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Why does Lady Kumaria look like Sumika?
In the final episode of Yuri Kuma Arashi, Lady Kumaria regains her true form and appears before Kureha. Lady Kumaria clearly resembles Sumika Izumino, who was Kureha's girlfriend before she was killed by Mitsuko Yurizono.

What reason is there for this resemblance? The fan-made Wikia does state that:

Later, [Sumika] appears before Kureha as Lady Kumaria to turn Kureha into a bear and send Kureha and Ginko on a journey beyond severance.

This suggests that at least one person sees Sumika as being the same entity as Lady Kumaria. I have trouble seeing the idea of Sumika as Lady Kumaria incarnate as anything more than a stretch of the imagination; I do not recall any plot points or characterisation that make this an undoubtedly natural conclusion to have. (Sumika does indicate in her actions surrounding Kureha's birthday that she expects that they will be separated, and she does push Kureha in a positive direction. Such behaviour might be congruent with what I would expect of a benevolent deity made incarnate, but it's surely easier to explain this as being a result of Sumika's goodness and her classmates' actions.)
Alternatively, perhaps Lady Kumaria appears to girls in a form that is meaningful to them, but again, I lack any evidence that supports this to a reasonable degree.
Is there any official material — whether from the anime itself or from interviews or artbooks — that might shed light on these issues?

pixiv encyclopedia (Japanese) claims,

Whether Sumika was the goddess (Lady Kumaria) in the first place or the goddess appeared as Sumika in response to Kureha's mental state, it is not stated within the story and hence, it's left to the viewer's interpretation.
(Emphasis mine)

TV Tropes (warning!) also describes it as:

Ass Pull: Sumika being Lady Kumaria. Never foreshadowed, comes out of nowhere, never explained and serves as a mechanism so Ginko and Kureha can get together.

Or maybe not. It's never explicitly stated that Sumika is Lady Kumaria and it's more than likely that she simply took on that form as a symbolic representation of what Kureha learned from Sumika.

They Wasted a Perfectly Good Plot: Quite a few, for the same reasons as listed in They Wasted a Perfectly Good Character.

Sumika being a part of Lady Kumaria, which is never explained. There's also the fact that she apparently knew she was going to disappear or otherwise leave Kureha one day, which (though it may connect to the first reason) is also never explained.

(Emphasis mine)

which all the possibilities have been mentioned in the question itself.
As of now, there is no official explanation why Lady Kumaria looked like Sumika... which leaves us only to fan theories (which are omitted in this answer).
P.S. considering that there are even fewer discussions about this issue in Japanese, I conclude that there's really no official statement as of now.

If anyone wants to request to include the fan theories in this answer, then let me know.


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Why is Ed able to exchange his knowledge?
In FMA 2009/Manga, Edward is able to exchange his Gate of Truth for Alphonse's body.
However, I find this pretty dumb. The Gate symbolizes the knowledge of alchemy.  Father's Gate is small and has no ornaments like Ed's which indicates that Father doesn't know anything as stated in the series. But alchemy is a science in this universe. They learn it from reading books. Why is Edward unable to use alchemy but able to read it? I can imagine that Ed is not able to use alchemy by clapping his hands anymore but by drawing circles and alchemy formulas.
Another question: Edward's toll (his leg) to see Truth is less than Alphonse's (who lost his whole body) and it is also stated that Al probably saw more of Truth than Edward.
So Alphonse's Gate is worth more than Edward's Gate. Couldn't Alphonse easily exchange his own Gate?  He probably would still use alchemy since his knowledge is worth more than Edward's.
Edit: Just thinking about it, you don't have to sacrifice anything at all when using human transmutation. All you need to do is sacrifice your Gate and you won't lose that much of your body.

There seem to be a lot of questions here. Can you clarify what exactly you're asking?

What does it mean that Ed exchanged his Gate?
In the context of Ed's final transmutation (in which he exchanges his Gate for Alphonse), the Gate represents his ability to do alchemy, rather than his knowledge of alchemy. In chapter 108, Truth tells Edward:

The Gate of Truth exists within everyone. That is how everyone can use alchemy.

Notice that the emphasis is probably on the potential to do alchemy. (Not everyone has the talent or knowledge to do alchemy in the universe of Fullmetal Alchemist!) Although what is beyond the Gate is alchemical knowledge, per the discussion surrounding Ed and Al's human transmutation attempt, that is not what is involved here. (One way to think of it may be to regard the Gate as necessary in alchemy because alchemical knowledge must be "let out" when there is a transmutation, but I digress.)
Thus, even after his final transmutation, Ed is able to learn about alchemy; he simply cannot put it into practice. (In fact, at the end of the manga, the brothers travel to learn more about alchemy.)
Could Alphonse have exchanged his Gate instead?
In general, one cannot trade one's Gate for something else. (See the discussion at Why can't Roy Mustang bring his eyes back using his gate? for details.) However, it seems possible in theory that Al might have been able to exchange his Gate for something after the connection between his and Ed's was discovered. Some possibilities as to why Al did not carry out such a transmutation:

Transmuting one's Gate for what was lost in one's human transmutation attempt is not necessarily an obvious line of thought. The idea may not have occurred to Ed or Al before Promised Day. Note that Ed only comes up with the idea after Al has sacrificed himself, not earlier, not even when Alphonse was starting to have problems with his body of armor.

Alphonse wanted to recover Ed's limbs; sacrificing his ability to do alchemy for his body would have prevented him from achieving that goal. Alternatively, had Alphonse exchanged his alchemical ability (i.e. his Gate) for Ed's limbs, it might have become impossible for his body to be recovered. Al's body sits at his own Gate, so if the Gate were removed, it might have become inaccessible.

I agree on definition of Gate being not knowledge, but ability to use alchemy. I believe it is representation of connection of man to the world.

source: Stack Exchange

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What figures does the Chaos;Head protagonist have on his shelf?
In the Chaos;Head Visual Novel, the protaganist's room has lots of anime merchandise scattered around. Behind his PC he has a large set of shelves with anime characters on them:

Some gameplay of this scene can be seen on YouTube
I've also seen this image online, so perhaps one is changed in a remake or a spinoff or a different scene or something?

This one has figurines of Seira, an in-game fantasy anime character, and the other figures seem fairly generic — so I presume they're not from other shows.
The first image's characters are much more distinctive though and I can instantly recognise Saber from Fate/stay night.
What are the other series represented here?

A lot of them are from Fate/Stay Night, like Rider and Rin. I also see Tsukihime's Arcueid, too.

I also recognize some characters are from Da Capo.

YouTube link is dead :( Also, the last image is from Chaos;Head NOAH (console version), which was adapted from the anime's scene (the figurines only). Anyway, from Japanese Wikipedia article some of the figurines are related to Nitro+ games (in NOAH,   some are taken from their collaboration games).

Chaos;Head (PC Version)

Top: Hazuki (Demonbane), Another Blood (Demonbane), Al Azif (Demonbane), Ruri Hadou (Demonbane, Zanmataisei ver), Ruri Hadou (Demonbane, Kishin Hishou ver), Ignis (Jingai Makyou), Franco Il Nero (Satsuriku no Jango), Alfie (Satsuriku no Jango), Ignis (Jingai Makyou), ???, Donne Anonime (Satsuriku no Jango), Mahiro Sendou (Memories Off 5: Togireta Film), ???, Euretta (Eternal Fantasy), ???
Middle: Rebecca (Gekkou no Carnevale), ???, Rin Tohsaka (Fate/stay night), ???, ???, Yume Asakura (Da Capo II), Otome Asakura (Da Capo II), Anna (Gekkou no Carnevale), Perla (Gekkou no Carnevale), ???, Ruri Hadou (Demonbane, Zanmataisei ver), Saber (Fate/stay night), Leica Crusade (Demonbane), Franco Il Nero (Satsuriku no Jango)
Bottom: ???, Mahiro Sendou (Memories Off 5: Togireta Film), Euretta (Eternal Fantasy), Donne Anonime (Satsuriku no Jango), Otome Asakura (Da Capo II), Anna (Gekkou no Carnevale), ???, Alfie (Satsuriku no Jango), ???, Al Azif (Demonbane, nendoroid), Jessica (Gekkou no Carnevale), Leica Crusade (Demonbane), Rider (Fate/stay night), ???, Anna (Gekkou no Carnevale), Arcueid Brunestud (Tsukihime), Lunaria (Gekkou no Carnevale)
Desk Shelf: Noel (Gekkou no Carnavale), Lunaria (Gekkou no Carnavale)

Summary

Nitro+

Demonbane

Al Azif
Ruri Hadou
Leica Crusade
Hazuki
Another Blood

Jingai Makyou

Ignis

Satsuriko no Jango

Franco Il Nero
Donne Anonime
Alfie

Gekkou no Carneval

Anna
Lunaria
Noel
Rebecca
Perla

TYPE-MOON

Tsukihime

Arcueid Brunestud

Fate/stay night

Saber
Rin Tohsaka
Rider

Circus

Da Capo II

Otome Asakura
Yume Asakura

Eternal Fantasy

Euretta

KID

Memories Off 5: Togireta Film

Mahiro Sendou

Chaos;Head NOAH (Console Version)

Top: Rider (Fate/stay night), ...
Middle: Seira Orgel (Chaos;Head), ...
Bottom: Saber (Fate/stay night), ...
Desk Shelf: ...

Summary

Nitro+

Chaos;Head

Seira Orgel

TYPE-MOON

Fate/stay night

Saber
Rider

I couldn't finish it, and it has taken days to research this. So, I decided to make it community wiki. Feel free to update and fill-in the rest...

all_licenses: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/

all_licenses: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


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Are the Elric brothers half-homunculus?
If Hohenheim is a homunculus (I know that he still has a humanoid body, because otherwise he wouldn't even have had children) and he has a family with Trisha, who is human, does this mean that the Elric brothers are half-human and half-homunculus?
Also, just to make sure, the Elric brothers are half-Amestrian and half-Xerxian (i.e. with a background from Xerxes), right? They don't explain that in either series.

I'm not 100% since it's been a while since I read the manga, but I think certain humonculi kept more of their humanity than others. Like Wrath ages and so on.

FMA:B and the 2003 series are separate continuities that often have completely different takes on the characters; note that they differ on the issue of Hohenheim's backstory. To clarify, can you tell us if you interested in the manga/Brotherhood continuity, or in the 2003 continuity?

I didn't read the manga, I only watched both series. But it is not explained in both series.

