Pentium

Pentium is a brand used for a series of x86 architecture-compatible microprocessors produced by Intel since 1993. In their form , Pentium processors are considered entry-level products that Intel rates as "two stars", meaning that they are above the low-end Atom and Celeron series, but below the faster Intel Core lineup, and workstation Xeon series.
, Pentium processors have little more than their name in common with earlier Pentiums, which were Intel's flagship processor for over a decade until the introduction of the Intel Core line in 2006. They are based on both the architecture used in Atom and that of Core processors. In the case of Atom architectures, Pentiums are the highest performance implementations of the architecture. Pentium processors with Core architectures prior to 2017 were distinguished from the faster, higher-end i-series processors by lower clock rates and disabling some features, such as hyper-threading, virtualization and sometimes L3 cache.
The name "Pentium" is originally derived from the Greek word "pente" ("πεντε"), meaning "five", a reference to the prior numeric naming convention of Intel's 80x86 processors (8086–80486), with the Latin ending "-ium" since the processor would otherwise have been named 80586 using that convention.
In 2017, Intel split Pentium into two line-ups:
Overview.
During development, Intel generally identifies processors with codenames, such as "Prescott", "Willamette", "Coppermine", "Katmai", "Klamath", or "Deschutes". These usually become widely known, even after the processors are given official names on launch.
The original Pentium-branded CPUs were expected to be named 586 or i586, to follow the naming convention of prior generations (286, i386, i486). However, as the firm wanted to prevent their competitors from branding their processors with similar names (as AMD had done with their Am486), Intel filed a trademark application on the name in the United States, but was denied because a series of numbers was considered to lack "trademark distinctiveness".
Following Intel's prior series of 8086, 80186, 80286, 80386, and 80486 microprocessors, the firm's first P5-based microprocessor was released as the original Intel Pentium on March 22, 1993. Marketing firm Lexicon Branding was hired to coin a name for the new processor. The suffix "-ium" was chosen as it could connote a fundamental ingredient of a computer, like a chemical element, while the prefix "pent-" could refer to the fifth generation of x86.
Due to its success, the Pentium brand would continue through several generations of high-end processors. In 2006, the name briefly disappeared from Intel's technology roadmaps, only to re-emerge in 2007.
In 1998, Intel introduced the Celeron brand for low-priced microprocessors. With the 2006 introduction of the Intel Core brand as the company's new flagship line of processors, the Pentium series was to be discontinued. However, due to a demand for mid-range dual-core processors, the Pentium brand was repurposed to be Intel's mid-range processor series, between the Celeron and Core series, continuing with the Pentium Dual-Core line.
In 2009, the "Dual-Core" suffix was dropped, and new x86 microprocessors started carrying the plain "Pentium" name again.
In 2014, Intel released the "Pentium 20th Anniversary Edition", to mark the 20th anniversary of the Pentium brand. The processors are unlocked and highly overclockable.
In 2017, Intel split Pentium into two line-ups. Pentium Silver targets low-power devices and shares architecture with Atom and Celeron, while Pentium Gold targets entry-level desktops and uses existing architecture, such as Kaby Lake and Coffee Lake.
Pentium-branded processors.
P5 microarchitecture based.
The original "Intel P5" or "Pentium" and "Pentium MMX" processors were the superscalar follow-on to the 80486 processor and were marketed from 1993 to 1999. Some versions of these were available as Pentium OverDrive that would fit into older CPU sockets.
P6 microarchitecture based.
In parallel with the P5 microarchitecture, Intel developed the "P6 microarchitecture" and started marketing it as the "Pentium Pro" for the high-end market in 1995. It introduced out-of-order execution and an integrated second-level cache on dual-chip processor package.
The second P6 generation replaced the original P5 with the "Pentium II" and rebranded the high-end version as "Pentium II Xeon". It was followed by a third version named the "Pentium III" and "Pentium III Xeon" respectively. The Pentium II line added the MMX instructions that were also present in the Pentium MMX.
Versions of these processors for the laptop market were initially named "Mobile Pentium II" and "Mobile Pentium III", later versions were named "Pentium III-M". Starting with the Pentium II, the Celeron brand was used for low-end versions of most Pentium processors with a reduced feature set such as a smaller cache or missing power management features.
Netburst microarchitecture based.
In 2000, Intel introduced a new microarchitecture named "NetBurst", with a much longer pipeline enabling higher clock frequencies than the P6-based processors. Initially, these were named "Pentium 4", and the high-end versions have since been named simply Xeon. As with Pentium III, there are both "Mobile Pentium 4" and "Pentium 4 M" processors for the laptop market, with Pentium 4 M denoting the more power-efficient versions. Enthusiast versions of the Pentium 4 with the highest clock rates were named "Pentium 4 Extreme Edition".
The "Pentium D" was the first multi-core Pentium, integrating two Pentium 4 chips in one package and was available as the enthusiast "Pentium Extreme Edition".
Pentium M microarchitecture based.
In 2003, Intel introduced a new processor based on the P6 microarchitecture named "Pentium M", which was much more power-efficient than the Mobile Pentium 4, Pentium 4 M, and Pentium III M. Dual-core versions of the Pentium M were developed under the code name "Yonah" and sold under the marketing names "Core Duo" and "Pentium Dual-Core". Unlike Pentium D, it integrated both cores on one chip. From this point, the Intel Core brand name was used for the mainstream Intel processors, and the Pentium brand became a low-end version between Celeron and Core. All Pentium M based designs including Yonah are for the mobile market.
Core microarchitecture based.
The "Pentium Dual-Core" name continued to be used when the Yonah design was extended with 64-bit support, now named the "Core microarchitecture". This eventually replaced all NetBurst-based processors across the four brands Celeron, Pentium, Core, and Xeon. Pentium Dual-Core processors based on the Core microarchitecture use the Allendale and Wolfdale-3M designs for desktop processors and Merom-2M for mobile processors.
Pentium (2009).
In 2009, Intel changed the naming system for Pentium processors, renaming the Wolfdale-3M based processors to "Pentium", without the Dual-Core name, and introduced new single- and dual-core processors based on Penryn under the Pentium name.
The Penryn core is the successor to the Merom core and Intel's 45 nm version of their mobile series of Pentium microprocessors. The FSB frequency is increased from 667 MHz to 800 MHz, and the voltage is lowered. Intel released the first Penryn Core, the Pentium T4200, in December 2008. In June 2009, Intel released the first single-core processor to use the Pentium name, a Consumer Ultra-Low Voltage (CULV) Penryn core named Pentium SU2700.
In September 2009, Intel introduced the Pentium SU4000 series together with the Celeron SU2000 and Core 2 Duo SU7000 series, which are dual-core CULV processors based on Penryn-3M and using 800 MHz FSB. The Pentium SU4000 series has 2 MB L2 cache but is otherwise basically identical to the other two lines.
Nehalem microarchitecture based.
The Nehalem microarchitecture was introduced in late 2008 as a successor to the Core microarchitecture, and in early 2010, a new "Pentium" G6950 processor based on the "Clarkdale" design was introduced based on the "Westmere" refresh of Nehalem, which were followed by the mobile P6xxx based on Arrandale a few months later.
On January 7, 2010, Intel launched a new Pentium model using the Clarkdale chip in parallel with other desktop and mobile CPUs based on their new Westmere microarchitecture. The first model in this series is the Pentium G6950. The Clarkdale chip is also used in the Core i3-5xx and Core i5-6xx series and features a 32 nm process (as it is based on the Westmere microarchitecture), integrated memory controller and 45 nm graphics controller and a third-level cache. In the Pentium series, some features of Clarkdale are disabled, including AES-NI, hyper-threading (versus Core i3), and the graphics controller in the Pentium runs at 533 MHz, while in the Core i3 i3-5xx series they run at 733 MHz, and Dual Video Decode that enables Blu-ray picture-in picture hardware acceleration, and support for Deep Color and xvYCC. The memory controller in the Pentium supports DDR3-1066 max, the same as the Core i3 i3-5xx series. The L3 cache is also 1 MB less than in the Core i3-5xx series.
Sandy Bridge microarchitecture based.
The Sandy Bridge microarchitecture was released in the Pentium line on May 22, 2011.
Ivy Bridge microarchitecture based.
Currently, there exist Ivy Bridge models G2010, G2020, G2120, G2030, and G2130. All are dual-core and have no hyper-threading or Turbo Boost.
Haswell microarchitecture based.
Several Haswell-based Pentium processors were released in 2013, among them the G3258 "Anniversary Edition", first released in 2014 by Intel to commemorate the 20th anniversary of the line. As with prior-generation Pentium processors, Haswell and Haswell Refresh-based parts have two cores only, lack support for hyper-threading, and use the LGA1150 socket form factor.
Broadwell microarchitecture based.
It was launched in Q1 2015 using a 14 nm process (e.g. the dual-core 1.9 GHz Intel Pentium 3805U with 2 MB cache). It used the FCBGA1168 socket.
Skylake microarchitecture based.
Supporting up to 64 GB RAM. Features like Turbo Boost, Intel vPro, Hyper-Threading are not available. Supports AES-NI and RDRAND.
Integrated graphics are provided by Intel HD Graphics 510, utilizing a maximum of 1.7 GB of memory, for resolutions up to 4096×2304 @ 60 Hz using Display Port supporting up to 3 displays.
Kaby Lake microarchitecture based.
In Q1 2017 Intel released the Kaby Lake-based Pentium G4560; it is the first Pentium-branded CPU since the Netburst-based Pentium 4 to support hyper-threading, a feature available in some "Core"-branded products. Features include a clock speed of 3.5 GHz with four threads, 3 MB of L3 cache and Intel HD 610 integrated graphics.
Coffee Lake microarchitecture based.
All Coffee Lake Pentium processors support Hyper-threading, and integrated Intel UHD Graphics.
Pentium-compatible Intel processors.
Due to its prominence, the term "Pentium-compatible" is often used to describe any x86 processor that supports the IA-32 instruction set and architecture. Even though they do not use the Pentium name, Intel also manufactures other processors based on the Pentium series for other markets. Most of these processors share the core design with one of the Pentium processor lines, usually differing in the amount of CPU cache, power efficiency or other features. The notable exception is the Atom line, which is an independent design.


