Salvia divinorum (also known as sage of the diviners, ska maría pastora, seer's sage, yerba de la pastoraand just salvia) is a psychoactive plant which can induce visions and other altered and spiritual experiences. Its native habitat is in cloud forest in the isolated Sierra Mazateca of Oaxaca, Mexico, where it grows in shady and moist locations. The plant grows to over a meter high, has hollow square stems, large leaves, and occasional white flowers with violet calyxes. Botanists have not determined whether Salvia divinorum is a cultigen or a hybrid; native plants reproduce vegetatively, rarely producing viable seed.
Mazatec shamans have a long and continuous tradition of religious use of Salvia divinorum, using it to facilitate visionary states of consciousness during spiritual healing sessions. Most of the plant's local common names allude to the Mazatecs' post-Columbian belief that the plant is an incarnation of the Virgin Mary, with its ritual use also invoking that relationship. Its chief active psychoactive constituent is a structurally unique diterpenoid called salvinorin A, a potent κ-opioid and D2 receptor agonist. Salvia divinorum is generally understood to be of low toxicity (high LD50) and low addictive potential since it is a κ-opioid agonist and a great deal of research has indicated that κ-opioid agonist activation of the kappa opioid receptor as shown by salvia may, in fact, serve as a potent addiction treatment therapy.
Salvia divinorum is native to the Sierra Mazateca in Oaxaca, Mexico, where it is still used by the Mazatec, primarily to facilitate shamanic visions in the context of curing or divination. S. divinorum is one of several species with hallucinogenic properties that are ritually used by Mazatec shamans. Others include certain morning glory seeds (Turbina corymbosa), psilocybin mushrooms, and various coleus species. In their rituals, the shamans use only fresh S. divinorum leaves. They see the plant as an incarnation of the Virgin Mary, and begin the ritual with an invocation to Mary, Saint Peter, the Holy Trinity, and other saints. Ritual use traditionally involves being in a quiet place after ingestion of the leaf—the Maztec shamans say that "La Maria (S. divinorum) speaks with a quiet voice."
It is also used remedially at lower dosages as a diuretic, and to treat ailments including diarrhea, anemia, headaches, rheumatism, and a semi-magical disease known as panzón de borrego, or a swollen belly (literally, "lamb belly").
Gordon Wasson tentatively postulated that the plant could be the mythological pipiltzintzintli, the "Noble Prince" of the Aztec codices. Wasson's speculation has been the subject of further debate amongst ethnobotanists, with some scepticism coming from Leander J. Valdés, and counterpoints more supportive of Wasson's theory from Jonathan Ott.
I was not very happy with the name because Salvia divinorum means "Salvia of the ghosts", whereas Salvia divinatorum, the correct name, means "Salvia of the priests", But it is now in the botanical literature under the name Salvia divinorum.
There are many common names for S. divinorum, most of them relating to the plant's association with the Virgin Mary. The Mazatec believe the plant to be an incarnation of the Virgin Mary, so they take great care in handling the plant. The name "Ska Maria Pastora", often shortened to "Ska Maria" or "Ska Pastora", refers to "the leaf or herb of Mary, the Shepherdess." Other Spanish names include "hojas de Maria", "hojas de la Pastora", "hierba (yerba) Maria", and "la Maria". A plant believed to be S. divinorum was referred to as "hoja de adivinacion" (leaf of prophecy) by the Cuicatec and Mazatec. S. divinorum is also known as la hembra ("the female"), when it is included by the Mazatec as part of a family of similar religious hallucinogens. The others it is connected with are Coleus pumila, called el macho ("the male"), and two forms of Coleus blumei which are called el nene ("the child") and el ahijado ("the godson").
Some researchers see the lack of an indigenous Mazatec name as demonstrating a non-Mazatec origin for the plant. Others point out that the Virgin Mary is not normally viewed as a shepherdess in Christianity, and that image may hint at a pre-Hispanic Mazatec cultural reference to the plant.
