What are the broad categories of the different types of meditation?

THE BROADER CATEGORIES ARE MENTIONED WITHIN SOME OF THE TYPES OF MEDITATIONS LISTED BELOW, and ALSO IS LISTED HERE:

Reflective meditation

There are a series of meditations that can put you in the right frame of mind.  The guardian meditations are one tool to reduce the power of the hindrances.

Buddhanussati  (reflection on the qualities of the Buddha)
The first guardian meditation is recollection of the Buddha, keeping in mind his Awakening. It is the reflection on the nine supreme qualities of the Buddha.
Metta (Loving Kindness Meditation)
The second guardian meditation is goodwill.  If one is friendly to oneself, that person will not harm himself/herself. If a person is friendly to others, that person would not harm others’ lives. Therefore, the friendship that brings good to oneself and others is called Mettā.
Asubha (Meditation on loathsomeness)
The third guardian meditation - Here one reflects on this very body from the soles of the feet on up, from the crown of the head on down, surrounded by skin and full of various kinds of unclean things: 'In this body there are head hairs, body hairs, nails, teeth, skin, flesh, tendons, bones, bone marrow, kidneys, heart, liver, pleura, spleen, lungs, large intestines, small intestines, gorge, feces, bile, phlegm, pus, blood, sweat, fat, tears, skin-oil, saliva, mucus, fluid in the joints, urine.'
Maranasati (Meditation on the recollection of death)
The fourth guardian meditation - “Mindfulness of death, when developed and cultivated, is of great fruit and benefit, culminating in the deathless, having the deathless as its consummation.” – Anguttara Nikaya 8.7

There are 10 Anussati meditations - 8 reflections and 2 on mindfulness.  Anussati means repeated reflection or constant awareness or mindfulness on some object.

Dhammanussati (reflection on the qualities of the Dhamma)
. The second of the 10 is Reflecting on the virtues of the Dhamma (Dhammanussati). It is the reflection on the six supreme qualities of the Teaching of the Buddha.
Sanghanussati (reflection on the qualities of the Sangha)
The third of the 10 is the Sangha is the third of the Three Jewels in Buddhism. It is the reflection on the supreme qualities of the ideal community of Noble Ones (ariya-sangha) — those monks, nuns, laywomen, and laymen who, throughout history, have by their own diligent efforts successfully carried out the Buddha's instructions and gained at least a glimpse of the supreme happiness of nibbana.
Silanussati (meditation about virtue)
The fourth of the 10 is is the recollection of one's own moral virtue.
Devatanussati (meditation about heavenly beings)
This is the fifth of the 10 is this. We should cultivate the Sēkha Bala Dhamma – Saddhā (faith), Sīla (virtue), Sutha (Dhamma knowledge), Thyāga (generosity), and Paññā (wisdom of the Dhamma) – at this present time. These are qualities that are found in the Devas. If you develop them, then there is divinity within you.
Chaganussati (meditation about generosity)
The sixth of the 10 is Chaganussati. - Reflecting on Giving (dana) is one of the integral parts of the practice of Dhamma. When practiced in itself, it is a basis of merit or wholesome kamma, but only when combined with morality, concentration and insight, will it lead to liberation from samsara, the cycle of repeated existence. So it is of the recollection of one's own generosity.
Reflecting on the peace in Nibbana (Upasamanussati)
The 'recollection of the peace of Nibbana', is the last of the 10 recollections anussati.

3.

Karuna (Compassion meditation)
The way to cultivate Karunā meditation - the second of Four Divine Abodes… May I be free of bodily pains… May I be free of mental pains… May I be physically healthy… May I be mentally healthy… May I live well and happy… I and … (Karunhā meditation can be cultivated in Mahaggata Chētō Vimukkti and Appamānha Chētō Vimukkti methods similar to the Mettā and Mudita meditations.)
Mudita ( Altruistic-joy meditation)
Loving-kindness, compassion, altruistic joy, and equanimity are known as “the Four Divine Abodes (satara brahma viharanha)”.  The third of the group is the cultivation of Muditā to get rid of discontent about wholesome actions… The happiness we feel about others’ progress/wellbeing is Muditā. One can thrive with money, lands, vehicles, and so on by earnest and righteous livelihoods. If we can be happy by seeing such development of others without getting angry about it, it is Muditā. The Buddha preached to cultivate Muditā to get rid of discontent (aratiya) about wholesome actions.
Upekkha (Equanimity meditation)
This is the last of the four. We do this in order to not get upset from the eight vicissitudes of life.  One who practices equanimity will not mourn when sufferings, troubles find that person. He will not get excited when pleasure, happiness find him. He/she will feel all with an indifferent mentality. What we all have to face is the eight vicissitudes of life (ata lō dahama). One shall cultivate equanimity in order to not to worry or sorrow from the eight vicissitudes of life.

4.

Nava Sivatika (Nine cemetery contemplations)
The last exercise in mindfulness of the body is a series of "cemetery meditations," contemplations of the body's disintegration after death, which may be performed either imaginatively, with the aid of pictures, or through direct confrontation with a corpse. By any of these means one obtains a clear mental image of a decomposing body, then applies the process to one's own body, considering: "This body, now so full of life, has the same nature and is subject to the same fate. It cannot escape death, cannot escape disintegration, but must eventually die and decompose."

5.

Cittanupassana (Contemplation of the mind)
Cittanupassana-satipatthana means mindfulness which is firmly established on thoughts or mental processes, such as thoughts associated with the passions or dissociated from the passions.

6.

Dhammanupassana (Contemplation of mental objects or thoughts)
Dhammanupassana-satipatthana means mindfulness which is firmly established on phenomena such as nivarana (hindrances), etc.

Mindfulness

Kayanupassana (Contemplation of the body)
This is the first of the Four Foundations of Mindfulness.  Buddha's advice is to look at the body, as it is, neither getting attached nor developing aversion towards it. The Buddha's advice is to observe and analyze it without being biased by any views or prejudices and to develop mindfulness. Within the first major section on mindfulness of body there are five meditation methods.
(1) mindfulness of breathing (anapanasati)
(2) Satisampajaññya (awareness) meditation in Satara Satipatthana
(3) mindfulness of postures (iriyapatha)
(4) refelection on internal and external impurities and other vital parts (kunapa)
(5) analysis of four elements (dathu)
(6) reflection on nine stages of a dead body (nava seevaththika)

Concentrative

Mindfulness of Breathing (Anapanasati)
The Buddha explained to Venerable Ananda, “This one factor is Anapanasati, which when developed and pursued brings the Four Foundations of Mindfulness (Cattaro Satipatthana) to completion. The Four Foundations of Mindfulness, when developed and pursued bring the Seven Factors of Enlightenment to completion. The Seven Factors of Enlightenment, when developed and pursued bring Clear Knowing and Release to completion.” in the Ananda Sutta.
Iriya patha (Meditation on postures of the body)**
The postures of the body can be good subjects leading to the proper establishment of concentration. Here one attempts to be mindful of walking, standing, sitting, lying, bending, stretching, eating, drinking, chewing, savouring, defecating and urinating.

Uncategorized

Dhathu Manasikara (analysis of four elements)
It is the meditation of the four physical elements (dhatu) of nature: Earth, Water, Fire and Wind (pathavi, apo, tejo, and vayo) as Elements of solidity, fluidity, heat and motion.

Combinations

sati sampajanna

The Pali word for alertness is sampajañña. It doesn’t mean being choicelessly aware of the present, or comprehending the present. Sampajañña means being aware of what you’re doing in the movements of the body, the movements in the mind. This is why mindfulness and alertness should always be paired.


This is a long answer (below), so here is a summary up front:

"In Buddhism, what does it mean to hold a view?"

I think it means to get attached to a view, maybe to rejoice in or to delight in a view, like attaching to a sense-object -- especially a wrong view, such as "delight in being" (bhavaratā).
"Or, are there various types of wrong views and the lists consider only the greatest examples?"

If 62 of them are listed I doubt that's an exhaustive list -- after all, why not 63 then? There's no end to the number of ways of being wrong (or of views to attach to)!

I suppose that "right view" is defined more narrowly (4 noble truths, 3 characteristics, dispassion, etc.), and that attaching to or holding to views (doctrines) other than that and thus is 'wrong'.

Conversely though, there is "right seeing" or "seeing things as they are", which includes seeing their cause[s] and their cessation.

So a "view" is a diṭṭhi, defined here as follows:

  diṭṭhi: view, speculative opinion, belief, credo, dogma, doctrine. Generally designates a wrong view. Sammādiṭṭhi is the first constituent of the ariya aṭṭh·aṅgika magga, and consists in considering the four ariya·saccas. When the prefix sammā· is absent, the word diṭṭhi generally designates a wrong view. The Buddha exhaustively expounds the 62 wrong views in the Brahmajāla Sutta. Diṭṭhis are one of the seven anusayas. See also sammādiṭṭhi.

In MN 72 for example you can see that the word diṭṭhi can be given all kinds of qualifiers:

  Each of these ten convictions is the thicket of views, the desert of views, the trick of views, the evasiveness of views, the fetter of views.

  Sassato loko’ti kho, vaccha, diṭṭhigatametaṃ diṭṭhigahanaṃ diṭṭhikantāro diṭṭhivisūkaṃ diṭṭhivipphanditaṃ diṭṭhisaṃyojanaṃ

The dictionary gives diṭṭhisaṃyojana as "the fetter of empty speculation", by the way.

After that sentence in MN 72 the Buddha says,

  Seeing this drawback I avoid all these convictions.
  Imaṃ kho ahaṃ, vaccha, ādīnavaṃ sampassamāno evaṃ imāni sabbaso diṭṭhigatāni anupagato”ti.

  But does Master Gotama have any convictions at all?
  “Atthi pana bhoto gotamassa kiñci diṭṭhigatan”ti?

  The Realized One has done away with convictions.
  Diṭṭhigatanti kho, vaccha, apanītametaṃ tathāgatassa.

I wanted to know what diṭṭhigata (used there) means exactly. Because the dictionary defines it as ...

  a (false) view, a theory.
  a belief; wrong view.

... but I found it odd, it didn't make sense to me, that Vacchagotta would ask the Buddha, "what wrong views do you hold?" -- so I figured that diṭṭhigata would mean something slightly different than explicitly or literally "wrong".

