Ubuntu connection woes, device not showing up in lsusb any more
The most likely cause of the symptoms you describe is that a pin is bent or broken in the USB connection. With the data pin broken but the power pin connected, the connection is exactly as if As it works on a different machine, that would narrow the problem down to the cable (if you are using different cables on each) or the USB port on your PC. Try a different cable and a different USB port.

As your phone works fine with a Windows PC, that rules out it being a problem with Android itself, so if changing the physical connection doesn't help, we probably can't help you any further here.