In 2010, a molecular phylogenetic approach by DNA sequencing of Salvia divinorum and a number of related species strongly suggest that the species is not a hybrid. One earlier proposed parent was Salvia cyanea (a synonym for Salvia concolor), which Epling and Játiva believed to be closely allied to Salvia divinorum.[nb 3] The 2010 study demonstrated Salvia divinorum's closest relative to be Salvia venulosa—a rare and endemic Salvia that is native to Colombia, growing in shaded, wooded gullies at 1,500 to 2,000 m (4,900 to 6,600 ft) elevation. It also showed that Salvia divinorum does not belong to the Salvia section Dusenostachys, as believed earlier. The genetic study also indicated that Salvia venulosa was likely misplaced into Salvia section Tubiflorae, and that it may not be related to other Colombia Salvia species, though further tests are needed.
The origin of Salvia divinorum is still a mystery, one of only three plants in the extensive Salvia genus (approximately 900 species) with unknown origins—the other two are Salvia tingitana and Salvia buchananii.
For more details on this topic, see Salvinorin A.
By mass, salvinorin A "is the most potent naturally occurring hallucinogen." It is active at doses as low as 200 µg. Synthetic chemicals, such as LSD (active at 20–30 µg doses), can be more potent. Research has shown that salvinorin A is a potent and selective κ-Opioid (kappa-Opioid) receptor agonist. It has been reported that the effects of salvinorin A in mice are blocked by κ-Opioid receptor antagonists. However, it is an even more potent D2 receptor partial agonist, and it is likely this action plays a significant role in its effects as well. Salvinorin A has no actions at the 5-HT2A serotonin receptor, the principal molecular target responsible for the actions of 'classic' hallucinogens, such as mescaline and LSD, nor is it known to have affinity for any other sites to date.
Other terpenoids have been isolated from Salvia divinorum, including other salvinorins and related compounds named divinatorins and salvinicins. None of these compounds has shown significant (sub-micromolar) affinity at the κ-Opioid receptor, and there is no evidence that they contribute to the plant's psychoactivity.
Salvinorin A is capable of inhibiting excess intestinal motility (e.g. diarrhea), through a combination of κ-opioid and cannabinoid (mainly CB1 receptor) receptors in inflamed but not normal gut in vivo. The mechanism of action for Salvinorin A on ileal tissue has been described as 'prejunctional', as it was able to modify electrically induced contractions, but not those of exogenous acetylcholine. Results from a small study by an assistant professor at the University of Iowa indicate that it may have potential as an analgesic and as a therapeutic tool for treating drug addictions.
Doses for chewing vastly exceed doses used for smoking. By calculating the concentrations per leaf ("an average concentration of 2.45 mg per gram" of leaf), the average weight per leaf ("about 50 g" per 20 leaves, or 2.5g/leaf), and the standard dose for chewing (about 8-28 leaves), the doses can range from about 50 mg to 172 mg.
There also may be synesthetic experiences. Glossolalia (speaking in tongues) has been reported by Reason.
The salvia took me on a consciousness-expanding journey unlike any other I have ever experienced. My body felt disconnected from 'me' and objects and people appeared cartoonish, surreal and marvellous. Then, as suddenly as it had began, it was over. The visions vanished and I was back in my bedroom. I spoke to my 'sitter'—the friend who was watching over me, as recommended on the packaging—but my mouth was awkward and clumsy. When I attempted to stand my coordination was off. Within a couple of minutes, however, I was fine and clear-headed, though dripping with sweat. The whole experience had lasted less than 5 minutes.
Other users have written extensive prose and/or poetry about their experiences; some describe their visions pictorially, and there exist examples of visionary art which are 'salvia-inspired'. Others claim musical inspiration from the plant: including "Salvia divinorum" by 1200 Micrograms, "Salvia" by Deepwater Sunshine, and "Flight 77" by Paul Dereas.
Differing studies suggest no consensus so far with regard to the long-term effects of Salvia divinorum on mood. It is well-established that some k-opioid agonists can cause dysphoria in humans. One study using rats in forced-swim tests has been used to suggest that Salvia divinorum may have "depressive-like" effects, although this conclusion has been contradicted by subsequent research. However, a report has been published detailing an individual case of Salvia divinorum use as self-medicated treatment for depression, and Baggott's survey of 500 people with firsthand experience of salvia found that 25.8% of respondents reported improved mood and "antidepressant-like effects" lasting 24 hours or longer. Only 4.4% reported persisting (24 hours or more) negative effects (most often anxiety) on at least one occasion.
