GCD calculation - A cross of the Euclidean and the Binary algorithm
Introduction

Rabindranath Tagore said:


  "যদি তোর ডাক শুনে কেউ না আসে তবে একলা চলো রে..."
  Translated: "If no one responds to your call, then go your own way alone..." 1


After waiting for two whole days in vain, I've decided to answer my own question. In these two days, I've tried several methods and made certain interesting observations. Here, I shall present them in a logical order.

First, the Euclidean algorithm

Here is the implementation of the "Modern Euclidean Algorithm" (Algorithm A, TAOCP Vol - 2, Pg - 337, Section - 4.5.2) in Java:

/**
 * Returns the GCD (Greatest Common Divisor, also known as the GCF -
 * Greatest Common Factor, or the HCF - Highest Common Factor) of the two
 * (signed, long) integers given.
 * &lt;p&gt;
 * It calculates the GCD using the Euclidean GCD algorithm.
 *
 * @param u The first integer (preferably the larger one).
 * @param v The second integer (preferably the smaller one).
 * @return The GCD (or GCF or HCF) of {@code u} and {@code v}.
 */
public static long euclideanGCD(long u, long v) {
    // Corner cases
    if (u &lt; 0) u = -u;
    if (v &lt; 0) v = -v;
    if (u == 0) return v;
    if (v == 0) return u;
    // Correction
    if (u &lt; v) {
        long t = u;
        u = v;
        v = t;
    }
    // A1
    while (v != 0) {
        // A2
        long r = u % v;
        u = v;
        v = r;
    }
    return u;
}


In order to test it, I wrote this class:

class Test {
    public static void main(String[] args) {
        // Warm-up
        int g = 0;
        while (++g &gt; 0)
            Math.sqrt(g);
        // Timing starts
        long time = System.nanoTime();
        long sum = 0;
        for (int i = 0; i &lt; 20000; i++) {
            for (int j = 0; j &lt; i; j++) {
                sum += GCD.euclideanGCD(i, j);  // Over here
            }
        }
        time = System.nanoTime() - time;
        System.out.println("sum  = " + sum);
        System.out.println("time = " + time);
    }
}


Here is its output:

sum  = 1352820356
time = 35306053968


So, it took 35.3 seconds on my Windows 7 Laptop with a 2.1 Gz Intel Pentium processor. (If we run the test again, the time will of course be different, but it will be in the range: 34-36 seconds). We shall use this time as the reference point (and the sum to test the correctness of the other methods). Now, let's try and improve upon this. Here are a few points to note:


This method is horribly slow because of the divisions (modulo operations) that it has to perform. We can improve upon this by making every effort to make the divisors smaller.
It also has so many (rather unnecessary) assignment operations. This is also a factor that reduces the speed.


Keeping these points in mind, I wrote the method that I had provided in the question. For convenience, here it is again (now well documented):

The "Better" Euclidean algorithm

/**
 * Returns the GCD (Greatest Common Divisor, also known as the GCF -
 * Greatest Common Factor, or the HCF - Highest Common Factor) of the two
 * (signed, long) integers given.
 * &lt;p&gt;
 * It calculates the GCD using a modified form of the Euclidean GCD algorithm.
 *
 * @param u The first integer.
 * @param v The second integer.
 * @return The GCD (or GCF or HCF) of {@code u} and {@code v}.
 */
public static long euclideanGCD2(long u, long v) {
    // Corner cases
    if (u &lt; 0) u = -u;
    if (v &lt; 0) v = -v;
    int a0 = Long.numberOfTrailingZeros(u);
    int b0 = Long.numberOfTrailingZeros(v);
    // Make both of them odd.
    u &gt;&gt;&gt;= a0;
    v &gt;&gt;&gt;= b0;
    // t is the common power of 2 (may be 0)
    int t = a0 &lt; b0 ? a0 : b0;
    while ((u &amp; v) != 0) {  // i.e. both are non-zero
        if (u &gt; v) {
            u %= v;
            u &gt;&gt;&gt;= Long.numberOfTrailingZeros(u);
        } else {
            v %= u;
            v &gt;&gt;&gt;= Long.numberOfTrailingZeros(v);
        }
    }
    return (u | v) &lt;&lt; t;    // {the non-zero value of the two} * 2^t
}