As Andrei commented,

  Well, ditthi means view and gata means something like "settled in", so why wouldn't ditthigata mean a position or conviction?

I think that "settled in" is so -- see also for example gata used in Tathagata (usually translated as "gone" or "gone to") ... or for example sugata, and gata generally.

So, I guess, maybe diṭṭhigata means something like, "gone to a view", or "dwelling in a view" ... or "holding a view" (which is the subject of the question in the OP), perhaps conversely "being held by a view" (if you use non-anatta terminology), perhaps "stuck on a view", perhaps a "stuck view", maybe "an abiding view" or "a view of abiding", or something like that.

There's a whole sutta actually, itivuttaka 49 is titled the Diṭṭhigatasutta. That title is translated in English as "Held by Views". Read the whole sutta, it's not long:

  This was said by the Lord…

  “Bhikkhus, held by two kinds of views, some devas and
  human beings hold back and some overreach; only those with vision see.

  “And how, bhikkhus, do some hold back? Devas and humans enjoy being, delight in being, are satisfied with being. When Dhamma is taught to them for the cessation of being, their minds do not enter into it or acquire confidence in it or settle upon it or become resolved upon it. Thus, bhikkhus, do some hold back.

  “How, bhikkhus, do some overreach? Now some are troubled, ashamed, and disgusted by this very same being and they rejoice in (the idea of) non-being, asserting: ‘In as much as this self, good sirs, when the body perishes at death, is annihilated and destroyed and does not exist after death—this is peaceful, this is excellent, this is reality!’ Thus, bhikkhus, do some overreach.

  “How, bhikkhus, do those with vision see? Herein a bhikkhu sees what has come to be as having come to be. Having seen it thus, he practises the course for turning away, for dispassion, for the cessation of what has come to be. Thus, bhikkhus, do those with vision see.”

  Having seen what has come to be
  As having come to be,
  Passing beyond what has come to be,
  They are released in accordance with truth
  By exhausting the craving for being.

  When a bhikkhu has fully understood
  That which has come to be as such,
  Free from craving to be this or that,
  By the extinction of what has come to be
  He comes no more to renewal of being.

  This too is the meaning of what was said by the Lord, so I heard.

I note five things from this sutta:

The first two groups of devas and human beings are maybe (in my vernacular) "fooling around with" views ... i.e. they're "rejoicing" or "delighting" in views.

Perhaps that's analogous to what people do with sensuality -- i.e. they attach to it.

So maybe that is literally what's meant by "holding" a view -- i.e. people hold a view in the same way that people attach to sense-objects.

I like (or have attached to) this metaphor (quoting from What is attachment as per Buddhism?):

  To distinguish craving from clinging, Buddhaghosa uses the following metaphor:

    "Craving is the aspiring to an object that one has not yet reached, like a thief's stretching out his hand in the dark; clinging is the grasping of an object that one has reached, like the thief's grasping his objective.... [T]hey are the roots of the suffering due to seeking and guarding."

In this sutta, the views which they hold are views of something being still or static:

In the first case, it's a view of "being" -- as if "being" were something constant, or eternal, or even non-empty in the Mahayana sense.
In the second case, it's a view of annihilation-after-death.

What you're supposed to do instead ...

  How, bhikkhus, do those with vision see?
  Kathañca, bhikkhave, cakkhumanto passanti? -- (the dictionary says that passati is the same as one of the meanings of dassati)

... is to see the coming-to-be and the cessation.

And that (i.e. seeing coming-to-be and cessation) is the same as what the Buddha says in MN 72, immediately after he denies having Diṭṭhigata:

  Seeing this drawback I avoid all these convictions.”

  “But does Master Gotama have any convictions at all?”
  “Atthi pana bhoto gotamassa kiñci diṭṭhigatan”ti?

  “The Realized One has done away with convictions.
  “Diṭṭhigatanti kho, vaccha, apanītametaṃ tathāgatassa.

  For the Realized One has seen:
  Diṭṭhañhetaṃ, vaccha, tathāgatena: (note the use of Diṭṭhi again but here not implying wrong -- nor stuck/held/fixed)

  ‘Such is form, such is the origin of form, such is the ending of form.
  Such is feeling, such is the origin of feeling, such is the ending of feeling.
  Such is perception, such is the origin of perception, such is the ending of perception.
  Such are choices, such is the origin of choices, such is the ending of choices.
  Such is consciousness, such is the origin of consciousness, such is the ending of consciousness.’

  That’s why the Realized One is freed with the ending, fading away, cessation, giving up, and letting go of all conceivings, all worries, and all ego, possessiveness, or underlying tendency to conceit, I say.”

  “But Master Gotama, when a mendicant’s mind is freed like this, where are they reborn?”

  “‘They’re reborn’ doesn’t apply, Vaccha.”

  “Well then, are they not reborn?”

  “‘They’re not reborn’ doesn’t apply, Vaccha.”

  [etc.]

If you're worried about diṭṭhi being used to refer to both right views and wrong views, I think in summary the Buddha isn't stuck on any particular fixed view, but instead rightly-sees the arising, being, and ceasing of all the aggregates.
And, it's for the same kinds of purpose in MN 72 as in Iti 49: i.e. for turning away, dispassion, cessation.

There's another sutta (I forget which one) which says that something "in the stream" will reach the ocean (a metaphor for nibbana), unless it sinks or gets stuck on something along the way. Maybe that (being stuck) is another sense of "held", and why the Buddha warns against it -- i.e. given that he wants to teach "only suffering and cessation", speculative views and conceits and so on are an obstacle to cessation.
When the sutta said "delight in being" (bhavaratā bhavasammuditā) I took that as a reference to self-view (e.g. "I am"), but also as a reference to attaching to things, after not (truly) seeing the three characteristics (and so e.g. "this thing is not impermanent, this thing is desirable, and this thing is mine").

I think that "self-view" isn't the only 'wrong' view -- i.e. seeing the three characteristics of "things" is also 'right' (see also a a separate answer about 'emptiness', and AN 10.3 below).

I looked for other places where Diṭṭhigata is used.

Another place the word Diṭṭhigata is used in the last verse of Snp 4.8 which I think says that wanting to win arguments is a vain conceit.

That's inline with other suttas which say that conceit is a cause of arguments.
On the subject of "conceit" and "views" I recommend the answers to How are 'conceit' and 'identity-view' not the same? for example:

  A view is taking something to be true, whereas conceit falls in the category of a simple experience, which one may or may not hold to be valid. It is similar with greed; one may want something without believing it proper to want, and one may likewise feel conceit ("I am better", etc.) without actually believing in a self.

I assume that's similar to an addiction or an ex-addiction; e.g. the thought might occur and reoccur, to a former addict, "I want X (where 'X' is e.g. alcohol or whatever the object of addiction/attachment is)", and you then have to decide "No, that's a bad idea! I really don't want that." I guess conceit or egoism might be an addictive pleasure, or something, that people have to wean themselves from over time.
SN 41.3 is, again, speculative views about the afterlife. Ditto AN 10.3. A lot of the "held views" seem to be on that kind of topic.

Maybe debating such views was a custom then, e.g. among a "holy men" i.e. the wanderers or seekers in that society.
AN 10.3 also defines right view, as "what's created is impermanent, what's impermanent is dukkha, what's dukkha is when seen with right wisdom not mine, not me, and not myself".

That's a bit unusual in that, as I said earlier, instead of mentioning the three characteristics explicitly as it does in AN 10.3, other suttas tend to contrast Diṭṭhigata with seeing the creation (cause), being, and cessation of the five aggregates.
AN 7.54 also uses diṭṭhigata (translated here as "misconception"), to describe the various famously "undeclared points" or "unanswered questions" (e.g. "does a Tathagata exist after death?" etc.).

It also says that, it is due to Diṭṭhinirodhā (i.e. due to the "cessation of views") that "an educated noble disciple has no doubts" -- where "doubts" (vicikicchā) is one of the canonical fetters (see also e.g. the second half of this answer).

AN 7.54 appears to be the only sutta to mention Diṭṭhinirodhā, FYI -- and that's in the context of things that are avyākata ("not designated" -- if you want to research further you might want to check the usage of avyākata and of its antonym, byākata).

Given that the definition at the top of this answer says that diṭṭhi is one of the seven types of anusaya, you might also want to read this answer which helps to define anusaya.

You may or may not also find this helpful: Buddhaghosa on seeing things as they are (2)

One thing it says is ...

  Having a diṭṭhi is not the problem, being diṭṭhigata is.

... and then goes on to talk about seeing things as they are, yathābhūtadassana.

It ends with what I think of as a pun on the word "conclusion" (i.e. two separate meanings of "conclusion"):

One meaning of "conclusion" is "a theory", for example, "I made these observations and 'concluded' that such-and-such a generalisation is true".
Another meaning of "conclusion" is "cessation", "ending".

I think, I suppose, that in the suttas the Buddha is trying to point towards the latter (cessation), and not the former (sustaining generalisations, holding views, conceited arguments, etc.).


Is "the mind is without feature or surface, limitless, ..." in the Pali canon?

There's a similar phrase (not an exact match) in DN 11:

  This is how the question should be asked:
  Evañca kho eso, bhikkhu, pañho pucchitabbo:

  85.11 “Where do water and earth,
  ‘Kattha āpo ca pathavī,

  85.12 fire and air find no footing;
  tejo vāyo na gādhati;

  85.13 where do long and short,
  Kattha dīghañca rassañca,

  85.14 fine and coarse, beautiful and ugly;
  aṇuṃ thūlaṃ subhāsubhaṃ;

  85.15 where do name and form
  Kattha nāmañca rūpañca,

  85.16 cease with nothing left over?”
  asesaṃ uparujjhatī’ti.

  85.17 And the answer to that is:
  Tatra veyyākaraṇaṃ bhavati:

  85.18 “Consciousness that’s invisible,
  ‘Viññāṇaṃ anidassanaṃ,

  85.19 infinite, radiant all round.
  anantaṃ sabbatopabhaṃ;

Maybe that it's it: if MN 11 was mistaken for DN 11; but it's not an exact match.

