Karma does not go from life to life. Karma is the volitional action performed here and now. It only lasts a moment. But it can have future repercussions. The consequence is the result of a Karma. Not the Karma itself.

The question of if something goes from life to life would not even arise, if you understand what's happening here and now. Lets say now you are thinking about building a house in the future. If you think about it for an hour, does it mean your first thought about it lasted for an hour? No! The first thought moment appeared and vanished then and there. But as a consequence, similar thoughts kept appearing in your mind one after the other. But they all vanished immediately. You might think about the building of the house tomorrow or even months from now. But that doesn't mean your original thought lasted that long. It'll be a new thought, but it can be similar to the thoughts you had today.

So if nothing goes from this moment to the next, even in this life, how can anything go from life to life?


Idk what u mean by Non sentient beings but maybe one can say that of plants as in they are according to Sutta 'alive but aren't percepient'.


Continuity of memories as a proof of the existence of self

Which 'you'? The you that at 69 will likely become more conservative and less social? Or the you that at 5 had no concrete notion of Self, or the question the 'you' of about now poses? The me of 5 minutes ago had no knowledge nor memory of your question. There is a self - a self that is dependent on conditions - dependent on mother and father for birth, food for existence, conditions for death.
This is a conventional 'you' and such a notion is fine - convenient and useful within conditionality. The Buddha argued agaisnt an independent, permanent, unconditioned You - the soul or Atman, however envisaged.
Self is 'obliterated' through one link: of only those things which are observed directly by the senses (mind is included as a sense in the canon), all things are observed as subject to conditions for arising, subsisting and ceasing - subject to change.
Things that are subject to conditions, impermanent - as all that is observed is - cannot be the basis of a permanent and independent Self. (it's a tough switch to thinking.. for me for example, I kept 'summing up' all experience into one exact thing - but that is the process of making a permanent Self from an objective experience that only provides impermanent objects as building blocks!!). As such, if you think it, it's not Self.

Bodhidharma asked, “Can each of you say something to demonstrate your
understanding?”
Dao Fu stepped forward and said, “It is not bound by words and
phrases, nor is it separate from words and phrases. This is the
function of the Tao.” Bodhidharma: “You have attained my skin.”
The nun Zong Chi stepped up and said, “It is like a glorious glimpse of
the realm of Akshobhya Buddha . Seen once, it need not be seen again.”
Bodhidharma; “You have attained my flesh.”
Dao Yu said, “The four
elements are all empty. The five skandhas are without actual
existence. Not a single dharma can be grasped.” Bodhidharma: “You have
attained my bones.”
Finally, Huike came forth, bowed deeply in silence
and stood up straight. Bodhidharma said, “You have attained my
marrow.” (wiki)

Silence is as close to Self as you will get, as language is instantly limited by Gödel (and/or also being conditioned). Mahayana and Theravada Buddhism have sticking points, and whether the ultimate is seen as having a capital U gets a lot of chat, but at the very least, for the things that are the seen, the heard and the sensed, Self is at best an approximation of things as they are - subject to a frame of reference, relational, and dependently originated.


I don't presume to understand Buddhism very well

The above self-awareness is wise.

  I sometimes feel like Buddhist practice is a slow form of suicide.

Its not. 'Dhamma' means that which 'supports' life therefore dhamma cannot be suicide.

  Gradually, all interest in life, the world, family, friends, romantic interests, sense pleasures and even love itself needs to be ultimately abandoned and renounced.

Yes. Buddhism says to attain the higher pleasures of jhana & Nibbana, worldly pleasures must be abandoned.

  Nibbana is considered to be the ultimate freedom and highest happiness because it ends all suffering by extinguishing the mind from all forms of existence forever.

No. Nibbana is the here-&-now freedom from the disturbing emotions of greed, hatred & delusion. As for the word "existence" ("bhava"), it means "ego-existence", which is the root of suffering.

  This is denied as being annihilation because its argued that since there was never a true self to begin with, there was nothing to be annihilated.

Actually, the Buddha did say in one sutta he annihilates greed, hatred & self-delusion. But this does not involve suicide.

  Nevertheless, we still experience a subjective experience of a self, otherwise, there would be no point in practicing the Eightfold Path.

It is the mind that suffers (when it ignorantly creates self-view) rather than a self that suffers. The end of suffering in Buddhism is called freedom of mind (ceto-vimutti) rather than freedom of self.

  Because only a deluded (unenlightened) mind could have any motivation to extinguish itself

Nibbana is not the extinguishing of mind. Nibbana is the extinguishing of greed, hatred & delusion.

  Nibbana seems very much like a strong aversion to existence.

No.

  Anyone who tries to logically extrapolate this to justify suicide as a means to accomplish the same result is denied because its argued that a desire for annihilation (via suicide) creates more bad karma which causes rebirth.

Nibbana has no correlation to suicide. Nibbana is the freedom from the pain that motivates suicide.

  Yet, desiring annihilation via the Eightfold Path is somehow exempt from this.

The idea that Nibbana is ending of mind is wrong understanding of Buddhism.

  If someone wants to remain in Samsara forever, it's very easy to do, no effort is required.

Samsara means the continuous attaching to things as self. Refer to SN 22.99.

  But if someone craves to permanently self-destruct via Nibbana

Craving does not bring Nibbana. Nibbana is found by ending craving.

  they must be highly motivated and diligent in their efforts, perhaps spanning many lifetimes.

There is no evidence for many lifetimes. Such ideas are only found in a certain genre of texts and also later texts.

  Thus, it seems that to remain in Samsara requires much less desire and effort than to seek one's own annihilation via the Eightfold Path.

Eightfold Path does not lead to annihilation of life. Only the annihilation of suffering.

  existence

Existence (bhava) is an idea; the idea or thought "I exist". It does not mean the existence of the mind & body.

  which all sentient beings

The Buddha never used the term "sentient beings". The Buddha taught "beings" are views or ideas born from strong attachment (refer to SN 23.2; SN 5.10).

  experience as subjective reality is all a deluded mind can ever know, so seeking to extinguish that reality seems like a desire for non-existence which is supposed to create more bad karma and rebirth.

Suicide is an action born from pain & confusion. Suicide means the mind has not found peace from practising the Noble Eightfold Path. This is why suicide is regarded as bad karma because, instead of performing suicide, a person can practise the Path.

  I honestly struggle to follow the logic of this.

This struggle exists because Buddhism has not been studied & learned accurately. Instead, your views about Buddhism, while very common, are the superstitions taught to children & village peasants. Since a Buddha is fully enlightened, obviously what a Buddha teaches cannot be illogical.


How do I slow down and start living according to my values? How do I change the direction of my life?

Beautiful question, one of the best questions I ever encountered on this site - at least for me, because I can relate to it in my own life, too.
Without going into too many personal details, aren't most of "successful" people in the modern "West"-style society defined and driven by their jobs and careers? And wouldn't it be nice if life were simple and pure, oh dear.
For me, an answer to this most important question of "what are we living for", an answer I was seeking for years, an answer  I slowly matured into, is that the pace, the color, the overall atmosphere and the very meaning of our life are not defined by our job or location but only by our attitude, our personal mental/emotional stance so to speak.
You see, I have studied Buddhism for a quarter century now, and to my surprise what I came to realize is that being in authentic harmony with one's own values and indeed with one's heart - is the unquestionably highest pinnacle of the most advanced parts of the Buddhist teaching.
In other words, if you live contrary to this principle, no matter how successful your outward life and career is - you will be unhappy. It's a mathematical law, there's no happiness when you are in conflict with yourself. And vice versa, if you don't have any inner conflict at all, which is to say if your every step and every word and even every breath is an expression of your true authentic being, then no matter what shape your external life takes, your actual living reality will be peaceful and harmonious.
In other words, the answer to your question is already right there in the title. Slow down and live according to your values, there's nothing else that you need, you just have to find the guts to live like that every second of every minute of every hour of every day, regardless of circumstances. You don't need to move to the Himalayas, you must create Himalayas in your life by being who you really are in the midst of your current situation.
In practice this means that when you face a choice between living according to your authentic being and bending over backwards to satisfy a requirement of the samsaric flow - you must choose the real thing, even if it means failing on an external commitment or losing your job or whatever other "scary" thing that could happen. The circumstances will change accordingly, the things you don't need will fall-off, and what is left will be in harmony with your being - because that's what you'll keep on choosing.
I swear I spent years scrutinizing every Buddhist teaching I could lay my hands on and this is what I came to. I mean, there's being a good person, good karma and all, there's non-attachment, there's emptiness - all of these things are valid and true. But being fearlessly True and Authentic despite the constant pressure of everyday things is the real Enlightenment I have found.
If I could do it, you can do it. I promise you won't regret :)


Was the Buddha known to chant during his meditation?

During his developmental years (before he became Enlightened) he might have.
This is because mantras are a way for you to match vibration with a particular deity and thus receive their assistance.

The Buddha gave many such great mantras including the Zhunti mantra but a Buddha has no reason to use them because the Buddhas are all connected simultaneously through their uncovered dharmakaya/Tathagatagarba/Buddha-nature.


I need some help for correct below writing's grammar.

I don't understand the question, can you rewrite the question by the below pāli word? Why you think "direct knowledge of the four analytical knowledge"? Because if it means "Abhiññā of Paṭisambhidā", it looks weird according to below title sequence.

The sequence concept of Theravāda Buddhism

The sequence concept of Theravāda Buddhism, start from sīla to paṭisambhidā, summarized from paṭisambhidāmagga, visuddhimagga, abhidhamma, atthhakathā, and all sāriputta's canons:

Paññā = understand the fact: causes&effects.

Paṭivedha = Paññā.

Ñāṇa = Expert Paññā.

Dassana = View, Understood, Diṭṭhi, Cakkhu.

SammāDiṭṭhi =SammāDassaṇa.

Ñātapariññā = Base of sammādassaṇa.

Tīraṇapariññā = Beginning sammādassaṇa practice.

Pahānapariññā = Advance sammādassaṇa practice.

Visuddhi = The base level which cleared from the extended enemy of the next level's enemy, so it is able to go to the next level.

Sīla = Arising physical & verbal behavior.

SīlaAdhiSikkhā = Physical & verbal behavior's training that supporting CittaVisuddhi.

SīlaVisuddhi = The CittaVisuddhi's base level which cleared from AvītikkamaKilesa, extending from CittaVisuddhi's enemy (PariyuṭṭhānaKilesa), so it is able to go to the next level, CittaVisuddhi.

