▁however , ▁their ▁C d S ▁layer ▁comes ▁from ▁chemical ▁v apor ▁de position . ▁Mod ules ▁sold ▁by ▁Sh ell ▁Sol ar ▁claim ▁ 9 . 4 % ▁module ▁efficiency . ▁ <0x09> ▁M ias ole ▁had ▁proc ured ▁vent ure ▁capital ▁funds ▁for ▁its ▁process ▁and ▁scale ▁up . ▁A ▁record ▁▁▁ 1 7 . 4 % ▁a pert ure ▁efficiency ▁module ▁was ▁confirmed ▁by ▁Fra un ho fer ▁in ▁ 2 0 1 9 ▁ <0x09> ▁EP V ▁uses ▁a ▁hy brid ▁between ▁co ev ap oration ▁and ▁s put ter ing ▁in ▁which ▁In ▁and ▁Ga ▁are ▁ev apor ated ▁in ▁a ▁Se ▁atmosphere . ▁This ▁is ▁followed ▁by ▁Cu ▁s put ter ing ▁and ▁s elen ization . ▁Finally , ▁In ▁and ▁Ga ▁are ▁again ▁ev apor ated ▁in ▁the ▁presence ▁of ▁Se . ▁Based ▁on ▁Hall ▁measurements , ▁these ▁films ▁have ▁a ▁low ▁car rier ▁concentration ▁and ▁relatively ▁high ▁mob ility . ▁EP V ▁films ▁have ▁a ▁low ▁defect ▁concentration . ▁ ▁Chal c ogen ization ▁of ▁partic ulate ▁prec ursor ▁layers ▁▁ ▁In ▁this ▁method , ▁metal ▁or ▁metal - ox ide ▁nan op articles ▁are ▁used ▁as ▁the ▁prec urs ors ▁for ▁C IG S ▁growth . ▁These ▁nan op articles ▁are ▁generally ▁susp ended ▁in ▁a ▁water ▁based ▁solution ▁and ▁then ▁applied ▁to ▁large ▁areas ▁by ▁various ▁methods , ▁such ▁as ▁printing . ▁The ▁film ▁is ▁then ▁de h yd r ated ▁and , ▁if ▁the ▁prec urs ors ▁are ▁metal - ox ides