Meditation technique to reduce/control pain/sorrow/loss

Each technique a type of character or mental biase.

  Greedy: the ten foulness meditations; or, body contemplation.
  Hating: the four brahma-viharas; or, the four color kasinas.
  Deluded: mindfulness of breath.
  Faithful: the first six recollections.
  Intelligent: recollection of marana or Nibbana; the perception of disgust of food; or, the analysis of the four elements.
  Speculative: mindfulness of breath.
  The six non-color kasinas and the four formless states are suitable for all temperaments.

See: Kammaṭṭhāna

The main techniques to overcome sorrow are:

Anapanasati and
4 Satipatthana

These address the root cause.

Samantha techniques temporarily suppresses the hindrances which being clarity to continue into Vipassanā. So some of the techniques you mention are not the most suitable through if you practice the Brahmavihara and loathsome mediation in such a way that it develops Insight this also can be helpful. The more sure way is always 4 Satipatthana and Anapanasati practised as Vipassana than to develop Samatha.

As for specific techniques, they are described below. In short, what you have to do is concentrate on the feeling of sorrow and other experiences until you understand it.

One of the shortest renderings of Insight meditation is as follows:

  (1) having put away covetousness and displeasure in the world, a monk dwells exertive, fully aware, mindful, contemplating body in the body.

  (2) Having put away covetousness and displeasure in the world, he dwells exertive, fully aware, mindful, contemplating feeling in the feelings.

  (3) Having put away covetousness and displeasure in the world, he dwells exertive, fully aware, mindful, contemplating mind in the mind.

  (4) Having put away covetousness and displeasure in the world, he dwells exertive, fully aware, mindful, contemplating phenomena [dharmas] in the phenomena.

Sacca Vibhanga Sutta and also similar passage is found in (Magga) Vibhaṅga Sutta

One of the recurring elements here is putting away covetousness and displeasure in the world which is the task at hand. In addition you have to put effort to that task and also you should not have a lapse of mindfulness when doing this task, otherwise you will not attend to it and perhaps do something else. In short the key elements are awareness, clear comprehension and abandoning craving.

Covetousness and displeasure are result of mental reaction to sensations:

  (1) the latent tendency to lust reinforced by being attached to pleasant feelings;

  (2) the latent tendency to aversion reinforced by rejecting painful feelings;

  (3) the latent tendency to ignorance reinforced by ignoring neutral feelings.

Pahāna Sutta

In addition the 6 sense bases can be the source of these sensations which result in unwholesome roots:

  i. On seeing a form with the eye,

  one investigates the form that is the basis for mental joy,
  one investigates the form that is the basis of mental pain,
  one investigates the form that is the basis of equanimity.

  ii. On hearing a sound with the ear,

  one investigates the sound that is the basis for mental joy,
  one investigates the sound that is the basis of mental pain,
  one investigates the sound that the basis of equanimity.

  iii. On smelling a smell with the nose,

  one investigates the smell that is the basis for mental joy,
  one investigates the smell that is the basis of mental pain,
  one investigates the smell that is the basis of equanimity.

  iv. On tasting a taste with the tongue,

  one investigates the taste that is the basis for mental joy,
  one investigates the taste that is the basis of mental pain,
  one investigates the taste that is the basis of equanimity.

  v. On feeling a touch with the body,

  one investigates the touch that is the basis for mental joy,
  one investigates the touch that is the basis of mental pain,
  one investigates the touch that is the basis of equanimity.

  vi. On cognizing a mind-object with the mind,

  one investigates the mind-object that the basis of mental joy,
  one investigates the mind-object that is the basis of mental pain,
  one investigates the mind-object that is the basis of equanimity.

Dhātu Vibhaṅga Sutta

To prevent your mental reaction to sensation becoming unwholesome you can try:

  “Nothing is worth clinging to”

  When this was said, the venerable Mahā Moggallāna said this to the Blessed One: “In what way, bhante, in brief, is a monk freed through the destruction of craving, that is, one who has reached total perfection, the total security from bondage, the total holy life, the total consummation, the highest amongst gods and humans?”

  “Here, Moggallāna, the monk has learned that nothing is worth clinging to. And, Moggallāna, a monk has learned that nothing is worth clinging to, thus: he directly knows all things [he directly knows the nature of the all]. Having directly known the nature of all things, he fully understands all things.

  Having fully understood all things, he knows whatever feelings there are, whether pleasant, painful or neither painful nor pleasant.

  As regards to those feelings, [Section on Disillusionment and Revulsion (Nibbida) follows]

  he dwells contemplating impermanence in them;

  he dwells contemplating dispassion [fading away of lust] in them;

  he dwells contemplating ending (of suffering) in them;

  he dwells contemplating letting go (of defilements).

  When he dwells contemplating impermanence in them, contemplating dispassion in them, contemplating ending in them, contemplating letting go, he does not cling to anything in the world. Not clinging, he is not agitated; being not agitated, he himself surely attains nirvana.

Pacalā Sutta

Another rendering of the same is as follows:

  If he feels a pleasant feeling,

  he understands that it is impermanent;
  he understands that it is not to be clung to;
  he understands that there is no delight in it.

  If he feels a painful feeling,

  he understands that it is impermanent;
  he understands that it is not to be clung to;
  he understands that there is no delight in it.

  If he feels a neutral feeling,

  he understands that it is impermanent;
  he understands that it is not to be clung to;
  he understands that there is no delight in it.

  If he feels a pleasant feeling, he feels it in a detached manner.

  If he feels a painful feeling, he feels it in a detached manner.

  If he feels a neutral feeling, he feels it in a detached manner.

Dhātu Vibhaṅga Sutta

You should be careful that you do not react to the sensation with unwholesome thoughts which are craving, aversion or ignorance.

  (1) the latent tendency to lust reinforced by being attached to pleasant feelings;

  (2) the latent tendency to aversion reinforced by rejecting painful feelings;

  (3) the latent tendency to ignorance reinforced by ignoring neutral feelings.

Pahāna Sutta

Now to reduce mental chatter you can use initial and sustained application:

  When, bhikshu, this samadhi has been cultivated, well cultivated by you, then you should train yourself thus:

  “I will dwell exertive, clearly aware, mindful,

  observing [contemplating] [body | feeling | mind | dhamma] the in the [body | feeling | mind | dhamma],

  removing covetousness and displeasure [discontent] in regard to the world.”

  Thus, bhikshu, you should train yourself.

  When, bhikshu, this samadhi has been cultivated, well cultivated by you, then, you, bhikshu,

  THE 1 ST DHYANA:

  should cultivate this samadhi with initial application, with sustained application;

  should cultivate this samadhi without initial application, with only sustained application;

  THE 2 ND DHYANA:

  should cultivate this samadhi without initial application, without sustained application;

  should cultivate this samadhi with zest;

  THE 3RD DHYANA:

  should cultivate this samadhi zest-free;

  should cultivate this samadhi attended by comfort;

  THE 4 TH DHYANA:

  should cultivate this samadhi attended by equanimity.

Saṅkhitta Dhamma Sutta

Also one should abandon fabrications. [Samma Ditthi Sutta] One such fabrications is thinking and pondering. [Cūla Vedalla Sutta] Beyond the 1st Jhana you can cut this out. Also thinking and pondering leads to latent tendencies (see: Anusaya by Piya Tan). Suppressing it thinking and pondering suppresses concept proliferation which in turn suppresses the latent tendencies. The Jhana also suppress the 5 Hindrances.

  “Bhikshu, as regards the source from which proliferation of conception and perception assails a person: if one were to find nothing there to delight in, nothing there to welcome, nothing to cling to—this is the end of

  the latent tendency of lust,
  the latent tendency of aversion,
  the latent tendency of views,
  the latent tendency of doubt,
  the latent tendency of conceit,
  the latent tendency of desire for existence, and
  the latent tendency of ignorance.

  This is the ending of the taking up of the rod and the sword, quarrels, disputes, mayhem [strife], slandering and lying —here these evil unwholesome states cease without remainder.”

  …

  Avuso, dependent on the [eye | ear | nose | tongue | body | mind] and [form | sound | smell | taste | touch | mind-object], [eye | ear | nose | tongue | body | mind]-consciousness arises.

  The meeting of the three is contact.
  With contact as condition, there is feeling.
  What one feels, one perceives.
  What one perceives, one thinks about.
  What one thinks about, one mentally proliferates.

  From that as source, proliferation of conception and perception assails a person regarding past, future and present [forms | sounds | smells | tastes | touch | mind-objects] cognizable through the [eye | ear | nose | tongue | body | mind].

Madhu,piṇḍika Sutta

Above clarity from the suppression of hindrances and latent dependencies can be used to further develop Insight.

One should also contemplate causality:

  As such, bhikshus, the instructed noble disciple closely and wisely attends to dependent arising itself, thus:

  “When this is, that is;

  with the arising of this, that arises.
  When this is not, that is not;
  with the ending of this, that ends.”

  Bhikshus, dependent on pleasant contact, a pleasant feeling arises. With the ending of the pleasant contact, the pleasant feeling that arose in dependent on that pleasant contact, ceases, is stilled.

  Bhikshus, dependent on painful contact, a painful feeling arises. With the ending of the painful contact, the painful feeling that arose in dependent on that painful contact, ceases, is stilled.

  Bhikshus, dependent on neutral contact, a neutral feeling arises. With the ending of the neutral contact, the neutral feeling that arose in dependent on that neutral contact, ceases, is stilled.

Assutava Sutta 2

The arising and passing nature of the sensations result in unsatisfactoriness. Uncontrollable nature results in unsatisfactoriness. What cases sensations are also arising and passing which case the sensations to arise and pass. The cause of sensations are not controllable. Therefore, the whole sphere of experience is unsatisfactory.

  pleasant feeling is pleasant when it persists, painful when it changes;
  painful feeling is painful when it persists, pleasant when it changes;
  neutral feeling is pleasant when there is knowledge of it, painful when there is no knowledge of it.

Cūla Vedalla Sutta

The whole sphere of what can be experienced can be categorized into 3 sensations and their variant. (Indriya Bhāvanā Sutta and Sal,āyatana Vibhanga Sutta different shades of these sensations.) As noted above the whole sphere of sensations is unsatisfactory. Since what can be experienced and know fall into the 3 sessions the whole sphere of experience is also unsatisfactory. The aggregates of consciousness is unsatisfactory as what it cognises is unsatisfactory. The aggregates of sensations is unsatisfactory. The aggregate of which classifies as favorable, unfavorable and neutral is unsatisfactory as the mental reaction to such and the sensations that follow are unsatisfactory. The experience thought the body is unsatisfactory and the perceptions about form is unsatisfactory. This lead to the 1st Noble Truth.

