature of southern Buddhism. Then follow a few hundred sūtras, mostly of the various Mahāyāna schools but including a number of Sarvāstivāda (“Doctrine That All Is Real”) works, and several collections of avadānas (legends of “noble deeds”). Finally, there are several hundred Tantras, the special ritual and meditation texts of the Vajrayāna form of Buddhism characteristic of Tibet. These latter are divided into four groups, containing, respectively, worldly rites, religious rites, traditional yogic practices, and the esoteric forms of Tantric yoga.

You asked, "All perspective are well accepted if these scriptures are part of the canon" -- but the answer may depend on which canon (e.g. the Pali canon or the Mahayana canon).
I read a while ago on this site that the question of whether a text is "Buddhavacana" is a subject of debate or argument, disagreement, between schools.


Right knowledge and right relase or right release and right knowledge

SN 12.23 says:

Khayeñāṇaṃ (knowledge of destruction of defilements) has freedom (from defilements) as its condition.
Freedom (from defilements) has dispassion, disillusionment & yathābhūtañāṇadassanan (truly knowing and seeing) as its conditions.

Therefore, if following the sequence of dhammas in SN 12.23, "right knowledge" ("samma ñāṇa") in MN 117 would be yathābhūtañāṇadassanan and not khayeñāṇaṃ.


What are the consequences of the 14th Dalai Lama being the last one?

I think, as an overall, we must realize what is truly important, that is, the teaching will always be greater than the teacher. Even the Buddha is no comparison to the Dharma. Even on the Buddhas deathbed, when His disciples feared that the light-of-the-world was about to go-out, the Buddha reminded then of the power of the teaching. As long as the practices of the teachings continue, the light will always shine!!
The Buddha told Ananda that when the Dhamma has been completely forgotten a new fully enlightened Buddha will arise. He is called Maitreya. I'm here quoting Ven. Sri. Dhammananda when he says in his book What Buddhists Believe on page 76:

...The Buddha continued again: "I am not the first Buddha to come upon earth; nor shall I be the last. In due time, another Buddha will
arise in this world, a Holy One, a Supremely Enlightened One, endowed
with wisdom, in conduct auspicious, knowing the universe, an
incomparable leader of men, a master of devas and men. He will reveal
to you the same Eternal Truths which I have taught you. He will
proclaim a religious life, wholly perfect and pure; such as I now
proclaim."
"How shall we know him?", asked Ananda.
The Buddha replied, "He will be known as Maitreya which means kindness or friendliness."


When there's the enlightenment why we even exists?

We exist believing in a permanent self because of craving.Enlightenment is when we let go of this craving and any other craving.

If Samsara can be brutal and full of suffering, what's its purpose?

I'll answer this question by asking another question.If you throw a ball up what is the purpose of the ball falling down?

There is none.Its just cause and effect.

Samsara was not created by a higher being and we were not put in it to learn some kind of life's lesson or as a kind of test.Remember,Samsara is not a place it's a state of mind of always craving.

To suffer and then enjoy how nice it is to not suffer? Or to have the
choice whether to be good or bad?

Enlightenment is when you transcend both.It's good that your disenchanted with this roller coaster of good then bad good then bad.Don't play the game anymore.If you want to be happy in samsara you'll need to accept the fact that you'll be unhappy when that happiness changes.Everything changes.Impermanence.That's about the only thing that's permanent with samsara.

As humans we can surely limit the suffering. But how much really?

Depends on our own effort.We can limit our suffering through our own merits but we will not be able to eradicate all suffering until enlightenment.

If there are 6 realms (hell, afflicted spirit, animal, human, asura, and heavenly beings) - what sort of principles could ever decide for such an order?

Karma.

If that is so - what's the sense of having e.g. the hell? To "punish" those who act as evil so they could "taste" their own acting? I'm not really sure if I understand the purpose of going through all of it..

We create our own heaven and hell.no one punishes or rewards us.Our actions creates these realms.To simplify things,If you don't want to go to hell do not act like you are already in hell.

Isn't everything supposed to be going towards the enlightenment?

could you tell me more about this.

I believe it was Erwin Schroedinger who expressed an interesting idea that the total number of all minds in the universe is one. Just one mind. Split into different lives in different time and space. If that's the case I only wonder why would the same mind ever "start" this.

I have heard of this concept in Gnostic and Hindu teachings.The closest thing i can relate to Buddhism is There is only awareness.But because of delusion we believe it's my awareness,my consciousness,my perceptions,my thoughts,my feelings,my body.My life.Infinite numbers of beings believing they have individual and separate egos.If i had to pin point what started this all i would say Delusion.But this is all beyond my scope.Please take it with a grain of salt.


A Bhikkhu is restricted to max. three nights sleeping under the same roof with lay-people, better Non-Bhikkhus (which incl. novices and some Nikayas incl. animal as well).
"Under one roof" is also seen often differently, sometimes technical in regard of roof seen, sometimes as matter of touch each other ("privacy"), as the origin story suggest that it's a matter of danger of lose of respect toward monk(s) if seeing ordinary things while he sleeps...etc.
As for the practice (for those in training) it's actually not good for Bhikkhus (but also for others after Paths/fruits) to spend even short time in near association with "non-likewise" or "lower".
It's how ever great goodness if a mature Bhikkhu let a non-Bhikkhu dwell near for a while.
General is near association, living near, with householder and real novices not good and often encouraged to avoid by the Sublime Buddha, not to speak of improper association or dependency.
[Note that this isn't given for stacks, exchange, other world-binding trades but for escape from this wheel.]


The Bodhisattva ideal in practice (and its relation to the Arhat ideal)

The essential aspiration of a bodhisattva is bodhicitta, the vow or intention to achieve enlightenment out of compassion for all those suffering in samsara, which contrary to popular perception does not necessarily imply being reborn until all beings in samsara achieve enlightenment, since the Buddha, who was clearly a bodhisattva, is not (and cannot be) reborn, but he did live many many lives before achieving Buddhahood. The difference between a stream entrant, who seeks arhantship, and a bodhisattva is that a stream entrant seeks enlightenment for himself and seeks to achieve emancipation as soon as possible, thus freeing himself from the bondage of samsara quickly. The Buddha taught that it is possible to do this in not less than seven days and not more than seven rebirths, but the Pali Canon records instances of attainment of arhantship in as short a time as five days. Arhantship has the net effect of reducing dharma in samsara, since the arhants are not reborn, reducing the overall quantum of dharma, whereas bodhisattvas are reborn many many times - perhaps infinite numbers of times potentially but not necessarily - thus increasing the quantum of dharma in samsara. Thus, the arhant ideal leads to degeneration (entropy) whereas the bodhisattva ideal leads to evolution (negentropy).


No, they are not synonyms. They are mutually exclusive: If it is 'tathagatagarbha', then it is not 'dhammakaya'. If it is 'dhammakaya', it is not 'tathagatagarbha'.

Tathagatagarbha is 'suchness with defilement', which is the emptiness of the minds of sentient beings.

Dharmakaya is 'suchness without defilement', which is the emptiness of the omniscient mind of a buddha. (more specifically any of the 'nature truth body', according to Prasangika). Although they are undifferenciated in nature (pure by nature), Dharmakaya and Tathagatagarbha are not the same.

As Gyaltsab-Je states in his commentary to Maitreya's Sublime Continuum
differentiating the Lineage of the Three Jewels:

  Suchness with defilement is the basic element not liberated from the
  obscurations of mental afflictions, and is known as tathagata
  essence." By nature it is pure and is the ultimate truth. The term
  "tathagata essence" is not used anywhere by either the Tathagata
  Essence Sutra or this treatise and its commentary, which explain the
  thinking of that sutra, to teach the  twofold purity [i.e. the
  dharmakaya endowed with the twofold purity]. Therefore, to apply the
  ultimate dharmakaya to "tathagata essence" is a mere fabrication


Are Good Qualities Proportional to Our Efforts?