AvītikkamaKilesa = Present life's arising physical & verbal unwholesome, extending from PariyuṭṭhānaKilesa.

PariyuṭṭhānaKilesa = Present life's arising mental unwholesome, extending from AnusayaKilesa.

AnusayaKilesa = Unwholesome behavior which ready to arise in the name "PariyuṭṭhānaKilesa". It arises as the name "PariyuṭṭhānaKilesa", but it stands as the name "AnusayaKilesa". It is similar to behavior because you can't find your behavior in any organ when you are not doing it, but you know your behavior still available to arise. The arising unwhole behavior is AvītikkamaKilesa/PariyuṭṭhānaKilesa.

Citta = Arising mind's behavior, Arising consciousness's behavior, arising Thought's behavior.

CittaAdhiSikkhā = Thought behavior's training that supporting DiṭṭhiVisuddhi.

CittaVisuddhi = The DiṭṭhiVisuddhi's base level which cleared from PariyuṭṭhānaKilesa, extending from DiṭṭhiVisuddhi's enemy (AttaAnuDiṭṭhiAnusayaKilesa), so it is able to go to the next level, DiṭṭhiVisuddhi.

SammāDassana = Right understood of conditioner and conditioned (four noble truth, dependent origination);  diṭṭhivisuddhi + kaṇkhāvitaraṇavisuddhi; nāmarūpaparicchedañāṇa+paccayapariggahañāṇa; Ñātapariññā; Vipassanā Paññā; YathābūtaÑāṇaDassana.

four noble truth, dependent origination = conditioner aggregates and conditioned aggregates.

DiṭṭhiVisuddhi = The DiṭṭhiVisuddhi's base level which cleared from AttaAnuDiṭṭhiAnusayaKilesa, extending from KaṇkhāvitaraṇaVisuddhi's enemy (VisamahetukaDiṭṭhiAnusayaKilesa), so it is able to go to the next level, KaṇkhāvitaraṇaVisuddhi.

Attā (of the wrong view) = The misunderstood concept of conditioner aggregates and conditioned aggregates. This misunderstood concept make ordinary people think "there are some controllable aggregates left to be nihilistic or eternal". But the truth is "there are no any controllable aggregates to be nihilistic or eternal. There are only uncontrollable conditioner aggregates and uncontrollable conditioned aggregates".

AttaAnuDiṭṭhi = The misunderstood behavior about aggregates whether "some/whole aggregates are Attā".

KaṅkhāvitaraṇaVisuddhi = The MaggāmaggaÑāṇaDassanaVisuddhi's base level which cleared from VisamahetukaDiṭṭhiAnusayaKilesa, extending from MaggāmaggaÑāṇaDassanaVisuddhi's enemy (VipassanāUpakKilesa), so it is able to go to the next level, MaggāmaggaÑāṇaDassanaVisuddhi.

Vipassanā = SammāDassaṇa; VipassanāPaññā; Vipassanā; Ñātapariññā; Pajānāti.

Anupassnā = ÑāṇaDassaṇa; VipassanāÑāṇa; Vipassanā Bhāvanā; Vipassanā Meditation; Tīraṇapariññā + Pahānapariññā; Anupassati.

MaggāmaggaÑāṇaDassanaVisuddhi = SammāDassaṇa at cleared ñāṇa level from the extending enemy (the ignorant about the right or wrong practice [maggāmagga;paṭipadā]) of the next level's enemy (the ignorant about the four noble truth), so it is able to go to the next level, to practice watching three characteristics without confusing of the right or wrong practice; BapavaUdayabbayañāṇa.

PaṭipadāÑāṇaDassanaVisuddhi = above ÑāṇaDassana at cleared ñāṇa level  from the extending enemy (the ignorant about the four noble truth) of the next level enemy (the ignorant about the four noble truth), so it is able to go to the next level, to stop the ignorant about the four noble truth forever by the complete&perfect watching three characteristics; From Bhaṅgañāṇa to Anulomañāṇa.

ÑāṇaDassanaVisuddhi = above ÑāṇaDassana at cleared ñāṇa level(enlightenment) from the extending enemy (fetters; saṇyojana) of the next level enemy (rebirth; becoming; bhava; paṭisandhiviññāṇa), so it is able to go to the next level, to stop the rebirth as many as the level of the enlightenment.

Paṭisambhidā = ÑāṇaDassanaVisuddhi according to Abhi. Vibhaṅgo ñāṇavatthuvibhaṅga, Sutta. Khu. Paṭisambhidāmaggo mahāvaggo ñāṇakathā mātikā, Paṭisambhidāmaggo's atthakathā, Visuddhimagga Khandhaniddeso. All ariya must enlighten Paṭisambhidā of own meditation. They can analysis everything about own meditation (super mundane jhāna), but they maybe don't know about mundane jhāna, Abhiññā, and the other practitioners' meditation. They enlightened Paṭisambhidā of own meditation only, they may be not the Paṭisambhidappatto.

Tevijjo = Ariya who is an expert, vasī, of jhāna. That expertise increases the power of ÑāṇaDassana to be greater, to be able to recall many past lives and to be able to recall many deaths&rebirths more than the practitioner who is no an expert of jhāna. Normally, the only vipassanā practitioner can recall about 1-2 past lives, but the expert of jhāna can recall more than that. The expert of jhāna spend the lesser time to recall the past lives at the same number of life.

Abhiññā = Special practice of an expert, vasī, of jhāna. Two Abhiññā, Pubbenivāsānussatiñāṇa and Cutūpapatañāṇa, have the similar practice as ÑāṇaDassaṇa, so the expert of jhāna can enlighten as a Tevijjo easier.

Chaḷabhiñño = Ariya who is an expert, vasī, of every Abhiññā.

Paṭisambhidappatto = Chaḷabhiñño who is an expert of own and the others' Paṭisambhidā.

For the example question:

  if I become a stream-enterer I will automatically have four analytical knowledge right? Will I also have three clear knowledge and six higher knowledge?

if you become a stream-enterer without being an expert of jhāna&abhiñña&paṭisambhidā, you are a stream-enterer who automatically have only four analytical knowledge right of your meditation. You are only a Sukkhavipassako, but you are not Paṭisambhidappatto, Chaḷabhiñño, Tevijjo.

For the conclusion:

Buddhism's Existing Period Counting

The contexts about Buddhism's Existing Period Counting appear as 3 tenses in Aṭṭakathā:

1. The existing enlightenment of the current Buddha's follower (45BBE - about 5,000 BE):

Buddhism's existing period counting of current Buddha  according to Vinaya.A. (samanta.3) Bhikkhunikkhandhakavaṇṇanā, An.A. (manoratha.1) Dutiyapamadadivaggavannana:

1st 1000 years after Gotama, Current Buddha, died:

  Arahanta with Four Analytical Knowledges still occur=>

2nd 1000 years after GotamaSambuddha died:

  Arahanta with Six Higher Knowledges still occur=>

  Arahanta with Three Clear Knowledges still occur=>

  Arahanta via Insight-only still occur=>>

3rd 1000 years after GotamaSambuddha died:

  Anāgāmi with Four Analytical Knowledges still occur=>

  Anāgāmi with Six Higher Knowledges still occur=>

  Anāgāmi with Three Clear Knowledges still occur=>

  Anāgāmi via Insight-only still occur=>>

4th 1000 years after GotamaSambuddha died:

  Sakadāgāmi with Four Analytical Knowledges still occur=>

  Sakadāgāmi with Six Higher Knowledges still occur=>

  Sakadāgāmi with Three Clear Knowledges still occur=>

  Sakadāgāmi via Insight-only still occur=>>

Final 1000 years after GotamaSambuddha died:

  Sotāpanna with Four Analytical Knowledges still occur=>

  Sotāpanna with Six Higher Knowledges still occur=>

  Sotāpanna with Three Clear Knowledges still occur=>

  Sotāpanna via Insight-only still occurs until the end of final 1000 years.

2. The previous KassapaBuddha (uncountable millions of years ago):

KassapaSamBuddha's, previous Buddha's, Buddhism existing period counting appear in Di.A. (sumangala.3) Sampasadaniyasuttavaṇṇanā; It using the past tense verbs). And Saṃ.A. (sārattha.2) Saddhammappaṭirūpakasuttavaṇṇanā, which connects to that Sampasadaniyasuttavaṇṇanā:

1st 1000 years after Kassapa, previous Buddha, died:

  Arahanta with Four Analytical Knowledges still occur=>

2rd 1000 years after Kassapa, previous Buddha, died:

  Arahanta with Six Higher Knowledges still occur=>

3th 1000 years after Kassapa, previous Buddha, died:

  Arahanta with Three Clear Knowledges still occur=>

4th 1000 years after Kassapa, previous Buddha, died:

  Arahanta via Insight-only still occur=>>

Final 1000 years  after Kassapa, previous Buddha, died:

  Pāṭimokkha memorizer still occurs until the end of final 1000 years.

3. The current Buddha's living time (45 - 0 BBE):

The sequence of existing enlightenment of the Buddha's followers just in current alive buddha's time, not died, appear in Saṃ.A. (sārattha.2)  Saddhammappaṭirūpakasuttavaṇṇanā.It's explaining the Buddha's answer to KassapaThera's question in Sutta. Saṃ. Ni. Saddhammappaṭirūpakasutta:

  "What is the cause, lord, what is the reason, why before there were fewer training rules and yet more monks established in final gnosis, whereas now there are more training rules and yet fewer monks established in final gnosis?"

At alive GotamaSamBuddha's time after he has enlightened, at the beginning Arahanta with Four Analytical Knowledges still occur. As time went by Arahanta with Six Higher Knowledges still occur Arahanta with Three Clear Knowledges still occur. As time went by Arahanta via Insight-only still occur. As time went by Anāgāmī still occur. As time went by Sakadāgāmi still occur. As time went by Sotāpanna still occur. As time went by Sīpavanta still occur.

