provider, tariff calculation will be complex. Two methods of tariff calculation may be envi- sioned. One is when the end-user pays for the consumed content from a content provider, who in turn compensates transport providers. The other method is a monthly or per-packet contract Access point Figure 13.23 Packet delivery over heterogeneous networks Broadband Telecommunications Technologies and Management between the end-user and a broadband service retailer, who distributes revenue among fixed and mobile network owners. FMC requires traffic to flow over an all-IP backhaul. This means that all service will be packet switched including telephony. Moreover, QoS constraints will be implemented using protocols such as Multiprotocol Label Switching (MPLS) to facilitate traffic type differentiation. Many broadband wireless operators have integrated wireless LANs into their 3G and 4G networks. The motivation is mostly to offload wide area network traffic to local networks. Also, BYOD regimes require seamless transition between 3G/4G, femtocell and wireless LAN systems. These are early manifestations of fixed and mobile convergence. ITU's NGN vision faces challenges from a number of fronts. Many operators are vertical integrated and own network infrastructure, retail service and deliver content from a subsidiary. For example, Telstra has ownership in content delivery companies such as BigPond Movies and Foxtel, in addition to infrastructure ownership and retail arms. This may be a competitive advantage to Telstra and opening up the network to treat all content similarly may not be in their interest. Such companies have little incentive to provide an open platform. Other complexities arise from charging for services and percentage of revenues which goes to each player. Furthermore, such operators will not be incentivised to provide services to sparsely populated areas as revenues will not justify the costs. Without government interven- tion a 'digital divide' will come to exist within a country between urban and rural areas.