From MN 117, we read that Right Effort (samma vayamo) must go in the right direction:

  "One tries to abandon wrong view & to enter into right view: This is
  one's right effort...

  "One tries to abandon wrong resolve & to enter into right resolve:
  This is one's right effort...

  "One tries to abandon wrong speech & to enter into right speech: This
  is one's right effort...

  "One tries to abandon wrong action & to enter into right action: This
  is one's right effort...

  "One tries to abandon wrong livelihood & to enter into right
  livelihood: This is one's right effort."

Not just the right direction, but also the right amount of effort - not too much and not too little.

From AN 6.55 (a vina is an indian stringed musical instrument):

  "And what do you think: when the strings of your vina were too taut,
  was your vina in tune & playable?"

  "No, lord."

  "And what do you think: when the strings of your vina were too loose,
  was your vina in tune & playable?"

  "No, lord."

  "And what do you think: when the strings of your vina were neither too
  taut nor too loose, but tuned to be right on pitch, was your vina in
  tune & playable?"

  "Yes, lord."

  "In the same way, Sona, over-aroused persistence leads to
  restlessness, overly slack persistence leads to laziness. Thus you
  should determine the right pitch for your persistence, attune the
  pitch of the [five] faculties [to that], and there pick up your
  theme."


Do we have conventional knowledge of the present?

The quote you give:

  The cognition of the ultimate nature of things—their all being empty
  of intrinsic nature—is nonconceptual because, there being nothing to
  cognize, no cognition arises.

Refers to wisdom directly realizing emptiness. Such a wisdom realizes emptiness in a non-dualistic manner. It is non-conceptual and explicit, since it realizes its object (emptiness) by way of emptiness appearing to it. Conceptual consciousnesses realize their object by way of a mental image appearing to them. Cognition arise (this wisdom is a cognition) but there is no acertainment of conventional truths (such as time, a table, persons, the basis of emptiness, and so forth).

By the way, Garfield is not the safest source.

Chandrakirti (same view as Buddhapalita) also talked about "non-seeing" and "non-cognition" or "non-perception." He does not mean that a buddha is free from cognition (that would contradict the typical Mahayana claim hat he is omniscient) but simply that non-existent do not appear to a buddha. A buddha is free from the appearance of true existence. It is not so much about "no cognition" as it is about "no cognition of something in particular."

It is explained in
Chandrakirti's Commentary on the "Supplement to Nagarjuna's Treatise on the Middle'.

Geshe Jamphel Gyaltsen said:

  When said that they perceive it in the manner of non-perception, it
  does not mean that a buddha does not see anything at all. It means
  that he is not seeing any phenomenon arisen due to ignorance, that is,
  together with a false appearance of the conventional - an appearance
  of true existence. It is the omniscience realizing the final reality
  that perceives the emptiness, the absence of true existence. Since a
  buddha does not perceive what does not exist and knows all existing
  phenomena, when a truly existent conventional phenomenon were to
  exist, it should appear to a buddha, but it does not. What is not
  perceived by him is a non-existent. If it were existent it would
  appear to the Buddha. True establishment does not exist and therefore
  does not appear to the wisdom of a Buddha realizing the final reality.


I would advice improving the effectiveness of meditation by learning more, this so that you might more often attain a pleasant abiding when you meditate and otherwise.

One can start by adressing the exhaustion & lack of energy by giving a lot of attention to the theme of wakefulness, the benefits of wakefulness, to the fearfulness of laziness & lazy stretching and to the drawbacks of getting into a habit of sleeping too much.

This can be contemplated for some time and will be effective if established as dominant perspective and will thus remain for as long as maintained by sufficient giving of attention to the theme of wakefulness.

When one gets over exhaustion one might be restless and a restless mind can be calmed by ie breath meditation.

If you learn how to get over states like exhaustion, restlessness, regret, doubt, anger and sensual pleasure seeking, then you will be in charge of directing and the states you compose in meditation will more often be rewarding and pleasant.

The resolves and inclinations will change by themselves according to development.


Is it helpful to stay single if I am not going to become a monk?

What matters is what you do when you are single. If being single means using prostitutes to satisfy one's sensual desires, it could lead one further away from the path as compared to a person who restrains himself to one woman and practices loyalty, kindness, doing good deeds together etc.

But if being single means being celibate and using one's free time for meditation etc., one would generally have a higher chance of progressing in the path as compared to the average family man.

In the time of the Buddha, there were monks who went to forest for seclusion and ended up having sex with monkeys. So what really matters is what you do when you are single.


Diamond Sutra in Tibetan, Sanskrit, and/or Japanese

एवं मया श्रुतम् evaṃ mayā śrutam

  एकस्मिन् समये भगवान् श्रावस्त्यां विहरति स्म जेतवनेऽनाथपिण्डदस्यारामे
  महता भिक्षुसंघेन सार्थं त्रयोदशभिर्भिक्षुशतैः संबहुलैश्च
  बोधिसत्त्वैर्महासत्त्वैः ekasmin samaye bhagavān śrāvastyāṃ viharati
  sma jetavane'nāthapiṇḍadasyārāme mahatā bhikṣusaṃghena sārthaṃ
  trayodaśabhirbhikṣuśataiḥ saṃbahulaiśca bodhisattvairmahāsattvaiḥ

  अथ खलु भगवान् पूर्वाह्णकालसमये निवास्य पात्रचीवरमादाय श्रावस्तीं
  महानगरीं पिण्डाय प्राविक्षत् atha khalu bhagavān pūrvāhṇakālasamaye
  nivāsya pātracīvaramādāya śrāvastīṃ mahānagarīṃ piṇḍāya prāvikṣat

  अथ खलु भगवान् श्रावस्तीं महानगरीं पिण्डाय चरित्वा कृतभक्तकृत्यः
  पश्चाद्भक्तपिण्डपातप्रतिक्रान्तः atha khalu bhagavān śrāvastīṃ
  mahānagarīṃ piṇḍāya caritvā kṛtabhaktakṛtyaḥ
  paścādbhaktapiṇḍapātapratikrāntaḥ

  पात्रचीवरं प्रतिशाम्य पादौ प्रक्षाल्य न्यषीदत्प्रज्ञप्त एवासने
  पर्यङ्कमाभुज्य ऋजुं कायं प्रणिधाय प्रतिमुखीं स्मृतिमुपस्थाप्य| अथ खलु
  संबहुला भिक्षवो येन भगवांस्तेनोपसंक्रामन् उपसंक्रम्य भगवतः पादौ
  शिरोभिरभिवन्द्य भगवन्तं त्रिष्प्रदक्षिणीकृत्य एकान्ते न्यषीदन्
  pātracīvaraṃ pratiśāmya pādau prakṣālya nyaṣīdatprajñapta evāsane
  paryaṅkamābhujya ṛjuṃ kāyaṃ praṇidhāya pratimukhīṃ smṛtimupasthāpya
  atha khalu saṃbahulā bhikṣavo yena bhagavāṃstenopasaṃkrāman
  upasaṃkramya bhagavataḥ pādau śirobhirabhivandya bhagavantaṃ
  triṣpradakṣiṇīkṛtya ekānte nyaṣīdan

