Greater London Built-up Area

The Greater London Built-up Area, or Greater London Urban Area, is a conurbation in south-east England that constitutes the continuous urban area of London, and includes surrounding adjacent urban towns as defined by the Office for National Statistics. It is the largest urban area in the United Kingdom with a population of 9,787,426 in 2011.
Overview.
The Greater London Built-up or Urban Area had a population of 9,787,426 and occupied an area of at the time of the 2011 census.
It includes most of the London region – omitting most of its woodland; small, buffered districts; the Lee Valley Park; and the two largest sewage treatment works serving London by the River Thames. Outside the region's administrative boundary, it includes contiguous suburban settlements and a few densely populated outliers connected to it by ribbon development. Its outer boundary is constrained by the Metropolitan Green Belt and it is therefore much smaller than the wider metropolitan area of London.
As a selective grouping of relatively low- to mid-density (and some high-density) output areas, each consisting of roughly 120 households, it can be compared to the London region, which covers and contained 8,173,194 residents at the time of the 2011 census.
The built-up area of the Greater London region continues beyond the region's administrative boundary in some places, while stopping short of it in others. For this reason, the density of the Greater London Built-Up Area is 8.3% higher than that of Greater London, the figure for which includes these outlying rural areas (notably in Hillingdon, Enfield, Havering and Bromley). All of both areas is drained ultimately by the River Thames. The area uses around 4 gigawatts of electricity power.
History.
The density gradient of industrialising cities has tended to follow a specific pattern: the density of the centre of the city would rise during urbanisation and the population would remain heavily concentrated in the city centre with a rapid decline in settlement towards the periphery. Then, with continued economic growth and the expanding networks of public transport, people (particularly the middle-class) would then slowly migrate towards the suburbs, gradually softening the population density gradient. This point was generally reached when the city reached a certain stage of economic development. In London, this point was reached in the first half of the nineteenth century, in Paris toward the end of the century and in New York City at the turn of the twentieth.
However, London had been sprawling out of its medieval confines within the City since the eighteenth century, when the city experienced its first great urban surge. Areas to the west of Westminster were increasingly built up for the wealthy, to live in the suburbs of the city.
A dramatic increase in the city's urban sprawl began in the nineteenth century, when labourers flocked from the countryside to work in the new factories that were then springing up. Large developments of small terraced houses began to appear and the new public transport systems – (the metro, buses and trams) – allowed workers to commute into the city daily. Suburban districts also sprung up around the city centre to accommodate those who wanted to escape the squalid conditions of the industrial town.
By the mid-nineteenth century, the first major suburban areas were springing up around London as the city (then the largest in the world) became more overcrowded and unsanitary. A major catalyst in the growth in urban sprawl came from the opening of the Metropolitan Railway in the 1860s. The line joined the capital's financial heart in the City to what were to become the suburbs of Middlesex. Harrow was reached in 1880, and the line eventually extended as far as in Buckinghamshire, more than from Baker Street and the centre of London.
Unlike other railway companies, which were required to dispose of surplus land, the Met was allowed to retain such land that it believed was necessary for future railway use. Initially, the surplus land was managed by the Land Committee, and, from the 1880s, the land was developed and sold to domestic buyers in places like Willesden Park Estate, Cecil Park, near Pinner and at Wembley Park. In 1919, with the expectation of a post-war housing boom, Metropolitan Railway Country Estates Limited was formed and went on to develop estates at Kingsbury Garden Village near Neasden, Wembley Park, Cecil Park and Grange Estate at Pinner and the Cedars Estate at Rickmansworth and create places such as Harrow Garden Village.
By the early-twentieth century, amid increasing middle-class affluence, large low-density suburbs of semi-detached houses had sprung up all around the city, doubling the area of built-up London in the interwar period alone, despite the population increase being just 10%. H.G Wells even predicted in 1902 that within a hundred years most of southern England would have been subsumed into one gigantic conurbation centred in London.
2011 Census subdivisions.
At the time of the 2011 Census, the Office for National Statistics defined the Greater London Urban Area as being made up of the following components:.
London region.
The London region consists of 33 districts: the City of London, the 12 Inner London boroughs (including the City of Westminster), and the 20 Outer London boroughs.
Omitted areas.
In the 2011 census, the following areas were considered to be built-up areas but outside the Greater London Built-up Area, although they are still within Greater London. All of these areas had populations of less than a thousand except New Addington and Harefield which had populations of 22,280 and 6,573 respectively.
2001 Census subdivisions.
At the time of the 2001 Census, the Office for National Statistics defined the Greater London Urban Area as being made up of the following components:
London region.
Within the region there were 33 components corresponding to the City of London and the London boroughs. However, the boundaries are not identical and outlying areas such as Biggin Hill in Bromley are omitted.
Outside Greater London.
South East England
East of England


