 grated/incorporated when they achieve maturity. For systems beyond 5G, one proposal is to integrate terrestrial wireless with satellite systems, for ubiquitous always-on broadband global network coverage. Many of the cellular devices currently connected are machines rather than people, and with the rise of smart homes, smart buildings, and smart cities, 5G and systems beyond 5G will encounter increased demands for machine-to-machine commu- nications, including robotic interactions and autonomous drone delivery and transport sys- items. Other trends predicted for systems beyond 5G include ultra-dense cellular networks, reconfigurable and fully programmable hardware, and extended use of mmWave spectrum for user access, enhanced optical-wireless interface and photonics, networked visible light communication (VLC), 30 intelligent networking, and technologies to enable full immersive experience for users [28]. The user demand for greater global coverage, higher network capacities, seamless and always-on connectivity, new Internet services and applications continue to grow, and sys- tems beyond 5G will be expected to deliver even more features and services. One of the potential drivers for systems beyond 5G is the growing prospects of software-defined radio and software-defined networking, which means that the underlying technologies for the sys- tems beyond 5G will be easier to upgrade. This reduces the expensive and disruptive upgrades of previous mobile standards which generally involve replacement of physical infrastructure. Inter-vendor interoperability is also an increasing trend, with disaggregation fueled by open-source/white-box development of systems/technologies. Networked VLC for ultra-dense wireless networking is based on VLC, which promises quantum step improvements in area spectral efficiency while exploiting existing infrastructures by piggy-backing high speed data communication on existing lighting infrastructures. Networked VLC is also referred to as Li-Fi. The visible light spectrum is unlicensed an