  तेन खलु पुनः समयेनायुष्मान् सुभुतिस्तस्यामेव पर्षदि
  संनिपतितोऽभूत्संनिषण्णः अथ खल्वायुष्मान्
  सुभूतिरुत्थायासनादेकांसमुत्तरासङ्गं कृत्वा दक्षिणं जानुमण्डलं
  पृथिव्यां प्रतिष्ठाप्य येन भगवांस्तेनाञ्जलिं प्रणम्य भगवन्तमेतदवोचत्
  आश्चर्यं भगवन्, परमाश्चर्यं सुगत, यावदेव तथागतेनार्हता सम्यक्संबुद्धेन
  बोधिसत्त्वा महासत्त्वा अनुपरिगृहीताः परमेणानुग्रहेण tena khalu punaḥ
  samayenāyuṣmān subhutistasyāmeva parṣadi saṃnipatito'bhūtsaṃniṣaṇṇaḥ
  atha khalvāyuṣmān subhūtirutthāyāsanādekāṃsamuttarāsaṅgaṃ kṛtvā
  dakṣiṇaṃ jānumaṇḍalaṃ pṛthivyāṃ pratiṣṭhāpya yena bhagavāṃstenāñjaliṃ
  praṇamya bhagavantametadavocatāścaryaṃ bhagavan, paramāścaryaṃ sugata,
  yāvadeva tathāgatenārhatā samyaksaṃbuddhena bodhisattvā mahāsattvā
  anuparigṛhītāḥ parameṇānugraheṇa

  आश्चर्यं भगवन् यावदेव तथागतेनार्हता सम्यक्संबुद्धेन बोधिसत्त्वा
  महासत्त्वाः परीन्दिताः परमया परीन्दनया| तत्कथं भगवन्
  बोधिसत्त्वयानसंप्रस्थितेन कुलपुत्रेण वा कुलदुहित्रा वा स्थातव्यं कथं
  प्रतिपत्तव्यं कथं चित्तं प्रग्रहीतव्यम् āścaryaṃ bhagavan yāvadeva
  tathāgatenārhatā samyaksaṃbuddhena bodhisattvā mahāsattvāḥ parīnditāḥ
  paramayā parīndanayā| tatkathaṃ bhagavan bodhisattvayānasaṃprasthitena
  kulaputreṇa vā kuladuhitrā vā sthātavyaṃ kathaṃ pratipattavyaṃ kathaṃ
  cittaṃ pragrahītavyam

  एवमुक्ते भगवानायुष्मन्तं सुभूतिमेतदवोचत्साधु साधु सुभूते,
  एवमेतत्सुभूते, एवमेतद्यथा वदसि अनुपरिगृहीतास्तथागतेन बोधिसत्त्वा
  महासत्त्वाः परमेणानुग्रहेण परीन्दितास्तथागतेन बोधिसत्त्वा महासत्त्वाः
  परमया परीन्दनया तेन हि सुभूते शृणु, साधु च सुष्ठु च मनसि कुरु,
  भाषिष्येऽहं तेयथा बोधिसत्त्वयानसंप्रस्थितेन स्थातव्यं यथा
  प्रतिपत्तव्यं यथा चित्तं प्रग्रहीतव्यम् एवं भगवन् इत्यायुष्यान्
  सुभूतिर्भगवतः प्रत्यश्रौषीत् evamukte bhagavānāyuṣmantaṃ
  subhūtimetadavocatsādhu sādhu subhūte, evametatsubhūte, evametadyathā
  vadasi anuparigṛhītāstathāgatena bodhisattvā mahāsattvāḥ
  parameṇānugraheṇa parīnditāstathāgatena bodhisattvā mahāsattvāḥ
  paramayā parīndanayā tena hi subhūte śṛṇu, sādhu ca suṣṭhu ca manasi
  kuru, bhāṣiṣyehaṃ te-yathā bodhisattvayānasaṃprasthitena sthātavyaṃ
  yathā pratipattavyaṃ yathā cittaṃ pragrahītavyam evaṃ bhagavan
  ityāyuṣyān subhūtirbhagavataḥ pratyaśrauṣīt

  भगवानस्यैतदवोचतिह सुभूते बोधिसत्त्वयानसंप्रस्थितेनैव
  चित्तमुत्पादयितव्यम्यावन्तः सुभूते सत्त्वाः सत्त्वधातौ सत्त्वसंग्रहेण
  संगृहीता अण्डजा वा जरायुजा वा संस्वेदजा वा औपपादुका वा रूपिणो वा
  अरूपिणो वा संज्ञिनो वा असंज्ञिनो वा नैवसंज्ञिनो नासंज्ञिनो वा, यावान्
  कश्चित्सत्त्वधातुः प्रज्ञप्यमानः प्रज्ञप्यते, ते च मया सर्वेऽनुपधिशेषे
  निर्वाणधातौ परिनिर्वापयितव्याः bhagavānasyaitadavocatiha subhūte
  bodhisattvayānasaṃprasthitenaiva cittamutpādayitavyam-yāvantaḥ subhūte
  sattvāḥ sattvadhātau sattvasaṃgraheṇa saṃgṛhītā aṇḍajā vā jarāyujā vā
  saṃsvedajā vā aupapādukā vā rūpiṇo vā arūpiṇo vā saṃjñino vā asaṃjñino
  vā naivasaṃjñino nāsaṃjñino vā, yāvān kaścitsattvadhātuḥ
  prajñapyamānaḥ prajñapyate, te ca mayā sarvenupadhiśeṣe nirvāṇadhātau
  parinirvāpayitavyāḥ

See the rest of the Sanskrit text here: http://ntireader.org/taisho/t0235.html (this source also has it in Chinese, in case you wanted it in that language).

Use this converted to generate Devanāgari script: Transliteration Tool -- ashtangayoga.info


What was the chronology of events in the Buddha's life?

This is from Hajimi Nakamura's "Gotama Buddha" vol. 1
Sorry about the quality...