Note that Brotherhood and the 2003 series are separate continuities that often differ in their treatment of any plot points and characters that they have in common. Hohenheim is affected by this issue:

In the manga (which Brotherhood roughly adapts), Hohenheim is a living philosopher's stone who was given half of the souls that Father stole from Xerxes.
Per the Wikia, in the 2003 series, like Dante, Hohenheim was able to transfer his soul into another body to avoid death and had taken advantage of this knowledge in the past. However, there is an inherent instability to this procedure that leads to a breakdown of the body. If I am not mistaken, Hohenheim was also reluctant to switch out of his "final" body because of Trisha.

Note then that in neither continuity is Hohenheim a homunculus. Furthermore, there is no reason to think that the Elric brothers are anything but human:

In the manga continuity, Hohenheim is a human who just happens to hold a philosopher's stone of significant size: If Van Hohenheim is a living Philosopher's Stone, what does that make Edward and Alphonse?
In the 2003 series, Hohenheim is essentially still a human. All that has happened is that he has been switching his soul into different bodies for a period of time.

Now, let's deal with the issue of whether the Elric brothers are half-Amestrian and half-Xerxian:

Hohenheim was originally from Xerxes in the manga continuity. A description of the Elric brothers as half-Xerxian and half-Amestrian would then be technically correct. However, since Xerxes has long been destroyed, it seems doubtful that the average person in the FMA universe would have "Xerxian" or "half-Xerxian" in his vocabulary.
In the 2003 series, Hohenheim's background is not given in detail, so there is no reason to describe the Elric brothers as anything but "Amestrian".

At least, both brothers clearly inherited xerxian ethnic features - golden hair and eyes.

@lentinant: Winry, the Armstrong siblings and Hawkeye (among others) all have blonde hair too but they are not half-xerxian.

@Flater yet they do not have golden eyes. If you pay attention to memories about Ishval war, you will notice, that most Amestrians had two most common features - blonde hair and blue eyes. Meanwhile, in Heonheim memories, most of Xerxian are shown to have both blonde hair and yellow eyes (just like Heonheim himself). Given that Trisha had brown hair and green eyes, Elric brothers obviously inherited their eyes and hair color from their Xerxian father.


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Why aren't most of the phones in anime smartphones?
For example:

Gintama:

Oregairu: I can't think of any examples I can back up right now, but for Oregairu you just need to watch any episode and you'll see Yui's flip phone.
Haganai

Black Rock Shooter

Is it because the authors are just from an older generation than the fanbase? No way, right? They have to have smartphones.
This says it's because smartphones aren't popular in Japan. I don't think that's true (bad evidence alert).
Several Reddit posts also agree that flip phones are more popular. Why are flip phones still so popular, (if you can endeavor to answer) in both society and anime/manga?

FWIW there's a discussion here (which I was linked to from here), which I personally find pretty convincing.

Of the shows you cite, Haganai was animated in 2011; Black Rock Shooter was animated in 2012; and Oregairu was animated in 2013. The source material for each is even older (albeit kind of irrelevant for Black Rock Shooter). I omit Gintama because it's long-running and I don't know when your screencap is from.
Smartphone adoption in Japan is hugely up between 2013 and now, and even more so between 2011 and now. According to the CIAJ (as cited in a whitepaper titled "Japan’s Smartphone Surge and Its Impact on the Mobile Marketplace"), smartphone penetration in the Japanese market was a mere 9% in 2011, rising to 39% in 2013, and skyrocketing to 84% in 2016.

Is it any wonder, then, that anime set in "the present" that aren't from the past year or two would tend to have more non-smartphones ("feature phones", as they're called) than smartphones?
(I specify "the present" because we should exclude from discussion any shows set in the future. They tend to have fanciful notions of how telecommunications would work that don't tend to involve feature phones or what we would consider "smartphones".)

Is it because the authors are just from an older generation than the fanbase? No way, right? They have to have smartphones.

This effect may exist - according to the Pew report "Smartphone Ownership and Internet Usage Continues to Climb in Emerging Economies", in 2015, Japanese people age 18-34 were about 2.5 times as likely to own a smartphone as Japanese people age 35+.
I doubt it is a substantial effect, though. Any animated production involves multiple people with creative input (not just the author of the source material), and I would imagine that at least some of them would know what kind of technology youngsters use.

I don't think that's true (bad evidence alert).

Best Korea is proud of the way you confirm your priors.

Why are flip phones still so popular, (if you can endeavor to answer) in both society and anime/manga?

The article @Maroon linked in the comments is a good overview of why smartphones were not common in Japan (prior to 2014 or so).
And why were smartphones not common in anime/manga? Because smartphones were not common in Japan. Simple as that.

the OVA of Black Rock Shooter, if i recall correctly, came out in 2010 while the Anime Series came out 2012.

@Memor-X True - I thought that screencap was from the 2012 anime, though. I could easily be wrong; it's been a long time since I watched them.

Mato and Yomi appear in both the OVA and anime so it could be either so it could be either


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Why doesn't Rin save Saber in episode 24 of Unlimited Blade Works?
In the anime Unlimited Blade Works OVA, Rin rescues Saber before she disappears.
Why doesn't she do the same in the main anime (episode 24)? In that anime episode, she doesn't do or say anything to help Saber (whereas with Archer she begs him and cries when he doesn't accept). What can possibly make Rin change her mind in the OVA? (I haven't read the visual novel and don't intend to, so feel free to talk about it if it gives relevant info related to Rin.)
Also, does Rin try to save Archer in the OVA? (We don't see what happens but since she already saves Saber and she would consume most of her prana, asking Archer would be very selfish (poor Saber) so she shouldn't ask Archer. In that case, why would she abandon Archer (her real servant) and choose Saber?
(Again, if you know something relevant from the VN please tell me.)
Edit: Apparently Rin does ask Archer to stay in the OVA as well (VN source). Why would she do that when there's no mana for 2 servants? Is she just too greedy (to the point of being plain stupid and dying because of that) or does she intend to abandon Saber?

Related? But I didn't ask about Archer's case: http://anime.stackexchange.com/q/23856/2604

It sure is related =P Apparently according to one of the posts Rin does ask archer to stay even in the ending in which she saves saber. Wow, that's weird ...

Someone called senshin changed lots of things in my question (capital letters, grammar...) Why? I think it was perfectly readable before, but thanks =P (I'll take more care next time)

http://anime.stackexchange.com/questions/37448/ubw-episode-25-true-ending-why-is-rin-sad-whenever-the-sun-sets-rises?noredirect=1&lq=1 Very related. This link directs to another question in this community that will make you understand the relationship between Rin and Archer when he dies at the end of UBW, necessary for understanding the difference between the good and true endings as we can understand Rin better. She still thinks about Archer in the true ending even after years have passed etc

I did a side by side comparison between both the ova and episode 24. I repeated this 10-15 times to make sure. These are my findings:
During the first part until saber looks at her hand it is the same. After that it changes:

In the ova saber smiles and starts disappearing. She seems less keener to go though. Just as saber starts smiling Rin runs to save her. Rin shows a lot of determination to save her as well.
Episode 24: Rin completely forgets about saber. It is clear she's gonna disappear but she just mindlessly looks at the destroyed grail. Saber smiles and congratulates Rin, but Rin keeps staring at the destroyed grail. Saber is happier to go (her thoughts are "shrirou has you"). In the ova Rin starts running when saber smiles, but here she just forgets about saber.

Now that we have the facts clear let's answer your question:

The archer question: It was already answered by someone in the other thread someone linked you in the comments. What was said is:

"Something I didn't mention before but is quite relevant is that Rin either subsconciously or conciously chooses Archer (Shirou) over saber. She asks archer to remain in this world and cries when he doesn't accept. This happens in both the good and true ending (right before the good ending would come archer's scene).Think that if archer had accepted Rin's proposal both the true and happy endings would be the same (Rin - Shirou - Shirou). I do believe in the good ending Rin runs to save saber because of how much Shirou cares for her (at least 4 points given to her). Even so by asking archer to stay afterwards saber would have left this world had archer accepted (there's not enough mana for both of them and Rin knows it. She also knows saber isn't selfish to stay that way, by asking archer she's in a way betraying saber, that's why she thinks "I know I shouldn't ask" (but she does ask...) and archer says "I do not know if you will keep your contract with saber, but I am nor qualified for that")"

Why doesn't Rin save Saber in episode 24 of Unlimited Blade Works?

It would appear she forgets about her. If I had to guess I'd say that Shirou giving points to both girls plays a mayor role:

True ending: Having received all the points Rin forgets about saber for some time. Shirou can live happily without saber and Rin can do the same. You could say Rin's mind is telling her everything's ok.
(I'm assuming she never realises she's disappearing and that's why she's looking at where the noble phantasm was thrown. If she knows she's dying then she's a selfish BITCH).
Saber is also happier to go. She knows she doesn't play a big role in Shirou's life.
Good ending: Rin's mind works perfectly and she quickly makes a dash towards saber. Rin knows Shirou needs saber and she likes spending time with saber as well. Her mind and body work at its fullest to saver her.
Saber, knowing Shirou's love towards her, accepts. This is actually quite important. Both contitions are in my opinion relevant. If saber hadn't felt she's needed by Shirou she would have likely chosen death even if Rin had cried and begged her to stay (just like she did with archer)

My conclusion: In the end the one that plays the mayor role is Rin. I do believe she doesn't even remember saber cast her noble phantasm and is dying. You have to think that Rin can't just look at saber and say: hahahaha die you saber bitch!
Rin forgetting about saber is most likely the best option to show she cares a bit less about her but at the same time allowing her to keep her good nature (had she remembered she's dying just a few meters away she might have run to save her).
Then again it may also be that in her heart Rin accepted Shirou and her should be together just the 2 of them and purposely did it. We'll never know. I want to believe saber becomes less relevant and Rin just forgets about her, it's a much better interpretation.
Another valid theory is hesitation. Rin hesitates for a few seconds, just enough for it to be too late to save saber.
Just rest assured, she's not a cold-blooded murderer. If it were up to her I'm sure she'd rather everyone lives happily. The ova just shows that the good ending Tohsaka doesn't hesitate for even a second. The reason? It has to be that Shirou cares more about saber cause everything else is the same (Rin and saber have the exactly same relationship in both the good and true endings).

http://anime.stackexchange.com/questions/37448/ubw-episode-25-true-ending-why-is-rin-sad-whenever-the-sun-sets-rises?noredirect=1&lq=1 Very related. This link directs to another question in this community that will make you understand the relationship between Rin and Archer when he dies at the end of UBW, necessary for understanding the difference between the good and true endings as we can understand Rin better. She still thinks about Archer in the true ending even after years have passed etc

Brief VN explanation: UBW's Good End is obtained by balancing Saber and Rin affection point so that you have enough Rin points to avoid the multiple Bad Ends, and dump the rest on Saber.
So, after Rin command Saber to destroy the grail, you are shown one of two intermissions, depending on the ending you're going to get:
New Wish (Good End): http://lparchive.org/Fatestay-night/Update%20235/1-UBW16-08a-1.jpg (due to the increased affection between her and Shirou). In this ending, Saber chose not to sever the Master Servant bond (0 command spell remaining after Rin used the last one to give her mana), and Rin chose to kept her, both for her sake (from Fate route you know that she's bi and attracted to Saber), and Shirou.
End of the Dream: What you saw in the anime. Saber obtained her answer watching the Archer Shirou conflict and is content leaving the world behind, as Shirou has Rin to keep him on the right path.

