. More on that in the following sections. One additional point is that cTE captures the component of TE that is immune to filtering. cTE is the constant component of TE (referred to as static offset) and represents a measure of accuracy. The component of TE that can be somewhat controlled by filtering is the dTE. 9.3.1 Dynamic Time Error It was shown previously that max|TE| measures the accuracy and stability that can be expected from the network or from a timing node. The max|TE| is decomposed into two subcomponents: cTE and dTE is the dynamic component of TE that measures the variable portion of the TE. As shown in Figure 9-17, the dTE measures the stability of the TE and significantly contributes to max|TE|. So, to ensure a minimum of TE, it is important to keep the dTE low. In summary, cTE specifies the ac- curacy of the TE, whereas the dTE measures its stability. Time Error Max|TE| 50 Figure 9-17 Graph Showing cTE, dTE, and max TE As dTE can be such a major component of the total TE, what causes it? Any behavior of a network or timing node that contributes to TE in a nondeterministic way contributes to dTE. For example, one source of dTE for the end-to-end network case is the PDV induced by PTP-unaware nodes be- cause the packet delays caused by unaware nodes are somewhat random, which adds significantly to dTE. Another source of dTE comes from errors in timestamping. One of the characteristics of the timestamping feature on a PTP-aware node is the resolution (or granularity) of the timestamp. The resolution is simply the smallest value that the timestamp can represent, and the lower the resolu- tion, the higher is the variability in timestamping accuracy. Using the example of a timestamping engine with a resolution of 16 ns, the accuracy of any one timestamp can be anywhere in the range of -8 ns to +8 ns because the timestamps are only available at values of 0, 16, 32, 48, 64, and SO on. Because of this step function, the error is not fixed and var- ies within this 16-ns range for every timestamp. This vari