Even so I think that may be the Pali phrase you're looking for --

  Viññāṇaṃ anidassanaṃ, anantaṃ sabbatopabhaṃ

For example this (The Four Noble Truths and Noble Eightfold Path) translates these words as:

  Nirvana is a realm where corporeality and all the pairs of opposites - long and short, great and small, pure and impure - disappears and the mind is signless (anidassanam), boundless (anantam) and all-radiant (sabbato pabhamn). It is unchanging state (nibbanam accutam) of purity (suddhi), freedom (vimitti)  and  supreme happiness  (nibbanam paramam sukham).

... although that doesn't say which sutta[s] these words come from.

Another place that phrase appears is in MN 49 (but also not an exact match, i.e. "freed from the six-sense base" isn't part of the phrase there).


How irony and sarcasm are seen in Buddhism?

Thanissaro Bhikkhu wrote,,

  For many of us, the most difficult part of practicing right speech lies in how we express our sense of humor. Especially here in America, we're used to getting laughs with exaggeration, sarcasm, group stereotypes, and pure silliness — all classic examples of wrong speech. If people get used to these sorts of careless humor, they stop listening carefully to what we say. In this way, we cheapen our own discourse. Actually, there's enough irony in the state of the world that we don't need to exaggerate or be sarcastic. The greatest humorists are the ones who simply make us look directly at the way things are.

Bhikkhu Bodhi wrote,

  Harsh speech is speech uttered in anger, intended to cause the hearer pain. Such speech can assume different forms, of which we might mention three. One is abusive speech: scolding, reviling, or reproving another angrily with bitter words. A second is insult: hurting another by ascribing to him some offensive quality which detracts from his dignity. A third is sarcasm: speaking to someone in a way which ostensibly lauds him, but with such a tone or twist of phrasing that the ironic intent becomes clear and causes pain.


In my (Mahayana) interpretation, Kamesu-micha-cara means "Behavior incorrectly motivated by desire of sensual pleasure". This pertains to any pleasure associated with any of the senses.

The core idea of the precept IMO is that "desire of pleasure" is "wrong motivation". It is not that sensual pleasure in and of itself is bad. It is that receiving pleasure is an invalid goal. Instead, behavior should be motivated by a valid goal, such as health, well-being, harmony, peace, and Liberation.

Since mind counts as one of the senses, any activity "motivated by desire of MENTAL pleasure" should count as violation of the precept. This would pertain to indulging in all types of mental pleasures such as idle conversations, games, fantasies, philosophizing and others.

There is a fine line here though. An activity would only be a violation of precept, if its sole motivation was receiving (mental) pleasure. If activity has benefits such as development of mental faculties, reduction of pathological mind states, and increase of wholesome mind states, then it should count as constructive activity of useful nature.

For example, if someone is depressed, and is engaging in meditation aimed at increasing motivation and generating positive mind states, this should not count as indulging in mental pleasure - even though it involves deliberate generation of joyful mind states.

So I think the main criteria here is, whether we are indulging for pure pleasure, or doing it deliberately with a wholesome goal in mind.

And yes, in this interpretation "overthinking" or more precisely "indulging in thinking and philosophizing for the pure pleasure of it" would count as violation of third precept.


I would advise labeling the in and out-breath by using the same name (for instance just 'breath'). In time, you will be able to observe the whole in and out-breath, including the moment in between, as a whole, in the same way you are able to see (quiet naturally) someone's body as a whole although it is made of parts.

I would advise against the counting of the breath, but if you do count, rather count the in and out breath as one [of the same cycle]. The in-between is in-between two moments of the same cycle of breath. Maybe see it as such.


Yes.

When the mind is quiet the breathing automatically becomes the object of meditation.

There is no need to try to watch the breathing. In fact, trying to watch the breathing is an obstacle to deep progress.

The Pali scriptures (SN 48.10; MN 118 at the emd) state the meditator makes 'letting go' the object of meditation.


Who said 'if you haven't started on the Buddhist path then don't start at all'?

The book Meditation for Everyone: a 12 Step Guide attributes it -- without any certainty -- to the Dalai Lama.

That's all I found, via a quick Google search.

I guess the attribution is plausible, compare it with this quote for example, and so on.

But "plausible" doesn't mean "true", and that may be only a paraphrase.


As I pointed out in my answer to "are earthworms our mothers?"  these kind of questions often assume incorrect frame of reference, different from the one Buddhism operates in. The point of teachings is to produce a certain state of mind, that will affect your behavior in certain way, that will eventually lead to better results, up to and including Enlightenment for you and the rest of the sentient beings.

The Five Precepts (no killing, stealing, speaking nonfactually, letting sensual pleasure control you, getting intoxicated) are an entry-level practice that is designed to help practitioner master basic discipline of self-reflection and self-control. Abstaining from killing, stealing etc. implies basic ability to watch one's mind for harmful thoughts and emotions, and to prevent them from getting acted out.

In light of the above, the no-killing rule should not be understood literally, as an absolute law, but as a guideline for training the mind. It is not acceptable to hurt or harm any creature (big or small) out of antipathy, obsessive desire, or ignorance. This is what Five Precepts are mostly about, countering the Three Poisons.

For reference, the Three Poisons are three basic moods afflicting the mind, impairing one's judgement and goal-making abilities:

Anger/Hate/Irritation/Aversion/Antipathy/Negativity
Lust/Desire/Attraction/Obsession
Ignorance/Confusion/Sloth/Torpor


What is the authority of the Kathavatthu (points of Controversy) and the 3rd counsil?

"Is it considered canon by all or most of Theravadan schools?"

 A few Evidences on the Age of the Kathavatthu showed that an examination  of some of the materials  of
        the  K.  V.  and the Asokan  edicts  shows  that  the
        compilation of the K. V.  was made, at least in part,
        somewhere in the reign of king Asoka.

Kathavatthu‘The Book of Disputed Points’, being a canonical book belonging to the Abhidharma Piṭaka of the Pāli Canon.

"How did the post-theravadan schools regard the texts?"

Below are quotes on the Kathavatthu from wiki: (*I added bold to show emphasis)

  Each chapter contains questions and answers by means of which the most diverse views are presented, refuted and rejected. The form of the debates gives no identification of the participants, and does not step outside the debate to state explicitly which side is right.

  The debates are understood by the tradition, followed by many scholars, as disputes between different schools of Buddhism.

  However, L. S. Cousins, described by Professor Gombrich as the West's leading abhidhamma scholar,[6] says:

  "In spiritual traditions the world over, instructors have frequently employed apparent contradictions as part of their teaching method – perhaps to induce greater awareness in the pupil or to bring about a deeper and wider view of the subject in hand. The Pali Canon contains many explicit examples of such methods. (Indeed much of the Kathāvatthu makes better sense in these terms than as sectarian controversy.)"[7]
  See also

Seen in this light it is not a book on points of controversies but a teaching manual!


I think that 'aversion' and 'desire' are opposite/complementary extremes of each other.
Similarly I think that 'delusion' is (defined as) the opposite of 'truth' (sacca/satya, the four noble truths) and (I presume) other 'true dharmas' (for example, one delusion might be a wrong view about 'self').
So I guess that you can be 'aware of delusion' whenever (if ever) you're aware that you have forgotten 'right view' or 'right mindfulness'.
If it's the 'root' klesha, I suppose it has many manfestations, but one of those is presumably  any addictive behaviour: repeating the same harmful mistake.
You're right though that at the least the "The Four Frames of Reference" section of the Anapanasati Sutta only talks about "putting aside greed & distress with reference to the world". Maybe the parts of it after that i.e. "Awakening", "Knowing", and "Release" are describing the opposite of "ignorance".

Also, in The Taste of Freedom Bhikkhu Bodhi writes,

Three kinds of feelings have been pointed out by the Buddha: pleasant feeling, painful feeling, and neutral feeling, i.e., feeling which is neither pleasant nor painful. These three classes exhaust the totality of feeling, and one feeling of one class must be present on any given occasion of experience. Again, three mental factors have been singled out by the Buddha as the subjective counterparts of the three classes of feeling and described by him as anusaya, latent tendencies which have been lying dormant in the subconscious mental continua of sentient beings since beginningless time, always ready to crop up into a state of manifestation when an appropriate stimulus is encountered, and to subside again into the state of dormancy when the impact of the stimulus has worn off.
These three mental factors are lust (raga), repugnance (patigha), and ignorance (avijja), psychological equivalents of the unwholesome roots of greed (lobha), hatred (dosa), and delusion (moha). When a worldling, with a mind untrained in the higher course of mental discipline taught by the Buddha, experiences a pleasant feeling, then the latent tendency to lust springs up in response — a desire to possess and enjoy the object serving as stimulus for the pleasant feeling. When a worldling experiences a painful feeling, then the latent tendency to repugnance comes into play, an aversion toward the cause of the pain. And when a worldling experiences a neutral feeling, then the latent tendency to ignorance — present but recessive on occasions of lust and aversion — rises to prominence, shrouding the worldling's consciousness in a cloak of dull apathy.
[...]
Under the dominance of lust he is drawn to the pleasant, under the dominance of hate he is repelled by the painful, under the dominance of delusion he is confused by the neutral. He is bent up by happiness, bent down by sorrow, elated by gain, honor, and praise, dejected by loss, dishonor, and blame. Even though he perceives that a particular course of action can lead only to his harm, he is powerless to avoid it; even though he knows that an alternative course of action is clearly to his advantage, he is unable to pursue it. Swept on by the current of unabandoned defilements, he is driven from existence to existence through the ocean of samsara, with its waves of birth and death, its whirlpools of misery and despair.

So the three poisons (lust, anger, ignorance) correspond to three types of feeling (pleasant, painful, and neutral); and delusion therefore is associated with a "neutral" feeling, and "consciousness shrouded in a cloak of dull apathy" and "confusion".


In Buddhism, does black magic, magic spell exist?
I believe so... the Buddha seems to recognize some pretty powerful black magic, e.g.:

“What do you think, householder? Suppose some recluse or brahmin came here possessed of supernormal power and attained to mastery of mind, and he spoke thus: ‘I will reduce this town of Nāḷandā to ashes with one mental act of hate.’ What do you think, householder, would such a recluse or brahmin be able to do that?”
“Venerable sir, such a recluse or brahmin possessed of supernormal power and attained to mastery of mind would be able to reduce ten, twenty, thirty, forty, or even fifty Nāḷandās to ashes with one mental act of hate, so what does a single trivial Nāḷandā count for?”
-- MN 56 (Bodhi, trans)

If it is, what's our belief system should be when we are taught to treat all with loving kindness?
I don't believe this changes our imperative to treat all with loving kindness...

