▁old ▁as ▁public ▁school ▁gradu ation ▁cer emon ies ▁themselves , ▁and ▁that ▁is ▁a ▁component ▁of ▁an ▁even ▁more ▁long standing ▁American ▁tradition ▁of ▁non sect arian ▁prayer ▁to ▁God ▁at ▁public ▁celebr ations ▁generally . ▁As ▁its ▁instrument ▁of ▁destruction , ▁the ▁bul ld oz er ▁of ▁its ▁social ▁engineering , ▁the ▁Court ▁invent s ▁a ▁bound less , ▁and ▁bound lessly ▁manip ul able , ▁test ▁of ▁psych ological ▁co erc ion . ▁ ▁S cal ia ▁pointed ▁to ▁several ▁historical ▁examples ▁of ▁calling ▁on ▁divine ▁guidance ▁by ▁American ▁Pres idents , ▁including ▁Washington ' s ▁pro clam ation ▁of ▁the ▁Thanks g iving ▁hol iday ▁in ▁ 1 7 8 9 ▁and ▁the ▁inaug ural ▁addresses ▁of ▁both ▁Mad ison ▁and ▁Thomas ▁Jefferson . ▁He ▁disput ed ▁the ▁Court ' s ▁cont ention ▁that ▁attend ance ▁at ▁high ▁school ▁gradu ation ▁cer emon ies ▁was ▁effectively ▁required ▁as ▁part ▁of ▁social ▁norm s , ▁and ▁also ▁the ▁conclusion ▁that ▁students ▁were ▁subt ly ▁co er ced ▁to ▁stand ▁for ▁the ▁ra bbi ' s ▁inv ocation . ▁In ▁S cal ia ' s ▁view , ▁only ▁official ▁pen alt ies ▁for ▁ref using ▁to ▁support ▁or ▁ad here ▁to ▁a ▁particular ▁religion ▁created ▁an ▁Est ab lish ment ▁Cla use ▁viol ation . ▁ ▁Sub sequ ent ▁develop ments ▁ ▁The ▁co erc ion ▁test ▁is ▁now ▁used ▁to ▁determine ▁the ▁constitution ality ▁of ▁certain ▁government ▁actions ▁under ▁the ▁Est ab lish ment ▁Cla use , ▁along ▁with ▁the