Nah, I think Rin's bi-curious at most. The h-scene in the V.N (fate route) was a life or death situation and it is an eroge, what happened there would have likeky been the same with other heroines, it's mostly fanservice. Also, the newer fate stay night version (realta nua, which is canon) completely removes that scene. Not to mention that in Fate Hollow Ataraxia once Rin and Shirou start a proper relationship there are several occasions in which Rin makes it clear she just wants Shirou as a love partner (like when Rin invites Shirou on a date to her private pool in her house,.. see next post

(Shirou says it's a great idea and that he's gonna tell saber and Rin gets super mad. She literally beats Shirou and tells him it's a couple's date, so just the 2 of them will go there). Moreover, I've read everything in the visual novels and there isn't one single scene in which saber even hints she likes Rin that way. A harem happens when +2 people around you loves you and in the visual novel saber literally says in the UBW good ending she's staying just for Shirou.

Lord, I don't think it is Shirou's harem either. Even if saber likes Shirou, she would never disturb their relationship. Saber ships Rin and Shirou and  says she will try not to be a nuisance. Sleeping with Shirou means betraying Rin (and Shirou in a way). Saber wouldn't do that.

I deleted my previous comments because they didnt make much sense since I wrote them in my cellphone. Basically thank you for your answer and that Nasu never said in an interview that Rin's bisexual when he's been asked so it's certainly not confirmed. I haven't read the VN but in the anime she's clearly straight.

About the command spells In the true ending Rin has to use the last one to force saber to destroy the Grail with Rin inside (killing her). Rin didn't die cause Archer saved her. In the good ending Saber willingly decides to destroy it (thinking she would kill Rin). So Saber may have stayed in the true ending if Rin had ran to make a new contract with her (as Rin did with archer). After all the true ending is the one where saber can't bring herself to kill Rin.

@Mare Whether saber confesses to Shirou or not it is still Shirou's harem. There is one route dedicated to the love between Shirou and Arturia. Saber never sees Rin that way (After Rin is forced to have sex with saber in the fate H-scene saber has eyes just for Shrirou, It's as if that never happened or rather it proves saber never even considered Rin a love interest). Also, in the UBW anime (and V.N) Rin says that Shirou cares too much for saber and that saber is too dedicated to Shirou.

In the UBW true ending Saber dies happy knowing that Shirou will be happy as well. In "the last episode" she waits for Shirou for thousands of years...


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Did Meruem propose to Komugi by asking her to hold his hand?
I was reading on a forum that the author/mangaka of the "Hunter x Hunter" series was trying to "tell" the readers that Meruem asked Komugi to be his wife by telling her to hold his hand. Is it true? Or he was just afraid to die alone, with the hand of Komugi making him feel safer (or at least that's what I understood from that scene)?

My understanding is that Meruem never had any romantic feelings for Kogumi. What he felt was awe and maybe some admiration because:
1) She was a the weakest frail human he had ever seen. She was even blind and unable to take care of herself.
2) Yet she beat him everytime they played.
3) She wasn't afraid of him. She treated him like any other person.
She was someone precious to him in that regard (her caring nature mighr have played a part in it too)


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What's Kyocera to do with an anime adaptation of Koyomi's life?
In chapter 009 of Kizumonogatari, Oshino jokes about adapting Araragi's daily life into anime. Araragi objects, but then Oshino mentions that Araragi's cellphone was made by "Kyocera". What's that got to do with having an anime adaptation?

"you say that, but I see your Kyocera phone. The prospect is so on your mind."

(Transcription from audiobook.)

Can you add a quote of the passage and mention whether you're reading the official translation or a fan translation?

Adding some more context into this dialog between Oshino and Araragi will make the intent clear:

"Why would our everyday lives get turned into an anime?!"
"Because a drama CD can't convey that wonderful face you make when you act the straight man."
"It'll be fun, though. It'll be like the ending of Demon-Lord Hero Legend Wataru."
"I don't think I was even born when that was on the air!"
"You say that, but I see your Kyocera phone. The prospect is so on your mind."

(This is from Chapter 09, p.142 on the English translation published by Vertical).
Koyomi claims to be young enough not to know about a show from the late 80s, but Oshino makes the point that he's using an old man's phone (probably refers to a flip-phone, compared to the more modern smartphones; remember how Kaiki suffered when Senjougahara broke his phone).
An interesting point is that Koyomi is probably telling the truth: several sources point to the timeline of the show occurring around 2006-2007, and he would not have been born by 1989 when Demon-Lord Hero Legend Wataru finished airing.


text:
Why is Zeke interested in Eren?
In Attack on Titan's recent manga chapters, Zeke tells Eren that his father had lied to him and that he was unaware of the truth. Why is Zeke interested in Eren even when he can control titans and transform into one?

The last manga chapter might have given an explanation to your question,  but no details yet so I rather not spoil..

Update: This was further backed up by the events of chapter 87
What I think is that, according to latest manga chapter (86)

 Zeke and the other warriors are specifically trying to retake the coordinate from Grisha (and now Eren). He is also Eren's half brother (not step-brother) but it would appear that family is not an important bond to Zeke, as he betrayed both of his parents.

There must be reason behind betrayal, so I don't think we can get that sort of relationship off the table that easily.

@lentinant, except for the fact that he betrayed his parents as a young child. He has clearly been indoctrinated by the cause and is more dedicated to his mission than a family member he's never met before. The whole point of the Warriors mission is to get the Coordinate.

So, you think, he tries to receive Coordinate by deceiving Eren, that he has good intentions regarding him? After all, what have happened already?

Um, no. I think Zeke just wants the Coordinate from Eren and wants to either kill him or have him join him. I don't think Zeke feels any loyalty towards Eren nor does he have good intentions for him. Zeke's goal is to take the Coordinate back and kill the people inside the Walls.

I mean, why do you think Zeke said Eren, that he will save him? What he expects to achieve with that?

Given that a few pages before that Zeke says that Eren has been brainwashed it's clear that Zeke thinks what he is fighting for is right and what Grisha was fighting for was wrong. I think that this is just Zeke trying to indoctrinate Eren or at least attempt to lure him away so that he can take the Coordinate from him.

But according to the same chapter titans are becoming obsolete and maybe the humans not living inside the wall have weapons that are more advanced than those used by survey corps to fight the titans, so how would zeke benefit from capturing eren ? I mean marleyans can just use their advanced weapons to kill the titans and since they are becoming obsolete marleyans would not want to waste time in finding the coordinate

Zeke wants to kill those in the wall: "When Ymir and Eren are kidnapped by Reiner Braun and Bertolt Hoover, Ymir states that the Beast Titan is directly responsible for the appearance of Titans within Wall Rose; possibly in order to "test" humanity's strength. She also notes that the reaction of Reiner and Bertolt to his appearance resembled gawking, excited children." And the Marleyans' goal is to take the coordinate as stated on page 43 of the most recent chapter ("retake the power of the original Titan").

According to latest manga chapter, 86,

 Zeke is older step-brother to Eren. He was child of Grisha from previous wife, in "outer world". Full motives of Zeke are still unknown, but, most probably, he fills empathy to Eren, thinking that his brother was also used as tool by Grisha in his quest for revenge.

Either that or he want Eren's coordinates. Can't really think of another reason...

Spoiler alert. In the story, it is said that Zeke ...

 ... was brainwashed by Marleyan government when his parents, Grisha dan Dina Yeager, sent him to be a spy by joining the training to be a warrior. Zeke ended up believing what their father told him was untrue and ended up betraying them.

So I think he told something like that to Eren because ...

 ... he believed what the Marleyan told him was true and he wanted to tell Eren that everything he knew from their father was wrong. Perhaps he wanted Eren, the current holder of The Founding Titan and The Attack Titan to be Marleyan allies. That's their goal that we know so far.

But ...

 Since the story hasn't ended yet, another possibilities might happen later. Zeke is surely full of secrets.

Zeke still wanted Eren even he can control and transform titan perhaps because ...

 ... the power of the founding titan or what they called as the coordinate is considered thousand times more powerful when it comes to control people.

Remember back then when Zeke ...

 ... confronted Mike in Wall Rose? The titan still crushed Mike even Zeke told it not to. His titan's controlling power was so much weaker compared to the founding titan when the first king managed to command millions of colossal titan to make the wall and modified the memories of people those living inside it.

And I guess Zeke's power of controlling titans ...

 ... has something to do with the royal blood that flowing inside him, since it's said that the previous holder of beast titan didn't have that kind of ability.

 Zeke Yeager is Erens half brother. His parents are Grisha Yeager and
 one of the kings royal blood predecessors(who later becomes the smiley
 titan that kills Erens mother and Hannes). He betrayed his parents and
 got them caught.

To understand why:

 Basically, there's an island where the humans are thriving outside the
 three walls. these are the original people. the people protected by
 the three walls (Eldians) are meant to have betrayed humanity, so they
 were cast away. The ones that remained on the main island were treated
 like they were dogs. After the military in the main island killed
 Grishas sister by feeding her to the dogs, Grisha swore to kill all
 the Marley (people on the main island that discriminate the Eldians).
 They finally realised that they need the coordinates from the king
 (Whos behind the wall). The Marley want the coordinates too, so they
 assemble Eldian soldiers to go and get the coordinates. The soldiers
 will be given the power of the eight titans the Marley government had.
 Grisha planned to use his son Zeke to get into the army, become a
 titan, and then steal the power of the king for the Eldians, but he
 rats them out.

