Electricity sector in El Salvador

El Salvador is the largest producer of geothermal energy in Central America. Except for hydroelectric generation, which is almost totally owned and operated by the public company CEL ("Comisión Hidroeléctrica del Río Lempa"), the rest of the generation capacity is in private hands. With demand expected to grow at a rate of 5% in the coming years, the Government's 2007 National Energy Strategy identified several hydroelectric and geothermal projects as the best option to meet demand in the future and to diversify the country's energy mix.
This would also reduce the dependence on traditional thermal sources and, with that, the vulnerability to high oil prices that the country started to face in 2005. El Salvador is also one of the countries included in the SIEPAC project, which will integrate the electricity network of the country with the rest of the Central American region.
Electricity supply and demand.
Installed capacity.
El Salvador is the country with the highest geothermal energy production in Central America. Total installed capacity in 2006 was 1,312 MW, of which 52% was thermal, 36% hydroelectric and 12% geothermal. The largest share of generation capacity (65%) was in private hands. In terms of evolution, installed capacity has almost doubled in the last 20 years and increased by 200 MW since the year 2000.
Gross electricity generation in 2006 was 5,195 GWh, of which 40% came from traditional thermal sources, 38% from hydroelectricity, 20% from geothermal sources, and 2% from biomass.
Demand.
In 2006, total electricity sold in El Salvador was 4,794 GWh, which corresponds to 702kWh annual per capita consumption. The residential sector accounted for 33% of the consumption, with the unregulated market making up for 11% of the electricity consumed.
Maximum demand in the wholesale electricity market was 881 MW, 6.3% higher than the figure for 2005.
Demand versus supply.
Increase in maximum demand since the year 2000 has been matched by similar increases in installed capacity. Average annual increase in maximum demand has been 2.6%, while average increase in installed capacity has been 2.9%, with increase percentages above 6% for both measures for the year 2006. The nominal reserve margin for the system in 2004 was 36%. Although high, this number does not capture the vulnerability of the generation system to particular unit outages, especially those related to hydroelectric capacity and availability.
As for the future, demand is expected to grow at an annual rate of 5% in the coming years. Peak demand is expected to grow from 833 MW in 2005 to 1,030 MW in 2010. Planning simulations indicate that the risk of power rationing is unlikely to occur until 2010 even if there is a delay in the commissioning of the SIEPAC interconnection. The 2007 National Energy Strategy identifies the geothermal and hydroelectric projects more likely to be executed in order to close the gap between demand and supply in the future and to meet the objective of diversifying the country's energy mix.
Access to electricity.
In 1995, only 65.5% of the population in El Salvador had access to electricity. Currently, the electrification index is 83.4%. This coverage is higher than that in Guatemala (83.1%), Honduras (71.2%) and Nicaragua (55%) but lower than the one for Costa Rica (98.3%) and Panamá (87.1%) and also below the 94.6 average for LAC. Electrification in most major urban centers is estimated to be above 97%, whereas rural coverage is around 72%. The Ministry of Economy's plans seek to reach a 93% rural electrification index by 2009. This ambitious plan includes the expansion of the distribution network as well as the installation of photovoltaic solar panels in areas that are isolated from the network.
Service quality.
Interruption frequency and duration.
In 2005, the average number of interruptions per subscriber was 12, while duration of interruptions per subscriber was 16 hours. This is very close to the weighted averages for LAC, which are 13 interruptions and 14 hours respectively.
Distribution and transmission losses.
In 2006, distribution losses in El Salvador were 12.4%, only higher than those of Costa Rica (9.4%) and below the regional Central American average of 16.2%. On the other hand, transmission losses were as low as 1.7% for the same year.
Responsibilities in the electricity sector.
Policy and regulation.
The regulatory entities for the electricity sector in El Salvador are:
In 2006, the President created the National Energy Council (CNE), which has the role of analyzing El Salvador's energy situation as well as the Government proposals, recommending the inclusion of new actions and strategies. The CNE seeks to contribute to a shift in generation towards renewable energy and to modify consumption patterns toward the efficient use of energy.
The Transactions Unit (UT) is the private company in charge of administering the wholesale electricity market, being in charge of system dispatch and performing clearing-house functions. UT is also responsible for the operation of the transmission system.
Generation.
In 2006, there were 11 generation companies in El Salvador. Of the 22 generating plants, 18 were in private hands. The only public company with a stake in generation is CEL ("Comisión Hidroeléctrica del Río Lempa"), which owns 97% of the hydroelectric capacity. The number and type of plants operated by each company is as follows:
"Source": CEPAL 2007
Transmission.
In El Salvador, one government-owned company, Etesal ("Empresa Transmisora de El Salvador"), which was constituted in 1999 after the restructuring of CEL ("Comisión Ejecutiva Hidroeléctrica del Río Lempa"), is responsible for the maintenance and expansion of the transmission system.
Distribution.
In El Salvador, there are five distribution companies. The market share for each of them in 2006 was:
CAESS, CLESA, EEO ("Empresa Eléctrica de Oriente") and Deusem ("Distribuidora Eléctrica de Oriente") are controlled by AES Corporation.
Renewable energy resources.
The 2007 National Energy Policy supports the diversification and increase of energy sources, mainly through renewable energy such as hydroelectricity, geothermal, solar, wind power and biofuels (as well as mineral coal and natural gas). Besides hydroelectricity and geothermal energy, the government foresees the addition of 50 MW of renewable generation in the next 10 years in the form of wind power, solar power, biomass and mini-hydroelectric plants.
In November 2007, El Salvador approved the Fiscal Incentives Law for the Promotion of Renewable Energy. This new legal framework includes incentives such as a 10-year tax exemption for projects below 10 MW of generation capacity. A new System for the Promotion of Renewable Energy (SIFER) contemplates the creation of a Revolving Fund for the Promotion of Renewable Energy (FOFER) that would provide soft loans and guarantees and assist in the financing of feasibility studies for new projects.
Hydroelectricity.
Currently, hydroelectric plants account only for 36% of the electricity produced in El Salvador. The public company CEL ("Comisión Hidroeléctrica del Río Lempa") owns and operates 97% of the capacity. The four hydroelectric plants in El Salvador are: 5 de Noviembre (81.4 MW), Guajoyo (15MW), Cerrón Grande (135 MW), and 15 de Septiembre (156.3 MW), all of them on the Lempa River.
In this sector, the projects currently underway are:
This expansion of the hydroelectric capacity would add 351 MW to the system in the next 5 years, a 76% increase in current capacity. In addition, if the bi-national projects El Tigre (in the Lempa River) and El Jobo and Piedra de Toro (in the Paz River) with Honduras and Guatemala were carried out, 488 MW of additional capacity would be added to the generation system.
Wind.
El Salvador's wind potential is currently being studied by "Comisión Hidroeléctrica del Río Lempa" (CEL) and the Finnish Meteorological Institute (FMI).
Solar.
A solar map of the country is also under development.
Geothermal.
Currently, there are two geothermal facilities in operation in El Salvador, the 95 MW Ahuachapan, and the 66 MW Berlin plant. Majority state-owned power company LaGeo, formerly Gesal, operates the two plants. LaGeo is currently expanding the two existing geothermal plants, as well as conducting a feasibility study for a third plant, Cuyanausul. It is expected that the three projects add 64 MW of installed electric generation capacity by 2007.
The 2007 National Energy Strategy determines that potential geothermal capacity in El Salvador is about 450 MW. Expansion plans could result in 183 MW additional capacity in the period 2006-2014 (a 121% increase in the next 7 years), with projects to be developed in Ahuachapán (25 MW), Berlín (50 MW), San Vicente (54 MW) and Chinameca (54 MW).
History of the electricity sector.
Early history.
Until the mid-1990s, the power sector in Salvador operated through the government owned "Comisión Hidroeléctrica del Río Lempa" (CEL), which provided generation, transmission and distribution services. The electricity sector restructuring that led to the unbundling of electricity generation, transmission and distribution and the horizontal division of generation and distribution into several companies was carried out in the period 1996-2000. The Electricity Law (Legislative decree No.843) and its secondary legislation were enacted in 1996 and 1997 respectively through initiatives led by the Electrical Energy Directorate (DEE) within the Ministry of Economy (MINEC). The General Superintendence for Electricity and Telecommunications (SIGET) was created as part of the reform and assigned the responsibility of applying the sector laws and monitoring compliance with them.
The electricity Law in El Salvador affords a high degree of liberty to market agents. Article 8 explicitly authorizes vertical integration in generation, transmission, distribution and supply. The only limitation consists of prohibiting generation, distribution and supply companies from owning shares in Etesal ("Empresa Transmisora de El Salvador, S.A. de C.V."), the transmission company that resulted from the restructuring of CEL. Such an allowance, together with the organization of a price-based spot market, is surprising in a small system with few operators.
21st century developments.
The remuneration of generators in the spot market did not generate interest from private producers to obtain high returns and therefore install new capacity. As a result, the Government was concerned with the possibility that a lack of new generation capacity could lead both to higher spot prices and higher tariffs, lower reserve margins and eventually lead to a supply crisis in which it could be forced to invest in the sector. In order to address this problem, in 2003 and 2004, the Government instituted rules for allowing competitively bid long-term contract prices to be reflected in consumer tariffs and empowered the regulator to shift to a cost-based market if evidence of market manipulation emerged.
In July 2005, as a result of the high international oil prices, the government created the National Emergency Committee to Address High Oil Prices in an attempt to analyze and promote measures to minimize impacts. This Committee promoted certain specific actions such as the spreading out working schedules to reduce vehicle traffic. Less than one year after the creation of the Committee, the necessity to broaden its scope of action was acknowledged, which led to the creation, in July 2006, of the National Energy Council (CNE). The CNE will propose, manage and contribute to the agencies in charge of approving energy strategies that participate in the country's socio-economic development in harmony with the environment.
In May 2007, the Salvadoran government produced its National Energy Policy, whose main objectives are: (i) ensuring proper, continuous, quality and reasonably priced energy supply; (ii) reduce vulnerability in energy provision through diversification of the country's energy sources; (iii) minimize environmental impacts; and (iv) increase energy services coverage to the population and to the economic sectors. The specific objectives and strategic lines of the National Energy Policy include: (i) diversification and increase of energy sources; (ii) expansion of coverage; (iii) promotion of market efficiency and establishment of clear and stable rules; (iii) promotion of energy efficiency; and (iv) support for energy integration.
Since November 2007 the Salvadoran government has been evaluating a Natural Gas law, since Natural Gas is not included nor regulated under the current Hydrocarbons Law. This move has been propitiated because of a new large-scale natural gas project being developed by Cutuco Energy Central America. This project will use Natural Gas to generate 525 MW, more than half of what is currently generated in El Salvador.
Regional integration, the SIEPAC project.
In 1995, after almost a decade of preliminary studies, the Central American governments, the government of Spain and the Inter-American Development Bank agreed to the execution of the SIEPAC project. This project, together with the Plan Puebla Panama aims at the electric integration of the region. Feasibility studies showed that the creation of a regional transmission system would be very positive for the region and lead to a reduction in electricity costs and to improvements in the continuity and reliability of supply. In 1996, the six countries (Panama, Honduras, Guatemala, Costa Rica, Nicaragua and El Salvador) signed the Framework Treaty for the Electricity Market in Central America.
The design of the Regional Electricity Market (MER) was done in 1997 and approved in 2000. MER is an additional market superimposed on the existing six national markets, with a regional regulation, in which the agents authorized by the Regional Operational Body (EOR) carry out international electricity transactions in the region. As for the infrastructure, EPR ("Empresa Propietaria de la Red S.A.") is in charge of the design, engineering, and construction of about 1,800 km of 230kV transmission lines. The project is expected to be operational by the end of 2008.
Tariffs and subsidies.
Tariffs.
Electricity prices are regulated by SIGET. They comprise generation, transmission, distribution, and supply components. In 2005, the average residential tariff in El Salvador was US$0.139 per kWh, which is above the US$0.105 per kWh weighted average for LAC. In contrast, the average industrial tariff for El Salvador, US$0.103 per kWh was below the US$0.107 per kWh average for LAC.
Electricity prices vary considerably from one distribution company to another. Small (high cost) consumers have high prices and larger (lower cost) consumers have lower prices. This is an indication that tariffs in El Salvador reflect costs better than those in other countries.
Subsidies.
For residential users with consumption levels below 100 kWh, 86% of the difference between the full tariff and the maximum prices established in November 1999 is subsidized. Those maximum prices are:
In 2006, according to the available data, 809,536 users (i.e. 60.6% of the clients connected the distribution network) were subsidized. Together, these consumers accounted for 10.6% of the total energy demand at the distribution level.
Investment and financing.
Expansion plan requirements include, in addition to generation additions, transmission investments (including 230kV lines that link with the SIEPAC
interconnection) and distribution investments, including rural electrification. Investment requirements for the period 2005-2009 were estimated as follows:
"Source": World Bank 2006
Public/private partnerships constitute the major source of financing for generation. They
include investments in geothermal facilities through La Geo and its strategic investor, which are likely to go ahead; other investments in this category include the Chaparral power plant ($143 million). It is also important to note that these estimates are just for investments required within El Salvador. They do not take into account financing required for the 300 MW of firm generation capacity assumed to be available from regional sources through the SIEPAC line.
Rural electrification.
The budgeted investment in rural electrification during 2004-2009 amounts to around US$100 million, financed as summarized in the following table:
"Source": World Bank 2006
Rural electrification projects are executed mainly through the Social Investment Fund for Local Development (FISDL), in operation since 1990. The FISDL has executed a large
number of projects totaling over US$400 million, although it has faced obstacles to achieve its goals, mainly due to a lack of secure financing.
One of the most ambitious projects for rural electrification will be carried out during the next 5 years in the North of the country through a co-investment project of the Government with the Millennium Challenge Account (MCA) in 94 municipalities. The goal of the project is to increase service coverage from the current 78% to 97% in 2012. Total investment required has been estimated at US$40 million. This project will be implemented through the Electricity and Telephone National
Investment Fund (FINET). According to the FINET Creating Law, resources for the
construction and improvement of electrical infrastructure will be granted through the auctioning of subsidies. For the allocation of funds to implement this rural electrification sub-activity, electricity distribution companies, authorized by the Electricity and Telecommunications Superintendence (SIGET) will be able to participate.
Summary of private participation in the electricity sector.
Until the mid-1990s, the power sector in Salvador operated through the government owned Comisión Hidroeléctrica del Río Lempa (CEL), which provided generation, transmission and distribution services. The electricity sector restructuring that led to the unbundling of electricity generation, transmission and distribution and the horizontal division of generation and distribution into several companies was carried out in the period 1996-2000.
In 2006, there were 11 generation companies in El Salvador, with 18 out of 22 generation plants in private hands and 97% of hydroelectric capacity owned by the public company CEL (Comisión Hidroeléctrica del Río Lempa). As for transmission, it is in the hands of one government-owned company, Etesal (Empresa Transmisora de El Salvador), while distribution is controlled by five privately owned companies.
Electricity and the environment.
Responsibility for the environment.
The Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources (MARN) is the institution in charge of the conservation, protection and sustainable use of the natural resources and the environment.
Greenhouse gas emissions.
OLADE (Latin American Energy Association) estimated that CO2 emissions from electricity production in 2003 were 1.57 million tons of CO2, which corresponds to 25% of total emissions from the energy sector.
CDM projects in electricity.
Currently (November 2007), there are three registered CDM projects in the electricity sector in El Salvador, with overall estimated emission reductions of 385,553 tCO2e per year. One of the projects is a [[landfill gas] project], another one a bagasse cogeneration project and the third one a geothermal plant project.
External assistance.
Inter-American Development Bank.
The [[Inter-American Development Bank]] (IDB) is currently providing technical assistance to El Salvador in several electricity-related initiatives:
External links.
Commercialization Companies.
[[Category:Electric power in El Salvador]]
[[Category:Electric power in Central America|El Salvador]]


