5 to 20 years. The Water Infrastructure Network (WIN) report estimated that drinking water utilities need to spend USD 24 billion per year for the next 20 years on infrastructure, but that currently the expenditure is USD 13 billion per year. In respect of wastewater systems, the USEPA estimated needs in 1998 as requiring a spend of USD 140 billion as part of an assessment for the Revolving Loan Fund programme (UNEP, 2002). More recently the figures given were USD 22 billion and USD 10 billion per year respectively, leaving an overall gap of USD 23 billion per year over 20 years (Johnson, 2004). These amounts dwarf the existing level of funding and federal subsidies used to supplement user fees and help finance capital investments, and are unlikely to address the real causes of inadequate maintenance: the institutional arrangements and managerial practices (Levin et al., 2002). USEPA's own gap analysis, the 2003 Needs Assessment, is in substantial agreement with the WIN and the Congressional Budget Office's estimates (USEPA, 2005). All indicate that there is a need for substantial investments to upgrade or replace water infrastructure (Levin et al., 2002) in order to ensure compliance with quality standards prescribed by the Safe Drinking INFRASTRUCTURE TO 2030: TELECOM, LAND TRANSPORT, WATER AND ELECTRICITY - ISBN 92-64-02398-4 © OECD 2006 5. THE IMPACTS OF CHANGE ON THE LONG-TERM FUTURE DEMAND FOR WATER SECTOR INFRASTRUCTURE Water Act, even though municipal authorities face funding constraints. The current state of water municipalities and increasing public awareness will force federal agencies to implement corrective action at a faster pace. USEPA estimated that drinking water utilities will spend USD 154-446 billion up to 2019 and wastewater systems USD 331-450 billion over the same period in order to meet the required standards. In addition, a further USD 17.5 billion is required to replace lead service pipes and USD 1.2 billion to harden facilities in order to improve security. It has been indicated that in