  What does one know [cognize]
  with that consciousness?

  One knows, "It is pleasant."
  One knows. "It is painful."
  One knows, "It is neutral."

Dhātu Vibhaṅga Sutta

Also see:

Indriya Bhāvanā Sutta
Sal,āyatana Vibhanga Sutta
Samma Ditthi Sutta

Finally the way to develop the Brahmavihara along with insight is as follows:

The goal of Metta meditation is to develop friendly feeling towards all living beings though Sila, Samadhi and Panna (in combination with equanimity) can be developed with it.

This is achieved by breaking down the mental classification you have towards individual beings or classes of them into groups which you deem favorable, unfavorable or neutral and reacting to them with pleasant, unpleasant and neutral feeling associated with each classification. One such classification systems would be me, beings I like, neutral or unknown beings and being you do not like. When you break down the classification you will like everyone like yourself. Another classification could be same country, neutral country and enemy country. When you break down the mental classification system you will love everyone as your fellow country men. Another classification could be higher life forms, lower life forms and same level life forms. When you break down this classification you will love all living beings equally.

When you classify if a being is from a favorable category you react with pleasant sensation, unfavorable category with unpleasant sensation and neutral category with unpleasant sensations. These sensation lead to the unwholesome roots of craving for the favorable and pleasant, aversion towards the unfavorable and unpleasant and ignorance towards the neutral, as discussed in the Pahāna Sutta. When such reaction stops you stop creating negative mental states and come out of misery.

In order to develop Metta you should wish every one in every category you can imagine to be well and happy. Also know how the classifications are woulding in the back of your mind and know mental reaction and sensation. Say you remember and foe look at the mental reaction and sensations that follow. If you remember a loved one see the mental reaction and the sensations that follows. Try to be equanimous knowing the changes and and arising and passing nature of the sensations.

Once the favorable and unfavorable categorisations are broken you do not despair if you meet with non loved one and with equanimity you do not get attached to others. Others cannot cause you stress.

The Metta pratice encompases the the 3 Fold Training and Noble 8 Fold Path:

Sila - because you with metta you act for one’s well being and that of other
Samadhi - Metta build some level of concentration by repeated thoughts
Panna - if you look at how you categorise and perceive how beings are favorable or unfavorable and how sensation arise, your mental reaction due to craving and clinging, (impact on the current and future 5 aggregates) then this can develop insight

Karuṇā and Muditā meditation, apart from developing the qualities, can in understanding the process behind perceptions, view, thoughts and mental state due to other beings which you calcify and in and inferior situation and superior situation. E.g. is some one is better or the natural dependency is for jealousy to arise, and through Muditā you counteract this. Also if someone is worse off the tendency is Māna to arise, and through Karuṇā you counteract these.

At initial stages conducive thoughts about Brahmavihara will bring about morality. Also continuous focus on the subject of will bring about concentration. The key to Insight is to know how throats, view, perceptions about a being influence your mental state, what current sensation associated with these unwholesome mental states and volitions in the present lead to unpleasant sensations in the future, how perceptions and view about beings proliferate to latent tendencies, how these sensation leads to craving and how these sensations are entirely unsatisfactory. Sensation associated with mental states can be used as the basis for moral restraint, developing a conducive environment for concentration and also wisdom, which can be achieved through Brahmavihara. Also see: Sedaka Sutta (Sila), Saṅkhitta Dhamma Sutta (Samadhi), Kīta,giri Sutta (Sila, Panna).

Foulness meditation does my not counteract sorrow if practiced for the purpose of reducing polarity or the mind or temperament, but can also lead to In sight which leads to liberation from sorrow. It also is it dangerous if over done, or improperly done, as you might develop aversion towards one's own body. This has lead to suicides. But it does have its usefulness if practiced correctly. This is to be practiced if one is lustful, that is you have the perversion (see: Vipallasa Sutta) of seeing beauty is form. By contemplating on foules you are cultivating the opposite perception, view and thoughts. When this neutralises the lustful tendencies you do not react to beauty with lust. If you overdo it you might start loathing your own body in which case you have to try to see beauty in the form until your mind and tendencies are no longer polarised. Indriya Bhāvanā Sutta discusses developing the opposite of perceptions that arise. In addition to developing the opposite of a lustful temperament you can also build insight of how perception works, what sensations arise due to form and what the mental reactions are. E.g. you see a beautiful body see the sensations, perception of beauty arsing and the metal reactions. Now you should try to understand the following:

On seeing beauty what sensations arises (vedanā), how recognise (saññā) it or how you judge (saññā) it or how you evaluate (saññā) it followed by your mental reaction (saṅkhāra)
now imagining that a person was skinned and is a pile of body part see what sensations arises (vedanā), how recognise (saññā) it or how you judge (saññā) it or how you evaluate (saññā) it followed by your mental reaction (saṅkhāra)
now imagining what the body ages and is old see what sensations arises (vedanā), how recognise (saññā) it or how you judge (saññā) it or how you evaluate (saññā) it followed by your mental reaction (saṅkhāra)
now imagining a decaying corpse what sensations arises (vedanā), how recognise (saññā) it or how you judge (saññā) it or how you evaluate (saññā) it followed by your mental reaction (saṅkhāra)

Repeat the above imagining the body was yours, especially in the case you are beautiful or smart.

Thought his try to understand how craving and clinging works and how the 5 aggregates works and how 5 aggregates come into being. Current mental reactions fueled by craving and clinging to unpleasant / neutral sensations creates fabrication which in turn creates the future consciousness and 5 aggregates to experience unpleasant sensations and opposite in the case of pleasant vipaka. Through this you can use foulness meditation to liberate yourself from misery also. But tread with care!


How do we focus on stress for the first noble truth?

The first noble truth is realized at the moment of anuloma-ñāṇa - the moment before attainment of nibbāna. So, you don't actually contemplate it before that point. Up until that point, you are practicing what is called pubbaṅgamagga or the preliminary path.

There are four basic ways of understanding suffering:

dukkha-vedanā - suffering as a feeling
dukkha-sabhāva - suffering as a fact of life
dukkha-lakkhaṇa - suffering as a characteristic of phenomena
dukkha-sacca - suffering as a truth

Ordinary people see suffering as a feeling, and thus try to escape it by running away.

Eventually, some people begin to see it is a fact of life, not to be avoided but to be understood.

Some such people actually undertake to do so and, as a result, begin to see that suffering is actually an intrinsic characteristic of arisen phenomena; not simply because certain phenomena are painful, but because all phenomena are impermanent.

Finally, some who see thus will proceed accordingly until realizing in a momentary flash of insight that all arisen phenomena, even those one has not yet experienced, are suffering. This is what it means to realize the truth of suffering. The next moments involve the attainment of nibbāna.

So, to directly answer your question, all phenomena are to be seen as they are (yathābhūta), rather than focussing on those phenomena that are stressful. In the end, one comes to see objectively that no phenomenon is sukha (satisfying), and lets go of them all.


What teachings do all schools of Buddhism share?

There is an existent reference to the similarities between Theravāda & Mahāyāna which I will cite:
(I think it also applies to Vajrayāna although I may be wrong in this regard.)

  Whatever our sects, denominations or systems, as Buddhists we all accept the
  Buddha as our Master who gave us the Teaching.
  We all take refuge in the Triple Jewel: the Buddha, our Teacher; the Dhamma, his
  teaching; and the Sangha, the Community of holy ones. In other words, we take
  refuge in the Teacher, the Teaching and the Taught.
  Whether Theravada or Mahayana, we do not believe that this world is created and
  ruled by a god at his will.
  Following the example of the Buddha, our Teacher, who is embodiment of Great
  Compassion and Great Wisdom, we consider that
  the purpose of life is to develop compassion for all living beings without
  discrimination and to work for their good, happiness and peace; and to develop
  wisdom leading to the realization of Ultimate Truth.
  We accept the Four Noble Truths taught by the Buddha, namely, Dukkha, the fact
  that our existence in this world is in predicament, is impermanent, imperfect,
  unsatisfactory, full of conflict; Samudaya, the fact that this state of affairs is due
  to our egoistic selfishness based on the false idea of self; Nirodha, the fact that
  there is definitely the possibility of deliverance, liberation, freedom from this
  predicament by the total eradication of the egoistic selfishness; and Magga, the
  fact that this liberation can be achieved through the Middle Path which is eight-
  fold, leading to the perfection of ethical conduct (sila), mental discipline
  (samadhi) and wisdom (pañña).
  We accept the universal law of cause and effect taught in the Paticcasamuppada
  (Skt. pratityasamutpada; Conditioned Genesis or Dependent Origination), and
  accordingly we accept that everything is relative, interdependent and interrelated
  and nothing is absolute, permanent and everlasting in this universe.
  We understand, according to the teaching of the Buddha, that all conditioned
  things (samkhara) are impermanent (anicca) and imperfect and unsatisfactory
  (dukkha), and all conditioned and unconditioned things (dhamma) are without self (anatta).
  We accept the Thirty-seven Qualities conducive to Enlightenment
  (bodhipakkhiyadhamma) as different aspects of the Path taught by the Buddha
  leading to Enlightenment, namely,

  Four Forms of Presence of Mindfulness (Pali: satipatthana; Skt. smrtyupasthana);
  Four Right Efforts (Pali. sammappadhana; Skt. samyakpradhana);
  Four Bases of Supernatural Powers (Pali. iddhipada; Skt. rddhipada);
  Five Faculties (indriya: Pali. saddha, viriya, sati, samadhi, panna; Skt. sraddha, virya, smrti, samadhi, prajna);
  Five Powers (bala, same five qualities as above);
  Seven Factors of Enlightenment (Pali. bojjhanga; Skt. bobhyanga);
  Eight-fold Noble Path (Pali. ariyamagga; Skt. aryamarga).

  There are three ways of attaining Bodhi or Enlightenment according to the ability
  and capacity of each individual: namely, as a Sravaka (disciple), as a
  Pratyekabuddha (Individual Buddha) and as a Samyaksambuddha (Perfectly and
  Fully Enlightened Buddha). We accept if as the highest, noblest and most heroic
  to follow the career of a Boddhisattva and to become a Samyksambuddha in order
  to save others. But these three states are on the same Path, not on different paths.
  In fact, the Sandhinirmocana-sutra, a well-known important Mahayana sutra,
  clearly and emphatically says that those who follow the line of Sravaka-yana
  (Vehicle of Disciples) or the line of Pratyekabuddha-yana (Vehicle of Individual
  Buddhas) or the line of Tathagatas (Mahayana) attain the supreme Nirvana by the
  same Path, and that for all of them there is only one Path of Purification
  (visuddhi-marga) and only one Purification (visuddhi) and no second one, and
  that they are not different paths and different purifications, and that Sravakayana
  and Mahayana constitute One Vehicle One Yana (eka-yana) and not distinct and
  different vehicles or yanas.
  We admit that in different countries there are differences with regard to the ways
  of life of Buddhist monks, popular Buddhist beliefs and practices, rites and
  rituals, ceremonies, customs and habits. These external forms and expressions
  should not be confused with the essential teachings of the Buddha.

