Can't sync appointments from server to phone
As a quick fix that got the meetings I have now onto my phone, I pulled up all forthcoming meetings and appointments that hadn't synced using Outlook, forwarded them to myself, and then pulled up the e-mails on my phone and accepted each invite. This worked and didn't create any dupes on either the phone or Outlook.

That works for now, and it seems that appointments I have created in Outlook since I set up the phone to sync are syncing correctly, if a bit delayed. We'll see about meeting invites I accept from others.

Now, this solution only works because most of my schedule is regular recurring meetings, so I only had to resend a few invites. If there is a solution that doesn't require re-accepting every invite for every meeting for the foreseeable future, I'm sure it would be helpful to those of us that have a fuller, more free-form appointment schedule.