evidence: Debt has been identified as an excuse for human slavery since the days of early Mesopotamia up until the present. Debt has also justified coercion in relations between states. The Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907 on ‘Restricting the Use of Force to Recover on Contract Claims’ were the first international efforts to restrict this practice, that was still common as recently as the early 20th century. [...] One of the most striking pieces of analysis on the Chinese debt-trap begins with this telling paragraph: "American statesman John Adams, who served as president from 1797 to 1801, famously said: ‘There are two ways to conquer and enslave a country: one is by the sword; the other is by debt.’ China, choosing the second path, has embraced colonial-era practices and rapidly emerged as the world’s biggest official creditor." This idea – of a China that tries to conquer and enslave – could be an exaggeration for the reasons stated (i.e., that borrowing is a common and bidirectional practice). Besides, the sword and debt are not mutually exclusive – and China’s expansionist agenda across the Himalayas, on the South China Sea, or the Taiwan Strait are stark reminders of this fact.