far from reality. Some- times a system is in production and being sold long before the formal standard is es- tablished, as was the case with IS-95, which later became cdmaOne. Even when the standard comes first, the process is iterative rather than linear. Standards themselves undergo revision. Specifications have both logical and physical levels, as discussed in Sec. 14.4. Specifications are verified to standards and, when prototypes are developed, they are tested for conformance to standards. The processes of testing by a manufac- turer, standards organizations, and independent testing laboratories is too complex to go into in this book. However, it is important to note simply that any device may fail to pass a test and need rework. Also, unfortunately, mistakes can be made at any step in this process, resulting in equipment that does not work or that works with lower capacity and quality than the standard seemed to imply it could. 9.1.4 The benefits of standards When standards work well, components made by multiple vendors can be designed for each side of the interface, and all will work together on the same system. This enhances both competition and innovation. When a standard is made public, any company can produce equipment and seek to have it certified by the standards institution. With more companies trying to make similar equipment, prices are driven down. Also, if a company conceives of and develops equipment with new features, it will work on the system as long as it meets the standard at all interfaces. As a result, we have cellular phone wrist watches. They work on the network by meeting the air interface standard, and they work for the user who likes them because they are unique in an area of de- sign that is not standardized, their shape. Standards committees have been known to solve technical problems, particularly by bringing together experts with different specialties to create innovative solutions. Also, the job of specifying an entire system is huge. The work of standards committees, which of