Acorn Computers

Acorn Computers Ltd. was a British computer company established in Cambridge, England, in 1978. The company produced a number of computers which were especially popular in the UK, including the Acorn Electron and the Acorn Archimedes. Acorn's BBC Micro computer dominated the UK educational computer market during the 1980s.
Though the company was broken up into several independent operations in 1998, its legacy includes the development of reduced instruction set computing (RISC) personal computers. One of its operating systems, , continues to be developed by RISC OS Open. Some of Acorn's former subsidiaries lived on: ARM Holdings technology is dominant in the mobile phone and personal digital assistant (PDA) microprocessor market.
Acorn is sometimes referred to as the "British Apple" and has been compared to Fairchild Semiconductor for being a catalyst for start-ups. In 2010, the company was listed by David Meyer in "ZDNet" as number nine in a feature of top ten "Dead IT giants". Many British IT professionals gained their early experiences on Acorns, which were often more technically advanced than commercially successful US hardware.
History.
Early history.
On 25 July 1961, Clive Sinclair founded Sinclair Radionics to develop and sell electronic devices such as calculators. The failure of the "Black Watch" wristwatch and the calculator market's move from LEDs to LCDs led to financial problems, and Sinclair approached government body the National Enterprise Board (NEB) for help. After losing control of the company to the NEB, Sinclair encouraged Chris Curry to leave Radionics and get Science of Cambridge (SoC—an early name for Sinclair Research) up and running. In June 1978, SoC launched a microcomputer kit, the Mk 14, that Curry wanted to develop further, but Sinclair could not be persuaded so Curry resigned. During the development of the Mk 14, Hermann Hauser, a friend of Curry's, had been visiting SoC's offices and had grown interested in the product.
CPU Ltd. (1978–83).
Curry and Hauser decided to pursue their joint interest in microcomputers and, on 5 December 1978, they set up Cambridge Processor Unit Ltd. (CPU) as the vehicle with which to do this. CPU soon obtained a consultancy contract to develop a microprocessor-based controller for a fruit machine for Ace Coin Equipment (ACE) of Wales. The ACE project was started at office space obtained at 4a Market Hill in Cambridge. Initially, the ACE controller was based on a National Semiconductor SC/MP microprocessor, but soon the switch to a MOS Technology 6502 was made.
The microcomputer systems.
CPU had financed the development of a SC/MP based microcomputer system using the income from its design-and-build consultancy. This system was launched in January 1979 as the first product of Acorn Computer Ltd., a trading name used by CPU to keep the risks of the two different lines of business separate. The microcomputer kit was named as Acorn System 75. Acorn was chosen because the microcomputer system was to be expandable and growth-oriented. It also had the attraction of appearing before "Apple Computer" in a telephone directory.
Around this time, CPU and Andy Hopper set up "Orbis Ltd." to commercialise the Cambridge Ring networking system Hopper had worked on for his PhD, but it was soon decided to bring him into CPU as a director because he could promote CPU's interests at the University of Cambridge Computer Laboratory. CPU purchased Orbis, and Hopper's Orbis shares were exchanged for shares in CPU Ltd. CPU's role gradually changed as its Acorn brand grew, and soon CPU was simply the holding company and Acorn was responsible for development work. At some point, Curry had a disagreement with Sinclair and formally left Science of Cambridge, but did not join the other Acorn employees at Market Hill until a little while later.
The Acorn Microcomputer, later renamed the Acorn System 1, was designed by Sophie Wilson (then Roger Wilson). It was a semi-professional system aimed at engineering and laboratory users, but its price was low enough, at around GB£80, to appeal to the more serious enthusiast as well. It was a very small machine built on two cards, one with an LED display, keypad, and cassette interface (the circuitry to the left of the keypad), and the other with the rest of the computer (including the CPU). Almost all CPU signals were accessible via a Eurocard connector.
The System 2 made it easier to expand the system by putting the CPU card from the System 1 in a Eurocard rack that allowed a number of optional additions. The System 2 typically shipped with keyboard controller, external keyboard, a text display interface, and a cassette operating system with built-in BASIC interpreter.
The System 3 moved on by adding floppy disk support, and the System 4 by including a larger case with a second drive. The System 5 was largely similar to the System 4, but included a newer 2 MHz version of the 6502.
The Atom.
Development of the Sinclair ZX80 started at Science of Cambridge in May 1979. Learning of this probably prompted Curry to conceive the Atom project to target the consumer market. Curry and another designer, Nick Toop, worked from Curry's home in the Fens on the development of this machine. It was at this time that Acorn Computers Ltd. was incorporated and Curry moved to Acorn full-time.
It was Curry who wanted to target the consumer market—other factions within Acorn, including the engineers, were happy to be "out" of that market, considering a home computer to be a rather frivolous product for a company operating in the laboratory equipment market. To keep costs down and not give the doubters reason to object to the Atom, Curry asked industrial designer Allen Boothroyd to design a case that could also function as an external keyboard for the microcomputer systems. The internals of the System 3 were placed inside the keyboard, creating a quite typical set-up for an inexpensive home computer of the early 1980s—the relatively successful Acorn Atom. A Business model called the 'Prophet' was produced at this time.
To facilitate software development, a proprietary local area network had been installed at Market Hill. It was decided to include this, the Econet, in the Atom, and at its launch at a computer show in March 1980, eight networked Atoms were demonstrated with functions that allowed files to be shared, screens to be remotely viewed and keyboards to be remotely slaved.
BBC Micro and the Electron.
After the Atom had been released into the market, Acorn contemplated building modern 16-bit processors to replace the Atom. After a great deal of discussion, Hauser suggested a compromise—an improved 6502-based machine with far greater expansion capabilities: the "Proton". Acorn's technical staff had not wanted to do the Atom and they now saw the Proton as their opportunity to "do it right".
One of the developments proposed for the Proton was the "Tube", a proprietary interface allowing a second processor to be added. This compromise would make for an affordable 6502 machine for the mass market which could be expanded with more sophisticated and expensive processors. The Tube enabled processing to be farmed out to the second processor leaving the 6502 to perform data input/output (I/O). The Tube would later be instrumental in the development of Acorn's processor.
In early 1980, the BBC Further Education department conceived the idea of a computer literacy programme, mostly as a follow-up to an ITV documentary, "The Mighty Micro", in which Dr Christopher Evans from the UK National Physical Laboratory predicted the coming microcomputer revolution. It was a very influential documentary—so much so that questions were asked in parliament. As a result of these questions, the Department of Industry (DoI) became interested in the programme, as did BBC Enterprises, which saw an opportunity to sell a machine to go with the series. BBC Engineering was instructed to draw up an objective specification for a computer to accompany the series.
Eventually, under some pressure from the DoI to choose a British system, the BBC chose the NewBrain from Newbury Laboratories. This selection revealed the extent of the pressure brought to bear on the supposedly independent BBC's computer literacy project—Newbury was owned by the National Enterprise Board, a government agency operating in close collaboration with the DoI. The choice was also somewhat ironic given that the NewBrain started life as a Sinclair Radionics project, and it was Sinclair's preference for developing it over Science of Cambridge's MK14 that led to Curry leaving SoC to found CPU with Hauser. The NEB moved the NewBrain to Newbury after Sinclair left Radionics and went to SoC.
In 1980–82, the British Department of Education and Science (DES) had begun the Microelectronics Education Programme to introduce microprocessing concepts and educational materials. In 1981 through to 1986, the DoI allocated funding to assist UK local education authorities to supply their schools with a range of computers, the BBC Micro being one of the most popular. Schools were offered 50 per cent of the cost of computers, providing they chose one of three models: BBC Micro, ZX Spectrum or Research Machines 380Z. In parallel, the DES continued to fund more materials for the computers, such as software and applied computing projects, plus teacher training.
Although the NewBrain was under heavy development by Newbury, it soon became clear that they were not going to be able to produce it—certainly not in time for the literacy programme nor to the BBC's specification. The BBC's programmes, initially scheduled for autumn 1981, were moved back to spring 1982. After Curry and Sinclair found out about the BBC's plans, the BBC allowed other manufacturers to submit their proposals. Hauser quickly drafted in Steve Furber (who had been working for Acorn on a voluntary basis since the ACE fruit machine project) and Sophie Wilson to help complete a revised version of the Proton which met the BBC's specifications. BBC visited Acorn and were given a demonstration of the Proton. Shortly afterwards, the literacy programme computer contract was awarded to Acorn, and the Proton was launched in December 1981 as the BBC Micro. In April 1984, Acorn won the Queen's Award for Technology for the BBC Micro. The award paid special tribute to the BBC Micro's advanced design, and it commended Acorn "for the development of a microcomputer system with many innovative features".
In April 1982, Sinclair launched the ZX Spectrum. Curry conceived of the "Electron" as Acorn's sub-£200 competitor. In many ways, a cut-down BBC Micro, it used one Acorn-designed uncommitted logic array (ULA) to reproduce most of the functionality. But problems in producing the ULAs led to short supply, and the Electron, although launched in August 1983, was not on the market in sufficient numbers to capitalise on the 1983 Christmas sales period. Acorn resolved to avoid this problem in 1984 and negotiated new production contracts. Acorn became more known for its than for its other products.
In 2008, the Computer Conservation Society organised an event at London's Science Museum to mark the legacy of the BBC Micro. A number of the BBC Micro's principal creators were present, and Sophie Wilson recounted to the BBC how Hermann Hauser tricked her and Steve Furber to agree to create the physical prototype in less than five days. Also in 2008 a number of former staff organised a reunion event to mark the 30th anniversary of the company's formation.
1983–1985: Acorn Computer Group.
The BBC Micro sold well—so much so that Acorn's profits rose from £3000 in 1979 to £8.6m in July 1983. In September 1983, CPU shares were liquidated and Acorn was floated on the Unlisted Securities Market as "Acorn Computer Group plc", with Acorn Computers Ltd. as the microcomputer division. With a minimum tender price of 120p, the group came into existence with a market capitalisation of about £135 million. CPU founders Hermann Hauser and Chris Curry's stakes in the new company were worth £64m and £51m, respectively.
By the end of 1984, Acorn Computer Group was organised into several subsidiary companies. "Acorn Computers Limited" was responsible for the management of the microcomputer business, research and development, and UK sales and marketing, whereas "Acorn Computer Corporation" and "Acorn Computers International Limited" dealt with sales to the USA and to other international markets respectively. "Acorn Computers (Far East) Limited" focused on component procurement and manufacturing with some distribution responsibilities in local markets. "Acornsoft Limited" was responsible for development, production and marketing of software for Acorn's computer range. "Vector Marketing Limited" was established to handle distribution-related logistics and the increasing customer support burden. As part of Acorn's office automation aspirations, conducting "advanced software research and development", "Acorn Research Center Incorporated" was established in Palo Alto, California. "Acorn Leasing Limited" rounded out the portfolio.
New RISC architecture.
Even from the time of the Atom, Acorn were considering how to move on from the 6502 processor: the 16-bit Acorn Communicator developed in 1985, using the 65816 being a key example.
The IBM PC was launched on 12 August 1981. Although a version of that machine was aimed at the enthusiast market much like the BBC Micro, its real area of success was business. The successor to the PC, the XT (eXtended Technology) was introduced in early 1983. The success of these machines and the variety of Z80-based CP/M machines in the business sector demonstrated that it was a viable market, especially given that sector's ability to cope with premium prices. The development of a business machine looked like a good idea to Acorn. A development programme was started to create a business computer using Acorn's existing technology—the BBC Micro mainboard, the Tube and second processors to give CP/M, MS-DOS and Unix (Xenix) workstations.
