Can a person be operating an aircraft in a "Careless" and "Reckless" manner at the same time? Or are these two different standards?

From a legal perspective, 'careless' and 'reckless' sound similar but are quite different.
Careless is the antonym of prudent and careful. There is usually no attempt to analyze the state of mind of the offender (other than in defense to reduce a more serious charge to the less serious careless.)
An example might be failing to lower the landing gear because the pilot forgot -- this would very likely fit the definition of careless. Careless is usually not a criminal violation in American legal frameworks (such as careless driving) but may be when combined with a statute violation.
Careless is also used as a description of the violation of the standard of care that is a reasonable expectation of care from those acting in a professional capacity or while subjecting others to danger or under a common carrier standard of care. The FAA use of careless is purposely ambiguous to allow any fitting definition to be used.
Reckless involves the wanton or willful disregard of other people's safety and/or property. It is usually a crime. Flying under a bridge or buzzing your buddies house would likely fit the definition of reckless. The burden of proof is on the prosecution to prove that state of mind of the defendant. HERE is a legal definition. HERE is the FAA's regulatory definition of what the FAA/ NTSB consider reckless.
Negligent would usually be considered between Careless and Reckless in severity and is usually the lowest level of criminal culpability. (Recall that FBI Director Comey's conclusion about Secretary Clinton's private email server rested on his definition of gross negligence vs extremely careless. The first is a crime with classified material; the second is not.)
The FAA likely uses Careless or Reckless in §91.13 to lower the bar that neither is tolerated and the difference between them will be dealt with in administration and penalties. It is a broad catch-all that includes negligent. If you go to the NTSB database of infractions, 91.13 is the most common. It is usually an add-on or derivative charge allowing for emergency revocation of a pilot's certificate. The applicable difference between the ALJ applying careless as opposed to reckless is the degree of penalty (license suspension vs license revocation) and, as you pointed out, whether the ARSP exemption to penalties apply.
Some examples of 91.13(a)claims; some of which parse through the difference of careless and reckless:

A pilot forgot to remove the nose-wheel chock of a propeller aircraft. He asked his wife to remove the chock from the aircraft with the engine running. She was fatally injured. CASE

Pilot wrongly declared a minimum fuel condition to ATC. CASE

'Buzzing' twice over a nude beach with a pilot on the beach as a witness. CASE

Misunderstood ATC clearance causes breach of separation. CASE

Helicopter pilot having sex with a passenger recorded on video. Martz case and ARTICLE

The Martz decision combined with the FAA definition of reckless can be derived into a standard of conduct that will likely ground you.
Under Martz, and previous cases, the standard of a finding careless or reckless is:

Regardless, as we have previously held, the Administrator need not
establish actual danger, a flight suddenly in peril, in order to
prevail in proving that a respondent has operated an aircraft in a
careless or reckless manner. In Administrator v. Lorenz, NTSB Order
No. EA-5205 at 2-3 (2006), we recognized that a showing of potential
endangerment is sufficient to prove a violation of § 91.13(a), and
cited several cases holding that proof of actual danger is unnecessary
for a § 91.13(a) charge.

And the relevant FAA standard is:

The inspector can infer a deliberate and willful disregard of the regulations or safety standards from the circumstances surrounding a violation. [omited text]
While there is no regulatory definition of the term, “reckless,” it
has been defined in cases decided by the NTSB. A reckless operation
results from the operation of an aircraft conducted with a deliberate
or willful disregard of the regulations or accepted standards of
safety so as to endanger the life or property of another either
potentially or actually. Accordingly, any such reckless behavior
violates § 91.13.

So potential of danger (not actual danger) that with a state of mind that can be inferred from the circumstances (not actual mens rea) is the applicable standard under § 91.13.
An excellent history of the development of 91.13 can be found HERE starting on p. 71 of the PDF.
Also keep in mind that the FAA is only dealing with administrative penalties; if you do something considered reckless there may be additional federal, local, or international criminal penalties as well as civil liability.
So to answer your question of Can a person be operating an aircraft in a “Careless” and “Reckless” manner at the same time? Or are these two different standards?
Since the spread between careless on the one hand and reckless on the other is large, one infraction is unlikely to be both simultaneously1. It is really more of an ambiguous spectrum of stupid and careless on the one extreme, to reckless and perhaps homicidal on the other extreme, with everything-we-don't-like in between. The difference between the two is largely the degree of the offense and the inferred state of mind of the offender.2

1 It very possible that an initial offense would be considered careless (such as forgetting to remove the nose chock) but the pilot's reaction is then judged to be reckless (sending his wife to remove the chock with a running engine resulting in her death.)
2Administrative legal procedures, such as FAA or NTSB enforcement actions, have significantly reduced burden of proof compared to criminal actions. See the FAA standard that allows intent to be inferred from the circumstances of the violation. See FSIM § 8900.1 CHG 422 14-3-5-1


How are pitch angle and pitch rate measured in an airplane?

The pitch of an aircraft relative to the horizon is observed on the Attitude Indicator which also displays roll angle. These are required for IFR flight but not VFR flight here in the US. As such they are found on most but not strictly all aircraft. These are typically gyroscopically based.

(source)

Here is a basic cutaway of the interior showing where the gyro is mounted. They are often vacuum (or positive pressure) driven but can be optical or electrical as well.

(source)

Angle to the relative wing (angle of attack) is shown on an angle of attack indicator. While not required these are becoming more popular. These are controlled by a sensor on the outside of the aircraft.

(source)

The sensor that measures this on the exterior looks like this:

(source)

As far as I know there is no pitch rate info on your standard panel.


Can flight control computers detect and help to avoid pilot-induced oscillations?

PIOs occur because the pilot senses a rapid movement and feels the urge to counter it. Key is the frequency of a few Hertz, so the pilot's reaction kicks in with a phase shift such that it promotes the movement, and low damping such that the oscillation amplitude grows over time. With a working FCS this kind of rapid movement should not happen.

However, once the FCS is not tuned to the situation, it can actually aggravate the situation and promote PIOs. The best known case is probably the 1992 crash landing of Tom Morgenfeld with the YF-22 prototype.

Here the gains in the FCS were set too high with afterburner on and gear up at slow speed.

Another case happened in the early phases of flight testing the V-22 Osprey. Here two of the three gyros in the control system were incorrectly wired and the pilot made a wrong control input.

So it is less the ability of the FCS to detect PIOs than its improved damping which never lets a rapid oscillation happen in the first place.


Does using a reverse high Cm horizontal tail airfoil coupled with a low Cm wing increase horizontal tail effectiveness?

They could just as easily used a low Cm NACA0018 or NACA2415 foil with a slotted elevator to get the same CL, but they chose a high Cm foil instead.

For an elevator, we want to maximize the lift coefficient at the maximum effective control deflection, while maintaining a high degree of linearity with respect to the deflection. There is a maximum effective deflection because any higher control deflection will no longer increase the lift.

A well-designed slotted elevator is theoretically supposed to help with that. But the size of the slot, and any spoiling elements along the hinge would need to be carefully tested in the wind tunnel. Otherwise, they may end up reducing your maximum effective deflection instead. The mechanism required to achieve a good slot may also be complicated for an elevator (slotted flaps don't move like an elevator).

  I'm assuming using a low Cm wing and a high Cm horizontal tail adds to the effective moment produced by the area of the horizontal tail, allowing for a smaller horizontal tail area.

That's a good question. I did some quick math using a variation of usual airplane parameters, and here's the summary of the results:

The static margin is unaffected by the camber. For NACA4412, there may even be a forward shift in AC (for the same tail planform), so there may be a slight reduction in static margin.
Having a negatively cambered tail offloads the tail lift, exacting a small saving in trim drag (a few counts at cruise CL of 0.4). Since it offloads the tail, it may also be beneficial to preventing tail stall, but the effect is fairly small.
A negatively cambered tail also produces negative zero-incidence lift. The amount of negative lift can be tailored depending on the overall configuration (CG range, flaps, thrust lines) to minimize form drag.

We can derive the following trimmed lift and pitching moment equations assuming a cambered tail and zero thrust:

(1) $C_{L}=C_{L_{wb_0}}+a\alpha+\frac{S_t}{S}[C_{L_{t_0}}+a_t(i_t-\epsilon_0)]$

(2) $C_m=C_{m_{ac_{wb}}}+C_{m_\alpha}\alpha-V_H[C_{L_{t_0}}+a_t(i_t-\epsilon_0)]+(h-h_{ac_{wb}})C_{L_{wb_0}}+\frac{S_t}{S}C_{m_{ac_t}}=0$

where,

$C_{m_\alpha}=a(h-h_{ac_{wb}})-a_t\overline{V_H}(1-\frac{\partial \epsilon}{\partial \alpha})$
$a=a_{wb}+a_t\frac{S_t}{S}(1-\frac{\partial \epsilon}{\partial \alpha})$
$a_t$ is the lift slope of the tail, $a_{wb}$ is the lift slope of the wingbody, $\overline{V_H}$ is the tail volume from the wingbody AC, $V_H$ is the tail volume from the CG, $\epsilon$ is the downwash on the tail


1)So if we have plane with 3000kg and we must have best L/D and if wingspan is not constrain,then we must choose bell span-load so our new wing will be 22% longer and it will have 11% smaller induced drag?

All other parameters except span held constant this is true.

  2)Why Al Bowers talk like weight and wing bending moment are same thing?If some plane have bigger wing bending moment,that dont neccesery mean that it has larger weight than plane with lower wing bending moment...

Wing root bending moment corelates to the load factor N * weight. Also spar cap sizing is done with REF to the the root bending moment which in turn drive the wing weight.

  3)Why all gliders use elliptical span-load if bell span-load has better L/D?

To be precise, all gliders do not use elliptical span-load. However, it's not wrong to say all gliders tend to use span-load distributions which are very close to elliptical loading. What elliptical span-load gives is the lease induced drag per given span. Say you start with an airplane with a given span and increase the span by 22%. Yes, you will get 11% decrease in induced drag but if you use elliptical loading on that increased span, your induced drag will be even smaller. (32% decrease)

  4)What do you think,when will aircraft industry switch to the bell span-load solution(if ever)?

I am not qualified and/or knowledgeable to answer this.
Just for the info, there are many more viable and attractive solutions available with lower risks involved, such as the ones investigated in the NASA N+3 program.