A short term of all above Buddha's periods are up and down depending on the situation, but it tends to go down in long-term of every period. It's something like this:

Cr. wikipedia


State between Equanimity and 1st or 2nd or further path

What is being asked about in the question is from Vipassana Dhura, which is 16 stages of insight from the Visuddhimagga, written by the commentator Buddhaghosa in 430 CE in Sri Lanka.
The sequence of the 16 stages of Vipassana Dhura is not something the Buddha taught & can be confusing because terms used in Vipassana Dhura that indicate a beginning stage of insight- such as 'nibbida' - the Buddha used as the final stage of insight (eg. SN 12.23 - 'disenchantment'). This can make discussions about Vipassana Dhura difficult.
That said, some degree of 'nibidda' (disenchantment with worldly things) is required at the beginning of the path. Therefore, the stages in Vipassana Dhura do have some validity.
The teachings attributed to the Buddha describe the following kind of 'equinimity' (which is called 'Sense Restraint') before the arising of the path:

On seeing a form with the eye, he doesn't grasp at any theme or details by which — if he were to dwell without restraint over the
faculty of the eye — evil, unskillful qualities such as greed or
distress might assail him. On hearing a sound with the ear... On
smelling an aroma with the nose... On tasting a flavor with the
tongue... On touching a tactile sensation with the body... On
cognizing an idea with the intellect, he doesn't grasp at any theme or
details by which — if he were to dwell without restraint over the
faculty of the intellect — evil, unskillful qualities such as greed or
distress might assail him. Endowed with this noble restraint over the
sense faculties, he is inwardly sensitive to the pleasure of being
blameless.
MN 38

This 'equinimity' of not grasping at 'themes', when well developed, can become a kind of (deluded) liberation, described in the scriptures (MN 43 called 'theme-less awareness-release').
This 'equinimity' can be a state of delusion because the mind, being accustomed to the feeling of liberation via 'non-judging' or 'non-discrimination', does not discern the characteristics & cause-&-effect realities of many things.
This kind of 'equinimity' many Hindu, Mahayana & Zen traditions call 'advaita' or 'non-duality'. It is a delusion because the mind believes 'non-thinking' & 'non-discrimination' is liberation. Thus, the mind clings to 'non-thinking'; not clearly seeing thinking (sankhara khandha) is also 'not-self'.
Even some Theravada Sri Lankans, such as  Katukurunde Nyanananda, give the impression of this delusion, as they give the impression they believe the ending of thinking ('sankhara') is Nibbana.

It should be noted this 'equinimity' is not the equinimity of the 4th jhana because the stream-enterer (1st path) has not reached the 4th jhana.


How can I work with doubt and existential concerns?

Meditation is the key to beginning to understand your mind. The thoughts, images, indeed all mental activities are not "you". Meditation (in just about every system, religious and not) is about discovering the truth about your self. (The word "self" has many completely different meanings depending on the context of the word so don't get too hung up on the word.)

I suffer from depression. It is my experience that depressive episodes come and go. And I remain. Fear comes and goes. And I remind. So, meditation on who I am (and am not) is more helpful than meditation (or attention) on that which comes and goes. As you practice meditation, the mental noise will decrease. (Thankfully.) At worst, you give your mind some rest. Try it. It works. One day at a time. Good luck!


Has anyone seen any meditation master demonstrating abhinna or supernatural powers?

It is not desirable to answer such questions because inevitably some smart cookie will debate every example by offering counter examples of parlor magicians who can do the same.

As the Kevatta Sutta states, the real magic is in the bringing of peace, happiness and goodness to the hearts and minds of people.

It is a magic that cannot be argued against.


Will sentient beings go to hell for abandoning the Holy Dharma?

This is not an admonition against converting to another religion per se. This has to do with the consequences of knowingly giving up or disparaging something very specific and grave.

I think this Sutra is equating the Holy Dharma with undertaking and committing to the Bodhisattva vows. And not by a lowly being, but by a Great Being. If a truly Great Being has managed the incredible - near miraculous task - of actually generating engaged Bodhicitta - which is very specific and requires a super-heroic herculean effort - and then abandons that Bodhicitta or disparages it, then the consequences are world shatteringly bad for that being and all that depend upon them.

Knowingly giving up and totally abandoning the Bodhisattva vows and/or disparaging Bodhicitta - the noble goal of attaining enlightenment and becoming a Buddha for the sole sake of liberating countless sentient beings - is a karmic action that will result in countless lifetimes in the worst possible hells. Why is this so?

Knowingly giving up or breaking the perfectly accomplished Bodhisattva Vows or disparaging the truly generated and engaged Bodhicitta is among the blackest and heaviest of karmas one could possibly inflict upon oneself. Why? Because it destroys the hopes of countless sentient beings who are relying upon the Bodhisattva to accomplish their goal.

When you take vows there are consequences to breaking them. This is true for all vows. And the Bodhisattva vows are among the most serious vows that could possibly be taken.


Any authentic sutta from any tradition that gives guidance on what kind of partner to choose?

Here's a summary of Chapter 5 of The Buddha's Teachings to Laypeople: Practical Advice for Prosperity and Lasting Happiness.

If you fail to find suitable associates it's better to be "like a solitary rhinoceros"
Leave aside unproven traditional criteria: including race, caste, gender, and external appearance (and creed)
A person's inner development is more important than their birth
Be cautious of first impressions and initial understandings

  People cannot be know well by their appearance
  Nor can they be trusted after brief impression.
  Yes, the undisciplined may roam in the world
  In the attire of the well displined.

Associate with a person, observe and evaluate their words and actions
Be wise and rational in order to obtain a clear picture of the person you're evaluating
Find wise people who cause no fear or worry
Look for someone who is compatible in four ways:

Similar confidence in spiritual development
Similar respect for self-discipline
Similar respect for humanistic practices
Similar level of wisdom

These similarities are "so important for a peaceful marriage".

Spiritual development: if one person respects spiritual believes and practices, and the other holds them in total disregard, then the two people are simply incompatible.

Self-discipline: if one partner is well-disciplined and the other unscrupulous then their incompatibility will become obvious and cause problems.

Humanistic practices: includes dana, also caga (generous acts).

Level of wisdom: i.e. samapanna, includes knowledge, skill, emotional maturity, reasoning power; doesn't mean that both should have same education and intellectual ability, but wide difference in these areas could cause incompatibility and lead to conflicts.

Chapter 6 is about how to treat your partner after you marry.


Meditation burnout is a thing. In buddhist terms one can consider it as one or many of the types of clinging/grasping, upadana:

  Bhikkhus, there are these four kinds of clinging. What four? Clinging to sensual pleasures, clinging to views, clinging to rules and observances, and clinging to a doctrine of self.

https://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/mn/mn.011.ntbb.html

Looking into the different types can yield clues regarding what it is that motivates you to maintain such a high pace.

If you feel tired of practicing sitting meditation right now, you can always try to look into what the dhamma has to say about the experiences you've made. Some examples are concepts like the five skandhas, equanimity (upekkha), impermanence (anatta), and renuncation (nekkhamma). Perhaps the ideas behind the five hindrances during mediation (panca nivaranani) has something to say about your practice as well.

I mention these briefly as a scratch on the surface. If they seem interesting, consider them a rabbit hole to dive into. Sometimes the experiences we make in our lives can be a fruitful springboard into deepening our theoretical understanding of dhamma and ourself, as opposed to reading without any particular question in mind.


In "Awareness Itself", Thanissaro Bhikkhu reported this from the life of his teacher Ajaan Fuang:

  A Bangkok magazine once carried the serialized autobiography of a
  lay meditator who used his powers of concentration to treat diseases.
  One installment mentioned how he had visited Ajaan Fuang, who had
  certified that he (the layman) had attained jhana. This didn't sound
  like Ajaan Fuang's style, but soon after the magazine came out,
  unusual numbers of people came to the wat under the impression that
  Ajaan Fuang, like the author of the autobiography, could treat
  illnesses through meditation. One woman asked him if he treated kidney
  diseases, and he answered, "I treat only one kind of disease: diseases
  of the mind."

Supernaturally healing others' physical illnesses in any way, is not a part of Buddhist practice.

However, healing one's mind and helping others to heal their minds (if you're a teacher), is part of Buddhist practice.

For example, Ajaan Fuang told another person:

  After the (cancer) treatment Ajaan Fuang visited her at the hospital. She told
  him that she had been able to concentrate her mind so as to endure the
  pain, but it had left her exhausted. He advised her: "You can use the
  power of concentration to fight off pain, but it squanders your
  energy. You have to approach the pain with discernment, to see that
  it's not you. It's not yours. Your awareness is one thing, the pain is
  something separate. When you can see it in this way, things will be
  easier."

The Buddha taught this in SN 22.1 (below), instead of supernaturally healing people.

  "When this was said, the Blessed One said to me, 'So it is,
  householder. So it is. The body is afflicted, weak, & encumbered. For
  who, looking after this body, would claim even a moment of true
  health, except through sheer foolishness? So you should train
  yourself: "Even though I may be afflicted in body, my mind will be
  unafflicted." That is how you should train yourself.' That's how I was
  sprinkled by the Blessed One with the deathless ambrosia of a Dhamma
  talk."

Treatment of medical conditions is best left to medical professionals. The Buddha forbade monks from providing services of medicine, surgery or pharmacy to lay people in DN 2.

The Buddha also advised people to take good care of their health, for e.g. he advised against overeating in the Donapaka Sutta.


Is Constant Meditation Hindering my Creativity?

Yes, the Buddhas way or creativity, of meditation, has only one aim: to stop creativity, e.g all kinds of concentrations for becomings sake. So nothing wrong for one with right view or vision toward liberation.

What ever comes into being is a matter of the act of concentration, now this can be used, by right concentration, to gain independence, as concentration depends always on food.

So the question might more a matter of fear of independence, right, i.e doubt in the Rightly-selfawakened and meditating without having gone for a refuge?

Well it's of cause that one fears if having no refuge as base.

{note: not given for concentration, burning of food and feeds for the world, but to gain liberation by observing the Dhamma with proper attention}


My opinion, that feeling of "I, me, mine, or even you etc" is part of high fetters (Sanyojana).  specifically, Māna which English translation is related to conceit.   This fetter is for people with high paying grade (none-returner) to deal with.  As for myself, low fetters, especially the 5 sensual pleasures are handful to resolve already.  But many have the ability and strength to deal with all 10 fetters simultaneously, and they have been successful too.  My observation, Buddha gave many target specific suttas regarding lower fetters and what to deal with them (perhaps in 100+ suttas), but he gave very general instruction on higher fetters. Basically to see them as 3 marks for existence (subject to destruction, changing, and none-self).


It's correct that these things should not be contemplated due to their ability to destabilize the mind, making it less suitable for meditation practice. Thinking about such topics is useless from a Buddhist point of view.
Just be mindful of the habit and the thoughts when they arise. With time and practice they will subside.


Does the Vinaya forbid drinking while giving or listening to dhamma talks?