"Monks, even if bandits were to savagely sever you, limb by limb, with a double-handled saw, even then, whoever of you harbors ill will at heart would not be upholding my Teaching. Monks, even in such a situation you should train yourselves thus: 'Neither shall our minds be affected by this, nor for this matter shall we give vent to evil words, but we shall remain full of concern and pity, with a mind of love, and we shall not give in to hatred. On the contrary, we shall live projecting thoughts of universal love to those very persons, making them as well as the whole world the object of our thoughts of universal love — thoughts that have grown great, exalted and measureless. We shall dwell radiating these thoughts which are void of hostility and ill will.' It is in this way, monks, that you should train yourselves.
-- MN 21 (Buddharakkhita, trans)

2. Supposingly all these exist, what's the odd of being the target apart from jealousy?
I don't think this question is relevant to our site.

Supposingly if you are very much enlightened and practice meditation vigorously, does this make you any less of being the target?
Maybe... to some extent enlightenment protects one from harm, but mostly it protects one from reacting to harm and therefore causing further retribution. The stories of Angulimala and Mogallana both exemplify this idea.


Keeping a pet cat, without training or encouraging it to kill rats

If there is a rat infestation the best action is to take necessary measures so the environment is not suitable for rats. It is not possible to eradicate rat infestation by killing them.


Relationship between Buddhism, Hinduism and Yoga?

Hinduism & Yoga aren't 2 different things. They are the same.
Yoga is one of the 6 main Darshanas of Hinduism. I.e it provides it's own path for liberation. Other Darshanas(Advaita, etc) too use Yoga as a valid means but not the only valid means.

Can't really say Buddhism is modern. It evolved along with Yoga both of which can be traced to around 4th century BCE.

Both Hindu Darshanas & Buddhism evolved influencing each other. For example Advaita borrowed some of it's elements from Nagarjuna. Tibetan Buddhism incorporated Tantra which is considered 'Hindu'.

Tibetan Buddhism has it's own version of Yoga called Trul khor.

Hence to answer your question, they all belong to the same family, the Dharmic family and have influenced each other.


Shamata - attention on upper lip, diaphragm or belly?

Well it depends on the teacher who is guiding you. If you do have a teacher go by what he instructs.

One of interpretations focul point (as in the original teaching as well as the most effective location) is the centre of the upper lip: What is the Interpretation of Parimukham in the context of Buddhist Meditation?, Is watching the heart beat (instead of watching the breath) a known form of meditation?,

Also a very comprehensive book which gives instruction to the original breath meditation method see by answer to: Breath getting shorter and shorter and also Is watching the heart beat (instead of watching the breath) a known form of meditation?

When you focus on the diagram you are supposed to look at the Wind Element, i.e., the expansion and contraction. For a beginner this is generally easy but there are arguments that as you go deeper into meditation you progress stall and slows down for some. Based on this rationale have tend to switch to other methods which seemed to have worked better for them. (E.g. Banthe Vimalasiri, Anagarika Munindra, Piya Tan, etc.) This might not be the case for everyone but you will not know for sure whether this will work for you or not unless you try it and see for yourself.

  If anyone has good references and arguments for focusing on diaphragm I'd like to hear them, and try it out.

Also when you have developed some level of concentration and also looking to switch to 4 elements meditation while doing normal day to day work this might be sometimes a good place to rest your attention. (E.g. in office, while driving, etc.) For more details on which parts of the body which each element dominates see:  Mahā Rāhulovāda Sutta

For a basic introduction to the Mahaisi Method see: Essentials of Insight Meditation Practice by Ven. Sujiva. This was a book I used for reference when I tried out this method many years ago. Also there is a book: How To Meditate by Ven. Yuttadhammo.

Meditation techniques are like drug trial. There are some methods with generally work well for everyone but with a few exceptions. There are some methods which works well for a few does not give as great results to every one in general. Keeping this in mind try to figure out what works well for you. My belief and experience is that what works better to the masses is when you practice close to the original Suttas. A view shared by: Banthe Vimalasiri, S.N.Goenka, Ven. Nanavira, Richard Shankman, Leigh Brasington.

Also keep in mind you have to pratice for a while using one techniques to get results. You should not change too often. Only after a year to two with no progress.

Best of luck in your search and pratice!


Is there any mention of child adoption in any Buddhist writings and what is the view on child adoption with regard to Buddhism?

I view it as adoption can be nothing but good. you are providing a child with a home, food and most importantly love. if it is done with good intention then it cant be bad.


Can Buddhism be viewed as a threat to the capitalist way of life?

Buddhism is a threat to the universe... the answer to the famous "what would happen if everyone became enlightened?" is that the universe would cease to exist.

In the meantime, sure, the more people in a society practicing Buddhism the less the demand for new products, prices drop, people have less money, less spending, even less demand, and so on.

On the other hand, I don't think this would immediately threaten capitalism as a philosophy, in the sense that barter could still carry on unimpeded; truly necessary items could still be shared and traded, and a free market would probably do well in such a society.

I imagine there would be many socialist aspects to the society as well, involving health care, social assistance, etc. But would the society incline towards communism? I doubt it - communism seems too structured to me; people would probably just mind their own business, sharing or trading as needed.

I've always thought that the only problem with capitalism is greed. I'm not an economist, by any means, but my short answer is no, I don't think it would be a threat to capitalism.

Economic materialism, sure.


Is it correct to refer to "Buddha" without "the"

I think "the" Buddha is more normal and more formal.
Without "the" sounds to me more casual -- or possibly slightly English-as-a-second-language, as several languages don't use articles.
If you think of the word "Buddha" as being a title like "Teacher", well in formal English you'd usually include the article and say something like, "The Teacher said, ...".
It's not incorrect, perhaps a bit familiar, to say something like, "Teacher said, ...".
Also "Buddha" without an article would be right if "Buddha" were a proper noun, i.e. a name -- but I think it's more like a title or a common noun (the specific Buddha who we usually talk about is Gautama Buddha).


Getting angry is certainly wrong. If this is the first time it has happened to you in that restaurant, a verbal complaint would've been enough. Waiter apologizing and replacing the ice-cream is a clear indication that he took it seriously. Written complaints are usually used for intentional errors or when they don't take you seriously after complaining.

To deal with your sadness, do Vedananupassana: Note the sadness as sad... sad... sad...

To deal with regret, do Cittanupassana & Dhammanupassana: thinking... thinking...  regretting... regretting...


Can we apply the bundle of reeds simile to all limbs of Dependent Origination?

Yes, this is correct. This is why it's called "pratitya-samutpada" or "dependent-co-arising" ("stepwise-mutual-production")

The sequence represents progressive development of dualistic thinking (dualistic hardening) down the chain that creates the concept of one's own death. You see, dualistic thinking is thinking based on discrimination between left and right, top and down etc. - it's a type of thinking that involves defining a reference point (the zero point, e.g. between up and down) and some sort of quality or criteria for separation (up/down, inside/outside, beautiful/ugly etc.).

In pratitya-samutpada each pair of adjacent steps represents one act of dualistic separation or co-definition. Each pair splits the world in two, along one dimension and creates foundation for the next split. We are talking about developmental psychology of mind here.

Samskara is a cohesive collection of memories or imprints that are accumulated one-by-one in such a way as to be logically consistent, in such way as to create some sort of consistent interpretation or experience of what's going on.

This collection of observations supports emergence of Experience (Vijnana) which is really nothing but reification of Recognition (or Interpretation) of new observations in terms of internalized old observations. This act of recognition or interpretation makes it possible for the new observation to be added to the pile, consistently with what's there already. Therefore Samskara enables Vijanana and Vijnana enables Samskara.

Recognition involves recognizing patterns like objects and situations, or generalizing significant features into identities. Therefore by its very nature Recognition is reification of entities. We define objects and give them names. This is called Namarupa. Recognizing objects (and places, situations) supports further development of Vijnana. So at this stage too, Vijnana supports Namarupa and Namarupa supports Vijnana.

The notion of objects arises co-dependently with the notion of their background or space in which they exist. Because there are six types of objects, there are correspondingly six types of space. This is Salayatana. So Namarupa and Six Spaces support each other, fall out from each other.  The world, once again, is split in two: object and its background.

Karmapa's Dream Flag is an illustration of this principle of the object and background mutually-co-defining each other. Are these blue waves on the yellow background or yellow waves on the blue background? That depends on the observer's interpretation. The object and its background are mutually co-dependent. As soon as we designate the object - the background co-emerges and vice versa.

By this point the dualistic process progressed far enough to have a pretty rich differentiation of the external ("world" with "objects"), but there is pretty much nothing differentiated on the inside yet. There is also no experience of Time yet. But now that there are six spaces with corresponding sets of objects, there can be experience of a known object re-appearing after a period of being absent. This experience is called Contact. It is made possible by everything that happened until this point, but particularly by the notion of space as the background on which the object appears. The world is split along the dimension of time, into the time without the object and time with the object. This notion of Contact (having the object) makes the absence of object event more noticeable, thereby re-supporting the Six Spaces.

Now that we have identified the time when object is with us as significant, we notice the Feeling we have when the object is present. We attribute this feeling to the Contact with the object. This feeling in its turn re-enforces experience of Contact as something real and significant.

This Feeling at the time of Contact makes for a striking contrast with the time of No Contact. Obsessively remembering the Feeling of Contact during the time when the object is not with us, because the impression it left on us was so strong and fit so well with the pile of Samskara, is called Tanha or craving. This craving re-enforces the feeling we have when the object comes back.

Obsessive craving for Feeling/Contact/Object leads to obsessive thinking and fantasizing about it, Upadana. We tell ourselves a never-ending narrative, we replay situation over and over again, we make a little movie in our head about the Contact. We develop a plan of action to get what we want. This narrative/movie/plan is nothing but re-constructing a possible sequence of events from our pile of Samskara, events that could lead to the desirable Contact again. This process of obsessing over the object of our desire serves to re-enforce Craving.