In conclusion:

 Zeke Yeager, Reiner, Annie, and Bertholdt use their titan powers to
 try to get the coordinates from Eren. He doesn't want to eat Eren, he
 wants Eren to realise that the Marley government is the true
 Government and that both he and Zeke were used by their parents.

and that is why Grisha is obsessed with Eren

Please include relevant sources/references.

An update with the latest information from the recent chapters.
It was revealed in Chapter 114 that

 Zeke's true plan was Eldia's euthanization. He believed that it was the only salvation for the Eldians. He also believed that without Eldians, there would be no more suffering in the world.

Thus, he sought Eren in order

 to convince Eren to take part in his plan of euthanasia of the entire Eldian race. He also tried convincing Eren that it was the only path to 'salvation'. Marley's orders to recover the Coordinate was a perfect cover for his true intentions as none would suspect why he's interested in Eren, the current wielder of the Coordinate.

He must have

 succeeded because as seen in the recent chapters, Eren is now in league with Zeke after they talked during Eren's infiltration to Marley. Personally, I still have doubts on whether this is all a ruse or something. Titan-shifters can see memories of the future and it's possible Eren might have seen or known something via these memories that made him side with Zeke.


text:
When is One Punch Man season 2 airing?
I heard that season 2 of One Punch Man will be aired only after the Toonami broadcast of season 1 is over. Does anyone know when the second season will be broadcast, or rather, when the Toonami dub will end?

I believe December '16

The English dub. airing of season 1 on Toonami has ended already. And yes, it is true that season 2 will air after the season 1 airing. Although they haven't told us when exactly, it is expected to be airing in early 2017, but then again it could air in the Spring or even the Summer of next year.
Sources:

One Punch Man 2 Latest Updates, News, Spoilers, And Release Dates

It's not even yet released on April 2018, and the speculation doesn't really help answering the question at all...

Looking at the Netflix release One Punch Man season 2 should be released in August 2018. This is according to:http://otlsm.com/when-will-one-punch-man-season-2-be-on-netflix-netflix-release-date/

One of our reliable sources has informed us that One Punch Man season
  2 should be released on television by the end of August 2018.

But, sometimes release dates get pushed back.

"One of our reliable sources has informed us that One Punch Man season 2 should be released on television by the end of August 2017" turns out it's wrong since it's not even yet released on April 2018.


text:
In which chapter did Tincanpy grow hair?
In which chapter of the manga did Tincanpy grow hair and Allen's hair grow longer?

This happened in volume 16, chapter 159. There was a bottle of hair tonic which caused different effects. Below is a scan of the page where it takes place.

@user31031 no problem. Please mark it as accepted if it solved your question using the check mark on the left.


text:
Do these comment stickers from Pixiv come from anime?
In Pixiv, you can leave a comment on any fan-art. There is also an option to leave a sticker for comment. They include an elephant, fox (?), girls, and skull.

Here is a fan-art example from one of those stickers. I've tried to google the tag but couldn't find anything.

I'm asking about all the stickers - elephant, fox (?), girls, and skull - , but more specifically, the one for these girls above. Do these stickers come from an anime? If so, which one? If they are original characters, do they have any names?

with pixiv being a site for creators, I would guess it's artistic work by either its users or staff

I'd say perhaps "anime inspired" but not "from a specific anime."

They are original characters for pixiv, not from any anime.
Based from the pixiv encyclopedia about pixiv stamp (in Japanese), their names are:

ハクゾウ（白い象の様な生き物）
Hakuzou (White elephant-y looking creature)
キツネ（キツネの様な生き物）
Kitsune (Fox-y looking creature)
萌え娘（各人物）
Moe musume (Persons)
どくろちゃん（ドクロに角が生えたキャラ）
Dokuro-chan (A skull with horn)

The encyclopedia entry for moe musume (in Japanese) also mentions 4 characters, but they are nameless:

ピンク髪でツインテールの子
  Pink twintail girl

スタンプ子さん by 暫
茶色い短髪の、スタンプではガッツポーズをしている子
Yasuna Oribe Short, brown hair girl guts-posing

スタンプ娘 by Mukka
少し髪が赤っぽく、スタンプではドーナツを持っている子
  Red-y hair girl holding a donut

スタンプ娘 by miyabi
黒髪で、眼鏡をかけている子
Homura Akemi Black hair girl wearing glasses

However, pixiv had a collaboration with pixiv's own ongoing manga Gaikotsu Shotenin Honda-san which got adapted into an anime series, by releasing 10 time-limited stickers that can be used until January 31, 2019.

Gaikotsu Shotenin Honda-san stickers are now available on pixiv!

yea that girl really look like Yasuna Oribe. Even her uniform is similar. I always got the feeling I've seen her somewhere before

My guess is that the stickers do not come from anime, although I agree they certainly have an anime "feel". A professional site would be very foolish to use copyrighted material without permission.
Possible sources for the artwork would be from their own staff (including contractors and subscribers), public domain image repositories, and sites such as Deviant Art. For the latter, they would need permission from the individual artists, but many of them would be happy to give it in exchange for credit somewhere at the Pixiv site.


text:
What action is Yashiro supposed to take?
In episode 3, Satoru tells his teacher to "hurry up" and do something about Hinazuki at the end of their conversation, and also states in the narration that he's "positive Yashiro is waiting until spring vacation before taking action."
I'm slightly confused. Yashiro earlier says that "the Child Consultation Center visited their house three times." I thus assumed that

The Child Consultation Center is already worried or suspicious (if they visited Hinazuki's home at all). Yashiro probably informed them about the abuse at Hinazuki's home. (Even if Yashiro didn't, they are already aware of the case.)
The Child Consultation Center would be the party responsible for any further follow-up or protective measures, not Yashiro.

Am I wrong about this? If I am not wrong, what is it that Yashiro must hurry up and do? (Does he simply need to speed up things, given that the Child Consultation Center is "so incompetent"?)

I think one point you didn't get is that Child Consultation Center visited the house 3 times but every time Hunazuki and her mother were not home. The fact that they came back may not be because they are worried, but because they didn't have anyone to see the previous times

@Ikaros: true, but I assumed that visiting at all in the first place would indicate a need to check things out.

I think that they are curious and want to clear things out, but they are not concerned enough to come back every week/month

Satoru simply wanted him to do something, anything, to make sure Kaya would stay safe. He suggested calling the police and getting the counselors to check in again. Satoru wanted the teacher to speed up the process because he was planning to wait until the next school break (Spring, if I remember correctly.)


text:
How does a mangaka get paid?
From what I have seen from anime and heard, doujinshi artists get paid per book they sell at places like Comiket or online, but you have some mangaka who release one chapter per issue of serialized magazines like Shounen Jump and Comic Yuri Hime.
So, how does a mangaka get paid for their work? Does this change when they release more of their work which then spawns the creation of other adaptations and merchandise?

I assume they get money just for supplying a chapter to Jump or so (best for exposure more than anything else), and their main money comes from Volume Sales(a bundle of chapters from one manga only) and other merchandise like toys.

I believe bakuman explained something along the lines of being paid per page for the monthly/weekly releases

related : http://anime.stackexchange.com/questions/26724/how-much-do-mangaka-profit-from-anime-or-merchandise-sales

As @DarkDestry, being paid per page, but they also receive royalties for volume sales.

http://articles.latimes.com/print/2004/mar/24/world/fg-anime24 ... Food for thought. Doesn't answer the question per se

As @DarkDestry pointed out, this issue is well explained in Bakuman. When I find the time, if the posts remained unanswered, I'll go read it again :)

To answer this question, we need to take in account the several factors that will decide how and how much they are paid:

The number of pages drawn for each issues (20 pages or more).
The regularity of his work (weekly, monthly...).
The experience of the mangaka (newcomer, experienced...).
The popularity of the mangaka's work (that 2002 manga you have never heard of, One Piece...).
The publishing company (Akita Shoten, Shueisha...).
The merchandising around his work and the anime adaptations.

Number of pages drawn and regularity of the work
A mangaka is paid depending on the number of pages he is drawing. The most typical case for mangakas are the newcomers who are publishing a standard chapter of 16-20 pages every week, so we are gonna base our numbers on this common case. Usually, a publisher will pay between 10,000¥ and 12,000¥ per page created to a starting artist. Considering he would draw 80 pages per month, it would lead to a monthly outcome going from 800,000¥ to 960,000¥.
Be careful: this is what a starting mangaka usually win per month. But this is not what he is really getting in the end. A mangaka usually needs to pay his own material, his assistants, his studio if he has one, and other different kind of expenses.
It is also important to mention that colored pages are paid more than normal pages (~ 1.5x more).
Now, I have talked about the typical weekly case. In this particular case, a mangaka usually draw between 16 and 20 pages per chapter (for instance One Piece). But another really common case are the monthly releases (for instance Ao no Exorcist). The number of pages will vary a lot, but you can consider there is usually between 35 and 50 pages drawn per month in such cases. And the price per pages is not necessarily higher, as it is most of the time the same.

The experience of the mangaka
The previous numbers are mostly applying to starting mangakas. But those who have already worked for a long time in the manga industry can obtain an increased outcome per page drawn. One mangaka, Sato Shuuhou, published in 2009 the average payment he was getting by page drawn through the years. While he was getting 10,000¥ per page in 1998 for the Umizaru manga, he was getting 25,000¥ per page in 2006 for the Tokko no Shima manga, and 35,000¥ in 2009 for the Say Hello to Black Jack manga. Of course, those numbers are not representative of every mangaka and should not be taken as a constant.

The popularity of the mangaka's work
Another important factor is the popularity of the chapters and of the final mangas. A famous exemple is the Weekly Shonen Jump popularity vote. Each reader has the possibility every week to fill a paper on which he is ranking his 3 favorite chapters of the week, and send it back to Shueisha (the Weekly Shonen Jump publisher). The total number of votes are then calculated, and the publisher get an intern result for the popularity of the published mangas. If a published manga is staying way too long in the lower ranks, it might stopped to be published (at least on this magazine). The other way, if a manga is often staying in the best ranks, it means that it is interesting a lot of readers, readers that might buy another issue of the magazine because of this particular manga. Because of this, the publisher may increase the outcome won per page by the mangaka. It is also depending on some other factors, like if there is an anime adaptation or some good manga sales, but it will be explained on the next point.

The publishing company
Depending if the publisher is a totally unknown one or the really famous Shueisha, it might happen that the number of outcome given per page is lower or higher. This is of course depending on the politic and the financial resources of the publishing company.