How are change-overs between regional air traffic patterns communicated?

There won't be any publicly available source for what you're looking for. Any information that you could get access to (as mentioned below) won't be reliable enough to predict when the runway changes will occur. The initial coordination always happen over secured phone lines between the controllers at the radar approach/center facilities and towers. There is no way you can hear this.

Each airports ATIS (Automated Terminal Information Service) (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automatic_terminal_information_service) will be reporting what the runway(s) in use are - but this won't actually change until the runway change becomes active, maybe 5 minutes before. I suppose it would be possible to monitor this, probably via LiveATC (or setting up your own equivalent). You could somehow monitor or export this information and listen for key words to trigger your whatever-you're-using-to-shut-off-your-"sensitive equpiment" - but I think you'd get a lot of false positives. On the same note, you could also hear controllers making their initial calls to pilots advising them of the impending runway change (probably on arrival feeder sectors of ATC or the center descent clearances).

I don't think either of these methods are reliable enough for what you're looking to do. You may consider moving your "sensitive equipment" to somewhere not near an airport.


How does the size of each stage vary in a high pressure compressor?

Yes, the volume of the annular air channel goes decreasing after each stage. When air is compressed it takes less volume. Each stage compresses a bit more, hence the volume is constantly decreasing. This is also true for the low pressure compressor.

In this cross-section, the two spools, low pressure in red, and high pressure in green, display clearly this progression.

Turbofan compressor section (GE90), source

The first stage of the high pressure compressor is longer than the last stage of the low pressure compressor, but note the annular space of the high pressure section is smaller than the low pressure section due to the mean diameter reduction. In addition the HP spool rotates at a higher RPM.

Engine from the same family, in 3D:

Turbofan cutaway, source

The reduction of volume can be achieved by decreasing the outer radius of the air channel, by increasing its inner one, or by adjusting both. The number of blades/vanes can also be increased as pressure increases, to prevent deformation.


Do flight tracking websites also track non-commercial and defense aircraft?

As long as an aircraft transmits (unencrypted) ADS-B information, anyone within radio range can track it. The equipment necessary to receive ADS-B can be as simple as a computer with a TV receiver (USB DVB-T module) and the right software.

Receivers can then send the data stream to, for example, Flightradar24, who will display it on their website.

As Flightradar24 states, not all aircraft are equipped with an ADS-B transponder, and even those that do may not have switched it on. Unless ADS-B is installed and operating, it would not be visible.

@ezra-g mentiones that Steve Jobs' aircraft was blocked, but this is of something one would have to ask for, and the site has to apply the filter so it doesn't display on its website. However, Jobs' plane would still have been visible on the receiving computers. And, of course, the website will only filter your aircraft if they are willing to do so, either on request, through payment, or a government order.

Flightradar.com also has some other data sources, like FAA (Federal Aviation Administration) radar information in the US, which also contains aircraft without a transponder. The FAA may also filter some aircraft.


These are mostly IATA type designators, except for OAAG, 76A, 76B and 77E.

77F is the official IATA designation of the freighter version of the 777.

The rest:

77E seems to be an internal designation used by British Airways for a specific sub-fleet with an increased gross weight.

76B seems same as above just for 767-300ER.

I wasn't able to find anything about 76A (but I'd guess that same as above) and OAAG (perhaps it is part of the registration of an individual aircraft)


How long does it take to get your official FAA certificate in the mail?

The Airmen Certification page you linked to is the best place to get a quick status update - the little note at the top gets updated when they move into a new batch of certificates. You can also search for yourself in the airmen certification database: When your new certificate or rating shows up there your certificate is probably in the mail.

How long it takes to get your permanent certificate depends mainly on how many they have in the queue ahead of you - Mine took about 60 days, but I've heard as little as 30 and as long as 100+.
If you're getting close to the expiration of your temporary certificate you can request an extension either online or at your local FSDO (more details over on this answer)


What qualifications does a commercial aircraft pilot need?

To pass the exams—written and practical—you need training and need to study.

Training is provided by flight schools, airlines, or your country's air force (if you're young and don't mind flying cool jets for a while before moving on to the civilian world).

You also need to be medically eligible for the license you're after.


Ailerons deflection of the F16 in take off and landing gain?

As per flight control diagram from General Electric 1975:
The aileron control can command +/-21.5 degs.
The flap control can command +21.5 degs down (even though the HUD will say 20 but there is in this control a +1.5 electrical bias which will be neutralized by the mechanical bias). This is added to the aileron control output.
Then one should subtract the 1.5 degs mechanical flaperon bias.
The flaperons can move +20 to -23. (remember negative is up)
So one flaperon will be at +20 down while the other will be at -1.5 up above the cord given that the aileron produces max aileron roll.
So the question is will the aileron control command max deflection if you are airborne? Most likely no when the aircraft starts rolling, as when the gear is commanded down, internally in the roll system the command will be decreased due to roll rate, and the command is only about half with gears down.
But when you are weight on wheels and the roll rate is zero, you will get one of them 1.5 degs above the cord line, when you command max roll.
Source document: Diagram in AD-A055-417.


What happened to the Boeing Y3 aircraft?

The Y3 project is the third iteration within the Boeing Yellowstone project. Y1 was to be a replacement for the 737, but was put on hold after the decision to move forward with the 737-MAX. Y2 resulted in the 787. Y3 is supposed to address the 350-600+ passenger market, replacing the 777. To my knowledge, no prototype of such an aircraft has been built. Emirates was supposed to be in discussions with Boeing about this, but that was back in 2010, and since then I believe they have ordered the new 777-8X and -9X.


Should full flaps be deployed on takeoff?

First, you have to remember on some configurations, the lower stages of flap will mostly add drag and very little lift. Sometimes that extra notch of full flaps is only there to change the camber of the wing to add a bit of a nose down attitude to help with visibility on landing. Both are items you do not require on takeoff.

Now, when selecting flaps for take-off there are two things to consider: runway length and obstacles to clear after the runway:

Runway Length

Generally when lowering flaps your $V_{\text{mu}}$ (the speed at which you become airborne, “minimum unstick speed”) will decrease. This  means a shorter runway for normal stages of flaps. As you continue to add more flaps your $V_{\text{mu}}$ will be lower, but because of the added drag, which decreases acceleration,  it will actually take a longer distance to reach that lower $V_{\text{mu}}$. There is a sweet spot in-between, though. “Take-off Flaps” is not always designed to give you the shortest takeoff roll.

Obstacle Clearance

And that is because once airborne, the more flaps you have deployed, the higher the drag, the less excess thrust available, thus the less you can climb. Simply put, you are now flying at a low speed and barely climbing. Not a good idea if there are tall trees waiting for you at the end of the runway.

It would be illegal  to take-off on full flaps if:

POH says it is prohibited,or
For commercial flying, if the flap setting does not provide the minimum required gross obstacle clearance climb gradient (depending on the type of operation and number of engines, between 2.4%-3.0% ).


The item 1 is a Krüger flap, a leading edge device which allows the wing to operate to a higher angle of attack. The wing-root fairing makes a small triangular segment necessary; outboard of it slats are used.

The item 2 is a NACA inlet for cabin air, as commented by @mins.


Is it possible to control the direction during auto-rotation?

It's entirely possible.

Attitude control works the same way during autorotation as it does during normal powered flight. It's a good thing, too... during an autorotation you want to target your descent toward a suitable landing spot :-)

To (say) roll right, moving the cyclic causes the swashplate to move in such a way that the rotor blade's pitch (angle of attack) is greater during the left-side portion of the blade's travel, and lower during the right-side portion. This produces more lift on the left side, which causes a right-rolling moment on the helicopter.

The fact that the collective is all the way down and that the rotor's RPM is being maintained by airflow through the rotor does not change the way the cyclic produces attitude changes.

The anti-torque pedals still work too, although during an autorotation the pilot will promptly apply full right pedal, since lowering the collective will essentially eliminate torque from the rotor. Pedals can still be used for yaw though, as the tail rotor is still spinning (it is linked to the main rotor).

The "180° turning autorotation" is a common maneuver taught in basic training, where the pilot must set up the autorotative descent and then complete a 180° turn toward a landing spot.

For more information about autorotations in general, I recommend the FAA's (free online) Helicopter Flying Handbook. See page 2-24 for a general description, and page 11-2 for procedures/technique.

There are also lots of autorotation demonstration videos on YouTube that show maneuvering to a landing spot / 180° turns during the auto.


Is this the relationship between rpm and thrust of a Turbofan?

The basic way jet engine and piston engine produce thrust on an airplane is the same. They accelerate a given amount of air which in reaction provide a forward force called thrust. The faster the fan or the propeller spins, the more air it can accelerate thus increasing thrust. There is a good answer there. The reason why they don't operate at the same percentage of available RPM is efficiency. It might be true that the thrust increase with RPM for any aircraft engine, but propeller have huge losses at high speed the propulsive efficiency going down dramatically. And this is mostly due to the tip vortex appearing at the tip of each blade as you can see in the picture below. As turbofan are enclosed in a casing, those tip vertices don't develop and you have less losses.

Now to your question, as you can see the curve start a 50% of the maximal RPM with a thrust rating very low. This is typically the case for turbofan where the fan design has been optimised for higher RPM. At low RPM the AOA ouf the blade is not optimal and the efficiency is quite bad.


What is an optimum engine-out bank angle?

This will vary from plane to plane depending on design, and the best method to use for a particular airplane would be listed in the engine out procedures in the POH/AFM.

When the manufacturers are flight testing the airplanes they try various combinations and tell you the absolute best one so that you can get the best performance out of the airplane in a potentially dangerous situation.  Fly your particular airplane by the book to ensure that the airplane does what the POH says that it will do.

Examples:

The Seminole POH says:

  Trim the aircraft as required and maintain a 3° to 5° bank toward the
  operating engine. The balI wiII be 1/2 to 3/4 out for minimum drag.

The Diamond Twin Star POH says:

  Establish minimum / zero sideslip condition (approx. half ball towards good engine; 3° to 5° bank).

