evidence: Ceuta is the older of the two enclaves, its roots stretching back to ancient times. Originally a Berber settlement, it passed through the hands of the Phoenicians, Romans, Vandals, and Byzantines before the Umayyads of the Islamic Caliphate captured it in the 8th century. Ceuta became an important outpost for the Moors during their conquest of the Iberian Peninsula. However, in 1415, the Portuguese seized the city from its Muslim rulers. Ceuta remained under Portuguese control until the Iberian Union (1580-1640) when it passed into Spanish hands following the union’s dissolution. [...] The 20th century ushered in dramatic changes for the broader region, and Ceuta and Melilla were no exception. As decolonization movements swept across Africa, Morocco, newly independent in 1956, quickly laid claim to both cities, viewing them as integral parts of its territorial sovereignty. For Morocco, Ceuta and Melilla are akin to colonial vestiges that ought to be reintegrated into the kingdom, much like Gibraltar is for Spain in its own dispute with the United Kingdom. Spain, however, has steadfastly maintained that Ceuta and Melilla are integral parts of its national territory. Both enclaves were officially declared autonomous cities in 1995, further cementing their political and administrative ties to Madrid. Spain’s argument is based on a legal framework that sees Ceuta and Melilla as long-established Spanish municipalities, predating the modern Moroccan state.