ase station. In WLAN according to IEEE 802.11 layers 1 and 2 are used for encryption in a standard called wired equivalent privacy (WEP). Since the IP protocol is normally used end to end an IP layer encryption can/should be maintained all the way. A common layer 3 encryption is part of IPsec, commonly used for IP-VPN. Encryption at higher layers increases the security even further, but has the drawback that the applications need individual encryption. An example is secure socket layer (SSL) at layer 4 that can protect HTTP web traffic. The layered view is applicable to many standards in the new network. 'Ordinary' standards for content to user communication are covered in Chapter 3. Service and business-oriented standards are explained in Chapter 5, security standards in Chapter 6, QoS standards in Chapter 7 and specific enabler standards in Chapter 8. 6.6.3 THE FUNCTIONAL (FP) VIEW Security for Network Management The communication between the network elements (NEs) and the management entity (OSS, operations support system) used to be based on X.25 technology. The knowledge of X.25 is limited to a small population. The security risks were then limited. Today IP technology is widely known and used, and even its standards (RFCs) are open to the general public. CORBA and Java are used for the high-level communication with the nodes. Despite considerable risks of security violations when working in an IP environment, there are not many other options available. The strong technological shift towards the Security Internet for data communication, the increasing maturity of Internet security alternatives and the fact that the connectivity backbone will be based on IP or IP/ATM, force us more or less to use IP for data communication (NE to/from manager) within the manage- ment system. The main communication protocol is simple network management protocol (SNMP). Main security features in SNMPv3 are encryption to assure privacy, and authentication of management-agent communication to guarantee sender identity and message i