NWCACHE.EXE


Nintendo Switch Pro Controller

The Nintendo Switch Pro Controller is a game controller manufactured and released by Nintendo for use with the Nintendo Switch video game console. It is an alternative controller to the Joy-Con.
Design and features.
The Nintendo Switch Pro Controller incorporates a button layout similar to that of the Wii's Classic Controller Pro, but utilizes a staggered analog stick layout employed by the GameCube controller and Microsoft's family of Xbox consoles, with its overall design being highly similar to that of the Xbox Wireless Controller. Up to eight Pro Controllers can be synced to the Nintendo Switch. Additionally, the Pro Controller can also be paired with or connected to a PC for use with PC games, such as those on Steam which added support for the Pro Controller through a beta client update on May 9, 2018. The Pro Controller also supports near-field communication for use with Nintendo's Amiibo line as well as HD Rumble and motion controls. The controller takes approximately 6 hours to fully charge. When fully charged, the battery duration for the Nintendo Switch Pro Controller can last approximately 40 hours. The controller also features a USB-C connector, as well as coming with a USB-C to Type-A charging cord, which can be connected to the USB-A 2.0 port on the back of the Switch dock.
History.
The Nintendo Switch Pro Controller was unveiled along with the Nintendo Switch on October 20, 2016, and was released on March 3, 2017.
Special editions.
The Nintendo Switch Pro Controller is available in black, and also in the following special editions:
A special Pro Controller imprinted with the "Super Smash Bros." logo was also awarded to Shuto Moriya, the winner of the "Super Smash Bros. Ultimate" tournament at EVO Japan 2020.


XCOPY

In computing, codice_1 is a command used on IBM PC DOS, MS-DOS, IBM OS/2, Microsoft Windows, FreeDOS, ReactOS, and related operating systems for copying multiple files or entire directory trees from one directory to another and for copying files across a network.
Overview.
codice_1 stands for "extended copy", and was created as a more functional file copying utility than the codice_3 command found in earlier operating systems. codice_1 first appeared in DOS 3.2.
While still included in Windows 10, codice_1 has been deprecated in favor of codice_6, a more powerful copy tool, which is now supplied with the Microsoft Windows Server and Desktop operating systems.
DR DOS 6.0 and Datalight ROM-DOS include an implementation of the command.
The FreeDOS version was developed by Rene Ableidinger and is licensed under the GPL.
J. Edmeades developed the Wine-compatible version that is included in ReactOS. It is licensed under the LGPL.
Compression.
Since Windows Server 2019 and Windows 10, a codice_7 option is available in codice_8 when copying across a network. With this switch, if the destination computer supports SMB compression and the files being copied are very compressible, there may be significant improvements to performance. The SMB compression adds inline whitespace compression to file transfers. Compression is also available with the codice_6 command and Hyper-V Live Migration with SMB.
Example.
Create a new directory by copying all contents of the existing directory, including any files or subdirectories having the "hidden" or "system" attributes and empty directories.
xcopy e:\existing e:\newcopy /e /i /h
If the pathnames include spaces, they must be enclosed in quotation marks.
xcopy "D:\Documents and Settings\MY.USERNAME\My Documents\*" "E:\MYBACKUP\My Documents\" /D/E/C/Y
Copy entire drive in to a mapped network drive while ignoring any errors in network restartable mode.
xcopy *.* z:\Netmirror /E /V /C /F /H /Y /Z 1>out.txt 2>err.txt
Copy a single file without prompt if it is a file or a directory
cmd /c echo F | xcopy "c:\directory 1\myfile" "c:\directory 2\myfile"
Limitations.
codice_1 fails with an "insufficient memory" error when the path plus filename is longer than 254 characters. An option "/J" copies files without buffering;
moving very large files without the option (available only after Server 2008R2) can consume all available RAM on a system.
No open files.
codice_1 will not copy open files. Any process may open files for exclusive read access by withholding the FILE_SHARE_READ
https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/aa363858.aspx
codice_1 does not support the Windows Volume Shadow Copy service which effectively allows processes to have access to open files, so it is not useful for backing up live operating system volumes.
XCOPY deployment.
XCOPY deployment or xcopy installation is a software application's installation into a Microsoft Windows system simply by copying files. The name is derived from the codice_1 command line facility provided by Microsoft operating systems.
In contrast, the installation of a typical Windows application will require a significant number of additional steps before the application is ready to be used. Most of this additional work involves, directly or indirectly, adding or modifying entries in the Windows Registry. Even when an application uses ordinary files for its own data, many common facilities provided by Windows require some type of "registration" step before they are available to programs. Usually, one or more specialized tools (such as Windows Installer, InnoSetup, or NSIS) are used to help coordinate these relatively complex operations.


HiOS

HiOS (), is an Android-based operating system developed by Hong Kong mobile phone manufacturer Tecno Mobile exclusively for their smartphones.
HiOS allows for a wide range of user customization without requiring rooting the mobile device. The operating system is also bundled with utility applications that allow users to free up memory, freeze applications, limit data accessibility to applications among others. HiOS comes with features like; Launcher, Private Safe, Split Screen and Lockscreen Notification.
History.
In April 2016, Tecno Mobile released HiOS 1.0, based on Android 6.0 "Marshmallow", featuring a launcher and micro-intelligence. The HiOS was first launched on Tecno Boom J8. In March 2017, HiOS 2.0 was released based on Android 7.0 "Nougat", launching on Camon CX and L9 Plus. It also came with launcher, consisting of Hi Search, Hi Theme, Hi Manager and split screen.
In October 2017, HiOS 3.0 was also released based on Android 7.0 as seen in HiOS 2.0, but with improved user interfaces, launching on Phantom 8 and Camon CM. HiOS 3.0 also came with Boomplay Music and Phoenix Browser as primary browsers, it also came with T-Point, Micro Intelligence and Eye Care.
In November 2018, HiOS 4.1 was released based on Android 8.1 "Oreo", launching on Camon 11 and Camon 11 Pro, featuring ZeroScreen, one-hand mode and dual apps. The HiOS 4.1 also came with Gesture Navigation and Face ID.
In April 2019, HiOS 5.0 was released based on Android 9.0 "Pie", launching on Spark 3 and Phantom 9, featuring Smart Panel, AI Read Mode and Intelligent Voice Broadcast. In September 2019, HiOS 5.5 was also released based on Android 9.0 "Pie", launching on Camon 12 and Spark 4, featuring AR Virtual Canvas, Closed Eye Detection, Gesture Call Picker and Fingerprint Reset Password.
In February 2020, HiOS 6.0 was released based on Android 10, launching on Camon 15. The beta version of HiOS 6.0 was released to Tecno Spark 3 Pro on 1 December 2019, featuring system-wide Dark Theme, Social Turbo and Game mode.


Bakugan Battle Brawlers (video game)

Bakugan Battle Brawlers is a 2009 video game based on the anime series of the same name. The game was developed by NOW Production and published by Activision for the PlayStation 3, PlayStation 2, Xbox 360, Nintendo DS, and Wii.
Plot.
One day the player's character meets Dan Kuso, one of the Battle Brawlers, who teaches him the rules in a fight against Shuji. (In the DS version, you get a Pyrus Serpenoid to start off with. In all other versions, you get a Serpenoid, a Juggernoid, and a Saurus that match the attribute: Pyrus, Darkus, Haos, Aquos, Ventus, or Subterra; you chose at the start of the game). After going to the local store and meeting Alice, who suggests the player should battle with other brawlers in the park to earn BP (Bakugan Points, the game's currency) a strange Bakugan called Leonidas gets teleported to the park, who is now the new best friend of the player. (Leonidas' attribute depends on what attribute you chose). Leonidas is an unknown and aggressive Bakugan that was created by all the hate and anger of the lost Bakugan trapped in the Doom Dimension. In several fights the player will meet a lot of people but at the same time a Darkus user, whose name is Marduk, Desires to rule over all Bakugan together with Vladitor, another Bakugan that suddenly appears.
Right after Naga got the Silent Core, the seals that held Vladitor captive in the Doom Dimension suddenly broke and he escaped from the Doom Dimension. At the end of a tournament when Dan makes the player an official Bakugan Battle Brawler, Marduk is revealed to have allied with Hal G, Masquerade and Naga in order to defeat the Battle Brawlers and rule over the worlds and the Bakugan. The player must win the Ultimate Battle Tournament, defeating also Dan, Runo, Marucho, Julie, Shun, Masquerade, and a 1-on-1 showdown with Omega Leonidas and Battle Axe Vladitor. After the player wins, both Vladitor and Leonidas disappear, Leonidas and Vladitor say that their time is up after the brawl. Later, the player discovers that Vladitor gave Leonidas his remaining power, saying 'he deserved it' which allowed Leonidas to return to the human world, leaving Leonidas to assume that Vladitor "wasn't all bad". The game ends with the player throwing Leonidas in the air both of them shouting, "Bakugan brawl!".
Gameplay.
The battles in this game are different from the anime series and the general rules. At the beginning players place a gate card, which will land on the field. Then they must choose one of their own Bakugan and throw them by aiming and steering to make them land where needed. It is possible to shoot at your opponent's Bakugan while it's rolling. A good blast can cause your foe to miss a boost or even send an enemy Bakugan flying off the board.
There are two ways to win a gate card: a "double stand" which happens if a player lands two Bakugan on the same gate card, or by a battle. When Bakugan from each sides land on one gate card the fight starts. It is possible at that point to activate ability cards (up to 3) in order to power-up the Bakugan or to change the battle rules. The fight itself consists of one of three different mini-games (shooting if on a Gold Card, shaking if on a Copper Card, and pressing buttons at the right time on a Silver Card). With the help of these mini-games both Bakugan gain more G-Power, which decides who will win the fight and thus gain a gate card.
Whoever gets to collect three gate cards will win the match. By winning, BP (Bakugan Points) are earned which can be used to upgrade Bakugan, buy new Bakugan, gate cards, or ability cards between matches. Defeating the familiar characters from the series in Dan, Runo, Marucho, Shun, Julie, Klaus, Chan Lee, Julio, Komba, Billy, and Alice's alter-ego Masquerade in the park unlocks Drago, Hydranoid, and the other guardian Bakugan to buy and use in brawls.
Reception.
The game received "mixed" reviews on all platforms according to the review aggregation website Metacritic.
In North America, the Nintendo DS version of the game was the second best selling release for the platform during holiday 2009.


