signals disperse, spreading more across the fiber core. Multi-mode fiber is used mainly for LAN backbones between campus buildings and between floors of buildings. Another factor in the expense of installing fiber cabling systems is the lack of con- nector standardization. Different fiber system manufacturers require specialized tools and proprietary connectors. Two of the main connector types are the Straight Tip (ST) and the Subscriber Connector (SC). Another is the Small Form Factor (SFF) connector. Each type of connector requires specialized tools for installation. Making Connections between Fiber and Copper In enterprise networks, when fiber is connected to copper cabling at locations such as entrances to buildings, at wiring closets, or in data centers, equipment converts light Computing and Enabling Technologies pulses to electrical signals, and vice versa. This requires converters called transmit- ters and receivers. Transmitters also are called light-source transducers. If multiplex- ing equipment is used on the fiber, each channel of light requires its own receiver and transmitter. Transmitters in fiber-optic systems are either Light-Emitting Diodes (LEDs) or lasers. There are several reasons for this. LEDs cost less than lasers. They are commonly used with multi-mode fiber. Lasers provide more power. Thus, less regeneration (amplification) is needed over long distances. At the receiving end, the light detector transducers (receivers) that change light pulses into electrical signals are either positive intrinsic negatives (PINs) or avalanche photodiodes (APDs). LEDs and PINs are used in applications with lower bandwidth and shorter distance requirements. SUMMARY Consolidation among corporations that supply equipment, virtualization, and database software has resulted in fewer choices for basic computing functions. While consolida- tion can decrease innovation, it does reduce the risk of selecting unproven equipment and services. It also makes it less complex to transmit files across networks. Music and 