Other then the aversive unfounded preoccupation here: it's actually one duty for monks to arrange drinking water for all participate at their gatherings.


"Idea of reincarnation(rebirth) is due to craving for existence"

The desire to live a good life with ambition, and be reborn into another good life, is due to the craving for existence (bhava tanha).

The desire to die as soon as possible, and not be reborn, is due to the craving for non-existence (vibhava tanha).

The idea of rebirth or non-rebirth is different from the desire for rebirth or non-rebirth. Ideas are merely mental formations (sankhara).

Also, what "rebirth" actually means, depends on the definition.

Some people see it as the rebirth of the same consciousness (or some other kind of unchanging thing like a "soul") from one lifetime to another. This type of rebirth was refuted by the Buddha.

The other type of "rebirth" is a chain of the succession of related changing processes that are dependently originated based on conditions. This type of rebirth was taught by the Buddha.

The Buddha also taught that suffering is ended only by ending craving and attaining Nibbana, not by death or suicide.


Beginner's Buddhist Course Syllabus By Ancient Pali Canon (Ganthadhura And Vipassanādhura)

This is through teacher and student lineages through though the years some changes have occurred.

Early on the Dhamma was also preserved this way through oral tradition handed down from teacher to pupil.

One of the best preserved lineages is that handed down from Ledi Sayadaw which has teachers like: Saya Gyi U Ba Khin, S. N. Goenka. It is believed that this is the exact teaching transmitted to Burma through Sona and Uttara. This probably would have the best resemblance to that was taught at Māhāvihāra early on.


Attending Mindfully Versus Without Mindfulness

Ayoniso manasikāra, as such, means “not directing the attention to the roots of things” or “directing
the attention away from the roots of things,” that is, not observing phenomena as they truly are, not noticing that they are impermanent, unsatisfactory and not-self

Yoniso Manasikāra Sampadā Sutta

Yoniso manasikāra as such means “directing the attention to the roots of things,” that is, observing
phenomena as they truly are, as being characterized by impermanence, unsatisfactoriness and not-self.

Yoniso Manasikāra Sampadā Sutta

OP: without mindfulness these states persevere and may worsen?
... As a result, wrong view arises, and when this
become a habit, wrong view is reinforced so that it remains as a latent tendency (anusaya)

Yoniso Manasikāra Sampadā Sutta

OP: a person meditating on a bus mindfully will decrease hindrances, whereas a person mindwandering might increase them?

If you have initial and sustained application this will reduce hindrances. Mindfulness accompanies by initial and sustained application will decrease it.


For anybody who ''wants to end dukkha'', caring about the body is the first mistake, and trying to change the body is the second mistake. The third mistake is to base the actions, which let's recall are thinking, talking and moving the body, on the individual will (to talk like the secular humanists) or more generally on the various libidos, like the libido dominandi and libido sentiendi to talk like the full-on christians, which means on the sensations imagined, fantasised, expected, or even worse demanded , through some of the ''6 sense consciousnesses'', as the results of the actions based on the libido.
Overall, for anybody who want to stop being miserable, it is quite a blunder to even spend some energy on this.
For anybody who ''wants to end dukkha'', the actions are based on what gets the person closer to nirvana -- those are welcomed -- and what gets the person away from nirvana -- those are avoided -- which have nothing to do with pleasures, displeasures, comfort, lack of comfort, the will, the libido.

For the people who are satisfied with dukkha, it is quite natural to worry about the body, the senses and to base their actions on ''what they want'' or more generally on their desires (and then, even worse to build an identity on the pleasures and displeasures they have so far), since it is all they know ; which it turns out is a major source of misery, but they do not know that...


What was the reason behind the fall of Buddhism in India?

After the Pari-nibbhana of The Buddha, there was a decline of Theravada Buddhism ( those who follow the teaching preserved in the Pāli), and a rise of the Mahayana Buddhism. The third council got underway to make the monastic order of those who follow the teaching preserved in the Pāli.  With time Mahayana Buddhism rose up again. It was a death blow to those who wanted to keep the teaching preserved in the Pāli.  Mahayanists translated the Dhamma into Sanskrit and rejected attaining of the Marga- phala of the Theravada School.

At the time only the Brahmins’ Veda was written in Veda and Sanskrit languages. Brahmins never felt that other religions will be a threat to their own since Veda as it was the only religious script written in Sanskrit. However, after the translation of the Mahayana scriptures into Sanskrit by the Mahayanists, the Brahmins started reading these translated texts and to argue pointing out its content.

In trying to defeat these Brahmins, the Mahayanists built large universities like Nalanda with the aim of learning the Veda. The language used in these universities was Sanskrit. They tried to outdo the Brahmins. They tried to argue with the Brahmins. Thus what came to pass was exactly as mentioned in the Alagaddūpama Sutta, which states that “if anyone tries to learn my teachings to argue with others, then he will be destroyed like the man who tried to catch a snake by its tail.”

When the monks won an argument the monks got the king to make the Brahmins their servants in the Nalanda University. The monks were beheaded when Brahmins won their arguments. The Brahmins went for the kill, because of the change that these monks have made to the Brahmin society. A Sothern Indian Brahmin called Sankarāchārya rose up to destroy the power of these monks. The Musālman invaded India at this time. The Brahmins got them to first destroy Buddhism, or at least what was left of it. This was how the Buddhism got wiped out from India.

It was the moguls that did most of the killing of Buddhist Monks, and the process of decline continued until Buddhism got fully wiped out in India by the end of the 12th century, when Somapura Mahavihara (in the present day Bangladesh) was set ablaze. In 1199 CE Odantapuri Mahavihara close to Nalanda was burnt down after killing all the monks. Buddha’s place of Enlightenment, Bodhgaya too was attacked.


Buddha is the root of the Dhamma as in Buddha is the root source of his teaching.
Buddha is the eye of the Dhamma as in the Buddha's omniscience and all seeing knowledges are what see the the Dhamma that is hidden from the world.
Buddha is the foundation of the Dhamma as in the Dhamma preached by his followers are based on the teachings of the Buddha.


Resources to learn about yogacara buddhism

One of the best introductory books I've found is called Living Yogacara.  It's fairly straightforward and reasonably accessible.  Another book that I found helpful is entitled Context and Dialogue.  While this is a comparative study of mutliple notions of the unconscious, I found the author's explanation of Yogacara (specifically the alaya vijnana) pretty thorough and very easy to follow.  Past that, you'll need to get into the writings of Asanga and Vasubandhu.  These are not easy.

Of course, the best way to explore yogacara is to practice it.  Rinzai Zen is probably the last existent school that makes yogacara notions of the mind its centerpiece.


What is the difference between Vitakka/Vicara and Papanca?

Vitakka-vicāra is  'thought-conception and discursive thinking'.  Before we speak on something, always conscious, deliberate thoughts on what we are going to say (out loud) takes place within us. In Dhamma, this is called ‘vaci sankhara’.  Or as “vitakka vicara vaci sankhara“, which means “vaci sankhara are ‘vitakka  &  vicara“ - our conscious, deliberate thoughts.

‘Vitakka’ points the mind to a given thought object – the initial ‘thought’. ‘Vicara’ keeps the mind engaged on that thought object, i.e., generating new thoughts about it – thinking through/further on this initial ‘thought’. This has been compared to a bee flying to a certain flower (Vitakka) and then buzzing around that flower (Vicara) while drinking nectar.

Buddha said “dhammo ha vé rakkati dhammacari” or “dhamma will guide one in the direction of dhamma that one follows”. This happens once a person becomes a Sotapanna (stream entrant). Once you attain this initial state in the PATH, your internal dialogue ( any conversation that takes place that is 'inner' and 'unspoken') is in keeping with dhamma. This inner conversation always guide you in the direction of dhamma that you follow.

Vitakka (focused application of thoughts), when cultivated in the Dhamma Path become samma sankappa. Thus Samma Ditthi leads to the next step in the Noble Eightfold Path: Samma Sankappa. “Samma” means “san” (adding things to perpetuate the suffering/rebirth process) + “ma” (remove or get rid of). Thus Samma Ditthi is the vision (anicca, dukkha, anatta) that helps removing “san“; Samma Sankappa are the thoughts that help remove ‘san“.

There are people who attain ‘anariya jhanas’  or ‘mundane jhanas’ by focusing the mind on any thought object (vitakka) that come their way. This could be the breath, a kasina object, or any other religious symbol of any religion, and then fixating the mind on this object.

For one who contemplates the ‘Tilakkhana’ of anicca, dukkha, anatta at least to some extent, such thought objects (vitakka) are in keeping with Dhamma, and it is possible to attain Ariya jhanas. It is because this contemplation gives rise to ‘niramisa sukha’ or a ‘cooling down’ over time. This is what we call ‘kammatthana’ to cultivate jhana.  These ‘kammatthana’. The thing is one has to know the meaning of these Pali phrases, for one to think through. These phrases cannot be used just as a chanting object without understanding what is meant by it.

When meditating, in the first absorption, it reads in Pali "vivicceva kamehi vivicca akusalehi dhammehi savitakkam savicaram vivikajam pitisukham pathamajjhanam upasappajjha viharati." It is when Vitakka-vicāra comes to an end, and Savitakka-Savicāra remains.

Papañca can be said as an unhealthy direction that vitakka-vicāra would lead us to if we do not guard against this very Papañca. Papañca always lead to conflict. The Buddha once described this in the Attadanda Sutta (Arming Oneself– SN 4:15):

  “I will tell of how I experienced samvega. Seeing people floundering like fish in small puddles, competing with one another– as I saw this, fear came into me. The world was entirely without substance. All the directions were knocked out of line. Wanting a haven for myself, I saw nothing that wasn’t laid claim to. Seeing nothing in the end but competition, I felt discontent.  And then I saw an arrow here, so very hard to see, embedded in the heart. Overcome by this arrow you run in all directions. But simply on pulling it out you don’t run, you don’t sink.”
  Buddha wanted to see why rather than trying to solve the problem by looking for a larger puddle for oneself or ones fellow fish, as to why people would want to be fish in the first place. That is when he found an arrow embedded in his own heart. This arrow is papañca. Papañca is a type of thinking that causes conflict within those who think it, and leads them into conflict with people outside.