Opaque binary blob

Opaque binary blob (OBB) is a term used in network engineering and computer science to refer to a sizeable piece of data, which looks like binary garbage from outside, by entities which do not know what that blob denotes or carries, but make sense to entities which have access permission and access functions to them. It is also a pejorative term for compiled code without the source code made available (see: binary blob).
Use in networks.
At least one network protocol, Advanced Message Queuing Protocol, uses the terminology of OBB.
Use in the computer field.
Android operating systems, starting with version 2.3 code named Gingerbread, use OBBs to refer in one blob to multiple files, maybe even a file system or whole file system in one file. These OBBs are available through the Storage Manager interface in Android. This is done as a means of abstraction, so multiple applications running on the operating system can more easily access the OBB. For example, if there was a map database (map OBB), multiple applications running on Android 2.3 can access the same maps. This eliminates the need to maintain different map data for different applications with similar functions and features. Many HD games on the Android platform use their own OBB files, to allow storage of large files on the device's external SD card.
Tuxedo middleware also uses OBBs to mention C and C++ arrays, or typed data buffers. This probably (input needed from experts) is the oldest reference to OBBs used in a computer system.
When a vendor distributes software in an object binary form without any mention of its inner workings or code, it is called a 'proprietary OBB' or 'proprietary blob' or just binary blob. This practice is to protect the company's intellectual property, and probably keep a competitive edge (see: proprietary software). This also prevents hackers from improving the system or subverting it. As an example, Nvidia Tegra has such a 'proprietary OBB.'


List of AMD Ryzen processors

The AMD Ryzen family is an x86-64 microprocessor family from AMD, based on the Zen microarchitecture. The Ryzen lineup includes Ryzen 3, Ryzen 5, Ryzen 7, Ryzen 9, and Ryzen Threadripper with up to 64 cores. All consumer Ryzens have an unlocked multiplier and all support Simultaneous Multithreading (SMT) except earlier Zen/Zen+ based desktop Ryzen 3 and Zen/Zen+/Zen 2 (Lucienne excluded) based mobile Ryzen 3.
Desktop processors.
Zen 2 based.
APUs.
Although AMD has retired the term "APU", it is traditionally used to describe a CPU with an integrated GPU. Systems using a Ryzen APU will not need a dedicated or discrete graphics card.


TaskMAX


MOVE (command)


Alec Muffett

Alec David Edward Muffett (born April 22, 1968) is an Anglo-American internet-security evangelist, architect, and software engineer. He is principally known for his work on Crack, the original Unix password cracker, and for the CrackLib password-integrity testing library; he is also active in the open-source software community.
Tech career.
Muffett joined Sun Microsystems in 1992, working initially as a systems administrator. He rose “through the ranks” to become the Principal Engineer for Security, a position which he held until he was retrenched, with many others, in 2009 (shortly before Oracle acquired Sun). While at Sun he was one of the researchers who worked on the factorization of the 512 bit RSA Challenge Number; RSA-155 was successfully factorized in August 1999. Muffett also worked on the Sun MD5 hash algorithm, which was introduced in Solaris 9 update 2. The new algorithm drew on Muffett's work in pluggable crypt, and it is now implemented in many different languages, for example Python.
The algorithm uses the complete text of the famous soliloquy from Shakespeare's "Hamlet": "To be or not to be, that is the question..." as the constant data. Muffett justified the choice of this text because "it exposes more programmers to Shakespeare, which has got to be a good thing". After a sabbatical year, Muffett began to work on The Mine! Project, as lead developer. He subsequently became a director and consultant at Green Lane Security; he also consults for Surevine. He was a director of the Open Rights Group from October 2011 until January 2020.
Muffett has blogged professionally, for Computer World at Unscrewing Security and personally at Dropsafe, and has numerous publications to his credit, besides being a frequent presenter at technical conferences.
Muffett is a co-inventor (with Darren Moffat and Casper Dik) of the patent "Method and apparatus for implementing a pluggable password obscuring mechanism", United States Patent 7,249,260, Issued June 12, 2003.
In 2015 Muffett was named as one of the Top 6 influential security thinkers by SC Magazine. In October of that year he coauthored RFC 7686 "The ".onion" Special-Use Domain Name", with Jacob Applebaum.
More recently, Muffett assisted the New York Times with the creation of their own Tor onion site. Following that he created a temporary Onion Wikipedia site, accessible only over Tor, and assisted building further onion sites for
BBC News
and Brave
Previously, Muffett has worked as a software engineer for Facebook, leading the team which added end-to-end encryption to Facebook Messenger. and as Principal Engineer, Infrastructure Security at Deliveroo.
In July 2020 Muffett shared DoHoT (DNS over HTTPS over Tor) which tunnels DoH queries over Tor with a reasonable latency.
Criticism.
Muffett is active on Twitter
where he regularly comments on subjects such as end-to-end encryption.
Some have characterised some of Muffett's tweeting as
rude,
bullying,
or toxic discussion.
In December 2020 Muffett characterized the Facebook–Cambridge Analytica data scandal as a consequence of the
“somewhat-forced opening of Facebook's APIs to enable competition”,
while others say that it was Facebook's lax policy that allowed apps to access data from a user's friends by default.
In 2020 Muffett criticized the irony of a NYU political ad targeting research tool on the basis that it was architecturally similar to other, contentious privacy technologies.
Facebook attempted to shut the project down.


Bert Sutherland

William Robert Sutherland (May 10, 1936 – February 18, 2020) was an American computer scientist who was the longtime manager of three prominent research laboratories, including Sun Microsystems Laboratories (1992–1998), the Systems Science Laboratory at Xerox PARC (1975–1981), and the Computer Science Division of Bolt, Beranek and Newman, Inc. which helped develop the ARPANET.
In these roles, Sutherland participated in the creation of the personal computer, the technology of advanced microprocessors, the Smalltalk programming language, the Java programming language and the Internet.
Unlike traditional corporate research managers, Sutherland added individuals from fields like psychology, cognitive science, and anthropology to enhance the work of his technology staff. He also directed his scientists to take their research, like the Xerox Alto "personal" computer, outside of the laboratory to allow people to use it in a corporate setting and to observe their interaction with it.
In addition, Sutherland fostered a collaboration between the researchers at California Institute of Technology developing techniques of very large scale integrated circuits (VLSI) — his brother Ivan and Carver Mead — and Lynn Conway of his PARC staff. With PARC resources made available by Sutherland, Mead and Conway developed a textbook and university syllabus that helped expedite the development and distribution of a technology whose effect is now immeasurable.
Sutherland said that a research lab is primarily a teaching institution, "teaching whatever is new so that the new can become familiar, old, and used widely."
Sutherland was born in Hastings, Nebraska on May 10, 1936, to a father from New Zealand; his mother was from Scotland. The family moved to Wilmette, Illinois, then Scarsdale, New York, for his father's career. Bert Sutherland graduated from Scarsdale High School, then received his bachelor's degree in electrical engineering from Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute (RPI), and his master's degree and Ph.D. from Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT); his thesis advisor was Claude Shannon. During his military service in the United States Navy, he was awarded the Legion of Merit as a Carrier ASW plane commander. He was the older brother of Ivan Sutherland. Bert Sutherland died on February 18, 2020, aged 83.


Hanthana Linux (operating system)

Hanthana Linux is a computer operating system based on the Fedora distribution, distributed as free and open source software. Hanthana Linux is among the active Fedora remixes.
It is specially designed to cater to the needs of Sri Lankan computer users who are unable to access the Internet frequently, with many most-wanted applications built in.
Hanthana is developed by the Sri Lanka-based Hanthana Community.
History and development process.
Hanthana is a remix of the Fedora operating system. The original aim of the Hanthana team was to create an easy-to-use Linux desktop with as many useful applications preloaded, as downloading applications through Internet is not possible for many rural areas of Sri Lanka.
Hanthana's first release was on 19 September 2009. Since then, Hanthana community has released new versions of Hanthana every six months with commitment to support each release for eighteen months by providing security fixes, patches to critical bugs and minor updates to programs. Once a new Fedora version is released, after some time, the corresponding Hanthana
version will be released and it contains all the software updates up to the date of release.
Hanthana packages are based on packages from Fedora's: both distributions use RedHat's rpm package format and package management tools Yum (PackageKit).
Features.
Hanthana is composed of many software packages, of which the majority are distributed under a free software license, making an exception only for some proprietary hardware drivers. The main license used is the GNU General Public License (GNU GPL) which, along with the GNU Lesser General Public License (GNU LGPL), explicitly declares that users are free to run, copy, distribute, study, change, develop and improve the software. On the other hand, there is also proprietary software available that can run on Hanthana. Hanthana focuses on usability, security and stability. Hanthana also emphasizes accessibility and internationalization to reach as many people as possible. From the start UTF-8 is the default character encoding, which allows for support of a variety of non-Roman scripts.
Hanthana comes installed with a wide range of software that includes LibreOffice, Firefox, Pidgin, Transmission, GIMP, and several lightweight games (such as Sudoku and chess).
Installation.
Installation of Hanthana is generally performed with the Live DVD. Hanthana can be run directly from the DVD (albeit with a significant performance loss), allowing a user to "test-drive" the OS for hardware compatibility and driver support.
Users can download a disk image (.iso) of the DVD, which can then either be written to a physical medium (DVD), or optionally run directly from a hard drive (via UNetbootin or GRUB).
Following minimum hardware specifications will ensure your work on Hanthana easier and faster:
For text mode
recommended processor : 200 MHz Pentium Pro or faster
minimum memory (RAM): 256 MB
For graphical mode
recommended processor : 400 MHz Pentium Pro or faster
minimum memory (RAM): 640 MB
recommended memory (RAM): 1152 MB
Hard disk minimum free space of 15GB
A DVD ROM
Latest Version.
Hanthana Developer team has announced the release of Hanthana Linux 30 (Vishwa) ), a Fedora-based distribution on a 1.9 GB live DVD with a large number of applications, media codecs and custom artwork: "Hanthana Linux 28 (Kandula - Security Edition of Hanthana Linux pre-released) is released.
Hanthana Linux 28 (Kandula - Security Edition of Hanthana Linux), the latest release of Hanthana part of the Hanthana Linux project. In addition to the host of applications, the new release has the official LibreOffice guide provided by The Document Foundation added as well.
Please note there are various desktop editions including Gnome 3,Gnome Sugar,KDE,LXDE,XFCE.