This "Acorn Business Computer" (ABC) plan required a number of second processors to be made to work with the BBC Micro platform. In developing these, Acorn had to implement the Tube protocols on each processor chosen, in the process finding out, during 1983, that there were no obvious candidates to replace the 6502. Because of many-cycle uninterruptible instructions, for example, the interrupt response times of the Motorola 68000 were too slow to handle the communication protocol that the host 6502-based BBC Micro coped with easily. The National Semiconductor 32016-based model of the ABC range, was developed and later sold in 1985 as the Cambridge Workstation (using the Panos operating system). Advertising for this machine in 1986 included an illustration of an office worker using the workstation. The advert claimed mainframe power at a price of £3,480 (excluding VAT). The main text of the advertisement referred to available mainframe languages, communication capabilities and the alternative option of upgrading a BBC Micro using a coprocessor. The machine had shown Sophie Wilson and Steve Furber the value of memory bandwidth. It also showed that an 8 MHz 32016 was completely trounced in performance terms by a 4 MHz 6502. Furthermore, the Apple Lisa had shown the Acorn engineers that they needed to develop a windowing system—and this was not going to be easy with a 2–4 MHz 6502-based system doing the graphics. Acorn would need a new architecture.
Acorn had investigated all of the readily available processors and found them wanting or unavailable to them. After testing all of the available processors and finding them lacking, Acorn decided that it needed a new architecture. Inspired by white papers on the Berkeley RISC project, Acorn seriously considered designing its own processor. A visit to the Western Design Center in Phoenix, where the 6502 was being updated by what was effectively a single-person company, showed Acorn engineers Steve Furber and Sophie Wilson they did not need massive resources and state-of-the-art research and development facilities.
Sophie Wilson set about developing the instruction set, writing a simulation of the processor in BBC Basic that ran on a BBC Micro with a 6502 second processor. It convinced the Acorn engineers that they were on the right track. Before they could go any further, however, they would need more resources. It was time for Wilson to approach Hauser and explain what was afoot. Once the go-ahead had been given, a small team was put together to implement Wilson's model in hardware.
The official "Acorn RISC Machine" project started in October 1983, with Acorn spending on it by 1987. VLSI Technology, Inc were chosen as silicon partner, since they already supplied Acorn with ROMs and some custom chips. VLSI produced the first ARM silicon on 26 April 1985—it worked first time and came to be known as ARM1. Its first practical application was as a second processor to the BBC Micro, where it was used to develop the simulation software to finish work on the support chips (VIDC, IOC, MEMC) and to speed up the operation of the CAD software used in developing ARM2. The ARM evaluation system was promoted as a means for developers to try the system for themselves. This system was used with a BBC Micro and a PC compatible version was also planned. Advertising was aimed at those with technical expertise, rather than consumers and the education market, with a number of technical specifications listed in the main text of the adverts. Wilson subsequently coded BBC Basic in ARM assembly language, and the in-depth knowledge obtained from designing the instruction set allowed the code to be very dense, making ARM BBC Basic an extremely good test for any ARM emulator.
Such was the secrecy surrounding the ARM CPU project that when Olivetti were negotiating to take a controlling share of Acorn in 1985, they were not told about the development team until after the negotiations had been finalised. In 1992, Acorn once more won the Queen's Award for Technology for the ARM. Acorn's development of their operating system required around 200 OS development staff at its peak. Acorn C/C++ was released commercially by Acorn, for developers to use to compile their own applications.
Financial problems.
Having become a publicly traded company in 1983 during the home computer boom, Acorn's commercial performance in 1984 proved to be consequential. Many home computer manufacturers struggled to maintain customer enthusiasm, some offering unconvincing follow-up products that failed to appeal to buyers. The more successful manufacturers, like Amstrad, emphasised the bundling of computers with essential peripherals such as monitors and cassette recorders along with value for money. The collapse of the market from the manufacturers' perspective, it was argued, was due to the "neglect of the market by the manufacturers". Market adversity had led to Atari being sold, and Apple nearly went bankrupt.
The Electron had been launched in 1983, but problems with the supply of its ULA meant that Acorn was not able to capitalise on the 1983 Christmas selling period. A successful advertising campaign, including TV advertisements, had led to 300,000 orders, but the Malaysian suppliers were only able to supply 30,000 machines. The apparently strong demand for Electrons proved to be ephemeral: rather than wait, parents bought Commodore 64s or ZX Spectrums for their children's presents. Ferranti solved the production problem and in 1984, production reached its anticipated volumes, but the contracts Acorn had negotiated with its suppliers were not flexible enough to allow volumes to be reduced quickly in this unanticipated situation, and supplies of the Electron built up. At the time of the eventual financial rescue of Acorn in early 1985, it still had 100,000 unsold Electrons on its hands plus components which had all been paid for and needed to be stored at additional expense.
After a disappointing summer season in 1984, Acorn had evidently focused on making up for lost sales over the Christmas season, with the Electron being a particular focus. However, a refusal to discount the BBC Micro also appeared to inhibit sales of that machine, with some dealers expressing dissatisfaction to the point of considering abandoning the range altogether. With rumours of another, potentially cheaper, machine coming from Acorn, dealers eventually started to discount heavily after Christmas. For instance, high street retailer Rumbelows sought to clear unsold Christmas stocks of around 1500 machines priced at £299, offering a discount of around £100, also bundling them with a cassette recorder and software. The rumoured machine turned out to be the BBC Model B+ which was a relatively conservative upgrade and more, not less, expensive than the machine it replaced. It was speculated that the perception of a more competitive machine soon to be launched might well have kept potential purchasers away from the products that Acorn needed to sell.
Acorn was also spending a large portion of its reserves on development: the BBC Master was being developed; the ARM project was underway; the Acorn Business Computer entailed a lot of development work but ultimately proved to be something of a flop, with only the 32016-based version ever being sold (as the Cambridge Workstation); and obtaining Federal approval for the BBC Micro in order to expand into the United States proved to be a drawn-out and expensive process that proved futile—all of the expansion devices that were intended to be sold with the BBC Micro had to be tested and radiation emissions had to be reduced. Around $20m was sunk into the U.S. operation, but the NTSC-modified BBC Micros sold barely at all. They did, however, make an appearance in the school of Supergirl in the 1984 film "Supergirl: The Movie".
Acorn also made or attempted various acquisitions. The Computer Education in Schools division of ICL was acquired by Acorn in late 1983 "reportedly for less than £100,000", transferring a staff of six to Acorn's Maidenhead office to form Acorn's Educational Services division and to provide "the core of education support development within Acorn". Having had a close relationship with Torch Computers in the early 1980s, Acorn sought to acquire Torch in 1984 with the intention of making Torch "effectively the business arm" of Acorn, despite a lack of clarity about competing product lines and uncertainty about the future of Acorn's still-unreleased business machine within any rationalised product range, although this acquisition was never completed, with Torch having pulled out as Acorn's situation deteriorated. At around the same time, Acorn also bought into Torus Systems - a company developing a "graphics-controlled local network called Icon" for the IBM PC platform - to broaden Acorn's networking expertise, Icon being based on Ethernet as opposed to the Acorn-related Econet and Cambridge Ring technologies. (Torus also released a network management solution called Tapestry. The company eventually entered receivership in 1990 with Acorn reporting a £242,000 loss associated with the investment.)
In February 1985, speculation about the state of Acorn's finances intensified with the appointment of a temporary chief executive, Alexander Reid, to run the company, together with the announcement that Acorn had replaced its financial advisors, Lazards, and that the company's stockbrokers, Cazenove, had resigned, ultimately leading to the suspension of Acorn shares, these having fallen to a low of 23 pence per share. With these events reportedly being the result of disagreement between Acorn and Lazards over the measures needed to rescue the company, with Lazards favouring a sale or refinancing whereby the founders would lose control, Acorn and their replacement advisors, Close Brothers, were reported to be pursuing a "radical reorganisation of the company".
1985–1998: Olivetti subsidiary.
The dire financial situation was brought to a head in February 1985, when one of Acorn's creditors issued a winding-up petition. It would eventually emerge that Acorn owed £31.1 million to various creditors including manufacturers AB Electronics and Wong's Electronics. After a short period of negotiations, Curry and Hauser signed an agreement with Olivetti on 20 February. With the founders relinquishing control of the company and seeing their combined stake fall from 85.7% to 36.5%, the Italian computer company took a 49.3% stake in Acorn for £10.39 million, which went some way to covering Acorn's £10.9 million losses in the previous six months, effectively valuing Acorn at around a tenth of its valuation of £216 million the year before.
In July 1985, Olivetti acquired an additional £4 million of Acorn shares, raising its ownership stake in the company to 79.8%. Major creditors agreed to write off £7.9 million in debts, and the BBC agreed to waive 50% of outstanding royalty payments worth a reported £2 million. This second refinancing left the Acorn founders with less than 15% ownership of the company. Meanwhile, the financial difficulties had reduced the number of employees at Acorn from a peak of 480 to around 270. (In July 1996, Olivetti announced that it had sold 14.7% of the group to Lehman Brothers reducing its stake at that time to 31.2%. Lehman said it planned to resell the shares to investors.)
With Brian Long appointed as managing director, Acorn were set to move forward with a new OEM-focused computer named the Communicator and the Cambridge Workstation, whose launch had been delayed until the end of July 1985 due to the suspension of Acorn's shares. Of subsequent significance, Hermann Hauser was also expected to announce a "VLSI chip design using a reduced instruction set". Unveiled towards the end of 1985, the Communicator was Acorn's answer to ICL's 'One Per Desk' initiative. This Acorn machine was based around a 16-bit 65SC816 CPU, 128 KB RAM, expandable to 512 KB, plus additional battery-backed RAM. It had a new multi-tasking OS, had 4x internal ROM sockets, and shipped with 'View' based software. It also had an attached telephone, communications software and auto-answer/auto-dial modem.
In February 1986, Acorn announced that it was ceasing US sales operations, and sold its remaining US BBC Microcomputers for $1.25 million to a Texas company, Basic, which was a subsidiary of Datum, the Mexican manufacturer of the Spanish version of the BBC Microcomputer (with modified Spanish keyboards for the South American market). The Woburn, Mass. sales office was closed at this time. In 1990, in contrast, Acorn set up a sales and marketing operation in Australia and New Zealand by seeking to acquire long-time distributor Barson Computers Australasia, with Acorn managing director Sam Wauchope noting Acorn's presence in Australia since 1983 and being "the only computer manufacturer whose products are recommended by all Australian state education authorities".
BBC Master and Archimedes.
The "BBC Master" was launched in February 1986 and met with great success. From 1986 to 1989, about 200,000 systems were sold, each costing £499, mainly to UK schools and universities. A number of enhanced versions were launched—for example, the Master 512, which had 512 KB of RAM and an internal 80186 processor for MS-DOS compatibility, and the Master Turbo, which had a 65C102 second processor.
The first commercial use of the ARM architecture was in the "ARM Development System", a Tube-linked second processor for the BBC Master which allowed one to write programs for the new system. It sold for £4,500 and included the ARM processor, 4 MB of RAM and a set of development tools with an enhanced version of BBC BASIC. This system did not include the three support chips—VIDC, MEMC, and IOC—which were later to form part of the Archimedes system. They made their first appearance in the A500 second processor, which was used internally within Acorn as a development platform, and had a similar form-factor to the ARM development system.