There has been one report of salvia precipitating psychosis. The authors state that they suspect this patient was genetically predisposed to schizophrenia, but their own clinical report shows no family psychiatric history, no personal psychiatric history, and no abnormal lab results.
Most users report no hangover or negative after-effects (e.g. withdrawal, comedown or rebound effect) the next day. This is consistent with the apparent low toxicity of salvia indicated by research conducted at the University of Nebraska.
Aside from individual reports of self-medicated use in the treatment of depression, research suggests that Salvia divinorum, in line with the studied effects of other κ-opioid agonists, may have further therapeutic potential.
An ABC news story which reported on this went on to suggest "the excitement could vanish overnight if the federal government criminalized the sale or possession of salvia, as the Drug Enforcement Agency [sic] is considering doing right now." A proposed Schedule I classification would mean (among other things) that there's no "currently accepted medical use" as far as the United States government is concerned. Scientists worry that such legislation would restrict further work. Mendelsohn said scheduling salvia could scare away a great deal of research and development into salvia's therapeutic promise.
Opinions range from veneration of the plant as a spiritual sacrament or "a gift from the gods", to 'threat to society', to be banned as quickly as possible in order to "spare countless families the horror of losing a loved one to the relentless tentacles of drug abuse".
These stories generally raise alarms over salvia's legal status, for example comparing it to LSD, or describing it as "the new pot", with parental concerns being raised by particular focus on salvia's use by younger teens.
Story headlines may also include 'danger' keywords, such as "Dangerous Herb is Legal..." or "Deadly Dangers Of A Street Legal High".
Mainstream news coverage and journalistic opinion has widely been negative on the subject. In a local news report aired on ABC affiliate WJLA in Washington, DC on July 11, 2007, the anchors are seen to exchange expressions of incredulity when referring to a salvia story with the following introduction "Now, an exclusive I-Team investigation of a hallucinogenic drug that has begun to sweep the nation. What might amaze you is that right now the federal government is doing nothing to stop it".
In March 2008 a Texas news report aired with the story "A legal drug that teenagers are now using to get high could soon be banned here in San Antonio - all because of a Fox News 4 investigation", going on to say, "The drug is legal in Texas, at least for now. But a News 4 investigation could lead to a new ordinance to protect your kids."
Reportedly, some months before this, Brett's mother Kathleen Chidester had learned about his salvia use and questioned him about it. Brett said that he had ceased his experimentation, but his parents did not believe that he was telling the truth. They have instead argued that salvia-induced depression was largely to blame for his death. Some of Brett's earlier writings about his salvia experiences have been used to suggest that it made him think "existence in general is pointless." Some media stories have referred to these earlier written experience reports as if they were part of Brett's suicide note. In any case, a law was soon passed in Delaware classifying the herb as a Schedule I controlled substance in that state. This legislation was nicknamed Brett's law (formally referred to as Senate bill 259).
Although the Chidester story has been given continued exposure by US media, there has not been anywhere else, either before or since this controversial incident, any other reported cases involving or alleging Salvia divinorum as a serious factor in suicide, overdose, accidental, or any other kind of death. Regarding this, San Francisco attorney Alex Coolman has commented, "It's remarkable that Chidester's parents, and only Chidester's parents, continue to be cited over and over again by the mainstream media in their coverage of the supposed 'controversy' over the risks of Salvia divinorum."
Kathleen Chidester has continued campaigning for "Schedule I"-like legislation beyond their home state of Delaware. For example, three years after Brett's death, in written testimony in support of Senator Richard Colburn's proposed Senate Bill to the Maryland State Legislature, saying, "My hope and goal is to have salvia regulated across the US. It's my son's legacy and I will not end my fight until this happens."
"Those videos are certainly not going to help the situation. They make salvia look like some horrible drug that makes people nuts and dangerous [...]" and "The sad thing is it creates this public image where people don't realize there are sensible ways to use something like this."
The New York Times has reported that "in state after state [...] the YouTube videos have become Exhibit A in legislative efforts to regulate salvia."
"What we really worry about," said Mr. Anderson at the hearing, "is youngsters doing this and then getting in a vehicle or getting on a motorcycle or jumping in a pool somewhere."