Solar power in Mexico

Solar power in Mexico has the potential to produce vast amounts of energy. 70% of the country has an insolation of greater than 4.5 kWh/m2/day. Using 15% efficient photovoltaics, a square on each side in the state of Chihuahua or the Sonoran Desert (0.01% of Mexico) could supply all of Mexico's electricity.
History.
A law requiring 35% of electricity from renewable resources by 2024 and carbon emission reductions of 50% below 2000 levels by 2050 was introduced in 2012.
Combined with declining solar installation costs, it was estimated that the 2012 climate law would lead to 6 GW of solar capacity in Mexico by 2020.
At the Solar Power Mexico conference, it was said that PV electricity and solar thermal would comprise up to 5% of Mexico's energy by 2030 and up to 10% by 2050.
The first long term energy auction was held in 2015 with a second one in 2016. Solar PV was successful in both, securing 1,691 MW of the 2,085 MW auctioned in the first and 1573 MW of 3473 MW in the second auction.
In 2013, 22% of the installed electricity generation capacity in Mexico was from renewable sources.
The majority, 18.1% coming from hydroelectricity, 2.5% from wind power and 0.1% from solar PV.
In December 2013, the Mexican government passed a Constitutional Reform that effectively opened the energy sector to private investment, both for electricity generation and petroleum exploration and extraction.
The Reform's goal was to modernize the sector by optimizing the use of national resources and incentivizing renewable energy through clean energy certificates.
The Reform liberalized the electricity sector and brought forth a wholesale electricity market.
Long and medium term auctions are the main mechanisms used to incentivize capacity and energy growth. Clean energy certificates are created by the participation of renewables and are meant to support energy generated from low carbon emitting sources. A long term energy action secures a 15-year contract for energy and capacity supplied whereas medium term generates a 3-year contract.
Mexico was the second largest solar generator in Latin America in 2016, with 180 MW installed capacity and more than 500 MW under construction.
At a clean source auction that year, solar won 1,860 MW at an average price of $50.7 per MWh (ranging between $35 and $67).
The production was expected to be 4 TWh per year.
Other sources such as gas, hydro and geothermal received no awards, and wind power won a smaller share than solar.
As of 2017, thanks to the Long-Term Energy Auctions, solar PV energy is expected to increase to 6% in 2018 and 13% for 2019.
Production.
Historically, the main applications of solar energy technologies in Mexico have been for non-electric active solar system applications for space heating, water heating and drying crops. As in most countries, wind power development preceded solar power initially, due to the lower installation cost. Since solar power is not available during the night, and because wind power tends to be complementary to solar, a mix of both can be expected. Both require substantial storage to compensate for days with no wind and no sun. Batteries provide short-term storage, and pumped hydroelectricity provides longer-term storage.
Projects.
The Villanueva Solar plant is the largest in Mexico with 310 MW installed by mid-2018. When completed, it will be the largest in the Americas at 828 MW.
Another large installation, Don José Solar Farm was completed in May 2018 Initially at 238 MW, a 22 MW expansion project was immediately announced.
A 405 MWp (megawatt-peak) photovoltaic project in Puerto Libertad, Sonora was completed in December, 2018.
Originally planned to be 39 MW, the size was increased to allow generation of approximately 963 GWh (gigawatt-hours) of electricity per year.
A solar trough based 14 MW plant will use a combined cycle gas turbine of 478 MW to provide electricity to the city of Agua Prieta, Sonora. The World Bank has financed this project with US$50 million. A 450 MW concentrated photovoltaics plant is planned for Baja California.
Distributed Generation.
Currently, 98% of all distributed generation can be attributed to solar PV panels installed on rooftops or small businesses. This installed capacity has greatly increased from 3 kW in 2007 to 247.6 MW by the end of 2016. According to the Mexican Ministry of Energy (SENER) if this trend continues till 2018 the total installed capacity will surpass 527 MW, this is the goal set by the Mexico's Special Program for Energy Transition or PETE (Programa Especial de la Transición Energética)
Distributed energy in Mexico is classified as any system with a capacity below 500 kW. The National Association of Solar Energy (ANES from the Spanish acronym) reported approximately 21,600 interconnection permits for distributed solar in 2015. In March, 2017 the Energy Regulatory Commission (CRE) approved regulation that allows net metering for distributed energy generation.
Installed capacity.
(*) This forecast does not account for economic impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic.


