▁meaning - making ▁among ▁American ▁Muslim s ▁and ▁how ▁changes ▁in ▁identity ▁as cription ▁( what ▁people ▁think ▁about ▁another ▁group ▁of ▁people ) ▁affected ▁how ▁Muslim s ▁sought ▁to ▁represent ▁themselves . ▁Other ▁studies ▁have ▁applied ▁concepts ▁appropri ated ▁from ▁race ▁and ▁gender ▁identity ▁theory ▁such ▁as ▁dis ident ification ▁which ▁und erm ines ▁essential ist ▁accounts ▁of ▁religious ▁identity ▁- ▁that ▁an ▁individual ▁has ▁a ▁' fixed ' ▁religious ▁identity , ▁independent ▁of ▁pre - ex isting ▁systems ▁of ▁representation ▁and ▁individuals ' ▁position ing ▁within ▁them . ▁ ▁History ▁ ▁During ▁the ▁early ▁ 1 8 0 0 s ▁in ▁the ▁field ▁of ▁psych ology , ▁research ▁on ▁the ▁topic ▁of ▁religion ▁was ▁considered ▁important ▁and ▁u bi quit ous . ▁For ▁example , ▁research ers ▁like ▁G . ▁Stanley ▁Hall ▁and ▁William ▁James ▁conducted ▁studies ▁on ▁such ▁topics ▁as ▁religious ▁conversion . ▁In ▁contrast , ▁the ▁public ▁perspective ▁on ▁religion ▁began ▁to ▁shift ▁two ▁dec ades ▁later . ▁Instead ▁of ▁religion ▁being ▁seen ▁as ▁an ▁integral ▁part ▁of ▁an ▁individual ' s ▁life ▁and ▁development ▁and ▁thus ▁a ▁necessary ▁topic ▁to ▁research , ▁scient ists ▁and ▁sch ol ars ▁al ike ▁viewed ▁religion ▁as ▁a ▁h ind rance ▁to ▁the ▁pro gression ▁of ▁science ▁and ▁as ▁a ▁topic ▁no ▁longer ▁applicable ▁to ▁the ▁current ▁times . ▁ ▁Con tr ary ▁to ▁social ▁scient ists ' ▁prediction ▁of ▁the ▁general ▁decl ine ▁of ▁religion ▁over ▁time ▁and ▁increase ▁of ▁sec ular ization ▁leading ▁to ▁a ▁complete ▁abandon ment ▁of ▁religious