Whiskey Lake (microprocessor)

Whiskey Lake is Intel's codename for a family of third 14 nm generation Skylake low-power mobile processors. Intel announced Whiskey Lake on August 28, 2018.
List of Whiskey Lake CPUs.
Mobile processors.
TDP for these CPUs is 15 W, but is configurable.
Core i5-8365U and i7-8665U support Intel vPro Technology
Pentium Gold and Celeron CPUs lack AVX2 support.


COFF

The Common Object File Format (COFF) is a format for executable, object code, and shared library computer files used on Unix systems. It was introduced in Unix System V, replaced the previously used a.out format, and formed the basis for extended specifications such as XCOFF and ECOFF, before being largely replaced by ELF, introduced with SVR4.
COFF and its variants continue to be used on some Unix-like systems, on Microsoft Windows (Portable Executable), in UEFI environments and in some embedded development systems.
History.
The original Unix object file format a.out is unable to adequately support shared libraries, foreign format identification , or explicit address linkage . As development of Unix-like systems continued both inside and outside AT&T, different solutions to these and other issues emerged.
COFF was introduced in 1983, in AT&T's UNIX System V for non-VAX 32-bit platforms such as the 3B20. Improvements over the existing AT&T "a.out" format included arbitrary sections, explicit processor declarations, and explicit address linkage.
However, the COFF design was both too limited and incompletely specified: there was a limit on the maximum number of sections, a limit on the length of section names, included source files, and the symbolic debugging information was incapable of supporting real world languages such as C, much less newer languages like C++, or new processors. All real world implementations of COFF were necessarily violations of the standard as a result. This led to numerous COFF extensions. IBM used the XCOFF format in AIX; DEC, SGI and others used ECOFF; and numerous SysV ports and tool chains targeting embedded development each created their own, incompatible, variations.
With the release of SVR4, AT&T replaced COFF with ELF.
While extended versions of COFF continue to be used for some Unix-like platforms, primarily in embedded systems, perhaps the most widespread use of the COFF format today is in Microsoft's Portable Executable (PE) format. Developed for Windows NT, the PE format (sometimes written as PE/COFF) uses a COFF header for object files, and as a component of the PE header for executable files.
Features.
COFF's main improvement over "a.out" was the introduction of multiple named sections in the object file. Different object files could have different numbers and types of sections.
Symbolic debugging information.
The COFF symbolic debugging information consists of symbolic (string) names for program functions and variables, and line number information, used for setting breakpoints and tracing execution.
Symbolic names are stored in the COFF symbol table. Each symbol table entry includes a name, storage class, type, value and section number. Short names (8 characters or fewer) are stored directly in the symbol table; longer names are stored as an offset into the string table at the end of the COFF object.
Storage classes describe the type entity the symbol represents, and may include external variables (C_EXT), automatic (stack) variables (C_AUTO), register variables (C_REG), functions (C_FCN), and many others. The symbol type describes the interpretation of the symbol entity's value and includes values for all the C data types.
When compiled with appropriate options, a COFF object file will contain line number information for each possible break point in the text section of the object file. Line number information takes two forms: in the first, for each possible break point in the code, the line number table entry records the address and its matching line number. In the second form, the entry identifies a symbol table entry representing the start of a function, enabling a breakpoint to be set using the function's name.
Note that COFF was not capable of representing line numbers or debugging symbols for included source as with header files rendering the COFF debugging information virtually useless without incompatible extensions.
Relative virtual address.
When a COFF file is generated, it is not usually known where in memory it will be loaded. The virtual address where the first byte of the file will be loaded is called image base address. The rest of the file is not necessarily loaded in a contiguous block, but in different sections.
Relative virtual addresses (RVAs) are not to be confused with standard virtual addresses. A relative virtual address is the virtual address of an object from the file once it is loaded into memory, minus the base address of the file image. If the file were to be mapped literally from disk to memory, the RVA would be the same as that of the offset into the file, but this is actually quite unusual.
Note that the RVA term is only used with objects in the image file. Once loaded into memory, the image base address is added, and ordinary VAs are used.
Problems.
The COFF file header stores the date and time that the object file was created as a 32-bit binary integer, representing the number of seconds since the Unix epoch, 1 January 1970 00:00:00 UTC. Dates occurring after 19 January 2038 cannot be stored in this format.


Read (system call)

In modern POSIX compliant operating systems, a program that needs to access data from a file stored in a file system uses the read system call. The file is identified by a file descriptor that is normally obtained from a previous call to open. This system call reads in data in bytes, the number of which is specified by the caller, from the file and stores then into a buffer supplied by the calling process.
The read system call takes three arguments:
POSIX usage.
The read system call interface is standardized by the POSIX specification. Data from a file is read by calling the read function:
ssize_t read(int fd, void *buf, size_t count);
The value returned is the number of bytes read (zero indicates end of file) and the file position is advanced by this number. It is not an error if this number is smaller than the number of bytes requested; this may happen for example because fewer bytes are actually available right now (maybe because we were close to end-of-file, or because we are reading from a pipe, or from a terminal), or because the system call was interrupted by a signal.
Alternatively, -1 is returned when an error occurs, in such a case errno is set appropriately and further it is left unspecified whether the file position (if any) changes.


IBM PS/2 Note

The IBM PS/2 Note (stylized as PS/2 note or PS/note) is a series of notebooks from the PS/2 line by IBM. It was announced in March 1992, half a year prior to the release of the first ThinkPad, the IBM ThinkPad 700. The series was discontinued in 1994.
Background.
After the departure of Bob Lawten from IBM, the team at IBM had little development direction after the IBM PS/2 L40SX. James Cannavino pushed for the new notebook series, which fell behind schedule. The N45SL, N51SX and N51SLC were announced on the same day as the IBM PS/2 (color laptop) CL57SX. During this time there was a distinction between notebooks and laptops, where the former are A4 sized and the latter are larger.
The notebooks were modeled after the PS/55 Note which was released by IBM in Japan in April 1991.
Models.
PS/2 Laptop.
Heavy desktop replacement line.
PS/2 note.
Mainstream line with 7-row layout only.
N33SX.
The "PS/2 Model N33 SX" (also known as "PS/2 note N33 sx") was the first notebook-sized computer from IBM which was announced in 1991. This model was based on the AT-bus and had between 2 or 6MB RAM. It has a 9.5" 16-greyscale VGA LCD, a 1.44Mb floppy and expansion ports and a 40Mb or 80Mb HDD, and weighs .
N51SX.
The "PS/2 Model N51SX" (or "PS/2 Note N51SX") was a low-end mainstream notebook, which contained a slower version of the typical 386SX found in other notebooks. The N51SX was delayed for months.
N51SLC.
The "PS/2 Model N51SLC" (or "PS/2 Note N51SLC") was based on IBM their 368SLC. This model has a PS/55 note sibling.
PS/note.
Entry-level line.
N45SL.
The "PS/Note N45SL" was priced at $2,045 and contained a 25MHz 386SL. It had 2MB RAM and a 80 or 120MB HDD and was equipped with only 6-row keyboard without dedicated navigation block; the similar layout has a low-end ThinkPad 300 laptop.
"PC Mag" considered the display a disappointment, but noted its good design and performance.
It was manufactured by Zenith Data Systems.
182/E82/N82.
The "PS/Note 182" and "PS/Note E82" was equipped with 80386SL CPU, "PS/Note N82" was equipped with 80386SX and released in 1992. This line has a 7-row keyboard layout and similar to next-year PS/note 425 model case (but with gray case color and without TrackPoint).
Model 425/425C.
The "PS/Note 425/425C" are identical to the ThinkPad 350/350C.
Accessories.
Communication cartridge
Communication cartridge II
External floppy
External numpad
Discontinuation.
In March 1994, it was reported that IBM would consolidate the PS/Note series into the ThinkPad 300 series. In 1994, the ThinkPad 360 series was released.


Grml

Grml is a Linux distribution based on Debian. It is designed to run mainly from a live CD, but can be made to run from a USB flash drive. Grml aims to be well-suited to system administrators (sysadmin) and other users of text tools. It includes an X Window System server and a few minimalist window managers such as wmii, Fluxbox, and openbox to use the graphical programs like Mozilla Firefox which are included in the distribution.
Features.
In addition to the sysadmin tools, security and network related software, data recovery and forensic tools, editors, shells, and many text tools included with grml, the distribution focuses on accessibility by providing kernel support for speakup and software like brltty, emacspeak, and flite.
Another feature Grml is its use of the Z shell (zsh) as the default login shell. The customized zsh configuration used by Grml can be retrieved from the project's repository.
Since early 2009, Grml ISOs come with MirOS bsd4grml, a minimal MirOS BSD flavour. After the release of Grml “Lackdose-Allergie” 2009.05, daily ISOs and later releases, such as Grml “Hello-Wien” 2009.10, use the manifold-boot technology to provide ISOs that can be written directly to a USB stick, CF/SD card, hard disc, etc. and are immediately bootable. Since Grml 2010.12 the ISOLINUX loader is used in all cases by default, providing a consistent menu.
While Grml is primarily designed as a live CD image, it can also be run as a desktop operating system through its "persistent home" feature.


