▁different ▁formula ▁for ▁those ▁outside ▁the ▁state ▁church . ▁ ▁Historical ▁development ▁The ▁dis ability ▁im posed ▁on ▁a ▁Jew ▁engaged ▁in ▁legal ▁cont ention ▁with ▁a ▁Christian ▁dates ▁back ▁to ▁By z antine ▁em peror ▁Justin ian ▁I , ▁who ▁declared ▁that ▁neither ▁Jews ▁nor ▁her et ics ▁should ▁be ▁admitted ▁as ▁witness es ▁against ▁Christians ; ▁ ▁sec ular ▁courts , ▁however , ▁did ▁not ▁recognize ▁this ▁dis ability . ▁Thus , ▁in ▁the ▁safe ▁conduct s ▁issued ▁by ▁the ▁Carol ing ian ▁k ings ▁in ▁the ▁ 9 th ▁century , ▁Jews ▁and ▁Christians ▁were ▁treated ▁as ▁equals , ▁and ▁consequ ently ▁the ▁testim ony ▁of ▁the ▁former , ▁whether ▁given ▁under ▁o ath ▁or ▁not , ▁was ▁as ▁adm iss ible ▁as ▁the ▁latter . ▁This ▁was ▁distinct ly ▁stated ▁in ▁the ▁char ter ▁granted ▁by ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Emperor ▁Henry ▁IV ▁to ▁the ▁Jews ▁of ▁Spe yer ▁in ▁ 1 0 9 0 . ▁The ▁law ▁of ▁Duke ▁Frederick ▁II ▁of ▁Austria ▁( 1 2 4 4 ), ▁which ▁served ▁as ▁a ▁model ▁for ▁much ▁other ▁legisl ation ▁on ▁the ▁Jews , ▁merely ▁required ▁a ▁Jew ▁to ▁swe ar ▁" super ▁Rod al " ▁( by ▁the ▁Tor ah ). ▁Similar ▁laws ▁existed ▁in ▁England , ▁Portugal , ▁and ▁Hung ary ; ▁Hung ary ▁wa ived ▁the ▁requirement ▁to ▁swe ar ▁on ▁the ▁Tor ah ▁in ▁trivial ▁cases . ▁ ▁There ▁were , ▁however , ▁some ▁older ▁laws ▁that ▁pres cribed ▁certain ▁practices ▁intended ▁to ▁mock ▁Jews ▁in ▁court