HVDC Kingsnorth

HVDC Kingsnorth was a high-voltage direct-current (HVDC) transmission system connecting Kingsnorth in Kent to two sites in London. It was at one time the only application of the technology of high voltage direct current transmission for the supply of transformer stations in a city, and the first HVDC link to be embedded within an AC system, rather than interconnecting two asynchronous systems. It was also the first HVDC scheme to be equipped with self-tuning harmonic filters and to be controlled with a "Phase Locked Oscillator", a principle which subsequently became standard on all HVDC systems.
It was designed in the late 1960s and went into service in 1974. It ran from Kingsnorth power station as a 59 kilometers long bipolar (3-wire) underground cable. The positive pole operating at a voltage of +266 kV terminated at the converter station in Beddington near Croydon. The negative pole continued to run a further 26 kilometers at -266 kV line to a similar station at Willesden in North London.
There was also the possibility, if the converter station in Kingsnorth was out of service, to run the system as monopolar HVDC between the Beddington and Willesden stations. The HVDC Kingsnorth was one of the last HVDC schemes equipped with mercury vapour rectifiers, which were ARAG/4-valves designed by English Electric. Each converter station for 266 kV consisted of two six-pulse valve bridges for 132 kV switched in series, which were each fed via a star-star and a star-delta connected transformer.
Apart from the Nelson River Bipole 1 system in Canada, all later-built HVDC systems used thyristor valves. The Kingsnorth HVDC scheme could transfer a maximum power of 640 megawatts (320 megawatts per pole).
In 1981, one mercury arc valve at Willesden Static Inverter Plant, was replaced by a H200 thyristor valve, developed by English Electric.
The system described was shut down in 1986 or 1987 following system reinforcement on the network it was embedded in. However the capacitor banks located at Kingsorth were used for voltage control on the network. These were later removed from the system completely in the mid 1980s? (1990s?) as they contained PCB.


TECO Energy

TECO Energy Inc. is an energy-related holding company based in Tampa, Florida, and a subsidiary of Emera Incorporated. TECO Energy has several subsidiaries: Tampa Electric Company, which provides electricity to the Tampa Bay Area and parts of Central Florida; Peoples Gas Company, which provides natural gas throughout Florida; and TECO Services, which provides IT, HR, legal, facilities, and other services to current and former TECO subsidiaries.
History.
Tampa Electric began in 1899 to manage electric trolley systems in the city of Tampa. On September 4, 2015, Emera, a utility holding company based in Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada, announced the pending acquisition of TECO Energy. That purchase closed on July 1, 2016, and TECO Energy, Inc. is now a wholly owned subsidiary of Emera, Inc.
Environmental record.
In 2000, TECO Energy was fined $3.5 million for making changes to emissions producing facilities without installing new updated pollution controls. This led to the switch from coal to natural gas in one of its plants by 2004 and optimization of pollution controls in another. These changes were enacted to drastically cut emissions, notably sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide emissions.
TECO Energy completed a $330 million emissions control project in 2010, which its Big Bend Power Station one of the cleanest coal-fired power plants in the nation. The renovation reduced nitrogen oxide emissions at the plant by approximately 91 percent from levels recorded in 1998.
Since 1998, TECO has invested $1.2 billion in improvements to the company's systems, including the re-powering of the previously coal-fired Bayside Power Station to natural gas and the addition of pollution controls on a second, reducing
sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide emissions by more than 91 percent and carbon dioxide levels by 20 percent from 1998 levels.
On September 28, 2017, TECO announced it was adding 600 MW of solar to its electricity-producing portfolio.


THDC Institute of Hydropower Engineering and Technology

THDC Institute of Hydropower Engineering and Technology is an engineering college in Bhagirathipuram, Tehri, Uttarakhand. The institute was established in August 2011.
THDC-IHET has initiated the THDC-IHET Research and Development Center to promote renewable energy innovation by teams of scientists and engineers from the institute and any other institutes affiliated to UTU.
The institute has received the award for "Excellent Institute for Promoting Hydropower in Uttarakhand" in the second National Uttarakhand Education Summit & Awards 2015 by CMAI Association of India.
Campus.
The campus is in Bhagirathipuram, New Tehri and near the famous Tehri Dam, Uttarakhand. (The climate is cool throughout the year.)
The campus is in sprawling 40 acres of land, 14 km from New Tehri. THDC IHET on a 20 acre.
Establishment.
The institute was inaugurated by Sh. Sushilkumar Shinde, the then Minister of Power, in 2011.
Recognition.
All India Council for Technical Education accorded approval. The institute is affiliated with Uttarakhand Technical University, Dehradun.
Academic departments.
The institute offers regular B.Tech degree program in the following disciplines:
Admissions.
The Bachelor of Technology admissions were based on the AIEEE (All India Engineering Entrance Examination). The exam consists of three sections on Mathematics, Physics and Chemistry. However, from 2013, admission are through the JEE MAIN and ranks are given after considering 60% of the marks scored in the test and 40% in the class 12 Board examinations.
Activities.
FINE ARTS CLUB.
This club was formed in the year 2018.
SAE India THDC-IHET CLUB.
SAE India holds competitions every year for engineering students across the country.
IEEE club.
The IEEE's membership has long been composed of engineers and scientists. Allied professionals who are members include computer scientists, software developers, information technology professionals, physicists, and medical doctors, in addition to IEEE's electrical and electronics engineering core.
Escalade.
Escalade was the mega inter-collegiate cultural fest of THDC-IHET, initiated in 2013, till 2015. Escalade promises fun, entertainment, gaming, singing, dancing, and many more. The highlights of the mega event of THDC-IHET are:
CIESZYC.
CIESZYC is the mega inter-collegiate techno-cultural fest at THDC-IHET, initiated in 2018.


PacificLight

PacificLight is a Singapore-based power generator and electricity retailer. It runs an 800MW plant, operated by PacificLight Power Pte Ltd, which uses Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) as its primary fuel. In 2015, PacificLight generated 9% of Singapore’s total electricity needs.
PacificLight Energy Pte Ltd sells electricity to eligible consumers in Singapore, which includes manufacturing companies, shopping malls, SMEs, and small businesses such as coffee shops or retail outlets. Under the current government regulations, only non-residential customers with an average monthly electricity consumption of less than 2,000kWh are eligible. However, in 2018, the threshold will be reduced such that all Singapore electricity customers will be eligible to purchase electricity from a licensed retailer such as PacificLight Energy.
Description.
The S$1.2 billion Power Generation Facility located on Jurong Island, an established industrial area in the south-west area of Singapore, commenced operation in 2014.
The 800MW Power Generation Facility consists of two 400MW units, each comprising a Siemens SGT5-4000F combustion turbine and a Siemens steam turbine mounted on a single shaft, which operates in a combined cycle arrangement. The Combined Cycle Gas Turbine (CCGT) power plant is one of the most efficient power plants currently operating in Singapore and the first to be completely fuelled by Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG).
Shareholders.
PacificLight is owned 70:30 by FPM Power (Singapore) Ltd (HK) and PETRONAS International Corporation (Mauritius) Ltd.
FPM Power (Singapore) Ltd (HK) is a wholly owned subsidiary of FPM Power Holdings, a joint venture between First Pacific Company, a Hong Kong-based investment management and holding company, and Meralco PowerGen Corporation, a wholly owned subsidiary and power generation arm of Meralco.
PETRONAS International Corporation (Mauritius) Ltd, a wholly owned subsidiary of PETRONAS. PETRONAS is the national oil and gas company of Malaysia and is a fully integrated oil & gas corporation with operations along the hydrocarbon value chain in over 50 companies.
Clean Development Mechanism.
In October 2014, PacificLight’s 800MW power generation facility successfully registered as a Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) project making it the largest CDM project in Singapore. The generation facility is the only fossil fuel-based power project of the five Singapore registered CDM projects and demonstrates the company’s commitment to sustainability.


