How on "Earth" can you make all those measurements of Earth forming?
How on “Earth” can you make all those measurements of Earth forming?

One word: Zircons.
Zircons rank very high amongst the techniques used to measure the age of the Earth, and the age at which the Earth later cooled down. One of the key elements in zircons is zirconium. There are other elements that have similar chemical characteristics to zirconium. One of these is uranium. Both uranium 235 and uranium 238 eventually decay to lead. Lead is extremely incompatible with zirconium from a chemical perspective. All of the lead in a zircon could only have resulted from radioactive decay.
The question focuses on the &quot;boring billion&quot; years in the Earth's history that occurred well after the Earth formed (over three billion years after the Earth formed). Zircons were key in that analysis as well. There are other elements other than uranium that are chemically compatible with zirconium. One of these is europium. The presence or absence of europium in zircons indicates whether or not mountains were eroding at the time those zircons formed. The ratio of uranium to lead in those zircons indicates how old those zircons are.