The Cessna 441 POH says:

  The one engine inoperative best rate-of-climb speed at various altitudes
  is shown in Section 5. Best single-engine climb is attained with the wings
  banked approximately 3° to 4° and with a 2/3 to 3/4 ball slip into the
  operative engine when the airplane is at low airspeed and heavy weight. As
  airspeed increases and/or airplane weight is significantly reduced, the 2/3
  to 3/4 ball slip becomes less important.

I'm seeing a trend here among the light twins.  :-)

On the other hand, in the jets that I have flown, we are taught to remain wings level and center the ball with the rudder:

Here is what the Lear 60 AFM says:

  Use rudder pedal force as necessary to maintain slip/skid indicator centered.

The Falcon 50 AFM doesn't mention it at all.

This isn't the case for all jets though.  The A320 Flight Crew Training Manual says:

  ENGINE FAILURE

  In flight, if an engine failure occurs, and no input is applied on the
  sidestick, lateral normal law controls the natural tendency of the
  aircraft to roll and yaw. If no input is applied on the sidestick, the
  aircraft will reach an approximate 5 ˚ constant bank angle, a constant
  sideslip, and a slowly-diverging heading rate. The lateral behavior of
  aircraft is safe.

  However, the PF is best suited to adapt the lateral trimming
  technique, when necessary. From a performance standpoint, the most
  effective flying technique, in the event of an engine failure at
  takeoff, is to fly a constant heading with roll surfaces retracted.
  This technique dictates the amount of rudder that is required, and the
  resulting residual sideslip.

  As a result, to indicate the amount of rudder that is required to
  correctly fly with an engine-out at takeoff, the measured sideslip
  index is shifted on the PFD by the computed, residual-sideslip value.
  This index appears in blue, instead of in yellow, and is referred to
  as the beta target. If the rudder pedal is pressed to center the beta
  target index, the PF will fly with the residual slip, as required by
  the engine-out condition. Therefore, the aircraft will fly at a
  constant heading with ailerons and spoilers close to neutral position.


What kind of horizontal stabilizer does a Boeing 737 have?

A Boeing 737 has a movable horizontal stabilizer for pitch trim with elevators for pitch control (also known as a THS – Trimmable Horizontal Stabilizer). This is true for all 737 variants, including the MAX. Note: The term stabilator is typically used when the entire tail is rotated for pitch control, like e.g. on a Piper Cherokee.

The following image (taken from this question) shows the horizontal stabilizer (the black arc indicates the range of movement of the whole stabilizer):

From the 737 NG FCOMv2 9.20.7 (Flight Controls - System Description):

  Pitch Control

  The pitch control surfaces consist of hydraulically powered elevators and an
  electrically powered stabilizer. The elevators are controlled by forward or aft
  movement of the control column. The stabilizer is controlled by autopilot trim or
  manual trim.

  Elevators

  The elevators provide pitch control around the airplane’s lateral axis. The
  elevators are positioned by the pilots’ control columns. The A and B FLT
  CONTROL switches control hydraulic shutoff valves for the elevators.
  Cables connect the pilots’ control columns to elevator power control units (PCUs)
  which are powered by hydraulic system A and B. The elevators are interconnected
  by a torque tube. With loss of hydraulic system A and B the elevators can be
  mechanically positioned by forward or aft movement of the pilots’ control
  columns. Control forces are higher due to friction and aerodynamic loads.

  [...]

  Stabilizer

  The horizontal stabilizer is positioned by a single electric trim motor controlled
  through either the stab trim switches on the control wheel or autopilot trim. The
  stabilizer may also be positioned by manually rotating the stabilizer trim wheel.

  Stabilizer Trim

  Stabilizer trim switches on each control wheel actuate the electric trim motor
  through the main electric stabilizer trim circuit when the airplane is flown
  manually. With the autopilot engaged, stabilizer trim is accomplished through the
  autopilot stabilizer trim circuit. The main electric and autopilot stabilizer trim
  have two speed modes: high speed with flaps extended and low speed with flaps
  retracted. If the autopilot is engaged, actuating either pair of stabilizer trim
  switches automatically disengages the autopilot. The stabilizer trim wheels rotate
  whenever electric stabilizer trim is actuated.


What differences are introduced between ICAO Annex 10 volume IV amendment 85 and amendment 89?

With help of Gerry and Mins, it became clear that Amdts 86,87 and 88 did not introduce any changes to Volume IV of Annex 10.

Therefore any differences between Annex 10 Vol. IV Amdt 85 and Amdt 89 would be introduced by Amendment 89. From this documentPDF it can be seen that the changes where distributed in state letter 2014/21.

Digging a bit further I found the
minutes of an ICAO Communication Navigation and Surveillance  Sub-Group (CNS SG)PDF  meeting which included the state letter in Appendix B. You can find it from page 56 to 91.

Amendment 89 contains over 30 pages of changes to Volume IV of Annex 10 and that was more than I had hoped for; needless to say I am not copying all that information into this answer. A summary of changes can be found below.

General changes

Various recommendations and clarifying notes added.
Various editorial changes

Chapter 3, Mode S Surveillance

Revoking of the Mode A/C/S all-call interrogations after 1 January
2020.
Introduction of new data parity overlay ("Modified AA") in
transponder and Overlay Control (OVC) bit in Mode S uplink protocol.
Changes to Type Control (TCS)

Chapter 4. Airborne Collision Avoidance System

No significant changes

Chapter 5. Extended Squitter (ADS-B)

Introduction of ADS-B 1090ES Version 2

Chapter 6. Multilateration

Spectrum protection requirements


Why new jet aircraft have wider, larger cockpit windshield/windscreen?

The area of the windscreen is limited by the structural strength of the materials. The windscreen must withstand the difference between cabin pressure and outside air pressure during cruise. In addition, it must also survive impacts from birds and hail to a certain degree.

As material engineering advanced, we can produce larger windows and windscreen. For example, even though the Boeing 787 has a stronger pressure differential (6,000 feet cabin altitude vs 8,000 feet in traditional airliners), the passenger windows on the 787 are larger than previous productions.


What would be the likely repercussions of flying into the Air Force One temporary flight restriction area?

The answer to each of the points in your question is "Maybe".
A pilot wandering into a presidential TFR (and many other "VIP Movement" TFRs) potentially faces some pretty severe consequences. Quoting the standard language from one such TFR NOTAM:

  THE FEDERAL AVIATION ADMINISTRATION (FAA) CLASSIFIES THE AIRSPACE DEFINED IN THIS NOTAM AS 'NATIONAL DEFENSE AIRSPACE'. PILOTS WHO DO NOT ADHERE TO THE FOLLOWING PROCEDURES MAY BE INTERCEPTED, DETAINED AND INTERVIEWED BY LAW ENFORCEMENT / SECURITY PERSONNEL.
   ANY OF THE FOLLOWING ADDITIONAL ACTIONS MAY ALSO BE TAKEN AGAINST A PILOT WHO DOES NOT COMPLY WITH THE REQUIREMENTS OR ANY SPECIAL INSTRUCTIONS OR PROCEDURES ANNOUNCED IN THIS NOTAM:

  A) THE FAA MAY TAKE ADMINISTRATIVE ACTION, INCLUDING IMPOSING CIVIL PENALTIES AND THE SUSPENSION OR REVOCATION OF AIRMEN CERTIFICATES; OR

  B) THE UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT MAY PURSUE CRIMINAL CHARGES, INCLUDING CHARGES UNDER TITLE 49 OF THE UNITED STATES CODE, SECTION 46307; OR

  C) THE UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT MAY USE DEADLY FORCE AGAINST THE AIRBORNE AIRCRAFT, IF IT IS DETERMINED THAT THE AIRCRAFT POSES AN IMMINENT SECURITY THREAT.

That's a lot of MAYs, so what does it mean in practice?

The pilot will be detained and interviewed by law enforcement
May is a nice word, but in practice if a pilot flies into one of these TFRs they will be held and questioned once they're on the ground to find out why it happened. It's kind of a big deal.
The pilot will face some kind of Administrative Action from the FAA
Suspension or revocation of their certificate is certainly possible (especially if it's not the first time).
A stern talking-to from someone at the FSDO and/or a reexamination ("709 ride") is almost certain.
The pilot may face Civil Penalties (a nice way of saying "fines")
$10,000 used to be the magic number for these fines as defined in 49USC, the law now refers back to 18USC (which I'm not going to read through because reading the US Code makes my head hurt), but I assume it hasn't gone down. The point is it could be an expensive error.
The pilot may face Criminal Charges (arrest and imprisonment)
I can't recall a case of a pilot accidentally violating a TFR and being locked up for it, but I imagine willfully violating a TFR could land you in prison pretty easily.
Use of deadly force may occur (the pilot may be shot down)
Again, I can't recall a case where a pilot has violated a TFR and been blown out of the sky by a missile from an F-16 (though there are plenty of cases where aircraft have been intercepted and diverted), but it is an option available if the aircraft poses an "imminent security threat", however that determination is made.


Up to what thrust setting of a gas turbine engine can the airplane stay stationary on ground?

There are two answers to this question depending on how you look at it.

If the brakes are on: Full Thrust wont even move the plane this is a requirement of the braking system.

Brakes off: Somewhere a bit above idle. John covers it in his answer nicely. It will vary by loading and aircraft.

A propeller plane can get moving even at idle thrust. While jets don't do run ups (unless required for maintenance), propeller planes preform a run-up prior to takeoff where the brakes are utilized to hold the plane in place at a high thrust. A proper short field take off will also involve the application of brakes and full thrust.


How many serious airline accidents have been caused by design faults alone?

The Douglas DC-10 - The door latching mechanism was not robust and the design of the safety indication was flawed. In the Paris incident Douglas tried to blame the handler who closed the bulk compartment door for using excessive force when latching the door but ultimately the design was at fault.


Why don't airliners have bigger cockpit windows?

The reason is that bigger windows really aren't necessary. They are plenty big for the crew to see the runway just fine. Pilots have more than 180 degrees of visibility, and plenty of vertical visibility as well. Traffic routes and patterns are designed to make it easy for the pilots to see the runway as well. If the runway is behind you, then you need to turn around. If it's below what you can see out the window, you are too high anyway. And if it's above what you can see out the window, you probably have more important issues than finding the runway.

Larger windows can help spot danger like other aircraft, but airliners are almost always flown under Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) where ATC is responsible for keeping them clear of conflicting traffic.

