What are physical partitions on Android device?
The list certainly differs between devices, and thus no exhaustive list can be provided.

For most if not all devices, there is no need to backup partitions other than system (system), data (user data), boot (kernel) and vendor (for Treble devices, a separate vendor stores hardware drivers, etc.).

Many of those extra partitions are not user-accessible and/or store data for non-OS components (e.g. modem for baseband, logo for 1st splash logo on boot), and no procedure would touch them in daily use other than system updates. On top of that, without root access you will not be able to perform full backup/restore even on data.

Currently the common way of doing a full-enough backup is just backing up the ones listed in the backup menu from TWRP, which already covers more than just "system with data" as you required. Depending on the maintainer/builder of the TWRP in use, other partitions might also be available for backup/restore, though for the reason above there's no point in doing so (and is why most TWRP builds choose to hide them).