(Cell-ID, E-Cell ID, OTDOA, and UTDOA) 16 and non-RAN-assisted (GNSS, Bluetooth, WLAN, terrestrial beacon systems (TBS), and sensor-based location determination) that have been specified and used in LTE systems. In addition, support of D2D-based positioning techniques has also been considered in NR. The NR positioning schemes exploit high bandwidth, massive antenna systems, new network architecture, and functionalities as well as deployment of massive number of devices to support indoor and outdoor location-based services. Higher precision positioning is characterized by ambitious system requirements for Cell-ID, E-Cell ID, OTDOA, UTDOA, and GNSS denote cell identifier, enhanced cell identifier, observed time difference of arrival, uplink time difference of arrival, and global navigation satellite system and are commonly used methods for positioning in 3GPP systems. TBS consist of a network of terrestrial beacons broadcasting signals for positioning purposes. They may use dedicated, unshared spectrum or spectrum shared with other users, including FDD and TDD licensed spectrum. Ixviii Introduction and Background Table 3: 3GPP and ITU-R service and performance requirements [11,14]. Service/Performance Category ITU-R Requirements 3GPP Requirements Metric Usage Scenario Test Environment Direction Peak data rate Downlink (Gbps) Uplink Peak spectral Downlink efficiency (bits/s/Hz) Uplink User experienced Dense Urban-eMBB Downlink 3 X IMT-Advanced cell- data rate (Mbps) edge spectral efficiency at 1 GHz Bandwidth Uplink 3 X IMT-Advanced cell- edge spectral efficiency at 1 GHz bandwidth 5th Percentile user Indoor Downlink 3 X IMT-Advanced cell- spectral efficiency Hotspot-eMBB edge spectral efficiency in (bits/s/Hz) InH a Uplink 3 X IMT-Advanced Cell- edge Spectral Efficiency in InH Urban macro Downlink 3 X IMT-Advanced cell- edge spectral efficiency in Uplink 3 X IMT-Advanced cell- edge spectral efficiency in Dense Urban-eMBB Downlink 0.225 3 X IMT-Advanced cell- edge spectral efficiency in Uplink 3 X IMT-Advanced cell-