In the past, some airliners did have larger window area. This was more important in an era where instrument navigation was more limited, and the pilots relied much more on their view outside. It was also more common on aircraft with military heritage, where it was more likely for pilots to find themselves relying on visual references instead of navigational aids.

However, modern navigation systems have made larger windows even less useful. The instruments can tell pilots just about anything they need to know about anything they can't see out the windows. The 737 actually started with "eyebrow windows" above the main row of windows. Modern systems have made those less useful, and the extra holes in the fuselage can cause cracks over time. Most 737's delivered today don't have them, and some of the old planes even get those windows plugged.

Aside from the functional reasons for not increasing window size, the same structural concerns of cabin windows will apply here as well.


Could the vertical stabilizer be removed on the NASA X-57?

Differential thrust is not a good way to control the yaw of an airplane. For one thing thrust control has to be extremely quick, if it takes even a second between a control input and the thrust response then you won't have adequate control over the airplane. For another you are entirely dependent on having engine power available for stability, if you lose your electrical system or your battery goes dead then so are you!

Another reason differential thrust is not a good idea is that at full power the only way to create differential thrust is to reduce power on one side. If I'm on climbout and I need to yaw I will lose climbing power, this means I would have to reduce my flight path angle to maintain airspeed. If I'm close to stall speed a sudden reduction in power could make me enough airspeed to stall. Not good. The only way to really mitigate against this is to increase motor power and restrict the maximum power a pilot can get. This is extra weight and cost.

Lastly, the X-57 has the engines all down the wings, this means that when the engines are going they will be producing airflow over the wing. Differential thrust means that the engines are forcing more air over one wing than the other, the wing getting more airflow will create more lift, this has the following undesirable characteristics:

A yaw input will have to be coordinated with reverse aileron to maintain level flight, a strong yaw input would need a stronger aileron change. This means badly coordinated controls and would not be very intuitive
At high angles of attack, for instance close to stall speed, sudden reduction of thrust over one wing could stall it while the other wing keeps flying, this would lead to a snap-roll and possible loss of control. In short it's dangerous.

Comparing quadcopter technologies to the technology going onto the X-57 is a bit of a misnomer:

Quadcopter motors are small and the blades are small compared to what will be used on the X-57, the ones on an airplane will be much bigger and will have a much larger response time as a result due to the longer moment arm
A quad has a higher thrust to weight ratio than the X-57 will, so less power available for differential thrust


Why are westbound transatlantic routes located hundreds of km away from eastbound routes?

The reason this is done is due to the winds aloft. The Jet Stream is a powerful current of air that blows in a west to east direction. Airplanes crossing the Atlantic from west to east take advantage of the jet stream to get there faster and save fuel, so a course is chosen to stay in the stream as much as possible. Airplanes going from east to west will be slowed by the jet stream, using more fuel and taking longer to get across, so a course is chosen to avoid the strongest winds.

The difference can be very significant, I've been on flights from NYC to London which take 6h 30m, and ones from London to NYC that take almost 9 hours.


What kind of cable is used to transmit signal from flight control computers to actuators?

ARINC 629

From The Avionics Handbook, chapter 11, Boeing B-777, Fly-By-
Wire Flight Controls:

  The ACEs [Actuator Control Electronics] and PFCs [Primary Flight
  Computer] communicate with each other, as well as with all other
  systems on the airplane, via triplex, bi-directional ARINC 629 Flight
  Controls data busses, referred to as L, C, and R. The connection from
  these electronic units to each of the data busses is via a stub cable
  and an ARINC 629 coupler. Each coupler may be removed and replaced
  without disturbing the integrity of the data bus itself.

Triplex, bi-directional ARINC 629 Flight Controls data busses

Triple: The B777 has A629 buses that can be dual, triple (flight controls) or quadruple (engine controllers) for redundancy. A triple bus means the information is send on 3 buses in parallel, using 3 bus interfaces, like this:

Source

The primary flight controllers have three lanes allocated to different functions: command, monitor and standby. Each lane is connected to a different bus of the triplex.

A629 is in many points similar to thin Ethernet (e.g. 10Base2) but uses a twisted pair instead of coaxial cable for the physical layer:

Bi-directional: Contrary to A429, A629 is bi-directional, data can travel in any direction,
From any interface to any other interface,
The bus is a twisted cable,
Terminators are fitted at both sides to prevent signal reflection and stationary waves,
A stub connects the unit to the bus using a coupler,
Couplers are plugged directly on the cable without cutting the wires.

Source

Coupler: This is actually a transformer and data are transmitted by induction.

Source

Data: Data on the bus are digital, coded with Manchester bi-phase.

AFDX

AFDX (Avionics Full-Duplex Switched Ethernet) is similar to 802.3 Switched Ethernet Standard. The physical layer can be a shielded twisted pair or an optical fiber.

Instead of a bus topology it uses a star topology. Switches are used to connect the different nodes.

Source

The particularities of the switched network:

Data don't flow to each units on the same bus, the network can be segmented to reduce contention (collisions).
Since the broadcast domain is reduced, this allows for higher data rates.
Deterministic transfer times can be achieved, something which is important in real time applications.

AFDX also allows for virtual links, that is defining a point to point virtual circuit, to completely abstract the network layer.


What are the roles of the co-pilot in commercial aviation?

Firstly, "co-pilot" is not a term that is really used anymore. When people say that they usually mean the First Officer. It's a bugbear of mine because "co-pilot" implies that there is one real pilot and a half pilot, when the reality is an airliner needs at least two fully qualified pilots to fly it safely!

When it comes to actually flying the plane, the two pilots have designated roles - Pilot Flying (PF) and Pilot Monitoring (PM - sometimes this is called Pilot Not Flying). Both the Captain and the First Officer share these roles - usually one of them is PF on the outbound leg and the other one is PM on the inbound leg. The PF manipulates the controls to actually fly the plane, whereas the PM handles communications and other required tasks that don't involve actually flying the plane.

The biggest difference between a Captain and a First officer is responsibility. The Captain is the Pilot In Command (PIC), who has ultimate responsibility for everything that happens throughout the flight. There are some practical things that only Captains can do, like flying into some tricky airports, landing in strong crosswinds, and on many aircraft only the Captain can use the steering wheel (or Tiller) for taxiing.

Historically there was a strong heirarchy - the Captain was the boss and the co-pilot was, you could say, a servant. This posed big problems, because the Captain is not always right. The advent of Crew Resource Management (CRM) has brought this down to a much more desirable level - where there is still a heirarchy to ensure decisions are made, but not so much that they are unquestionable. The future of the First Officer role will be one of continuing to recognise that they play an important role in a functioning cockpit, rather than just there to serve the Captain. And hopefully people will stop calling them co-pilots!


Another airplane almost hit me, but an ACAS Resolution Advisory told me to climb first. Now what?

Well, #2 is actually surprisingly easy. At the top middle of the NTSB website, under "Other ways to Contact NTSB" there is an innocuous-looking link that says "Submit a TCAS Notification" (which has you send an email to tcas@ntsb.gov).  Personally I'd follow that up with a phone call to the appropriate regional NTSB office as well, just to be sure you've discharged your obligation under NTSB 830.

The minimum required information for NTSB reporting is described in 49CFR830.6:

  Type, nationality, and registration marks of the aircraft;
  Name of owner, and operator of the aircraft;
  Name of the pilot-in-command;
  Date and time of the accident;
  Last point of departure and point of intended landing of the aircraft;
  Position of the aircraft with reference to some easily defined geographical point;
  Number of persons aboard, number killed, and number seriously injured;
  Nature of the accident, the weather and the extent of damage to the aircraft, so far as is known; and
  A description of any explosives, radioactive materials, or other dangerous articles carried.

There is also a FAA website (www.tcasreports.com) which pilots are encouraged to use for reporting TCAS events - this site is not connected with the NTSB, and would not seem to cover that reporting requirement, but including the information that site asks for in your report to the NTSB would probably be helpful as well.

For #1 things seem a bit murkier: I too could not locate anything from the NTSB or in FAA AC 120-55C that clearly defines "necessary to avert a substantial risk of collision", but broadly I would imagine any Resolution Advisory (RA) is reportable, while Traffic Advisories (TA) would not be.
(The reportability of RAs would seem to be doubly true if you're operating in IMC, where you have no chance of visually assessing the hazard -- Complying with an RA there would seem essential to me.)

Note that AC 120-55C does allow a pilot to disregard a TCAS RA if they're certain that they have visual contact with the aircraft causing the RA - but it also cautions that it's difficult to be that certain:

  Unless it is unequivocally clear that the target acquired visually is the one generating the RA and there are no complicating circumstances, the pilot’s instinctive reaction should always be to respond to RAs in the direction and to the degree displayed.

Presumably in a case where you're operating in VMC, it's "unequivocally clear" that you're looking at the aircraft responsible for the RA, and it's "unequivocally clear" that the traffic does not pose a substantial risk of a collision then following the RA is not "necessary to avoid a substantial risk of a collision" (i.e. you wouldn't have to report the incident).
I'd err on the side of reporting those events anyway though: If nothing else it serves to make the NTSB aware that something happened, and if they see a particularly large number of "somethings" in a given area they may take that up with the FAA to try to isolate and address possible underlying causes...


What would be the expected approximate ROD when descending at 250 kt IAS using LVL CHG at 10,000 ft, assuming a GW of 60t?

A descent at idle power and 250 knots yields about 1,500 feet per minute in the 737. Perhaps a bit less in the Max (maybe 1,300 - 1,400 fpm) with its lower drag profile, and a bit more (like 1,600 fpm) in a Classic.
Source: personal experience flying 737's.


What is the typical procedure if an engine fails during a vertical takeoff?

F35 and Harrier are both single engined. Both  had a forward fan providing lift through this fan, and in case of Harrier forward nozzles turn aft for thrust. F35 it provided lift only.  Aft nozzles in both types vector to give lift or thrust. In Harrier all nozzles are synchronised,

So silence from the engine means it's time for the black and yellow handle.. If a twin engine e VTOL aircraft where lift is provided by both engines and one has a failure, then again until you transition to sufficient aerodynamic lift you are going down... But also probably rolling away due to non symmetric thust. Look at design of DornierDo31. You can climb I side on at the Deutches  Museum at Oberschleissheim near Munich.( I was Senior Systems Engineer on Harrier, Sea Harrier. )


What are the criteria for "variable" in METAR reports?

