45 direct network externalities, 139 cost-minimizing network design, 43-44 DirecTV, 388-389 minimum spanning tree, 43, 43f, 44, 44f discriminatory auctions, 94n10 spanning tree, 43, 43f, 44 diseconomies of scale, in switching, 242n11 tree graph, 43-44 Disney, 393 Index distribution stage, of production, 167, 167f output vs. content in, 28 double marginalization, 146, 178, 291n26, 320 physical takings vs. confiscatory ratemaking, Drobak, John N., 219n17 216-217 dual federalism, 233nl pole attachments, 197-198 Due Process Clause, confiscatory ratemaking under, electronic data interchange (EDI), 178-180, 184 e-mail, 379 dynamic efficiency, 148, 192, 296, 298 end-to-end argument, 385, 385n18, 386, 401n45 impeding, 193 energy industries, 15. See also electric power markets; network diversity effect on, 382-383, 390-393, 397 natural gas pipeline network platform access effect on, 270, 328-329, 366 enhanced service providers (ESPs), 154 enhanced services, 236 EarthLink, 393 Epstein, Richard, 222n22 Easterbrook, Frank H., 307 Erlangs, 55n10 eBay, 400 essential facilities doctrine, 282 econometric model, 61n13 critique of, 288-308 economic cost, as second-best solution, 196 institutional competence effect on, 305-308 economic effects of access regulation investment incentives and, 297-298 capacity and configuration effects, 159-172 origin of, 283-288 interconnection access, 168-169 supracompetitive returns and, 296-297. See also platform access, 169-171 Trinko retail access, 160-163 ex ante regulation, 377, 397-399 unbundled access, 171, 171f, 172 excess inertia, 138, 401 wholesale access, 163-168 excess momentum, 138-139, 401 classifying access types, 153-159 Expanded Interconnection proceedings, 240-241, interconnection access, mandated, 155-156 280-281 platform access, mandated, 156-158 Ex Parte United States, 308n84 retail access, mandated, 153-154 expertise-driven public interest regulation, 403 unbundled access, mandated, 158-159 ex post versions of network neutrality, 398-399 wholesale access, mandated, 154-155 ext