The second ARM-based product was the "Acorn Archimedes" desktop-computer, released in mid-1987, some 18 months after IBM launched their RISC-based RT PC. The first RISC-based home computer, the Archimedes was popular in the United Kingdom, Australasia and Ireland, and was considerably more powerful and advanced than most offerings of the day. The Archimedes was advertised in both printed and broadcast media. One example of such advertising is a mock-up of the RISC OS 2 desktop, showing some software application directories, with the advert text added within windows. However, the vast majority of home users opted for an Atari ST or Commodore Amiga when looking to upgrade their 8-bit micros. As with the BBC, the Archimedes instead flourished in schools and other educational settings but just a few years later in the early 1990s this market began stratifying into the PC-dominated world. Acorn continued to produce updated models of the Archimedes including a laptop (the A4) and in 1994 launched the "Risc PC", whose top specification would later include a 200 MHz+ StrongARM processor. These were sold mainly into education, specialist and enthusiast markets.
ARM Ltd..
Acorn's silicon partner, VLSI, had been given the task of finding new applications for the ARM CPU and support chips. Hauser's Active Book company had been developing a handheld device and for this the ARM CPU developers had created a static version of their processor, the ARM2aS.
Members of Apple's Advanced Technology Group (ATG) had made initial contact with Acorn over use of the ARM in an experimental Apple II (2) style prototype called Möbius. Experiments done in the Möbius project proved that the ARM RISC architecture could be highly attractive for certain types of future products. The Möbius project was briefly considered as the basis for a new line of Apple computers but was killed for fear it would compete with the Macintosh and confuse the market. However, the Möbius project evolved awareness of the ARM processor within Apple. The Möbius Team made minor changes to the ARM registers, and used their working prototype to demonstrate a variety of impressive performance benchmarks.
Later Apple was developing an entirely new computing platform for its Newton. Various requirements had been set for the processor in terms of power consumption, cost and performance, and there was also a need for fully static operation in which the clock could be stopped at any time. Only the Acorn RISC Machine came close to meeting all these demands, but there were still deficiencies. The ARM did not, for example, have an integral memory management unit, as this function was being provided by the MEMC support chip and Acorn did not have the resources to develop one.
Apple and Acorn began to collaborate on developing the ARM, and it was decided that this would be best achieved by a separate company. The bulk of the Advanced Research and Development section of Acorn that had developed the ARM CPU formed the basis of ARM Ltd. when that company was spun off in November 1990. Acorn Group and Apple Computer Inc each had a 43% shareholding in ARM (in 1996), while VLSI was an investor and first ARM licensee.
Acorn Pocket Book.
In 1993, Acorn decided to offer an Acorn branded Psion Series 3 PDA, badged as an Acorn Pocket Book, with a later variant branded the Acorn Pocket Book II.
Essentially a rebadged OEM version of the Series 3 with slightly different on-board software, the device was marketed as an inexpensive computer for schoolchildren, rather than as an executive tool. The hardware was the same as the Series 3, but the integrated applications were different; for instance, the Pocket Book omitted the Agenda diary and Spell dictionary applications, which became an optional application, supplied on ROM SSD which could be inserted into either of the ROM bays underneath the device. Other programs were renamed: 'System' became 'Desktop', 'Word' became 'Write', 'Sheet' became 'Abacus' and 'Data' became 'Cards'.
Set-top boxes.
In 1994, a subsidiary of Acorn, "Online Media", was founded. Online Media aimed to exploit the projected video-on-demand (VOD) boom, an interactive television system which would allow users to select and watch video content over a network. In September 1994 the Cambridge Digital Interactive Television Trial of video-on-demand services was set up by Online Media, Anglia Television, Cambridge Cable (now part of Virgin Media) and Advanced Telecommunication Modules Ltd (ATML)—the trial involved creating a wide area ATM network linking TV-company to subscribers' homes and delivering services such as home shopping, online education, software downloaded on-demand and the World Wide Web. The wide area network used a combination of fibre and coaxial cable, and the switches were housed in the roadside cabinets of Cambridge Cable's existing network.
Olivetti Research Laboratory developed the technology used by the trial. An ICL video server provided the service via ATM switches manufactured by ATML, another company set up by Hauser and Hopper. The trial commenced at a speed of 2 Mbit/s to the home, subsequently increased to 25 Mbit/s.
Subscribers used Acorn Online Media set-top boxes. For the first six months the trial involved 10 VOD terminals; the second phase was expanded to cover 100 homes and eight schools with a further 150 terminals in test labs. A number of other organisations gradually joined in, including the National Westminster Bank, the BBC, the Post Office, Tesco and the local education authority.
BBC Education tested delivery of radio-on-demand programmes to primary schools, and a new educational service, Education Online, was established to deliver material such as Open University television programmes and educational software. Netherhall School was provided with an inexpensive video server and operated as a provider of trial services, with Anglia Polytechnic University taking up a similar role some time later. It was hoped that Online Media could be floated as a separate company, and a share issue raising additional capital for the division was announced in 1995, but the predicted video-on-demand boom never really materialised.
NewsPad.
In 1994, the EU initiated the NewsPad program, with the aim of developing a common mechanism to author and deliver news electronically to consumer devices. The program's name and format were inspired by the devices described and depicted in Arthur C. Clarke and Stanley Kubrick's 1968 film: . Acorn won a contract to develop a consumer device / receiver, and duly supplied a RISC OS based touch-screen tablet computer for the pilot. The device measured and was being tried in 1996 in Spain by Ediciones Primera Plana. The Barcelona-based pilot ended in 1997, but the tablet format and ARM architecture may have influenced Intel's 1999 WebPad / Web Tablet program.
Xemplar Education.
In 1996, Acorn entered into a joint venture with Apple Computer UK called Xemplar to provide computers and services to the UK education market. A survey in 1998 found that Apple and Acorn systems at that time accounted for and one third of computers in UK primary and secondary schools respectively. Acorn sold its remaining share in Xemplar to Apple in 1999 for , and the company renamed itself to Apple Xemplar Education. Apple Xemplar was wound up in 2014. Acorn Education and later Xemplar Education were heavily involved in Tesco's "Computers for Schools" programme in the UK, providing hardware and software in exchange for vouchers collected from Tesco purchases.
The Welsh Office Multimedia/Portables Initiative (WOMPI), launched in 1996, prescribed that Welsh schools choosing the multimedia option received multimedia PCs exclusively supplied by RM. This upset other suppliers and members of the "National Association of Advisers for Computers in Education" (NAACE).
Network computers.
When BBC2's "The Money Programme" screened an interview with Larry Ellison in October 1995, Acorn Online Media Managing Director Malcolm Bird realised that Ellison's network computer was, basically, an Acorn set-top box. After initial discussions between Oracle Corporation and Olivetti, Hauser and Acorn a few weeks later, Bird was dispatched to San Francisco with Acorn's latest Set Top Box. Oracle had already talked seriously with computer manufacturers including Sun and Apple about the contract for putting together the NC blueprint machine; there were also rumours in the industry that said Oracle itself was working on the reference design. After Bird's visit to Oracle, Ellison visited Acorn and a deal was reached: Acorn would define the NC Reference Standard.
Ellison was expecting to announce the NC in February 1996. Sophie Wilson was put in charge of the NC project, and by mid-November a draft NC specification was ready. By January 1996 the formal details of the contract between Acorn and Oracle had been worked out, and the PCB was designed and ready to be put into production. In February 1996 "Acorn Network Computing" was founded. In August 1996 it launched the Acorn Network Computer.
It was hoped that the Network Computer would create a significant new sector in which Acorn Network Computing would be a major player, either selling its own products or earning money from licence fees paid by other manufacturers for the right to produce their own NCs. To that end, two of Acorn's major projects were the creation of a new 'consumer device' operating system, "Galileo" and, in conjunction with Digital Semiconductor and ARM, a new StrongARM chipset consisting of the SA-1500 and SA-1501. Galileo's main feature was a guarantee of a certain quality of service to each process in which the resources (CPU, memory, etc.) required to ensure reliable operation would be kept available regardless of the behaviour of other processes. The SA-1500 sported higher clock rates than existing StrongARM CPUs and, more importantly, a media-focussed coprocessor (the "Attached Media Processor" or AMP). The SA-1500 was to be the first release target for Galileo.
After having incorporated its STB and NC business areas as separate companies, Acorn created a new wholly owned subsidiary, "Acorn RISC Technologies" (ART). ART focused on the development of other software and hardware technologies built on top of ARM processors.
1998–2000: Element 14.
During the first half of 1998 Acorn's management were heavily involved in the initial public offering of ARM Holdings plc which raised £18 million for Acorn throughout 1998. In June 1998, Stan Boland took over as CEO of Acorn Computers from David Lee who started a review of Acorn's core business.
The company had losses of £9 million in the first nine months of the year and in September 1998 the results of the review led to a significant restructuring of the company. The Workstation division was to close, a forty percent reduction in staff and the Risc PC 2 code-named "Phoebe" that was nearing completion was cancelled. These actions allowed the company to reduce on-going losses and focus on other activities. Acorn concentrated on development of digital TV set-top boxes and high performance media centric DSP (silicon and software). It also produced a reference design for a Windows NT thin client using a Cirrus Logic system on a chip.
To concentrate on these two activities Acorn hired a group of former STMicroelectronics silicon-design engineers and they formed the basis of a silicon-design centre that Acorn set up in Bristol. They also started to dispose of some of their interests in the former workstation market. It was reported that Stephen Streater of Eidos may have made a £0.5M bid for the rights to the PC range. In October they granted distribution rights to the existing designs of machines to Castle Technology to supply the former workstation market's dealer network, sold their 50% interest in Xemplar Education to Apple Computer in January 1999, and in March 1999, RISCOS Ltd acquired a licence to develop and release RISC OS. As part of the process leading to the acquisition of Acorn by MSDW Investment Holdings Limited, with the intention to "minimise the liabilities" of the group through the disposal of assets, Pace Micro Technology agreed to acquire Acorn's set-top box division for approximately £200,000, also obtaining Acorn's rights and obligations with regard to RISC OS.
By January 1999, Acorn Computers Ltd. had renamed to Element 14 Limited (though still owned by Acorn Group plc), this change was to reflect the changed nature of the business and to distance itself from the education market that Acorn Computers was most known for. Other names had been considered by the company, but the website "e-14.com" had been registered before the official announcement. In conjunction with the acquisition of Acorn, an offer was extended to a company "owned by Stan Boland and certain senior management to purchase... the silicon and software design activity" for approximately £1 million, this company effectively being the independent Element 14 venture. A subsequent report put the sale price of this division of Acorn at £1.5 million, offering the prescient observation that this new business would itself be acquired for "several million pounds" by an established company in the industry, as it indeed was.
Legacy.
The legacy of the company's work is evidenced in spin-off technologies, with the company being described in 2013 as "the most influential business in the innovation cluster's history".
Revival of the Acorn trademark.
In early 2006, the dormant Acorn trademark was licensed from the French company, Aristide & Co Antiquaire De Marques, by a new company based in Nottingham. This company was dissolved in late 2009.
On 23 February 2018 the Acorn trademark made another return when a new company Acorn Inc. Ltd announced a brand new smartphone, the Acorn Micro C5. The Acorn Micro C5 has since been discontinued.
Popular culture.
In 2009, BBC4 screened "Micro Men", a drama based on the rivalry between Acorn Computers and Sinclair's competing machines.
TV Series.
Acorn products featured prominently in a number of Educational television series, including:
Magazines.
Acorn products spawned a series of dedicated publications, including:
They also featured in dedicated section of:


