e Communications Group Mobile Satellite Systems Group Introduction Space Telecommunications Industry Historical Perspective Status and Systems Presently in concept, Development, or Deployment Projections for Future Space Systems Characteristics of Telecommunications Satellite Systems Orbit Architecture of Telecommunications Constellations The Space Environment Energetic Charged Particle Environments 3.1.1 Trapped Particles: Protons, Electrons, and Heavy Ions 3.1.2 Galactic Cosmic Ray Heavy Ions 3.1.3 Solar Particles Plasma Environment and Spacecraft Charging Other Space Environment Considerations Space Radiation Effects on Devices and Technologies Mission Integrated Effects 4.1.1 Total Ionizing Dose 4.1.2 Displacement Damage Dose Destructive Single Event Effects 4.2.1 Single Event Latchup and Snapback 4.2.2 Single Event Burnout and Gate Rupture 4.2.3 Single Event Hard Error and Single Event Dielectric Rupture Single Event Upset and Transients 4.3.1 Single Event Upset and Transient in Digital Devices 4.3.2 Single Event Transients in Analog Circuits 4.3.3 Single Event Functional Interrupt Systems Engineering for Space Radiation Environment Compatibility Tolerance to Mission Integrated Effects Mitigation of Destructive Single Event Effects Analysis of Single Event Upset Rates and System Effects 5.3.1 Component Single Event Upset Characterization 5.3.2 Environment Models 5.3.3 Performing Rate Estimate Calculations 5.3.4 Effects and Consequence on System Operations Spatial and Temporal Variation in the Charged Particle Environment Fault Tolerant Systems Engineering System Reliability and Availability Fault Tolerant Systems Design Fault Avoidance 6.3.1 System Operations and Orbit Architecture 6.3.2 Effectiveness of Shielding 6.3.3 Mitigation of Charge Generation and Collection 6.3.4 Mitigation of Circuit Response Fault Masking and Redundancy 6.4.1 Error Detection and Correction (EDAC) Coding 6.4.1.1 EDAC Coding in Data Storage and Communication 6.4.1.2 EDAC in Arithmetic and Logic Structures 6.4.2 Redundancy 6.4.2.1 Sp