ns about telecommunications policy and regulation. In addition to the ITU and Political and Regulatory Forces in Telecommunications the European Commission, there are various standards bodies (discussed later in this chapter, in the section "Standards Organizations") and industry associations (e.g., the European Competitive Telecommunications Association [ECTA; www.ectaportal. com/en/], the Telecommunications Industry Association [TIA; www.tiaonline.org]). Representatives of national governments and regulatory authorities meet formally (e.g., ITU World Radio Conferences, where many countries are represented) and informally (e.g., Europe's National Regulatory Authorities [NRAs] exchange views at Independent Regulators Group [IRG] meetings). Other organizations, such as the World Trade Organization (WTO; www.wto.org) and regional bodies, also influence telecommunications policy and regulation at the international level. At the national level, several parts of central government are generally involved, and there can sometimes be more than one regulatory body for a nation. Some of these organizations are major players; others play less prominent but nev- ertheless influential roles. In the United States, for example, the FCC is the national regulatory body, and public utility commissions regulate at the state level. The U.S. State Department coordinates policy regarding international bodies such as the ITU. The White House, the Department of Commerce (largely through the National Telecommunications and Information Administration [NTIA; www.ntia. doc.gov]), the Justice Department, the Trade Representative, and the Department of Defense are among the various parts of the administration that set or contribute to telecommunications policy. The U.S. Congress and the U.S. government's legis- lative branch also play important roles. In addition, industry associations, policy "think tanks," regulatory affairs departments within companies, telecommunica- tions lawyers, and lobbyists all contribute to policy debates and influe