  -One Vehicle for Peace by Ven. Walpola Sri Rahula, (December 1–7, 1981)


Why Salayatana is ommitted in this mode of Dependent Origination?

I'm not sure it is omitted: it's listed there as "consciousness":

  From consciousness as a requisite condition comes name-and-form

I think that the ṣaḍāyatana are sometimes translated or understood as consciousness (which is listed in DN 15):

  More specifically, according to this analysis, the six types of consciousness are eye-consciousness (that is, consciousness based on the eye), ear-consciousness, nose-consciousness, tongue-consciousness, body-consciousness and mind-consciousness

The word used in DN 15 is viññāṇa (the following quote is also from Wikipedia's Vijñāna article):

  Hence, in this context, viññāṇa includes the following characteristics:

  viññāṇa arises as a result of the material sense bases (āyatana)
  there are six types of consciousness, each unique to one of the internal sense organs
  consciousness (viññāṇa) is separate (and arises) from mind (mano)
  here, consciousness cognizes or is aware of its specific sense base (including the mind and mind objects)
  viññāṇa is a prerequisite for the arising of craving (taṇhā)
  hence, for the vanquishing of suffering (dukkha), one should neither identify with nor attach to viññāṇa

I think that glossaries (e.g. here and here and here), and the so-called Viññana Sutta, say that although viññāṇa is a broad term it may include the six kinds of consciousness.

Or see this answer, which I think is saying that viññāṇa is used in two ways: technically as a specific aspect of mind, and colloquially to refer to several aggregates.

In case you want to read more (I'm sorry to post links instead of answering the question here, but they're long), Piya Tan of dharmafarer.org (for example) has written about this at some length.

Here is his analysis and translation of DN 15. The introduction starts with,

  Moreover, its series of conditions omits three factors of the standard version: ignorance,
  volitional activities [saṅkhāra], and the 6 sense-bases. These omissions have led some
  scholars to suggest that the twelvefold formulation may be later augmentation of a shorter original;
  but such suggestions remain purely conjectural, misleading, and objectionable on doctrinal
  and textual grounds. All in all, omissions of the Mahānidāna Sutta are more than compensated
  for by its detailed explanations, interesting digressions, and supplementary sections.

And on page 156 (page 12 of the PDF):

  In the next section of the sutta, instead of going on to the 6 senses
  and their respective contacts, as in the standard formula, the Buddha reverses his last statement and
  says: “With name-and-form, there is consciousness”. To prevent any misunderstanding, the
  Buddha then, introduces a remarkable passage unique to this Sutta: etc.

It doesn't seem to bother him that this sutta uses an other or a non-standard description. I don't know "why" it is slightly different but I find that unremarkable. It seems to me like asking, "Why is the house described as 'brown' here, whereas there it's described as 'made of stone'? Are they two different houses?" They're two descriptions of the same house.

Furthermore, here is Piya Tan's essay on the meaning and usage of vinnana (which I won't quote).

I'm not sure that it's necessary to put "6 sense bases" as a distinct layer between form and contact -- for example I think it makes as much sense to say that there are 6 types of contact.

For what it's worth, the 6 sense-spheres are omitted from the description of the five aggregates too.


What are other peoples minds according to the Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra?

Thrangu Rinpoche once said that everything we see (all phenomena we experience) is our own projection - except other people's minds. Only other people's subjective experience is not our projection and therefore exists independently of us.


Here are some apps that you might find useful:

Meditation and Mindfulness Apps:

Buddhify Mindfulness and meditation app.

"With over 11 hours of custom meditations for 15 different parts of your day including traveling, being online, taking a work break and going to sleep, buddhify 2 gives you a simple but effective way to bring more mindfulness and calm to your busy day".

Bodhi Timer

"Bodhi Timer is an elegant, minimalist countdown timer. It is designed mainly for use as a meditation timer but can easily be used for any similar purpose."

Equanimity - Meditation Timer and Tracker.

"The elegant meditation timer times your sittings, provides a beautiful journal for sitting notes, and displays graphical tracking giving you clear feedback on your meditation practice. It's carefully designed to be the ideal companion for anyone who meditates".

Insight Timer Meditation App.

In general its a meditation app that lets you keep track of sessions. I use it sometimes like when i do not have the possibility to sit in meditation as long as i want. Then the timer is great and it has some nice singing bowl sounds which gently brings you out of meditation. There are also some guided meditations in there but be aware that most of them are non-buddhist as are many of the groups in there, although there are buddhists groups in there that one can join.

Meditation Plus

"This is a companion app for our online meditation community at http://meditation.sirimangalo.org/"

ZenFriend.

"Change your life by starting a daily meditation practice. ZenFriend helps you to build this habit by offering a beautiful timer, a worldwide community and a way to keep a record of how much you meditate all in the one place".

Buddhist Text Apps (tipitaka, commentaries, books):

Access to insight - ATI app.

Portable ATI edition. One can read the sutta translations in the app. I dont know if its easier or "better" than the real deal on the internet. I didnt really use it.

Buddha Thoughts.

"Buddhist Thoughts is a great iPhone application that enables you to follow daily Buddhist readings what are based on the Sacred Literature of Buddhism and Buddha Dharma Education Association".

Buddha Vacana App.

"Buddha Vacana is a daily readings app that automatically bring a verse of the Buddha’s teachings to you daily on your Apple iPhone, iPad, iTouch, facebook, PC and other supported devices".

Dharma and the 5 precepts training.

"This free app enables you to carry enlightenment and spirituality wherever you may be. Aimed to support beginners and intermediate level students of the Buddha in the attainment of knowledge and truth, this app provides quick and easy access to the teachings of Buddha and the Dharma".

Digital Pali Reader

"The Digital Pali Reader (DPR) is a tool in the form of a Mozilla Firefox extension, much like a hard-copy language reader, facilitating study of the Pali language at an advanced level."

Eight Verses app.

It says that this app is composed by Buddhist Master Langri Tangpa and that its a highly- revered text from the Mahayana Lojong (mind training) tradition. "Along with the original text in Tibetan and English, the app contains text commentaries in English and audio commentaries aswell".

Pali Tipitaka iOs Web App.

"This is a work in progress. The Tipiṭaka (Mūla) is available for all the scripts, and the Aṭṭhakathā is available for the Roman script."

Songs by Milarepa app.

"Milarepa was an eleventh-century Buddhist poet and saint, the Greatest Ever to Appear in the History of Tibetan Buddhism. He was a yogi who wandered from village to village, teaching enlightenment and the path to Buddhahood through his spontaneously composed songs".

This comment is from a customer review of the app: "I came across this app whiles searching for any sort of media on Milarepa. I was hoping that the app would contain the audio in addition to the written text, but that was not so. Nonetheless, it is a beautiful App and I thank the developer for his efforts. It would be nice to actually here those amazing poem being sang".

Theravada Buddhist Text App.

"This app is meant to allow the user to read Pali Buddhist texts with side-by-side English translations, including the four main nikayas and the Dhp and Jataka commentaries as well as the Visuddhimagga".

The Ultimate Buddhism Library app

"A Unique Collection of 50 Buddhism Books. This book gives you the complete knowledge of Buddhism, this are the best collected books written on Buddhism. The people who are new to Buddhism or who don't know about the Buddhism. This is the best book for you".

28 Lord Buddha.

"This app lists 28 Lord Buddha described in Theravada Buddhism with details".

Buddhist Dictionaries Apps:

Buddhist Dictionary App

"This dictionary features entries on the history and doctrines of the major Buddhist schools, information on the spread of Buddhism in Asia and the West, and coverage of issues of contemporary concern such as human rights, abortion, euthanasia, engaged Buddhism and the role of women in Buddhist teachings".

Buddhist TV/Radio & Media Apps:

Buddhist Channel.

"This app has many nice Buddhism videos that you will definitely love. They are relaxed meditation music, great Buddhism mantras, Buddhism lessons from great teachers (Thubten Zopa Rinpoche, Gyalwang Drukpa, Thich Nhat Hanh)".

Buddhist Geeks.

"Buddhist Geeks is a weekly audio show that presents groundbreaking interviews and discussions with Buddhist teachers, scholars, and advanced practitioners. Combining ancient wisdom with modern technology, Buddhist Geeks aims to catalyze a community of practitioners committed to awakening. Discover the emerging face of Buddhism".

Buddha Inspirational.

"Get inspired by Buddhist meditation music, songs, wisdom, chants, teachings, images, quotes, history, mantra, compassion, and nirvana".

iShrine.

"Shrine is a realistic and interactive Buddhist altar in the palm of your hand, you can now practice meditation wherever you are even while away from home.
You can choose the way your Buddhist altar is composed by keeping only the items you wish, just go the layout menu and pick up the items you want. All items were scanned from a genuine Buddhist altar.
Real-looking candles and incense are part of your altar, you may choose to light them up when you feel by touching them with your virtual match".

Tibetan Wisdom for Living and Dying - Sogyal Rinpoche.

"With the Tibetan Wisdom for Living and Dying app, Rinpoche presents a grand and transforming vision of life and death, introducing you to Tibetan practices that can help anyone live fully while preparing for the extraordinary adventure that death offers each one of us".

"The Tibetan Wisdom for Living and Dying app features:
- A nine-hour course on core Buddhist teachings that invite us to face death without fear (9 hours, 14 minutes of audio)
- A Good Minute—video selections that offer concentrated wisdom to inspire you anytime
- A relaxing slide show
- An interactive vine garden to enjoy while listening (iPad only)
- Bookmarking to help you easily find your favorite content".

VajraTV Online Radio app.

"VajraTV Online radio was started as a pilot program through VajraTV: Buddhist Television Network".

Buddhist Chanting & Prayer Apps:

Buddhist Chant app.

"buddhist pali sutta chanting app".

Buddhist To Pray Tools.

"This application will provide you with information about Buddhism and Buddha traditions and you can try some religous customs on your mobile virtually. Pro version includes 10 tools such as hand bell, incense, cymbals, damaru, prayer wheel, candle, conch shell trumpet, prayer beads would be available".

Daily Buddhist Prayers App.