1st         36      varanasi                migadayavana

2nd         37      Vulture Peak            Veluvana

3rd         38      Vulture Peak            Veluvana

4th         39      Vulture Peak            Veluvana

5th         40      Vesali                  Mahavana

6th(1)      41      Mount Mankula           Makula mountain

7th         42      Heaven of 33 [Gods]     Tavatimsa

8th(2)      43      realm of Yakkhas        grove of Tesakala

9th(3)      44      Kosambi                 Kosambi

10th        45      Cetiyapabbata           Palelayaka

11th(4)     46      realm of Yakkhas        Dakkhinagiri monastery

12th(5)     47      Magadha                 Veranja

13th(6)     48      realm of Yakkhas        monastery near Tsalia

14th        49      Anathapindika’s Park    Jetavana monastery

15th        50      Kapilavatthu            Nigrodha monastery

16th        51      Kapilavatthu            Alavi

17th(7)     52      Rajagaha                Veluvana

18th(8)     53      Rajagaha                monastery near Tsalia

19th        54      Mount Calika            Veluvana

20th        55      Rajagaha                Jetavana

21-24(9)    56-59   Mount Calika

25-43rd     60-78   Savatthi

44th        79      borders of Vajji

45th        80                              Veluvana

The Buddha moved from Vaisali to Sravasti, where he spent the sixth retreat. At the end of the retreat he moved to Rajagrha (H. Kern, Manual of Indian Buddhism IStrassburg: Verlag von Karl J. Triibner, 1896], p. 31). As can be seen below as well, Kern makes conclusive statements about the chronology, perhaps based on a South Asian tradition.
Kern states that the eighth retreat was held at Crocodile Hill (Simsumara-giri), a hill in Deer Park of Bhesakalavana in the country of Bharga (Kern, Manual, p. 34).
According to one Southern tradition, the Buddha spent the ninth retreat in Ghositarama in Kausambi (P. Bigandet, The Life or Legend of Caudama, vol. 1 (Rangoon) American Mission Press, 1855], p. 234). However, see Kern, Manual, p. 34.
During the eleventh retreat, the Buddha stayed near Rajagrha (Kern, Manual, p. 35).
Concerning the twelfth through fourteenth retreats, see Bigandet, Life or Legend, pp. 240—41; Kentoku Hori, Bijutsujé no Shaka (Sakyamuni in art; Tokyo: Hakubunkan, 1910), pp. 208—9. During the twelfth retreat, the Buddha stayed at a place near Veraﬁja (Kern, Manual, p. 36).
The thirteenth retreat was spent at sravasti and Calika (Kern, Manual, p. 36).
The Buddha went from Alavi to Rajagrha, and spent the seventeenth retreat in the Bamboo Grove there (Kern, Manual, p. 37).
The eighteenth retreat was spent on a hill near calika, the nineteenth at Venuvana, and the twentieth at Jetavana (Kern, Manual, p. 37).
Concerning Mount Calika, Shinko Mochizuki, “Buddha jodé shijﬂgonen ni okeru agon no chiten” (The places of vassa during the forty-five years of enlightenment) (Bukkyé kenkyu 1, no. 2 [July-August 1937], p. 8) says: “If we consider calika to be in Savatthi because it was located nearby, this would mean the Buddha spent a total of twenty-five years at Savatthi.” Akanuma does not refer to the mountain in his dictionary.


Why would you want to cope with those feelings?  Feeling bad about failure is the whole point!  It makes you less likely to do it again.  Embrace those feelings.  They are a gift that will help lead you to further success.


Sila before samatha, samatha before vipassana according to AN 11.1-3?

As I explained in "Is samatha meditation more suited to lay people than vipassana?", the factors of "being good", "feeling good", "calming down", "understanding", and "liberation" are designed to support each other.

In Mahayana, it is generally understood that the exact path depends on the student's propensity.

People of intellectual type are better suited for "understanding"-first paths.

Simple people caught up in the drama of life, are better suited for "calming down"-first paths.

For most people in between these theoretical extremes, there is a mixture of "understanding" and "calming down" developed in tandem, with slightly more accent on one or the other, depending on exact situation.

For people of extremely brilliant intuition, there's the fourth path of cutting through directly to suchness. Again in real life these "extremely bright" students do not exist. There is usually some combination of study and practice required to remove all doubts.

The general principle here is that the coarsest / biggest / most obvious obstacles should be removed first. I think it was Thrangu Rinpoche who went as far as to say that we should work on them one at a time, completely focusing on the worst mental/emotional/behavioral issue until it's resolved, before moving on to next.


Take a look at the 8 auspicious symbols,

The
Auspicious Drawing, sometimes refereed to as the infinite knot
represents the intertwining of wisdom and compassion.

The manji (Japanese Buddhism) is said to represent love and mercy, in certain situations.
This symbol should not be confused with the swastika, which is completely different.


I first encountered the Buddhist perspective on resentment with DN33. It quite startled me because no action was required other than letting go. The day I read this, a car tried to run me over in the crosswalk. So I tried what the Buddha said and it worked. Very puzzling!

DN33:3.2.15: Thinking: ‘They did wrong to me, but what can I possibly do?’ you get rid of resentment.

Another sutta provides more specific help in letting go of resentment:

AN5.161:1.1:“Mendicants, a mendicant should use these five methods to completely get rid of resentment when it has arisen toward anyone. What five?  You should develop love for a person you resent.  That’s how to get rid of resentment for that person.  You should develop compassion for a person you resent. …  You should develop equanimity for a person you resent. … You should disregard a person you resent, paying no attention to them. …  You should apply the concept that we are the owners of our deeds to that person: ‘This venerable is the owner of their deeds and heir to their deeds. Deeds are their womb, their relative, and their refuge. They shall be the heir of whatever deeds they do, whether good or bad.’  That’s how to get rid of resentment for that person. A mendicant should use these five methods to completely get rid of resentment when it has arisen toward anyone.”

May you and your family find peace and an end to suffering.


The debate centres around the Theravada commentarial interpretation of the suttas along with the teachings in the Abhidhamma, Patisambhidamagga, and Visuddhimagga.

Basically, there are two schools of thought, one which subscribes to the above teachings and one that rejects them.

The teachings in question are those that describe two potential paths:

jhānalābhi - one who obtains at least the first jhāna
sukkhavipassaka - one who only obtains momentary concentration.

For example, in the Visuddhimagga:

  Herein, “purification of view” is the correct seeing of mentality-materiality. One who wants to accomplish this, if, firstly, his vehicle is serenity, should
  emerge from any fine-material or immaterial jhāna, except the base consisting of
  neither perception nor non-perception, and he should discern, according to characteristic, function, etc., the jhāna factors consisting of applied thought,
  etc., and the states associated with them, [that is, feeling, perception, and so on].

  ...

  But one whose vehicle is pure insight, or that same aforesaid one whose vehicle
  is serenity, discerns the four elements in brief or in detail in one of the various ways given in the chapter on the definition of the four elements (XI.27ff.).

  (Path of Purification, pp. 609-10)

Those who reject this split point to various teachings to support the idea that the samatha jhānas are necessary for attainment of the path.

An article that looks interesting from an academic point of view (I only read the abstract) is here:

http://www.tkwen.theravada-chinese.org/A%20Study%20of%20Sukkihavipassaka%20in%20Pali%20Buddhism_final.pdf

From the abstract:

  This thesis reveals that the concept of arahants who lack the first form-sphere jhāna is accepted not only by the Theravāda but also by the Sarvāstivāda, the *Satyasiddhisāstra, and the Yogacārabhūmiśāstra. Since various Buddhist schools in India unanimously advocate the idea that there are arahants who have not achieved the form-sphere jhāna, this research concludes that the dry-insight meditative approach and dry-insight arahants are not an invention by Theravādin commentators, but a common heritage which was most probably handed down from the time of the Buddha and then shared by various Buddhist schools.

I imagine reading through the thread I linked to in the other question would give you a good idea of the controversy. There was a heated debate many years back between a Burmese and a Sri Lankan monk on the topic that was highly academic, but still a fun read:

http://static.sirimangalo.org/mahasi/Satipatthana%20Vipassana:%20Criticisms%20and%20Replies.htm


Three types of characteristics to achieve a goal

I think the question is on the four iddhipada, the four mental factors of achieving a goal: chanda (intention), citta (thoughts), viriya (effort), wimansa (investigation). According to this section in wikipedia, there's a collection of discourses on this topic in Saṃyutta Nikāya called  Iddhipāda Saṃyutta.


Maybe MN 26 is more relevant: towards the end of it, the Five ask questions like,

  When this was said, the group of five monks replied to me, 'By that practice, that conduct, that performance of austerities you did not attain any superior human states, any distinction in knowledge & vision worthy of a noble one. So how can you now — living luxuriously, straying from your exertion, backsliding into abundance — have attained any superior human states, any distinction in knowledge & vision worthy of a noble one?'

... and afterwards, the end of the sutta is of their being taught the various jhanas.

There may be somewhere where it's stated as a positive, i.e. "eating well was necessary to pursue the jhānas and the Middle Way" -- I think I've read something like that, but I don't remember whether that's a direct quote or an indirect paraphrase.