Puget Sound Energy

Puget Sound Energy (PSE) is an energy utility based in the U.S. state of Washington, providing the Puget Sound region with electrical power and natural gas. The utility serves electricity to more than 1.1 million customers in Island, King, Kitsap, Kittitas, Pierce, Skagit, Thurston, and Whatcom counties, and provides natural gas to 750,000 customers in King, Kittitas, Lewis, Pierce, Snohomish and Thurston counties. The company's electric and natural gas service area spans .
Facilities.
PSE's electric supplies include utility-owned resources as well as those under long-term contract, for a total capacity of 5,044 megawatts (MW).
While PSE-owned generating capacity is at 3,597 MW.
PSE owns coal, hydroelectric, natural gas and wind power-generating facilities, with more than 3,500 MW of capacity. In 2018, PSE's generation was 36% coal, 32% hydroelectric, 20% natural gas, and 10% wind derived. Less than one percent originated from other energy efficiency programs.
Coal accounted for 36% of PSE's electricity fuel mix in 2018. PSE's partial ownership of Eastern Montana's Colstrip Generating Station represents the single largest power-generating facility PSE owns, approximately 700 MW of generating capacity. In 2010, the Colstrip Generating station was the 8th largest greenhouse gas emitter among power plants in the United States.
Hydroelectricity generated 31% of PSE's power supply in 2016. The company operates three hydroelectric facilities:
Natural gas-fired power generation accounted for 22% of the utility's electricity fuel mix in 2016. The company operates these natural gas-fired facilities:
Wind power and other generation sources, such as biomass and landfill gas, account for 1% of the utility's electricity fuel mix. PSE owns and operates these wind-power facilities:
Coal-fired power is a major contributor to PSe's fuel mix at 36% of PSE's 2018 electricity generation sources, the largest share in 2018. The company owns a stake of the Colstrip Unit 3 coal power plant in eastern Montana.
A net-metering program allows residential and business customers to return extra renewable energy solar power to the grid. An additional approximately 1% per year of generation comes from—or actually is reduced by—state mandated I-937 energy efficiency programs, adding an average 25 additional "Negawatts" generation capacity per year.
For its natural gas service to customers, PSE purchases a portfolio of natural gas supplies originating in western Canada and the U.S. Rocky Mountain states.
History.
PSE was formed in 1997 when two of its largest ancestral companies – Puget Sound Power & Light Company and Washington Energy Company – merged.
In 2009 Puget Sound Energy was sold to foreign investors led by Macquarie Group, in a leveraged private equity buyout. Puget Holdings, the U.S. title of this group of long-term infrastructure investors, merged with Puget Energy, PSE's parent company to form the current business structure. Puget Energy is a holding company incorporated in the State of Washington. All of its operations are conducted through its utility subsidiary, PSE, which is regulated by Washington Utilities and Transportation Commission.
In 2018, Macquarie sold its ownership stake in PSE. PSE's current owners are Alberta Investment Management Corporation, British Columbia Investment Management Corporation, OMERS, and PGGM.
Rates and emissions.
Puget Sound Energy rates show a typical residential electrical bill (at 1000 kwh per month) of $102.56 and typical a gas bill (at 68 therms per month) of $86. In 2018, PSE reported total carbon-dioxide-equivalent emissions of 10,512,364 metric tons due to electricity operations and 4,989,403 metric tons due to natural gas operations, which equate to 9 and 6 metric tons per customer respectively. PSE figures emissions of 0.169 metric tons per user according to EPA GHG MRR Subpart DD.


Turbopump

A turbopump is a propellant pump with two main components: a rotodynamic pump and a driving gas turbine, usually both mounted on the same shaft, or sometimes geared together. The purpose of a turbopump is to produce a high-pressure fluid for feeding a combustion chamber or other use.
There are two types of turbopumps: a centrifugal pump, where the pumping is done by throwing fluid outward at high speed, or an axial-flow pump, where alternating rotating and static blades progressively raise the pressure of a fluid.
Axial-flow pumps have small diameters but give relatively modest pressure increases. Although multiple compression stages are needed, axial flow pumps work well with low-density fluids. Centrifugal pumps are far more powerful for high-density fluids but require large diameters for low-density fluids.
History.
Early development.
High-pressure pumps for larger missiles had been discussed by rocket pioneers such as Hermann Oberth. In mid-1935 Wernher von Braun initiated a fuel pump project at the southwest German firm "Klein, Schanzlin & Becker" that was experienced in building large fire-fighting pumps. The V-2 rocket design used hydrogen peroxide decomposed through a Walter steam generator to power the uncontrolled turbopump produced at the Heinkel plant at Jenbach, so V-2 turbopumps and combustion chamber were tested and matched to prevent the pump from overpressurizing the chamber. The first engine fired successfully in September, and on August 16, 1942, a trial rocket stopped in mid-air and crashed due to a failure in the turbopump. The first successful V-2 launch was on October 3, 1942.
Development from 1947 to 1949.
The principal engineer for turbopump development at Aerojet was George Bosco. During the second half of 1947, Bosco and his group learned about the pump work of others and made preliminary design studies. Aerojet representatives visited Ohio State University where Florant was working on hydrogen pumps, and consulted Dietrich Singelmann, a German pump expert at Wright Field. Bosco subsequently used Singelmann's data in designing Aerojet's first hydrogen pump.
By mid-1948, Aerojet had selected centrifugal pumps for both liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen. They obtained some German radial-vane pumps from the Navy and tested them during the second half of the year.
By the end of 1948, Aerojet had designed, built, and tested a liquid hydrogen pump (15 cm diameter). Initially, it used ball bearings that were run clean and dry, because the low temperature made conventional lubrication impractical. The pump was first operated at low speeds to allow its parts to cool down to operating temperature. When temperature gauges showed that liquid hydrogen had reached the pump, an attempt was made to accelerate from 5000 to 35 000 revolutions per minute. The pump failed and examination of the pieces pointed to a failure of the bearing, as well as the impeller. After some testing, super-precision bearings, lubricated by oil that was atomized and directed by a stream of gaseous nitrogen, were used. On the next run, the bearings worked satisfactorily but the stresses were too great for the brazed impeller and it flew apart. A new one was made by milling from a solid block of aluminum. The next two runs with the new pump were a great disappointment; the instruments showed no significant flow or pressure rise. The problem was traced to the exit diffuser of the pump, which was too small and insufficiently cooled during the cool-down cycle so that it limited the flow. This was corrected by adding vent holes in the pump housing; the vents were opened during cool down and closed when the pump was cold. With this fix, two additional runs were made in March 1949 and both were successful. Flow rate and pressure were found to be in approximate agreement with theoretical predictions. The maximum pressure was 26 atmospheres () and the flow was 0.25 kilogram per second.
After 1949.
The Space Shuttle main engine's turbopumps spun at over 30,000 rpm, delivering 150 lb (68 kg) of liquid hydrogen and 896 lb (406 kg) of liquid oxygen to the engine per second. The Electron Rocket's Rutherford became the first engine to use an electrically-driven turbopumps in flight in 2018.
Centrifugal turbopumps.
Most turbopumps are centrifugal - the fluid enters the pump near the axis and the rotor accelerates the fluid to high speed. The fluid then passes through a diffuser which is a progressively enlarging pipe, which permits recovery of the dynamic pressure. The diffuser turns the high kinetic energy into high pressures (hundreds of bars is not uncommon), and if the outlet backpressure is not too high, high flow rates can be achieved.
Axial turbopumps.
Axial turbopumps also exist. In this case the axle essentially has propellers attached to the shaft, and the fluid is forced by these parallel with the main axis of the pump. Generally, axial pumps tend to give much lower pressures than centrifugal pumps, and a few bars is not uncommon. They are, however, still useful – axial pumps are commonly used as "inducers" for centrifugal pumps, which raise the inlet pressure of the centrifugal pump enough to prevent excessive cavitation from occurring therein.
Complexities of centrifugal turbopumps.
Turbopumps have a reputation for being extremely hard to design to get optimal performance. Whereas a well engineered and debugged pump can manage 70–90% efficiency, figures less than half that are not uncommon. Low efficiency may be acceptable in some applications, but in rocketry this is a severe problem. Turbopumps in rockets are important and problematic enough that launch vehicles using one have been caustically described as a "turbopump with a rocket attached"–up to 55% of the total cost has been ascribed to this area.
Common problems include:
In addition, the precise shape of the rotor itself is critical.
Driving turbopumps.
Steam turbine-powered turbopumps are employed when there is a source of steam, e.g. the boilers of steam ships. Gas turbines are usually used when electricity or steam is not available and place or weight restrictions permit the use of more efficient sources of mechanical energy.
One of such cases are rocket engines, which need to pump fuel and oxidizer into their combustion chamber. This is necessary for large liquid rockets, since forcing the fluids or gases to flow by simple pressurizing of the tanks is often not feasible; the high pressure needed for the required flow rates would need strong and heavy tanks.
Ramjet motors are also usually fitted with turbopumps, the turbine being driven either directly by external freestream ram air or internally by airflow diverted from combustor entry. In both cases the turbine exhaust stream is dumped overboard.