Fantasizing about the contact leads to an idea of ourselves existing in different points in time. First we exist here-now, without the object. Then we will exist there-then, hopefully with the object. This splits the world into the background of Time and the Self-Identity (Bhava) traveling from past to future over time. It also re-enforces the entire experience of the World with Objects that we have thus constructed. The concept of "I" is the mirror reflection of the entire world that we have created, and thinking about one side reinforces the other.

This notion of I as something that solid, something that exists, comes in contact with objects, experiences feelings, sets the goals and achieves them -- something that lives -- leads to conclusion that I am the sentient being. I am this organism that exists just like another object of the world. This is called Jati or birth. This notion of "I am this person" reinforces the notion of "I" created on the previous step.

Finally, as soon as we have defined a part of the world as something separate and concrete, an object living in this specific form - the change of form is seen by us as destruction. And since we identify with this object as "I", its destruction is seen as our Death, and anything that disturbs our idea of life-as-it-should-be is seen as this sentient being's suffering.

This entire structure is possible because of the fundamental Ignorance of how all this works. This ignorance permeates and supports the 11 nidanas, while the personal drama that comes out of it reinforces Ignorance, supporting the process of accumulation of observations, interpretation, and reification that leads to arising of the world and I, living and dying.

For more information, see Nanavira Thera's Notes on Dhamma and Buddhadasa's book "Practical Dependent Origination" a short summary of which can be found here: http://www.dhammatalks.net/Books6/Bhikkhu_Buddhadasa_Paticcasamuppada.htm


In the future, Ananda, there will be clan-members [(religious) lineage members] who are “yellow-necks,” immoral, of bad nature. People will give them gifts for the sake of the sangha. Even then, Ānanda, I say, an offering made to the sangha is immeasurable. And, Ānanda, I say that in no way is an individual gift ever more fruitful than an offering made to the sangha.

Dakkhiṇa Vibhaṅga Sutta


Start by adding Walking Meditation to your practice.

Next, when you finish your meditation and are about to go on with your day, make a resolve to be mindful and try to keep that mindfulness as you leave the meditation.

Then start setting aside key times during the day when you will accomplish some activity mindfully.  For instance, it could be meal-time, or a break in which you take a walk or do your exercise.

Gradually expand that mindfulness practice to include other parts of your day.

You could also carry a mindfulness timer or app that will chime at regular intervals to remind you to be mindful.

Most important: don't get discouraged.  Getting distracted or falling back into old patterns is natural.  Mindlessness is a habit, and like all habits, it takes work and there is backsliding.


Two-arrows paradigm (Sallatha Sutta) -- in the Mahayana?

Most Mahayana sutras are in Chinese Text, as a result someone who is good both in English and Chinese will help you.

I tried google, and found 2 results based on the titles: (however not sure how smart google is in buddhism, so i do not know if they are Chinese versions of your selected sutra)

http://tripitaka.cbeta.org/T01n0026_060
（二二一）中阿含例品箭喻經第十
http://www.cbeta.org/result/normal/T01/0094_001.htm
佛說箭喻經

However similar story might appear in some other sutras, the story below is one of them which I read before:

======================

http://www.cbeta.org/result/normal/T19/0945_005.htm
(From line: T19n0945_p0126b20(00))

畢陵伽婆蹉即從座起，頂禮佛足而白佛言：「我初發心從佛入道，數聞如來說諸世間不可樂事，乞食城中心思法門，不覺路中毒刺傷足，舉身疼痛我念有知，知此深痛雖覺覺痛，覺清淨心無痛痛覺，我又思惟如是一身寧有雙覺？攝念未久身心忽空，三七日中諸漏虛盡成阿羅漢，得親印記發明無學。佛問圓通，如我所證，純覺遺身斯為第一！」

======================

And the English version of above text:

======================

Pilindavatsa arose from his seat, bowed at the Buddha's feet, and said to the Buddha:

"When I first left home to follow the Buddha and enter the way, I often heard the Thus Come One explain that there is nothing in this world that brings happiness. Once, when I was begging in the city, I was reflection on this Dharma-door and did not notice a poisonous thorn on the road until it had pricked my foot. My entire body experienced physical pain, but my mind also and recognized the feeling of pain, I knew that in my pure heart, there was neither pain nor awareness of pain.

"I also thought, 'Is it possible for one body to have two awareness?' Having reflected on this for a while, my body and mind were suddenly empty. After twenty-one days, my outflows disappeared. I accomplished Arhatship and received certification in person and a confirmation that I had realized the level beyond study.
"The Buddha asks about perfect penetration. As I have been certified to it, purifying the awareness and forgetting the body is the superior method."

======================

May you be happy and at ease


Can one follow Hinduism and Buddhism at the same time?

In Buddhism the main teachings you have to have faith in is the 8 Fold Path divided into 3 trainings, which is to develop higher virtue, higher mind and higher wisdom.

No religion is incompatible with developing higher virtue, higher mind and higher wisdom, therefore you can start practicing considering you self a Hindu. As you find parts of Buddhism logical and verified at the experiential level then you can lowly accepting parts of Buddhism at your own pace.


No. Animals can not become Buddha.
Even if an elephant or any other animal regulates his life right ,he will not attain insight into the Truth.

To quote from Questions of King Milinda:

  'Venerable Nâgasena, those who regulate their lives aright--do they
  all attain to insight into the Truth, or are there some of them who do
  not?' 'Some do, O king, and some do not.' 'Then which do, Sir, and
  which do not?' 'He who is born as an animal, O king, even though he
  regulate his life aright, will not attain to insight into the Truth,
  nor he who is born in the Preta world, nor he who holds wrong views,
  nor the deceitful man, nor he who has slain his mother, or his father,
  or an Arahat, nor he who has raised up a schism in the Order, nor he
  who has shed a Buddha's blood, nor he who has furtively attached
  himself to the Order , nor he who has become a pervert , nor he who
  has violated a sister of the Order, nor he who, having been guilty of
  one or other of the thirteen grievous offences , has not been
  rehabilitated, nor a eunuch, nor an hermaphrodite--and whosoever is a
  human child under seven years of age, even though he regulate his life
  aright, will not attain to insight into the Truth. To these sixteen
  individuals there is no attainment of insight, O king, even though
  they regulate their life aright.'


What raised mudra is depicted on the Buddha rupa at the London Peace Pagoda and what does it mean?

This guide -- The Battersea Park Peace Pagoda -- says,

In this statue the Vitarka Mudra, associated with explaining the Buddha’s teachings, with the right hand right raised and the tips of the forefinger and thumb touching, is combined with the Tarjani Mudra for warding off evil, with forefinger and little finger outstretched.


In breathing mindfulness ,why only long and short breaths are taken into consideration?

I can guarantee that you can take normal breathing. And you should take normal breath. Without trying to make it long or short.

  While breathing in long, he knows “I am breathing in long”, or, while breathing out long, he knows “I am breathing out long”; or, while breathing in short, he knows “I am breathing in short”, or, while breathing out short, he knows “I am breathing out short”.

As you state, Normal breathing is not ignored but it just a way to teach meditators.

The goal of this sentence is you should know every single moment of breath.


It appears original Buddhism did not teach about "reincarnation". It appears "reincarnation" was introduced into Buddhism at a later time.

The Pali suttas show original Buddhism taught about "upapajjati" ("re-arising"), which means a certain result arising following from certain actions. "Upapajjati" is concerned with the results of kamma or morality.

The original Pali suttas most often say what is "re-arises" is the former sense of "being" or "self".

For example, you have the idea: "I will rob this bank because I want to have money". Then when you are imprisoned for robbing the bank, you have the painful regret: "Why was I so stupid to get get caught?". What "re-arises" is the same sense of "being", "self" or "I"; that is caught up or strongly attached to the idea of robbing a bank for money.

The scriptures say:

  'These beings — who were endowed with bad conduct of body, speech &
  mind, who reviled noble ones, held wrong views and undertook actions
  under the influence of wrong views — with the break-up of the body,
  after death, have re-appeared in the plane of deprivation, the bad
  destination, the lower realms, in hell. But these beings — who were
  endowed with good conduct of body, speech & mind, who did not revile
  noble ones, who held right views and undertook actions under the
  influence of right views — with the break-up of the body, after death,
  have re-appeared in the good destinations, in the heavenly world.'

Therefore what "re-arises" is "a being". The scriptures also say "a being" is a mental state of strong attachment, as follows:

  'A being,' lord. 'A being,' it's said. To what extent is one said to
  be 'a being'?"

  "Any desire, passion, delight, or craving for form, Radha: when one is
  caught up there, tied up there, one is said to be 'a being.'

  "Any desire, passion, delight, or craving for feeling... perception...
  fabrications...

  "Any desire, passion, delight, or craving for consciousness, Radha:
  when one is caught up there, tied up there, one is said to be 'a
  being.'

  SN 23.2

While "a being" is a mental state of delusion; it is this delusion that "re-arises" or "upapajjati".


Q2. Also, can I know the simple explanation of what these actually mean

  I will breathe in calming bodily fabrication.

This is a mistranslation. It should be 'body fabricator'. The body fabricator is defined in MN 44 as the in & out breathing.

The breathing is the body fabricator because when the breathing is calm, the body is calm; if the breathing is agitated, the body is stressed.; if the breathing is unhealthy, the body is unhealthy. If the breathing ends, the body dies. If the breathing starts, the body lives.

This calming the breathing is achieved by having a quiet non-attached mind, which unifies itself with the breathing.

  I will breathe in sensitive to rapture.

When the breathing & body calm sufficiently, rapture will arise to be the predominant object of meditation. It generally takes at least 60 to 75 minutes of calming the breathing constantly for rapture to arise.

Remember, the mind must be non-attached & in the present moment rather than craving for results & thinking about the future.

  I will breathe in sensitive to pleasure.

If the mind remains non-attached & concentrated, the rapture will calm and pleasure or happiness will appear, which is a more refined pleasant feeling than rapture. Rapture (piti) is very vibrant, bubbly, agitating & seductive where as happiness (sukha) is more subtle, calm & soothing.

  I will breathe in sensitive to mental fabrication

This again is a mistranslation. It should be 'mind fabricator'. Rapture & happiness are the mind fabricator (citta sankhara) because they seduce the mind and, if the mind is not mindful, rapture & happiness will fabricate craving, greed, love, attachment in the mind. This is why they are called the mind fabricator because they fabricate or condition defilment in the mind.

  I will breathe in calming mental fabrication.