DOS extender

A DOS extender is a computer software program running under DOS that enables software to run in a protected mode environment even though the host operating system is only capable of operating in real mode.
DOS extenders were initially developed in the 1980s following the introduction of the Intel 80286 processor (and later expanded upon with the Intel 80386), to cope with the memory limitations of DOS.
DOS extender operation.
A DOS extender is a program that "extends" DOS so that programs running in protected mode can transparently interface with the underlying DOS API. This was necessary because many of the functions provided by DOS require 16-bit segment and offset addresses pointing to memory locations within the first 640 kilobytes of memory. Protected mode, however, uses an incompatible addressing method where the segment registers (now called selectors) are used to point to an entry in the Global Descriptor Table which describes the characteristics of the segment. The two methods of addressing are mutually exclusive, with the processor having to make costly switches to real (or V86) mode to service non-protected mode requests.
In addition to setting up the environment and loading the actual program to be executed, the DOS extender also provides (amongst other things) a translation layer that maintains buffers allocated below the 1 MB real mode memory barrier. These buffers are used to transfer data between the underlying real mode operating system and the protected mode program. Since switching between real/V86 mode and protected mode is a relatively time consuming operation, the extender attempts to minimize the number of switches by duplicating the functionality of many real mode operations within its own protected mode environment. As DOS uses interrupts extensively for communication between the operating system and user level software, DOS extenders intercept many of the common hardware (e.g. the real-time clock and keyboard controller) and software (e.g. DOS itself and the mouse API) interrupts. Some extenders also handle other common interrupt functions, such as video BIOS routines.
Essentially, a DOS extender is like a miniature operating system, handling much of the functionality of the underlying operating system itself.
Development history.
The DOS extender was arguably invented by Phar Lap, but it was Tenberry Software's (formerly Rational Systems) 386 extender DOS/4GW that brought protected mode DOS programs to a mass market. Included with Watcom's C, C++, and Fortran compilers for 386 class processors, it soon became a ubiquitous mainstay of PC applications and games such as id Software's successful "Doom".
While initially it was the memory-hungry business applications that drove the development of DOS extenders, it would be PC games that truly brought them into the spotlight. As a result of the development of DOS extenders, two new software interfaces were created to take care of the many potential conflicts that could arise from the varied methods of memory management that already existed, as well as provide a uniform interface for client programs.
The first of these interfaces was the Virtual Control Program Interface (VCPI), but this was rapidly overshadowed by the DOS Protected Mode Interface (DPMI) specification, which grew from the Windows 3.0 development. They provided an API through which an extended program could interface with real mode software, allocate memory, and handle interrupt services. They also provided an easy method for the extender to set up the switch to protected mode, and allowed multiple protected mode programs to coexist peacefully.


North Star Horizon

The North Star Horizon was a popular 8-bit S-100 bus computer introduced in October 1977. Like most S-100 machines of the era, it was built around the Zilog Z80A microprocessor, and typically ran the CP/M operating system. It was produced by North Star Computers, and it could be purchased either in kit form or pre-assembled. The North Star Horizon was one of the first computers to have built in floppy drives as well as being one of the first personal computers to have a hard disk drive.
Specifications.
The computer consists of a thick aluminium chassis separated into left and right compartments with a plywood cover which sat on the top and draped over the left and right sides. (It is one of only a handful of computers to be sold in a wooden cabinet. Later versions featured an all-metal case which met safety standards.) The rear section of the compartment on the right held a linear power supply, including a large transformer and power capacitors, comprising much of the bulk and weight of the system. The empty section in front of the power supply normally housed one or two floppy disk drives, placed on their side so the slots were vertical. The compartment on the left held the S-100 motherboard, rotated so the slots ran left-right. Although a few logic circuits were on the motherboard, primarily for I/O functions, both the processor and the memory resided in separate daughterboards.
Capable of running CP/M and NSDOS (North Star's proprietary Disk Operating System), a standard North Star system sported one or two hard-sectored 5.25 inch floppy disk drives and a serial interface to which one could connect a terminal to interact with it. NSDOS included North Star BASIC, a slightly non-standard dialect of BASIC, where some standard BASIC commands of the day had been changed, probably to avoid potential legal issues. Two examples of this were the EXAM and FILL commands, which took the place of the more common PEEK and POKE.
The Horizon was superseded by the all-in-one North Star Advantage in 1982. The Horizon found a niche in University environments where its inbuilt S-100 bus could be used to interface it to a variety of control systems.
North Star released a Hard disk version, with an internal full height 5MB MFM drive. They also released a S100 card with integrated memory and two serial ports which allowed up to eight users on one Horizon, each with their own CPU sharing the disk and other resources. This operated under TurboDOS, a multi user CP/M variant with some unix like features.