Electricity sector in Russia

Russia is the fourth largest generator and consumer of electricity in the world.
Its 440 power stations have a combined installed generation capacity of 220 GW.
Russia has a single synchronous electrical grid encompassing much of the country. The Russian electric grid links over of power lines, of which are high voltage cables over 220 kV.
Electricity generation is based largely on gas (46%), coal (18%), hydro (18%), and nuclear (17%) power.
60% of thermal generation (gas and coal) is from combined heat and power plants.
Russia operates 31 nuclear power reactors in 10 locations, with an installed capacity of 21 GW.
Despite considerable geothermal, wind and wave resources, renewable energy production (other than hydro) accounts for less than one percent.
History.
Tsarist period.
The electric power industry first developed in Russia under the Tsarist regime. The industry was highly regulated particularly by the Ministry of Finance, the Ministry of Trade and Industry and the Ministry of Internal Affairs. This led to considerable delay as electrification was not made a priority in the process of industrialisation.
Provisional Government (1917).
The eight months of the provisional government laid the groundwork for a state-owned approach to electrification as part of their move towards a centrally planned economy. They set up the Central Economic Committee.
Soviets electrification.
Electrification was a key part of the Bolshevik political programme:
This led to the creation of the GOELRO plan () as the first-ever Soviet plan for national economic recovery and development. It was the prototype for subsequent Five-Year Plans drafted by Gosplan. GOELRO is the transliteration of the Russian abbreviation for "State Commission for Electrification of Russia" (Государственная комиссия по электрификации России).
Post Soviet development.
After the collapse of the Soviet Union Unified Energy System of Russia RAO UES was founded as state-owned (50%) company. From 1992 to 2008 it was the largest electric power holding company. Four energy companies - Novosibirskenergo, Tatenergo, Irkutskenergo and Bashenergo - managed to avoid incorporation into RAO UES.
Privatization and reform.
In 2002, the Russian government began reforming the power sector. The main goal was and remains upgrading the aging and outdated heating and electricity infrastructure. The restructuring involved the separation and privatization of the generation, transmission and sales companies. The grids were brought under regulatory supervision.
Power generation was divided up into seven wholesale generating companies (OGK) – including RusHydro, 14 territorial generating companies (TGK), independents and state-owned entities. OGKs contain power plants and specialize mainly in electric power generation. TGKs contain predominantly combined heat and power plants (CHPs).
The gradual liberalization of the wholesale electricity market, completed in January 2011, now allows producers to charge market prices. The transmission grid remains mostly under state control.
As a result of the reorganization, Inter RAO UES became a major generating company in Russia in the field of export and import of electric power. The total installed capacity of the power plants owned or managed by the company is around 18,000 MW. The company's main types of activities are generation of electric and thermal power, sales of electric and thermal power to consumers and export and import of electric power.
Post-reform developments.
Price increase followed the reform process, 3-4 times the margin set by regulatory authorities. In November 2011, then prime minister Vladimir Putin tasked the Ministry for Economic Development (Russia), the Ministry of Energy (Russia) and the 'Federal Tariffs Service' to draft a government resolution restricting the profitability of electric utilities. This "restricted the ability of electric utilities to make money from providing services other than supplying electricity"
As of 2013, Russia had no wholesale electricity market. The Ministry for Energy of Russia, concerned with price increases envisions a wholesale market under bi-lateral contracts between consumers and specific power plants. Inter RAO and Gazprom Energy Holding were lobbying for a different one.
Equipment producers.
Power Machines is the leading Russian equipment producer, with a share of over 50%. It unites production, supply, construction, maintenance and modernization of equipment for thermal, nuclear, hydraulic and gas turbine power plants. The following big international energy equipment holdings are well established and have joint ventures or their own production facilities in Russia: General Electric, Siemens, Alstom, ABB, Skoda Power, Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, Ansaldo Energia, and Areva.
Power companies.
Supply companies.
Largest supply companies:
Isolated energy systems.
Some parts of the country have limited connections to the Russian unified energy system, reducing the likelihood that new companies will enter the energy supply market by importing energy from neighboring energy systems. Those areas, defined as "non-price" zones, include Kaliningrad Oblast, the Komi Republic, Arkhangelsk Oblast, the south of the Sakha Republic, Primorsk Krai, Khabarovsk Krai, Amur Oblast, and the Jewish Autonomous Oblast.
Additionally, some parts of Russia are completely isolated from the unified energy system, including Kamchatka, Magadan Oblast, Sakhalin Oblast, Chukotka and Taimyr Autonomous Okrug, the western and central parts of the Sakha Republic, as well as many remote settlements across the country. Energy prices in "non-price" and isolated regions are exempt from liberalization and remain regulated.
Consumption.
In 2008 the end use of electricity was 4.3% (726 TWh) of the world total (16,819 TWh). In 2008 the gross production of electricity was 5.1% (1,038 TWh) of the world total (20,181 TWh).
Mode of production.
According to the IEA the Russian gross production of electricity was 1,038 TWh in 2008 and 930 TWh in 2004 giving the 4th top position among the world producers in 2008. Top ten countries produced 67% of electricity in 2008. The top producers were: 1) United States 21.5% 2) China 17.1% 3) Japan 5.3% 4) Russia 5.1% 5) India 4.1% 6) Canada 3.2% 7) Germany 3.1% 8) France 2.8% 9) Brazil 2.3% and 10) South Korea 2.2%. The rest of the world produced 33%.
Gas.
The share of natural gas fuelled electricity was 48% of the gross electricity production in 2008 in Russia (495 TWh / 1,038 TWh.
Coal and peat.
The share of coal and peat electricity was 19% of the gross electricity production in 2008 in Russia (187 TWh / 1,038 TWh).
Nuclear power.
In 2008 Russian federation was the 4th country by nuclear electricity production with 163 TWh (6% of the world total).
According to the IEA 15.7% of Russian domestic electricity was generated by nuclear power in 2008.
In 2009 Russia had in total 31 nuclear reactors and installed capacity in 2008 23 GW.
Nuclear reactor construction and export.
In 2006 Russia had exported nuclear reactors to Armenia, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Finland, Hungary, India, Iran, Lithuania, Slovak Republic and Ukraine. In Russia, the average construction time was in 1) 1965-1976 57 months and 2) 1977-1993 72–89 months, but the four plants that have been completed since then have taken around 180 months (15 years), due to increased opposition following the Chernobyl accident and the political changes after 1992.
Hydropower.
 hydroelectric power plants generated 167 TWh from a total capacity of 47 GW.
Russia is the 5th-largest producer of electricity from hydropower in the world, accounting for 5.1% of the world's hydroelectric generation.
The use of other renewable sources for electricity in 2008 was not significant in the Russian Federation, according to the statistics of the IEA in terms of electricity volume in 2008.
Electricity imports.
As of 2010, Russia imports 17.5% of its total electricity consumption, with about 90% originating from Kazakhstan and Georgia. Inter RAO has a monopoly on electricity imports in the country.
Electrical grid.
The "IPS/UPS" is a wide area synchronous transmission grid of some CIS countries with a common mode of operation and centralized supervisory control. It has an installed generation capacity of 300 gigawatts, and produces 1,200 terawatt-hours (TWh) per year for its 280 million customers. The system spans eight time zones.
Kyoto carbon allowances.
The revenues from Kyoto allowances via Joint Implementation projects sales can be significant – in the billions of euros in the cases of Russia. If a number of (relatively strict) criteria were filled JI projects could be implemented during the Kyoto protocol agreement, for which no international third-party checking or UN approval was needed. According to Transparency International a lack of regulation in carbon trading poses the risk of fraud. In 2009 it was not in all cases clear which government organisations had the authority to sell the surplus and how transparently and accountably such transfers of public wealth were carried out.


FS Class E.554


Ogami Lighthouse

Ogami Lighthouse is a lighthouse located on Ogami Island off the coast of Nagasaki Prefecture in southern Japan. It is notably the first photovoltaically powered lighthouse in the world and was instrumental in demonstrating the viability of photovoltaics in 1966.


Charles Fritts

Charles Fritts (1850 – 1903) was the American inventor credited with creating the first working Selenium Cell in 1883.
The world's first rooftop solar array, using Fritts' selenium cells, was installed in 1884 on a New York City rooftop.
Fritts coated the semiconductor material selenium with an extremely thin layer of gold. The resulting cells had a conversion electrical efficiency of only about 1% owing to the properties of selenium, which in combination with the material's high cost prevented the use of such cells for energy supply. Selenium cells found other applications however, for example as light sensors for exposure timing in photo cameras, where they were common well into the 1960s.
Solar cells later became practical for power uses after Russell Ohl's 1941 development of silicon p/n junction cells that reached efficiencies above 5% by the 1950s/1960s.
By 2006, the best silicon solar cells were over 40% efficient, with industrial average over 17%.


MidAmerican Energy Company

MidAmerican Energy Company is an energy company based in Des Moines, Iowa. Its service area includes almost two-thirds of Iowa, as well as portions of Illinois, South Dakota, and Nebraska. Its territory is wholly encompassed by the territory of the Midcontinent Independent System Operator. Major cities in MidAmerican Energy's service territory are Des Moines, Sioux City, Sioux Falls, Council Bluffs, Waterloo, Iowa City, and the Quad Cities.
MidAmerican Energy Company is a subsidiary of Berkshire Hathaway Energy.
History.
MidAmerican Energy was formed in 1995 by the merger of the Iowa-Illinois Gas and Electric Company, the main electric and gas provider for southeastern Iowa, with Midwest Resources, the main power provider for central and western Iowa. Midwest Resources in turn, was formed in 1990 by the merger of Midwest Energy and Iowa Resources. Midwest Energy was the holding company for Iowa Public Service company (IPS), the main power provider for northwestern Iowa, while Iowa Resources was the holding company for Iowa Power and Light Company, the main power provider for central and southwestern Iowa.
By 2017, the company had 760,000 electric customers and over 740,000 natural gas customers.
Walter Scott, Jr. Energy Center.
MidAmerican Energy is the developer and operator of the Walter Scott, Jr. Energy Center, a four-unit coal-fired power plant based in Council Bluffs. It produces more than 1,600 megawatts of electricity.
Renewable energy.
In addition to traditional power plants, MidAmerican Energy began investing in green energy
generation in 2004. As of March 2014, approximately 2,285 megawatts, or nearly 30 percent, of MidAmerican Energy’s total owned generation capacity came from energy generated by the company’s 1,267 wind turbines. In May 2013, MidAmerican Energy announced plans to invest up to $1.9 billion to expand its wind generation fleet and add up to 1,050 megawatts of wind generation in Iowa by year-end 2015. Siemens Wind Power, the manufacturer of the turbines, states that at the time (December 2013) this was the largest single order of onshore wind power turbines that any company had ever received. Components for the turbines are manufactured at two different sites in Iowa and Kansas, and all turbines are to be sited in Iowa. Once the expansion is complete, approximately 3,335 megawatts, or approximately 39 percent, of MidAmerican Energy’s total owned generation capacity will come from wind-powered generation from 1,715 wind turbines. MidAmerican Energy projects that wind power will supply one third of its energy generation by 2020. As of 2016, MAE operates 2 GW of SWP turbines and 1 GW GE Wind. In June 2016 MAE signed up for 2 GW in Iowa (Wind XI) supplied by Vestas in Colorado, estimated at $2.2 billion. On July 26, 2016, MAE agreed to supply power to Facebook, Microsoft and Google datacenters in Iowa from Wind XI.
In May 2018, MidAmerican Energy announced a new large-scale wind energy project called “Wind XII.” The project consists of 591 megawatts worth of energy created by wind in Iowa. Wind XII will make MidAmerican the first investor-owned electric utility in the United States to generate renewable energy equal to 100% of its customers usage each year.
Hiring of veterans.
MidAmerican Energy won the "Military Friendly Employer Award" in 2017 for its efforts to hire veterans. On its website, the company provides and "Opportunities for Veterans" section that pinpoints which civilian positions open at the company translate well from a military career. Examples of jobs include engineering, outage project managers, and plant operators.