We test again by changing the line marked withe the comment to sum += GCD.euclideanGCD2(i, j);

Here is the output:

sum  = 1352820356
time = 26400006940


This is a definite improvement (of around 25.2%), and this is about as far as we can go without any other help. But can go further if we use the Binary GCD algorithm. So here it is:

The binary GCD algorithm

/**
 * Returns the GCD (Greatest Common Divisor, also known as the GCF -
 * Greatest Common Factor, or the HCF - Highest Common Factor) of the two
 * (signed, long) integers given.
 * &lt;p&gt;
 * This uses the Binary GCD algorithm.
 *
 * @param a The first integer.
 * @param b The second integer.
 * @return The GCD (or GCF or HCF) of {@code a} and {@code b}.
 */
public static long binaryGCD(long a, long b) {
    // Corner cases
    if (a &lt; 0) a = -a;
    if (b &lt; 0) b = -b;
    if (a == 0) return b;
    if (b == 0) return a;
    int a0 = Long.numberOfTrailingZeros(a);
    int b0 = Long.numberOfTrailingZeros(b);
    int t = a0 &lt; b0 ? a0 : b0;
    a &gt;&gt;&gt;= a0;
    b &gt;&gt;&gt;= b0;
    while (a != b) {
        if (a &gt; b) {
            a -= b;
            a &gt;&gt;&gt;= Long.numberOfTrailingZeros(a);
        } else {
            b -= a;
            b &gt;&gt;&gt;= Long.numberOfTrailingZeros(b);
        }
    }
    return a &lt;&lt; t;
}


The output is:

sum  = 1352820356
time = 13381525510


So, the improvement is quite dramatic (around 60% compared to the original). Now, we know that this algorithm slows down when \$u\$ and \$v\$ have very different bit lengths. So, let's try and improve this:

The "Hybrid" GCD algorithm

/**
 * Returns the GCD (Greatest Common Divisor, also known as the GCF -
 * Greatest Common Factor, or the HCF - Highest Common Factor) of the two
 * (signed, long) integers given.
 * &lt;p&gt;
 * It uses a hybrid of Euclidean and the binary GCD algorithm.
 *
 * @param a The first integer.
 * @param b The second integer.
 * @return The GCD (or GCF or HCF) of {@code a} and {@code b}.
 */
public static long hybridGCD(long a, long b) {
    // Corner cases
    if (a &lt; 0) a = -a;
    if (b &lt; 0) b = -b;
    if (a == 0) return b;
    if (b == 0) return a;
    int a0 = Long.numberOfTrailingZeros(a);
    int b0 = Long.numberOfTrailingZeros(b);
    int t = a0 &lt; b0 ? a0 : b0;
    a &gt;&gt;&gt;= a0;
    b &gt;&gt;&gt;= b0;
    while ((a &amp; b) != 0) {
        // if 'a' and 'b' have almost same bit length
        if (Math.abs(Long.numberOfLeadingZeros(a)
                - Long.numberOfLeadingZeros(b)) &lt; 2) {
            return binaryGCD(a, b) &lt;&lt; t;
        }
        // use Euclidean algorithm
        if (a &gt; b) {
            a %= b;
            a &gt;&gt;&gt;= Long.numberOfTrailingZeros(a);
        } else {
            b %= a;
            b &gt;&gt;&gt;= Long.numberOfTrailingZeros(b);
        }
    }
    return (a | b) &lt;&lt; t;
}


The output is:

sum  = 1352820356
time = 19178926693


Well, that's interesting! :-) It seems that our "optimized" algorithm is actually slower than the un-optimized version of the binary algorithm. This occurs because the difference in bit-length is not such a big factor in case of the binary algorithm(i.e. 64 bits max in case of long). Sure enough, if we change the length-checking value from 2 to 4, we see that the running time is ~16 seconds.

Conclusion

Here, we have seen that:


Division-based algorithms should generally be avoided.
Premature optimization seldom pays off.
Shifts, additions and subtractions are the way to go in a binary environment.


Hence, the answers are:


Yes, but there can be more.
Many, many improvements... For starters, try reducing the absolute values of the remainders.
If the library supports integers which can have huge differences in bit-length. Otherwise, I'd use the Binary GCD algorithm for long.




1 See this article for more info on the song.