ercial space programs. In 1998 he chaired the inaugural NSREC session on radiation effects in commercial electronics and space systems. BASIC MECHANISMS FOR SINGLE-EVENT EFFECTS Paul E. Dodd Sandia National Laboratories Albuquerque, New Mexico 1.0 Introduction 2.0 Brief Overview of Environments Trapped Particles 2.1.1 Protons 2.1.2 Heavy Ions 2.2 Transient Particles 2.2.1 Solar Event Protons and Heavy Ions 2.2.2 Galactic Cosmic Rays 2.3 Secondary Particles Basic Mechanisms for Non-Destructive Single-Event Effects Charge Deposition 3.1.1 Direct Ionization 3.1.2 Nuclear Reaction Effects Charge Collection 3.2.1 Basic Physics of Charge Transport 3.2.2 New Charge-Collection Mechanisms in Submicron Devices Single-Event Upset Mechanisms in DRAMs 3.3.1 Storage Cell Errors 3.3.2 Bit-Line Errors 3.3.3 Combined Cell and Bit-Line Errors 3.4 Single-Event Upset Mechanisms in SRAMs 3.5 Single-Event Upset in Other Circuit Types 3.6 Single-Event Multiple-Bit Upset 3.7 Particle Energy Effects 3.8 Mitigation Techniques 3.8.1 Technology Hardening 3.8.2 Circuit- and System-Level Hardening Basic Mechanisms for Destructive Single-Event Effects Single-Event Latchup 4.1.1 Single-Event Latchup Mechanism 4.1.2 Mitigation Techniques Single-Event Gate Rupture 4.2.1 Single-Event Gate Rupture Mechanism 4.2.2 Single-Event Gate Rupture in Power MOSFETs 4.2.3 Single-Event Gate Rupture in Thin Gate Oxides 4.3 Single-Event Burnout Modeling and Simulation of Single-Event Mechanisms Interaction Models 5.1.1 Track Structure Models Physics-Based Device Models 5.2.1 3D Device and Mixed-Level Simulations 5.2.2 Recent Enhancements Future Trends Technology Drivers Impacting Single-Event Effects Hardening Strategies Terrestrial and High-Altitude Single-Event Effects 6.3.1 The Atmospheric Radiation Environment 6.3.2 Historical Perspective and Recent Studies 6.3.3 Mitigation Techniques Summary and Conclusions Acknowledgments 9.0 References INTRODUCTION Single-event effects (SEE) in microelectronics are caused when highly energetic particles present in the nat