The only versions I've found at the moment are expressed as a double-negative, not as a positive, i.e. that "utmost austerity is not the way"; for example from this translation of the (non-canonical) Introduction to the Jâtaka,

  And the Future Buddha, thinking, "I will carry austerity to the uttermost," tried various plans, such as living on one sesamum seed or on one grain of rice a day, and even ceased taking nourishment altogether, and moreover rebuffed the gods when they came and attempted to infuse nourishment through the pores of his skin. By this lack of nourishment. his body became emaciated to the last degree, and lost its golden color, and became black, and his thirty-two physical characteristics as a great being became obscured. Now, one day, as he was deep in a trance of suppressed breathing, he was attacked by violent pains, and fell senseless to the ground, at one end of his walking-place.

  ...

  Now the six years which the Great Being thus spent in austerities were like time spent in endeavoring to tie the air
  into knots. And coming to the decision, "These austerities are not the way to enlightenment," he went begging through villages and market-towns for ordinary material food, and lived upon it. And his thirty-two physical characteristics as a great being again appeared, and the color of his body became like unto gold.

  Then the band of five priests thought, "It is now six years that this man has been performing austerities without being able to attain to omniscience. And how much less can he be expected to do so in future, now that he has again taken to ordinary material food begged from town to town! He has become luxurious, and given up the Struggle. For us to look for any benefit to come from that quarter would be as reasonable as if a man were to imagine he could bathe his head in a dew-drop. We will have nothing more to do with him." With that they took their bowls and robes, and left the Great Being, and going eighteen leagues off, entered Isipatana.

There are suttas which describe or recommend an attitude towards food (I expect there are in the vinaya too), for example from the Bhikkhuni Sutta,

  'This body, sister, comes into being through food. And yet it is by relying on food that food is to be abandoned.' Thus was it said. And in reference to what was it said? There is the case, sister, where a monk, considering it thoughtfully, takes food — not playfully, nor for intoxication, nor for putting on bulk, nor for beautification — but simply for the survival & continuance of this body, for ending its afflictions, for the support of the holy life, [thinking,] 'Thus will I destroy old feelings [of hunger] and not create new feelings [from overeating]. I will maintain myself, be blameless, & live in comfort.' Then he eventually abandons food, having relied on food. 'This body, sister, comes into being through food. And yet it is by relying on food that food is to be abandoned.' Thus was it said, and in reference to this was it said.


Do you have to become a Monk to attain enlightment?

A lay person can realize Nibbana in a very short period of time(In few years or even in a shorter period of time) If s/he practise mindfulness all day long with effort. Even a very young lay person can realize Nibbana. Realizing Nibbana isn't about being in a particular place but it is the result of the right living. Not all of the people who realize Nibbana becomes a monk because some of the once-returners becomes spiritual teachers or they are in an old age and they are retired from their jobs etc.

In most cases being a monk is absolutely better than being a lay person because human world is crazy and is opposite of spirituality. The human civilization is the manifestation of the narcissistic human world's madness. But a person's decision to become a monk depends on many factors. If a spiritual person has a sangha and in an old age and retired maybe s/he would not want to leave the lay life and become a monk. A person who realized Nibbana and especially an once-returner is in continous bliss and contentment so s/he would not leave his home If the conditions are suitable for him/her.(Solitude or having a sangha etc.)

So a lay person's giving up the spiritual practise is a wrong idea because realizing Nibbana in the lay life is certainly possible.


Is there any skillful use of using 'we' in addressing certain opinion?

In MN8, the word "we" is used extensively to cover forty-four ethical considerations. Here is one such:

MN8:12.2: ‘Others will be cruel, but here we will not be cruel.’

Such ethical considerations would apply to all on the Noble Eightfold Path.
Others will ignore them. We will study them.


Preliminaries (common and uncommon) in Tibetan Buddhism

There are many Buddhist lineages in Tibet and all of these have variations on what they consider to be preliminary practices or ngondro. So in order to answer your question generally you have to look for preliminary practices that are common to all of the main lineages - Kagyu, Sakya, Nyingma and Gelugpa.

The 'common' or 'ordinary' or 'outer' practices are generally considered to be the Four Thoughts that Turn the Mind or the Four Reminders. These are more philosophical musings that prepare the mind and motivate the person to continue their practice:

Difficulty of obtaining a free and favorable human life.
Contemplation of impermanence and death.
Contemplation of cause and effect (karma).
Contemplation of endless cycle of suffering (samsara).

A poem by Chögyam Trungpa Rinpoche on the Four Reminders:

  Joyful to have
  such a human birth,
  difficult to find,
  free and well-favored.

  But death is real,
  comes without warning.
  This body will be a corpse.

  Unalterable
  are the laws of karma;
  Cause and effect
  cannot be escaped.

  Samsara
  is an ocean of suffering,
  unendurable,
  unbearably intense.

It is in the uncommon or extraordinary or inner practices where there is great variability from tradition to tradition but the following are fairly common:

Taking refuge in the three Jewels - Buddha, Dharma and Sangha.
Developing Bodhicitta.
Vajrasattva practice and mandala offerings
Guru yoga.

These preliminary practices are considered essential before journeying into the intermediate and completion stages of Vajrayana which, traditionally, cannot be done without a qualified teacher.

Recommended reading - A Beginner's Guide to Tibetan Buddhism


What does Buddhism say about intentionally killing dangerous insects and beings?

This is not justifiable in terms of the precepts. Also any action like killing will be rooted in hatred, hence is counter-productive to achieve the Buddhist goal of Nirvana or peace for one self. Also you have to look at the possible effect on subject of the action. Will the subject be happy about it.


A summary explaining those ancient Indian philosophies of those non-Buddhist schools that had debated with Buddhist, especially Nalanda, masters?

You might be looking for a scholarly paper which lists the non-Buddhist schools and their philosophies (for which I don't have an answer).
The sutta which comes to mind as likely relevant to your question is Brahmajāla Sutta (DN 1) -- which I think lists sixty or so wrong or non-Buddhist views.
Piya Tan as a more detailed (highly referenced) translation and commentary of this sutta (and of many other suttas too). The URLs on his site aren't quite stable but they're currently:

Brahma,jāla Sutta -- The Discourse on the Perfect Net -- D 1
A Commentarial Guide to the Brahma,jāla Sutta


Is Nibbana devoid of a permanent and eternal substance?

From this page, according to Nagarjuna's MMK, XXIV, 18 - 19:

  Whatever is relativity, we proclaim that emptiness. It is dependent designation. It is also the central way.
  Nothing whatsoever is found which is not relativistically originated. Therefore, nothing whatsoever is found which is not empty.

A fish spends all its time in water, but may not understand what water means, unless it leaves it momentarily.

Similarly, from my understanding of Nagarjuna, if you have no samsara, then no one would understand what Nirvana means. Nirvana is identified only to contrast it with samsara. Hence, Nirvana is empty of an intrinsic essence, because its definition is relativistic i.e. relative to samsara.

Also, from this page:

  Nevertheless to assert that all things are empty of any intrinsic
  reality, for Nāgārjuna, is not to undermine the existential status of
  things as simply nothing. On the contrary, Nāgārjuna argues, to assert
  that the things are empty of any intrinsic reality is to explain the
  way things really are as causally conditioned phenomena
  (pratītyasamputpaṅhā).

This means Nagarjuna does not say that Nirvana does not exist or is nothing. Rather he says that it depends on something else. Nirvana does not substantially depend on samsara i.e. it is not conditioned or compounded by anything. However, it depends on samsara for its relativistic definition i.e. Nirvana depends on samsara semantically, rather than substantially.

Another analogy is this - if a tree falls in a forest, but there is no one there to listen to it, does it still make a sound? The sound of a tree falling is only defined relative to a listener. If there is no listener, then it does not make sense to identify sound as such. But it does not mean that it doesn't exist. Similarly, in the case of Nirvana, it is defined relative to samsara.