If we take Papañca  to mean “objectification”,  then it’s from treating yourself and the world around you as objects–rather than, say, as events or processes–that the perceptions causing inner and outer conflict derive. , It’s because you have passion, desire, delight, or craving for something that you identify with a given thing. In identifying with it, you become tied there. Then you see your sources of food within that puddle as dear, and anyone who blocks those sources as not-dear. From this distinction come envy and stinginess, hostility, violence, rivalry, and ill will.

If we take Papañca to mean falsification and distortion, then the three types of thought: craving, conceit, and views, functions to slow the mind down in its escape from saṁsāra. It is the previous memory of mental events play in influencing mental proliferations. These previous memories are equivalent to what are known as āsava in Pali - an important element responsible for defiling the mind. It is the Papañca that makes us think that people are such and such, when the truth be is the opposite of what we thought of it.


Which specific process determines where consciousness will alight?

Here seems to be the answer, according to the following sutta:
SN 12,38 - Cetanā Sutta

At Savatthī. “Bhikkhus, what one intends, and what one plans, and whatever one has a tendency towards: this becomes a basis for the maintenance of consciousness. When there is a basis there is a support for the establishing of consciousness. When consciousness is established and has come to growth, there is the production of future renewed existence. When there is the production of future renewed existence, future birth, aging-and-death, sorrow, lamentation, pain, displeasure, and despair come to be. Such is the origin of this whole mass of suffering.
“If, bhikkhus, one does not intend, and one does not plan, but one still has a tendency towards something, this becomes a basis for the maintenance of consciousness. When there is a basis, there is a support for the establishing of consciousness…. Such is the origin of this whole mass of suffering.
“But, bhikkhus, when one does not intend, and one does not plan, and one does not have a tendency towards anything, no basis exists for the maintenance of consciousness. When there is no basis, there is no support for the establishing of consciousness. When consciousness is unestablished and does not come to growth, there is no production of future renewed existence. When there is no production of future renewed existence, future birth, aging-and-death, sorrow, lamentation, pain, displeasure, and despair cease. Such is the cessation of this whole mass of suffering.”

Also, in AN 3,77 - Dutiyabhava Sutta

"Thus kamma is the field, consciousness the seed, and craving the moisture. The intention & aspiration of living beings hindered by ignorance & fettered by craving is established in/tuned to a lower property. Thus there is the production of renewed becoming in the future."

Thanks to everyone for your answers so far. I'd appreciate any other answer!
Kind regards!


How does a monk cope with all the bad things happening in the world if the only thing monks do is sitting and meditating?

This question is more broad than monks and monasteries.  Just because they focus solely on meditation does not mean that everyone else is involved in addressing injustices... so, let me just slightly change your question to "how can one sit and meditate while..."

Where does all the suffering in the world come from?

Anyone who inflicted any suffering on a human being or an animal - wasn't it something in their minds that caused them to do that? Isn't the addressing of those causes in the minds critical to the lessening of suffering?

From the perspective of the one suffering - one can see quite quickly that the mind plays a huge role in interpreting events that happen. The sole difference between a painful event and something that happened and got taken in the stride, is the mind.

These two aspects taken together, argue strongly for mind training as the single biggest tool to counter suffering.

But...one may ask "How is working on my own mind helping anything? A is causing suffering to B. If anything, it's their minds that should be trained, not mine. My job is to fight A and save B".

Anyone who sits in meditation knows pretty soon that one has little control over one's own mind, let alone on anyone else's.  At least, with one's own, there is some chance of influencing it. And why does that matter? Because we ourselves become A or B in situation after situation, many times a day (if we are mindful enough to notice that). Hard as it is to admit that I am an inflictor, it is easy enough to see that on the other hand, every inflictor is an "I".  It is a fallacy to think that some people are of a different type (evil) and the rest of us are not. It is just the same type of mind, having been conditioned by different circumstances, which acts out differently.  It is rare that one does harm for the sake of it. It is far more common that one just seeks what one desires and acts in a way that doesn't care about what happens to anyone else because of that.  That includes some of the most heinous crimes in history like slavery and various kinds of exploitation happening up until today.

Are we aware of how, in the pursuit of convenience, fun and pleasure we ourselves cause harm without meaning to? Plantation owners in the American South and farmers under apartheid were just "trying to work the land..." right? The brutalities committed in Africa and elsewhere were just to "help industries back home in Europe by finding them resources", right? Or perhaps it was even the noble cause of "scientific and technological advancement of society back home".  Until recently, we thought we were just driving to and from everywhere, having fun and convenience, enjoying the freedom of the road, not hurting anyone at all until having to face the catastrophic effect on the climate. Think my choices of buying and consuming something has no effect on human and animal suffering? I need to think again! So the mind, even of "us innocents who aren't hurting anyone" could use a lot of examination and cultivation.

This is not to say that one should not do anything externally to help anything. By all means. But while doing so, no need to come to it from a place of anger and agitation towards anyone. We can work towards goals but not neglect what is happening with the mind.

Also not to say that protest and activism don’t have their place, but it is a huge mistake to think that focusing on the mind is not one of the most powerful tools at our disposal. If you don't believe that, try this experiment - every time we ask "how can I deal with this person at work/school who is being a _____?" Also ask yourself "how can I make sure I'm not myself being like that person?", see what in the mind is causing such behavior from oneself.  And see the magical effect this has on the environment around you after a period of time.  Quite a different thing from taking refuge in identity ("they" are bad ones) instead of seeing what one can do on one's own end.

There is also something odd about asking this about monks and meditation alone - as if it is the sole alternative to human rights work or even remotely a factor in the causing of suffering? One can ask the same about a whole lot of other things - "how can someone watch TV while so many people are suffering?". Or going to the movies, or a bar or studying mathematics or philosophy, doing photography, sleeping in on a weekend, going on a trip with friends, playing with your children.. do people do all this because they "don't have a heart"?

As for monks...every field benefits from people who do it full time. Monks are those "pros" in the context of cultivating the mind. So if you can grok the value of mind work, such a question would not arise about monks.

Finally, I might add, it was precisely with the goal of reducing human suffering that the Buddha chose to go forth and search, and then to teach the path he found to others - not in disregard of it.


Overwhelming states of being reached through meditation

First of all, I think your question has gotten worse at explaining your condition through your edits (sorry!).
In Theravada Buddhism, and really I think I speak for all of Buddhism when I say, the object is to understand reality as it is. This means you actually have to understand the experience before you can "fix" it. Actually, it means once you understand the experience, there will be no need to fix it.

Saddhāya tarati oghaṃ appamādena aṇṇavaṃ,
Viriyena dukkhaṃ acceti paññāya parisujjhatīti.
With confidence one crosses the flood, with vigilance the ocean;
With effort one overcomes suffering, with wisdom one is purified.
SN 10.12

So, first you need to purify your understanding. What is it you are exactly experiencing? What is really happening? The Buddha reminded us that understanding reality means breaking experience up into its constituent parts and seeing them just as they are (called Yathā-bhūta-ñāna-dassana). For example, in the Bahiya Sutta (Ud 6):

"diṭṭhe diṭṭhamattaṃ bhavissati, sute sutamattaṃ bhavissati, mute mutamattaṃ bhavissati, viññāte viññātamattaṃ bhavissatī"ti. Evaṃ hi te bāhiya, sikkhitabbaṃ.
"In what is seen, there will be only what is seen; in what is heard, there will be only what is heard, in what is sensed, there will be only what is sensed, in what is thought, there will be only what is thought." Just so indeed should you train, Bahiya.

The Buddha explained that to the extent that Bahiya could train himself in this simple teaching, "tato tvaṃ, bāhiya, na tena" - "therefore, Bahiya, there will arise no 'you' because of that," which means that there would be no misinterpretation of the experience as "me", "mine", etc.
"To the extent," the Buddha continued, "that there arises no self," "tato tvaṃ, bāhiya, na tattha" - "to that extent, Bahiya, there will arise no 'you' in regards to that object." "To that extent," the Buddha concluded, "nevidha na huraṃ na ubhayamantarena. esevanto dukkhassa." - "there will be neither here nor there or anything in between. This indeed is the end of suffering."
So, let's examine what exactly you experienced, based on your words, in order to try and see it for what it is:

I experienced an incredibly intense emotional explosion in my chest

First of all, emotions are not in your chest, they are mental. What you experience in your chest is a physical symptom, maybe accompanying emotion, maybe not. It should be understood as it is (in our tradition, this means reminding yourself "feeling, feeling..." until it goes away).
Second, "incredibly intense" is a judgement - not bad in itself, but indicative of some emotional reaction to the experience. That too should be seen as it is ("disliking" or "upset", for example).

I experienced what can only be described as immediate and overwhelming bliss.

Bliss is either mental or physical (or both); either way, it is a feeling (vedana) and should be understood as it is ("happy, happy" or even "feeling, feeling")

My meditations were shorter, but extremely powerful (and actually became the highlights of my day).

This indicates some degree of attachment, which is a cause for addiction and should be understood as it is to stop it from escalating ("liking, liking").

I felt as if my ego wasn't quite ready to deal with the complexities of modern life, and rather than help my daily existence, this new state of mind became a hindrance.

This as well is a judgement, probably indicative of aversion. Even though a state may be objectively "bad", disliking just aggravates the condition. This should understood as it is ("disliking, disliking").

Talking to my clients on the phone, fielding their complicated questions, suddenly became a daunting task. And the part of my brain that allowed me to program websites (which is what I do for a living) was struggling to focus.

Sometimes struggling to focus on worldly things simply means you are unable to care about what has no intrinsic benefit; you may have to in that case force yourself to stop practicing in order to carry out the worldly duties as you see fit. In this case, though, it sounds like you probably have too much concentration and not enough effort. If the mind is unwieldy, inflexible, it will have trouble keeping up with reality and thus interacting with daily life. Insight meditation that focuses on mundane reality should help. If you truly are distracted (in the sense of the mind flitting to many different objects at once), then it probably has less to do with the meditation practice and more to do with your reactions to it that have led to anxiety, etc.

It was worrying.

States can't be worrying, you can just worry about them. Which is unwholesome and should be understood as it is to avoid escalating it ("worried, worried").

I didn't feel as though I was in control of these feelings, or sometimes, even myself (I remember one time talking to a friend about these new experiences, and being unable to stop myself from talking -- I literally kept interrupting him with my "insights", very unlike me).