The merchandising around his work and the anime adaptations
Obviously, there might be some merchandising around the work of a mangaka, and of course some anime adaptations for one or several mangas. For this particular part, I will let you check this question which is describing it pretty well.


text:
Why didn't Edward Elric get his leg back?
At the end of Brotherhood, Edward sacrifices his gate in order to bring back Al with his body. While doing so, the Truth being associated with Ed's gate tells him:

You've defeated me. Take everything you want!

So why didn't Ed get his leg back, when he can get everything if he sacrifices his gate?

Note that it can't be that Edward can have literally "everything" if he sacrifices his gate: for instance, it would be extremely for him to be able to have his mother back through this means.

ya but at the least he can get his leg back

Arcane's answer already covers what I think is the core issue, but I'll also note that in the Cantonese dub of the same episode, Truth appears to say something more along the lines of "Take what you came to retrieve, then [now that you've defeated me]!" rather than "Take everything you want!"

@Maroon Nice bringing that up. Cantonese got it right since he only went to Truth, i.e. do Human Transmutation again to get Al back.

but in the live action movie. Whenry (sorry if i misspelled) asks ed why didn't he get his leg back and ed says he did it to remember what he did so is this just the movie trying to make it seem like he wants to remember what he did to lose his leg or is it just movie bs.

This is probably difference in translation. In the manga it is made pretty clear. The entire conversation is about Al only. Look at the following transmutations and the sacrifices. Ed sacrificed his leg and Al his body for their Mother. Ed sacrificed his hand for Al's soul. Al gave his soul for Ed's hand. Ed gives up his transmutation gate for Al's body and soul.
I don't remember the entire conversation in the Anime, but in the Manga, Following conversation takes place.
Ref: Chapter 108 of the Manga

The Truth: Come for your brother, Eh? But how do you plan to extract an enitre human being? How will you pay? Will you offer YOUR entire being?
Ed: I've got your payment right here. It's really big though. [..]
The Truth: That's the right answer Alchemist. You've beaten the truth. Claim your prize. All of it.

Thus to me it seemed that the bargain was Al's entire being. All of it.
Now, you could always argue that the exchange wasn't "equivalent" and Ed should have asked for his leg back as well. We could talk about this all day! But just touching on the very surface, its about the main themes of FMA. Personal Responsibility and Sacrifice. Both Ed and Al are ready to sacrifice everything for each other. But Ed wouldn't use a philospher Stone or even Hohenheim himself to bring Al's body or his limbs back. This has been reiterated several times. In the end Ed is satisfied with what he can get and be normal, because he still has his friends.
Edit: @Maroon also highlights the difference in translation, by mentioning the Cantonese dub. This further supports the differences in translation.

I'll also note that in the Cantonese dub of the same episode, Truth appears to say something more along the lines of "Take what you came to retrieve, then [now that you've defeated me]!" rather than "Take everything you want!"

would like to add that the refusal to use a Philospher Stone or Hohenheim was because of the lives that were sacrifices for both and both Elrics wanted to gain back what they lost but not at the cost of another's life

@Arcane  in the anime too, they start by saying that Ed has come for Al but, since the truth said "take everything " i got this doubt. Thanks for clearing it out.

In the English dubbed FullMetal Alchemist: Brotherhood on Netflix Part 5 Episode 11. The conversation between Ed and The Truth goes like this...
(After hearing the voices of all his friends)

Ed: Who even needs alchemy? When I’ve got them.
The Truth: (Smiles) You’ve done it. That’s the right answer.
Ed: (Claps his hands)
The Truth: Good Job. You beat me.
Ed: (Turns around and touches the door to the Portal of Truth)
The Truth: (Stands up) Go ahead. Take him home.
Ed: (Transmutes his Portal of Truth)
The Truth: (As he disappears with the door) The back door is right over there. (Points behind him to Alphonse) Goodbye Edward Elric.

It’s quite clear throughout the entire conversation (including dialogue not mentioned above) that they are only talking about Alphonse. And if you look at all the transmutations and sacrifices made by Ed and Al in the show, by the end it’s  an "equivalent exchange".
In the beginning:
To get their mother - Ed lost his leg and Al lost his body.
To get Al’s soul - Ed lost his arm.
In the end:
Al lost his soul - To get Ed’s arm.
Ed lost his alchemy (Portal of Truth) - To get Al's body and Al's soul.

It's because of the Equivalent Exchange:

Ed exchanged his arm for Al.
Al then exchanged his soul for Ed's arm.
Ed then exchanged his ability for alchemy to get Al back.

That completed the Equivalent Exchange between the brothers.
The price Ed paid for the human transmutation of their mother was his leg. That was a different matter all together.


text:
Why are there omissions and discrepancies in Kaori's Kreutzer performance?
In ep. 2, the entrants to the competition are shown playing extracts from the first movement of Beethoven's sonata no. 9 (often referred to as the Kreutzer). This is most likely the only movement played, given the portrayal of Kaori's performance and the length of the Kreutzer.
It would not be appropriate to show a performance of the entire movement. (It could bore viewers, and it could easily take up half the episode.) We can thus justify an abridgement of the piece or the removal of some of sections. The omissions I have found so far, however, do not make sense.

At the beginning, the section after the violin opening and before the statement of the theme (m. 5-18, mvt. 1) is omitted. The continuity of Kaori's movements might with the soundtrack imply that in-universe, she did not play those omitted bars, but it is unclear.
Later after the piano finishes its reiteration of the theme, there is a pause (which exists in the original score). Kaori then jumps to a later section (the adagio shortly after), which is merged with the ending of the first movement. It seems that this jump also occurred in-universe.
The "bland" part that the other violinists were shown playing, which should have fallen after adagio mentioned above, is skipped.

This leaves me with the following question. Is there any suggestion that the movement is actually being played with these omissions and discrepancies in-universe? If so, why would this be the case? Are these instead just badly executed (in that they are misleading) cuts? After all:

For the purposes of a performance used to assess musicians, certain omissions, particularly skipping repeats, could be acceptable. The sections involved do not fall into such a category.
Surely if all the violinists are playing the same set piece in the same competition, there should not be any obvious variation in what is played, even if some parts are removed for length.
The movement seems to be a reasonable length for a short performance, particularly if the one repeat that appears is taken out.

There's probably also some merging of the piece played in ep. 4, but I'm not familiar with it. The instance of the Kreutzer is particularly striking, in any case, because there are one or two instances (examples 1 and 2) where the omissions appear to happen in-universe. (There is clearly a pause in the music, and Kaori and the pianist jump ahead in the soundtrack.)

It might be worthwhile to note that the manga has no specificity over what you have observed in the anime. Thus, it can be safe to conclude all discrepancies you mention are from the anime production side of things. This, however, does not exclude the author collaborating with them still.

@Tyhja: perhaps you could write that as an answer? I suspect something like that (combined with my suggestion that these are perhaps badly executed "cuts") is about as conclusive as we're likely to get.

As requested, while this is not a conclusive answer, we might never know unless there is more information released.
The manga only specifies the piece, but never details the performances of the characters musically. The characters might gush over how "lively" or "beautiful" it sounds, but nobody ever talks in technical terms, much less describe sections of music.
Chapter 6 page 30-32 : The extent of description of Kaori's Performance.

Thus, we can conclude that your observations about the discrepancies in the musical pieces stem solely from the anime production. There could have been artistic/directional decisions for the eventual editing of the said pieces, such as time constraints or perhaps wanting to get a feeling across because that section or piece of music only fits that part. We might not know more unless more information is released (AFAIK) from the studio, such as interviews with the director/staff.
However, this stand does not exclude the author collaborating with the studio and affecting the said pieces. It could well be what the author had intended to portray in the first place. Again, we do not know the extent to which he has influence over the production, notwithstanding that the plot of the anime is pretty filial to the manga.
In my opinion, the "cuts" as you describe are not noticed by the general audience, and serve more as a mood setter and a plot driver than an actual portrayal of a performance. Only a more discerning and a informed listener would be able to tell that there was something amiss.

She purposely jumped to different parts of the song - not to make it shorter - but to instead show us that she will play the music the way she wants to. (This is stated in her letter to Kousei.) She is a very intense person and this is shown through her performance by her playing the intense parts of the piece. (I also think that she may have avoided the slower and calmer parts of the song because slow/calm music can be associated with the sadness that she secretly feels about her illness)
Kaori plays the upbeat and loud/exiting parts of Kreutzer because she wants to portray the loud and exiting parts of herself and not show her vulnerable side.


text:
Future Dragon Ball Super trailer analysis
This teaser trailer linked below was in my news feed this morning as I had my coffee.
I instantly spat it out after seeing a cameo from it.
Before reading any further to my actual question please watch the video to avoid spoilers.
https://youtu.be/Vr6e-amqTz0
Now, my question is: since the legendary super Saiyan appears and this is now canon, does that make Broly a canon character??

The question now could be. is Broly canon because of this? https://anime.stackexchange.com/questions/40292/will-the-new-dragon-ball-4d-broly-ssj3-vs-goku-ssj-blue-be-canon

In my opinion no, Broly can not be placed anywhere in the dbz manga story line, cause it would have been somewhere before the cell games. But yeah her transformation looks a lot like Broly. We should wait for more information, this could be a real "legendary" transformation or just something that resembles it. There is a lot of "fan fiction" that was taken from community response (like Veggetto) so that could be the case with the legendary transformation as well ( because it became iconic)

Yeah I suppose. But then again cannon works really weird in dbz. So I'll wait to see if any information relating to Broly comes out.

Since they incorporated elements not created by Akira Toriyama and non canon into the series (final kamehameha from a videogame) and they re-used elements created in the series and not created by Akira Toriyama in the series (super saiyan blue kaioken), it's possible that they incorporate Broly story or part of its story into the series in the future, but it's not sure. I don't think they are planning to incorporate his movie story soon, since in episode 75 they had the chance to make him appear when Goku and Krilin met 10 villains from the past, and none of the bad guys from the movies were there. (Nor Cooler, Lord Slug, Broly, Janemba, Turles, etc.) .
On a sidenote, personally I think that the idea of someone being able to absorb the Genki Dama (Trunks in the battle against merged Zamasu) came from the movie Super Android 13 were Goku absorbed the Genki Dama for the first time, which it would be another element from non canon incorporated into the series as if it were canon, giving more clues indicating that they could incorporate something like part of Broly story into the series someday


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What is Yotsugi Ononoki reading in "Hitagi Rendezvous"?
In "Hitagi Rendezvous", Araragi speaks to Ononoki after Senjougahara proposes a date for the next day. Ononoki is shown reading something while lying on Araragi's bed.