Nagarjuna is really discussing the mental concept of Nirvana, rather than Nirvana itself.


According to my teacher, increased salivation is a good sign. This means your mindfulness of body and of feelings is recovering.

Increased sensation of blood flow is alright as long as it does not cause a headache. A headache would mean you are trying too hard and fighting with yourself. If that were the case then you would want to either chill down a little or take a break.

Breathing speed up soon after sitting means you're no longer blocking it. Allow yourself to make a lot of noise, don't try to be quiet or calm down too soon. Let your breathing by very noisy until it calms down by itself.

Overall it sounds like you are making good progress, just keep going, don't fight yourself and go with your intuition. If I were you I would not stop the retreat now. Just don't generate expectation to get some external insight. The insight is the elephant in the room you can access through being aware of all experiences, esp. ones that you habitually push outside your attention.

While abdomen is the anchor that keeps you from flying away, it does not mean you should block other inner experiences.


What are the Four Immeasurables (aka Four Noble Abodes)?

According to http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brahmavihara the Four Noble Abodes are:

Loving-kindness (Pāli: mettā, Sanskrit: maitrī) towards all: the hope that a person will be well; "the wish that all sentient beings, without any exception, be happy."

Compassion (Pāli and Sanskrit: karuṇā): the hope that a person's sufferings will diminish; "the wish for all sentient beings to be free from suffering."

Empathetic joy (Pāli and Sanskrit: mudita): joy in the accomplishments of a person—oneself or another; sympathetic joy; "the wholesome attitude of rejoicing in the happiness and virtues of all sentient beings."

Equanimity (Pāli: upekkhā, Sanskrit: upekṣā): learning to accept loss and gain, good-repute and ill-repute, praise and censure, sorrow and happiness (Attha Loka Dhamma), all with detachment, equally, for oneself and for others. Equanimity is "not to distinguish between friend, enemy or stranger, but regard every sentient being as equal. It is a clear-minded tranquil state of mind—not being overpowered by delusions, mental dullness or agitation."

According to the Metta Sutta, Shākyamuni Buddha held that cultivation of the four immeasurables has the power to cause the practitioner to be reborn into a Brahma realm (Pāli: Brahmaloka)

According to: http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/nyanaponika/wheel006.html:

These four attitudes are said to be excellent or sublime because they are the right or ideal way of conduct towards living beings (sattesu samma patipatti). They provide, in fact, the answer to all situations arising from social contact. They are the great removers of tension, the great peace-makers in social conflict, and the great healers of wounds suffered in the struggle of existence. They level social barriers, build harmonious communities, awaken slumbering magnanimity long forgotten, revive joy and hope long abandoned, and promote human brotherhood against the forces of egotism.

They are found in the Pali Canon in Digha Nikaya 13:
Source: http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/nyanaponika/wheel006.html

The Basic Passage on the Four Sublime States from the Discourses of the Buddha
I. Here, monks, a disciple dwells pervading one direction with his heart filled with loving-kindness, likewise the second, the third, and the fourth direction; so above, below and around; he dwells pervading the entire world everywhere and equally with his heart filled with loving-kindness, abundant, grown great, measureless, free from enmity and free from distress.
II. Here, monks, a disciple dwells pervading one direction with his heart filled with compassion, likewise the second, the third and the fourth direction; so above, below and around; he dwells pervading the entire world everywhere and equally with his heart filled with compassion, abundant, grown great, measureless, free from enmity and free from distress.
III. Here, monks, a disciple dwells pervading one direction with his heart filled with sympathetic joy, likewise the second, the third and the fourth direction; so above, below and around; he dwells pervading the entire world everywhere and equally with his heart filled with sympathetic joy, abundant, grown great, measureless, free from enmity and free from distress.
IV. Here, monks, a disciple dwells pervading one direction with his heart filled with equanimity, likewise the second, the third and the fourth direction; so above, below and around; he dwells pervading the entire world everywhere and equally with his heart filled with equanimity, abundant, grown great, measureless, free from enmity and free from distress.


The terms 'jhana', 'samadhi' & 'one-pointedness' ('ekaggataṃ') are all found in the sutta passage below:

And what is the faculty of concentration? Katamañca, bhikkhave,
samādhindriyaṃ?
It’s when a noble disciple, relying on letting go, gains concentration,
gains unification of mind. Idha, bhikkhave, ariyasāvako
vossaggārammaṇaṃ karitvā labhati samādhiṃ, labhati cittassa
ekaggataṃ.
Quite secluded from sensual pleasures, secluded from unskillful
qualities, they enter and remain in the first absorption... So
vivicceva kāmehi vivicca akusalehi dhammehi savitakkaṃ savicāraṃ
vivekajaṃ pītisukhaṃ paṭhamaṃ jhānaṃ upasampajja viharati.
SN 48.10


Scared of growing old – living in the moment

A good response is one of good demonstrative right intention(or action).

Then they might inquire further  and if so, maybe tell them about some fundamental Dhamma.


It happened that images are appearing and disappearing

This is seeing.

  voices(may be a kind of I am talking or someone else) appearing and disappearing.

This is hearing.

  Can someone explain me this phenomenon?

All conditioned phenomenon that are subject to arising are also subject to cessation. You experienced Images that came and went, and voices that came and went. There's really nothing more to it than that.

In Vipassana, the aim is to clearly see reality as it is. When we are hearing, we simply know it as hearing. If you heard voices in your head, that was still only hearing. It wasn't "your speech", or "someone else's speech", it was merely noise that came and went. To say anything more about it is to falsely ascribe meaning to reality, that reality simply does not admit of. The same can be said of whatever you saw, thought, smelled, felt, tasted.

Here is an instructional booklet on Vipassana practice you may find of some use.

The "I" is just a compounded formation of learned behaviors that is culturally and behaviorally conditioned as one grows, and helps one ( in some regards) relate to the world. I don't know why the "I" disappeared for you in this case, but what can be said is that now you can see that the idea of "I" or "Me" is impermanent just like anything else. We spend our entire lives building up the "I" into some idea that we like, but it is subject to ceasing like everything, and so is also not worth clinging to.


Why is mentally reproducing music so hard to control? How can it be counteracted?

When we sit, we pass through different phases of consciousness.  At first our mind is active and discursive.  It ruminates over all manner of things, rehearses events to come, and rehashes those that have past.  As we move towards stillness - which can be done simply by sitting quietly in one place - our mind settles into a more passive state.  Rather than taking an active role in the creation of our thoughts, our mind relaxes, revealing its deeper layers.  At this point, things may begin to spring up unbidden.  Sometimes we can experience memories from long ago, other times we may see fragments of pictures in our minds, and sometimes we may experience traces of emotion that have no obvious cause.  If you spend any amount of time listening to music, recollection of song is also exceedingly common.

Don't worry about about the music.  If you persist in your sitting, it will begin to fade.  Song is just a different kind of thought.  Treat it like you would any other - let it have its space, don't try to chase it down or drown it out, sit still, and do your best to maintain attention on your breath.


How to use meditation to boost logical thinking (or avoiding suffering with unrational scenario)

Seated mediation, as I've been taught to practice, is not about logical analysis.  That said, when it comes to 'thinking the worst', the practice of attention recognizes that these are just thoughts.  In a sense, it doesn't matter whether the events are likely or unlikely, because the thoughts are just thoughts.  There can be value in rationally analyzing fears, but meditative practice starts with just observing the fears as they are, regardless of whether they are rational.  When the whirlwind of doubt starts up again, just return to the object of meditation (often, the breath) and let things settle.  This isn't easy, but that's why we practice.

