ting factors to use for each of the three components. rural LoS macrocellular environments. The suburban In order to identify the region where LoS propagation is environment is a typical suburban residential area in Oulu dominant, an obstruction probability factor, p, is used, region with at most four to six-storey buildings in the defining the probability that a link between the BS and the vicinity (one- to two-storey buildings in the measurement MT is obstructed. Globally, p will be zero in the vicinity of route), and not SO wide streets. The street grid is rather the BS, and it will increase with distance, approaching regular, and no open areas can be found in between the unity. The path loss in an urban environment is obtained as houses. An unobstructed LoS condition was observed. Macro- and microcellular cases were considered by po- (4.7.4) sitioning the receiver at different heights, 11.7 and 7.6 m being considered, respectively. with LLoS an LNLoS being the path loss in LoS and NLoS, Based on measurements, a simple log-distance path- respectively. loss model is derived by using linear regression of the The NLoS component results from the combination scatter plot of the measured data. The results for rural of two terms, representing the vertical and lateral prop- and suburban cases are reported in Table 4.7-5. Some agation. For simplicity, it is assumed that the total field figures for the rural case are shown as an example, strength is given by the strongest component, thus, Figure 4.7-32. In [ZVRK04], empirical path-loss models for = min(LIAT,ILVERT) (4.7.5) microcells are derived from measurements at 5.3 GHz and a system bandwidth of 100 MHz, performed in an where represent the lateral and vertical urban microcellular environment in the centre of attenuations, respectively. Helsinki. The environment is characterised by a regular In order to apply the model, three components need street grid, where the building height varies between to be evaluated as a function of the geometrical param- four and seven st