Just like when the breathing is calmed, by remaining non-attached & equanimous towards rapture & happiness, they will calm.

  I will breathe in sensitive to the mind.

When rapture & happiness cease, the mind-heart (citta) itself becomes the object of meditation. Here, the mind has concentration. The mind is not thinking.

However, there will be some residual defilements in the mind such as greed, anger & confusion that subtly arose in response to the rapture. For example, sometimes the mind does not like rapture because the rapture disturbed the mind when it was peacefully watching breathing.

At stage 9, any residual defilements (kilesa) of the mind are observed & calmed.

  I will breathe in satisfying the mind

When the defilements are calmed, the mind feels joy due to the cleansing of the defilements. This joy are more refined & subtle than rapture & happiness because the mind is now much more pure.

  I will breathe in steadying the mind

When the joy calms, the mind concentrates deeply, in a one-pointed manner because it is pure.

  I will breathe in releasing the mind

The mind (automatically) purifies itself of the one-pointedness of concentration & becomes open, bright & perfectly non-attached.

  I will breathe in focusing on inconstancy.

At the previous stage the mind became liberated, open & non-attached.

Now, the impermanence of whatever subtle sense objects come to the mind is seen very clearly.

Here, the impermanence is so predominant that the mind sees mostly impermanence (rather than specific objects of impermanence). It is like watching a movie at very fast speed.

  I will breathe in focusing on dispassion.

In seeing the crazy impermanence, craving is destroyed more because the impermanence makes sense objects look ugly, unattractive & undesirable.

  I will breathe in focusing on cessation.

As craving is crushed or suspended, a taste of nirodha/Nibbana/no suffering/perfect peace occurs.

  I will breathe in focusing on relinquishment.

The mind now fully knows all the experiences & things are not-self. It gives up holding anything as self.

The above is the fulfillment of stream-entry on the level of neighbourhood concentration. It is not jhana. It might take a few continuous meditation retreats to achieve this if the mind has no hindrances because reaching stage 9 in a very clear way can be difficult. However, one meditation retreat should be enough to reach stage 8 (if there are no hindrances).

Reading here: Buddhadasa: Mindfulness With Breathing Secrets of Life


I've been to London Buddhist Centre and that was very good. It's part of the Triratna Buddhist Community and it's explicit aim is to present the Buddha's teaching in a way that is compatible with modern society. It's in a converted fire station so it's a really good space and it was friendly when I went.

I am biased though - I'm involved with Triratna in Leeds so it's my sangha. I think it's still a good recommendation though.


Why is Nibbanna unconditioned if it's dependent on mind & brain

Often it is said that nibbana is unconditioned

True, Nibbana is unconditioned

  but nibbana is definitely dependent on other conditions

False. This statement cannot be backed-up by any reference from Pali canon.

  Also, according to modern psychology........

You cannot explain Dhamma with modern Sciences.

WHY??

There is a true nature in this world. That is the nature of causes and effects. An effect is made by many causes and that effect will cause many other effects in several ways. (This is a very complex, hard to understand, hard to see, and very deep truth which has been taught in the "Book of Causal Relationships or Patthana Pakarana" in Pali canon. There have been mentioned 24 modes of conditionality). Only a lord Buddha can see this ultimate truth with his own wisdom without the guidance of a teacher. No other can.

Scientific method is the foundation for all modern sciences. In scientific method you carefully observe something or a pattern in the world.

Observation:

  Once learned, never able to unlearn.

Then a hypothesis is developed upon that observation.

Hypothesis:

  nothing can be 'eliminated' (greed, hatred and delusion,...)

Then a prediction is developed and carried out an experiment to prove the hypothesis.
At the end a conclusion has been made whether the hypothesis can be rejected or cannot be rejected. There lies the limitation of scientific method. An experiment can only support a hypothesis but cannot prove the hypothesis. So, a hypothesis can be true only under the conditions which the experiments carried out to support it. This is the reason one hypothesis is criticized and proved false by another over the time.

Scientists may explain a natural phenomenon with theories well supported by extensive amount of researches. And yes, that would have been true for a while until they find another behavior within that phenomenon which cannot be explained with the same theory. For example some phenomenon cannot be explained with Newtonian Physics but they can be well explained with Quantum Physics.

Dhamma cannot be criticized or argued. It is true for all the time.


What would Buddha advise to farewell when one of your parents died?

You can do transfer of merit.

More on this see:

How can merit be transferred?
Transfering merits
Sharing merit in Theravada Buddhism
Actions taken to transfer merit
Does Theravada believe in feeding food to hungry ghosts?

Also you can do a:

offering of cloths to the monks in memory of the dead (monks cloths were initially made of the cloth used to wrap the dead bodies)
organise a dhamma talk for the benefit of the dead (generally the night before the almsgiving mentioned below)
organise an almsgiving for the benefit of the dead (generally at 7 days, 3 months, then annually)

Some of these are covered in: Buddhist Ceremonies and Rituals of Sri Lanka by A.G.S. Kariyawasam


Previous & current kamma can only effect(bind) if mind is impure.  It doesn't mean that such kammas are of no effect rather these form a certain pattern which generates sankharas at subconscious state. If Ignorance still remains, clinging affect is generated due to sankharas, if not then there is no clinging affect.

This is the reason why arhants don't get disturbed by previous kamma ,cause they have no ignorance left(as only full awareness) hence sankharas cannot affect their mind rather their subconscious mind starts cleaning itself by 'letting go & to never let them come back'.

Regarding punishment through nature , if Arhant has made a commitment to do something , no nature or power can stop ,otherwise ,Arhants always remain ready to give-off their body to remove all suffering a.s.a.p. ... Still whatever the punishment is given to such Noble ones , that doesn't let their mind fickle by even a single bit. They remain at peace.
 That's why , effect of kamma within body remains to the degree/amount of  Ignorance present.


Does the absence of the son of a barren woman truly exist?

No, it does not.

One nice book on the topic that I encountered is Mario D'Amato's translation of Madhyāntavibhāga and its Vasubandhu’s commentary. In addition to providing an excellent translation, Prof. D'Amato does an awesome job retelling both texts in his own words, elaborating and clarifying the meaning. Another solid book on the topic is Mahāmudrā, The Moonlight, by Dagpo Tashi Namgyal.

Both books discuss the enlightened mind's perspective, particularly emptiness and signlessness.

In general, it is my understanding that emptiness refers to the fact that all conceptualized representations whatsoever are mere schematic models of the ontological reality and that signlessness refers broadly to the direct experience of reality beyond conceptualized representation, and specifically to direct ("intuitive") experience of emptiness thereof.

In Mahayana Buddhism there are many ways of inducing direct experience of reality beyond conceptualized representation -- most of them involve overwhelming or exhausting the discursive (conceptual) mind one way or another. The methods range from sleep deprivation, to teacher making sudden loud noise during student's meditation session, to koans, to analytical methods. The latter are particularly popular with Madhyamaka and Gelug students inclined towards intellectual speculation.

One particular pattern of demonstration involves showing the limits of basic descriptive constructs that pertain to "entity" - by deconstructing their underlying assumptions - which at that moment leaves the student with more or less clear idea of emptiness in their mind. However, in reality, the student is actually grasping onto the "sign" of emptiness (i.e. the handle of the abstraction) while mistakenly assuming to be experiencing the emptiness itself.

So the next step in the demonstration necessarily involves some sort of analytical debunking of the concept of emptiness itself, which hopefully leaves the student with no conceptual ground to stand on. The resulting experience of being "lost" is a door into signlessness.

In this passage, Tsongkhapa uses one particular technique for the second step of the demonstration, the debunking of the concept of emptiness. This particular technique employs simple logic that exploits the dependency between negation and negandum. If negandum does not exist, it says, how can its negation have any existence? The traditional example of a son of a barren woman is an example of a negandum. This impossible son metaphorically stands in for the svabhava of entities -- the intrinsic nature whose emptiness was demonstrated on step 1. This emptiness of the intrinsic nature of all phenomena (including all objects as well as the perceiving subject, "the two selves") is metaphorically compared with the non-existence of the son of a barren woman. The author says: if the son (the intrinsic nature) does not exist, how can its negation (the empty nature) not be a mere figure of speech? The purpose of this passage is not to discuss the intricacies of the notion of "existence" vs "true existence" vs "intrinsic existence" etc. - but to simply knock the concept of emptiness from under the student's feet.

Once the student lets go of the sign of emptiness and enters signlessness, he or she can hopefully see the emptiness of everything directly. This seeing involves actual direct and clear understanding of the limits of conceptual mind and the profound contrast between all models and reality. Hence in the next passage Tsongkhapa comments on the resulting state of "nonconceptual sublime wisdom", "developing profound certainty, that there is not even a particle of true existence in any thing whatsover", "eliminating the conception of true existence", "knowledge of the absence of true existence" and "knowledge of the lack of self".


All Anagamis are born in one of the five Suddhavasa Brahma realms. There they will attain Arahanthship. Yes, they have a very long life span. The lowest realm 'Aviha' has a life span of 1000 Maha Kalpas. So they will see many Buddhas in the future before entering Parinibbana.

The text is talking about monks. That means the human world. Divine beings are not discussed here.


How did this material world come into existence if the ultimate reality is voidness?

Buddhism does not answer such questions, since they do not lead to Nibbana. The Buddha said himself, that he teaches only the cessation of suffering.
It's not that these questions are not important or interesting, they certainly are, but they will not lead one to Nibbana. They will only distract and agitate the mind, leaving it unfit for practice.
If you really want to know the answers to these questions, not only intellectually but experientially, then you have to become a fully enlightened Buddha (Sammāsambuddha). Then you will be able to know everything, that there is to know.
The questions you mention, fall under the "Four Imponderables (Acinteyyas)":

The four imponderables are identified in the Acintita Sutta, Anguttara Nikaya 4.77, as follows:
The Buddha-range of the Buddhas [i.e., the range of powers a Buddha develops as a result of becoming a Buddha];
The jhana-range of one absorbed in jhana [i.e., the range of powers that one may obtain while absorbed in jhana];
The [precise working out of the] results of kamma;
Speculation about [the origin, etc., of] the cosmos is an imponderable that is not to be speculated about.

These are questions that the Buddha did not answer. Only a fully enlightened Buddha can know the answer to these questions and the questions themselves.