Submarine power cable

A submarine power cable is a transmission cable for carrying electric power below the surface of the water. These are called "submarine" because they usually carry electric power beneath salt water (arms of the ocean, seas, straits, etc.) but it is also possible to use submarine power cables beneath fresh water (large lakes and rivers). Examples of the latter exist that connect the mainland with large islands in the St. Lawrence River.
Design technologies.
The purpose of submarine power cables is the transport of electric current at high voltage. The electric core is a concentric assembly of inner conductor, electric insulation and protective layers (resembling the design of a coaxial cable). Modern three-core cables (e.g. for the connection of offshore wind turbines) often carry optical fibers for data transmission or temperature measurement, in addition to the electrical conductors.
Conductor.
The conductor is made from copper or aluminum wires, the latter material having a small but increasing market share. Conductor sizes ≤ 1200 mm2 are most common, but sizes ≥ 2400 mm2 have been made occasionally. For voltages ≥ 12 kV the conductors are round, so that the insulation is exposed to a uniform electric field gradient. The conductor can be stranded from individual round wires, or can be a single solid wire. In some designs, profiled wires (keystone wires) are laid up to form a round conductor with very small interstices between the wires.
Insulation.
Three different types of electric insulation around the conductor are mainly used today.
Cross-linked polyethylene (XLPE) is used up to 420 kV system voltage. It is produced by extrusion, with an insulation thickness of up to about 30 mm; 36 kV class cables have only 5.5 – 8 mm insulation thickness. Certain formulations of XLPE insulation can also be used for DC.
Low-pressure oil-filled cables have an insulation lapped from paper strips. The entire cable core is impregnated with a low-viscosity insulation fluid (mineral oil or synthetic). A central oil channel in the conductor facilitates oil flow in cables up to 525 kV for when the cable gets warm but rarely used in submarine cables due to oil pollution risk with cable damage.
Mass-impregnated cables have also a paper-lapped insulation but the impregnation compound is highly viscous and does not exit when the cable is damaged. Mass-impregnated insulation can be used for massive HVDC cables up to 525 kV.
Armoring.
Cables ≥ 52 kV are equipped with an extruded lead sheath to prevent water intrusion. No other materials have been accepted so far. The lead alloy is extruded onto the insulation in long lengths (over 50 km is possible).
In this stage the product is called cable core. In single-core cables the core is surrounded by a concentric armoring. In three-core cables, three cable cores are laid-up in a spiral configuration before the armoring is applied.
The armoring consists most often of steel wires, soaked in bitumen for corrosion protection. Since the alternating magnetic field in AC cables causes losses in the armoring those cables are sometimes equipped with non-magnetic metallic materials (stainless steel, copper, brass).
AC or DC.
Most electrical power transmission systems use alternating current (AC), because transformers can easily change voltages as needed. High-voltage direct current transmission requires a converter at each end of a direct current line to interface to an alternating current grid. A system using submarine power cables may be less costly overall if using high-voltage direct current transmission, especially on a long link where the capacitance of the cable would require too much additional charging current. The inner and outer conductors of a cable form the plates of a capacitor, and if the cable is long (on the order of tens of kilometres), the current that flows through this capacitance may be significant compared to the load current. This would require larger, therefore more costly, conductors for a given quantity of usable power to be transmitted.
Operational submarine power cables.
Alternating current cables.
Alternating-current (AC) submarine cable systems for transmitting lower amounts of three-phase electric power can be constructed with three-core cables in which all three insulated conductors are placed into a single underwater cable. Most offshore-to-shore wind-farm cables are constructed this way.
For larger amounts of transmitted power, the AC systems are composed of three separate single-core underwater cables, each containing just one insulated conductor and carrying one phase of the three phase electric current. A fourth identical cable is often added in parallel with the other three, simply as a spare in case one of the three primary cables is damaged and needs to be replaced. This damage can happen, for example, from a ship's anchor carelessly dropped onto it. The fourth cable can substitute for any one of the other three, given the proper electrical switching system.


Neuhof Substation

Neuhof Substation is a 110 kV substation in Neuhof, an urban part of Bad Sachsa, Lower Saxony. The Neuhof substation went in service in 1985 and was connected with a 110 kV-powerline for three phase alternating current with the Wolkramshausen substation in former East Germany. It was therefore one of the few substations in former West Germany, into which electricity from GDR was fed. Through the Neuhof substation up to 40 MVA could be imported. Up to 25 MVA of the imported power could be fed via 5 rotary motor-generators, which were manufactured by Siemens and used for the compensation of frequency fluctuations of the East German power grid, into the power grid of West Germany. Additionally power was fed directly from the East German power grid into the grids of Bad Sachsa, Walkenried, Zorge and Wieda. The converters consisted of a three-phase asynchronous motor with a short circuited rotor on the driving side and an asynchronous generator with a slip-ring fed rotor, whereby the frequency adjustment was made by a static frequency inverter, which feeds the rotor. Startup of a converter took place using the slip-ring rotor with a conventional starter circuit. After the converter had reached its nominal speed, the short circuited rotor was connected, which then took over the drive. In April 1990 the plant was shut down and between 2003 and 2005 the machines were dismantled. The machine halls stand still today and are used by Harzenergie for internal purposes.


Body contact (electricity)

A body contact or body fault is a conductive connection between body and active parts of electrical equipment resulting from a fault.
A body, short or ground fault is:
If there is no fault resistance in the circuit
If a fault resistance is present in the circuit (e.g. wet branch, arc)
This can be caused by installation errors or defects, such as cable breaks.
There is a risk of electric shock when touching the parts of the system under voltage by the body joint. As a countermeasure, so-called protective conductors and residual current circuit breakers are used in electrical engineering.


Power transmission

Power transmission is the movement of energy from its place of generation to a location where it is applied to perform useful work.
Power is defined formally as units of energy per unit time. In SI units:
Since the development of technology, transmission and storage systems have been of immense interest to technologists and technology users.
Electrical power.
With the widespread establishment of electrical grids, power transmission is usually associated most with electric power transmission. Alternating current is normally preferred as its voltage may be easily stepped up by a transformer in order to minimize resistive loss in the conductors used to transmit power over great distances; another set of transformers is required to step it back down to safer or more usable voltage levels at destination.
Power transmission is usually performed with overhead lines as this is the most economical way to do so. Underground transmission by high-voltage cables is chosen in crowded urban areas and in high-voltage direct-current (HVDC) submarine connections.
Power might also be transmitted by changing electromagnetic fields or by radio waves; microwave energy may be carried efficiently over short distances by a waveguide or in free space via wireless power transfer.
Mechanical power.
Electrical power transmission has replaced mechanical power transmission in all but the very shortest distances.
From the 16th century through the industrial revolution to the end of the 19th century, mechanical power transmission was the norm. The oldest long-distance power transmission technology involved systems of push-rods or jerker lines ("stängenkunst" or "feldstängen") connecting waterwheels to distant mine-drainage and brine-well pumps. A surviving example from 1780 exists at Bad Kösen that transmits power approximately 200 meters from a waterwheel to a salt well, and from there, an additional 150 meters to a brine evaporator. This technology survived into the 21st century in a handful of oilfields in the US, transmitting power from a central pumping engine to the numerous pump-jacks in the oil field.
Mechanical power may be transmitted directly using a solid structure such as a driveshaft; transmission gears can adjust the amount of torque or force vs. speed in much the same way an electrical transformer adjusts voltage vs current. Factories were fitted with overhead line shafts providing rotary power. Short line-shaft systems were described by Agricola, connecting a waterwheel to numerous ore-processing machines. While the machines described by Agricola used geared connections from the shafts to the machinery, by the 19th century, drivebelts would become the norm for linking individual machines to the line shafts. One mid 19th century factory had 1,948 feet of line shafting with 541 pulleys.
Hydraulic systems use liquid under pressure to transmit power; canals and hydroelectric power generation facilities harness natural water power to lift ships or generate electricity. Pumping water or pushing mass uphill with (windmill pumps) is one possible means of energy storage. London had a hydraulic network powered by five pumping stations operated by the London Hydraulic Power Company, with a total effect of 5 MW.
Pneumatic systems use gasses under pressure to transmit power; compressed air is commonly used to operate pneumatic tools in factories and repair garages. A pneumatic wrench (for instance) is used to remove and install automotive tires far more quickly than could be done with standard manual hand tools. A pneumatic system was proposed by proponents of Edison's direct current as the basis of the power grid. Compressed air generated at Niagara Falls would drive far away generators of DC power. The war of the currents ended with alternating current (AC) as the only means of long distance power transmission.
Thermal power.
Thermal power can be transported in pipelines containing a high heat capacity fluid such as oil or water as used in district heating systems, or by physically transporting material items, such as bottle cars, or in the ice trade.
Chemicals and fuels.
While not technically power transmission, energy is commonly transported by shipping chemical or nuclear fuels. Possible artificial fuels include radioactive isotopes, wood alcohol, grain alcohol, methane, synthetic gas, hydrogen gas (H2), cryogenic gas, and liquefied natural gas (LNG).


