tain the CP and UP functions, often referred to as CPFs and UPFs, respectively. This composability allows flexibility in the upgrading of the hardware and software infrastructure and loosely couples the CP and UP. The Broadband Forum's specification TR-459 provides details on how to separate the UPFs and CPFs. It describes three interfaces for this purpose(https://onestore.nokia.com/asset/210510): The Management Interface, or Mi The State Control Interface, or Sci The Control Packet Redirect Interface, or CPRi 5G Fixed Mobile Convergence Next, we will look at how the separation of the CPFs and UPFs works, along with the disaggregation of the UP (as in the use of physical and virtualized infrastructure). For more details, see Figure 15.10: Control plane function User plane function Control and management interfaces Session state management Traffic management/statistics IP address management Subscriber routing/forwarding DBNG control plane (SMF) PEP, AAA client accounting QoS functions, IPTV multicast LAC, LNS, TWAG, FWAG, HAG Keep alives: PPP hellos, etc. CPF-1 CPF-1 Access control, Qos control Keep alives: LACP, BFD, etc. Disaggregated user plane IP/MPLS Physical appliances Virtualized Figure 15.10 - The Broadband Forum's TR-459 Figure 15.10 supports off-loading broadband internet and video traffic from 5G Core. This will facilitate infrastructure scalability for fixed-wireless and mobile gateway network functionality. Let us next look at the need for the 5G Residential Gateway (5G-RG). The 5G-RG is needed to realize the full range of benefits of 5G for wireline. It can help to implement Quality of Service (QoS) and improve overall reliability. The 5G-RG can be used to steer network traffic among access technologies based on Key Performance Indicators (KPIs). These KPIs can be latency or throughput. During the COVID-19 pandemic, the demand for home broadband increased. As a result, residential customers' expectations of network operators have increased, and they now have to provide increased reliability (https://