There are two official sources to take into account:

ICAO Annex 3 to the Chicago Convention is the reference for meteorological information. Annex 3 applies to all ICAO members (countries), unless stated otherwise.
Members departing from ICAO recommendations state differences in their country AIP, section GEN 1.7.

ICAO Annex 3

§ 4.1.5.2:

  1) when the total variation is 60° or more and less than 180° and the
  wind speed is 6 km/h (3 kt) or more, such directional variations shall
  be reported as the two extreme directions between which the surface
  wind has varied

  2) when the total variation is 60° or more and less than 180°
  and the wind speed is less than 6 km/h (3 kt), the wind direction
  shall be reported as variable with no mean wind direction; or

  3) when the total variation is 180° or more, the wind direction shall be
  reported as variable with no mean wind direction"

So for ICAO there are three cases:

The wind is significant (more than 6 km/h) and there is a predominant direction (varying by less than 60°), possibly with some gusts: the three data are reported in the form 31015G27KT.
There is a significant wind (more than 6 km/h) but the direction varies a lot (between 60° and 180°): Mean direction, speed and gust are reported in the same form, and direction range is reported using V, e.g. 31015G27KT 280V350.
There is no clear wind direction, either because the speed is low (less than 6 km/h) or the direction varies by more than 180°: No direction is reported, only a speed with the indication VRB is used, e.g. VRB02KT.

Country AIP

US AIP:

  The wind direction may be considered variable if, during the 2-min
  evaluation period, the wind speed is 6 KT or less. Also, the wind
  direction shall be considered variable if, during the 2-min evaluation
  period, it varies by 60 deg or more when the wind speed is greater
  than 6 KT.

  Practices define wind gusts as rapid fluctuations in wind
  speed with a variation of 10 knots or more between peaks and lulls.
  Wind speed data for the most recent 10 minutes is examined and a gust,
  the maximum instantaneous wind speed during that 10-minute period, is
  reported if the definition above is met during that period.

ATC instructions given in PANS ATM Doc 4444, § 12.3.1.7a are also refined:

  In the U.S., the criterion for a variable wind is: wind speed greater
  than 6 kt and direction varies by 60 degrees or more. If the wind is >1
  kt but <6 kt, the wind direction may be replaced by ”VRB” followed by
  the speed or reported as observed. “VRB” would be spoken as “wind
  variable at .”

In the US, VRB indication is slightly different than in ICAO recommendations: VRB can be used regardless of the direction variation, when the wind is less than 6 kt (not 6 km/h) or if the variation is more than 60°. This covers the last two cases of ICAO.

METAR panel at Weeze tower (EDLV). source: Airplane Pictures, photo by Zonan Adolfse


How could an airliner as big as B777 make a U Turn on ground?

Turning Radius, as found in a planning document:

28.7m for a Boeing 777-200
34.7m for a Boeing 777-300

Rotating around one a point a bit off the wing to allow both wheels to roll throughout.

Minimum Pavement Width

47.5m for a Boeing 777-200
56.0m for a Boeing 777-300

Source

Be aware that this is not exactly ideal- visibility from the flightdeck is not great and you do not want the gear running into the grass or edge lights. An Emirates A380 screwed up in Warsaw not too long ago when trying to pull this stunt.

Since this width is not normally provided by the runway (even Heathrow only has 45m and 50m runway width), you will add turning pads at the end unless there are taxiways you can use instead.

Source


Which airplane has had the longest production run?

Probably the longest production run of any given craft is the Taylor Cub (more popularly known as the Piper Cub).  Which has, in one form or another, been built since about 1930, moving from manufacturer to manufacturer as the years go by.  There's been a recent resurgence in new manufacturers picking up the design lately because it now can be used in the LSA class of aircraft, created a few years back to encourage manufacturers to produce cheap, easy to fly, short range aircraft for recreational purposes.  CubCrafters is one such manufacturer, and here is their, very current, CarbonCub SS as an example of the type:

Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/25/CC11-160_Carbon_Cub.JPG, Author: FlugKerl2

The longest production run for an aircraft from a single manufacturer is the BeechCraft Bonanza (source).  Which has been in continuous production since 1947:

Source: http://i.stack.imgur.com/utPF8.jpg, Author: Bill Larkins

Another long production run is that of the Antonov An-2 which also started in 1947 and only ceased in 2001, though a variant, a turboprop version called the An-3, is still in production to this day:

Source: http://i.stack.imgur.com/YDvgG.jpg, Author: Sergey Ryabtsev

Other honerable mentions include the C-130 Hercules (in continuous production since 1954, even though only 2300 have been built).  And also, the Cessna 172 and Cessna 182.  Both started in 1956 and are still going strong today, with older airframes still being extremely common.

Also, it is probably worth pointing out the Uh-1 "Huey" Iroquois, which has been in production since 1959, and is probably the longest production run for a rotary wing aircraft:

Source: http://i.stack.imgur.com/jWVEg.jpg, Author: 111 Emergency


What is the difference between the ILS Critical Area and the ILS Sensitive Area?

Basically, yes- critical area is a subset of the sensitive area. However, the terms 'sensitive' and critical' are used interchangeably in many contexts. ICAO itself acknowledges this in the same section (ICAO Annex 10 Volume I Attachment C):

  Note 1.— The objective of defining critical and sensitive areas is to afford adequate protection to the ILS. The manner in which the terminology is applied may vary between States. In some States, the term “critical area” is also used to describe the area that is referred to herein as the sensitive area.

The determination of the critical and sensitive areas depends on the actual airport and the system in operation. The operator/regulator may simply include the are in critical list if they suspect any interference. For example, Transport Canada says:

  Actual critical areas can be defined only by experimentation and experience. When any portion of a designated sensitive area becomes suspect as a likely source of interference, that portion must be included as part of the critical area.

The main difference appears between the critical and sensitive areas appear to be that the size of the critical area is fixed (for a localizer and glide path antenna in an airport) while that of the sensitive area varies with the category of ILS and the aircraft type. In fact, the introduction of A380 led to a reassesment of ILS protection areas. From Volume I:

  2.1.9.3 The size of the sensitive area depends on a number of factors including the type of ILS antenna, the topography, and the size and orientation of man-made objects, including large aircraft and vehicles. ... . Because of the greater potential of the larger types of aircraft for disturbing ILS signals, the sensitive areas for these aircraft
  extend a considerable distance beyond the critical areas.

Image from ICAO Annex 10 Volume I Attachment C

In operational sense, in critical areas, all the vehicle and aircraft movement is prohibited, while in sensitive areas, the prohibition is limited.

  To protect the critical area, it is necessary to normally prohibit all entry of vehicles and the taxiing or parking of aircraft within this area during all ILS operations. ... With respect to sensitive areas, it may be necessary to exclude some or all moving traffic depending on interference potential and category of operation.


Is there a procedure for landing on an aircraft carrier when the tailhook fails to deploy?

The high landing speeds of modern jets mean that they cannot make anything but an arrested landing as the carrier flight deck is too small.The carriers usually have barricades to facilitate emergency landings. The following image shows a barricade.

Image source

The following image shows the barricade, raised.

Image source

The following image shows an aircraft using a barricade.The aircraft was unable to make a normal arrested recovery because of damaged landing gear.

"US Navy DN-SC-93-04867 to 04876 S-3A Viking emergency landing USS Abraham Lincoln (CVN-72) animation" by PH3 Eric Hayhurst - This Image was released by the United States Navy with the ID DN-SC-93-04867 to 04876 Commons.

See here for some other cases where barricades were used.


Would a "fuel leak" at the gate be a reportable incident?

There are a couple of places in the regualtions that require FAA or NTSB notification of certain events:

14 CFR 121.703 Service difficulty reports
14 CFR 121.705 Mechanical interruption summary report
49 CFR 830.5 Immediate notification (to the NTSB)

The closest thing to what you described would be the following in 121.703(a):

  (11) A fuel or fuel-dumping system that affects fuel flow or causes hazardous leakage during flight;

Note that it says during flight though, so this wouldn't apply and they wouldn't be required to report it.


Why do aircraft of the same model get progressively larger engines as they mature?

The Cessna 172 first flew in 1955.
The Continental IO-360 was FAA certified in 1962.
The math is pretty simple.
Yes, we (Americans, at least) are getting fatter, but that still doesn't allow for use of an engine that isn't yet certified.
It's the same for GA as well as commercial aviation. Improvements in fuel efficiency and power tend to lead the manufacturers to want to certify existing airframes for new power plants because that's less expensive (testing, certification, pilot training, etc.) than building a whole new aircraft around a new engine.


How to remove a course reversal (hold) on a Garmin 530W?

When loading a straight in approach into a GNS430/530, once you select the airport, approach and IAF, then hit ENT to either load approach or load the approach and activate, it will bring up a dialogue which asks if you want to fly a course reversal at the IAF.  If you select no, then no hold will be placed in the flight plan.  If you have entered the course reversal at the IAF for a straight in approach, you can still remove it by opening the FPL page, highlight the hold and press CLR to remove it.  It will ask you if you want to remove the course reversal one final time.  Select yes and press ENT.


What is the purpose of drag and anti drag wires?

Definition from the Stearman Restorers Association (emphasis added):

  Drag wires run from a point inboard and forward in a bay to a point outboard and aft.  In this position, the Drag wire is there to RESIST drag forces that would tend to pull the wing tips aft as the airplane travels through the air.  Anti-Drag Wires oppose the drag wires running from an inboard aft location to an outboard forward point in its bay.  As the name indicates, these anti-drag wires oppose forces in the reverse to the direction of flight.

In a wing without a structural skin like on a fabric covered aircraft, they provide rigidity in the horizontal plane by creating a wire braced truss system of the spars, longitudinal tubes called compression tubes spaced at intervals between the spars and holding them apart, and the drag anti-drag wires forming an X between each pair of compression tubes.

The drag/anti-drag loads are not that high so fairly small wires can be used.  An Aeronca Champ's fabric wing uses about 1/8" steel rods for the job. Some homebuilts just use 1/8 steel control cable.  The wires at the root see the most load.

You can also use diagonal tubes that just run from one corner to the other of each bay and take both compression and tension loads.  Wires are generally a bit lighter.

