a series of attributes, such as Accuracy: How far it deviates from the actual correct time Stability: How the clock stays stable over time and produces repeatable results Aging: How much the oscillator in the clock changes its frequency over time Each of those quality factors is inherited from the characteristics of the oscillator inside it, meaning that the oscillator is the main component that underwrites the performance of the clock. 3.2.1 Oscillators Quartz oscillators are widely used in watches, clocks, and electronic equipment such as counters, signal generators, oscilloscopes, computers, and many other devices. Although quartz oscillators are not the most stable oscillators available, they are "good enough" and extremely cost effective, ex- plaining their popularity. Of course, environmental conditions such as electrical and magnetic fields, pressure, and vibration reduce or change the inherent stability of the quartz crystal. There- fore, hardware designers give a lot of consideration to oscillator design to try and mitigate the envir- onmental effects and improve the frequency stability of the device. The most significant factor affecting the oscillator is temperature, and there are designs to mitigate its effect. A temperature-compensated crystal oscillator (TCXO) includes a temperature sensor that compensates the frequency change incurred by temperature change. Similarly, the oven-con- trolled crystal oscillator (OCXO) encloses the crystal in a temperature-controlled chamber to re- duce temperature change (it is not cooled but heated to a stable but higher temperature than any reasonably expected ambient temperature). Rubidium oscillators are the cheapest form of the class of oscillators referred to as atomic oscillat- ors. They make use of the resonance of the rubidium atom at around 6,834,682,611 Hz and use this signal to align a well-designed quartz oscillator. Compared to other atomic devices, such as those based on cesium, rubidium oscillators are smaller, more reliable, and less expensive. The st