"Anytime anything's on YouTube it's an issue," and "Legislators, parents, grandparents, we need to be on top of these things," [...] "We need to protect our children..."
Senator McDonald of Nebraska proposed Schedule I listing Salvia divinorum as part of their Controlled Substances Act, under which possession of salvia would have been considered a Class IV felony with a penalty of up to five years and trafficking would have fallen under a Class III felony with up to a 20 year penalty.
The issue has been raised of whether the salvia videos are in breach of YouTube's own community guidelines, which ask users not to "cross the line" and post videos showing "bad stuff" like "drug abuse". The question is considered as particularly problematical as the videos may be something of an enforcement grey area.
At present[date missing] Salvia divinorum remains legal in most countries. Countries where it is controlled in some manner include: Belgium, Canada, Denmark, Estonia, Italy, Japan, the United States, Russia, Spain, Sweden, Finland, and Romania.
The prohibitive degree of Salvia divinorum legislation varies widely from country to country. Australia has imposed its strictest 'schedule 9' (US Schedule I equivalent), and Italy has also placed salvia in its 'Table I' of controlled substances (also US Schedule I equivalent). In Spain, there are controls focusing only on the commercial trade of Salvia divinorum, personal cultivation (i.e. for non-commercial use) is not targeted.
National legislation for amendment of the Controlled Substances Act to place salvinorin A and Salvia divinorum in Schedule I at the federal level in the United States was proposed in 2002 by Representative Joe Baca (D- California). Those opposed to bill HR 5607 include Daniel Siebert, who sent a letter to Congress arguing against the proposed legislation, and the Center for Cognitive Liberty and Ethics (CCLE), who sent key members of the US Congress a report on Salvia divinorum and its active principle, along with letters from an array of scientists who expressed concern that scheduling Salvia divinorum would negatively impact important research on the plant. The bill did not pass.
Although salvia is not regulated under the Controlled Substances Act, some American states, including Alabama, Delaware, Illinois, Louisiana, Michigan, Missouri, Ohio, Texas and others, have passed their own laws. Several other states have proposed legislation against salvia, including Alaska, California, Florida, Iowa, Maryland, New Jersey, New York, Oregon, and Pennsylvania. Many of these proposals have not made it into law, with motions having failed, stalled or otherwise died, for example at committee review stages.
Some internet vendors will not sell live salvia cuttings, leaf, or leaf products to states where its use is restricted or prohibited.
Per their drugs and drug paraphernelia policy, eBay does not permit sale of Salvia divinorum or derived products (despite legality in most areas).
Concerns expressed by some politicians on the subject of Salvia reflect those of the media, with comparisons to LSD and particular focus on "protecting our children" being echoed; and with legislative proposals following soon after news stories breaking.
Some arguments against Salvia have been of a preventative nature, "We need to stop this before it gets to be a huge problem not after it gets to be a huge problem," or of an imitative nature, "The Australians have clearly found a problem with it. There's obviously a risk in people taking it." Concerns about driving while under the influence of Salvia have also been expressed.
Opponents of more prohibitive measures against Salvia argue that such reactions are largely due to an inherent prejudice and a particular cultural bias rather than any actual balance of evidence, pointing out inconsistencies in attitudes toward other more toxic and addictive drugs such as alcohol and nicotine.[nb 6][nb 7] While not objecting to some form of legal control, in particular with regard to the sale to minors or sale of enhanced high-strength extracts, most salvia proponents otherwise argue against stricter legislation.
↑ Botanist Valdés (1987), wrote that, "It is doubtful that the Salvia is a true cultigen", based partly on his belief that it was first "collected in the highlands and planted in more accessible places, where it becomes naturalized". The main cultigen proponent is Gordon Wasson, who is not a botanist.
↑ Reisfield is unsure why Epling "used the invalid name (the synonym rather than the valid name S. concolor), nor why he considered this species close to S. divinorum".
↑ In fact the video is one in a series of parodies featuring Erik J. Hoffstad, a production assistant in Los Angeles. In the film Hoffstad smokes salvia in a parked car (his friends reportedly making sure he did not have the real keys).