Welcome to the world of non-self :) The Buddha said that aspects of experience are non-self, including nibbana. We simply fool ourselves into thinking we are in control, when in fact the most we can do is react (or not react, which would be better).
Interrupting your friend, on the other hand, is a sign of too much energy - probably accompanied by faith, and, as you say, insight. Energy, faith and insight can all become hindrances or imperfections of insight (vipassanupakkilesa) if you follow them without being self-aware and letting them go. It is important not to cling to any positive states that may arise; as you have learned, they can lead to problems in your daily life.
Hopefully this at least gives you some guide as to how you can better pinpoint what exactly you experienced; if you want help, you will need to be able to express what is happening on a momentary experiential basis; the present moment is just one moment, and it is the only moment that is of true importance:

Let one not go back to the past, nor worry about the future, for the
past is gone and the future unreached; but which phenomena arise here
and now, let one see clearly into them all.
This is unconquerable, this is unshakeable; knowing thus, let one so
devote oneself. Today, indeed, should one strive at the task; who
knows whether death comes tomorrow? There is no bargain to be made
with him, Death with his great army, But one who dwells thus ardently,
day and night untiringly, is said by the peaceful sage to have had a
blessed night.
-- The Buddha (MN 131)


What advice did the Buddha give to corrupt officials?

Corrupted officials: Dhanañjani Sutta

  "What do you think, Dhanañjanin? There is the case where a certain
  person, for the sake of his wife & children ... his slaves & workers
  ... his friends & companions ... his kinsmen & relatives ... his
  guests ... his departed ancestors ... the devatas ... the king, does
  what is unrighteous, does what is discordant. Then, because of his
  unrighteous, discordant behavior, hell-wardens drag him off to hell.
  Would he gain anything by saying, 'I did what is unrighteous, what is
  discordant, for the sake of the king. Don't [throw] me into hell,
  hell-wardens!' Or would the king gain anything for him by saying, 'He
  did what is unrighteous, what is discordant, for our sake. Don't
  [throw] him into hell, hell-wardens!'?"

Other evil people(demon): Alavaka Sutta


All labels are conventions & attachment to mental states of non-becoming can make the mind uncomfortable with conventions.

Also, the term 'Buddhist' is a stereotype, loaded with all kinds of worldly connotations, such as believing in the Dalai Lama, reincarnation, statues, etc.

Those people might be more comfortable if asked: "Do you practise the teachings (path) of the Buddha?".


How do you decide when to stick up for yourself and when to let things go?

you said:

  One shouldn't attach him/herself (to material matters).
  One should move toward truthfulness in all things and correct harm.

but... the second one does not sound like a Buddhist principle... where did you get that from?

The first one (nonattachment, dispassion) is a universally valid Buddhist principle. As a rule of thumb I would stick with this one.

However, according to training I received, there are two places detachment can come from: 1) from strength or 2) from weakness.

when detachment comes from strength -- it comes from the idea of freedom, of independence, of being one's own island, of needlessness and emancipation, from wisdom, from compassion.
when detachment comes from weakness -- it comes from fear of confrontation or involvement, from laziness, from doubts, from incomplete understanding, from "spiritual materialism", from attachment to private peace of mind.

So you should look inside and see where your detachment comes from. If it comes from weakness then, while on the surface it looks like detachment, it really is a form of attachment.

If that is the case then you should definitely engage with that "someone" - not as much for the sake of what you see as "truth" from your side - as for the practice of overcoming your (hidden) attachment.


7 lives/years: maintainability and significance of the number 7

Ajahn Brahm addresses this in his book Mindfulness, Bliss, And Beyond. He notes that most people are not correctly practicing mindfulness such that it will allow them to attain stream entry.

Although this is an alluring promise from the Buddha, understanding it requires a measure of brutal personal honesty: Are we in-fact practicing true, unwavering mindfulness during all waking moments of our lives for seven days straight? Such a task is actually quite difficult; even when we get a good, mindful groove going, it is exceedingly easy to lapse out of mindfulness and have to start again.

I imagine that much of the meditation average folks do is primarily aimed at cultivating (i.e. learning, developing, and strengthening) mindfulness. It takes full mastery of mindfulness to be able to apply it long enough to break down our delusions to attain enlightenment.

One final point Ajahn Brahm notes: depending on an individuals level of attainment (i.e. once-returner, arahant, etc) it may be very difficult to truly identify them. Traditionally, only the Buddha himself could verify these attainments. Thus, we should be careful in assuming how likely or unlikely occurrences of enlightenment are, though it is clear that even basic stream-entry requires serious work.


I usually feel heavy and drowsy.

This is Slot and Toper. You should overcome this and other Hindrances. Many of the techniques are found in:

The Five Mental Hindrances and Their Conquest Selected Texts from the Pali Canon and the Commentaries compiled and translated by Nyanaponika Thera
Nīvaraṇa by Piya Tan
Thīna,middha by Piya Tan [these might also be interesting: Vyāpāda, Uddhacca,kukkucca, Vicikicchā, Kāma-c,chanda by the same author]

  ...  Feeling intense Dukkha today.

When you do not achieve spiritual goals unsatisfactoriness may arise. [Sal,āyatana Vibhanga Sutta] Best is try to keep you mind and practice steady. Also see if you are putting too much effect leading to restless worry. Also do not measure progress too often. Just do what needs to be done, i.e., just practice!


No one done a physics answer yet?

Here it is.

Space is impermanent. General relativity shows that space and time are linked together and they change with mass. Mass tells spacetime how to bend, spacetime tells mass how to move.

The whole field of cosmology studies how the  space of universes changes.


Do Buddhists believe (as do some Christians) in non-material forms of healing?

There are several cases of working cures mentioned in the suttas many more in the Jataka stories which are much later. Two oustanding cases found in the suttas are the one where Angulimala
http://obo.genaud.net/backmatter/appendixes/personalities/angulimala.htm
did an act of truth to relieve a woman of a painful labor, another is the case of the Buddha himself 'bending down his mind' to the suppression of an illness.
http://obo.genaud.net/dhamma-vinaya/bs/dn.16.rhyt.bs_1.2.htm
scroll down to #28

The 'act of truth' is a declaration made to the gods of the truth of some statement in the form of a wish: "If such and such is the truth, let such and such happen." Usually the thing being declared to be the truth must be something hard to believe or embarassing, something not likely to be revealed unless under strong motivation to do so.

Generally the Buddha suggests not working cures with the idea that beings have their kamma to live out. Working a cure does not relieve a person of the experience of his bad kamma, it just postpones it and that may not be a wise idea if it postpones the experience beyond its manifestation in this life there is the possibility that the next life will be so hazardous (as in animal life) that insight and taking counter-measures would be highly unlikely. Consequently curing someone may not be doing them any favor.


Higher levels of concentration is not possible while the mind is active but you can have some level of non-exclusive focus on like the breath or bodily sensations while working. You need to develop initial and sustained focus on a chosen object.


Earliest usage of "rope or snake" allegory in Buddhist literature?

For all I know, the simile may come from generic Indian religious tradition and not specifically from Buddhism. For example, here are some quotes from Upanidhads:
Nirvana Upanishad (~ 100 BCE - 100 CE) :

The phenomenal world is impermanent as it is produced [from Brahman
which alone is real]; it is similar to a world seen in a dream and an
[illusory] elephant in the sky; similarly, the cluster of things such as
the body is perceived by a network of a multitude of delusions and it is
fancied to exist as a serpent in a rope.

(Wikipedia:) The composition date or author of Nirvana Upanishad is unknown, but its sutra-style suggests that it originated in the sutra text period (final centuries of the 1st-millennium BC), before it was compiled and classified as an Upanishad. This text was likely composed in the centuries around the start of common era.

Tejobindu Upanishad (~ 100 BCE - 300 CE):

If a man is bitten by a rope mistaken for a snake, then mundane existence may be. If a blazing fire is extinguished by a golden arrow, then the world is.

(Wikipedia:) [...] Eliade's suggestion places these in the final centuries of BCE or early centuries of the CE. [...] Gavin Flood dates the Tejobindu text, along with other Yoga Upanishads, to be probably from the 100 BCE to 300 CE period.

More of these quotes can be found in Advaita Vedanta mail list archives.
And then somewhere around 310-390 CE we see it used by the Yogacara founder Asanga in his Mahayanasamgraha:

How is this entry into Concept-Only made and what is it
like? [...] One enters in the same way that one identifies a rope which seems in the darkness to be a snake. Since it does not exist, the snake seen in the rope is an illusion. Those who have recognized that it does not exist reject the notion of snake and keep the notion of rope. But the rope itself, if reduced to its subtle elements, is an illusion itself, for it has color,
smell, taste and tactile as specific characteristics.
Thus, when any reality has been denied to the six types
of mental words which appear as phoneme or as thing - just as the notion of snake is abandoned by means of the
notion of rope - the notion of Concept-Only underlying the mental words should be abandoned by means of the notion of the absolute nature, just as the notion of rope is abandoned by means of the notion of color, etc.

Since Asanga was originally a brahmin before converting to Buddhism, I wouldn't be surprised if he took this simile from one of the Upanishads and repurposed for Yogacara.
There is also this Sanskrit version of Cittavisuddhiprakarana by Aryadeva (~200-300 CE), but I was not able to find a translation:

sarpabuddhiryathā rajjau rajjudṛṣṭau nivartate|
sarpabuddhiḥ punastatra naiva syādiha janmani||68||
sattvabuddhistathātrāpi vajrajñānānnivartate|
na bhāvaḥ sambhavettatra dagdhabīja ivāṅkuraḥ||69||

Also, this simile appears in Abhidharma Mahavibhasa Sastra which would date it around 150CE: 薩迦耶見計我我所。於勝義中無我我所。如人見繩謂是蛇。 'The satkāyadṛṣṭi thinks about the self and that which belongs to the self; but according to higher truth, there is no self. As for example, a person sees a rope and calls it a snake' (T 1545 (XXVII) 36a18-19)


Do buddhists believe that time travel will ever be possible?

In general time is held to be the object of thinking.
In the earliest texts, Buddhists hold that there exist these 12 elements;

Eye & Forms
Tongue & Tastes
Ear & Sound
Nose & Aromas
Body & Sensatipns
Intellect/Mind/Consciousness & Ideation

They hold that is not possible to point out anything in the world that would repudiate the 12 and therefore the 12 are defined as the All or Everything in a definitive sense.
Out of these, 6 are thought of as having their respective objects.
The ideas of time and time travel are not repudiating these 12 and are included as the object of ideation.
Furthermore the 12 can be thought of as 5 classes of past, present & future

Form
Consciousness
Feeling
Perception
Synthesis/Formation

Of these 4 are thought of as having an object. Form is thought of as not having an object.
The All can also be the object of thought in a collective sense and a single element, it is then thought of as the conditioned element and is thought to change as it persists rather than arising & ceasing.