"Learn daily Buddhist prayers. This application provides basic daily Buddhist prayers in Wylie transliteration format so anyone can read them, also provided are the English translation/descriptions of the prayers.
Along with the texts, this app also provides audio guide for all the prayers. The audio guide was recited by a former Drepung Gomang Monastery monk and provides word by word audio guidance, like a guru teaching a student".

Buddha Quotes Apps:

Buddha.

"Buddha quotes 500".

Buddhist Meditation.

"App Features: Chants for Meditation, Introduction to Buddhism, Beautiful Image Gallery, Quotes under 11 Categories".

Words of Buddha.

"In this application, we picked  more than 150 Buddha quotes that can change the our view of the world. Besides these thoughts, there are one great bonus: more than 350 Buddhist quotes from various authors".

Buddhist Calendar Apps:

Tibetan Buddhist Calender.

"Tibetan lunar calendar combined with Western calendar, specifically designed for practitioners of Tibetan Buddhism".

Buddhist Game Apps:

Buddhist Memory Game.

"Beautiful Buddha images are used in this game of pairing cards. Very relaxing game for both adults and kids, you get to play this game over and over again because of the calming Buddha smiles as well as getting a quote from the Dhammapada every time you complete a game".

Important note to all Buddhism-SE users:

In this answer all users can add buddhism-related apps.

If you would like to add an app please file it under the appropriate category, add a link so that the app is easily located and a short description of the app or other information that you think other users might find useful.


Resources for Sutta study/discussion for beginners

This is my standard recommendation for beginners:
a)Read BuddhismCourse. (Take about 12 hours to read and give you a good idea about the teaching)
http://www.urbandharma.org/pdf/PDF_BuddhismCourse/

b)Print a copy of this Dhamma Chart and refer to it while studding Buddhism.
http://www.dhammawheel.com/viewtopic.php?f=13&t=16785

c) Read Buddha’s Teaching by Narada. Start from chapter 15.
http://www.buddhanet.net/pdf_file/buddh ... gsurw6.pdf

d) While you reading above texts please listen to the following Dhamma Talk by Joseph Goldstein.
http://www.dharmaseed.org/teacher/96/talk/6162/
e) Start reading Sutta.
Good starting point would be to read Bikkhu Bodhi’s “In the Buddha’s Word”
Then read Sutta Central. Start from Majjhima Nikaya. https://suttacentral.net/m


Did Shakayamuni Buddha talk about the Trikaya?

It wasn't explicit in the Theravada but the foundation was already there. The concept got fully developed by the time of the Mahayana. Further info. is available from the wiki page here


How are habits seen in buddhism - how are they explained ?

Habitual tendencies persist from life to life. Say you were a monkey than then born a human sometimes the tendency to jump last.
Only the Buddha can overcome habitual tendencies. Even an enlightened person will have habitual tendencies.

read now about habit making - and would love to hear users views on habits - and what they see habits as
And what people think about habit making and its effectiveness and why

A worldly person does many thing habitually. Though habitual action is at the pre conscious level they have karmic potent. So if you develop wholesome habits this definitely would be a bonus for this life and after. In absence of weighty and near death Karma, habitual karma decides the next life.
Also see:

Anusaya by Piya Tan
The Unconscious by Piya Tan
Unconscious Views by Piya Tan


Don't do either of those. When using the Mahasi Sayadaw method of noting, you should only note things that you are directly experiencing in the present. You don't directly experience sickness itself, but rather various symptoms such as tiredness, nausea, diziness, etc... Just note those individually as they come up. Or just note the movement of the abdomen or the posture, etc...


Panic arising during contemplation about 4 elements

Most of the time people live most of their lives without changing contexts too much. For the mind, living in the same context gives a sense of security. It also makes us dumb and highly vulnerable. Once we believe in a context and objectify it, it becomes reality for us. At the end of the day, this is why we die.

When you start playing with your context by adopting a different perspective (mode) of seeing things, you are getting into an unknown territory - unknown for your mind anyway. Naturally, there is a sense of panic.

What Buddhism teaches us is freedom from any context. Doing what you did is a first step. It's not necessarily valuable in and off itself - but it gives you a glimpse at how your mind reacts to its attachments being challenged.


Do (any) Mahayana Buddhists teach subjectivity?

Some person got wet in the rain, and so he feels wet. Some other person didn't walk in the rain, and so he feels dry.

Thus feelings of people standing side by side in the same room can be very different.

Likewise, their thoughts can be very different. Likewise, their actions can be very different.

To explain that, it's enough to have understanding of causes and effects. Thus the explanation doesn't need notions like "subjectivity" or "self".

Investigating our experiences from the point of view of causality, we can discover illusoriness of "self" and "subjectivity".

Imagine such ideas - "self" and "subjectivity" - as opaque spots which taint our field of vision. When we realize that such ideas are illusory, it's like the spots became transparent. If we focus on them, we still might see them, but they don't hinder our sight anymore. We just look through.

Then we don't need to rely on such ideas anymore. Thus they will not lead to attachments.

That's what Mahayana (and Buddhism in general) teaches. "Self" and "subjectivity" are opaque spots where actually everything is transparent. Likewise, all the other ideas are like opaque spots, if we don't see through them.


What buddhism says about physical reality?

As Thrangu Rinpoche once said, some people spend a lot of time arguing whether a chair really exists or if it only exists in our minds, but here we are much more concerned with our attitude to the chair. Are we attached to this chair? Do we hate this chair? Do we think we are the chair? Are we free from this chair? That's what really matters in practice, not whether it exists or not.

At the same time, as my teacher said, "reality is our interpretation". Here you go. The only reality we can know is reality we perceive in our mind, and this perceived reality is our own interpretation. Whether the physical reality exists or not, all we see is our interpretation.

So if in this interpretation there are any mistakes or gaps, but we attach to it as if it were truth, as if what we perceive in our interpretation were 100% objective reality - when we think like that we get into all kinds of trouble.

Like, we get attached to "the chair" or hate "the chair" - because in our interpretation it means something and we think that's the only truth. Then when someone gives us new facts about "the chair" - we don't accept them, because they don't fit with our reality, our interpretation. We only see what we know, what we believe, not what's really there. This is what's called "delusion".

So maybe you and your friend are both right. This is about "how we understand the universe" is different AND all that we experience is our own delusion.


Did Buddha ever deny the existence of God?

Here: Tittha Sutta: Sectarians

  Monks, there are these three sectarian guilds that — when cross-examined, pressed for reasons, & rebuked by wise people — even though they may explain otherwise, remain stuck in [a doctrine of] inaction. Which three?

  "There are brahmans & contemplatives who hold this teaching, hold this view: 'Whatever a person experiences — pleasant, painful, or neither pleasant nor painful — that is all caused by what was done in the past.' There are brahmans & contemplatives who hold this teaching, hold this view: 'Whatever a person experiences — pleasant, painful, or neither pleasant nor painful — that is all caused by a supreme being's act of creation.' There are brahmans & contemplatives who hold this teaching, hold this view: 'Whatever a person experiences — pleasant, painful, or neither pleasant nor painful — that is all without cause & without condition.

Also here: A Discourse to Knowers of Veda -- Tevijja Sutta

  “And just even so, VāseMMha, though you say that the Brahmans are not able to point out the way to union with that which they have seen, and you further say that neither any one of them, nor of their pupils, nor of their predecessors even to the seventh generation has ever seen Brahmā. And you further say that even the Rishis of old, whose words they hold in such deep respect, did not pretend to know, or to have seen where, or whence, or whither Brahmā is. Yet
  these Brahmans versed in the Three Vedas say, forsooth that they can point out the way to union with that which they know not, neither have seen! Now, what think you, VāseMMha? Does it not follow that, this being so, the talk of the Brahmans, versed though they be in the Three Vedas, is foolish talk?”

  VāseMMha, is there a single one of the Brahmans versed in the three Vedas who
  has ever seen Brahmā face to face?”


What does Buddhism say about how to manage other people's anger?

A very apt verse in the case of anger is this one from Dhammapada - Na Hi Verena Verani - Hatred is never appeased by Hatred. It is appeased only by loving kindness.

Here is the Dhamma talk by Ven. Yuttadhammo on that particular verse.

Although there are certain differences in anger and hatred, the basic approach will be the same - Remain equanimous by knowing Anicca, Dukkha and Anatta at the level of your body and then based on your sensations cultivate Loving Kindness towards the person.


Is Siddhartha Gautama the last recognized Buddha?

To add to @konrad01, private Buddhas don't occur when the dispensation of a Buddha is still there. Hence the last Buddha is Siddhartha Gautama.


Can there exist two Dalai Lamas at one instance of time?

It should be "14th Dalai Lama" or "14th Dalai Lama", not "14 Dalai Lama".

I think that "Dalai Lama" is a title, not a name.

According to Wikipedia,

  The 14th Dalai Lama (religious name: Tenzin Gyatso, shortened from Jetsun Jamphel Ngawang Lobsang Yeshe Tenzin Gyatso, born Lhamo Dondrub,[1] 6 July 1935) is the current Dalai Lama

Another example of a title is "President of the United States". For example, Barack Obama is "the President", and he is also more specifically called "the 44th President".


Realms : About a certain Deva's concubine's rebirth?

Your question is: is it scientifically and metaphysically true that there are different time scales for the devas, humans and other beings? If so, my answer is yes.

Metaphysically, there are different realms of beings. Those celestial beings have longer lifespans and their days and nights are longer than humans, depended on the layer of celestial realm they belonged. some's day and night is equal to a year in human's, or equal to thousand years of the human time scale.

Scientifically, these could be proved. In the Solar System, some planets take longer time to circulate the sun, compared to earth's 365.25 days (a year); some planets' self-rotation is longer, compared to earth's 24 hours (a day). It is estimated that the sun takes 25000/26000 years to circulate the galactic center, and the milky way is circulating another astronomical object. Only this will make the time scale different, not to say that there are Einstein/quantum level of force and phenomena.

Buddha also talked about the lifespan for human was co-related, from 84000 (I believe this figure equal to the meaning of numberless in Buddha's time) to 100. When in the 100, it will reduce to 10, as the karma of the kalpa going worser and worser.

This "time lapse" stories not only exist in the Deva stories (Indian), also told in Chinese myths.


I feel like I was born in the wrong place and I'm surrounded by wrong people, ideals etc.
I'm very much into buddhism, but with all the things I learned until now, that I'm 23 in Germany, I feel like this life I have right now is not right for me.

