▁The ▁cultural ▁development ▁saw ▁the ▁retre at ▁of ▁the ▁ 1 9 th ▁century ▁el ite ▁cult ures ▁of ▁nob ility ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁the ▁traditional ▁folk ▁culture , ▁and ▁the ▁rise ▁of ▁a ▁new ▁mass ▁culture ▁integr ating ▁Polish ▁society ▁closer ▁to ▁the ▁new ▁intellig ents ia ▁educated ▁in ▁the ▁practice ▁of ▁dem ocracy . ▁ ▁Background ▁As ide ▁from ▁the ▁economic ▁par al ysis ▁caused ▁by ▁the ▁century ▁of ▁partitions , ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁most ▁severe ▁consequences ▁of ▁foreign ▁rule ▁was ▁ill iter acy , ▁affect ing ▁ 3 3 . 1 % ▁of ▁Poland ' s ▁citizens ▁in ▁ 1 9 2 1 , ▁with ▁the ▁worst ▁situation ▁existing ▁in ▁the ▁former ▁Russian ▁Empire . ▁The ▁territ ories ▁of ▁the ▁Pr uss ian ▁Part ition ▁were ▁most ▁developed , ▁although ▁Pol es ▁were ▁also ▁subject ed ▁to ▁the ▁German ization ▁policies ▁of ▁Kultur k ampf ▁and ▁H ak ata . ▁Meanwhile , ▁the ▁eastern ▁and ▁southern ▁territ ories ▁– ▁parts ▁of ▁the ▁former ▁Russian ▁Part ition ▁and ▁Aust rian ▁Part ition ▁– ▁were ▁among ▁the ▁least ▁developed ▁regions ▁in ▁Europe . ▁ ▁Even ▁though ▁the ▁level ▁of ▁economic , ▁cultural ▁and ▁political ▁development ▁between ▁the ▁three ▁former ▁zones ▁of ▁occupation ▁differ ed ▁substantial ly , ▁over ▁time , ▁the ▁cultural ▁hub s ▁of ▁Wars aw , ▁Krak ów , ▁Wil no ▁( mod ern ▁Vil nius ) ▁and ▁L w ów ▁( mod ern ▁L viv ) ▁raised ▁themselves ▁to ▁the ▁level ▁of ▁vital ▁European ▁cities . ▁ ▁High light