How to Know the Knowing of Anicca, Dukkha, Anatta

There is knowing of Anicca, knowing of Dukkha, and knowing of Anatta, separate from each other. And then there is knowing of all three together, or rather the knowing of vision behind these three designations, in all its implications.

In my experience, it is seeing all implications, top to bottom, is what makes all the difference in the world. I had intellectual understanding of the three marks for years. I even understood shunyata, or thought I did. I even knew that Enlightenment can't be a state. And I still missed the point.

It's all about implications, of all three, together. When you know reality behind the three, and all implications of this reality, then you can be sure you know what is there to be known. Until then, to think "anicca (etc.) is yet to be grasped" would be a valid thought. Why? Because if you don't see how it fits together, or do see how it all fits together but not its implications -- then your knowledge of individual components is obviously not 100% complete yet.


How to deal with ADHD and OCD like symptoms causing issues during meditation?

If you think you got ADHD or OCD you should seek professional help. Even if it turns out you don't suffer from these disorders talking to an expert could help you with your problem.


Merits, through ‘Daana’, ‘Sila’ & ‘Bhavana’ bring you joy. But Bhavana (Meditation) is not so important at the start. So leave the retreats for a later date.   As the Buddha preached:

  “Don’t ignore even a small merit thinking that it will not come to you! It is in fact with each drop of water that a pot is filled. Therefore, a wise person will collect all merits even if it is by bit by bit. In this way, his life will full with merits at the end.”

It is important to know that no degree of generosity can cover up the lack of virtue in personal life. This karmic law cannot be deceived. This is why it has been laid down that "give dana with confidence and always be virtuous" (daanam dadantu saddhaaya - seelam rakkhantu sabbadaa). The two aspects should be complementary to each other.

So cultivate the five ‘Sēkha Bala Dhamma’ – Saddhā (faith), Sīla (virtue), Sutha (Dhamma knowledge), Thyāga (generosity), and Paññā (wisdom of the Dhamma). Also religiously go through the stages of listening, remembering, constant reciting, mental observation and ideologically understanding the Dhamma (Sutha, dhata, vacasa paricita, manasanupekkhita, ditthiya suppatividdha). An interesting fact that very few know of is, nowhere in the Doctrine (Sutta) it is mentioned that one becomes a stream entrant (Sotapanna) through meditation. So to your next question, listening to dhamma is more important than practicing meditation. Meditation comes only when one strives to go beyond the stage of Sotapanna.


Not "discarded" no. Just not touched. That's why they said leave front and back doors open. So they can enter and exit. You don't have to chase them away.

But yeah, some thoughts can be very cool and interesting. And the more you meditate, more interesting they get :)
It is very tempting to think about some of them...

It doesn't mean you should stop them or not stop them, or be guilty, or proud. Just remain open and don't serve tea to the thoughts, I love that expression.


Is there mention of Maitreya Buddha in Pali Canon?

How did this idea of next Buddha formed? Is it the influence of other religion where they say Kalki or Christ will return.

No need for outside influence, just simple logic. It doesn't make any sense to have only one single Gautama Buddha arisen in a universe (or multiverse) with unfathomably long history without descernable beginning and end.

  Also does Pali Canon mention many other Buddha before Gautam Buddha?

Yes, see the Buddhavamsa, the 14th Book of the Pali Canon's Khuddaka Nikaya for the list of 24 Buddhas predecessors to Gautama Buddha. See DN 26 for infos. on Metteyya, the future Buddha.


How can consciousness arise without the fuel?

This question that I had asked is relevant to this question.

According to MN9:

  From the origination of fermentation comes the origination of
  ignorance. From the cessation of fermentation comes the cessation of
  ignorance. .....

  From the origination of ignorance comes the origination of
  fermentation. From the cessation of ignorance comes the cessation of
  fermentation.

To answer your question, ignorance is the cause. But to break the cycle, craving must be uprooted through the Noble Eightfold Path.

Also see Andrei's answer on the vicious cycle.


What is Mastery of reflectionJhana mastery

These five powers have to be mastered, DeusIIXII, for the purpose to develop right view, for the purpose to gain proper concentraion, for the purpose of release:

(the) first

❋ Namo tassa bhagavato arahato sammā-sambuddhassa ❋

  There are these five strengths for one in training. Which five? Strength of conviction, strength of conscience, strength of concern, strength of persistence, & strength of discernment.

  And what is strength of conviction? ...Vitthara Sutta: (Strengths) in Detail

Since certain prerequisites are possible missing, for one living at home: Development of the first six recollections/reflections can be done "no" matter how busy you are, if the busy is according to the Dhamma: AN 11.13

Since lack of stinginess is prerequisiten

  "Without abandoning these five qualities, one is incapable of entering & remaining in the second jhana... the third jhana... the fourth jhana; incapable of realizing the fruit of stream-entry... the fruit of once-returning... the fruit of non-returning... arahantship. Which five? Stinginess as to one's monastery [lodgings], stinginess as to one's family [of supporters], stinginess as to one's gains, stinginess as to one's status, and ingratitude. Without abandoning these five qualities, one is incapable of entering & remaining in the second jhana... the third jhana... the fourth jhana; one is incapable realizing the fruit of stream-entry... the fruit of once-returning... the fruit of non-returning... arahantship.

  Macchariya Suttas: Stinginess

Lack of Macchariya is reached by entering the stream. So as long difficulty in devotion, gratitude, precepts, e.g. having not really get known the Dhamma by proper attention, no right view yet, it's good to focus on the base. Then it might be possible, like for this generous and devoted man, to take on: fear & animosity are stilled

Much joyful effort is wished!

Addition, since just coming aware again: There is a "new" book, a gift of Dhamma to give, surely very usefullin this regard:

   The Five Faculties : Putting Wisdom in Charge of the Mind, by Ṭhānissaro Bhikkhu. (revised October 22, 2017) In May of 2017, members of Le Refuge, a Buddhist group located near Marseilles, invited me to lead an nine-day retreat on the topic of the five faculties (indrīya): conviction, persistence, mindfulness, concentration, and discernment. These are a set of qualities that the Buddha numbered among his most important teachings. When put in charge of the mind, they lead all the way to awakening. Taken together, they deal primarily with the practice of meditation, which makes them a good framework for a meditation retreat. However, the first faculty—conviction—focuses on questions of self and world: what kinds of happiness you believe you are capable of attaining, along with what kind of happiness you believe can be found in the world. This means that the five faculties also provide an excellent framework for covering the entire practice of the Buddha’s teachings, both on retreat and in the world at large. (Source)

Note that "reflection", which you used in the question, is actually wisdom/"knowing" (paññā), or discrimination, such as reflection requires sati (mindfullness) and paññā.

Since knowledge at first place, having hear/read the good Dhamma, this might be most usefull to fullfil the answers demand on it's root.

[Note: This is a gift of Dhamma, not meant for commercial purpose and other low wordily gains by means of trade and exchange]


Concentration is a poor translation of samadhi. Samadhi means meditative state. And right samadhi is one with strong mindful awareness. Deep samadhi is a state of absorption into the meditation object.

There are also characteristic states of samadhi called jhanas which generally implies prominence of a particular mental quality (physical pleasure, mental joy, contentment and equanimity). However, the depth of each of these varies and are often debated between schools. This brings in the classification between commentarial jhanas (very deep states) vs sutta jhanas (just enough absorption to investigate phenomena).

Some schools prefer complete absorption as you imply in your question. Others, just enough absorption to have stable attention and plenty of awareness for insight practices. Certain suttas imply this sort of samadhi:

  Monks, secluded from sense pleasure... a monk enters and dwells in the first jhana. He steeps, drenches, fills and suffuses his body with the rapture and happiness born of seclusion, so that there is no part of his entire body that is not suffused with this rapture and happiness. Just as a skilled bath-attendant or his apprentice might strew bathing powder in a copper basin, sprinkle it again and again with water, and knead it together so that the mass of bathing soap would be pervaded, suffused, and saturated with moisture inside and out yet would not ooze moisture, so a monk steeps, drenches, fills and suffuses his body with the rapture and happiness born of seclusion, so that, there is no part of his entire body that is not suffused with this rapture and happiness born of seclusion. (D.i,74)

There are two ways we typically know the presence of thoughts (The Mind Illuminated by John Yates PhD et. al). Attention and awareness. You attention can be stably on the breath and you mindful awareness can see thoughts and distraction come and go. This shows maturity of practice and there is a sense of standing aback and watching the breath. Thoughts stop arising as you consistently ignore them. It's a learned behaivour (unification of the mind aka citta-ekagatta) where the mind system is together working on stabilizing attention and observing the meditation object. This is the required amount of samadhi per a lot of teachers to begin insight training as your mind is now a sharp sword that can cut through anything without getting caught up.

Further and more in depth discussion on this topic can be found here:

https://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/gunaratana/wheel351.html
http://www.leighb.com/jhanas.htm

The bottom line though is that samadhi is a joyful, restful, alert and mindful state. It should ideally be nourishing and nurturing.


Not sure if vows alone are sufficient to auto-magically make things happens as one wishes. It's much more likely that intention coupled with concrete actions that will bring about the desired result. So in the case of person A, the event's more likely to happen due to s/he following up with actions that helps person B and maybe at the cost of some suffering to himself. About the concept of collective kamma, it probably is just individual kamma bundled together. An example is the atrocities committed by soldiers during a war campaign. Together they all took part in killing, raping, and plundering their enemies' city. So in some distant future, some catastrophic event happens to a group of people, which on the surface seems like "collective" kamma, but in fact the underlying driving force is still individual kamma manifesting itself.


Please see this question and the selected answer for it which is based on SN 1.25.

The Buddha sometimes referred to himself as "I" and this is not out of conceit or self view, but because he is simply using conventional language.

Why does he refer to himself in the third person as Tathagatha - "firmly established in reality"?

The way I see it, this is just like me talking about humans - "the human eats when he is hungry".  Similarly, the Buddha describes his nature as one who is firmly established in reality, by speaking of the Tathagata in the third person.


welcome!

Generally, from Buddhism standpoint, meditation is not practiced for the sake of mystical experiences. In vipassana exercises, whatever sensation is felt, it's supposed to be observed, we are not supposed to be overwhelmed by it. In general, arbitrary sensations and imaginations are not to be stimulated. And as importantly, awareness should be constant: when one embarks in sensations and imaginations, awareness is lost.