Do we know what she is reading? Does it correspond to any work that exists in real life? I tried Googling アガジソ, which I believe to be the correct order of the katakana on the cover and spine, but there weren't any results that made sense to me. (It makes more sense for the katakana on the cover to be read right to left than for the identical string of katakana on the spine to be read bottom to top.)

We also later see a few pages of the manga Ononoki is reading, but I haven't been able to get a screenshot of those yet.

Tsukihi was reading a different issue of the same "Agajiso" magazine in Tsukimonogatari: http://ameblo.jp/junsb/image-11971901707-13176985479.html

Do we know what she is reading?

You're correct, she is reading アガジソ (Agajiso) magazine. No doubt about that.

Does it correspond to any work that exists in real life?

Just like you, I googled アガジソ and there's no obvious result if it's a real magazine or not (no official site, no Wikipedia link, etc). However, it's interesting that it's sometimes referred in 2channel (Japanese BBS) on unrelated topics:

Since there's a free time, should we talk? (part 8436)

951 ：優しい名無しさん：2012/03/14(水) 21:30:35.84 ID:JVhZ/yD/
  サッカー飽きた (I'm bored with soccer)
  マガジソよむお (Let's read Magazine)
958 ：優しい名無しさん：2012/03/14(水) 21:31:40.53 ID:dTAPK6Vg
  >>950
  こんばんは～
  >>951
アガジソ読めお (Let's read Agajiso)

How to earn money by resale (part 1903)

937 ：名無しさん（新規）：2016/10/28(金) 10:39:23.84 ID:7o+oUknk0.net
  週間ザンテー 週間シャンプ 週間アガジソ (Weekly Sunday Weekly Jump Weekly Agajiso)
  どうぞ (Go ahead)

Last but not least, the site that Senshin mentioned on the comment also has this caption on the image:

アガジソ（マガジン？）
  Agajiso (Magazine?)

Apparently, there's a magazine called... Weekly Shonen Magazine (週間少年マガジン)
It's a Japanese word play involving similar kana substitution.
アガジソ (A -ga-ji-so)
マガジン (Ma-ga-ji- n)

In this case:

マ (ma) and ア (a) have the same top stroke and similar voicing (ending in -a)
ソ (so) and ン (n) are almost identical, and it's a popular character pair to be substituted

The conclusion is, no, there's no Agajiso magazine, but it seems to be a parody of Magazine magazine.

Even Google seems to know the reference... googling 週間アガジソ (Weekly Agajiso) shown the result for 週間マガジン (Weekly Magazine) instead

I'm sure the manga she's reading is Bishounen Tanteidan/Pretty Boy Detective Club, written by the same author of Monogatari light novel series, Nisio Isin. I don't know the exact name of the magazine that appears there, but Bishonen series it has been serialized in different magazines so.. that seems it's publicity or just a nice reference.

Looks like Pretty Boy Detective Club was previously serialized in Aria, then Shonen Magazine Edge.


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Why didn't they take Asuna's NerveGear off?
I've recently gone through Sword Art Online and I must say it is by far
one of the greatest anime I've seen.
But there's one thing that bugs me.
After SAO was cleared by Kirito and Asuna was found in ALO, why didn't they just take her NerveGear off? After all, it's ok to die in ALO and the NerveGear shouldn't fry the brain of the user after they die in-game anymore. So Asuna should've been completely fine right?

The problem was that they didn't know what was wrong with Asuna at first and certainly didn't know that she was on ALO, if they did then they probably would have found about Sugou's experiments. even when Yui confirmed she could detect "mommy" up in the tree there was little time before Asuna's and Sugou's wedding. so at that stage Kirito's proof was

a blurry picture which has someone who looks like Asuna, easily explained away by ALO's developer as being a Titania NPC who is apart of the Grand Quest (remember that Oberon's supposed to be waiting at the top and Titania is his wife in Shakespeare's play A Midsummer Night's Dream so it would make sense that Titania would be waiting aswell)
a Navigation Pixie saying that her "mommy" is up in the tree, again could be explained off as a game object's bugged reaction to possible future content given that Kirito's Character is already bugged having it's SAO stats.

given that in the past when the NervGear was removed the player was killed I would think Asuna's parents would err on the side of caution. even if Kirito explained who and what Yui is it, it might be too unreal for them to accept the risk of Asuna's brain getting fried, at least not before the wedding, which I would think Sugou would get called in to give his thoughts, where we know Asuna waking up works against him (remember that she hates him and if she was to wake would call off the wedding).
Now, aside from what I said above, how Sugou could explain away Kirito's evidence that Asuna was trapped in ALO, he also has inside knowledge of the NervGear having not only access to the technology as being the head of Rect Progress but he also worked under Kayaba. He could easily add more worry to Asuna's parents that there could be possible brain damage because of how the NervGear works.
And up until this point there was no indication that the NervGear still wouldn't fry her brain if removed. Clearing SAO only allowed (if not by force) players to log out. While yes, Kirito did die in ALO, this can be argued that Kirito didn't technically die, as his Remain Light was still there and was resurrected by Leafa. One can compare this as being the same as one using the Divine Stone of Returning Soul (resurrect item Kirito got hoping to revive Sachi) while in the Death Game, just with a much longer timer (in ALO it was 10 minutes).

The reason they didn't remove Asuna's NervGear is because it would still fry her brain. In the beginning of the anime, Kayaba explained that the NervGear will create an electrical shock if it is removed while in use. When SAO was beat, the players were able to log out of the system. If instead of logging out, the players had their NervGear removed while in use, they would die. Asuna was one of the few that couldn't log out because she was trapped in ALO. If you watch the ALO arc, there is a scene where Asuna tries to log out using the administration console. If she was successful, she would have been able to remove the NervGear without a problem.
That being said, there was still the case where dying in SAO caused the player to actually die in the game. This was caused by the game itself having that in its program. Proof of this is in Kirito's death within ALO. He still had the NervGear on, but he didn't actually die. In this case, he could die all he wanted in-game as long as no one removed his NervGear.
To sum it up, removing the NervGear while still in use would kill the user. The issue with dying in-game was just a SAO specific program. With the creation of ALO, the dying-in-real-life program was removed. Along with ALO came the AmuSphere, a safer alternative to the NervGear. The AmuSphere was designed to eliminate the die-when-removed risk. That's why you don't die if you have the AmuSphere removed during gameplay. So, basically, AmuSphere and ALO are safe, but the NervGear and SAO are programed to kill you.


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Were Princesses Uranus and Neptune lovers as well?
In the anime series Haruka and Michiru (Sailors Uranus and Neptune) are a couple confirmed by the author Naoko Takeuchi

Takeuchi has openly admitted they are a romantic couple, and their voice actresses were instructed to play the characters "as if they are a married romantic couple."

Source: List of Sailor Moon S episodes
In the first season we learn that the Sailor Senshi (or at least the first five) whom we see are reincarnations of their past selves from the Silver Millennium. They were friends and bodyguards of Usagi's past self, Serenity, as well as princesses of their representative planets.
I am wondering, however, if Haruka and Michiru are too reincarnations of their former selves, princesses of Uranus and Neptune, and if so, whether the Princesses Uranus and Neptune were a couple as well?

It is made clear that the Sailor Senshi were all princesses associated with the celestial bodies attached to them. Thus, Haruka and Michiru were indeed princesses in their past life.
I do not recall ever seeing an indication that Uranus and Neptune were lovers in their past life. [I have watched Sailor Moon S and both seasons of Sailor Moon Crystal, and I have also read the Sailor Moon manga (albeit not very closely).] In contrast, a relationship between Endymion (who is later Tuxedo Mask) and Princess Serenity is well attested. Moreover, I was unable to find any discussion of this issue in fan wiki pages for Sailor Neptune, Sailor Uranus, Haruka, or Michiru.
This suggests that we simply do not know if Uranus and Neptune were lovers in their past life. That other relationships from the past (between Mamoru and Usagi, or between Usagi and the Inner Senshi) have been preserved suggests that they were.
But canon plot material does not actively suggest that they were together, and the absence of this in the wiki suggests that there is no supplementary material indicating it. We do know that the Outer Senshi led lonely lives in their past existence, which is difficult to reconcile with a serious relationship.
It is also possible that the issue is completely up in the air, in the same way the birthday dates for Fullmetal Alchemist characters are up in the air: it is possible that Naoko Takeuchi had not thought through the specifics of this, particularly since the focus of Sailor Moon is ultimately on Usagi.


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What is that covering part of the Nerv Logo?

As you can see, in the logo there is something covering parts of the text. It sort of looks like half of a maple leaf.
What is it and why is it in the Logo?

The glossary contained within The End of Evangelion - Theatrical Program states the leaf to be a fig leaf.

The expression "fig leaf" is widely used figuratively to convey the covering up of an act or an object that is embarrassing or distasteful with something of innocuous appearance, a metaphorical reference to the Biblical Book of Genesis, in which Adam and Eve used fig leaves to cover their nudity after eating the forbidden fruit from the tree of the knowledge of good and evil.

And as the highlighted text emphasizes, besides hiding or covering something up. It also references to the original sin of eating the forbidden fruit, the fruit of wisdom.


text:
Why was Al still alive after getting his body broken apart by Scar?
There is something bothering me. Slicer and his brother died after being stabbed with a sword, but Alphonse Elric didn't die after getting his body broken apart by Scar. How did this happen?
Edward looked so confused learning Slicer was still alive after he chopped Slicer's head. I mean he knows that his brother's body has experienced much worse damage and gotten his head chopped too and still alive.

@RemyLebeau Exactly. I think you could post this comment as an answer.

Slicer's blood runes were destroyed, which is what killed him.
Slicer had two souls in one armor, so he had two blood runes.  Ed didn't know that at first.  He only knew of one blood rune in the helmet, and thought that cutting off the head would stop the body.  But there was another blood rune in the body.
Al's blood rune is not in his helmet, so his head can be cut off without hurting him.
As long as the blood rune is intact, the soul survives. The rest of the armor can be severely damaged.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


text:
Could Edward regain the ability to perform alchemy after the events in Brotherhood?
Following the events of Brotherhood, Edward lost his ability to perceive the Truth in order to rescue his brother, and in doing so lost his ability to manipulate its alchemic energy. However, they left through Alphonse's gate.
Does this mean he could regain the ability to perform alchemy if he entered through someone else's gateway by using human transmutation? Perhaps he might have to pay another toll to reopen his?