Custom PC (magazine)

Custom PC (usually abbreviated to 'CPC') is a UK-based computer magazine created by Mr Freelance Limited, and originally published by Dennis Publishing Ltd. It's aimed at PC hardware enthusiasts, covering topics such as modding, overclocking, and PC gaming. The first issue was released in October 2003 and it is published monthly. Audited circulation figures are 9,428 (ABC, Jan–Dec 2014). Gareth Ogden retired as editor of "Custom PC" at the end of Issue 52. Issue 53 was edited by Deputy Editor James Gorbold; from Issue 54 onwards the magazine was edited by Alex Watson. From Issue 87 to Issue 102 the magazine was edited by James Gorbold. From Issue 103 onward, the magazine has been edited by Ben Hardwidge.
Between 2009 and January 2012, the magazine was partnered with enthusiast site bit-tech.net, with the two editorial teams merging and sharing resources across both the site and the magazine. "Custom PC"'s James Gorbold took over as Group Editor of the two teams. However, since February 2012, the two brands have separated and content is no longer shared between the two publications, although many of the magazine's writers continue to write for bit-tech.
In February 2019 the magazine, along with Digital SLR Photography Magazine, was sold to Raspberry Pi Trading, a subsidiary of the Raspberry Pi Foundation.
Sections.
The magazine includes reviews, features, tutorials, analysis columns and sections devoted to magazine readers. The most current regular sections includes:
Subscriber edition.
Anyone who subscribes currently receives a free tool kit or another freebie such as a custompc mug or recently (28 January 2011) a Muc-off Screen Cleaning Rescue Kit, targeted at computer maintenance. Subscribers receive a "Special Subscriber Edition" which features exclusive artwork (usually the "flat-out coolest" photo from the cover shoot, according to Alex Watson).
Editorial team.
List of the editorial staff as of Issue 187 (April 2019).


Battle of the Planets (video game)


Ericsson Portable PC

The Ericsson Portable PC (EPPC) was created by Ericsson in 1985. It was a small computer with a weight of 8 kg. It had an Intel 8088 processor at 4.77 MHz and 256-512 kB of RAM. An optional builtin thermal printer and modem was available.
Appeared in the 23 (film).


Princess Maker 2

Princess Maker 2 is the second installment in the "Princess Maker" series of life simulation games developed by the Japanese company Gainax. It has been translated into English, Korean, and Chinese.
In this fantasy game, the player takes role of a war hero who raises a girl to the age of 18. At the end of the game, the daughter goes into a line of work; what this work is, how much talent she has for it, her marital life, and her overall happiness all depend on the player's actions.
Gameplay.
The game takes place in a fantasy world roughly modeled after medieval Europe. The starting year is given as 1210 K.D. The player's character is a famous warrior who defended the kingdom from an invasion by Lucifon, the Prince of Darkness (a corruption of Lucifer); consequently, he is known throughout the land as a military hero and receives an annual salary from the palace. One night, he receives a communication from a god whose identity is determined by the birth-date the player selects at the beginning of the game. This god bestows upon the mentioned player a child of the heavens, and it is their duty to raise her from the age of 10 to the age of 18, at which point she will enter a line of work; the most desirable outcome is that of a royal princess.
The daughter has a set of statistics that fluctuate depending on the activities the player assigns to her schedule, including various part-time jobs, schooling, adventure, and free time. It is these statistics that ultimately determine her final occupation, her skill level in her line of work, and her overall happiness in life; her marital fate is also decided, in part, by these statistics. The game also makes use of some invisible statistics to determine the occurrence of certain special events.
The god who visits the father is the daughter's patron god. That patron determines her starting statistics in a way that is loosely related to the god's role in the Roman pantheon; for example, a girl born under Mars begins the game with an advantage in fighting reputation. The game features 74 possible endings.
Development.
In Japan at this time, most child rearing was done by females in the household since the males tended to be more career focused. Designer Takami Akai explained that "To play this game means to do something you want to but can't", adding that a father would not be allowed to manage his daughter's life because they would complain too much.
Release.
The SNES version of the game, titled "Legend of Another World," which features a new cast of characters. The daughter does not have a default name, but is named Melody Blue in o "Go! Go! Princess", and the player's butler's name is Raphael. The combat and adventure systems are redesigned. In combat, the daughter's actions are now determined by cards that are played during battle, along with the stats built up through schooling and jobs.
Along with the original "Princess Maker 1", "Princess Maker 2" has received a newer "refined" remake for Windows. The overall graphics and sound quality of the game have been improved, along with various other elements.
An English-language version of "Princess Maker 2 Refine" was released via Steam in Fall 2016.
Reception.
The game was released to largely critical praise. "Next Generation" reviewed the PC version of the game, rating it three stars out of five, and stated that "This is the strangest game to hit the U.S. PC market in years, and on a certain level, Ignite should be commended for taking the chance to release it. Whether it can, or maybe even should, find an audience is another matter."
Etsuko Yamashita, a Women's studies professor at Japan Women's University was critical of the game and likening the content of the game to incest. In regards to the game being popular among college and high school males, she remarked "You might think that the younger generation has a better sense of gender equality, but this game proves it's not necessarily true."
Reviewing the 2016 English "Refine" release, "Hardcore Gamer" gave the game a score of 4 out of 5 and called it "absolutely a blast all these years later", although criticising the translation, which at times said the opposite of what actually happened or left the endings voiced in Japanese unsubtitled.
Leaked early English version.
Before the 2016 release, a fully translated English version of the game had been circulating in the Internet, garnering a following. Its developer was SoftEgg, in 1995 a company of four people; none of their attempts at finding a distributor for their localisation came through, with one candidate, Intracorp, becoming bankrupt. It was eventually leaked online against SoftEgg's wishes. One SoftEgg member apologised to Takami Akai by presenting to him a custom version and full manual and saying: "I’ve been a bad father, the daughter has turned out poorly. I am returning her to you now." Nevertheless, people were excited by its mix of gameplay styles unfamiliar outside Japan.


IBM RT PC

The IBM RT PC (RISC Technology Personal Computer) is a family of workstation computers from IBM introduced in 1986. These were the first commercial computers from IBM that were based on a reduced instruction set computer (RISC) architecture. The RT PC used IBM's proprietary ROMP microprocessor, which commercialized technologies pioneered by IBM Research's 801 experimental minicomputer (the 801 was the first RISC). The RT PC ran three operating systems: AIX, the Academic Operating System (AOS), or Pick. The RT PC's performance was relatively poor compared to other contemporary workstations and it had little commercial success as a result; IBM responded by introducing the RS/6000 workstations in 1990, which used a new IBM-proprietary RISC processor, the POWER1. All RT PC models were discontinued by May 1991.
Hardware.
Two basic types were produced, a floor-standing desk-side tower, and a table-top desktop. Both types featured a special board slot for the processor card, as well as machine specific RAM cards. Each machine had one processor slot, one co-processor slot, and two RAM slots.
There were three versions of the processor card:
All RT PCs supported up to 16MB of memory. Early models were limited to 4MB of memory because of the capacity of the DRAM ICs used, later models could have up to 16MB. I/O was provided by eight ISA bus slots. Storage was provided by a 40 or 70MB hard drive, upgradeable to 300MB. External SCSI cabinets could be used to provide more storage. Also standard were mouse and either a 720×512 or 1024×768 pixel-addressable display, and a 4Mbit/s Token Ring network adapter or 10BASE2 Ethernet adapter.
For running CADAM, a computer-aided design (CAD) program, an IBM 5080 or 5085 graphics processor could be attached. The 5080 and 5085 were contained in a large cabinet that would have been positioned alongside the RT PC. The 5080 was used with a 1,024- by 1,024-pixel IBM 5081 display.
6152 Academic System.
The 6152 Academic System was a PS/2 Model 60 with a RISC Adapter Card, a Micro Channel board containing a ROMP, its support ICs, and up to 8MB of memory. It allowed the PS/2 to run ROMP software compiled for the AOS. AOS was downloaded from a RT PC running AOS, via a LAN TCP/IP interface.
Software.
One of the novel aspects of the RT design was the use of a microkernel. The keyboard, mouse, display, disk drives and network were all controlled by a microkernel, called Virtual Resource Manager (VRM), which allowed multiple operating systems to be booted and run at the same time. One could "hotkey" from one operating system to the next using the Alt-Tab key combination. Each OS in turn would get possession of the keyboard, mouse and display. Both AIX version 2 and the Pick operating system were ported to this microkernel. Pick was unique in being a unified operating system and database, and ran various accounting applications. It was popular with retail merchants, and accounted for about 4,000 units of sales.
The primary operating system for the RT was AIX version 2. Much of the AIX v2 kernel was written in a variant of the PL/I programming language, which proved troublesome during the migration to AIX v3. AIX v2 included full TCP/IP networking support, as well as SNA, and two networking file systems: NFS, licensed from Sun Microsystems, and IBM Distributed Services (DS). DS had the distinction of being built on top of SNA, and thereby being fully compatible with DS on the IBM midrange AS/400 and mainframe systems. For the graphical user interfaces, AIX v2 came with the X10R3 and later the X10R4 and X11 releases of the X Window System from MIT, together with the Athena widget set. Compilers for C and Fortran programming languages were available.
Some RT PCs were also shipped with the Academic Operating System (AOS), an IBM port of 4.3BSD Unix to the RT PC. It was offered as an alternative to AIX, the usual RT PC operating system, to US universities eligible for an IBM educational discount. AOS added a few extra features to 4.3BSD, notably NFS, and an almost ANSI C-compliant C compiler. A later version of AOS existed that was derived from 4.3BSD-Reno, but it was not widely distributed.
The RT forced an important stepping-stone in the development of the X Window System, when a group at Brown University ported X version 9 to the system. Problems with reading unaligned data on the RT forced an incompatible protocol change, leading to version 10 in late 1985.
Sales and market reception.
The IBM RT had a varied life even from its initial announcement. Most industry watchers considered the RT as "not enough power, too high a price, and too late." Many thought that the RT was part of IBM's Personal Computer line of computers. This confusion started with its initial name, "IBM RT PC". Initially, it seemed that even IBM thought that it was a high-end Personal Computer given the initially stunning lack of support that it received from IBM. This could be explained by the sales commission structure the IBM gave the system: salesmen received commissions similar to those for the sale of a PC. With typically configured models priced at $20,000, it was a hard sell, and the lack of any reasonable commission lost the interest of IBM's sales force.
Both MIT's Project Athena and Brown University's Institute for Research in Information and Scholarship found the RT inferior to other computers. The performance of the RT, in comparison with other contemporaneous Unix workstations, was not outstanding. In particular, the floating point performance was poor, and was scandalized mid-life with the discovery of a bug in the floating point square root routine.
With the RT system's modest processing power (when first announced), and with announcements later that year by some other workstation vendors, industry analysts questioned IBM's directions. AIX for the RT was IBM's second foray into UNIX (its first was PC/IX for the IBM PC in September 1984.) The lack of software packages and IBM's sometimes lackluster support of AIX, in addition to sometimes unusual changes from traditional, de facto UNIX operating system standards, caused most software suppliers to be slow in embracing the RT and AIX. The RT found its home mostly in the CAD/CAM and CATIA markets, with some inroads into the scientific and educational areas, especially after the announcement of AOS and substantial discounts for the educational community. The RT running the Pick OS also found use as shopping store control systems, given the strong database, accounting system and general business support in the Pick OS. The RT also did well as an interface system between IBM's larger mainframes, due to its SNA and DS support, and some of its point-of-sale terminals, store control systems, and machine shop control systems.
Approximately 23,000 RTs were sold over its lifetime, with some 4,000 going into IBM's development and sales organizations. Pick OS sales accounted for about 4,000 units.
When the RT PC was introduced in January 1986, it competed with several workstations from established providers: the Apollo Computer Domain Series 3000, the DEC MicroVAX II, and Sun Microsystems Sun-3.
As part of the NSFNET backbone.
In 1987, "The NSF starts to implement its T1 backbone between the supercomputing centers with 24 RT-PCs in parallel implemented by IBM as ‘parallel routers’. The T1 idea is so successful that proposals for T3 speeds in the backbone begin. Internet History of 1980s
The National Science Foundation Network (NSFNET) was the forerunner of the Internet. From July 1988 to November 1992, the NSFNET's T1 backbone network used routers built from multiple RT PCs (typically nine) interconnect by a Token Ring LAN.
External links.
"This entry incorporates text from the RT/PC FAQ ."


