evidence: On geological timescales, tectonic, orbital, solar and greenhouse gas forcings, determine climate change, as well as feedbacks between the climate, ice sheets and CO2. However, when these processes are incorporated into climate models with quantitative representation, it becomes apparent that the observed geological record cannot be explained without a significant role for CO2 (Paul Valdes, University of Bristol, UK). [...] Finally, in a plenary talk, Maureen Raymo (Colombia University, USA) presented the geological evidence for variations in the stability of the polar ice sheets and past sea-level change. During the Last Interglacial, for example, relatively small increases in temperature led to large changes in sea level. Future sea-level changes will not be the same everywhere, but the impacts will be felt from the largest cities to the smallest villages. Maureen emphasised the benefits of co-production of knowledge, whereby scientists work closely with local communities, for example when studying sea-level rise in Greenland, to aid progress and improve mitigation against the impacts of climate change. Despite the challenges we face, Maureen finished with some optimistic words for the future: Rates of change are crucial for understanding climate change in the geological record. There is hope to be gained in the recent rapid increase in the level of engagement with climate-change issues by the business community, corporate leaders and foundations, as well as governments – let’s hope that this is one rate that does continue to rise!