evidence: Additional evidence on the effectiveness of incentives in promoting the adoption of sustainable agricultural practices and the associated outcomes is required to move beyond qualitative assessment of farmer’s perceptions. In selected papers where there are reliable data and easy monitoring of implemented sustainable systems, there is no systematic follow-up of the environmental impacts. The results are only measurable through the improvements in the productivity and profitability of producers9. For measuring potential environmental outcomes, some papers compare adoption rates of farmers receiving incentives versus non-receiving farmers8,9,12,14 or relate socioeconomic characteristics of participants versus non-participants8,15. [...] The effectiveness of a particular incentive, and the likelihood of adoption, varies depending on the agricultural practice that one wants to promote and the associated (predicted) outcomes5. Within this, there are a multitude of factors that determine the perceived and actual costs and benefits, both direct and indirect, of adopting sustainable practices. The attributes of the programme determine the likelihood of adoption, which is influenced by the perception of an improvement in net benefit and access to alternative markets. In some cases, positive outcomes—such as increases in yields—may not be enough to compensate for the higher input and capital requirements of the proposed agricultural interventions36. Therefore, economic incentives are necessary and need to be large enough to compensate for the opportunity cost of change, taking into consideration that the effects on outcomes take time to realize.