Nokia E63

The Nokia E63 is a budget business smartphone, announced on 12 November 2008 and released later that year. It is based on Symbian's S60 platform. Although it looks very similar to Nokia E71, its fascia is made of plastic and not aluminium as in E71 (both have plastic chassis). Also its keypad is made from a different material and is laid out slightly different from that of the E71. Many of the specifications are identical to the E71 except for the lack of GPS and infrared, lesser RAM, lack of HSDPA and lower-quality camera with a fixed-focus lens. The E63 does come with the ability to use the camera flash as a light, which is not present in the E71. It also has a standard 3.5 mm audio jack where the E71 uses a 2.52 mm jack. The E63 retailed for about 199 euros before taxes. The device was discontinued in late 2016 in favour of Nokia's Lumia Lineup.
Specifications:
Current firmware version: 510.21.010 released on 28 March 2011
Operating frequency:


PlayStation 2 sales

, Sony's PlayStation 2 is the best-selling video game console of all time.
Launch.
The console sold slightly more than 500,000 units on its first day, in October 2000. This marked an industry record for the fastest-selling game console. Sony planned to ship 100,000 units per week for the remainder of the year, for a total of 1.3 million by the end of the year. It planned to ship three million units by the end of the March of the following year.
Further years.
Sony had shipped 10 million consoles to North America by May 2002.Lifetime sales reached 30 million by August 2002. Holiday 2002 sales were strong at 8.5 million units in November and December. This was up 24% from the previous year.
Sony expected shipments in 2003 to slip from previous years. Sony projected shipments of 20 million, versus 22.5 the year before. Sony had shipped 60 million units as of September 2003. 26.4 million units went to North America, 19.4 million to Europe, and the "vast majority" of the remaining 14.2 went to Japan.
In 2004, although the console took a hit in holiday 2003 sales from the previous year, lifetime sales reached 70 million.
On November 29, 2005, the PlayStation 2 became the fastest game console to reach 100 million units shipped, accomplishing the feat within 5 years and 9 months from its launch. This achievement occurred faster than its predecessor, the PlayStation, which took 9 years and 6 months to reach the same benchmark.
In Europe, the PS2 sold 6 million units in 2006 and 3.8 million in 2007, according to estimates by EA. In 2007, the PS2 sold 3.97 million units in the US according to the NPD Group and 816,419 units in Japan according to Enterbrain.
In 2008, the PS2 sold 480,664 units in Japan, according to Enterbrain. As of October 2008, the system had sold 21 million units in Japan.
Over 150 million units of PS2 hardware had been sold worldwide as of the end of 2010, although GameInformer noted that this was only for units sold to retail companies.
PlayStation 2 shipments in Japan ended on December 28, 2012. A week later, on January 4, 2013, Sony Computer Entertainment formally discontinued the console.
In its last week of availability in Japan (December 24 to December 30, 2012), the PlayStation 2 sold 2,078 units in the country - up from 928 units the week before. Remarkably, the PlayStation 2 managed to sell better in Japan that week than the Xbox 360 (1,986 units), as well as the Nintendo DS (704 units).
Lifetime sales.
The PS2 has sold 158 million units worldwide as of January, 2013 In Europe, it has sold 55.28 million units as of January, 2013 according to Sony Computer Entertainment Europe, while in North America, it has sold 53.65 million units as of January, 2013. In Japan, the PS2 has sold 23.18 million units as of January, 2013, according to "Famitsu"/Enterbrain.


Donna Benjamin

Donna Benjamin is an Australian open source community contributor, commentator and advocate. She has served in board positions with community organisations including Open Source Industry Australia, Drupal Association and the Ada Initiative, and was the lead organiser of the 2008 linux.conf.au conference in Melbourne. She regularly runs the Community Leadership Summit X at LCA (clsXlca), a workshop focussing on community development in open source projects. In 2011 she organised a crowdfunding campaign called "Digitise The Dawn", which successfully raised funds to digitise The Dawn, an early feminist journal published in Australia between 1888 and 1905.
In 2012 she received the Rusty Wrench Award from Linux Australia in recognition of her contributions. She runs a micro-business called Creative Contingencies, which specialises in the Drupal content management platform.


Chord (concurrency)

A chord is a concurrency construct available in Polyphonic C♯ and Cω inspired by the join pattern of the join-calculus. A chord is a function body that is associated with multiple function headers and cannot execute until all function headers are called.
Synchronicity.
Cω defines two types of functions synchronous and asynchronous. A synchronous function acts like a standard function in most Object-Oriented Language, upon invocation the function body is executed and a return value may or may not be returned to the caller. An asynchronous function acts similar to a function that returns void except that it is guaranteed to return immediately with the execution being done in a separate thread.


