▁inequality ▁in ▁the ▁immediate ▁post - M ao ▁period . ▁Ch ing - kw an ▁Lee ▁and ▁Mark ▁Sel den ▁argue ▁that ▁“ pers istent ▁inequality , ▁defined ▁broad ly ▁in ▁terms ▁of ▁income , ▁wealth , ▁life ▁ch ances ▁and ▁basic ▁needs ▁ent it lement s , ▁has ▁resulted ▁from ▁three ▁dur able ▁hier arch ies — class , ▁citizens hip ▁and ▁location .” ▁Such ▁hierarchy - dri ven ▁in equal ities ▁remained ▁prominent ▁from ▁the ▁ 1 9 8 0 s ▁on wards . ▁For ▁instance , ▁Lee ▁and ▁Sel den ▁highlight ▁the ▁tr end ▁of ▁rural ▁industrial ization , ▁driven ▁by ▁foreign ▁capital , ▁in ▁providing ▁the ▁economic ▁benefits ▁to ▁coast al ▁areas ▁and ▁giving ▁rise ▁to ▁an ▁“ emer ging ▁b ureau cr atic - bus iness ▁el ite ▁wed ding ▁regul atory ▁power ▁with ▁capital , ▁including ▁Chinese ▁private ▁capital ▁and ▁international ▁capital .” ▁During ▁the ▁priv at ization ▁of ▁state - owned ▁enter pr ises ▁in ▁the ▁ 1 9 9 0 s , ▁this ▁el ite ▁directly ▁benef ited ▁from ▁the ▁in flow ▁of ▁foreign ▁capital , ▁thanks ▁to ▁their ▁privile ged ▁positions , ▁while ▁workers ▁who ▁once ▁received ▁limited ▁protection ▁from ▁the ▁state ▁were ▁now ▁rendered ▁redundant . ▁As ▁such , ▁the ▁in equ ity ▁in ▁the ▁post - M ao ▁period ▁was ▁not ▁new , ▁but ▁a ▁manifest ation ▁of ▁an ▁already ▁existing ▁inequality . ▁Emp ir ical ▁studies ▁on ▁the ▁income ▁distribution ▁in ▁post - M ao ▁China ▁also ▁suggest ▁that ▁“ F