Is there any ritual or ceremony for House-Warming?

Generally, we invite Sangha for a meal.
After the meal, they chant some blessings.
In Sri Lanka, we have overnight Pirith chanting in the new house.


Originally the Catuṣkoṭi or Tetralemma was just an indication of all possible combinations of two predicates, and obviously, if these two predicates don't contradict, there is no problem.

Now, the Buddha himself does make seemingly contradictory statements, like when he refuses to answer the questions of Vacchagotta in SN 44.10, who asks first whether there is a self, then whether there is no self. Questioned by Ananda as to why he did not answer, the Buddha effectively claims, that both answers would have been wrong.

In this case, since there is only one predicate (and its contradiction), there do arise logical problems. The only attempt, to solve these kinds of problems I am aware of is in the article

  Klaus Butzenberger: Einige Aspekte zur catuskoti unter besonderer Berücksichtigung Nagarjunas, in: Synthesis Philosophica 1990, 567–580.

If you know German, then go read it. If not, let me summarize that it attempts to solve these problems in three ways: by classical logic, non-classical logic and thirdly by admitting its insolubility, but Butzenberger admits, that each of these attempts at solution does remain unconvincing to fruitless.

This might - now here comes my 50 cents - be due to the case, that the Tetralemma is used by a great number of authors in Indian logic and they do not handle it the same way. In the case of the Buddha's refusal to answer, it might be conjectured, that the Buddha is talking in two different levels of truth: a conventional truth and an absolute truth. So in order to remain truthful on the absolute level, we may have to accept contradictions on the conventional level, if - what the Buddha sometimes blames questioners for - the question is posed in a wrong way.


What explains the membership of Shingon's 13 Buddhas list?

Courtesy of Brian Gentz

The list of 13 Buddhas used in Shingon funeral rites is based on the chief Buddhist deities found on two important mandalas used by Shingon practitioners in ritual practices: the Taizokai (Womb World) mandala and the KongoKai (Diamond World) mandala.  It is understood the deities assist the living and the deceased by guiding them into the realm of enlightenment.  Depending on the anniversary date of the deceased, a memorial service associated with the deity is held for the deceased.

Each deity on the list plays an important part at different levels of the two mandalas in assisting the initiate reach enlightenment.   These mandalas are aggregates of additional mandalas from the early Vajrayana tradition.  The mandala principals for the illustrations and placement of the deities roles are found in early Vajrayana texts: the Womb World Mandala is found in the Mahavairocana Tantra, and the Diamond World Mandala is found in the Vajrasekhara Tantra.

List of 13 Buddhas and the dates for the corresponding memorial services:

Fudo (Acala) - The Immovable Radiant King, 7th day
Shaka (Sakyamuni) - Sage of the Shakya Tribe, 14th day
Monju (Manjushri) - Bodhisattva of Beautiful Splendor, 21st day
Fugen (Samantabhadra) - Bodhisattva of Universal Beauty, 28th day
Jizo (Ksitigarbha), - Bodhisattva Storehouse of the Earth 35th day
Miroku (Maitreya), - The Benevolent Bodhisattva 42nd day
Yakushi (Bhaisajyaguru), - Buddha of the Master of Medicine 49th day
Kannon (Avalokitesvara), - Bodhisattva of Compassion 100th day
Seishi (Mahasthamaprapta), - Bodhisattva Who Proceeds With Vigor 1st anniversary
Amida (Amitabha), - Buddha of Infinite Life and Life 2nd anniversary
Ashuku (Akshobhya), - The Immovable Buddha 6th anniversary
Dainichi (Vairocana), - The Great Buddha of Universal Illumination 12th anniversary
Kokuzo (Akasagarbha), The Storehouse of Space Bodhisattva 32nd anniversary

Garbhadhatu Mandala (Womb World Mandala)

Courtesy of Peehyoro Acala

Vajradhātu Mandala (Diamond World Mandala)

Courtesy of Peehyoro Acala


should i consider this as a hindrance in my practice

In my opinion, you have not lost your brahmacharya because your action was not intentional because your mind was in partial sleep. In Buddhism, for sin or transgression to occur, it seems there must be conscious intention.

If you want to train in discipline like a Buddhist, you should never sleep with your sister, let alone with any other female, even your mother, let alone in public, because, for a brahmacharya, nocturnal emission can happen anytime.

Buddhists do not believe in God. Sexual arousal is caused by chemicals, electrons & hormones and only enlightened beings do not have sexual arousal. Sexual arousal is 'not-self' ('anatta').

The error you made was to sleep with your sister. As a brahmacharya, you must not do this because a brahmacharya should no longer behave like an ordinary householder.


The three characteristics are characteristics of phenomena and are not related to mental reactions to things. "Dukkha" here does not mean "getting distraught". "Dukkha" meaning "getting distraught" pertains to the subject of the Four Noble Truths but not to the subject of the Three Characteristics.

For example, a motor car is impermanent. Because a motor car is impermanent, the motor car cannot bring lasting happiness. Therefore it is "dukkha" ("unable to bring happiness"). The impermanence of the motor car also makes it "not-self" because it cannot be permanently owned, possessed or controlled. To view a motor car in this way does not mean the viewer "gets distraught". For the Enlightened, it is the opposite. Their minds attain peace when understanding a motor car cannot bring lasting true happiness.


You are certainly not alone. Sounds like what you describe is a situation I have been in many times.

In order to find more balance, I would stay sitting still and try to remember that I could just be with the tension, fuzzy lack of clarity, confusion, anger, desire for the practice to go my way and whatever else arises. Usually this would lead to a better practice session.

This problem is mainly about unbalanced   faculties. A good teacher can help yogis balance the faculties. A good teacher can be a wonderful help when yogis are tangled up like this.


Could be because you are performing forced breaths.

Otherwise, there could possibly be some type of physical problem or blockage, such as this I found on the internet.

If the later, I would research the internet, ask a doctor or ask a highly skilled acupuncturist.


How can you see suffering in the breath?

The three characteristics are very deep and profound subjects, and often our understanding of them is very superficial. For example, people often think that they understand impermanence because they understand it to mean that all conditioned things will eventually end, when in fact impermanence means much more than that.

In order to see the three characteristics through anapanasati it is nessisary to make sure that one is practicing it in a way that is specifically developing insight, and to do this it is necessary to meditate just on the bare experiences of breathing rather than on the breath itself. For example, one could use the feelings of air moving against the inside of the nose and the subtle feelings of heat and cold, or on the throat, or the expansion and contraction of the body during breathing.

After one is able to meditate like this then one will be able to start to see the three characteristics in a deeper way than before. One will be able to see how all experience is made up of parts that arise and cease, and gradually a person will be able to understand impermanence through direct perception in meditation instead of the conceptual way that most people are used to, and as this direct understanding of impermanence ripens the meditator will be able to directly perceive the characteristics of dukkha and nonself.


What is the monastic policy on family visitations?

If one was to ordain, would they ever be able to see their friends and family again?

The following quote is from the book "The Bhikkhus' Rules
A Guide for Laypeople", Chapter: Intimacy - Touching. The last part of the paragraph is interesting. I have highlighted it:

  "If a bhikkhu touches his mother out of affection, then this is still an offence but the lesser one of wrong-doing (dukka.ta). [46] While gratitude to parents was strongly emphasized by the Buddha, the bhikkhu having left the home-life and his family should not cling to worldly relationships. The only true way for him to fulfill his filial obligations is by gaining insight into Dhamma and then teaching his parents."

Here it's stated that if possible one should teach the Dhamma to ones parents, meaning that one will be able to see them again.

There is another quote from the same book, Chapter: Rains Retreat:

  A bhikkhu must make a formal determination to be resident at dawn every day in that place for the whole three month period. (There are exceptional circumstances when he may be allowed to be away, but even then he should return within seven days.)[26] These three months are often a special time of study or meditation and so are sometimes known as the Rains Retreat or Rains Residence. This is also the normal time when the young men of South East Asia become monks for the traditional three month period.

  [26]: This special leave of absence (sattaaha) can only be taken in order to: visit or nurse ill Dhamma-friends and parents; support fellow bhikkhus who are thinking of disrobing; to attend to some essential duty of the Community; to support faithful lay devotees who make an invitation. (See EV,II,pp.84; 89-90)

Here it's mentioned that a monk is allowed to take leave from the Rain Retreat only under special circumstances, e.g. to visit or nurse ill parents. One should return in seven days.

  If so, how often?

I could not find anything within the Theravada Tradition as to how often one is allowed to visit family.

Here is a quote from Plum Village (Zen Buddhism):

  When you are ordained as a monk or a nun, you make a commitment to stay with the Plum Village Sangha for the rest of your life.  The Sangha is your family and our monasteries are your home.  Even when difficulties arise, we do our best to live in harmony with our brothers and sisters.

  Your immediate family is welcome to visit you and they do not have to contribute to expenses. You can also have leave to visit your family every two years, or, in the case of an emergency, sooner.


In the Kalama Sutta, the Buddha is reported as saying that Buddhist principles should not be accepted without evidence, and that 'it is proper ... to doubt'. Confidence/trust (sraddha) in the teachings is important, but 'blind' faith is actively discouraged. Here's what he is reported as saying:

  "It is proper for you, Kalamas, to doubt, to be uncertain; uncertainty has arisen in you about what is doubtful. Come, Kalamas. Do not go upon what has been acquired by repeated hearing; nor upon tradition; nor upon rumor; nor upon what is in a scripture; nor upon surmise; nor upon an axiom; nor upon specious reasoning; nor upon a bias towards a notion that has been pondered over; nor upon another's seeming ability; nor upon the consideration, 'The monk is our teacher.' Kalamas, when you yourselves know: 'These things are bad; these things are blamable; these things are censured by the wise; undertaken and observed, these things lead to harm and ill,' abandon them...
  Kalamas, when you yourselves know: "These things are good; these things are not blamable; these things are praised by the wise; undertaken and observed, these things lead to benefit and happiness," enter on and abide in them.

Kalama Sutta: The Buddha's Charter of Free Inquiry


What are some of the sutra's related to the Twelve Links (Nidanas)?

The best survey of suttas on Twelve Nidanas that I have seen can be found in "The Fundamental Teachings of Early Buddhism: A comparative study based on the Sutranga portion of the Pali Samyutta-Nikaya and the Chinese Samyuktagama" by Choong Mun-keat.