JJ Electronic

JJ Electronic, s.r.o is a Slovak electronic component manufacturer, and one of the world's remaining producers of vacuum tubes. They are based in Čadca, in the Kysuce region of Slovakia.
Most of the products that JJ offers are audio receiving tubes. These vacuum tubes are mainly used for guitar and hi-fi amplifiers. In technical terms, JJ produces triodes, beam tetrodes and power pentodes. Double diode vacuum tubes for full wave AC-to-DC rectifiers are also produced. JJ also produces electrolytic capacitors for higher voltage purposes, generally for use in audio amplifiers. JJ also manufactures their own line of high-end audio amplifiers and guitar amplifiers.
In 2015, the company sales amounted to EUR 8.5 million and net income came to EUR 3.8 million. Most production is exported to the United States.
History.
Before 1989, TESLA was the main Czechoslovak producer of electron tubes. While TESLA vacuum tubes were exported all over the world, and were known for their quality, the company did not survive the change of economic system after 1989 in combination with the downturn in the vacuum tube market. JJ Electronic was founded in 1993 by Jan Jurco, using the old TESLA machinery for the manufacture of vacuum tubes. Eventually, JJ Electronic started to produce their own line of vacuum tubes and electrolytic capacitors, mainly targeted at high-end audiophile and guitar amplifier applications.
Products.
Small signal vacuum tubes
Power vacuum tubes
Rectifiers


Tyco Solarlok

Solarlok is a largely obsolete electrical connector used to connect solar panels together. Solarlok was introduced by Tyco International in order to meet new National Electrical Code (NEC) standards that required panel connectors to lock together and only be separated again using a tool. Solarlok became very common in the United States where the code first came into effect, but had varying degrees of market success outside the US. Due to the connector only being available from Tyco, the connectors are almost always referred to simply as Tyco connectors.
Background information.
Solar panels are generally connected together in series, or "strings", which allows cabling to be daisy-chained between the panels. In the early days of solar power the panel connectors were generally screw terminals located under a removable panel, but due to electrical code restrictions this could not be assembled except by a licensed electrician. Non-licensed technicians do have exceptions when dealing with a "convenience receptacle", a plug that was designed specifically for end-users, like those found on common household electrical equipment like desk lamps. To allow roofers and other laborers without a electrician's license to install panels, a number of connectors entered the market in the 1990s, with the better known examples being the MC3 connector and Radox connector. Both designs were essentially weatherproofed versions of small phono jacks, with the connector and sockets surrounded by rubberized material to protect them from water. These had the downside that they could be disconnected by pulling on them, which could occur naturally with snow buildup and similar effects. The code in the NEC required such connectors to lock, leading to a market for new designs.
Design.
Most panel connectors are designed to be mounted with one end of the cable permanently and internally connected to the panel, with the other end of the cable equipped with the connector. This allows the panels to be connected together by snapping together adjacent connectors. Solarlok did not work this way, instead it imagined the panels and all other equipment in the system (inverters, combiners, etc.) would be equipped with sockets, while the cables had plug connectors at both ends. This meant that the panels themselves did not have to have cables permanently connected to them, which helped when you want to span a longer distance or solve other problems where a permanent cable might not be long enough. However, this led to the possibility that one could connect the positive output from one panel to the positive of the next (or negative to negative) by confusing the wires. To eliminate this possibility, the sockets and plugs had plastic flanges known as "keys" that indicated their polarity, and prevented a cable from being plugged into a positive at one end and negative at the other.
Utility.
In practice, no one used the original design concept, and the Solarlok connectors were simply one of a number of connectors offered by most manufacturers. In these cases a Solarlok connector was placed at the end of the panel's permanent wiring, and in order to allow the panels to be plugged together, they were arranged as plug on one wire and socket on the other. Unfortunately there was no standard for which of these should be positive and which negative, and manufacturers selected them seemingly at random. It was not at all uncommon to find that extension cables would not plug into panels in the field because they had the wrong keys, requiring the cables to be rebuilt with the opposing polarity connectors. Other standards of the era, like MC3, always defined the male to be positive and the socket to be negative, eliminating this issue.
Replacement.
As the new NEC codes were adopted around the world, competitors to the Solarlok quickly appeared. The MC4 connector soon took a leadership position among these, and is today almost universal in the solar market. Solarlok is rarely found today, mostly on older equipment.


Power conditioner

A power conditioner (also known as a line conditioner or power line conditioner) is a device intended to improve the quality of the power that is delivered to electrical load equipment. The term most often refers to a device that acts in one or more ways to deliver a voltage of the proper level and characteristics to enable load equipment to function properly. In some uses, power conditioner refers to a voltage regulator with at least one other function to improve power quality (e.g. power factor correction, noise suppression, transient impulse protection, etc.)
The terms "power conditioning" and "power conditioner" can be misleading, as the word "power" here refers to the electricity generally rather than the more technical electric power.
Conditioners specifically work to smooth the sinusoidal A.C. wave form and maintain a constant voltage over varying loads.
Types.
An AC power conditioner is the typical power conditioner that provides "clean" AC power to sensitive electrical equipment. Usually this is used for home or office applications and has up to 10 or more receptacles or outlets and commonly provides surge protection as well as noise filtering.
Power line conditioners take in power and modify it based on the requirements of the machinery to which they are connected. Attributes to be conditioned are measured with various devices, such as, Phasor measurement units. Voltage spikes are most common during electrical storms or malfunctions in the main power lines. The surge protector stops the flow of electricity from reaching a machine by shutting off the power source.
The term "Power Conditioning" has been difficult to define historically. However, with the advances in power technology and recognition by IEEE, NEMA, and other standards organizations, a new actual engineering definition has now been developed and accepted to provide an accurate depiction of this definition.
"Power Conditioning" is the ability to filter the AC line signal provided by the power company.
"Power Regulation" is the ability to take a signal from the local power company, turn it into a DC signal that will run an oscillator, which generates a single frequency sine wave, determined by the local area needs, is fed to the input stage of power amplifier, and is then output as specified as the ideal voltage present at any standard wall outlet.
Design.
A good quality power conditioner is designed with internal filter banks to isolate the individual power outlets or receptacles on the power conditioner. This eliminates interference or "cross-talk" between components. For example, if the application will be a home theater system, the noise suppression rating listed in the technical specifications of the power conditioner will be very important. This rating is expressed in decibels (db). The higher the db rating, the better the noise suppression.
Active power filters (APF) are filters which can perform the job of harmonic elimination. Active power filters can be used to filter out harmonics in the power system which are significantly below the switching frequency of the filter. The active power filters are used to filter out both higher and lower order harmonics in the power system.
The main difference between active power filters and passive power filters is that APFs mitigate harmonics by injecting active power with the same frequency but with reverse phase to cancel that harmonic, where passive power filters use combinations of resistors (R), inductors (L) and capacitors (C) and do not require an external power source or active components such as transistors. This difference makes it possible for APFs to mitigate a wide range of harmonics.
The power conditioner will also have a "joule" rating. A joule is a measurement of energy or heat required to sustain one watt for one second, known as a watt second. Since electrical surges are momentary spikes, the joule rating indicates how much electrical energy the suppressor can absorb at once before becoming damaged itself. The higher the joule rating, the greater the protection.
Uses.
Power conditioners vary in function and size, generally according to their use. Some power conditioners provide minimal voltage regulation while others protect against six or more power quality problems. Units may be small enough to mount on a printed circuit board or large enough to protect an entire factory.
Small power conditioners are rated in volt-amperes (V·A) while larger units are rated in kilovolt-amperes (kV·A).
Ideally electric power would be supplied as a sine wave with the amplitude and frequency given by national standards (in the case of mains) or system specifications (in the case of a power feed not directly attached to the mains) with an impedance of zero ohms at all frequencies.
No real life power feed will ever meet this ideal. Deviations may include:


Optical overheating protection

With all solar thermal collector systems there is a potential risk that the solar collector may reach an equilibrium or stagnation temperature higher than the maximum safe operating temperature. Various measures are taken for optical overheating protection.
Stagnation temperatures are encountered under conditions of high radiation while no heat transfer fluid is flowing through the collector, for example during power failures, component failures, servicing, energy storage capacity limitations, or periods when little hot water is extracted from the system. More generally, stagnation conditions can be considered to be any situation under which the solar collector cannot adequately dispatch the absorbed solar heat to the heat transfer fluid.
Besides any damaging effects to the system, high stagnation temperatures also place constraints on collector materials. These materials must retain their important properties during and after exposure to the high stagnation temperatures. This implies that solar collectors are generally built from high temperature resistant materials. These materials are usually expensive, heavy, and have an overall high environmental impact.
Polymeric materials offer a significant cost-reduction and environmental improvement potential for solar thermal collectors and may thus benefit a broader utilization of solar energy for various heating purposes. However, the long-term service temperature of plastics is limited. Thus, for potential applications of plastics in solar absorbers an appropriate design including overheating protection is essential. Feasible ways would be a reduction in optical gain (for example, using thermotropic layers, or electrochromic devices) or an increase in system losses, by dumping of the hot water excess.
In this article an alternative method to decrease the optical gain is presented. The method is based on the geometry of prisms and the phenomenon of Total Internal Reflection.
Working principle.
According to Snell's law, light cannot escape from a medium when it strikes the medium boundary at an angle of incidence (θ) that is larger than the critical angle (θc), an optical phenomenon called Total Internal Reflection. The critical angle can be calculated using;
formula_1
For a polycarbonate medium, with a refraction index of n=1.59, placed in an atmosphere of air with a refraction index close to 1, Total Internal Reflection occurs when θ > θ(c,air)=39°.
Consider a polycarbonate prismatic structure with an apex angle α1,2=45° placed in an atmosphere of air. A ray of light that strikes the medium boundary at normal incidence is total internal reflected, as θin=45°> θ(c,air)=39°. In presence of water, θ(c,water)=56.8° and θin=45°< θ(c,water), the incoming light is merely refracted and traverses the polycarbonate medium. As such, water acts as a switching fluid. In theory, water can be replaced by any other liquid, with an index of refraction close to that of the prismatic structure, to act as the switching fluid.
The optical switch consists of a self-regulating mechanism. In its "passive" state the switch is filled with liquid and light is allowed to pass through the switch and heat the system behind it. As the system heats up, the switching fluid evaporates out of the optical switch and the prismatic structure starts to behave as a reflective surface. No more light passes through the switch, limiting the maximum temperature of the system to the evaporation temperature of the liquid.
Angular Dependence.
Resulting from its geometry, the optical switch is sensitive to the angle of the incident beam. Depending on the shape of the prisms, the transmittance of the switch in its reflective state during a typical day shows characteristic angular dependence. This dependence can be used to find specific transmission curves for different applications, where the geometry of the prisms serves as the input variable.
Applications.
The main application for which the optical switch was developed is overheating protection for solar thermal collectors. The prismatic geometry can be integrated within the cover plate of the collectors to prevent them from overheating, either by self-regulation through evaporation, or by draining the water out of the switch at a specified maximum temperature. Temperature limitation would allow for the use of polymeric materials within solar collectors, dramatically reducing cost-price and increasing market penetration.
Another application of the switch is in windows for both housing and office buildings. The amount of sunlight entering the building can be controlled by the switching liquid. Preventing the amount of sunlight entering a building will reduce the temperature inside the building on sunny days.
Finally, the switch can be used within roofs of greenhouses. The plants in the greenhouse can be protected from damage on sunny days by putting the switch in the reflective state. Currently greenhouses are covered with a chalk layer to protect the plants during summer from excessive sunlight. Applying the chalk layer is time consuming and bad for the environment. Once the chalk is applied, it also blocks sunlight during less sunny days. The optical switch could potentially resolve this issue using the switching mechanism described above.
The temperature inside the greenhouse can be regulated by switching a certain amount of roof sections in the reflective state. Also the switching fluid inside the roof can be circulated to extract heat from the greenhouse. These cooling methods allow that the (roof) windows remain closed and that the climate (relative humidity and raised CO2 levels) remain optimal and constant.
The Switching fluid in the greenhouse roof can be used as a filter for a certain part of the solar spectrum. Water allows so-called "PAR" light (Photosynthetically active radiation, the light that plants use to grow) to pass, while "NIR" (Near Infra Red) light is absorbed. The amount of NIR light to absorb can be tuned by solving micro-particles of Copper Sulphate or clay in the switching fluid. In that way optimum growth conditions can be selected.
Some greenhouse products, like flowers, are grown by using artificial light during the night. This artificial light causes so-called light pollution in the environment of the greenhouse. When a greenhouse roof consists of a well designed optical switch the greenhouse roof becomes reflective during the night, which keeps the artificial light inside the greenhouse. As a side effect there are fewer lights needed since the roof acts as an efficient mirror.