Possible duplicate (or at least related) here and here.

Theoretically, he could.  Since all alchemy is based on the idea of equivalent exchange you should be able to trade something of equal value for something else.  So far though, the only thing we know that is equivalent in value to a person's alchemical gate is a human life (from when Ed traded his gate for Alphonse's body and soul).
So to get his gate back he would need a couple things.  First would be some way to get to the Truth so the exchange could be made.  Al could provide this since he still has his gate and knowledge from his encounter with the Truth.  Second, someone else would need to help perform the exchange.  Since Ed can't use alchemy at all, someone else would need to perform the transmutation.  While it is unknown if someone else can sacrifice something to re-create someone else's gate, I am assuming it is possible.  Nothing in the show has shown that a successful transformation cannot be reversed.
The last part is the toll to be exchanged for the gate.  Given Ed's character, all the struggles they went through to avoid using philosopher's stones / human transmutation and the character growth that led to him being ok with sacrificing his gate in the first place, this becomes the biggest sticking point.  Ed won't do it.  Nor would he allow someone to do it for him.
TL/DR: It seems to be possible but Ed would never let it happen.  Life is too precious to him for him to allow it.


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How does Father prevent the use of alchemy in Fullmetal Alchemist?
I have recently started rewatching FMA brotherhood, and noticed some things I was confused about concerning Father.

He uses the pipes to spread the Philosopher's Stone beneath the nation of Amestris. The purpose behind this is to act as a barrier between the tectonic energy of the earth's crust, where Amestrian Alchemy gets its energy from, so that he can stop others from using Alchemy at any time.

Emphasis mine.
And also

he placed himself under what would become Central Command and used himself as a buffer against tectonic energy so alchemists would actually use energy derived from the souls of Xerxes contained within himself.

How is Father able to stop people from performing alchemy? And if the people in Amestris were partly using a philosopher's stone, wouldn't they be able to bypass the laws of equivalent exchange?

Scar draws a picture in one episode. Imagine philosophers stones Father had seeded all over the place as sort of inactive circle (Or open door.)
You can walk into the circle, you can draw on that circle, you can dig into the circle. It is not active. You can use the energy from below the circle. Less than you normally would, but you can do it. Only after Father activates the circle, the flow stops.
Imagine open submarine door. Fishes swim in, fishes swim out (fishes are alchemists here). They have to pass through the doorway into the interior and there is not as much water inside the submarine as in the sea, but fishes can still swim and they can continue to lead their lives. Those hatched in the submarine which never left it don't even know it can be done the other way. People from Xing noticed that something is wrong (they are humans that swam into submarine from the sea) but they can't do anything about it.
One day, the door of the submarine closes and pumps start pumping the water out. In a few moments, the interior of the submarine is completely dry. What happened? Father activated his circle made from philosophers stones and cut access to alchemy to all alchemists. The fishes can't breathe! They can't live! But people of Xing and Hohenheim can, because they know the way to breathe air, not water. They have lungs, not gills.


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How much of the manga did the Arslan Senki anime cover?
I finished watching Arslan Senki and am wondering:

How much of the manga did it cover?
Are there any differences between the manga and the anime?

I’m a great fan of Arslan Senki and read the novels in Japanese twice. Sorry it’s been almost 2 years since you posted your question, but I will answer all your doubts.
The anime took the art style from the second manga adaptation when telling the story of the novels. The anime character designs belong to Shingo Ogiso as well.
The story itself was quickly taken directly from the novels as the only source as the anime caught up with the manga.
There were 19 chapters published when the anime started running (5th April) and also when it ended (27th September).
https://bookstore.yahoo.co.jp/shoshi-417773/
https://bookstore.yahoo.co.jp/shoshi-522005/
The first link corresponds to volume 3, which includes chapters 11-19 and was published in Japan on February 9, 2015.
The second link corresponds to volume 4, which includes chapters 20-27 and was released in Japan on October 9, 2015. It is important to note that the anime had already ended before this date though.
Just so that you know, episode 9 from the anime covers up to chapter 19 from the manga, and episode 10 covers up to chapter 23. So it would be something like that more or less.
After that point, episodes 10-25 from season 1 as well as all episodes from season 2 could not take the manga’s adaptation into account while adapting the novels as there was no manga to begin with.
The manga’s pace is incredibly slow. Even now, 2018, it still hasn’t started dealing with what season 2 covered (the latest manga Chapter 57 is adapting the last part from novel 3, whereas the anime’s season 1 covers novels 1- 4).
I’ll explain this later in more detail, but the manga’s adaptation is faithful and respectful to the novel source material. The anime’s adaptation not so much.
The difference between the manga and the novels is minimal. The manga adapts the novels in a consistent and faithful way. The anime, however, is less faithful. Yet again, I’ll explain this later.
Now, these are the 2 issues that the OP has. I’ll explain all of them:

How much of the manga did it cover?
Are there any differences between the manga and the anime?

Those questions are answered in these points. I'm adding a few more details for context as well.
1. What should I read?
Arslan Senki is a Japanese novel series written by Yoshiki Tanaka. There are sixteen novels written between 1986 and 2017. A manga adaptation by Chisato Nakamura started running in 1990 and finished running in 1996. It had an original ending as it caught up with the novels. Because of its popularity, a second manga adaptation illustrated by Hiromu Arakawa debuted in 2013. An anime adaptation was made in 2015.
The novels are praised as a masterpiece in Japan, which is the reason they received adaptations in the first place and people kept up with them for 31 years. I would very strongly advise you to read the novels over every Arslan Senki adaptation.
However, there is no official translation as of now, and not much content has been fan-translated for the past 31 years. So… if you don’t know Japanese, I recommend you read the second manga. It is the most faithful adaptation you’ll find, and it’s in English.
2. Where should I start?
Depends on what you want to do and your situation.
-If you’ve just watched the anime and you want to read the novels (as I said, they’re regarded as a masterpiece) I would advise you to start from the very beginning. The novels are very long and complicated, so starting from the very first volume is the best option.
-If you can’t read the novels for language reasons and want to read the manga instead, I would advise you to start from chapter 19. The differences between manga and anime increase after chapter 19-20 (end of episode 9) and keep increasing ever since (for example, chapter 29 doesn’t exist in the anime).
-If you’ve read the manga and want to delve into the novels, you can start where you left off on the manga. Unlike the anime, the manga follows the original material quite faithfully.
To further help you understand the overall situation, I’m also going to tell you what the current situation is.
2.2 Current situation
The very first season of the anime covers novels 1-4. The anime caught up with the manga when only 3 manga volumes had been published. Those 3 manga volumes cover the first novel.
The second anime season covers the last part of novel 4 (as in the novel, Andragoras's escape from the dungeon is written before the funeral in St. Emmanuel) as well as novels 5 and 6.
The manga currently has 57 chapters and is now in the middle of novel 3’s last chapter where Sam reunited with Kubard and convinced him to fight for Hilmes and it is just before Arslan circulated the manifesto all around Pars.
As you can see, the manga has already covered (as of March 2018) half the novels seasons 1 and 2 from anime did. It took almost 5 years though.
3. Would I miss anything if I start where the anime ended?
You would most certainly do. The anime starts making more changes from the original novel source material after episode 10 from season 1, so I would suggest you start reading from chapter 19 or 20 (start of episode 10). This is obvious, but when the anime makes changes while adapting the novels, it also deviates from the manga’s faithful adaptation.
4. Are the manga and anime adaptations faithful to the original source material? Are there any differences between the manga and the anime?
Anime: It has added quite a few scenes. Some of them seem to be very important, but don’t exist in the novels. For example:

The fact that Arslan saves Daryun from Arzang, the sorcerer, just before reaching Peshawar Fortress
The fact that Bahman gets killed by Hilmes
*The fight between Daryun and Hilmes at the end of season 1
*The fact that Bodin's men take the sacred sword Ruknabad
*The fact that Hilmes gets Ruknabad. In the novels, no one can take the sword except the chosen one who will take over the will of Kay Khosrow, the ancient great King.

And lack, among others, the following events from the novels:

The fact that Narsus defeats and kills Arzang. They even skipped Narsus saving Alfarid for the 2nd time, which made Alfarid fall in love with Narsus.
The fact that Daryun apologizes to Gieve for considering him an untrustworthy person. This event takes place after knowing that Gieve had saved Arslan.
The fact that Hilmes murders Kishward's very loyal subordinate and Azrael's brother.
Hilmes valuing Zandeh’s skill of gathering information by using his men.
The fact that Bahman accompanies Arslan to Sindhura and fighting bravery as a marzban.
The fact that Bahman dies in Sindhura
The fact that Salima, daughter of Mahendra, lets Rajendra arrest Gadhevi, who is Salima's husband.
The fact that a sorcerer tries to steal the secret letter of Bahman and Narsus cuts off his arm.
The fact that Andragoras tells the secret of Hilmes's birth to Sam.
*The fact that Daryun captures Etoile before the battle in St. Emmanuel.
*The fact that Merlain and Kubard defeat a Lusitanian troop together.
*The fact that Jimsa and Zaravant escape from Andragoras's forces and they start searching Arslan together.
*The fact that Zandeh throws Ruknabad into a crack in the ground, and pursuades Hilmes to once forget about it at the time when Ruknabad refused Hilmes and made a large earthquake hit.

("*" refers to scenes from parts of the story that have yet to be reached in the manga as it’s still behind the anime)
Whereas in the manga, all the events I remember that were added are just (Note: this list should be quite decent. Unlike the previous 2 ones, here I made a big effort to gather all the differences I remember having noticed when I read the manga):

The first chapter (which was also in the anime)
One short fight between Arslan and Kharlan (which was also in the anime). I wouldn’t really call it a fight, but in the novels Arslan and Kharlan don’t have that short crossing of blades before Kharlan fights Daryun.
The fact that Etoile hands a small religious book to Arslan close to a river and the conversation with his companions about it (the anime added the act of giving the Bible, though under different conditions and there was no chat about it between Arslan’s companions when they go to Hodir’s castle)
The sentence “one in one hundred million” used by Daryun (I think the anime used it once during the first half of season 1) as well as Arslan’s famous word “delicious” when referring to delicious food (the novels also use that word, but it’s more frequent in the manga. The anime used the word as well).
Farangis usually dresses like a man in the novels, whereas in the manga there’s fan service. The anime took the manga’s character designs, so obviously it includes such fan service.
The fact that Elam has a memory of Narsus praising his cooking skill
The fact that Kishward already has a wife and a son, whereas in the novels his wife and son appear much later.
When Daryun reveals Arslan identity to him, Daryun holds his hand. The revelation part is the same, but them holding hands at sunset is new.
The fact that Montferrart's brother is among Bodin's soldiers who were killed by Hilmes when Lusitanian soldiers were fighting over the sacred flag. In the novels, he wasn’t present there.
Jaswant (this character debuts in chapter 43 of the manga) sees Narsus painting, whereas in the novel it’s not described that she takes a glance at his painting.
The fact that the story of how Daryun got hold of his polearm is more detailed in the manga.
In one of the latest chapters of the manga (+55), Hilme’s secret is more explained than in the novels.