Look a bit deeper and you'll see it's quite the opposite. The fact that you were born in Germany, not Syria, Iraq, or other war-torn regions in the MiddleEast or Africa is evidence. Imagine how much more difficult it'd be to try to cultivate the Dhamma there amid all the killings, rapings, famines and diseases, talking about being in the wrong place! And since you're a developer (assuming software developer), you're among the blessed few who are able to gain access to 99.99% of all the Buddha's teaching online, something even the most learned scholars in the old days couldn't even dream about. So, recognizing the good merit you're having now, try to take advantage of it to cultivate moral virtues, practice meditation, and develop insight/wisdom while it lasts, for as you probably already knew about the Buddhist teaching of Anicca, nothing lasts forever. At the same time, try to help others thru volunteer work. Your software skill can help in countless ways to do countless positive useful things, use it!


Dhamma encompasses sankhara[created] but it also encompases the cessation principle which is not included in sankhara as it is asankhata [not-created].

Both formerly & now, it is only stress that I describe, and the cessation of stress."sn22.86

There are these famous lines;
 Sabbe sankhara anicca
 Sabbe sankhara dukkha
 Sabbe dhamma anatta

Translated;
 All formations are impermanent
 All formations are suffering
 All Dhamma [teachings] are not-self

Then reconciled with;

Both formerly & now, it is only stress that I describe, and the cessation of stress."

It makes sense because;

Stress is part of the teaching [things that are taught]
Cessation of stress is part of the teaching [things that are taught]

The semantic referent of #2 is the unconditioned; is neither impermanent[anicca] nor suffering[dukkha]; but it is likewise not-self[anatta].


Is there a connection between the Hindu and Buddhist Centres of Psychic Energy?

I have been thinking about this for a while as you meditate one gets experiences which are similar to those described in yoga texts. The yoga texts discuss energy centres and the flow of energy through them starting from the Muladhara.
In Theravada Buddhism, all these experiences related to Kundalini are categorised into Piti. Also, there is no reference to for awakening and making it flow through the chakras. I guess this might be since these experiences can be a source of attachment to the blissful feeling this is not directly related to letting go of craving and also people may be preoccupied with these experiences than developing higher wisdom.
Path consciousness happens balanced with the Jhana when insight and calm are well balanced:

The First Jhāna Sotāpatti Path-consciousness together with initial application, sustained application, joy, happiness, and one-pointedness,

The Second Jhāna Sotāpatti Path-consciousness together with sustained application, joy, happiness, and one-pointedness,

The Third Jhāna Sotāpatti Path-consciousness together with joy, happiness, and one-pointedness,

The Fourth Jhāna Sotāpatti Path-consciousness together with happiness and one-pointedness,

The Fifth Jhāna Sotāpatti Path-consciousness together with equanimity and one-pointedness.

These are the five types of Sotāpatti Path-consciousness.
So are the Sakadāgāmī Path-consciousness, Anāgāmī Path-consciousness, and Arahatta Path-consciousness, making exactly twenty classes of consciousness. Similarly there are twenty classes of Fruit-consciousness. Thus there are forty types of supra mundane consciousness.

In the 1st - 3rd Jhana there is Piti which can be taken as the similarity with kundalini.


If Buddha stayed unanswered on this matter, why do his followers preach that soul doesn't exist?

Buddhism teaches that everything is 'conditioned', and so there is no independent/eternal self:

  The concept of no-self or anatman or emptiness of self is that it is not possible to identify an independent, inherently existing self; that the self only exists in dependence upon causes and conditions.

You mention "the practitioner himself who is scanning", however 'consciousness' too is seen as conditioned:

  There are four paramatthas; three conditioned, one unconditioned:

  Material phenomena (rūpa, form)
  Mental factors (the nama-factors sensation, perception and formation)
  Consciousness
  Nibbāna

I think this might be a difference between Hinduism and Buddhism:

Hinduism sees liberation/salvation in identifying an eternal self; for example, 'Tat Tvam Asi' or

  You are that, God himself; Meditate this within yourself.

Buddhism sees liberation/salvation in dis-identifying: for example 'Identity view (sakkāya-diṭṭhi)'

According to the Aggi-Vacchagotta Sutta the reason why the Buddha was reluctant to talk about it was that having various (one or more) views about the self did not result in the cessation of dukkha:

  "How is it, Master Gotama, when Master Gotama is asked if he holds the view 'the cosmos is eternal...'... 'after death a Tathagata neither exists nor does not exist: only this is true, anything otherwise is worthless,' he says '...no...' in each case. Seeing what drawback, then, is Master Gotama thus entirely dissociated from each of these ten positions?"

  "Vaccha, the position that 'the cosmos is eternal' is a thicket of views, a wilderness of views, a contortion of views, a writhing of views, a fetter of views. It is accompanied by suffering, distress, despair, & fever, and it does not lead to disenchantment, dispassion, cessation; to calm, direct knowledge, full Awakening, Unbinding.

Instead the cessation of dukkha results from the view that everything is impermanent:

  "Does Master Gotama have any position at all?"

  "A 'position,' Vaccha, is something that a Tathagata has done away with. What a Tathagata sees is this: 'Such is form, such its origination, such its disappearance; such is feeling, such its origination, such its disappearance; such is perception...such are fabrications...such is consciousness, such its origination, such its disappearance.' Because of this, I say, a Tathagata — with the ending, fading away, cessation, renunciation, & relinquishment of all construings, all excogitations, all I-making & mine-making & obsessions with conceit — is, through lack of clinging/sustenance, released."


I puzzled out a similar problem on the Thai Angulimali soundtrack which did turn out to be Pali.

As you say, there seems to be two chants; one at the beginning, and another at 1:44. The on at the beginning sounds familiar; I bet it's Tibetan, maybe even Om Mani Padme Hum. I'm pretty sure you'd hear it on one of the movies about Tibetan Buddhism like Kundhun, Little Buddha, etc.

The second one sounds vaguely Indic, but nothing rings a bell. The best I can sound it out to be is something like:

asabha savana namehe

MobyGames (linked from Wikipedia) says a man named Peter McConnell did the music for Afterlife. His email is info@petermc.com. Probably the best lead.


Inter-relation between the four brahmaviharas?

Uppekkha is what is used to straighten Karuna. Not Muditha. Compassion can easily turn into sadness. When that happens you view the situation in terms of Karma and Vipaka: “All beings are the owners of their karma; their happiness and unhappiness depends upon their actions, not on my wishes for them.”

Metta(kindness) can turn into lust when practiced towards attractive women. Then you can use a mental technique like thinking of them as mothers, sisters, daughters or you can meditate on the repulsiveness of the body.


Do the english user translate "monk making it his object to let go" as "monk knowing nibbāna", right?

it look like "to let go " and "object" means "target", not "something is known by monk".

Yes, I think the English is a bit ambiguous, and it could be understood to mean either (or both).

The word "object" has many meanings, of which two are:

  a person or thing to which a specified action or feeling is directed.
  "disease became the object of investigation"
  synonyms: target, butt, focus, recipient, victim
  "he became the object of fierce criticism"
  a goal or purpose.
  "the Institute was opened with the object of promoting scientific study"
  synonyms: purpose, objective, aim, goal, target, end, end in view, plan, object of the exercise

So an English reader might understand it as the focus of meditation (what you're attentive to), or as the purpose of meditation (what your aim or ambition is).


Looking for a quote from Johannes Bronkhorst

I haven't found a quote about disagreement between Buddhist schools on rebirth, but I found this 1998 lecture by Johannes Bronkhorst entitled "Did the Buddha Believe in Karma and Rebirth?".
Perhaps you're thinking about Pudgalavada.
From the Atman (Buddhism) wikipedia article:

According to Johannes Bronkhorst, it is possible that "original
Buddhism did not deny the existence of the soul", even though a firm
Buddhist tradition has maintained that the Buddha avoided talking
about the soul or even denied its existence.

The linked footnote reads:

Johannes Bronkhorst (1993). The Two Traditions of Meditation in
Ancient India. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 99 with footnote 12. ISBN
978-81-208-1114-0.


I have not yet read the sutta you are referring to but i'm aware of both teaching (biological & Buddhist evolutions). So i am going to answer the last part of your question.

Evolution vs Buddhism

Sometime ago i had the same question as Buddhism does not explain animal evolution along with the human evolution. It took me sometime to understand a certain point that i have been missing from the beginning.....

As we all know that biology treats Humans and animals in the same manner while Buddhism does it very differently.

As Buddhism understand the world the animal realm is not a part of human realm. So in English, animals are not a Non-matured kind of humans. Animals are animals according to Buddhism.

As science suggest Evolution happens because of some beings being able to adapt to the environment and being able to reach good enough supply of nutritious foods & being able to hold on to that particular conditions for a long time.

But

As Buddhism teach Human birth is caused By good Karma and Animal birth is caused by bad karma. And when humans first started in earth there were no animals.

This statement make sense because as the universe is new there is no animal form left to give birth to beings in bad realms. But when Humans are born the circle is set.

You might want to know what Lord Buddha said about the life expectancy of early humans.

As to Lord Buddha......

Early humans had no health problems (The earth is new so it makes
sense).
Early humans were so healthy they called Hunger a disease
Early humans live 65,000+ years

(This is not the collective lifetime.This is the life expectancy of a single one like we live 65 years now)

So it is wrong to think that Darvin's Evolution is the same with Buddhism's Evolution. But it is clear that Buddhism is the only religion that actually proposed Evolution among all other faiths (2600 + years ago). Buddhism has its own version of evolution and i doubt that we will live long enough to see either one of these evolutions get proven by physical facts.

May the triple gems bless you!


Buddhist Ontology/Reductionism vs Science

It's a good question but has some erroneous assumptions.

First, and this would be crucial, if we are speaking of the 'Middle Way' then there are no paradoxes in Buddhist doctrine . This is demonstrable and it has been demonstrated, most notably by Nagarjuna. Nor is there an individual soul or reincarnation.

Rebirth is the usual word and this is not quite reincarnation. Individual souls would not exist but we would share a common 'Self'. (Schrodinger writes well about this, dismissing monads and souls as unworkable ideas. As a scientist you might like to read him since he says a lot about the Upanishadic view and endorses it).

Karma is about causation. Basically it says 'As you sow so shall ye reap'. If you jump off a cliff you'll get hurt, etc. But it operates in more realms than science observes. It operates in time, as you say, and it is able to operate because it is not a process external to our consciousness. That is, no Divine judge that is 'other' would be required for its operation, just our own internal records of our own motives and actions. We would be our own judge and jury.

Karma is tricky in the context of ontology because by reduction it would evaporate along with the subjects and objects on which it operates.

Regarding ontology, for a fundamental analysis nothing would really exist or ever really happen. The world we live in would be a creation of consciousness and as such would have the nature of a dream. To all everyday intents and purposes it would be real but this reality would be 'conventional'. To understand this as an idea would mean studying Nagaruna's doctrine of 'Two Truths' or 'Worlds'.