For your ultralight, bracing could probably be made from 3/32" cable with thimbles and nicropress fittings at the attachments.

You can see the drag/anti-drag wires in this Goat glider.  The plans are open source so there is probably a lot you could copy from this design.


Can different departure procedures have different transition altitudes at the same aerodrome?

No. The transition attitude in a defined area is fixed. For example, in the USA it is 18.000ft and in many European countries it is 5.000ft. It's impossible to have different transition altitudes at one airport, because that would make it impossible to use vertical separation between aircraft close to the transition layer.


During an IPC, is there any alternative to doing a precision approach?

As far as I can see, there's no way to avoid flying a precision approach during an IPC. 61.57(d) says:

  The instrument proficiency check must consist of the areas of
  operation and instrument tasks required in the instrument rating
  practical test standards.

The instrument ACS requires a precision approach, as you said, and it's also in the checklist in AC 61-98C, Currency Requirements and Guidance for the Flight Review and Instrument Proficiency Check, and the FAA's accompanying instructor guidance. So I think it's fairly clear that the FAA requires it as part of an IPC.

As for limitations, the FAA's AC 61-65 Certification: Pilots and Flight and Ground Instructors doesn't mention any that are specific to an instrument rating. I've never heard of a 'non-precision only' instrument rating.

I can only suggest that your friend finds another aircraft. The 'good' news is that once he's current again, he can maintain currency indefinitely with only non-precision approaches and avoid another IPC.


May an instrument instructor log instrument approaches that a student flies in simulated conditions as approaches for currency purposes?

It depends on the conditions.

For actual conditions:

The FAA addresses this in this letter of interpretation: (see full letter for the whole explanation)

  QUESTION: Am I correct in understating that a CFII may log approaches
  that a student flies when those approaches are conducted in actual
  [IMC]?

  ANSWER: Ref 61.51 Yes, a CFII may log approaches that a student flies
  when those approaches are in actual [IMC].

  ...

  The Chief Counsel's office agrees that the earlier guidance reflects
  the appropriate interpretation of the regulation.

For Simulated VFR conditions:

If the student is flying under the hood in VFR conditions the Instructor may not log in the time also based on 61.51. Instructors may only log instrument time in actual conditions.

  (g)Logging instrument time.

  (1) A person may log instrument time only for that flight time when
  the person operates the aircraft solely by reference to instruments
  under actual or simulated instrument flight conditions.

  (2) An authorized instructor may log instrument time when conducting
  instrument flight instruction in actual instrument flight conditions.

  (3) For the purposes of logging instrument time to meet the recent
  instrument experience requirements of § 61.57(c) of this part, the
  following information must be recorded in the person's logbook -

  (i) The location and type of each instrument approach accomplished;
  and

  (ii) The name of the safety pilot, if required.

Most GA sims I have encountered can only be used by one person at a time. The CFII is there to observe and advise but cant really "take over"

  (4) A person may use time in a full flight simulator, flight training
  device, or aviation training device for acquiring instrument
  aeronautical experience for a pilot certificate or rating provided an
  authorized instructor is present to observe that time and signs the
  person's logbook or training record to verify the time and the content
  of the training session.


First, an explanation of "the ETA model"
The science of weather prediction is the science of data analysis.  Meteorologists receive data from weather reporting stations worldwide, and from that data, they attempt to predict the future, using the laws of physics as well as assumptions and educated guesses.
Educated guesses?!  Say what?!
That's right.  Weather is one of the original chaotic systems, and although the weather obeys physical laws, we can't gather enough information about the current state of the atmosphere to predict what will happen in the long term with any degree of accuracy.
Bummer.  So what are all the computers for?
Well, we've found that supercomputers can predict the weather out to a few days ahead with a reasonable degree of accuracy, even without perfect information.  They do this by applying educated guesses and rules of thumb.  Using different assumptions gives a different forecast model.  Some of the more well-known models are the GFS, the NAM, and the EMCWF.  The ETA is one of the lesser-used models.
Great.  So what does "based on the current ETA model" mean?
Simple.  It means that the SIGWX chart gets created based on the most recent data that the ETA supercomputer churned out.  If the chart is supposed to come out at 1800 UTC, but the ETA model run doesn't complete until 1845, then that new forecast data doesn't make it into that chart.
Enough.  Just answer my questions.
Okay.

which SIGWX charts are relevant for future weather developments (at
1100Z Monday)?

All the SIGWX charts are relevant, but the newer charts will have the newer forecast data.  That doesn't necessarily mean that they're going to be more accurate, but they probably will be.
To use your example, it's 1100Z on Monday morning.  The 0000 chart says "IFR" but the 0600 chart says "No IFR".  There might still be IFR out your window - nothing says that the supercomputer will get it right.  Maybe the older one was more correct than the newer one.  Doesn't happen often, but is it possible?  Sure.

So is it fair to say that "all" SIGWX charts are updated when a SIGWX
chart is published (at 0000, 0600, 1200 and 1800)?

No, as soon as a chart comes out, it becomes part of history.  Charts are not updated with new weather information; they remain as a historical record of what was predicted to occur, given the best information possible at the time (which, for the forecasters, can be just as valuable if not more valuable, to see where they went wrong in the past).


What does it mean when pitch numbers move all over the HUD screen?

Updated answer based on F-16 specifics.

The top arrow shows the nose position—pitch angle, in the F-16 it is based on the Gun Cross (Boresight Cross), which also indicates the fuselage reference line.

The middle arrow shows the position of the flight path marker (FPM, also known as FPV), it shows where the aircraft is going. The vertical distance (angle) between both symbols is the angle of attack.

The bottom arrow is an air-to-air attack mode called a missile diamond. Don't focus on it.

The FPM can go sideways in crosswind and/or with rudder input, as the plane would be slipping, skidding, or flying sideways. That's the horizontal distance (angle).

The pitch angle numbers/lines—scale—moves with the FPM centered on it, unless the pilot wants it to be centered around the nose. The latter is called caged mode.

The rotation of the scale indicates the bank angle.

Now that we know all this, a direct answer is: the plane's nose relative to where it was going was all over the place, and so was the pitch scale.


Why does the Ikarus C42 pitch down when stalled?

Most aeroplanes are designed with the Centre of Gravity being ahead of Centre of Lift, so when the aeroplane's wing cannot produce sufficient lift anymore -- due to a high Angle of Attack, the nose will drop, therefore, it will decrease the AoA and as the gravity pulls the aeroplane towards earth, the speed will increase which in combination with the lower AoA will hopefully produce enough lift to keep the aeroplane flying again.

In some cases when the CG is not forward of CoL -- e.g. mostly in transport category aeroplanes, the horizontal stabiliser is set/installed on the neutral nose-down Angle of Incidence, which makes the aeroplane fly in a more stable manner and will help the stall recovery by pushing to nose-down.

Generally flying in any type of aeroplane with CG aft of CoL is considered a no-no, for the reasons explained above: 1) Flight instability and 2) possibly unrecoverable from a stall -- which in fact is likely to happen because of the displaced CG will tend to increase the AoA which will decrease the speed, until stall happens.


What is the reapplication process for a suspended dispatcher certificate?

I know very little about this, but JO 2150.3C says that if a certificate is suspended for a fixed period of time, it's reinstated at the end of that time if you meet whatever conditions the FAA requires (p. 7-4):

  Indefinite suspensions are used when the Administrator has reason to
  question, but is unable to determine, a certificate holder’s
  qualifications, or when the certificate holder does not comply with
  statutory or regulatory requirements to cooperate with the FAA. For
  indefinite suspensions, the Administrator suspends the certificate
  until certain conditions are met, e.g., until a reexamination or
  reinspection under 49 U.S.C. § 44709(a) is successfully completed. The
  period of time the certificate is not effective is specified in the
  order of suspension, and once the required period has passed, the
  certificate is reinstated.

Your question doesn't have many details - and I understand that you might not want to share them! - but I take that to mean that if your certificate was suspended for one year, it will be reinstated after one year has passed, as long as you've done whatever the FAA wants you to do in order to qualify for reinstatement.

The phrase "until certain conditions are met" implies that there's no standard way to qualify to reinstatement; it probably depends on the reason that the certificate was suspended in the first place. Page 9-15 of the order lists reasons for suspension and they're quite varied, so presumably the "certain conditions" are too.

On the other hand, if a certificate is revoked then it cannot be reinstated (p. 7-4):

  Unlike a suspension, a certificate that has been revoked cannot be
  reinstated. A person whose certificate has been revoked may be issued
  a new certificate provided that the person meets the qualification
  requirements for the new certificate. To be issued an airman
  certificate following revocation, an individual must retake all tests,
  whether written, oral, or practical.

Your local FSDO could probably confirm that, although if your situation is more complicated then an aviation lawyer might be more helpful.


Do airliners use light alloy wheels, like cars do?

Here's a description of small aircraft wheels:

  Available in 4", 5" and 6", these wheel & brake assemblies are cast from 535.2 aluminum alloy for superior strength and corrosion resistance.

And some info on 535.2 AL alloy
http://www.matweb.com/search/datasheettext.aspx?matguid=9347211fc1e1476988dfee51d8241c3c


That “fin” is not there on a stock Cessna 421. It's part of the RAM modification  as pointed out by Mike Sowsun. That fin corrects airflow over the wing (probably at high angle-of-attack conditions) which is perturbed by the presence of the fuselage and thereby delays the stall for that portion of the wing near the root. In essence, it "tricks" the portion of the wing near the fuselage into thinking that the fuselage isn't there.

I invite anyone else with information on the RAM mod package to add more detail in a comment and I will edit this answer accordingly.


How much aluminum was used in the Boeing 727?

It may not be possible to provide a precise number for a question with so many variables. Likely, the amount differed between variants. Without speaking to a materials acquisitions director from Boeing in the 70s and 80s, the precise number is probably not available.
That said, this airplane scrapyard website mentions that aluminum accounts for approximately 20% of the weight in a Boeing 747. Going by that same rubric, one might estimate that a 727 would contain approximately 41,900 pounds of aluminum.


Is this the correct sequence of steps to convert from true course to compass heading?

Yep, that's how it's done!
(If you fly the same airplane all the time, one other thing you could do is take a photo of the compass card.  That way, you have the deviation already handled and you save a step at the airport.)


Are NDBs and VORs dying as a navigational method?