↑ The reporter noted that Sak had received more money from the Michigan Beer and Wine Wholesalers Association than anyone else in the House. According to the National Institute on Money in State Politics, the Michigan Beer and Wine Wholesalers Association was the highest contributor to Zak's 2006 political campaign.
↑ According to the National Institute on Money in State Politics, which indicates the major sources of campaign contributions for U.S. politicians, a large part of contributions to U.S. Congressional campaigns comes from alcohol and tobacco industries. For example, Oregon Representative John Lim"s third largest individual campaign sponsor in 2006 was the Oregon Beer & Wine Distributors Association Lim(R) argued for Schedule I classification of Salvia in Oregon. Former Delaware Senator Karen Peterson's second largest group campaign donations in 2006 came from "Beer, Wine & Liquor" industries. Peterson(D) introduced Schedule I classification of Salvia divinorum in Delaware. Senator Tim Burchett(R) sponsored Salvia legislation in Tennessee. In 2006, his second largest individual campaign donation came from the Tennessee Malt Beverage Association. In the same period alcohol and tobacco related contributions amounted to the fourth largest industry contributions for Utah Representative Paul Ray(R). Representative Ray submitted a bill calling for Schedule I classification of Salvia in that state. Alcohol related contributions also featured highly for Illinois Representative Dennis Reboletti(R) "Beer, Wine & Liquor" was his ninth highest industry contributor in 2006 and 2008. Representative Reboletti sponsored a bill for Schedule I classification of Salvia divinorum in Illinois.
↑ The worldwide number of alcohol-related deaths is calculated at over 2,000 people per day, in the US the number is over 300 deaths per day.
↑ Other entheogenic plants with continuing traditions principally of spiritual use include peyote (and other psychoactive cacti), iboga, virola, ayahuasca, and various types of psychoactive fungi. Current U.S. Federal law allows two of these to be used in a spiritual context. The Native American Church is permitted use of peyote; the União do Vegetal (or UDV) is permitted use of ayahuasca. Although not consistently granted (varying from state to state), the principal grounds for such concessions are constitutional, with further grounds following from the Religious Freedom Restoration Act.
↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 Valdés, Díaz & Paul 1983, p. 287.
↑ Medana et al. 2005, p. 131.
↑ 3.0 3.1 Valdés, Díaz & Paul 1983, p. 288.
↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 Boire 2002.
↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 Reisfield 1993, Introduction.
↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 Valdes 1987, p. 106.
↑ 8.0 8.1 Marushia 2002, p. 3.
↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 Reisfield 1993, The Barrier to Fertility.
↑ Prisinzano 2006, p. 527.
↑ 11.0 11.1 Imanshahidi & Hosseinzadeh 2006, p. 430.
↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 12.3 Zhang et al. 2005, p. abstract.
↑ 13.0 13.1 Seeman et al. 2009.
↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 Mowry, Mosher & Briner 2003, p. 382.
↑ 16.0 16.1 16.2 16.3 Valdés, Díaz & Paul 1983.
↑ 18.0 18.1 18.2 DEA 2008.
↑ 19.0 19.1 DRCNet 2008-04-25 (US Media).
↑ 20.0 20.1 Michael 2008-08-03 (US Media).
↑ 21.0 21.1 DRCNet 2009-01-31 (US Media).
↑ 22.0 22.1 Michael 2009-04-22 (US Media).
↑ 23.0 23.1 23.2 Marushia 2002, p. 6.
↑ 24.0 24.1 Marushia 2002, p. 2.
↑ Valdés, Díaz & Paul 1983, p. 290.
↑ 26.0 26.1 Marushia 2002, p. 11.
↑ 29.0 29.1 Ott 1995.
↑ Mason 2009-01-30 (US Media).
↑ "Salvia divinorum: effects and use among YouTube users, Cornell Info 2040 - Networks," http://expertvoices.nsdl.org/cornell-info204/2010/04/22/salvia-divinorum-effects-and-use-among-youtube-users/.
↑ 40.0 40.1 Giroud 2000.
↑ 41.0 41.1 41.2 41.3 41.4 Clebsch & Barner 2003, p. 106.
↑ Reisfield 1993, Previous Research.
↑ Marushia 2002, p. 4.
↑ Reisfield 1993, Distribution, Ecology, & Flower Initiation.
↑ Reisflield 1987, p. 199.