We normally say a piano is a real object but know that by reduction it's just a thin fog of quanta. The Perennial philosophy says it is not even this but is empty of inherent existence. For Buddhist ontology we need to study 'emptiness' and the idea that all phenomena are empty. Only if they are empty can they be explained, and this would be why Buddhist metaphysics is able to work where theoretical physics and western metaphysics ends in paradox and confusion.

The idea of a field radiating from the heart may be meaningful and useful and perhaps there is such a thing, but in the end Buddhism asks us to look beyond extension. Extension is a paradoxical idea and thus all extended objects - the number line, the continuum, space-time, pianos etc - and by reduction Buddhism disposes of them, thus avoiding the paradoxes that arise for realism.

You say there is no scientific proof of certain elements of the teachings. This is inevitable since they dispose of mundane science and speak of what lies beyond sensory empiricism. This does not mean there is no proof. Buddhist teachers should not be teaching things they have not verified for themselves. The difficulty with discussing this with those unfamiliar with these ideas is that in a sense you'd be right, karma and rebirth are non-existent. This would be why it is possible to transcend them. But to all intents and purposes they would exist until we know they don't.

As for where good and bad are situated they'd be in your mind, along with right and wrong and sin and evil and fear and guilt.

There are many good books. For ontology I'd suggest The Sun of Wisdom by Khenpo Tsultrim Gyamptso (Shamabala). Schrodinger is worth a read, perhaps What is Life and What is Mind. The mathematician Hermann Weyl is good on the continuum and explains the Perennial view. His The Continuum is too much maths for me but his other writings expand on his thoughts. If you're into maths you could try Spencer Brown's Laws of Form in which he reduces the world to formlessness. Bradley's Appearance and Reality is a more chatty reduction of the space-time world to a collection of conceptual imputations for a Reality that is 'non-dual'. If you can do the maths you might like Ulrich Mohrhoff and his text-book The World According to Quantum Mechanics, which gives the interpretation of QM necessary for Nagarjuna's universe.

The literature is so vast we're spoilt for choice. If you specify a topic I could give a more specific recommendation but all the topics overlap so it's just a question of wading in and following your nose.

I'm happy to add to this if I've missed anything. I feel that when scientists ask questions it would be vital to answer them.


What is the meaning and/or purpose of life?

I think that, in the zen soto tradition, the answer would be the famous word of Dogen Zenji: "あるがまま" (read: arugamama) which kind of translate as "things are so".

Zen encourage a radical acceptation of "things as they are", and it is believed that through this radical acceptance of "things as they are", right here, right now,  a deeper and non-intellectual understanding of life can be reached, one that words can't describe.

Therefore such question can not be answered. The Buddha himself simply remained silent when such metaphysical questions were addressed to him.


In the mundane world:

Doubt on One's Ability

You might not undertake beneficial action because of lack of confidence

Doubt in a Teacher or Doctor

You will not learn what is been taught or take the treatment given

Doubt Something Will Work

If you have doubts on if something will work or has a chance to succeed you will not attempt it

If you doubt something works for you specifically

You have confidence something will work but doubtful if it will benefit you. Say you are doubtful a certain fitness routine works on you due to some reason you will avoid such routine or not follow through with earnest

You have doubt something will work in current times

If you think something worked in the past but not any more you might not follow through with it in earnest
You are too old or too young to do something

Similarly when practicing meditation. You have to have confidence in:

Teacher
The technique
The benefits to be reaped
One's ability to execute and come out successful
It will work for you
It will work currently and also regardless of one's age

Also some forms of doubt is wholesome and will not be a hindrance if done in the spirit of free inquiry. E.g. Kesa,puttiya Sutta (or  Kālāma Sutta). Also the Buddha mention that doubt is justified in couple of Suttas including Kutūhala,sālā Sutta. As I see it any of these instances are skeptical on what is been heard or taught by others or skepticism arisen due to logical fallacies in reasoning with the accepted norms of the day. Also the people were in a stage prior to doing serious pratice of the path and training. So doubts before serious pratice and arisen from what has been taught or inferred the general acceptable knowledge is justifiable but so when you pratice or regarding the path and training.

In essence being skeptical in any endeavour diminishes your ability to accomplish the end goal. When you initially approach a task or endeavor you can have your skepticism but when your you start executing you ideally should be void of doubt.

More broadly speaking with respect to all the hindrances including doubt. What needs to be done is to starve the hindrances and feed the awakening factors. [(Nīvaraṇa Bojjhaṅga) Ahara Sutta] Since hindrances weekend wisdom and the awakening factors enhances wisdom. [Āvaraṇa Nīvaraṇa Sutta]. The hindrances are also dependently arise based on the unwholesome roots. [(Akusala,mūla) Añña,titthiya Sutta]. Couple of way to overcome them are given in [Nīvarana,pahana Vagga], [(Satipaṭṭhāna) Nīvaraṇa Sutta], etc.

Coming back to doubt specifically. The reason for doubt is unwise attention. [Nīvarana,pahana Vagga] With unwise attention you begin to believe something not inline with reality (more on these perversion see: Vipallasa Sutta) and start doubting the teacher, teaching, benefits of the pratice. Not being able to clearly see the truth of the dhamma, teaching and practice leads to perplexity. Unwise attention should be overcome by seeing or experiencing the truth. [Sabb’āsava Sutta]

Also see:

Vicikicchā by Piya Tan,
The Five Mental Hindrances and Their Conquest: Selected Texts from the Pali Canon and the Commentaries compiled and translated by Nyanaponika Thera,
The Wings to Awakening: An Anthology from the Pali Canon translated and Explained by Thanissaro Bhikkhu (Geoffrey DeGraff) - on awakening factors which you should strengthen


Every mental content, or state you experience, is linked to sensations in your body. (After all, one the of the 5 aggregates is sensation.) You should examine the sensation. You should try to understand that the sensations you experience are what you like or dislike (with any thought, memories, ideas - when you remember something you do not like, you get a bad feeling in your body) and react to, try to grasp or get rid of. This is what keeps you in a conditioned existence. So to start with, you should always try to notice the sensations when thoughts come and go. Sharpen your mind to understand 3 marks of existence within sensation. The 3 marks of existence in your corporeal body. How perceptions are formed and their nature. How the recognising part of your mind works. These things grow progressively subtle. The start should be the impact of any mental state or content upon the sensations of the body, and if not all 3 marks of existence, at least their impermanence.


Can there be an action free from the taint of desire? If there can be, what is the nature of that action?

Desire is a normal feeling thats why Buddha chose the middle way ,if you don't eat the desire to eat will definitely arise, its the identification with desire that poisons it as well as identification with any feeling or more accurately the attachment

Explained well here

Root of all things

.Thus effortless action is free from identification with desire .Its simple spontaneous and according to what the moment brings ,its not forced on oneself because with forcing the desire becomes identified with a person who wants to fulfill it, thus the attachment and suffering .When the desire arises and is simply known ,doing works on its own level.You can think of it in terms that desire is necessary just for action to  take place and not as a possessive mental state.

Notion of skillful desire

Also check this answer

Attainment of enlightenment without desire


In the Anapanasati Sutta, what is the difference between mind and mental processes?

From the Anapanasati Sutta

"Mindfulness of in-&-out breathing, when developed & pursued, is of great fruit, of great benefit. Mindfulness of in-&-out breathing, when developed & pursued, brings the four frames of reference to their culmination. The four frames of reference, when developed & pursued, bring the seven factors for awakening to their culmination. The seven factors for awakening, when developed & pursued, bring clear knowing & release to their culmination."

The four tetrads correspond to The Four Frames of Reference referred to above. They are (in Pali and English):

Kāyānupassanā satipaṭṭhāna: being mindful of the body as a frame of reference.
Vedanānupassanā satipaṭṭhāna: being mindful of feelings as a frame of reference.
Cittānupassanā satipaṭṭhāna: being mindful of the mind as a frame of reference.
Dhammānupassanā satipaṭṭhāna: being mindful of mental qualities as a frame of reference.

So the second tetrad in your example is mindfulness of feelings (vedanā) and the third is mindfulness of mind (citta).
A basic distinction of these is here:

1: The Body merely as a transient and compounded Form..
2: Feelings just as vanishing Reactions to sense-contact..
3: Mind only as a group of habitual and conditioned Moods..
4: All Phenomena (dhamma) simply as discrete momentary Mental States..


Did the Buddha ever mention the Upanishads or the Vedas?

The original Vedas themselves have little that a Buddhist would consider "wisdom", I think, being comprised mainly of battle hymns, sacrificial procedures, and ceremony.  They are mentioned often in the Pali texts, e.g.:

13.‘Well then, Vaseṭṭha, what about the early sages of those Brahmins learned in the Three Vedas, the makers of the mantras, the expounders of the mantras, whose ancient verses are chanted, pronounced and collected by the Brahmins of today, and sung and spoken about — such as Atthaka, Vāmaka, Vāmadeva, Vessāmitta, Yamataggi, Angirasa, Bhāradvāja, Vāsettha, Kassapa, Bhagu - did they ever say: “We know and see when, how and where Brahmā appears”?’ ‘No, Reverend Gotama.’
14.‘So, Vāseṭṭha, not one of these Brahmins learned in the Three Vedas has seen Brahmā face to face, nor has one of their teachers, or teacher’s teachers, nor even the ancestor seven generations back of one of their teachers. Nor could any of the early sages say: “We know and see when, how and where Brahmā appears.” So what these Brahmins learned in the Three Vedas are saying is: “We teach this path to union with Brahmā that we do not know or see, this is the only straight path...leading to union with Brahmā.” What do you think, Vāseṭṭha? Such being the case, does not what these Brahmins declare turn out to be ill-founded?’ ‘Yes indeed, Reverend Gotama.’
--DN 13 (Walshe, trans)

Since the rest of the Vedic literature, including the Upanishads, grew up around the time of the Buddha himself, it isn't mentioned as such, but the above quote is actually more applicable to the Upanishadic tradition than the original Vedas.
The texts also make various references to the five Vedas, e.g.:

the Three Vedas with their vocabularies, liturgy, phonology, and etymology, and the histories as a fifth.
-- MN 95 (Bodhi, trans)

Though I'm not sure this has anything to do with the Upanishads.
Short answer, yes, the Buddha mentioned the Vedas often, but the word "upanishad" was probably not yet in common use during his lifetime. It appears in the name of one of the Brahmanas (the Jaiminiya Upanishad Brahmana) composed before the Buddha, but probably wasn't used to refer to an entire genre of literature until much later.
As to what he thought about them, here's a passage from the Jatakas that exemplifies his thoughts while still a Bodhisatta (and rhymes, too):