Amiga models and variants

This is a list of models and clones of Amiga computers.
Development.
The first Amiga computer was the "Lorraine" developed using the Sage IV system. It consisted of a stack of breadboarded circuit boards.
PowerPC-based AmigaOS models (post Commodore).
Note these models are not hardware compatible with the 68k Amigas.
Video chipsets.
Chipsets with introduction year in parenthesis were planned but never fabricated.
Other AmigaOS compatible computers.
Some computers were released by other companies which were AmigaOS compatible.
Unreleased models.
Prototypes:
Due to management turmoil, some viable Amiga models under development were cancelled prior to release:
Unreleased models (after Commodore).
A number of new Amiga models were announced after the end of the Commodore model era. However, very few of them were ever produced beyond simple prototypes (if they even got that far). Some of these were announced by companies who later owned, or sought to own, the Amiga rights. Others were unofficial machines which would run AmigaOS, whilst others still were intended to run an operating system compatible with Amiga software. Some models that were never produced include:


List of custom Android distributions

This is a list of aftermarket Android distributions (custom firmware, custom ROM) that have received independent coverage in notable Android-related sources. The list may include distributions that come preinstalled on a device (stock ROM) or modifications of them. Only official builds are listed.


PC-8000 series

The is a line of personal computers developed for the Japanese market by NEC. The PC-8001 model was also sold in the United States and Canada as the PC-8001A.
Original models of the NEC PC-8001B (or sometimes the NEC PC-8000) were also sold in some European countries like in the UK, France, Spain, Italy and the Netherlands and in Australia and New Zealand as well.
PC-8001.
The first member of the PC-8000 series, the PC-8001 was first introduced on May 9, 1979, and went on sale in September 1979 for ¥168,000. Its design combines the keyboard and the mainboard into a single unit. At a time when most microcomputers were sold as "semi-kits" requiring end user assembly, the fully assembled PC-8001 was a rarity in the market. Peripherals included a printer, a cassette tape storage unit, and a CRT interface. Although it is often believed to be the first domestically produced personal computer for the Japanese market, in reality it was preceded by the Hitachi Basic Master.
The PC-8001A was released in the United States in August 1981, and was priced at (32 KB of RAM). It is modified to reduce electromagnetic interference to comply with FCC regulations. The Katakana glyphs in the character ROM are replaced by Greek alphabet.
Specification.
The PC-8001 has an NEC μPD780C-1 (Z80 compatible processor) clocked at 4 MHz, 16 KB of RAM (expandable to 32 KB), CRT video output, cassette port, parallel port for a printer, serial port and an expansion bus. The built-in BASIC interpreter, called N-BASIC, fits in 24 KB of ROM. This is a variant of Microsoft Disk BASIC 4.51. Optional DISK BASIC allows disk I/O for an external floppy drive. The video output is provided by an NEC μPD3301 CRT controller and a μPD8257C (Intel 8257 clone) DMA controller. It has various text modes, and the maximum screen is 80×25 text with 8×8 pixel font. Each character has two attributes chosen from blinking, highlight, reverse, secret, vertical line, over line, under line and RGB colors, and up to 20 different attributes per line can be set. The attribution also supports semigraphics, and each characters have a 2×4 matrix.
The PC-8011 Expansion Unit provides additional capabilities and interfaces, which has 32 KB RAM sockets for μPD416 DRAMs, 8 KB ROM sockets for 2716 PROMs, an interrupt controller, an interval timer, a serial port, a floppy drive controller, a parallel port and an IEEE-488 port. Original floppy disk drives for the PC-8001 are the dual-unit PC-8031 and the additional dual-unit PC-8032, which use 143 KB single-sided 5.25-inch format. They were followed by the single-unit PC-8031-1V, the dual-sided PC-8031-2W and PC-8032-2W. These units are attached to the PC-8001 through the PC-8011 or the PC-8033 adapter.
Development.
In Japan, Nippon Electric's Microcomputer Sales Section in the Electronic Device Sales Division released the TK-80 in 1976, a single-board computer kit, and it became popular among hobbyists. American personal computers were expensive for personal use (Initial list price of the Apple II was 358,000 yen, Commodore PET was 298,000 yen, and the TRS-80 was 248,000 yen). In 1978, the Hitachi Basic Master and Sharp MZ-80K, both developed by consumer electronics companies, were released as personal computers targeted for hobbyists, not for business use.
In the summer of 1978, the Microcomputer Sales Section started developing the PC-8001, codenamed "PCX-1". The development team consisted of 10 engineers including section manager and chief designer . They had already planned to release a version of the TK-80BS within a plastic case as a personal computer. It was released as the COMPO BS/80, but it failed in the market due to its poor built-in BASIC and slow clock speed. The PC-8001 was intended to be a high-performance and inexpensive computer for personal use.
When Goto visited Silicon Valley to survey the application of microprocessors, he ran across Kazuhiko Nishi at a computer store. They only exchanged business cards, but Nishi introduced Microsoft to him after he returned to Japan. Goto thought of visiting Microsoft, but he worried that the trip wouldn't be accepted by his boss because Microsoft was a small company. Instead, he attended the fall 1978 West Coast Computer Faire during its first day. The next day, he met Bill Gates at the airport in Albuquerque. After lunch, they went to Microsoft's office, and then Gates told him the importance of having a de facto standard. Goto agreed.
The team had already been developing a BASIC interpreter, but Watanabe decided to adopt Microsoft BASIC because it was widely used in the North American market. At that time, Microsoft and ASCII (the main Microsoft dealer in Japan) intended to expand OEM business in Japan, so N-BASIC was provided for NEC with a very low licence fee. It had been developed at Microsoft's office in Seattle, and NEC provided a wirewrapped prototype, known as the PC-8001g.
The Electronic Device Group only had a small distribution network of electronic parts stores, and the Information Processing Group only had corporate customers who purchased expensive mainframe computers. Also, they didn't have the capability for mass production. They asked New Nippon Electric (NEC Home Electronics since 1983) to sell the personal computers through their consumer distribution network. The system unit, displays and storage devices were all developed by NEC, and manufactured by New Nippon Electric. Printers were provided from Tokyo Denki (Toshiba TEC) because NEC had only developed expensive printers for mainframes.
Other NEC divisions didn't appreciate the project before the PC-8001 went on sale. Most people, even in NEC, didn't know about microcomputers, and they couldn't understand what the Microcomputer Sales Section aimed for. The TK-80 sold well for computer enthusiasts, but the computer division regarded it as a toy. Their projects were often criticized inside the company. Watanabe recalled that engineers of the computer division criticized microcomputers didn't have parity bit checking, and they assumed the microprocessors of the time were not suitable for computing due to their lack of performance and reliability. He believed microprocessors were more reliable than wirewrapped minicomputers. When he circulated the contract with Microsoft for approval, computer division's director criticized they planned to purchase the software from a small company. Inside the company, it was considered engineers were confident in their softwares and had to develop softwares themselves. He explained to the director, "It's profitable, so there is no problem. We are salesmen." Watanabe knew importance of the industrial standard and third party developers, but his perception was against company's practice.
Watanabe's bosses, Electronic Device Sales Division manager and executive director , let him do what he wanted. When he suggested the TK-80 project, Sawanobori supported him in anticipation that it would expand the microprocessor market, and Ouchi trusted their decision. When he planned to develop the personal computer, Ouchi wavered. It would become a computer product involved in NEC's core business, and would influence their corporate image. Watanabe also hesitated to develop it in the device division instead of the computer division, but he saw the burgeoning personal computer market in America, and then he decided to continue the project. As the project progressed, Watanabe, Sawanobori and Ouchi discussed their thoughts about marketing, planned a method for mass production, and reached an agreement they devoted all their energies to the project. In January 1979, Goto submitted the first mass production request to New Nippon Electric. They were sure the product would sell, but planned to educate and increase dealers little by little.
Success in Japan.
The PC-8001 was introduced on May 9, 1979, and its prototype went to the public at the held from May 16 to 19 at the Tokyo Ryūtsū Center. Soon after the exposition, NEC received thousands of orders. It took half a year to ship about 10,000 backorders after shipment began on September 20, 1979. By 1981, it dominated 40% of the Japanese personal computer market. About 250,000 units were shipped until production stopped in January 1983. NEC also succeeded in expanding their personal computer chain in Japan. The chain owned 7 stores in 1979, 15 stores in 1980, more than 100 stores in 1981, and reached 200 stores by 1983.
The PC-8001 sold well in the educational market because NEC advertised that the PC-8001 used the industrial standard of Microsoft BASIC. Kanagawa Prefectural Chigasaki Nishihama High School was the first futsu-ka school (upper secondary schools with a focus on a common course) to purchase PC-8001 computers (buying 17 units) and started teaching programming as an elective subject in 1981. In April 1982, NHK Educational TV started the television program " using the PC-8001. Its textbook " sold 700,000 copies.
PC-8001mkII.
A higher-performance, more graphically capable revision of the PC-8001, the Mark II debuted in March 1983 for a price of 123,000 yen.
While its most obvious improvement was in its graphical capabilities, the Mark II also included an internal 5.25" floppy disk interface as well as two internal expansion slots, doing away with the need for an "expansion box" to permit upgrades. The internal BASIC was changed as well, from the 24KB N-BASIC to a 32KB "N80-BASIC" that added new conditional statements as well as graphics commands.
While the price of the PC-8001mkII was comparable with other 8-bit computer offerings at the time, its graphics were notably worse than its competitors (most likely an attempt on NEC's part to avoid competing with their own, higher-powered PC-8800 series). This led to a relative dearth of software produced for it, particularly games.
PC-8001mkIISR.
A games-oriented revision of the PC-8001mkII with significantly better graphics and sound, making its debut in January 1985 for 108,000 yen.
The mkIISR increased the frame-buffer memory from 16KB to 48KB, allowing for 640×200-pixel graphics or 320×200-pixel double-buffered graphics modes. Additionally, the primitive PC speaker was replaced by an FM synthesis audio system. Its internal BASIC was also updated to allow usage of this new hardware, as well as providing mkII and PC-8001 compatibility modes (although a significant proportion of older software would not run properly under these modes). Other changes included the change of one general-purpose expansion slot to a Kanji character ROM expansion slot, a PC-8800 series keyboard connector, and an Atari-style joystick connector.
Reception.
The Japanese personal computer magazine ASCII concluded in 1979 that "Although some problems remain, at present, we can guarantee it is the strongest machine for both software and hardware."
Sawanobori recalled why the PC-8001 became a long seller that "The biggest factor is the price setting of 168,000 yen. The major opinion insisted 220,000 to 230,000 yen was appropriate for value of the product, but Kazuya Watanabe never withdrew 168,000 yen. After all, Watanabe's proposal was accepted by the executive director Ouchi's decision, but his stubbornness was admirable."
Although handicapped by the lack of English documentation, "BYTE"s American reviewers concluded in January 1981 after evaluating a unit purchased in Japan that "the PC-8001 appears to be an attractive, well-planned, and well-made personal computer ... Most people who have seen our PC-8001 feel that, if it were sold in our country, it would provide strong competition for any of the color-based home computers currently being sold".