IBMBIO.LDR


List of DOS commands

This article presents a list of commands used by DOS operating systems, especially as used on x86-based IBM PC compatibles (PCs). Other DOS operating systems are not part of the scope of this list.
In DOS, many standard system commands were provided for common tasks such as listing files on a disk or moving files. Some commands were built into the command interpreter, others existed as external commands on disk. Over the several generations of DOS, commands were added for the additional functions of the operating system. In the current Microsoft Windows operating system, a text-mode command prompt window, cmd.exe, can still be used.
Command processing.
The command interpreter for DOS runs when no application programs are running. When an application exits, if the transient portion of the command interpreter in memory was overwritten, DOS will reload it from disk. Some commands are internal—built into COMMAND.COM; others are external commands stored on disk. When the user types a line of text at the operating system command prompt, COMMAND.COM will parse the line and attempt to match a command name to a built-in command or to the name of an executable program file or batch file on disk. If no match is found, an error message is printed, and the command prompt is refreshed.
External commands were too large to keep in the command processor, or were less frequently used. Such utility programs would be stored on disk and loaded just like regular application programs but were distributed with the operating system. Copies of these utility command programs had to be on an accessible disk, either on the current drive or on the command path set in the command interpreter.
In the list below, commands that can accept more than one file name, or a filename including wildcards (* and ?), are said to accept a "filespec" (file specification) parameter. Commands that can accept only a single file name are said to accept a "filename" parameter. Additionally, command line switches, or other parameter strings, can be supplied on the command line. Spaces and symbols such as a "/" or a "-" may be used to allow the command processor to parse the command line into filenames, file specifications, and other options.
The command interpreter preserves the case of whatever parameters are passed to commands, but the command names themselves and file names are case-insensitive.
Many commands are the same across many DOS systems, but some differ in command syntax or name.
DOS commands.
A partial list of the most common commands for MS-DOS and IBM PC DOS follows below.
APPEND.
Sets the path to be searched for data files or displays the current search path.
The APPEND command is similar to the PATH command that tells DOS where to search for program files (files with a .COM, . EXE, or .BAT file name extension).
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 3.2 and later.
ASSIGN.
The command redirects requests for disk operations on one drive to a different drive. It can also display drive assignments or reset all drive letters to their original assignments.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 3 through 5 and IBM PC DOS releases 2 through 5.
ATTRIB.
Attrib changes or views the attributes of one or more files. It defaults to display the attributes of all files in the current directory. The file attributes available include read-only, archive, system, and hidden attributes. The command has the capability to process whole folders and subfolders of files and also process all files.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 3 and later.
BACKUP and RESTORE.
These are commands to backup and restore files from an external disk. These appeared in version 2, and continued to PC DOS 5 and MS-DOS 6 (PC DOS 7 had a deversioned check). In DOS 6, these were replaced by commercial programs (CPBACKUP, MSBACKUP), which allowed files to be restored to different locations.
BASIC and BASICA.
An implementation of the BASIC programming language for PCs. Implementing BASIC in this way was very common in operating systems on 8- and 16-bit machines made in the 1980s.
IBM computers had BASIC 1.1 in ROM, and IBM's versions of BASIC used code in this ROM-BASIC, which allowed for extra memory in the code area. BASICA last appeared in IBM PC DOS 5.02, and in OS/2 (2.0 and later), the version had ROM-BASIC moved into the program code.
Microsoft released GW-BASIC for machines with no ROM-BASIC. Some OEM releases had basic.com and basica.com as loaders for GW-BASIC.EXE.
BASIC was dropped after MS-DOS 4, and PC DOS 5.02. OS/2 (which uses PC DOS 5), has it, while MS-DOS 5 does not.
BREAK.
This command is used to instruct DOS to check whether the and keys have been pressed before carrying out a program request.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 2 and later.
CALL.
Starts a batch file from within another batch file and returns when that one ends.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 3.3 and later.
CD and CHDIR.
The CHDIR (or the alternative name CD) command either displays or changes the current working directory.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 2 and later.
CHCP.
The command either displays or changes the active code page used to display character glyphs in a console window. Similar functionality can be achieved with codice_1.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 3.3 and later.
CHKDSK.
CHKDSK verifies a storage volume (for example, a hard disk, disk partition or floppy disk) for file system integrity. The command has the ability to fix errors on a volume and recover information from defective disk sectors of a volume.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 1 and later.
CHOICE.
The CHOICE command is used in batch files to prompt the user to select one item from a set of single-character "choices". Choice was introduced as an external command with MS-DOS 6.0; Novell DOS 7 and PC DOS 7.0. Earlier versions of DR-DOS supported this function with the built-in "switch" command (for numeric choices) or by beginning a command with a question mark. This command was formerly called ync (yes-no-cancel).
CLS.
The CLS or CLRSCR command clears the terminal screen.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 2 and later.
COMMAND.
Start a new instance of the command interpreter.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 1 and later.
COMP.
Show differences between any two files, or any two sets of files.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 3.3 through 5 and IBM PC DOS releases 1 through 5.
COPY.
Makes copies of existing files.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 1 and later.
CTTY.
Defines the terminal device (for example, COM1) to use for input and output.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 2 and later.
DATE.
Displays the system date and prompts the user to enter a new date. Complements the TIME command.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 1 and later.
DBLSPACE.
A disk compression utility supplied with MS-DOS version 6.0 (released in 1993) and version 6.2.
DEBUG.
A very primitive assembler and disassembler.
DEFRAG.
The command has the ability to analyze the file fragmentation on a disk drive or to defragment a drive. This command is called DEFRAG in MS-DOS/PC DOS and diskopt in DR-DOS.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 6 and later.
DEL and ERASE.
DEL (or the alternative form ERASE) is used to delete one or more files.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 1 and later.
DELTREE.
Deletes a directory along with all of the files and subdirectories that it contains. Normally, it will ask for confirmation of the potentially dangerous action. Since the RD (RMDIR) command can not delete a directory if the directory is not empty (except in Windows NT & 10), the DELTREE command can be used to delete the whole directory.
The codice_2 command is included in certain versions of Microsoft Windows and MS-DOS operating systems. It is specifically available only in versions of MS-DOS 6.0 and higher, and in Microsoft Windows 9x. In Windows NT, the functionality provided exists but is handled by the command "rd" or "rmdir" which has slightly different syntax. This command is not present in Windows 7 and 8. In Windows 10, the command switch is RD /S or RMDIR /S.
DIR.
The DIR command displays the contents of a directory. The contents comprise the disk's volume label and serial number; one directory or filename per line, including the filename extension, the file size in bytes, and the date and time the file was last modified; and the total number of files listed, their cumulative size, and the free space (in bytes) remaining on the disk. The command is one of the few commands that exist from the first versions of DOS. The command can display files in subdirectories. The resulting directory listing can be sorted by various criteria and filenames can be displayed in a chosen format.
DISKCOMP.
A command for comparing the complete contents of a floppy disk to another one.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 3.2 and later and IBM PC DOS releases 1 and later.
DISKCOPY.
A command for copying the complete contents of a diskette to another diskette.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 2 and later.
DOSKEY.
A command that adds command history, macro functionality, and improved editing features to the command-line interpreter.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 5 and later.
DOSSIZE.
Displays how much memory various DOS components occupy.
DRVSPACE.
A disk compression utility supplied with MS-DOS version 6.22.
ECHO.
The ECHO command prints its own arguments back out to the DOS equivalent of the standard output stream. (Hence the name, ECHO) Usually, this means directly to the screen, but the output of "echo" can be redirected, like any other command, to files or devices. Often used in batch files to print text out to the user.
Another important use of the echo command is to toggle echoing of commands on and off in batch files. Traditionally batch files begin with the codice_3 statement. This says to the interpreter that echoing of commands should be off during the whole execution of the batch file, thus resulting in a "tidier" output (the codice_4 symbol declares that this particular command (echo off) should also be executed without echo.)
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 2 and later.
EDIT.
EDIT is a full-screen text editor, included with MS-DOS versions 5 and 6, OS/2 and Windows NT to 4.0 The corresponding program in Windows 95 and later, and Windows 2000 and later is Edit v2.0. PC DOS 6 and later use the DOS "E" Editor and DR-DOS used "editor" up to version 7.
EDLIN.
DOS line-editor. It can be used with a script file, like debug, this makes it of some use even today. The absence of a console editor in MS-DOS/PC DOS 1–4 created an after-market for third-party editors.
In DOS 5, an extra command "?" was added to give the user much-needed help.
DOS 6 was the last version to contain EDLIN; for MS-DOS 6, it's on the supplemental disks, while PC DOS 6 had it in the base install. Windows NT 32-bit, and OS/2 have Edlin.
EMM386.
The EMM386 command enables or disables EMM386 expanded-memory support on a computer with an 80386 or higher processor.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 5 and later.
ERASE.
See: DEL and ERASE
EXE2BIN.
Converts an executable (.exe) file into a binary file with the extension .com, which is a memory image of the program.
The size of the resident code and data sections combined in the input .exe file must be less than 64 KB. The file must also have no stack segment.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 1 through 5. It is available separately for version 6 on the Supplemental Disk.
EXIT.
Exits the current command processor. If the exit is used at the primary command, it has no effect unless in a DOS window under Microsoft Windows, in which case the window is closed and the user returns to the desktop.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 2 and later.
EXPAND.
The Microsoft File Expansion Utility is used to uncompress one or more compressed cabinet files (.CAB). The command dates back to 1990 and was supplied on floppy disc for MS-DOS versions 5 and later.
FAKEMOUS.
FAKEMOUS is an IBM PS/2 mouse utility used with AccessDOS. Is is included on the MS-DOS 6 Supplemental Disk.
AccessDOS assists persons with disabilities.
FASTHELP.
Provides information for MS-DOS commands.
FASTOPEN.
A command that provides accelerated access to frequently-used files and directories.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 3.3 and later.
FC.
Show differences between any two files, or any two sets of files.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 2 and later – primarily non-IBM releases.
FDISK.
The FDISK command manipulates hard disk partition tables. The name derives from IBM's habit of calling hard drives "fixed disks". FDISK has the ability to display information about, create, and delete DOS partitions or logical DOS drive. It can also install a standard master boot record on the hard drive.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 3.2 and later and IBM PC DOS 2.0 releases and later.
FIND.
The FIND command is a filter to find lines in the input data stream that contain or don't contain a specified string and send these to the output data stream. It may also be used as a pipe.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 2 and later.
FINDSTR.
The FINDSTR command is a GREP-oriented "FIND"-like utility. Among its uses is the logical-OR lacking in FIND.
FOR.
Iteration: repeats a command for each out of a specified set of files.
The FOR loop can be used to parse a file or the output of a command.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 2 and later.
FORMAT.
Deletes the FAT entries and the root directory of the drive/partition, and reformats it for MS-DOS. In most cases, this should only be used on floppy drives or other removable media. This command can potentially erase everything on a computer's drive.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 1 and later.
GOTO.
The "Goto" command transfers execution to a specified label. Labels are specified at the beginning of a line, with a colon ().
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 2 and later.
Used in Batch files.
GRAFTABL.
The GRAFTABL command enables the display of an extended character set in graphics mode.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 3 through 5.
GRAPHICS.
A TSR program to enable the sending of graphical screen dump to printer by pressing <Print Screen>.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 3.2 and later and IBM PC DOS releases 2 and later.
HELP.
Gives help about DOS commands.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 5 thru Windows XP. Full-screen command help is available in MS-DOS versions 6 and later. Beginning with Windows XP, the command processor "DOS" offers builtin-help for commands by using "/?" (e.g. COPY /?)
IF.
IF is a conditional statement, that allows branching of the program execution. It evaluates the specified condition, and only if it is true, then it executes the remainder of the command line. Otherwise, it skips the remainder of the line and continues with next command line.
Used in Batch files.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 2 and later.
INTERSVR and INTERLNK.
In MS-DOS; filelink in DR-DOS.
Network PCs using a null modem cable or LapLink cable. The server-side version of InterLnk, it also immobilizes the machine it's running on as it is an active app (As opposed to a TSR app) which must be running for any transfer to take place. DR-DOS' filelink is executed on both the client and server.
New in PC DOS 5.02, MS-DOS 6.0.
JOIN.
The JOIN command attaches a drive letter to a specified directory on another drive. The opposite can be achieved via the SUBST command.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 3 through 5. It is available separately for versions 6.2 and later on the Supplemental Disk.
