en generally found to be in favour of content and service providers, nevertheless, many content and service providers have opted to sign agreements with the infrastructure and connectivity retail layer players. The example of Netflix- Comcast was given above. Another example is the agreement between the French telecommu- nications operator Orange and Google where Google agreed to pay an undisclosed amount for search traffic delivered over Orange's network. It was reported that Orange's dominance in Africa had forced Google to agree to its demands, as they feared that their search results could be slowed compared with those of competitors if such payments were not made [26]. The value of broadband telecommunications systems is in connecting people to each other and to third-party services and content. This value chain has changed significantly over recent decades from one focused on subscriber-to-subscriber connectivity to one focused on subscriber access to third parties. Content and services provision is the fastest growing traffic on the broadband network and clearly of value to end-users. The challenge for traditional operators is how to share in revenues associated with this value provision. Review Questions 1. What is 'content' traffic and how does it differ from 'pipe' traffic? 2. How has the ratio of 'content' to 'pipe' evolved over recent years? 3. What is ARPU and what is its significance? 4. What are OTT operators? 5. Explain three example of 'services' that may be offered for a broadband telecommunica- tions ecosystem. 6. What services may be classified as 'pipe' and how have these evolved? 7. What are the drivers for OTT businesses and how do they grow? 8. Why are OTT companies SO highly valued? 9. What are content distribution networks, and what value do they provide? 10. Why are retail layer operators well placed to become content distribution networks? 11. What are the strategies operators are adopting in order to position themselves to earn revenue from content distribution? 12. What are operator 