Reign of the Red Dragon

Reign of the Red Dragon is video game written by Dave Daring for the TRS-80 and published by Adventure International in 1982.
Gameplay.
"Reign of the Red Dragon" is a dungeon-type adventure in which the player and up to four friends direct a group of five characters on a quest into a castle to recover eight fragments of an ancient scepter, after which the red dragon will appear.
Reception.
Bruce Campbell reviewed "Reign of the Red Dragon" in "Space Gamer" No. 66. Campbell commented that "If you enjoy this type of program, I recommend "Reign of the Red Dragon" as superior to some similar programs available in this price range."
In the October 1982 issue of "80-U.S. Journal", David Tinis categorized the game as having similarities to "Hellfire Warrior" and concluded, "The graphics are well done and even though there is no sound, the game is very enjoyable. I would recommend it highly to anyone who enjoys a good adventure."


Samsung NX200

The Samsung NX200 is a 20.3 effective megapixel APS-C crop CMOS mirrorless interchangeable lens digital camera made by Samsung. It was announced on September 1, 2011.


The SemWare Editor

The SemWare Editor (TSE) is a text editor computer program for MS-DOS, OS/2, and Windows.
Starting in November 1985 as a shareware program called Qedit, it was later modified to run as a Terminate and Stay Resident (TSR) program, and ported to OS/2 and eventually evolved (via rewrite) to TSE. TSE was eventually ported to Windows.
TSE supports a Pascal-based macro language (SemWare Application Language or SAL), regular expression search and replace, keystroke recording and playback, full undo and redo, shortcut key assignment (both as configuration and on the fly) that allow extensive modification of the functionality of the text editor, and other features. Like its predecessor Qedit, TSE is used by programmers and others.
Qedit.
Qedit was a versatile MS-DOS text editor requiring 50 KB of memory.
Qedit stores all of the files being edited in RAM. Later versions of Qedit added support for the various systems of memory supported by MS-DOS: expanded memory (EMS), extended memory (XMS) and virtual memory, up to a maximum of 16MB.
Qedit was ported to OS/2 initially as a 16-bit application for Microsoft's OS/2 1.x. This 16-bit OS/2 version of Qedit had version 1.x. Version 1.50 for 16-bit OS/2 is dated February 1990.
Semware ported Qedit for 32-bit OS/2 with the release of Qedit Pro 3.0 for OS/2 on February, 1994 which sold for $99. Version 3.0 included multi-file operation, HPFS support and access to the OS/2 Clipboard. SemWare claimed "over 120,000 licensed users" on all platforms at that time.
The last version released for OS/2 was "TSE Junior/2" v4.00e released on February, 1997. It was functionally equivalent to TSE Junior v4.00e for DOS with the addition of access to OS/2's system-wide clipboard and HPFS (long filenames) support. It retailed at the time for $99 and was supplied with a copy of the DOS basic version.
The SemWare Editor (TSE).
Qedit was rewritten and significantly expanded, and eventually released as The SemWare Editor (TSE) 1.0. The initial release maintained the tradition of fast I/O and response, fast search, a simple text scripting language and the fundamental design of a native core with functionality split between native code and scripting.
New TSE features included a more powerful scripting language (SAL), regular expressions, a native Win32 port, SAL access to Win32 DLL entry points, a 'graphical' port using the native Windows GDI (previous versions employed the console window), optional native dialogs (e.g. Open), and graphical features such as window transparency.
User interface.
Earlier versions of TSE operated in the console window in text-only mode with limited character sets and colors. Version 2.6 added a native Win32 port, but was still character-based (using the Win32 Console APIs). Version 4.0 included the Win32 application rewritten as a pixel-based graphical application (g32.exe) using the GDI. This is commonly misunderstood to be a console application, as it still appears textual despite being a native Win32 graphical application. Visually, g32 appears to work in lines and columns, though it is a graphical application (via WinMain and GDI APIs, not the Console API).
SemWare Application Language.
The SemWare Application Language (SAL) uses a Pascal-like notation supporting procedural functions and procedures, local and global variables, constants, a preprocessor including common #include and #ifdef keywords, iterative and recursive control structures, and many text-editing-specific functions.
For example:
proc Main()
integer I
for I = 1 TO 3
Warn( "hello world ", I )
endfor
end
Data types.
SAL supports integer and string data types.
An integer in SAL is a 32-bit base-2 signed integral numeric; a string is a (declared) fixed-size array of characters, with a maximum definable length of 255 characters.
SAL APIs support creation of arbitrary buffers, including non-interactive buffers not visible to the user. Many functions are available to access and manipulate buffers and their contents, effectively acting as very large text containers.