"These Veda studies are the wise man's toils,
The lure which tempts the victims whom he spoils;
A mirage formed to catch the careless eye,
But which the prudent passes safely by.
The Vedas have no hidden power to save
The traitor or the coward or the knave;
The fire, though tended well for long years past,
Leaves his base master without hope at last.
Though all earth's trees in one vast heap were piled
To satisfy the fire's insatiate child,
Still would it crave for more, insatiate still,—
How could a Nāga hope that maw to fill?
Milk ever changes,—thus where milk has been
Butter and curds in natural course are seen;
And the same thirst for change pervades the fire,
Once stirred to life it mounts still higher and higher.
Fire bursts not forth in wood that 's dry or new,
Fire needs an effort ere it leaps to view;
If dry fresh timber of itself could burn,
Spontaneous would each forest blaze in turn.
If he wins merit who to feed the flame
Piles wood and straw, the merit is the same
When cooks light fires or blacksmiths at their trade
Or those who burn the corpses of the dead.
But none, however zealously he prays
Or heaps the fuel round to feed the blaze,
Gains any merit by his mummeries,—
The fire for all its crest of smoke soon dies.
Were Fire the honoured being that you think,
Would it thus dwell with refuse and with stink,
Feeding on carrion with a foul delight,
Where men in horror hasten from the sight?
Some worship as a god the crested flame,
Barbarians give to water that high name;
But both alike have wandered from their road:
Neither is worthy to be called a god.
To worship fire, the common drudge of all,
Senseless and blind and deaf to every call,
And then one's self to live a life of sin,—
How could one dream that this a heaven could win?
These Brahmins all a livelihood require,
And so they tell us Brahma worships fire;
Why should the increate who all things planned
Worship himself the creature of his hand?
Doctrines and rules of their own, absurd and vain,
Our sires imagined wealth and power to gain;
"Brahmins he made for study, for command
He made the Khattiyas; Vessas plough the land;
Suddas he servants made to obey the rest;
Thus from the first went forth his high behest ."
We see these rules enforced before our eyes,
None but the Brahmins offer sacrifice,
None but the Khattiya exercises sway,
The Vessas plough, the Suddas must obey.
These greedy liars propagate deceit,
And fools believe the fictions they repeat;
He who has eyes can see the sickening sight;
Why does not Brahma set his creatures right?
If his wide power no limits can restrain,
Why is his hand so rarely spread to bless?
Why are his creatures all condemned to pain?
Why does he not to all give happiness?
Why do fraud, lies, and ignorance prevail?
Why triumphs falsehood,—truth and justice fail?
I count your Brahma one th’ injust among,
Who made a world in which to shelter wrong.
Those men are counted pure who only kill
Frogs, worms, bees, snakes or insects as they will,—
These are your savage customs which I hate,—
Such as Kamboja  hordes might emulate.
If he who kills is counted innocent
And if the victim safe to heaven is sent,
Let Brahmins Brahmins kill—so all were well—
And those who listen to the words they tell.
We see no cattle asking to be slain
That they a new and better life may gain,—
Rather they go unwilling to their death
And in vain struggles yield their latest breath.
To veil the post, the victim and the blow
The Brahmins let their choicest rhetoric flow;
"The post shall as a cow of plenty be
Securing all thy heart's desires to thee";
But if the wood thus round the victim spread
Had been as full of treasure as they said,
As full of silver, gold and gems for us,
With heaven's unknown delights as overplus,
They would have offered for themselves alone
And kept the rich reversion as their own.
These cruel cheats, as ignorant as vile,
Weave their long frauds the simple to beguile,
"Offer thy wealth, cut nails and beard and hair,
And thou shalt have thy bosom's fondest prayer."
The offerer, simple to their hearts' content,
Comes with his purse, they gather round him fast,
Like crows around an owl, on mischief bent,
 And leave him bankrupt and stripped bare at last,
The solid coin which he erewhile possessed,
Exchanged for promises which none can test.
Like grasping strangers  sent by those who reign
The cultivators' earnings to distrain,
These rob where’er they prowl with evil eye,—
No law condemns them, yet they ought to die.
The priests a shoot of Butea must hold
As part o’ the rite sacred from days of old;
Indra's right arm ’tis called; but were it so,
Would Indra triumph o’er his demon foe?
Indra's own arm can give him better aid,
’Twas no vain sham which made hell's hosts afraid.
"Each mountain-range which now some kingdom guards
Was once a heap in ancient altar-yards,
And pious worshippers with patient hands
Piled up the mound at some great lord's commands."
So Brahmins say,—fie on the idle boast,
Mountains are heaved aloft at other cost;
And the brick mound, search as you may, contains
No veins of iron for tile miner's pains.
A holy seer well known in ancient days,
On the seashore was praying, legend says;
There was he drowned and since this fate befell
The ocean's waves have been undrinkable.
Rivers have drowned their learned men at will
By hundreds and have kept their waters still;
Their streams flow on and never taste the worse,
Why should the sea alone incur the curse?
And the salt-streams which run upon the land
Spring from no curse but own the digger's hand.
At first there were no women and no men;
’Twas mind first brought mankind to light,—and then,
Though they all started equal in the race,
Their various failures made them soon change place;
It was no lack of merit in the past,
But present faults which made them first or last.
A clever low-caste lad would use his wit,
And read the hymns nor find his head-piece split;
The Brahmins made the Vedas to their cost
When others gained the knowledge which they lost.
Thus sentences are made and learned by rote
In metric forms not easily forgot,—
The obscurity but tempts the foolish mind,
They swallow all they're told with impulse blind.
Brahmins are not like violent beasts of prey,
No tigers, lions of the woods are they;
They are to cows and oxen near akin,
Differing outside they are as dull within.
If the victorious king would cease to fight
And live in peace with his friends and follow right,
Conquering those passions which his bosom rend,
What happy lives would all his subjects spend!
The Brahmin's Veda, Khattiya's policy,
Both arbitrary and delusive be,
They blindly grope their way along a road
By some huge inundation overflowed.
In Brahmin's Veda, Khattiya's policy,
One secret meaning we alike can see;
For after all, loss, gain and glory, and shame
Touch the four castes alike, to all the same.
As householders to gain a livelihood
Count all pursuits legitimate and good,
So Brahmins now in our degenerate day
Will gain a livelihood in any way.
The householder is led by love of gain,
Blindly he follows, dragged in pleasure's train,
Trying all trades, deceitful and a fool,
Fallen alas! how far from wisdom's rule."
-- Jat 543 (Cowell, trans)

As a Buddha, he seems to have become a bit more diplomatic, but still has little good to say about worship of fire, brahma, or the Vedas in general.


Why Buddha didn't want him to be called 'friend' by the monks?

When they first saw him they thought, "He is inferior to us (because he is given to luxury, forsaking the striving, etc.)."
When he approached them they no longer thought that, but still they called him "friend": which I understand to mean "my comrade, my equal".
The Buddha corrected them because he wanted them to learn the Dhamma from him, and it was important that they respect him as a teacher (because if they didn't respect him and didn't accept him as a teacher and listen to his teaching then that would be to their harm).
They were telling him that, as far as they knew, he had no attainment and no knowledge worth teaching:

For a third time, Prince, the group-of-five monks said this to me: “But you, friend Gotama, by that ascetic lifestyle, that practice, that difficult way of living, did not attain states beyond ordinary human beings, a distinction of what is truly noble knowledge and insight.
So how can you now, given to luxury, forsaking the striving, gone back to luxury, attain states beyond ordinary human beings, a distinction of what is truly noble knowledge and insight?”

He contradicted them:

When this was said, Prince, I said this to the group-of-five monks: “Are you aware, monks, of my having spoken to you like this before?”
“Certainly not, reverend Sir.”
“The Realised One, monks, is a Worthy One, a Perfect Sambuddha. Lend an ear, monks, I will instruct you about the attainment of the Deathless, I will teach the Dhamma, and following the path as it has been preached, after no long time in regard to that good for which young men of good family rightly go forth from the home to the homeless life, that unsurpassed conclusion to the spiritual life, you will dwell having known, experienced, and attained it yourselves in this very life,” and I was able, Prince, to persuade the group-of-five monks.

This version of the story includes the following explanation:

ON seeing their old teacher approach, the five bhikkus agreed among themselves not to salute him, nor to address him as a master, but by his name only. "For," so they said, "he has broken his vow and has abandoned holiness. He is no bhikkhu, but Gotama, and Gotama has become a man who lives in abundance and indulges in the pleasures of worldliness." But when the Blessed One approached in a dignified manner, they involuntarily rose from their seats and greeted him in spite of their resolution. Still they called him by his name and addressed him as "friend Gotama."
When they had thus received the Blessed One, he said: "Do not call the Tathagata by his name nor address him as 'friend,' for he is the Buddha, the Holy One. The Buddha looks with a kind heart equally on all living beings, and they therefore call him 'Father.' To disrespect a father is wrong; to despise him, is wicked. The Tathagata, the Buddha continued, does not seek salvation in austerities, but neither does he for that reason indulge in worldly pleasures, nor live in abundance. The Tathagata has found the middle path.

This is from an 1894 version titled The Gospel of Buddha by Paul Carus -- I don't know which original text this is a translation of (or whether it's even translation instead of invention).
One place where the story appears is the Ariyapariyesana Sutta (MN 26) which matches the story in the OP. This one is addressed to monks rather than to "Prince Bodhi" so I suppose there are several versions of this story.


Can you reconcile (professional) ambition with buddhism?

In AN 8.54, the Buddha teaches the four qualities that lead to a lay person's happiness and well-being in this life: consummate (or accomplished) in initiative, consummate in vigilance, admirable friendship and maintaining livelihood in tune. The four qualities that lead to a lay person's happiness and well-being in lives to come include consummate in conviction, consummate in virtue, consummate in generosity and consummate in discernment.

Trying to be the best that you can be in your profession is actually being consummate or accomplished in initiative. This is a good thing for lay persons.

The negative emotions like impatience, insecurity, envy etc. can be overcome with the latter four qualities: consummate in conviction, consummate in virtue, consummate in generosity, consummate in discernment. Especially, becoming consummate in virtue and discernment will lead to skillful thinking and skillful living, away from the three poisons of greed, aversion and delusion.

So, trying to be the best that you can be in your profession is a good thing and is not contradictory to Buddhism. However, having negative thoughts like insecurity and impatience is contradictory to Buddhism and the root cause of these needs to be understood and weeded out.

From AN 8.54:

  [The Blessed One said:] "There are these four qualities, TigerPaw,
  that lead to a lay person's happiness and well-being in this life.
  Which four? Being consummate in initiative, being consummate in
  vigilance, admirable friendship, and maintaining one's livelihood in
  tune.