Shenzhen Energy

Shenzhen Energy Group Company Limited, formerly Shenzhen Energy Investment Company Limited, is one of the main power generation companies in Shenzhen, Guangdong, China. It involves in developing all types of energies, researching and investing high new energy-related technologies. Huaneng Power International is now the second largest shareholder of Shenzhen Energy.
On 3 April 2010 a tanker owned by the Shenzhen Energy Group ran aground on Australia's Great Barrier Reef after straying out of shipping lanes.
2010 Great Barrier Reef grounding.
On the 3 April 2010 ran aground approximately east of Great Keppel Island, Australia. The ship, which was carrying 975 tonnes of heavy bunker fuel oil, began leaking oil in the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park, which is closed to commercial shipping (it had been off course). The Australian Maritime Safety Authority has revealed that a shipping plan was lodged for "Shen Neng 1" to travel between Douglas Shoal and the Capricorn Group, where there is a gap of .


Adolf Goetzberger

Adolf Goetzberger (born 29 November 1928 in Munich) is a German physicist.
Life.
Goetzberger studied physic in Munich, Germany. He finished his university studies with a work over "Über die Kristallisation aufgedampfter Antimonschichten". He worked together with William Shockley in Palo Alto, California and for company Bell Labs. In 1981, Goetzberger founded Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems ISE in Freiburg im Breisgau.


Kinder Morgan Energy Partners

Kinder Morgan Energy Partners LP () (KMEP) is a subsidiary of Kinder Morgan, Inc.. The company owns or operates petroleum product, natural gas, and carbon dioxide pipelines, related storage facilities, terminals, power plants and retail natural gas in the United States and Canada. On August 10, 2014, Kinder Morgan announced it was moving to full ownership of along with two other partly owned companies, Kinder Morgan Management, and El Paso Pipeline Partners, in a deal worth $71 billion. Kinder Morgan announced its completion of the acquisition on November 26, 2014.
The company, headquartered at One Allen Center in Houston, Texas, was co-founded by Richard Kinder and William Morgan. The company began in 1997, when Kinder and Morgan purchased the liquid pipeline assets of Enron, and now employs many former Enron employees, including former Enron whistleblower Jordan Mintz.
On March 1, 2002, Shares of Kinder Morgan Inc., fell to a 15-month low on concern that the company faced competition for assets and on investor wariness about its partnership arrangements. On March 1, 2002, Nova Chemicals Corp. sold its 20-per-cent share of the Cochin pipeline, and the sale, for $64million (U.S.), is subject to right of first refusal by the other Cochin owners, which include subsidiaries of Kinder Morgan Energy Partners LP.
In May 2013, the company acquired Copano Energy LLC (NASDAQ:CPNO, closed), which is now assigned under the company's Natural Gas Pipeline section as well as under Product Pipeline section.
Regulatory oversight.
The majority of its pipelines fall under the regulatory oversight of the U.S. Department of Transportation. The company asserts that it is proud of its safety record and follows many regulations and procedures to monitor and ensure the integrity of its pipelines, despite involvement in numerous accidents as outlined below. Interstate natural gas pipelines are subject to the rate and facility regulation of the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission under the Natural Gas Act.
Accidents.
Pipelines operated by this company have failed throughout the United States.
Suisun Marsh diesel spill.
On April 28, 2004, a petroleum pipeline owned and operated by Kinder Morgan Energy Partners ruptured, spilling an estimated 1,500 barrels (240 m²) of diesel fuel into marshes adjacent to Suisun Bay.
Walnut Creek gasoline fire.
On November 9, 2004 in Walnut Creek, California, a petroleum pipeline carrying gasoline to San Jose owned and operated by Kinder Morgan Energy Partners (KMEP) was struck by a backhoe used by Mountain Cascade Inc. (MC), a contractor operating in the construction of a water pipeline for the East Bay Municipal Utility District (EBMUD). A massive gasoline spill was subsequently ignited, likely by the unaware welders of subcontractor Matamoros Welding working inside the steel water pipe, resulting in an explosive fireball that caused the deaths, by burns, of four workers and one supervisor and the severe injury of four others. Several nearby homes were ignited and one was partially destroyed. The fire burned for several hours before being brought under control by firefighters from departments throughout the central Contra Costa County region. CalOSHA (California Occupational Safety and Health Administration) cited KMGP Services Company (a subsidiary of Kinder Morgan) for failure to accurately stake-out the pipeline location.
On Wednesday, July 7, 2005, the California State Fire Marshal assessed a fine of $500,000 upon KMGP, the largest ever levied within the state.
On September 22, 2007, KMGP was convicted on six felony charges related to the Walnut Creek Explosion. They were fined $15 million in connection with the case. Over $90 million in legal settlements were paid to the various victims of the explosion.
Burnaby crude oil spill.
On July 24, 2007, a crude oil pipeline owned and operated by Kinder Morgan Energy Partners was ruptured by an excavator digging a storm sewer trench. The rupture was a few hundred meters from the final location at the Westridge Marine Terminal. It resulted in almost 2,000 barrels of crude oil being released into the residential neighborhood and the ocean near Inlet Drive in Burnaby, British Columbia. The crude oil sprayed 11 houses on Inlet Drive and caused an evacuation of the area, forcing 250 residents from their homes. Approximately 600 barrels of the oil flowed into Burrard Inlet, the resulting cleanup costing more than $15 million. The cleanup operation ultimately recovered 1,800 barrels of oil from the Inlet and coastline.
The Transportation Safety Board released a report on the incident in 2009, which concluded that the pipe, which was 610 mm in diameter, was struck and punctured by a contractor’s excavator bucket during excavation of a trench for a new storm sewer line along Inlet Drive in Burnaby. On October 3, 2011, three companies—two contractors and Kinder Morgan—each entered guilty pleas to a 21-count indictment in Provincial Court. The Crown sought a sentence of a $1,000 fine and a $149,000 contribution to the Habitat Conservation Trust Foundation, which works to protect B.C.'s fish, wildlife and habitats. Kinder Morgan was also asked to contribute $100,000 to an educational and training program.
Burnaby Mountain oil spill.
On May 6, 2009, a contractor discovered that oil was leaking from one of the tanks Kinder Morgan's Burnaby Mountain terminal. In total, almost 1,700 barrels of crude oil were spilled. Fire and HazMat teams were called to the scene and contained the spill.
Abbotsford oil spill.
On January 24, 2012, an oil spill was discovered at Kinder Morgan's Sumas terminal in Abbotsford. Local residents began reporting a strong gas-like smell coming from the area as early as 4:30 a.m. The spill was reported to be limited to a "containment area."


Tesla Electric Light and Manufacturing

Tesla Electric Light and Manufacturing Company was an electric lighting company in Rahway, New Jersey that operated from December 1884 through 1886.
History.
Based at the site where 1571-1579 Irving Street now stands, on Irving Street between Coach and Elizabeth, Rahway, New Jersey, Tesla Electric Light and Manufacturing Company was started in December 1884 after the inventor Nikola Tesla left Thomas Edison's employment following a disagreement over payment. The company was formed in a partnership between Tesla, Robert Lane and Benjamin Vale with Tesla given the task of designing an arc lighting system, a fast growing segment of the new electric light industry used mostly for outdoor lighting. Tesla designed an arc lamp with automatic adjustment and a fail-switch as well as improved dynamos. These were the first patents issued to Tesla in the US. By 1886 he had installed a central station based system in Rahway lighting streets as well as a few factory buildings.
The investors showed little interest in Tesla's ideas for new types of motors and electrical transmission equipment and, with the market already heavily controlled by Brush Electric Illuminating Company and the Thomson-Houston Electric Company, they came to the conclusion it was better to develop an electrical utility than invent new systems. By the fall of 1886 they had formed the Union County Electric Light & Manufacturing Company spelling the end for Tesla Electric Light and Manufacturing and leaving Tesla penniless. Tesla even lost control of the patents he had generated since he had assigned them to the company in lieu of stock.
Patents.
Tesla had already been issued the following patents:


List of high-voltage transmission links in Lithuania

List of high-voltage transmission links in Lithuania at voltages higher than 330 kV and/or the 400 kV-grid in Lithuania.
The list does not include links at smaller voltages like 110 kV or less. Lithuania has 13 international 110 kV voltage links: 7 with Belarus, 3 with Russia and 3 with Latvia.


Regent Power Limited

Regent Power is a Private Limited company incorporated in 2007 and a concern of Habib Group of Chittagong. The plant is located at Barabkunda in Chittagong under independent power producers (IPP) arrangement of the government. Regent Power is operating on natural gas with the capacity to produce 22 MW.