from DSLAMs) toward the core IP network, and vice versa. However, ADSL as a technology cannot provide bitrates over 100 Mbit/s, which is referred to as ultra-broadband speed. But speeds higher than 100 Mbit/s can be provided by very-high-bit-rate DSL (VDSL2) (the initial VDSL was not compatible with ADSL2+, but VDSL2 was further developed with such a goal); however, the crosstalk between the two copper wires in the twisted pair (i.e. local loop) meant it was unrealistic to expect ultra-broadband speeds of 100 Mbit/s using the initial VDSL2 [6]. Therefore vectoring solutions were added to VDSL2 to reduce crosstalk and hence boost the speed of VDSL2 over 100 Mbit/s on medium local loop lengths (Table 4.2). Regarding DSL, bitrates are several times lower at the approximate maximum local loop length shown in Table 4.2 (in general, that refers to every DSL type, including VDSL, ADSL, and others), i.e. they decrease by increasing the length of the subscriber line. Table 4.2 Main VDSL standards for broadband and ultra-broadband access. Approximately Maximum bitrate Maximum bitrate maximum local DSL type downstream upstream loop length (m) 52 Mbit/s 16 Mbit/s VDSL2 100-300 Mbit/s 100-300 Mbit/s G.fast Maximum aggregated UL and DL 1 Gbit/s VDSL, Very high bit rate DSL. 4.1 Ultra-broadband DSL and Cable Access Considering Table 4.2, VDSL2 [7], besides vectoring that cancels crosstalk to provide bitrates up to 100 Mbit/s, can provide higher bitrates up to 300 Mbit/s with use of a larger spectrum (on the copper wire) of up to 35 MHz. Additionally, copper local loop may achieve very high bitrates of up to 1 Gbit/s, although only on a short length of the twisted pairs (or coaxial) wires, while the rest of the infrastructure toward the core network is based on fiber. So, with all DSL solutions, whether it is ADSL2+, VDSL2 Vplus, or G.fast [8], the copper phone line (the local loop) is in the last hundreds of meters or last couple of kilometers. This entails using FTTdp (fiber to the distribution point) as a broadband access sol