A bit of an aside, but here is a passage from the Dhammapada, Mind (translation by Ananda Maitreya), that I think relates to this:

Just as an arrowsmith shapes an arrow to
  perfection with fire,
So does the wise man shape his mind,
Which is fickle, unsteady, vulnerable, and
  erratic.

Like a fish taken from the safety of its watery
  home
And cast upon the dry land
So does this mind flutter, due to the lure of the
  tempter.
Therefore one should leave the dominion of
  Mara.

How good it is to rein the mind,
which is unruly, capricious, rushing wherever
  it pleases.
The mind so harnessed will bring one happiness.

A wise man should pay attention to his mind,
Which is very difficult to perceive.
It is extremely subtle and wanders wherever it
  pleases.
The mind, well-guarded and controlled,
Will bring him happiness.

One who keeps a rein on the wandering mind,
Which strays far and wide, alone, bodiless,
Will be freed from the tyranny of the tempter.

A man of fickle mind
Will never attain wisdom to its fullest,
Since he is ignorant of the Dhamma
And has wavering faith.

The heart of the fully conscious man
  is fearless--
He has freed his mind of lust and anger,
He has transcended both good and evil.

Observe this body, as fragile as an earthen vase.
Build a mind as solid as a fortified city,
Then confront Mara with the weapon of
  insight
And (proceeding without attachment)
Guard what you have already conquered.

Certainly before long this body will lie on the
  ground,
Lifeless and unconscious,
Cast aside like a useless log.

A mind out of control will do more harm
Than two angry men engaged in combat.

A well-directed mind creates more well-being
Than the wholesome actions of parents
Toward their children.


Did Buddha ever go outside India to teach?

The Buddha visited Sri Lanka on three different occasions. His first
  visit was to Mahiyangana; the second to Nagadipa, and the third was to
  Kalyani (Kelani). On these three occasions he stayed at sixteen
  specific locations and meditated by himself or with his disciple
  monks. For that reason, those places have come to be regarded as
  highly sacred. They are called the Solosmasthana.

Apart from that, the Buddha visited the Thawthisa heaven, seven years after his enlightenment to preach the Abhidhamma to his former mother and the other Devas and Brahmas. He spent three months there.

He also visited a country called Sunaparanta with four hundred and ninety nine arahants, including venerable Kundadhana and venerable Ananda.


What would be the karmic result of worrying?

Worrying, because of its obsession with self (i.e., "I won't finish") is a form or wrong mindfulness. Right mindfulness attends to what will help oneself and others (e.g., "What effort and action would be of value now?").

But you ask about the effects of worrying. These are listed starting here:

  AN10.114:9.1: Wrong mindfulness is a bad principle.  Right mindfulness is a good principle. And the many bad, unskillful qualities produced by wrong mindfulness are bad results.

The remedy for worrying is to become aware of and be mindful of those around us. In this way we can communicate and coordinate, building what is needed by shared effort rather than by fixating and worrying about "my job" or "my things". Worry is often tied up in Identity View. And the escape is not laziness or blissing out. The escape is right view, right thought, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness and right immersion.


What is Right View, and how can it be applied in the contemporary world?

In your daily life, as you go about things, just observe and analyse any negative thought arising in the mind without acting in response to them. One does not need a specific spot or time to do this. Whenever a negative thought arises in the mind, one has to observe and analyse it right away as a fire needs to be extinguished instantly. This way one is able to turn one’s “bad” days in to “good” days. One is able to spend the day with happiness.

One who goes on experiencing happiness through the observation and analysis of one’s thoughts realise one day that happiness and suffering are merely feelings emerging in the mind and it would be prudent to eliminate any feeling associated with happiness or unhappiness. Until one reaches this stage, one needs to continue with the approach of observing and analysing the thoughts with patience. This is Right View in practice, and is the only way for true happiness.

@UrsulRosu rightly pointed out that it is also Right Effort and Right Mindfulness. The ultimate meaning of samma dhitti (right view) is ascertaining the supramundane truth. What involves in the category of supramundane truth? It is the understanding that everything existing in the world is subject to anicca. One who comprehends the supramundane truth in everything based on anicca, dukkha and anatta could definitely attain the supreme bliss of Nibbana. His/her mind would no longer be in a state of burning – the  mind is totally relieved of burning and heat. We, now, realize the importance of leading a life based on the principles of sacca, dhamma, dhiti and caga in order to achieve mental peace at all times.

Then @SarathW noted that the right view cannot be practiced in isolation - that it has to be practiced in conjunction with whole Noble Eight-fold Path. This is true. Right view is the penetration of the truth of the teaching in one's own immediate experience.the Buddha calls right view the forerunner of the path (pubbangama), which gives direction and efficacy to the other seven path factors, yet it cannot be practiced in isolation.

The Awakened One described kaya’, ‘vedana’, ‘citta’, ‘dhamma’ individually for the sake of detailed analysis. Otherwise all four methods function in a single mind. As a thought arises in the mind, one of the following is prominently discernible: a) Actions of the mind; b) Feelings of the mind; c) The way how these feelings are grasped; d) Mental factors (dhammas = ) resulting from action / feelings of the mind.

Kayagata-Sati signifies the practice of watching the mind mindfully. We need to observe what is prominent in a given time. No matter what type of a process arises in the mind for us to observe, our objective should be to observe any process without greed (lobha) or aversion (dosa).

When one engages in the practice of watching the mind with mindfulness for some time, it becomes an involuntary habit. You can name this as “energy” (viriya) if you like. When one keeps watching the mind with mindfulness, mind distances itself from unhappy, uncomfortable feelings and reach the state known as “Samadhi” (concentration). Samadhi is a mental state associated with lucidity, serenity and unification of mind.

Samadhi is a mental state that every Buddhist should experience and could experience. When one observes the mind with mindfulness, one is able to distinguish between wholesome and unwholesome mental changes followed by happiness and unhappiness. This enables one to determine the wholesome thoughts that need to be cultivated and maintained at any cost. This particular knowledge resulting from the exercise of watching the mind is referred to as “wisdom” (paññā).

When the Mind is analytically observed to understand the existence of raga (greed), dosa(hatred), moha (delusion), mana (conceit), and ditthi (wrong view), mental suffering begins to subside gradually. Saddha (faith), sati (mindfulness), viriya (energy), Samadhi (concentration) and paññā (wisdom) begin to arise in the mind instead. Happiness begins to take a firm hold on the mind. Anyone has the potential to establish a happiness-based mind in this manner and engage in day to day affairs.


The answer to What teachings do all schools of Buddhism share? includes,

  We accept the Four Noble Truths taught by the Buddha, namely, Dukkha, the fact that our existence in this world is in predicament, is impermanent, imperfect, unsatisfactory, full of conflict; Samudaya, the fact that this state of affairs is due to our egoistic selfishness based on the false idea of self; Nirodha, the fact that there is definitely the possibility of deliverance, liberation, freedom from this predicament by the total eradication of the egoistic selfishness; and Magga, the fact that this liberation can be achieved through the Middle Path which is eight- fold, leading to the perfection of ethical conduct (sila), mental discipline (samadhi) and wisdom (pañña).

One answer to your question is that the 'way' to escape suffering is the "Fourth Noble Truth", which is the "Noble Eightfold Path", which is also known as the Threefold Training.

Another answer might the "taking refuge" in the Triple Gem:

  We all take refuge in the Triple Jewel: the Buddha, our Teacher; the Dhamma, his teaching; and the Sangha, the Community of holy ones. In other words, we take refuge in the Teacher, the Teaching and the Taught.