Having any confusion about what is proper and what is not, we can approach the question by investigation.

Even if we don't find the answer for a long time, our skills of investigation would probably grow; so this would help not only in solving that question, but also for all the future questions.

Feelings are the primary data for our mind. Therefore, in order to reach clean perception, it might be natural to accept feelings exactly as they come, not trying to change them in forceful ways.

Therefore, whatever feelings come, we can practice by

accepting them as they are,
observing whatever phenomena accompany them,
and investigating causes and results.

How can we investigate causes and results? For example, we observe how feelings are being created, and what phenomena they lead to.

This way we learn how various mental factors interact and develop. In that sense, we understand their meanings. This understanding of meanings constitutes the knowledge of what is proper and why exactly.

This practice will not only solve the problem, but also will give some insight in mechanisms working in our mind. Knowing those mechanisms, we could improve our practice, as well as help others better.

Let it be helpful!


Are there Theravada meditation retreats that allow one to work for room and board?

Here you can see the US locations for the 10-day S.N. Goenka Vipassana Meditation Retreat.

This retreat is free and is solely dependent on donations from past students. So a retreat is a gift from a past student.

You can read more about the tradition and the course here.


Any such urge gives rise to feelings. What you should do is look at the feeling equanimously and objectively so that cravings for sensual pleasures do not arise. This is in Dependent Origination.

Initially the success would be very limited with only a few seconds of success, but as you go on the duration would increase and at one point you would be able to continuously be equanimous. To be able to do this you have to do Vipassana Meditation.

For a lay person the general recommendation is to abstain from sexual misconduct. You do not have to go to this extent, but this would become natural when you become Anāgāmi which is one Stage of Enlightenment.


Buddhists meet all the same problems as other beings. If not these problems, there would be no need in Buddhism.

So the question is: what do you have to do to solve them?

If our view on the world leans to aversion, it means our thoughts were focused mainly on unpleasant things.

To explain that Buddha used to speak about six realms of samsara:

Gods
Asuras (titans)
Humans
Animals
Hungry ghosts
Hell beings

Paying attention to faults, we gradually find so much hateful things around that they make our world to be hell.

That's because our mental processes involve "selective amplification", exaggeration of some details.

Likewise, if we develop greed and insatiable wish to have some things, our world becomes the world of hungry spirits, and so on.

The same river is seen

by gods as healing nectar of pleasure,
by humans as water,
by hungry ghosts as pus and blood,
by hell beings as torturing flames.

So in order to heal our world ultimately, we have to drop amplifications and discover the world in its original form. There's always something to cry about, and there's always something to laugh about.

If you imagine how many possible thoughts and attitudes are there, imagine yourself as one with all that space,

then you might find that all the possible mass of thoughts and attitudes have silenced, and your attention is free for this here-and-now.

Be free right here, not captured by attachments to particular ideas and views.

Also to balance our perception we can pay more attention to positive qualities of people.

Pay attention when they do kind, virtuous things,
dedicate merit
and rejoice.

The practice of joy for good qualities of others is one of the most powerful spiritual practices, especially helpful in your case. We can practice it even in dreams!


How can all dharmas have no intrinsic reality logically speaking?

Perhaps you should have a good understanding of Culasunnata Sutta and Mahasunnata Sutta to know the Buddha's understanding of Sunnata.
When you attain Nirodha Samapatthi you do not have the perception and feeling. So when you emerge from Nirodha Samapatthi you know that there is a state of Sunnata.
https://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/an/an04/an04.024.than.html
https://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/mn/mn.122.than.html


Do you remember what you had for lunch yesterday? We remember only if we are interested in that thing or it is extremely important for us. We continually become because we are not happy with the past or present. The time of the arrow goes only forward.


How can an arahant still perceive without ignorance?

The 12 nidanas are not necessarily about things 'arising' or 'created' out of ignorance.

Unskilful things are 'created' by ignorance, such as craving, attachment, becoming, (self-identity) birth & (self-identity) aging-&-death.

Neutral things are 'tainted' or 'polluted' by ignorance, such as fabricators, consciousness, mind-body, sense organs, contact & feeling.

Perception is included in the fabricators, mind-body & feeling nidanas.

It follows there are two kinds of perception: (i) ignorant perception; & (ii) wise perception (often called 'full comprehension').

The quotes below may help:

  Monks, ignorance is the leader in the attainment of unskillful qualities..SN 45.1

~

  Imagine, Brahman, a bowl of water mixed with lac, turmeric, dark green or crimson dye. If a man with good eyesight were to look at the
  reflection of his own face in it, he would not know or see it as it
  really was. In the same way, Brahman, when a man dwells with his heart
  possessed and overwhelmed by sensual desire... then he cannot know or
  see, as it really is, what is to his own profit, to the profit of
  others, to the profit of both. Then even sacred words he has long
  studied are not clear to him, not to mention those he has not studied.
  SN 46.55

~

  If a monk abandons passion for the property of consciousness, then owing to the abandonment of passion, the support is cut off, and there
  is no landing of consciousness. Consciousness, thus not having landed,
  not increasing, not concocting, is released. Owing to its release, it
  is steady. Owing to its steadiness, it is contented. Owing to its
  contentment, it is not agitated. Not agitated, he (the monk) is
  totally unbound right within. SN 22.53

~

  A monk who is a Worthy One, devoid of mental fermentations — who has attained completion, finished the task, laid down the burden, attained
  the true goal, destroyed the fetters of becoming, and is released
  through right knowledge — directly knows earth as earth. Directly
  knowing earth as earth, he does not conceive things about earth, does
  not conceive things in earth, does not conceive things coming out of
  earth, does not conceive earth as 'mine,' does not delight in earth.
  Why is that? Because he has comprehended it, I tell you. MN 1

~

  On seeing a form with the eye, he isn't infatuated with pleasing forms, and doesn't get upset over unpleasing forms. He dwells with
  body-mindfulness established, with unlimited awareness. He
  discerns, as it has come to be, the awareness-release &
  discernment-release where those evil, unskillful qualities cease
  without remainder. Having thus abandoned compliance & opposition, he
  doesn't relish any feeling he feels — pleasure, pain,
  neither-pleasure-nor-pain — doesn't welcome it, doesn't remain
  fastened to it. As he doesn't relish that feeling, doesn't welcome it,
  & doesn't remain fastened to it, delight doesn't arise. From the
  cessation of his delight comes the cessation of clinging. From the
  cessation of clinging comes the cessation of becoming. From the
  cessation of becoming comes the cessation of birth. From the cessation
  of birth, then aging-&-death, sorrow, lamentation, pain, distress &
  despair all cease. Such is the cessation of this entire mass of stress
  & suffering. MN 38


It depend on what you mean by the word religion.

  the belief in and worship of a superhuman controlling power, especially a personal God or gods

If you take above definition, Buddhism is not a religion.


I guess you are asking about Dependent Origination?

You can find detailed information in "Learning materials for Dependent Origination (Paṭiccasamuppāda) in Theravada Buddhism".

For a perspective from the Abhidhamma, "The Abhidhamma in Practice" may be helpful.


Has anybody tried meditating forehead to forehead? Or communicated with others via meditation?

To be quite frank, I don't really see much point in this from a Buddhist perspective. What is the purpose in doing this? Maybe you can have some interesting experiences with different sensations, and for all I know, visions or psychic powers, but in the end these things don't lead towards awakening.

At most, these things could lead to a kind of concentration being developed, but there are other ways of developing concentration that can be used as part of the path. For example, one could develop the jhanas and then use them as a basis for examination. Practicing in that way would probably lead to a lot more pleasure than meditating on the chakras with your foreheads together, and it can be used to gain awakening.


What does buddhism say about bodybuilding (and weights training)?

These practices are seeing just like any other sport that does not involve morally problematic activities like killing or hurting other beings: it's just a sport. I don't think power lifters et al. are seen as aggressive -- not like, say, bullfighting or any other blood sport.

But things might be different for a buddhist body builder or power lifter. In the buddhist training, there is a spectrum from lay to monastic, and in that spectrum, the inclination to engage in certain activities change.

For example, a lay buddhist might take to heart five buddhist precepts:

I undertake the training rule to abstain from killing.
I undertake the training rule to abstain from taking what is not given.
I undertake the training rule to avoid sensual misconduct.
I undertake the training rule to abstain from false speech.
I undertake the training rule to abstain from fermented drink that causes heedlessness.

These are among the most basic buddhist training rules that enables one to practice buddhism and none has anything to say about body building  -- or sports for that matter (but drugs that cause heedlessness are breaking the fifth, which may obstruct the person's practice). So, lay buddhists can normally practice sports like body building etc. One of the main points of evaluation is ethical conduct and many sports do not present an ethical problem.

Now, a more committed lay buddhist might take some extra precepts, like:

I undertake to abstain from singing, dancing, playing music, attending entertainment performances, wearing perfume, and using cosmetics and garlands (decorative accessories).

Taking that vow likely conflicts with watching and participating on competitions. Even though, strictly speaking, it might not be a problem if one just wants to practice the sport, a person more committed to buddhist training might be less inclined to partake in activities that might hurt his or her buddhist training progress.

In the end of the spectrum there's the monk or nun. They are unlikely to devote themselves to activities that require too much (of time, energy, money, etc) and that do not benefit / or creates obstacles to their buddhist practice.


The Buddha did say:

  "One should not go about making a business out of the Dhamma"

This web page gives a source for the quote. They use a different numbering scheme ("Ud 66") to Access to Insight, which gives it in the verse at the end of "Ud 6.2 PTS: Ud 64":

  One   should not make an effort everywhere,
      should not be another's hireling,
      should not live dependent on another,
      should not go about
          as a trader in the Dhamma.

However, this is on the side of the seller. The seller is putting wealth above sharing the dhamma which is why this normally is considered to give bad karma. This quote says nothing about the buyer. Just because selling the dhamma is not a wholesome action does not mean that taking the dhamma is a wholesome action.

There was no written language at the time of the Buddha so there was no such thing as taking the dhamma which was not given.

You'll have to make your own decision about whether you should pirate the book. The second precept may also be relevant but some consider it to not apply to pirating. "I undertake the precept to refrain from taking that which is not given"