And not much content from the novels has been cut down. Obviously, the novels will have more details, but the important events are told faithfully, and the stuff that gets removed is the kind that is unnecessary and overdetailed for a manga (the manga format is quite different from that of a novel). To name a few examples of the events that the manga didn’t include while adapting the novels:

Once Vahriz asks Daryun what his impression of Arslan's features is at Atropatene, there is a line that Daryun says ("He  has a handsome features. I guess young ladies all over the capital city will talk about him in two or three years, but uncle...") right before Vahriz tells him that he was actually asking which one of the prince’s parents looks more similar to him. That line I quoted is not included in the manga.
The reason why Narsu’s father died is because he fell down the stairs right before he was about to leave his land and help Andragoras. This led Narsus to go to the capital city and made him famous for the first time as a tactician.
Amidst the sorcerers who have served the master sorcerer, Gundhi  frequently appears in the underground room to receive instructions. In case you don’t remember it, he is the one with an incomplete mask that doesn’t cover the right side).
The fact that Narsus has been rumored to have love affairs while working at court. Furthermore, Daryun has fallen in love with the princess of Serica. (Just 2 months ago, the author mentioned they are no longer a couple**)
When Daryun fights with Bahadul in Sindhura, Daryun gets bitten by a jackal and he chops the jackal's head and even makes its eyes come out.
About Pars legends, there exists a deep tradition of not eating sheep brain. Nevertheless, right when Arslan and his friends are in Sindhura, they inadvertently eat it in the food they’re given. It is stated that Daryun loses his appetite after that, yet Farangis is fine.

** Refers to an event that Tanaka has stated to have happened, but it doesn’t appear in his novels. He tends to do this sometimes, and his words/messages add new canon material not mentioned in the novels themselves (sometimes these new details/facts said by Tanaka are actually included in the second manga’s adaptation). This time it was mentioned on 18th January 2018, where we get to know that situation I explained before and exactly how it happens. If you google  31年目のヤシャスィーン you can see it on nico video website, but you need to have an official account and it’s raw Japanese as no English subtitles exist. In that conference he also mentions unimportant stuff like the fact that he had already decided the ending even before the second half of the novels had started, that while writing dialogues he says them out loud to make sure it doesn’t sound weird, that Daryun is dressed in black because he was reading the historical and psychological novel The red and the Black…
Also, the manga has more violent scenes that are in the novels but the anime skipped, like:

The fact that faKishward makes one of Sindhuran’s soldier swing his boss's head from his neck.

Conclusions: The anime changes and skips events a lot, whereas the
  manga sometimes adds an element/detail to the story rather than change it.
  The manga adds very little, and when it does it is unimportant stuff,
  it doesn’t remove much content and it doesn’t change things,
  making the manga a good adaptation of the novels. The scenes and even
  dialogues have been following Tanaka’s original work.


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Why didn't Father simply capture and imprison the Elric Brothers?
The Elric brothers are able to decipher the plan of Father only due to them not being killed. Thus, all Father had to do was to capture and sedate them and leave them imprisoned. This way, both brothers would not cause trouble until Promised Day.
I think this was the simplest solution, isn't it?

I don't think it's as easy as ABC capturing the Elric brothers though. They wouldn't go down without a fight.

Father simply didn't consider them a threat.  Like all the homunculi, he looked down on humans, saw them as, at most, resources and overall useless.  We get this exchange the first time Ed and Al meet Father with Ling after Father healed the Elrics:

Ling: I don't like him. I can tell he looks down on humans and calls
  us fools.
Father: When you notice an insect on the ground do you stop
  to consider it a fool?  The life of an insect is so beneath you that
  it would be a waste of your time to even consider judging it.  That
  would be an accurate summation on my feelings towards you humans.

Why bother going through the effort of chaining up something that can't possibly hurt you?  Why even consider such effort?  You have a number of incredibly powerful homunculi who could subdue the Elrics at any time, not to mention the power to shut off their alchemy and reduce them to nothing.  As far as Father is concerned, why bother?
On top of that, it's probably harder to keep them alive in captivity than to let them run free and hold their friends hostage.  The brothers could decide to kill themselves if they felt they had no reason to live.  They might be motivated to do so if they thought it might save the people of Amestris.
So if you believe that the Elrics are incapable of thwarting your plans and keeping them captive and alive might be more trouble than it is worth, why bother?


text:
Why does Edward Elric throw up after digging up his mother's corpse?
In season 2 episode 7 of Fullmetal Alchemist: Brotherhood, as Pinako and Edward went to the brothers' old house to dig up Edward's mother's corpse to see if it was actually her they transmuted, it starts to rain. In a particular scene, Ed throws up a yellow liquid which I guess was a nicer way to depict vomiting.
But why does he throw up?

As you point out in the question, they are digging up Ed's mother, which is traumatic in itself. Additionally, Ed is a child and they are doing this for a traumatic reason: to check whether the transmutation that took his arm and leg and his brother's body was actually of her. Vomiting is a result of the stress response which can come from things like anxiety and trauma. Hence Ed vomiting from digging up his mother.


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Do Sea Kings know about happenings in the world and how?
I was wondering whether or not Sea Kings know about the world: what is going on (when there was the Marineford war for example), who the world rulers are, how the power is balanced in the world, etc. And if they do, then how, when they can't speak to anyone from the surface? Or do they understand humans even though humans can't understand them (honor the exceptions)?

The short answer is: as for now (chapter 967), there is no concrete answer to your question in the manga.
If we look a bit more deeply into the chapters and try to interpret the information given, then it gets obvious that some form of communication occurs between Sea Kings and "human beings" (including life forms not necessarily called humans in the manga such as fish-men).
It is being said that the antic weapon Poseidon gets reborn every (few) 100 years in the form of a mermaid princess and will lead the Sea Kings (chapters 648, 650, 967). This stands on the poneglyphs that are at least 800 years old so around 8 people were able to directly communicate with the Sea Kings (but not necessarily doing so) like princess Shirahoshi did.
It was shown that Gol D. Roger and possibly Luffy can hear their voice too (chapter 648 and 967). Though this did not lead to a conversation, they may be able to converse.  Roger was also able to hear other "voices" such as the one of the golden bell in Skypiea/Shandora and Zunesha's in Zou.  Oden and later Luffy and Momonosuke were able to feel respectively hear Zunesha's voice too.  Mononosuke is so far the only one that was shown to talk directly to Zunesha (chapter 821) so he might be able to talk to Sea Kings too.  That's an indirect way the Sea Kings could get informed about the whereabouts of the world.
The Sea Kings know about the history of Poseidon so either a person told them or - if this story actually originates from ancient Sea Kings and not from humans - they must have told someone for this story to be transmitted in the form of poneglyphs among humans.
Finally, Sea Kings go to the surface from time to time, even close to islands (chapters 101 and 319 for example), so they might get information about what happens on land on their own, looking around and bringing these information back to other Sea Kings.  From the level of communication they show in chapter 648, one can safely assume that they are smart enough to understand whatever human activity they can observe.


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Which version of One Punch Man is more expanded, the webcomic or the manga?
So, I've been reading the One Punch Man webcomic after Garou defeated Tank Top Master. I haven't read the manga but only small segments which appear in Youtube reviews and things like that. Which version of One Punch Man is more expanded, the webcomic or the manga? Am I missing something by reading the webcomic only, or are manga readers missing something by reading only the manga?

A relevant, but not quite the same, Q&A: https://anime.stackexchange.com/questions/46479/which-one-is-the-original-one-punch-man-the-webcomic-or-the-manga

The webcomic is the original.  The manga is the adaptation of the webcomic, and the anime is based on the manga.  The webcomic is noticeably further along.  The anime, including the most recently aired episode from season 2, does not even put us at chapter 50 of the webcomic.  The Garou arc ends in the webcomic at around Chapter 97, and currently extends to chapter 112.
The manga, however, begins to add a great deal more content not present in the webcomic at around the chapter 50 mark.  The basic idea is still the same, but a lot of additional fights and sub-storylines get added.

 There's a tournament story coming up that you can see several characters and scenes from in the season 2 opening.  No such thing exists in the webcomic, nor do many of the characters that appear in the tournament, including the characters that are the most important to the storyline.

So, yes, the manga is the more "fleshed out" version.  ONE cooperates with creating (or at least approving) the new storylines and expanded backstories that appear in the manga, but Murata adds his own little take and spin on things in the end. My understanding is that everything in the manga can be considered canon at this point.
Some people prefer the one over the other, that said.  There are two major points of contrast.

The webcomic has a crude simplicity to its art style.  There are a few scenes here and there were you can see the mangaka actually does have greater artistic skills than you might otherwise have come to believe.  This was the result of ONE originally not expecting it to take off in the way it did, and so approached it in a very relaxed style.  Some feel it adds to the charm, and at times accentuates the comedy and certain character attitudes in ways a more refined artistic style perhaps could not.  On the other hand, the manga is drawn by Murata, a highly skilled professional manga artist, capable of producing exquisitely detailed art. He approaches the task with a great deal of fun, often live-streaming as he draws new chapters. He was a fan of the webcomic who proposed the idea of him doing the art on a manga adaptation to ONE. Early in the manga there are scenes where he is clearly just reveling in the story and world and not worrying about forcing the story forward.
Pacing will be different. The manga version often drastically expands existing fights and backstories, or adds all new ones, while also introducing a whole host of additional monsters and heroes.  The Boros fight in the webcomic is much shorter than it is in the manga, and Saitama never gets launched to the moon in the webcomic, for example. Some enjoy getting all of these extra details, while others may wish it would just move on to the next plot point. You can expect the manga will stay in this more heavily detailed but slightly more meandering style, as it is done in part to try to stop the manga from catching up to the webcomic too quickly (the webcomic has had multiple long hiatuses in its history, including one that only ended this month).