↑ Foley 1993, p. 56.
↑ 55.0 55.1 55.2 Prisinzano 2006, p. 528.
↑ Harding, Schmidt & Tidgewell 2006, p. 107.
↑ 59.0 59.1 Imanshahidi & Hosseinzadeh 2006, p. 431.
↑ Roth et al. 2002, p. abstract.
↑ Bigham et al. 2003.
↑ Munro & Rizzacasa 2003.
↑ Prisinzano, Tidgewell & Harding 2005.
↑ 69.0 69.1 69.2 69.3 69.4 Sage Student - Sd User Guide.
↑ Harrison. The Leaves of the Shepherdess. 2000..
↑ 71.0 71.1 71.2 Siebert (FAQ)—Section VI.
↑ 75.0 75.1 Sullum 2009.
↑ 76.0 76.1 Siebert (Smoke advice).
↑ 81.0 81.1 Baggott & Erowid 2004, p. 14.
↑ Mercury House Publishing Online.
↑ Baggott & Erowid 2004, p. 12.
↑ Carlezon, Béguin & DiNieri 2005.
↑ 91.0 91.1 Hanes 2001, p. 634–635.
↑ 95.0 95.1 95.2 Terry 2007-10-03 (US Media).
↑ Schenk 2001, p. 629–34.
↑ DEA 2002, title 21, section 812.
↑ 99.0 99.1 Schaper 2006-03-20 (US Media).
↑ 101.0 101.1 Cardall 2006-12-12 (US Media).
↑ Shafer 2008-05-06 (US Media).
↑ 103.0 103.1 103.2 Martell 2007-06-18 (US Media).
↑ Devine 2007-02-19 (US Media).
↑ Blake 2006-11-13 (US Media).
↑ Sanchick 2007-02-14 (US Media).
↑ 107.0 107.1 Dujanovic 2006-11-27 (US Media).
↑ Quinones 2006-11-30 (US Media).
↑ 109.0 109.1 109.2 Baskin 2007-07-11 (US Media).
↑ 110.0 110.1 110.2 Chancellor 2008-03-14 (US Media).
↑ 112.0 112.1 112.2 112.3 Anderson 2006-04-13 (US Media).
↑ Michael 2009-01-28 (US Media).
↑ Sontaya 2007-05-10 (US Media).
↑ Allday 2007-06-27 (US Media).
↑ 118.0 118.1 Sack 2008-09-08 (US Media).
↑ McNamara 2008-04-30 (US Media).
↑ 121.0 121.1 121.2 121.3 121.4 121.5 MiSP 2006.
↑ White 2008-01-08 (US Media).
↑ 123.0 123.1 Berry 2008-01-07 (US Media).
↑ Sege 2008-07-22 (US Media).
↑ Sarno 2008-09-12 (US Media).
↑ 127.0 127.1 127.2 127.3 127.4 Siebert (Legal status).
↑ 128.0 128.1 128.2 Erowid (Legal status).
↑ Chalmers 2006-05-06 (US Media).
↑ 131.0 131.1 Worksop 2005-10-14 (UK Media).
↑ Doward 2009-04-26 (UK Media).
↑ Hoyle 2008-03-12 (US Media).
↑ Clark 2007-03-05 (US Media).
↑ 151.0 151.1 Dujanovic 2006-11-28 (US Media).
↑ Sanchick 2007-02-15 (US Media).
↑ Eckenrode 2007-03-08 (US Media).
↑ KXMBTV 2007-01-31 (US Media).
↑ NBC10 2006-04-11 (US Media).
↑ Smith 2007-09-25 (US Media).
↑ Nutt et al. 2007.
↑ Follow The Money, Industry Influence.
↑ Reboletti 2007 (Jan), full text - p.7.
↑ Lopez 2005, Table 2.
↑ see peyote, iboga, virola, ayahuasca, etc.
↑ see Native American Church and União do Vegetal.
↑ Tompkins 2007-07-13 (US Media).
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Wikimedia Commons has media related to Salvia divinorum.
Kathleen Harrison at the WPF about Salvia. Kathleen Harrison explains why it's better to use Salvia the way the Mexican Mazatec people use it.
This page was last modified on 22 March 2016, at 00:31.