evidence: More supportive environments. The past year has seen a deepening of the political and regulatory support required to manufacture vaccines in Africa. Notable shifts include increased political commitments from African and global leaders in steering the local vaccine-manufacturing agenda and improvements in regionalization and the integration of vaccine markets across the continent. This year’s launch of the African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA), as well as the promise of greater harmonization of markets offered by the African Medicines Agency (AMA) and regional economic communities, seem to be helping. Still, more work needs to be done across the enabling environment; building a sustainable vaccines industry will require a multidecade commitment—especially once the limelight of COVID-19 has dimmed. [...] Simply replicating the models used by other vaccine-producing countries may not work in Africa given the fundamental differences in population sizes, capabilities, and infrastructure. Africa may need creative and complementary approaches for larger regions or the entire continent—for example, by exploring the production of Africa-specific products or leapfrogging technologies to more efficient processes that require smaller scale. Our economic modeling and interviews suggested five potential models for sustainable vaccine manufacturing in Africa (Exhibit 5). Some may be more relevant in certain countries or regions. These models should not be considered mutually exclusive: multiple models could take root simultaneously in different places, and some simpler models may be natural precursors for other more complex ones.