Casio Algebra FX Series

The Casio Algebra FX series was a line of graphing calculators manufactured by Casio Computer Co., Ltd from 1999 to 2003. They were the successor models to the CFX-9970G, the first Casio calculator with computer algebra system, or CAS, a program for symbolic manipulation of mathematical expressions. The calculators were discontinued and succeeded by the Casio ClassPad 300 in 2003.
History.
In 1999, Casio released a graphing calculator Algebra FX 2.0. The modified model Algebra FX 2.0 Plus was released in 2001 with additional functionalities in the financial calculation, statistics, and differential equations. The calculators were designed for usages in the classroom, where target markets were students and educators. They were aimed at helping students learn to solve algebra problems, where step-by-step solutions could be auto-generated.
The Algebra FX series was the successor of the CFX-9970G, the first Casio calculator with computer algebra system (CAS) released in 1998. The computer algebra system in the Algebra FX series had been largely improved from the previous model so that more mathematical functions were added. The Casio's CAS was mainly developed by its R&D team and Professor John Kenelly of Clemson University.
The calculators were sold to different parts of the world. Casio had used different product names in France, following their French predecessors. The Graph 100 and the Graph 100+ were respectively the Algebra FX 2.0 and the Algebra FX 2.0 Plus. The Algebra FX 2.0 Plus was discontinued in 2003 and succeeded by the Casio ClassPad series, where the calculators have stylus-based touch screens. However, the Graph 100+ was continued to be sold in France until 2015, a time when Casio removed the product from its website.
Specifications.
Power and Dimension.
The calculators are powered by four AAA batteries used for primary power. It also uses one lithium battery CR2032 for a memory backup when the primary power is down. All program memories will be deleted if both primary power and memory backup power are removed or down. The calculators consume power at the rate of 0.2 W. Based on the manufacturer's data sheet, zinc-carbon R03 AAA batteries and alkaline LR03 batteries can supply power for 140 hours and 230 hours for continuous display of main menu. The back-up battery can operate for about two years.
The calculators weigh about 213 grams including batteries. Their dimensions are 19.5 mm (H) × 82 mm (W) × 178 mm (D).
Display and Keyboard.
The Algebra FX 2.0 series incorporates a black-and-white LCD Dot-Matrix display with a graphic resolution of 128 by 64 pixels. The calculators can display up to 21 characters on each of their 8 display lines. The main menu consists of icons referring to different operating modes and applications. Inside each mode, the bottom line is reserved for up to 6 function key menu tips, which can be selected from buttons F1 to F6 on the calculator's keyboard. The display's contrast can be adjusted from a system manager menu.
The calculator's keyboard can be separated into the lower, middle, and top parts. The lower part of the keyboard consists of numeric and operational keys, where the EXE button is used to execute calculations and select commands. The middle part contains more sophisticated mathematical function keys, SHIFT and ALPHA keys, and directional pads. The SHIFT and ALPHA keys are used to access functions and alphabets appearing on top of buttons. The top part consists of buttons F1 to F6, used to select function menu tips.
In terms of keypads, there are two differences between the Algebra FX 2.0 and its French version Graph 100+. In the Graph 100+, the buttons EXP and ab/c are replaced by ×10x and a+b/c, respectively.
Memory and Processor.
The calculators come with a main program memory (RAM) of 146 kilobytes and a storage flash memory of 768 kilobytes. It was the first time that Casio adopted a flash storage into its calculator production. The program memory is used to store program files, calculator settings, and variables for matrices, statistics, graphs, tables, equations, etc. The storage memory is used to stored add-in applications, which can be loaded through a computer. Memory usage with listed categories can be viewed from a system manager menu.
In a hardware side, the calculators contain three different memory chips: a mask ROM, a flash ROM, and a RAM. The mask ROM is where the calculators store their operating system. It has a size of 4 megabytes from a chip R27T3202L manufactured by OKI Electric Industry. Since the mask ROM is non-reprogrammable, the calculator operating system cannot be upgraded, unlike the newer Casio calculators. The flash ROM is a chip LP62S2048AX from AMIC Technology. It has an actual size of 1 megabyte and is reprogrammable. The RAM is a chip 29LV800CBTI from Macronix International. It has an actual size of 256 kilobytes. They are all placed on the same motherboard.
The Algebra FX series runs on a 16-bit microprocessor, the NEC V30MX. The microprocessor is tuned at a clock frequency of 8 megahertz and supports the Intel 8088 instruction set.
Features.
Graphing.
The Algebra FX series is capable of generating different types of two-dimensional plots. Compatible graphs include rectangular one-variable functions, polar equations, parametric equations, and inequalities, where users can store and plot simultaneously up to 20 graphs. The composite functions made of up to 5 other functions can also be drawn. The calculators provide options to control what appears on a graph screen including graph range and zoom functions. Curves on the graph can be traced by a cursor, where local maximum, local minimum, and intersections of the curves can be solved by a graph solver tool.
Conics having their axes parallel to x-axis or y-axis can be plotted through a separate application. This means that the calculators cannot plot other conic/quadratic equations formula_1 where formula_2 is not equal to 0. The Algebra FX series cannot plot any implicit function of two variables, while the Texas Instrument's TI-89 series can.
In addition to the simple graphing tool, the calculators also provide a dynamic graph mode, where real-time changes of the graphs, affected by changes in variables and coefficients, are visualized.
Equation Solver.
In the equation solver mode, the Algebra FX series is able to solve simultaneous linear equations, polynomials, and arbitrary equations. The calculators can solve simultaneous linear equations up to 30 unknown variables and polynomials of degrees up to 30. This was a huge improvement from its predecessor CFX-9970G, where only six variables are accepted for simultaneous linear equations and three is the maximum degree the polynomials can take. Casio also introduced a new solve module of arbitrary input equations for the first time. Given an initial starting value and range, the module will calculate one nearby root and return to the users.
Computer Algebra System.
The Casio's computer algebra system (CAS) was first developed for the CFX-9970G in 1998. The following are the functionalities of the CAS in the CFX-9970G:
In the Algebra FX series, the computer algebra system was largely improved from its predecessor. The new features include calculating limits, Taylor's series, arc lengths, etc.
There are some reported bugs of the calculator's computer algebra system. For instance, the calculators incorrectly calculate a third order Taylor's polynomial for formula_3 with respect to formula_4 by returning formula_5 instead of formula_6.
Communication.
The Algebra FX series has an ability to communicate with both other calculators in the same series and personal computers. The device can link to another device via a SB-62 cable, a cable where both ends are 2.5 mm stereo jacks. The communication is managed by the data communication program inside the calculators, where users can choose between transmitting and receiving modes. The users are able to transfer various types of data such as programs, equations, and graphs from one calculator to another. The calculators can send and receive with a speed up to 38.4 kbps (kilobits per second) for general data and 9.6 kbps for screenshots. The communication is in a form of the half-duplex asynchronous serial communication without a parity bit. The device can communicate with a CASIO label printer via the SB-62 cable, where screenshots can be printed.
The calculators can also communicate with the PCs via a SB-87 or SB-88 cable. Both cables have a 2.5 mm stereo jack at one end and a DB-9 connector for the SB-87 and a USB port for the SB-88 at the another end. The communication is in the same form and speed as in the calculator to calculator communication. The PC programs that deal with the communication are the FA-123 and FA-124 (newer version) PC-Link, where transfers of data and screenshots are managed.
In a technical side, the cable SB-87 is based on a US patent 5504864, where the technology was previously used in the Casio's diary models. The cable was designed to shift the voltage from 6 volts at the calculator's end to 12 volts at the PC's RS-232 end. The chip MAX232 or MAX233 by Maxim Integrated was a core component used to level-shift the voltages between the RS-232 and TTL standards. The SB-88 cable was later developed to embed a USB port into the cable.
The Plus model can communicate with the Casio data analyzer EA-100 via the SB-62 cable. The data loggers are capable of sampling and collecting data such as voltage, temperature, light intensity, motion, and sound from the environment via available probes. The same features are also seen in other calculator manufacturers such as the Texas Instrument's Calculator-Based Laboratory and the Hewlett Packard's StreamSmart.
Additional features for the Plus version.
The modified model Algebra FX 2.0 Plus was released in 2001 with additional functionalities. The features added are advanced statistics calculations, financial calculations, differential equations, EA-100 data logging, and tutorial modes. They can be accessed from the main calculator menu.
In the Advanced Statistics Calculation application, the calculators are able to perform different types of regression analysis, where corresponding tests, confidence intervals, and distributions can be determined. Different types of tests, including Z-test, T-test, χ2-test, and F-test, can be calculated based on inputted data, along with ANOVA analysis. Moreover, the calculators also support calculations of probability density and cumulative probability in the given basic probability distributions.
Though not as competent as the dedicated financial calculators in the market, the Algebra FX 2.0 Plus includes capabilities in calculating simple interest, compound interest, cash flow analysis, amortization, and interest rate conversion. Apart from basic financial calculations, depreciation and bond analysis are also supported.
All additional functionalities appeared in the Algebra FX 2.0 Plus, except the tutorial mode, are carried to its successor line, the Casio Classpad series.
Programming.
The Algebra FX series is capable of compiling programs inside a Program menu. The calculators employ a BASIC-based programming language, unofficially named as Casio-BASIC. As the language has a linear structure, commands and calculations are executed line-by-line sequentially. Casio-BASIC also supports program flow control syntaxes, including a conditional jump codice_1, a loop control codice_2, a conditional loop control codice_3, a program control codice_4, and a logical operation codice_5.
Programs can be entered manually on the calculators by the users, where they can select control functions from function key menu tips at the bottom of the screen. In addition to functions appeared in BASIC programming, the calculators support usages of many mathematical functions in many areas, such as exponentials, trigonometry, linear algebra, and calculus. Correspondingly, the calculators can store different types of data, including lists, tables, graphs, and matrices, in the main memories so that users can recall them later.
Apart from displaying texts as outputs on the screen, the calculators are able to illustrate graphics. For instance, lines and circles can be drawn directly into the screen either by controlling each pixel individually or by calling readymade functions.
Under the calculator's built-in file management, all programs can be password-protected from editing and execution.
Use in schools.
United Kingdom.
The Joint Council for Qualifications (JCQ), a council providing GCSE and GCE (O- and A- Level) and Highers, are prohibiting calculators with symbolic algebra manipulation and symbolic differentiation/integration from the examinations. Therefore, the Algebra FX 2.0 series is not allowed due to its computer algebra system (CAS).
United States.
In the United States, the Algebra FX 2.0 and the Algebra FX 2.0 Plus are allowed by the College Board on the SAT, the SAT Subject Tests in Mathematics, and AP examinations in Biology, Calculus, Chemistry, Physics, and Statistics. However, the calculators are banned from the ACT examination due to their capability in the computer algebra system (CAS).


UMC (computer)

UMC (Uniwersalna Maszyna Cyfrowa - Polish for Universal Digital Machine) is a family of computers produced by Elwro from 1962.
It consisted of vacuum-tube based UMC-1 and transistor-based UMC-10 (1964). UMC computers operated using negabinary (-2 base) numeral system invented by prof. Zdzisław Pawlak.