  "And what does it mean to be consummate in initiative? There is the
  case where a lay person, by whatever occupation he makes his living —
  whether by farming or trading or cattle tending or archery or as a
  king's man or by any other craft — is clever and untiring at it,
  endowed with discrimination in its techniques, enough to arrange and
  carry it out. This is called being consummate in initiative.

  "And what does it mean to be consummate in vigilance? There is the
  case when a lay person has righteous wealth — righteously gained,
  coming from his initiative, his striving, his making an effort,
  gathered by the strength of his arm, earned by his sweat — he manages
  to protect it through vigilance [with the thought], 'How shall neither
  kings nor thieves make off with this property of mine, nor fire burn
  it, nor water sweep it away, nor hateful heirs make off with it?' This
  is called being consummate in vigilance.

  "And what is meant by admirable friendship? There is the case where a
  lay person, in whatever town or village he may dwell, spends time with
  householders or householders' sons, young or old, who are advanced in
  virtue. He talks with them, engages them in discussions. He emulates
  consummate conviction in those who are consummate in conviction,
  consummate virtue in those who are consummate in virtue, consummate
  generosity in those who are consummate in generosity, and consummate
  discernment in those who are consummate in discernment. This is called
  admirable friendship.

  "And what does it mean to maintain one's livelihood in tune? There is
  the case where a lay person, knowing the income and outflow of his
  wealth, maintains a livelihood in tune, neither a spendthrift nor a
  penny-pincher, [thinking], 'Thus will my income exceed my outflow, and
  my outflow will not exceed my income.' Just as when a weigher or his
  apprentice, when holding the scales, knows, 'It has tipped down so
  much or has tipped up so much,' in the same way, the lay person,
  knowing the income and outflow of his wealth, maintains a livelihood
  in tune, neither a spendthrift nor a penny-pincher, [thinking], 'Thus
  will my income exceed my outflow, and my outflow will not exceed my
  income.' If a lay person has a small income but maintains a grand
  livelihood, it will be rumored of him, 'This clansman devours his
  wealth like a fruit-tree eater.' If a lay person has a large income
  but maintains a miserable livelihood, it will be rumored of him, 'This
  clansman will die of starvation.' But when a lay person, knowing the
  income and outflow of his wealth, maintains a livelihood in tune,
  neither a spendthrift nor a penny-pincher, [thinking], 'Thus will my
  income exceed my outflow, and my outflow will not exceed my income,'
  this is called maintaining one's livelihood in tune.

  "These are the four drains on one's store of wealth: debauchery in
  sex; debauchery in drink; debauchery in gambling; and evil friendship,
  evil companionship, evil camaraderie. Just as if there were a great
  reservoir with four inlets and four drains, and a man were to close
  the inlets and open the drains, and the sky were not to pour down
  proper showers, the depletion of that great reservoir could be
  expected, not its increase. In the same way, these are the four drains
  on one's store of wealth: debauchery in sex; debauchery in drink;
  debauchery in gambling; and evil friendship, evil companionship, evil
  camaraderie.

  These are the four inlets to one's store of wealth: no debauchery in
  sex; no debauchery in drink; no debauchery in gambling; and admirable
  friendship, admirable companionship, admirable camaraderie. Just as if
  there were a great reservoir with four inlets and four drains, and a
  man were to open the inlets and close the drains, and the sky were to
  pour down proper showers, the increase of that great reservoir could
  be expected, not its depletion. In the same way, these are the four
  inlets to one's store of wealth: no debauchery in sex; no debauchery
  in drink; no debauchery in gambling; and admirable friendship,
  admirable companionship, admirable camaraderie.

  "These, TigerPaw, are the four qualities that lead to a lay person's
  happiness and well-being in this life.

  "There are these four qualities that lead to a lay person's happiness
  and well-being in lives to come. Which four? Being consummate in
  conviction, being consummate in virtue, being consummate in
  generosity, being consummate in discernment.

  "And what does it mean to be consummate in conviction? There is the
  case where a disciple of the noble ones has conviction, is convinced
  of the Tathagata's Awakening: 'Indeed, the Blessed One is worthy and
  rightly self-awakened, consummate in knowledge and conduct, well-gone,
  an expert with regard to the world, unexcelled as a trainer for those
  people fit to be tamed, the Teacher of divine and human beings,
  awakened, blessed.' This is called being consummate in conviction.

  "And what does it mean to be consummate in virtue? There is the case
  where a disciple of the noble ones abstains from taking life, abstains
  from stealing, abstains from illicit sexual conduct, abstains from
  lying, abstains from taking intoxicants that cause heedlessness. This
  is called being consummate in virtue.

  "And what does it mean to be consummate in generosity? There is the
  case of a disciple of the noble ones, his awareness cleansed of the
  stain of miserliness, living at home, freely generous, openhanded,
  delighting in being magnanimous, responsive to requests, delighting in
  the distribution of alms. This is called being consummate in
  generosity.

  "And what does it mean to be consummate in discernment? There is the
  case where a disciple of the noble ones is discerning, endowed with
  discernment of arising and passing away — noble, penetrating, leading
  to the right ending of stress. This is called being consummate in
  discernment.

  "These, TigerPaw, are the four qualities that lead to a lay person's
  happiness and well-being in lives to come."


What are the catalysts in eightfold path which speed up our endeavor?

In my opinion, the best catalyst is meeting highly realized people in real life to see how they behave. In a day of that you get more teaching than in a year of reading books.


Does Theravada posit the selflessness of phenomena?

The Vaibashika school doesn’t assert the selflessness of phenomena
  because they hold the view that phenomena is truly existent from its
  own side.

In my opinion, the Theravada view according to the Pali suttas imply that:

The self (of persons) is not truly existent.
Whether non-self phenomena are truly existent from its own side or not, is (probably) not important towards the path to the end of suffering. (See the Parable of the Poisoned Arrow, Parable of the Simsapa Leaves and the Discourse on the Unconjecturables)

Of course, there may be a lot of Theravadins out there who dispute my second statement above, and would assert that all non-self phenomena are truly existent from its own side.

EDIT: Just to make it clearer:

All sankharas (conditioned and/or compounded things) are subject to change, arising and passing. Nibbana is not subject to change, arising and passing. Both sankharas and nibbana are empty of a self. But this does not mean that sankharas and nibbana are not truly existent. The self is definitely an illusion, but the world, transient as it is, may not be an illusion. Whether the world is an illusion or not, is not important to the path to the end of suffering (according to Theravada, in my opinion).


Why this hair style on statues of the Buddha?

The question isn't just whether the hair represent the snails, but what do the 108 snails present. Recall that Buddhism heavily utilize symbolism to convey it's message. It doesn't mean that the historical Buddha actually had snails on his head.

The number 108 represents the 108 mental afflictions.

http://mrob.com/pub/epist/buddhism.html

  In traditional Buddhist thought, people are said to have 108
  afflictions or klesas. There are six senses (sight, sound, smell,
  taste, touch, and consciousness) multiplied by three reactions
  (positive, negative, or indifference) making 18 "feelings." Each of
  these feelings can be either "attached to pleasure or detached from
  pleasure" making 36 "passions", each of which may be manifested in the
  past, present, or future.

  which corresponds to: {sight, sound, smell, taste, touch, and
  consciousness} × {positive, negative, indifferent} × {attached to
  pleasure, detached from pleasure} × {past, present, future}    =
  6×3×2×3 = 108

In this sense the snails and their hard shells essentially represents mindful concentration which guards against all these afflictions.


Please see the essay "The Coming Buddha, Ariya Metteyya" by Ven. Sayagyi U Chit Tin:

  During the period from the time of Buddha Gotama to the minimum life
  span, the Buddha's Dispensation (Buddha-sasana) will disappear. When
  the Buddha agreed to create the Bhikkhuni Sangha, he told Ven. Ananda
  that the Sasana would last only half as long because of this. Instead
  of lasting one thousand years, it would last five hundred years. The
  commentary on the Abhidhamma text, Dhammasangani, says that when the
  First Buddhist Council convened by Ven. Maha-Kassapa rehearsed the
  Pali Canon, this made it possible for the Sasana to endure for five
  thousand years.[48]

  The commentaries on the Vinaya Pitaka[49] and the Anguttara-nikaya[50]
  say that the eight important rules which the Buddha gave to the
  Bhikkhuni Sangha will make his Teachings last for five thousand years
  rather than five hundred. There will be one thousand years for Arahats
  who attain analytical insight, one thousand years for Arahats without
  those attainments, one thousand years for Non-returners, one thousand
  years for Once-returners, and one thousand years for Stream-winners.
  After these five thousand years of penetration of the true Doctrine
  (pativedha-sadhamma),[51] the accomplishment in the texts
  (pariyatti-dhamma) will remain. After the accomplishment in the texts
  disappears, the signs (linga) will continue for a long time.

  In the commentary to the Theragatha[52] the Sasana is said to consist
  of five periods: (1) the age of deliverance (vimutti-yuga), (2) the
  age of concentration (samadhi-yuga), (3) the age of morality
  (sila-yuga), (4) the age of learning [the texts] (suta-yuga), and (5)
  the age of generosity (dana-yuga). Ven. Dhammapala says, concerning the
  disappearance of learning, "In a region where there is no purity of
  morality, accomplishment (in the texts) remains through taking up
  great learning, through the desire to acquire, etc. But when
  accomplishment in the summary [i.e., the Patimokkha] is completely
  ended, it disappears. From that time on, only the mere sign (linga)
  remains. Then, having accumulated riches in various ways, they give
  away gifts (dana); this, truly, is the last right practice. Then, [the
  period starting] after the disappearance of learning is the last time
  (pacchima-kala). Others say that it is from the time of the
  disappearance of morality." According to the tradition in Burma, the
  Sasana will last five thousand years. The five periods will occur
  twice. The first half of the Sasana has just passed, with each of the
  five periods lasting five hundred years. We are now in the second
  half, when these periods will be repeated, each lasting for another
  five hundred years.

Footnotes:

  [48] As 27, see Expos. 35.
  [49] Sp 1291.
  [50] Mp IV 136f.

List of Abbreviations:

As =   Atthasalini (trans., Expos.).
       BN 630/862 = Bibliotheque nationale, Pali mss
       630 and 862, commentary on Anag. We thank Mme J.
       Filliozat for making available a copy of her
       transcription of this text.
Expos.=The Expositor (As).
Sp =   Samantapasadika (commentary on the Vinaya Pitaka).
Mp =   Manorathapurani (commentary on the Anguttara Nikaya).