evidence: Until recently, it would have been absurd to raise the possibility of such election subversion or a stolen election in the United States. Few cases have emerged in at least the last fifty years of actual election sabotage by election officials,1 leading to an election loser being declared the election winner, despite other unique pathologies of American election administration.2 [...] Republican claims of widespread voter fraud committed mostly by Democrats, people of color, and union members are not new, but they accelerated after the disputed election between then–Governor George W. Bush and Vice President Al Gore in 2000.4 These statements from a segment of conservatives and Republicans (and resisted by other conservatives and Republicans) persist despite all reliable evidence that voter fraud in the contemporary United States is rare and that when such fraud occurs it tends to happen on a small scale that does not tip the result of elections.5 The purported "evidence" of widespread voter fraud consists primarily of describing isolated instances of fraud as the "tip of the iceberg" or by taking administrative error or slack in election administration as conclusive proof of malfeasance.6 [...] Trump’s voter fraud claims were a hallmark of his presidency. He remarkably claimed that there was voter fraud in the 2016 election that he won against Democrat and former Secretary of State Hillary Clinton, falsely stating that at least three million noncitizens voted in the election, all for his opponent.10 Not coincidentally, the number of purported fraudulent votes matched the margin by which Clinton beat Trump in the national popular vote for President.11