Using macbook USB charger for android tablets and phones
Fundamental thing is that you are contemplating laptop chargers , designed for much bigger capacity batteries to charge your cell and then plan to use the car charging, in between- not a healthy combination and recipe for problems


  Anyway to find a certain device supports this, before buying?


No proven way AFAIK...you would need to research product and user reviews and ask around in device specific forums or write to manufacturer


  Is it possible to connect a phone or tablet to one of these adapters and not get damaged by the extra power?



You would not get fast charging for sure
Chances of damage are high mainly due to high voltage levels - for details , see How do I select a non-OEM charger for my device?



  And would the adapters work under the power of the car cigarette lighter which only provide 5A/3.0A, when they possibly expect 14.5V/2A from a macbook charger instead?


Unlikely that they would work