, where does a receiver start counting information bits (inside a character or symbol)? 11. There are three major causes of error on a data link. Name two of them. 12. On start-stop transmission, the mark-to-space transition on the start element tells the receiver when to start counting bits. How does a synchronous data stream know when to start counting bits in a frame of packet? 13. How does a synchronous data receiver keep in synchronization with an incoming bit stream? 14. A serial synchronous NRZ bit stream has a data rate of 19.2 kbps. What is the period of one bit? 15. What is notably richer in transitions per unit time: RZ or NRZ coding? 16. The CCITT V.29 modem operates on the standard analog voice channel at 9600 bps. How can it do this on a channel with a 3100-Hz bandwidth? 17. Name the three basic impairments for data transmission. 18. Name the four types of noise. Indicate the two that a data circuit is sensitive and explain. 19. Phase distortion, in general, has little effect on speech transmission. What can we say about it for data transmission? 20. Shannon's formula for capacity (bps) for a particular bandwidth was based only on one parameter. What was/is it? 21. We usually equalize two voice channel impairments. What are they and how does the equalization work? 22. Why do higher-speed modems use a center frequency around 1800 Hz? 23. Why is the PSTN digital network not compatible with data bit streams? REFERENCES REFERENCES 1. The IEEE Standard Dictionary of Electrical and Electronic Terms, 6th ed., IEEE Std. 100-1996, IEEE, New York, 1996. 2. Equivalence Between Binary Notation Symbols and the Significant Conditions of a Two-Condi- tion Code, CCITT Rec. V.1 3. R. L. Freeman, Practical Data Communications, 2nd ed., Wiley, New York, 2002. 4. R. L. Freeman, Telecommunication Transmission Handbook, 4th ed., Wiley, 1998. 5. Interface Between Data Terminal Equipment and Data Circuit-Terminating Equipment Employ- ing Serial Binary Data Interchange, EIA/TIA-232F, Electronics Industries Association, Wash