Yes, without a shadow of a doubt. Many airports now publish GNSS (Generic term for all types of satellite navigation) approaches, completly negating the need for those aids even during complex, critical phases such as approach and landing and take off and departure.

Modern GNSS systems are capable of utilising synthetic VORs where even when doing something such as flying a particular radial, the aircraft actually uses it's GNSS data to do so.

And, if you needed outright evidence, how about this quote from the UK National Air Navigation provider (NATS):

  Commercial aviation – which has always funded the upkeep of the VOR beacons – now almost exclusively relies on the use of satellite navigation (read last week’s post on EGNOS for an example), making the majority of beacons an expensive and unnecessary financial burden. As such by 2020 we will be reducing their number from 44 down to 19.

Source: https://nats.aero/blog/2015/05/has-gps-killed-off-the-vor/


What's a normal response delay for a paragliding vario?

That is probably normal.  I notice a similar delay when flying with my Brauniger IQ Comp vario (lately mainly in sailplanes.)  Minimizing the delay is why the latest varios incorporate accelerometers as well as barometric pressure sensors.  Sounds like you've already checked the manual to see if there is some way you can decrease the interval of averaging, upon which the primary visual display and audio tone are based.  That adjustment is definitely possible with some variometers produced for hang gliding / paragliding use, but not with all.
Another way to get a quicker response time is to buy a vario that is even older.  For example, check out the "Litek Hummingbird".


How do I find the registration or serial number for the aircraft I flew on specific trips in the past?

The US (if that's your area of flying) is very kind in publicly releasing stats compared to other territories, but the answer is still you can't without a paid service.

See:

Where can I get information on ATC facility activity, like the number of flights handled in a month?
How can I get historic flight data by N-number?

In short: The FAA only keeps broad records that do not contain information such as tail numbers.

Start a personal flight journal for future flights, it's a hobby some enjoy. I did at one time, and when I couldn't catch the registration, I asked the flight crew.


How long after takeoff for a Boeing 747-400 to reach cruise speed?

I did a search on FlightAware for 747-400 aircraft in flight, and sorted by the estimated time enroute. A Qantas flight from KLAX to YSSY came up. I'm assuming that for a 6500 Nm flight, at 13.5 hours, the aircraft is fairly heavy at takeoff.

The flight data shows a departure at 03:28:33, reaching an initial cruise level of FL300 at 03:52:59, after a continuous climb. It was at cruise speed at this point, which gives a time of 25 minutes after takeoff. Comparing the coordinates of these two reporting points gives a distance of about 180 Nm, which from the track is pretty straight.

If you just want to know when it reached a speed around that of cruise, this was about 10 minutes and 80 Nm earlier in the climb, when it reached a ground speed of about 480 knots.


What is the easiest way for a new private pilot to visit Manhattan?

All of NYC's airspace is crowded, so there's no escaping that! :) The controllers are very friendly and accommodating though, so don't be afraid. If they're curt, it's just to keep everyone safe. As for airports, there are 4 GA airport options you're most likely gonna consider:

KLDJ in Linden, NJ. It's a 5m cab ride to the train station into the city. Uncontrolled field, tons of news helicopters based here. It's pretty cheap (around $20/night if I recall) and fairly convenient, but the uncontrolled field is under an 800' Class B shelf at Newark and could be stressful. Expect very bare bones facilities - you can get fuel, but there's no terminal building to speak of.
KTEB in Teterboro, NJ is the GA airport for most jets that come into the city. It's the closest airport to midtown, and you'll pay a very pretty penny here, tie-downs are at least \$50/night, and fuel will be around \$9/gallon. This is a hectic option, but it has a tower and is close to the city, so for a quick overnight stop without fuel it may be the best option. Expect to be the only piston on the ramp.
KFRG in Farmingdale, NY (Long Island). Very busy GA airport abuzz with training. Pretty cheap (~$15/night tiedowns), but did I mention that it's busy? You may burn up 1h of hobbes time on the ground waiting to take off if you depart during peak times. You can catch a cab to LIRR which will get you into the city.
KHPN, in White Plains, NY. Mix of GA, training, and a couple commercial carriers like JetBlue. Prety cheap ($~20/night tiedowns) and a short hop away from Metro-North which will have you in the city in about 30 minutes. Controlled field, at 2500' below the Class B shelf. Fairly busy, but certainly managable with the top notch controllers working NY's airspace.

Whichever airport you choose to go to, absolutely get flight following or file IFR. All of the towers in the area expect you to be handed off from NY Approach and will not be happy if you call them directly out of the blue.


What is this aircraft from ca. 1925 (crash included)?

Looking at the holes in the engine cowling, landing gear, struts and wires configuration and general geometry, it may very likely be a 1918 Halberstadt C.V

(source)

(source)

Horizontal stabilizer and elevator shape, handles on the upper wing, "square grid" on the upper wing, also tells it is a Halberstadt CV

This document explains how swiss military aircrafts/airships are numbered.

Aircrafts numbered 64 and 703 were supposed to be DFW C.V But the one in the pictures you provided is definitely a closer match to Halberstadt C.V, anyway there were also DFW C.V built by Halberstadt company. Most surprising is the fact that number 85 is missing.


Yes. One 'official' example is from the FAA's test standards for land and seaplanes, which includes these tasks for seaplanes:

  Task H: Glassy Water Approach and Landing
  [...]
  Task J: Rough Water
  Approach and Landing

The FAA's Seaplane, Skiplane, and Float/Ski Equipped Helicopter Operations Handbook also uses it; Chapter 6 is called "Seaplane Operations - Landings".

Interestingly, the word "landing" itself isn't defined in the FAA's glossary or in 14 CFR 1.1 (the US air regulations general definitions). Presumably it's considered to be too 'obvious' to require a definition.


Portable radio for cockpit communication

Buy a portable, handheld transceiver. It can very well come in handy in an emergency. Especially one with GPS, VOR, and ILS. Make sure you get a headset adapter with it.
Do not use it to save money during a long hold-short request. Turning the engine off after you have done your run up is not recommended. It is defeating the purpose of the run up. A better technique is to get your flight following discrete squawk code and/or clearance delivery electronically, by phone, or by handheld before turning on the Master and engine.


What is an airliner's "green dot speed", and how does it vary with weight, and why?

Green Dot (GD) speed is a term used by Airbus. It is named after the symbol on the speed tape. It refers to the speed that results in the best climb gradient in case of an engine failure, but it is close the speed resulting in best L/D ratio with all engines operating.

Airbus defines it as follows:

  Definition

  GD speed is the engine-out operating speed in clean configuration. In
  other words, it corresponds to the
  speed that allows the highest climb
  gradient with one engine inoperative
  in clean configuration.
  In all cases (all engines operative),
  the GD speed gives an estimate of
  the speed for best lift-to-drag ratio. It
  is also the final take-off speed and it
  represents the operational speed of
  the clean configuration and the recommended speed in holding in clean
  configuration.
  It is represented by a green dot on the
  PFD speed scale and displayed only
  when the slats / flaps control lever is in
  the ‘0’ (CLEAN) position and landing
  gears are not compressed

  How is GD determined?

  GD speed is computed by the Autoflight systems and is based on the
  aircraft weight. The GD formula has
  been set up so that the resulting airspeed provides the best lift-to-drag
  ratio for a given altitude, air temperature and aircraft weight, in clean configuration with one engine out.
  In some phases of flight, GD is computed to minimize drag and thus, the
  fuel consumption (for example during
  the HOLD phase).

(Airbus Safety First Magazine)

The GD speed is increasing linearly with aircraft weight and slightly increases with altitude above FL200:

(Airbus A320 QRH - 4.01 In Flight Performance - Speeds)

Here is a plot of the GD speed as a function of weight for different altitudes:


Does this chart show a heliport in class D airspace without a control tower?

The triangular area you’re referring to is actually the LAX class D airspace.
The heliport itself is uncontrolled. It is not that uncommon for an uncontrolled heliport or airport to be within the surface area of a controlled airport. Departing aircraft are required to contact tower as soon as practical after takeoff, and arriving aircraft are told that landing is at their own risk.


What is the function of cross bracing of interplane strut?

The cross bracing is to prevent the upper wing collapsing onto the lower one, the Bloop is an ultralight without the fuselage that the wings are normally attached to.

The two wing struts are in parallel and together with the parallel wings form a shape which must be cross-linked.. The bracing is for defining and retaining the structure and shape of the wings relative to each other, not to compensate for wing twist.

In the OP picture I cannot see any evidence of wing twist, only a constant wing incidence. The bracing wires need to be inboard only where normally the fuselage provides shape definition: in a classic biplane, there is no cross wiring required at the outer struts.


The area, or as originally written, length and width*, are but two of many parameters that define the flaps and slats.

The final parameters are a result of an iterative process, as shown above. You try a set of parameters, if they don't work, you go back one step, or even two steps (redesigning the wing).

For example when the A320 was stretched to become the A321, the extra weight meant a change to the flaps was needed. If that had failed, they would have changed the wing or part of it (like they did with the A350-1000).

The basic initial design goal is to work out the parameters that achieve the condition below. The parameters on the right-hand side are a given at this point in the design.

$C_L$ is the lift coefficient. $f$ and $s$ denote flaps and slats. The different parameters, including the deflection angle and type of high-lift device used, define the $\Delta C_L$. $\Delta$ (delta) is the increase from the clean wing state brought about by the slats/flaps.

If the design choices don't work, you try something else. In the A321 the double-slotted flaps worked. In the A350-1000 they had to redesign the wing.

Below you see with the lack of inboard ailerons (decided in step 7), the span of the flaps is defined. If the ailerons are too narrow, you risk aileron reversal. If there were inboard high-speed ailerons, that flap area would then be divided further. Generally the slats cover more span than the flaps.

  The spanwise reach of slats and flaps has to be established, as must the flap type and the angle of deflection of slats and flaps. As already mentioned, it will not generally be possible to set the parameters without an iterative approach.

* The terms chord and span are better and less confusing.

Source: Hamburg Open Online University (.pdf).

For a paper on the Airbus A380 wing and flaps design, see: Aerodynamic Design of Airbus High-Lift Wings in a Multidisciplinary Environment.


What is this mysterious thing on the vertical stabilizer of the Boeing 707?