Maybe the above are slightly Theravada-centric answers. The answer I accepted to this question, How to explain what Buddhism is?, reveals a range of other/different Buddhist schools/understandings also.

Someone like the Dalai Lama seems to preach compassion and a kind of selflessness, maybe thinking of all people as the same, as a way to escape suffering.

And something like the answer to this question, What is meant by Namu Amida Butsu and also Nam-myoho-renge-kyo? begins to explain another school of Buddhism. If you're familiar with the idea that, as you wrote in the OP, "escape is only through faith in Jesus Christ", this answer too depends on a kind of "faith" or realization.

The above is a theoretical or a referenced answer.

An answer more from personal experience (this site wants answers based on references and/or personal experience) is that there is some escape from suffering (when suffering arises) from having learned (i.e. read or hear, study, try to understand, make sense of, internalize, and apply) dhamma.

Consequently if a conceit like "I am experiencing suffering" arises, then some dhamma (or awareness of dhamma arises and) might provide some kind of mental, habitual antidote.

Examples of what I'm talking about are summarized as/by relatively short phrases. The phrases are short enough that they can be "held in mind" i.e. I can remember a phrase as a unit. I haven't tried to remember a whole paragraph at once, but I find that a short phrase is helpful as mental furniture.

I won't try to explain every phrase in this answer (that would be wordy) but the following are some of those phrases or important summaries that I found helpful:

Simsapa Sutta: The Simsapa Leaves (SN 56.31)

  Therefore your duty is the contemplation,

    'This is stress... This is the origination of stress... This is the cessation of stress.'

  Your duty is the contemplation,

    'This is the path of practice leading to the cessation of stress.'

Anatta-lakkhana Sutta: On the No-self Characteristic (SN 22.59):

  Therefore, surely, O monks, whatever (of the five khandhas) ... all that ... must be regarded with proper wisdom, according to reality, thus:

    'This is not mine, this I am not, this is not my self.'

Kimattha Sutta: What is the Purpose? (AN 11.1)

  Skillful virtues have freedom from remorse as their purpose, Ananda, and freedom from remorse as their reward.

Brahmana Sutta: To Unnabha the Brahman (SN 51.15):

  Whatever ... he first had ..., on attaining ... that ... is allayed. This is a path with an end

People also recommend good company (friends, teachers) and good communities as helpful; for example:

Upaddha Sutta: Half (of the Holy Life) (SN 45.2)

  Don't say that, Ananda. Don't say that. Admirable friendship, admirable companionship, admirable camaraderie is actually the whole of the holy life. When a monk has admirable people as friends, companions, & comrades, he can be expected to develop & pursue the noble eightfold path.

But also:

  It is in dependence on me as an admirable friend that beings subject to birth have gained release from birth

See also, for example, this comment.

It's not easy in an answer to answer from the whole of Buddhism; so the above is biased on my personal experience. See also for example this topic (Tibetan) and/or maybe this topic (Zen).


Are there no Buddhas from other universes that are equal to our Buddha?

There can only ever be one fully enlightened Buddha (Sammasambuddha), like our Buddha Gautama, at a time.
The next fully enlightened Buddha is called Metteyya.


What is meant by "Practice the truth thy brother is same as thou"?

He is simply affirming as a truth/truism that your brother is the same as you. It's reminiscent of Jesus' "love your neighbour as yourself" -- possibly because of the (originally) Christian background of the writer Paul Carus (who wrote the 1894 The Gospel of Buddha which you're quoting).


Following the Dhamma without taking refuge

Can you follow the Buddha's teachings (Kamma laws, meditation, metta, etc.) without taking refuge?

Absolutely! Whatever elements of Sat-Dharma you can incorporate in your life are going to be beneficial. It does not have to be "all or nothing". However, the extent to which you follow Sat-Dharma is the extent to which you benefit.

Can someone attain enlightenment without taking refuge?

The world does not care about official ceremonies! :) What matters is your determination. To attain enlightenment, in your heart you have to be fully committed to the spiritual quest. That's the true meaning of taking refuge.

Does taking refuge in the Triple Treasure mean your old religion should be abandoned?

Regardless of your cultural background, the spiritual quest has one goal: completion. Taking refuge implies unwavering commitment to that, above worldly quests and goals. The tri-ratna is a further development of this idea, with Buddha taken as an inspiration of someone who successfully made it, Dharma taken as a guidebook, and Sangha as companions. However, despite an instrumental role of tradition, the only real working basis is one's own fundamental sanity.

What is the main benefit of taking refuge?

It is like when you lived with a girlfriend for 5 years, and finally you two decided to make it official. If love and commitment were NOT there to begin with, the wedding ceremony can't improve anything, and if love and commitment were there all the time, the ceremony does not change anything. However, in your relationships with external world, you can now firmly say "I am a married man, and she is my wife" -- which makes things simpler and gives you a sort of strength.


How buddha came back to his human consciousness if consciousness and fabrication ceases after release

QN 1: After complete cessation of consciousness, how did the Buddha
  come back to human consciousness? If he can come back, isn't it not a
  complete release?

Well, there is such a thing as clinging aggregates. According to this answer, for a living arahant, when ignorance is uprooted, this breaks dependent origination, that ends craving, clinging and suffering. In the chain of dependent origination, clinging aggregates would also cease.

The living arahant according to Iti 44, attained nibbana with fuel remaining (sa-upadisesa), meaning the non-clinging aggregates are still functioning like glowing embers, although the fires of passion, aversion and delusion have ceased.

Parinibbana is when the non-clinging aggregates stop functioning. This is nibbana without fuel remaining (anupadisesa) according to Iti 44.

So, the answer to this question is that upon attaining nibbana, the Buddha experienced complete cessation of clinging consciousness, but non-clinging consciousness remained functional for the rest of his human life. The five aggregates that are referred to in dependent origination is clinging aggregates (including consciousness), and not non-clinging aggregates.

In other words, upon nibbana, an arahant has complete cessation of clinging.

  QN 2: And is it possible to have complete release through jhana only
  by ceasing craving, fabrication etc without gaining insight of
  nirvana.

No. It's quite possible to cling to the pleasures of jhanas and get one's mind stuck, as seen in MN 138:

  And how is their consciousness stuck internally? Take a mendicant who,
  quite secluded from sensual pleasures, secluded from unskillful
  qualities, enters and remains in the first absorption, which has the
  rapture and bliss born of seclusion, while placing the mind and
  keeping it connected. Their consciousness follows after that rapture
  and bliss born of seclusion, tied, attached, and fettered to
  gratification in that rapture and bliss born of seclusion. So their
  mind is said to be stuck internally.

And the sutta continues about the higher jhanas.

  QN 3: Buddha stated in many suttas that five aggregates are not-self;
  but as human being we do require idea of self (identity or ego) and
  will power (self-esteem).

In a sense, you can use the idea of self in a skillful way (as long as you have not dropped self-view) as shown in AN 5.57 below:

  “And for the sake of what benefit should a woman or a man, a
  householder or one gone forth, often reflect thus: ‘I am the owner of
  my kamma, the heir of my kamma; I have kamma as my origin, kamma as my
  relative, kamma as my resort; I will be the heir of whatever kamma,
  good or bad, that I do’? People engage in misconduct by body, speech,
  and mind. But when one often reflects upon this theme, such misconduct
  is either completely abandoned or diminished. It is for the sake of
  this benefit that a woman or a man, a householder or one gone forth,
  should often reflect thus: ‘I am the owner of my kamma, the heir of my
  kamma; I have kamma as my origin, kamma as my relative, kamma as my
  resort; I will be the heir of whatever kamma, good or bad, that I do.’

Also, please see Attakari Sutta.