If awareness is lost, whatever imagination inside your mind becomes powerful, your forget that you're safe, sitting comfortably, and believe you are in danger, when nothing will really happen.

I remember reading an account of a meditator who described having visions during meditation, and later on, seeing his visions were true. He brought this to his teacher who told him to not be distracted by such small thing. That's a valuable attitude to have during meditation. At least if one is aiming for the higher goals.

In general also, if the meditator is not calm (if he is excited, in fear, tired, etc), meditation is impaired:

  But with excessive thinking and pondering I might tire my body, and when the body is tired, the mind becomes strained, and when the mind is strained, it is far from concentration. So I steadied my mind internally, quieted it, brought it to singleness, and concentrated it. Why is that? So my mind should not be strained.

  -- Dvedhāvitakka Sutta [Bodhi trans.], MN 19

So, to answer your questions:

This is relatively common, specially when our minds follow patterns that easily lead to strong sensations. A remedy for this is having a very good understanding of the practice (for example, understanding very well the five hindrances)
A lot of things can be harmful if not done properly. Though meditation doesn't seem to require knowing much, it can be very hard to do it without study.

From here, I suggest having a good understanding of primordial sources for this practice: the Satippathana Sutta and the Anapanasati Sutta where the Buddha explains their techniques. I also strongly suggest looking for books that cover detailed explanation for these. Finally, there are a lot of questions regarding meditation here, I suggest looking up for those as well.


Different meditation approaches within Theravada

Actually there are 4 ways and they are all valid Theravada techniques. Problem occurs when misinformed people start saying only one of these techniques is correct.

Insight preceded by tranquility
Tranquility preceded by insight
Tranquility in tandem with insight
by settling the mind with regard to the Dhamma.

Read the Yuganandha Sutta for more details


How to describe different stages and passing through different states In my mortal life?

This is most certainly the case with myself. In fact, after 12 months of diligently observing myself, I notice my mind states shift all the time, even from moment to moment. The governor for these shifting states could be our conditioned self. Unfamiliar arising conditions such as the one you describe can allow for a huge shift in consciousness and perhaps one reason for this transition is because they don't conform to our conditioned state, that being: there's no previous blueprint to overlay it with. The self (or conditioned state) has been shook up. My point is, that these changes are occurring all of the time but for the most part they go unnoticed; they are quite subtle. They can indeed be seen as a death and rebirth regardless of their magnitude.

The Tibetan Book of The Dead is an interesting read and can be applied within the finer constituents of life itself. SEE HERE. Carl Jung has an interesting interpretation of this book.

In a strictly Buddhist sense, one could learn massively from this experience.

  can it be termed as different rebirths(any kind of) for an ordinary man In Buddhist terms.

I'm not sure what you're asking here.


I would suggest that Buddhism does not promote the importance of being a contented person, especially by suppressing any feelings, perceptions or other parts of experience. Instead, by learning to know dissatisfaction (suffering, dukkha) very well, we notice that the discontentment is separate from the experience (i.e. pain is pain, sickness is sickness, it's our minds that adds dissatisfaction on top of that).

By practicing to recognize dissatisfaction, we can then learn to put that dissatisfaction aside, and simply experience each moment as it is (painful, pleasurable or neutral). Once we are able to put dissatisfaction aside, contentment naturally arises.

I would like to stress that Buddhism does not promote becoming a contented person - this holding on to "me as a person being contented" is also a cause for discontentment, since it is certain to change. Once the situation changes ("me" no longer being content), there's dissatisfaction - my view of myself being contented does not fit with the experience I am having.

Walking or shifting your foot is not inherently dissatisfactory. It is what it is, what you experience are the sensations of lifting the foot, changes in pressure on the footsole, and so on. The experience can be pleasurable, neutral or unpleasant, but that does not have to equal dissatisfaction in that moment. Our minds add that on to it. Once we're able to let go of the added layer of judging the experience as satisfactory or unsatisfactory (it shouldn't be this way or this is great), contentment is with us, here and now.


Does Human Evolution Disprove a Kamma Based Rebirth?

No, evolution does not do that. But this is a hard question to answer succinctly, because of the layers of concepts involved. I'll have a try.

First, consider one of the core notions in Buddhism: that our normal view of reality suffers from three illusory aspects. We don't normally see that the thing we usually call "real" -- tables, chairs, electrons, our brains, the evolving of species of organisms through natural selection, etc -- are impermanent, do not satisfy our desire to be free of suffering, and do not comprise that entity we call "self". A major point of Buddhism is to get to understand and experience the "true" nature of reality.

OK, so far so enigmatic. The point is, according to Buddhism what we see (feel, smell, etc) "out there" is not "real" -- it is merely the way whatever it is that is real appears to us. A well-used but very good analogy is the movie The Matrix. We are, in a very true way, in a Matrix. There actually is a "reality", but what we experience is not It. What we experience is just how It appears. And that idea isn't unique to Buddhism or even to religion.

Now within that set of experiences -- the things inside our Matrix -- are matter, energy, time, and so on; in other words, all the things of which a materialist scientist would say "that's all there is to reality". But in Buddhism, the insight is, no, that's not "all there is".

So to your specific question. The reason evolution -- and 200,000 years of the homo genus -- doesn't disprove kamma is because evolution is a concept inside the Matrix. Kamma, on the other hand, sits outside it.

Here's another analogy. Imagine you're a player of an online video game, like Call of Duty. Within each specific match, you can increase your score, gain points, get better weapons. Those are all like evolution. They happen inside one specific match. But you also have an overall ranking, or "experience points score" (I forget if that's what CoD actually calls it, but the idea is accurate) that lasts from game to game. That's like kamma. So asking if evolution disproves kamma is like asking if the fact that the current match has only been running for 5 minutes proves that no one can have a total "experience point score" of 10,000. The answer is, no, of course not. One is a concept within a game-match/samsaric-existence-instance; the other is a concept outside or "across" game-matches/samsaric-existence-instances.

One last way of thinking. Modern physics allows the possibility of multiple universes within a multiverse. So our current universe's 200,000 years worth of humans-able-to-attain-nibbana may be only one of billions of examples of such instances of human species across the multiverse, and maybe rebirth happens across universes.

So, again, no. The fact that we have a localized phenomenon called Darwinian evolution (which I accept, as far as it goes) really says nothing about the "global" (all-of-reality-scale) nature of things.

(See, I told you I'd find it hard to be succinct!)


What determines whether actions are good or bad?

In Buddhism, the concepts of good and evil do not exist as in other religions (no being is inherently good or evil). No deity tells you what to do. There are the teachings of the Buddha, that we can make use of, as opposed to believing in a doctrine (such as "Ithe authority tells you this, therefore you should obey*").

However, there is still a distinction between the helpful and harmful, skillful and unskillful - in the context of the path (to liberation, nirvāṇa, nibbāna). In terms of karma (actions, kamma), there are the wholesome and unwholesome, but these are useful in terms of the actions we choose to avoid and to act on, in each given moment (now).

Mara, as mentioned in the Pali Canon, is referred to as evil (in the English translation), but even he will be enlightened one day. In other words, noone is inherently evil (or good) - no deities, ghosts, humans or other, in Buddhism. For instance, Maha Moggallana, disciple of the Buddha, mentioned to Mara at one point that in a previous existence, he had been Mara, and (the current) Mara had been his nephew. Strikingly, despite having been the "embodiment of evil in the world", a number of lifetimes later, he was one of the prominent disciples of the Buddha (Gotama).

An excerpt from the story: (source)

  The first Buddha appearing in our "fortunate aeon" (bhadda-kappa) with
  five Buddhas, was Kakusanda. He lived when the lifespan of man was
  40,000 years and when the first darkening of the golden age became
  evident because of a king's lack of concern and the occurrence of the
  first theft. Because of that, man's vital energy became reduced to
  half. At that time, Moggallana was Mara, chief of demons, lord of the
  lower worlds, and his name was Mara Dusi. He had a sister by name of
  Kali whose son was to become the Mara of our age. Hence Moggallana's
  own nephew was now standing in front of him at the door post. While
  being the Mara of that distant time, Moggallana had attacked a chief
  disciple of the previous Buddha by taking possession of a boy and
  making him throw a potsherd at the holy disciple's head so that blood
  was flowing. When the Buddha Kakusandha saw this, he said: "Verily,
  Mara knew no moderation here" — because even in satanic actions there
  might be moderation. Under the glance of the Perfect One the astral
  body of Mara Dusi dissolved on the spot and reappeared in the deepest
  hell. Just a moment ago he had been the overlord of all the hellish
  worlds and now he himself was one of hell's victims. A moment ago he
  had been the greatest torturer and now he himself was undergoing one
  of those terrible torments.

Whether we believe in the details of the stories in the Pali Canon is up to each of us. However, important to note, is that we all have the ability and opportunity to choose a wiser path.

Regarding your questions (in shuffled order):

There is no final "judge". No being (God or otherwise) controls our existence.
The Buddha (through long practice) awakened to (discovered, if you will) the way things are, how this existence functions.
Upon awakening, the first inclination of the Buddha was that "noone will ever understand this" - that it's impossible to teach. However, he was persuaded that some beings could be helped, and so he decided to teach others.
Briefly explained, words are inadequate to explain the way things function (karma, and so on), so instead of preaching something to believe in, the Buddha pointed the way for each of us to find out.

So noone "decided that killing is negative" (nor did anyone decide the effects of other actions). However, Buddhists will gladly help you on the path to finding out for yourself, to discover the effects of karma (your actions). Regarding being "sure we're correct", don't just take anyone's word for it. Try it out, see for yourself, do the methods and teachings from Buddhism work for you. Only then can you find certainty.


Don't try to force or control anything, observe and just note it and continue.

It's not that much important how your body reacts to your meditation, but how you deal with these bodily reactions. Yes, there will always be some bodily reactions that will distract you from meditation, but the point is to not get distracted and just remain in the "present moment".

With practice you will be less distracted, until you won't be distracted any more. Practice diligently and you shell rip the rewards soon.


Meals in the afternoon and different time zones

"Should any bhikkhu chew or consume staple or non- staple food at the wrong time, it is [an offence of Confession.]" (Paac. 37; BMC p.362).
 Here the 'wrong time' is defined to be from noon until dawn the following day.

So regardless of which timezone a monk is in, he can consume food between dawn and noon. All you need to check is where the sun is.