It is the high-frequency shortwave antenna of a 707-321B, specifically Clipper Yankee Ranger N418PA. Also present on the KC-135.

You can read about the Antenna Coupler Program from the people involved in its development.

You might want to look at What radio frequency bands are associated with the long wire antennas, why do some aircraft have them and others don't? for more information.

source

source


What material are High Pressure Compressors made of?

Various alloys. In general , I believe even the same stage may have different alloys in various engines. As the air progresses through the compressor it heats and alloys are chosen accordingly. Over the years new alloy modifications are developed ; some more subtle changes are longitudinal grain orientation  and single crystal blades. I have done failure analysis on gas turbines, steam turbines and gas compressors and don't recall which blade went where. However, I never saw an aluminum blade ( or vane). GE , and others, have various 13% Cr steel blades they often used. As far as I know Ti and graphite are only used in the first stage fan. I only worked on older design engines, I expect Ti is used in earlier compression stages. The final stages of compression  are so hot that nickel alloys are used. I mean you need a very specific question to get a specific alloy.


Minimum distance required to turn at maximum speed of an F-16

According to this F-16 turn performance chart, at the rated maximum airspeed of 800 knots, an F-16 can turn at about 10.5 degrees per second, so a 90° turn would take about 8.5 seconds. The turn radius would be 9,000 feet. Since you specified a 90° turn to avoid an infinite wall, the pilot would have to start their turn at or before 9,000 feet from the wall in order to avoid a collision.

However, this doesn't tell the whole story. The F-16 can't maintain speed in such a turn, and the reduced speed would in turn reduce the turning radius. If the plane, for whatever reason, absolutely had to maintain its maximum speed, then it would be limited to a turn rate of 3.5 degrees per second and a turning radius of 25,000 feet.


Where is the inclinometer "ball" in a knife edged turn?

As it was pointed out in the other thread, the ball just rolls around inside a curved glass tube.  It doesn't know what the angle of bank is, or anything other than what direction gravity, and/or centrifugal force is moving it.  Therefore:

At 90 deg AOB in coordinated flight at positive G, the ball would be centered.  The aircraft in this case would be in a descending spiral.

At 90 deg AOB in a "knife edge" straight pass where altitude is maintained with rudder, gravity will pull the ball towards the earth.  Same thing if you were able to make a knife edge turn holding altitude with rudder.


Received ADS-B TC=31 message with non-existent version 3?

I've decoded the message with my own decoder. I don't claim it is bug free, but it is designed to follow the 1090ES MOPS (ADS-B Minimum Operational Performance Standards) very closely and gives warnings when messages deviate from the standard. I forced decoding conforming to version 2 of the MOPS, which is the latest standard.

HEX: 8DAE022EF8000000206143635C24
Aircraft Operational status message (airborne format)
    Capability Class:
        TCAS op.          false
        1090ES IN         false
        Reserved [13,14]      0
        ARV rep. cap.     false
        TS report cap.    false
        TC rep. cap. lvl      0
        UAT IN            false
        ADS-R rsvd flag   false
        Reserved              0
    Airborne Operational Mode (OM)
        TCAS RA active    false
        IDENT             false
        Reserved [ATC]    false
        Single Antenna    false
        SDA               0
        Reserved [33-40]  32
     MOPS version     3
     NIC supp. A      false
     NACp             1
     GVA              1
     SIL              0
     SIL supp.        true
     NIC baro         0
     Heading ref.     True North
     Reserved [56]    true

The 1090ES MOPS version is indeed indicated as version 3, which is not yet published.
Also, the ME-bits 35 and 56 are set to 1. In version 2 of the 1090ES MOPS these are reserved bits, so they shall be 0.

Version 3 of the 1090ES MOPS is not yet published, so transponders should not use it.

Perhaps these messages are from an experimental transponder, which does not conform to the MOPS.


Did Concorde really fly above 55k feet as mentioned in this report?

Yes. The extra height was necessary in order to reach lower pressure air, and thereby reduce drag, and heating of the airframe from supersonic compression of the air.

Concorde's windows were extra small, so that if a window did blow out, the air compression system could actively compensate by pumping air in faster than it could escape, until the pilot completed his emergency descent.

More details can be heard on this podcast.


How are businesses able to use experimental aircraft?

Waivers available for the purpose of instruction. EAA can help with this.
You will not be able to instruct anyone who does not already have at least private pilot license.
You can of course use the airplane as a vehicle personal transport. If you a high value individual traveling to a client and get paid for travel time, paying for the use of your vehicle could actually cost the customer less.


Can one fight medical rejection due to depression noted 14-15 years ago?

There are Aviation Medical Examiners (AMEs) who specialize in special issuance medicals. It is probably best to use one of them instead of your regular AME. This type of special issuance may require a battery of psychological tests and it may get expensive. But the good news is that once he has his special issuance, he can fly under Basic Med, so he only has to jump through the hoops once.

I know of two who are regular participants on pilot message boards and they are well-respected.

Bruce Chien, MD http://www.aeromedicaldoc.com

L B Fowler Jr MD lbfjrmd@gmail.com.

Edit: I just ran across a fairly long post on Pilots of American that addresses a similar issue with a good (but time-consuming and expensive) outcome.

  I wanted to share my story of a difficult SI in the hopes that it will
  give others some insight and perhaps courage to not take 'no' for an
  answer.

  I had been diagnosed with mild depression during my senior year of
  high school 25 years ago. The psychiatrist I had been sent to put me
  on Zoloft (Sertraline), which I guess helped. I stayed on it via my
  family doctor for the years afterwards, not really giving it much
  thought, and never realized the difficulty it would cause in working
  towards a PPL someday. …


Can I fly in Europe using an FAA Statement of Demonstrated Ability (SODA)?

If that is not possible, then can I take an FAA medical class 1 with a
  SODA, and then move back to Europe and fly in European airspace and
  fly internationally?

Potentially, the FAA vision requirements, require you to have 20/20 in both eyes individually (corrected or uncorrected). You can find a summary of the regulations here to pass a standard medical. However the FAA does have a special issuance for people with monocular vision which you can find more info on here

  An applicant will be considered monocular when there is only one eye
  or when the best corrected distant visual acuity in the poorer eye is
  no better than 20/200. An individual with one eye, or effective visual
  acuity equivalent to monocular, may be considered for medical
  certification, any class, through the special issuance section of part
  67 (14 CFR 67.401)

This would make you eligible for a class 1 medical which would allow you to train here in the US as well as get a full FAA commercial/ATP ticket which is valid in most of the world. Bottom line is that you can become an airline pilot (at least under FAA rules) and fly international, moving back to your home country may be an issue if they don't recognize an FAA license or the airline has its own medical regulations.


Is the aft position the ideal place to fly a large aircraft from?

The only direction a (fixed wing) aircraft can move using the flight controls  is forward. So, it is the forward visibility that is important. The front of the aircraft is the best place for this purpose. The limited visibility in other cases are reasonably over come by using extra cameras or marshalers and markings in the ground.

The Airbus A80, for example, has three cameras, one each in the nose, belly and the tail,which can be viewed in the screen by the pilot.

Source: onemileatatime.boardingarea.com

The closest any aircraft has come to be flown using a VR headset is the  AN/AAQ-37 electro-optical Distributed Aperture System (DAS) which is being used in the Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II.

The EO/DAS consists of six high resolution Infrared sensors  flush-mounted around the aircraft to afford 360-degree, spherical (4$\pi$ steradian) coverage, basically allowing the pilot to see through the airframe.

Source: alternathistory.org.ua

Each of these sensors collect data in different directions and the on-board computer 'stitches together' these images (and data from EOTS and Radar) and projects them onto the pilot's Helmet Mounted Display System (HMDS), making it the only modern combat aircraft without a HUD.

Source: brucesterling.tumblr.com

However, there are issues with using these in a commercial airliner:

They are costly- around $400,000 (some reports say ~700,000) apiece and non-interchangeable; while this (situation awareness) could be priceless in combat scenarios, I don't see commercial airliners shelling out this amount of money to replace a system that works pretty well.
The amount of computing power required is enormous. Reportedly, the DAS system collects about a terabyte of data per hour. For aircraft which fly most of their time in a predetermined altitude and heading, this amount of data flow and computing power is not required.
Note that the system is not yet fully operational. There are issues with the helmet like latency, 'green' glow, jittery image, resolution issues etc.- reportedly solved, though some pilots say they don't use this system very often.


What are the V-Speeds used during a normal takeoff in a multi-engine airplane?

$V_1$ is takeoff decision speed.  It is based upon:

Runway length
Temperature
Reduced thrust takeoff
Takeoff weight
Takeoff flap setting

If $V_1$ is higher than $V_R$, then (as far as I am aware), $V_1$ will be adjusted to be the same as $V_R$.  You have to make the decision to takeoff by the time you rotate, so it does not make much sense to have $V_1$ higher than $V_R$.

$V_2$ is takeoff safety speed.  During a one engine inop takeoff we would accelerate to and climb at this airspeed to our acceleration height (a height we could level off at and be safe from obstacles while we further accelerate).  We also referenced certain flap transitions on takeoff to $V_2$ (e.g. $V_2+15$ - flaps 0)

To address the rest of the question, $V_1$ and $V_2$ are primarily used in large aircraft.  In light twins you also need to be aware of $V_{MC}$.  $V_{MC}$ is the minimum controllable airspeed with an engine inop.  In particular you do not want to be slower than this airspeed during climbout in case of engine failure.


They are Werfer-Granate 21 rocket launchers -

The Werfer-Granate 21 rocket launcher, also known as the BR 21 (the
"BR" standing for Bordrakete) in official Luftwaffe manuals, was a
weapon used by the German Luftwaffe during World War II and was the
first on-board rocket placed into service by the Luftwaffe, first
introduced in mid 1943.

On the Me262 they were mounted one each side of the nosegear well.
This is the exact aircraft your model is based on -

Messerschmitt Me262A-1a 'Green 3' of the Geschwaderstab [headquarters unit] of JG 7 prepared
to move off across the concrete surface at Brandenburg-Briest in
February or early March 1945. The aircraft, finished in a relatively
rare application of streaked horizontal lines, has been fitted with a
pair of 21cm WGr air-to-air mortar tubes visible beneath the fuselage
aft of the nose wheel. (source)