rates, which normally are many times higher at any time), one may notice that in two decades, there was an increase of 1000 times (in individual user bitrates), from 56 Kbit/s up to 50 Mbit/s (on average). That corresponds to doubling the bitrates for individual users in fixed access networks (either copper or fiber) every two years, which gives 210 (~1000) times higher bitrates in two decades. We may refer to this as some telecommunication law, which is similar to Moore's law for integrated circuits (i.e. processing power of computers). Also, one may note that for higher bitrates we also need higher processing power in end-user devices (computers) to be able to process all the data (all bits that are sent or received). Computing (i.e. processing) power and bitrates increase at a similar pace, and that is expected to continue in the future. If we apply this telecommunication law on bitrates, we may expect the individual aver- age access bitrates in the 2030s to be in the range of 50 Gbit/s, which is an increase of 1000 times. However, different factors influence bitrates, such as saturation of broad- band markets for human end-users in the 2010s, which may decrease the expectations for bitrates in the longer term. If such a decrease is in the range of two times, i.e. doubling of bitrates to occur every four years (instead of every two years, as in past decades), the expected increase can be 25 times (~30 times) for a period of two decades in the future (or 5-6 times increase of the bitrates per decade). The bitrate is the parameter that most influences QoS and the user experience. The fixed access networks can be copper-based or fiber-based. Copper-based access networks can use twisted pairs (used for analogue and digital telephony in the twentieth century, and still in the twenty-first century), coaxial cables (for cable access networks), and fiber access. What is broadband and what is ultra-broadband in all these access net- works? Well, broadband first refers to high bitrates, which provide the possibility to 