KEYB.
The KEYB command is used to select a keyboard layout.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 3.3 and later.
From DOS 3.0 through 3.21, there are instead per-country commands, namely KEYBFR, KEYBGR, KEYBIT, KEYBSP and KEYBUK.
LABEL.
Changes the label on a logical drive, such as a hard disk partition or a floppy disk.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 3.1 and later and IBM PC DOS releases 3 and later.
LINK4.
Microsoft 8086 Object Linker
LOADFIX.
Loads a program above the first 64K of memory, and runs the program. The command is available in MS-DOS versions 5 and later. It is included only in MS-DOS/PC DOS. DR-DOS used memmax, which opened or closed lower, upper, and video memory access, to block the lower 64K of memory.
LOADHIGH and LH.
A command that loads a program into the upper memory area.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 5 and later.
It is called "hiload" in DR-DOS.
MD or MKDIR.
Makes a new directory. The parent of the directory specified will be created if it does not already exist.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 2 and later.
MEM.
Displays memory usage. It is capable of displaying program size and status, memory in use, and internal drivers. It is an internal command.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 4 and later.
MEMMAKER.
Starting with version 6, MS-DOS included the external program MemMaker which was used to free system memory (especially Conventional memory) by automatically reconfiguring the AUTOEXEC.BAT and CONFIG.SYS files. This was usually done by moving TSR programs and device drivers to the upper memory. The whole process required two system restarts. Before the first restart the user was asked whether to enable EMS Memory, since use of expanded memory required a reserved 64KiB region in upper memory. The first restart inserted the SIZER.EXE program which gauged the memory needed by each TSR or Driver. MemMaker would then calculate the optimal Driver and TSR placement in upper memory and modify the AUTOEXEC.BAT and CONFIG.SYS accordingly, and reboot the second time.
MEMMAKER.EXE and SIZER.EXE were developed for Microsoft by Helix Software Company and were eliminated starting in MS-DOS 7 (Windows 95); however, they could be obtained from Microsoft's FTP server as part of the OLDDOS.EXE package, alongside other tools.
PC DOS uses another program called RamBoost to optimize memory, working either with PC DOS's HIMEM/EMM386 or a third-party memory manager. RamBoost was licensed to IBM by Central Point Software.
MIRROR.
The MIRROR command saves disk storage information that can be used to recover accidentally erased files.
The command is available in MS-DOS version 5. It is available separately for versions 6.2 and later on Supplemental Disk.
MODE.
Configures system devices. Changes graphics modes, adjusts keyboard settings, prepares code pages, and sets up port redirection.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 3.2 and later and IBM PC DOS releases 1 and later.
MORE.
The MORE command paginates text, so that one can view files containing more than one screen of text. "More" may also be used as a filter. While viewing MORE text, the return key displays the next line, the space bar displays the next page.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 2 and later.
MOVE.
Moves files or renames directories.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 6 and later.
DR-DOS used a separate command for renaming directories, codice_5.
MSAV.
A command that scans the computer for known viruses.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 6 and later.
MSBACKUP.
The MSBACKUP command is used to backup or restore one or more files from one disk to another.
The "New York Times" said that "MSBACKUP" "is much better and faster than the old BACKUP command used in earlier versions of DOS, but it does lack some of the advanced features found in backup software packages that are sold separately. There is another offering, named MWBACKUP, that is GUI-oriented. It was introduced for Windows for Workgroups (3.11).
The MSBACKUP command is available in MS-DOS versions 6 and later.
MSCDEX.
MSCDEX is a driver executable which allows DOS programs to recognize, read, and control CD-ROMs.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 6 and later.
MSD.
The MSD command provides detailed technical information about the computer's hardware and software. MSD was new in MS-DOS 6; the PC DOS version of this command is QCONFIG. The command appeared first in Word2, and then in Windows 3.10.
MSHERC.
The MSHERC.COM (also QBHERC.COM) was a TSR (Terminate and Stay Resident) graphics driver supplied with Microsoft QuickC, QuickBASIC, and the C Compiler, to allow use of the Hercules adapter high-resolution graphics capability (720 x 348, 2 colors). See https://www.pcjs.org/pubs/pc/reference/microsoft/kb/Q44273/.
NLSFUNC.
Loads extended Nationalization and Localization Support from COUNTRY.SYS, and changed the codepage of drivers and system modules resident in RAM.
In later versions of DR-DOS 6, NLSFUNC relocated itself into the HiMem area, thereby freeing a portion of the nearly invaluable lower 640KiB that constituted the ”conventional” memory available to software.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 3.3 and later.
PATH.
Displays or sets a search path for executable files.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 2 and later.
PAUSE.
Suspends processing of a batch program and displays the message 'Press any key to continue. . .', if not given other text to display.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 1 and later.
PING.
Allows the user to test the availability of a network connection to a specified host. Hostnames are usually resolved to IP addresses.
It is not included in many DOS versions; typically ones with network stacks will have it as a diagnostic tool.
POWER.
The POWER command is used to turn power management on and off, report the status of power management, and set levels of power conservation. It is an external command implemented as POWER.EXE.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 6 and later.
PRINT.
The PRINT command adds or removes files in the print queue. This command was introduced in MS-DOS version 2. Before that there was no built-in support for background printing files. The user would usually use the copy command to copy files to LPT1.
PROMPT.
The PROMPT command allows the user to change the prompt in the command screen. The default prompt is $p (i.e. prompt $p), which displays the drive and current path as the prompt, but can be changed to anything. 'Prompt $d', displays the current system date as the prompt. Type 'prompt /?' in the cmd screen for help on this function.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 2 and later and IBM PC DOS releases 2.1 and later.
PS.
A utility inspired by the UNIX/XENIX ps command. It also provides a full-screen mode, similar to the top utility on UNIX systems.
QBASIC.
An integrated development environment and BASIC interpreter.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 5 and later.
RD or RMDIR.
Remove a directory (delete a directory); by default the directories must be empty of files for the command to succeed.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 2 and later.
The deltree command in some versions of MS-DOS and all versions of Windows 9x removes non-empty directories.
RECOVER.
A primitive filesystem error recovery utility included in MS-DOS / IBM PC DOS.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 2 through 5.
REM.
Remark (comment) command, normally used within a batch file, and for DR-DOS, PC/MS-DOS 6 and above, in CONFIG.SYS. This command is processed by the command processor. Thus, its output can be redirected to create a zero-byte file. REM is useful in logged sessions or screen-captures. One might add comments by way of labels, usually starting with double-colon (::). These are not processed by the command processor.
REN.
The REN command renames a file. Unlike the codice_6 command, this command cannot be used to rename subdirectories, or rename files across drives. Mass renames can be accomplished by the use of the wildcards characters asterisk (*) and question mark (?).
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 1 and later.
REPLACE.
A command that is used to replace one or more existing computer files or add new files to a target directory.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 3.2 and later.
RESTORE.
See: BACKUP and RESTORE
SCANDISK.
Disk diagnostic utility. Scandisk was a replacement for the codice_7 utility, starting with MS-DOS version 6.2 and later. Its primary advantages over codice_7 is that it is more reliable and has the ability to run a surface scan which finds and marks bad clusters on the disk. It also provided mouse point-and-click TUI, allowing for interactive session to complement command-line batch run.
codice_7 had surface scan and bad cluster detection functionality included, and was used again on Windows NT-based operating systems.
SELECT.
The SELECT command formats a disk and installs country-specific information and keyboard codes.
It was initially only available with IBM PC DOS. The version included with PC DOS 3.0 and 3.1 is hard-coded to transfer the operating system from A: to B:, while from PC DOS 3.2 onward you can specify the source and destination, and can be used to install DOS to the harddisk.
The version included with MS-DOS 4 and PC-DOS 4 is no longer a simple command-line utility, but a full-fledged installer.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 3.3 and 4 and IBM PC DOS releases 3 through 4.
This command is no longer included in DOS Version 5 and later, where it has been replaced by SETUP.
SET.
Sets environment variables.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 2 and later.
cmd.exe in Windows NT 2000, 4DOS, 4OS2, 4NT, and a number of third-party solutions allow direct entry of environment variables from the command prompt. From at least Windows 2000, the codice_10 command allows for the evaluation of strings into variables, thus providing "inter alia" a means of performing integer arithmetic.
SETUP.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 5 and later.
This command does a computer setup. With all computers running DOS versions 5 and
later, it runs the computer setup, such as Windows 95 setup and Windows 98 setup.
SETVER.
SetVer is a TSR program designed to return a different value to the version of DOS that is running. This allows programs that look for a specific version of DOS to run under a different DOS.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 5 and later.
SHARE.
Installs support for file sharing and locking capabilities.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 3 and later.
SHIFT.
The SHIFT command increases number of replaceable parameters to more than the standard ten for use in batch files.
This is done by changing the position of replaceable parameters. It replaces each of the replacement parameters with the subsequent one (e.g. with , with , etc.).
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 2 and later.
SIZER.
The external command SIZER.EXE is not intended to be started directly from the command prompt. Is used by MemMaker during the memory-optimization process.
SMARTDRV.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 6 and later.
SORT.
A filter to sort lines in the input data stream and send them to the output data stream. Similar to the Unix command codice_11. Handles files up to 64k. This sort is always case insensitive.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 2 and later.
SUBST.
A utility to map a subdirectory to a drive letter. The opposite can be achieved via the JOIN command.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 3.1 and later.
SYS.
A utility to make a volume bootable. Sys rewrites the Volume Boot Code (the first sector of the partition that SYS is acting on) so that the code, when executed, will look for IO.SYS. SYS also copies the core DOS system files, IO.SYS, MSDOS.SYS, and COMMAND.COM, to the volume. SYS does "not" rewrite the Master Boot Record, contrary to widely held belief.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 1 and later.
TELNET.
The Telnet Client is a tool for developers and administrators to help manage and test network connectivity.
TIME.
Display the system time and waits for the user to enter a new time. Complements the DATE command.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 1 and later.
TITLE.
Enables a user to change the title of their MS-DOS window.
TREE.
It is an external command, graphically displays the path of each directory and sub-directories on the specified drive.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 3.2 and later and IBM PC DOS releases 2 and later.
TRUENAME.
Internal command that expands the name of a file, directory, or drive, and display its absolute pathname as the result. It will expand relative pathnames, SUBST drives, and JOIN directories, to find the actual directory.
For example, in DOS 7.1, if the current directory is C:\WINDOWS\SYSTEM, then
 TRUENAME ..\WIN.INI
will display
 C:\WINDOWS\WIN.INI
The argument does not need to refer to an existing file or directory: TRUENAME will output the absolute pathname as if it did. Also TRUENAME does not search in the PATH.<br>
For example, in DOS 5, if the current directory is C:\TEMP, then codice_12 will display C:\TEMP\COMMAND.COM (which does not exist), not C:\DOS\COMMAND.COM (which does and is in the PATH).
This command displays the UNC pathnames of mapped network or local CD drives. This command is an undocumented DOS command. The help switch "/?" defines it as a "Reserved command name". It is available in MS-DOS version 5.00 and later, including the DOS 7 and 8 in Windows 95/98/ME. The C library function codice_13 performs this function. The Microsoft Windows NT command processors do not support this command, including the versions of command.com for NT.
TYPE.
Displays a file. The more command is frequently used in conjunction with this command, e.g. type "long-text-file" | more. TYPE can be used to concatenate files (type file1 file2 > file3); however this won't work for large files—use copy command instead.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 1 and later.
UNDELETE.
Restores file previously deleted with del. By default all recoverable files in the working directory are restored; options are used to change this behavior. If the MS-DOS mirror TSR program is used, then deletion tracking files are created and can be used by undelete.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 5 and later.
UNFORMAT.
The UNFORMAT command is used to undo the effects of formatting a disk.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 5 and later.
VER.
An internal DOS command, that reports the DOS version presently running, and since MS-DOS 5, whether DOS is loaded high.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 2 and later.
VERIFY.
Enables or disables the feature to determine if files have been correctly written to disk. If no parameter is provided, the command will display the current setting.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 2 and later.
VOL.
An internal command that displays the disk volume label and serial number.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 2 and later.
VSAFE.
A TSR program that continuously monitors the computer for viruses.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 6 and later.
XCOPY.
Copy entire directory trees. Xcopy is a version of the copy command that can move files and directories from one location to another.
XCOPY usage and attributes can be obtained by typing "XCOPY /?" in the DOS Command line.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 3.2 and later.
External links.
There are several guides to DOS commands available that are licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License:


PlayStation Classic

The PlayStation Classic is a dedicated video game console by Sony Interactive Entertainment that emulates games originally released on its 1994 PlayStation console. It was announced in September 2018 at the Tokyo Game Show, and released on December 3, 2018, the 24th anniversary of the release of the original. The console has been compared to competitor Nintendo's prior releases of the NES Classic Edition and Super NES Classic Edition mini consoles. Despite this, the console received mixed reviews from critics, with criticism for its weak game library, use of the original controller, use of PAL versions and high price tag; though the console's design did attract praise.
Specifications.
The PlayStation Classic ships with two replica PlayStation controllers (the original model without the analog sticks), an HDMI cable, and a USB Micro-A to standard USB-A cable. An AC adapter for the console is sold separately. The console weighs about and is about in size, approximately 80% smaller in volume than the original PlayStation and 45% smaller in width and length. It includes ports for both controllers, HDMI output, and power via USB. The controller's cords measure approximately long. It cannot use PlayStation memory cards. Internally, the console uses a MediaTek MT8167a Quad A35 system on a chip with four central processing cores clocked at @ 1.5 GHz and a Power VR GE8300 graphics processing unit. It includes 16 GB of eMMC flash storage and 1 GB of DDR3 memory.
The Classic uses the ReARMed branch of the free and open source emulator PCSX to play its games.
Games.
The PlayStation Classic comes preloaded with 20 games, running off the open source emulator, PCSX ReARMed. Five games were revealed when the console was announced, and the full roster was revealed a month later. Some games vary between regions. The device does not interface with the PlayStation Network, and games will not be added post-launch. Each game can be suspended in a save state by pressing the console's "reset" button. Nine games use the PAL release (favored in most European countries) regardless of the console's release platform, which means they run at a slower framerate of 50 Hz as opposed to the NTSC standard of 60 Hz (favored in North American, Japan, and additional Asian countries), and may respond slower than players from NTSC regions would expect.
The North American version of the dedicated console received a Mature rating from the ESRB due to the inclusion of "Grand Theft Auto", "Metal Gear Solid" and "Resident Evil: Director's Cut". Likewise, the European version received an 18 rating from the PEGI group; European package also displays German USK 16 (PEGI ratings are not formally recognized in Germany) and Australian MA 15+ ratings as it is also sold in Australia (another PAL territory). The system box recommends the system for ages 6 and up, and some individual titles such as "Rayman" have suitable ratings for that age group, but the console provides access to all 20 games, with no parental controls or settings to restrict available games.
Release.
Reception.
The PlayStation Classic received generally mixed reviews from critics overall, with criticism being directed at the game line up, lack of popular titles, the use of PAL versions for certain titles, the use of the original controller, which lacked analog sticks, and the $100 price tag, although its design received praise. Most reviewers criticised the exclusion of many popular PlayStation titles, such as "Wipeout", "Mortal Kombat 3", "Crash Bandicoot", "Parappa the Rapper", and "Gran Turismo". Tristan Ogilive of IGN criticised the console's lack of popular titles, the basic user-interface and pointing out that "almost half of the games included in the PlayStation Classic's library are the PAL versions" which caused consistency problems in NTSC regions. Sam Loveridge of GamesRadar+ praised the look of the console, but criticized the selection of games, the weak presentation of the games due to the black bars on the side of the screen, and the short length of the controller cables.
The lower frame rates during gameplay, poor emulation quality, and the user interface were also criticized. John Linneman of Eurogamer's Digital Foundry also gave it a similarly mixed review, noting the console's subpar emulation, poor image quality, lack of enhancements and use of PAL game releases on North American units, though he did praise the user interface. Chris Carter of Destructoid shares a similar opinion, citing that the emulation on the classic console is at times, "worse than the original", but praised the instant-state recovery and the size of the internal storage. Joe Juba of Game Informer lamented on the lack of analog sticks on the controller, along with the lacking selection of titles and a barebones menu, which makes the system a good fit only for an "extremely specific audience". However, "Twisted Metal", "Jumping Flash!", "Tekken 3", "Final Fantasy VII", and "Metal Gear Solid" were hailed as the best of the genre.
In response to the console's perceived weak game selection, many users have modded the console so any amount of game ROM's can be added to the console, essentially turning the console into a dedicated emulator, similar to software such as "Retropie".
Sales.
The PlayStation Classic had sold 120,000 units during its first week in Japan. Its sales were noticeably low in the U.S. (within the first four weeks over Christmas) with many retailers and websites, such as Amazon, giving discounts for the console as low as in several major U.S. retailers. Reasons for the price drop at this time suggested a combination of overproduction of the unit, over-pricing on the original cost of the unit, or disinterest in the unit, which had been critically panned by journalists. Just over two months after its release, the console was further discounted by Walmart to . Another price drop to , and in all U.S., European and U.K. retailers respectively followed in June 2019, as part of PlayStation's "Days of Play" sale events. In July 2019, Best Buy and Amazon began selling the console as low as .


Unikernel

A unikernel is a specialised, single address space machine image constructed by using library operating systems. A developer selects, from a modular stack, the minimal set of libraries which correspond to the OS constructs required for the application to run. These libraries are then compiled with the application and configuration code to build sealed, fixed-purpose images (unikernels) which run directly on a hypervisor or hardware without an intervening OS such as Linux or Windows.
The first such systems were Exokernel and Nemesis in the late 1990s.
Design.
In a library operating system, protection boundaries are pushed to the lowest hardware layers, resulting in:
The library OS architecture has several advantages and disadvantages compared with conventional OS designs. One of the advantages is that since there is only a single address space, there is no need for repeated privilege transitions to move data between user space and kernel space. Therefore, a library OS can provide improved performance by allowing direct access to hardware without having to transition between user mode and kernel mode (on a traditional kernel this transition consists of a single TRAP instruction and is not the same as a context switch). Performance gains may be realised by elimination of the need to copy data between user space and kernel space, although this is also possible with Zero-copy device drivers in traditional operating systems.
A disadvantage is that because there is no separation, trying to run multiple applications side by side in a library OS, but with strong resource isolation, can become complex. In addition, device drivers are required for the specific hardware the library OS runs on. Since hardware is rapidly changing this creates the burden of regularly rewriting drivers to remain up to date.
OS virtualization can overcome some of these drawbacks on commodity hardware. A modern hypervisor provides virtual machines with CPU time and strongly isolated virtual devices. A library OS running as a virtual machine only needs to implement drivers for these stable virtual hardware devices and can depend on the hypervisor to drive the real physical hardware. However, protocol libraries are still needed to replace the services of a traditional operating system. Creating these protocol libraries is where the bulk of the work lies when implementing a modern library OS. Additionally, reliance on a hypervisor may reintroduce performance overheads when switching between the unikernel and hypervisor, and when passing data to and from hypervisor virtual devices.
By reducing the amount of code deployed, unikernels necessarily reduce the likely attack surface and therefore have improved security properties.
Unikernels have been shown to be around 4% the size of the equivalent code bases using a traditional OS.
Due to the nature of their construction, it is possible to perform whole-system optimisation across device drivers and application logic, thus improving on the specialisation.
Unikernels have been regularly shown to boot extremely quickly, in time to respond to incoming requests before the requests time-out.
Unikernels lend themselves to creating systems that follow the service-oriented or microservices software architectures.
The high degree of specialisation means that unikernels are unsuitable for the kind of general purpose, multi-user computing that traditional operating systems are used for. Adding additional functionality or altering a compiled unikernel is generally not possible and instead the approach is to compile and deploy a new unikernel with the desired changes.


Nitix

Nitix (properly pronounced /nitiks/) was a retail Linux distribution, produced in Canada. The software is developed by Net Integration Technologies, Inc., which has been acquired by IBM as of January 2008 and currently operates as IBM Lotus Foundations.
History.
Nitix, originally named "Weaver" was first created in September 1997 as a Linux-based server that required minimal configuration. Primarily built into pre-configured hardware platforms named Net Integrators, Nitix first became a standalone operating system capable of deployment on third-party hardware in January 2004. Programming of the earliest versions of Weaver were done primarily by Avery Pennarun and Dave Coombs, while students of the University of Waterloo.
Nitix has claimed that it is the only Linux-based OS that has autonomic features. In June 2004, IBM Press' released a new book "Autonomic Computing," which mentions Nitix:
"Nitix is one of the first companies to deliver on the promise of autonomic technology with a complete set of intelligent networking solutions for the SMB Market."
In June 2005, Nitix Virtual Server was released, which allowed for the hosting of applications on its system. The architecture for the application services on Nitix allowed for applications to run in a virtual server environment, completely separated from the controlled OS environment. The Virtual Server is an RPM based filesystem which incorporates Yellow dog Updater, Modified as an application retrieval tool. Simultaneously Net Integration Technologies began sponsoring a "Ready For Nitix" program that encouraged independent software vendors to certify applications under Nitix. Also in June 2005, Nitix began to support NS3 (Scalable Services Structure), which allows for the centralized user management across multiple servers, as well as DNS propagation.
In March 2007, NitixBlue was released as a new "flavor" of Nitix. NitixBlue supports the nearly hands-free installation of IBM Lotus Domino, touting no administrative headaches and complete automation of maintenance tasks. This is considered to be a large step for small and medium businesses, which previously did not have a realistic stepping stone towards enterprise-level functionality provided by IBM Lotus Domino.
In January 2008, IBM announced to acquire Net Integration Technologies and now functions as a separate entity under the Lotus Software Group.
Features.
Nitix includes an automated installation process in which it installs itself onto the hard disks, performs the proper partitioning and system setup. During this process it also performs a network scan, where it determines whether or not it should enable its DHCP server, finds its gateway and internet access, and automatically configures its firewall. For modifications to the installation process, a keyboard and monitor can be attached to the server and changes can be made on the console. Further modifications can be made through the web interface.
The web interface is designed such that no other access is needed for configuration modifications in most cases. From this interface, you can set up users, teams, and file access; email, collaboration through ExchangeIt!, antivirus and antispam; web sites, FTP and rsync services, NFS, Samba, AppleTalk; and more.
Nitix offers multi-layer security protection based on anti-virus technology from Kaspersky and anti-spam technology from Vircom and Engate.
Nitix's claim to fame is its proprietary Intelligent Disk Backup (idb) that automatically backs up files, emails and databases incrementally as often as every 15 minutes. Backups are made to a hard drive located in the system that can be rotated to provide off-site redundancy. Restoring files can be done individually, by user or by entire system through its web-based interface. ( U.S. Patent No. 7,165,154 )
Nitix includes many open source applications that provide a lot of its functionality.
IBM Lotus Foundations Start.
On January 18, 2008, IBM announced its intention to purchase Net Integrations Technologies. IBM has merged both products into an offering known as IBM Lotus Foundations. Lotus Foundations is offered as a Software-only application server platform as well as a hardware appliance known as Net Integrator. As of July 2, 2008, IBM has officially started offering Lotus Foundations as opposed to Nitix Blue .
IBM Lotus Foundations products were withdrawn from marketing on March 14, 2013 and are no longer available for purchase.
Support for IBM Lotus Foundations products will be withdrawn on September 30, 2014.
Versions.
Nitix has been discontinued in favour of IBM Lotus Foundations Start. Nitix is currently sold through a distribution channel as either software-only, or on a Net Integrator. Software-only versions are "Nitix SB", "Nitix SE", and "Nitix PE", which come on 1 CD, and are geared towards partners that complement their own third party hardware systems with Nitix. The differences between these are the number of Client Access Licenses included, and software assurance prices. Nitix can also be pre-configured on hardware systems named "Micro", "Micro 2", "Mark I" and "Mark II". Hardware selection depends on number of hard drives and form factor.
Distribution.
Nitix has been discontinued for sale through all distribution channels in favor of the latest Lotus Foundations Start . Support will be active.
Value added resellers can purchase Lotus Foundations and resell it to end users as part of their complete solution, usually involving other IT services or custom made applications.