rom ancy , ▁and ▁ast ro log y — under ▁the ▁label ▁magic . ▁In ▁early ▁modern ▁Europe , ▁Protest ants ▁often ▁claimed ▁that ▁Roman ▁Catholic ism ▁was ▁magic ▁rather ▁than ▁religion , ▁and ▁as ▁Christian ▁Europe ans ▁began ▁colon ising ▁other ▁parts ▁of ▁the ▁world ▁in ▁the ▁six teenth ▁century ▁they ▁label led ▁the ▁non - Christ ian ▁belief s ▁they ▁encountered ▁mag ical . ▁In ▁that ▁same ▁period , ▁Italian ▁human ists ▁re inter pre ted ▁the ▁term ▁in ▁a ▁positive ▁sense ▁to ▁create ▁the ▁idea ▁of ▁natural ▁magic . ▁Both ▁negative ▁and ▁positive ▁understand ings ▁of ▁the ▁term ▁rec ur red ▁in ▁Western ▁culture ▁over ▁the ▁following ▁centuries . ▁ ▁Since ▁the ▁nin ete enth ▁century , ▁academ ics ▁in ▁various ▁discipl ines ▁have ▁employed ▁the ▁term ▁magic ▁but ▁have ▁defined ▁it ▁in ▁different ▁ways ▁and ▁used ▁it ▁in ▁reference ▁to ▁different ▁things . ▁One ▁approach , ▁associated ▁with ▁the ▁anth rop olog ists ▁Edward ▁T yl or ▁and ▁James ▁G . ▁Fra zer , ▁uses ▁the ▁term ▁to ▁describe ▁belief s ▁in ▁hidden ▁sympath ies ▁between ▁objects ▁that ▁allow ▁one ▁to ▁influence ▁the ▁other . ▁Def ined ▁in ▁this ▁way , ▁magic ▁is ▁port rayed ▁as ▁the ▁opposite ▁to ▁science . ▁An ▁alternative ▁approach , ▁associated ▁with ▁the ▁soci olog ists ▁Marcel ▁M auss ▁and ▁É mile ▁Dur k heim , ▁emp lo ys ▁the ▁term ▁to ▁describe ▁private ▁r ites ▁and ▁cer emon ies ▁and ▁contrast s ▁it ▁with ▁religion , ▁which ▁it ▁defines ▁as ▁a ▁commun al