Blackburn with Darwen

Blackburn with Darwen is a unitary authority area in Lancashire, North West England. It consists of the town of Blackburn and the market town of Darwen including other villages around the two towns.
Formation.
It was founded in 1974 as the Lancashire borough of Blackburn, from the County Borough of Blackburn, the Borough of Darwen, parts of Turton Urban District (chiefly the villages of Belmont, Chapeltown and Edgworth) and parts of Blackburn Rural District. It was renamed in May 1997, in preparation for a split from Lancashire County Council. On 1 April 1998 it became a unitary authority.
Demographics.
According to the 2017 census, the proportion of Muslims is 30.9%. 20.4% of the district's population belongs to any South Asian ethnic group, making it the highest percentage in the region, and almost four times higher than national average of South Asians.
Local elections.
Following boundary changes in 2018, there are currently 51 seats on the council (decreased from 64), with the borough divided into 17 wards (decreased from 23). The wards are: Audley and Queens Park, Bastwell and Daisyfield, Billinge and Beardwood, Blackburn Central, Blackburn South and Lower Darwen, Blackburn South East, Darwen East, Darwen South, Darwen West, Ewood, Little Harwood with Whitebirk, Livesey with Pleasington, Mill Hill and Moorgate, Roe Lee, Shear Brow and Corporation Park, Wensley Fold, and West Pennine.
Local elections.
!colspan=2|Parties
!Seats
!colspan=2|Total!!51
The council was shaken in 2004 when six Labour councillors quit the ruling group one month after an election and became independent representatives, and the council temporarily fell into no overall control. The councillors, who eventually re-joined the party, left over an internal row reportedly sparked by the demotion of particular councillors in a post-election reshuffle. Allegations of vote-rigging and corruption have dogged the council, with members of the Muslim community reportedly being "strong-armed by mosque leaders and councillors to vote Labour" during elections. The possibility of corruption has been eased by reforms to postal voting which have made electoral fraud "childishly simple" in the UK according to a European watchdog. The number of postal votes registered in Blackburn in 2005 was 20,000, compared to 7,600 in 2001. In April 2005, local councillor Mohammed Hussain was jailed for three years for rigging the 2002 town hall election by stealing at least 230 postal vote ballots in his ward.
The local elections of May 2007 saw a coalition of parties take control of the council from Labour. The small For Darwen party and independents held the fine balance of power on the council in a partnership with the Conservatives and Liberal Democrats. Like its predecessor, the ruling administration also attracted controversy; one of its councillors being suspended following a conviction for benefit fraud and another following allegations of domestic abuse. Tensions over the presence of former England First Party member Michael Johnson within the coalition as part of For Darwen rose to the surface when Johnson was quoted in "The Sun" newspaper in October 2007 blaming his unemployment on "all the immigrants flooding this country." Three weeks before local elections in May 2008, a Liberal Democrat candidate for Shear Brow ward caused a stir by defecting to Labour.
In 2010, two For Darwen Party councillors resigned and withdrew their support for the coalition, and after a vote of no confidence the Labour Party regained control of the council. In 2011 Labour gained control of the council.
Economy.
This is a chart of trend of regional gross value added of Blackburn with Darwen at current basic prices published (pp. 240–253) by "Office for National Statistics" with figures in millions of British Pounds Sterling.
Education.
As a unitary authority, Blackburn with Darwen authority has a statutory responsibility for educational standards and schooling within its boundaries.
Transport.
Blackburn with Darwen Council has a stated transport policy of "making roads traffic free".


Horsens Municipality

Horsens municipality is a municipality (Danish, "kommune") in Region Midtjylland on the east coast of the Jutland peninsula in central Denmark. The municipality includes the island of Endelave, and covers an area of 524.21 km2. It has a population of 90,370 (1 April 2019). Its mayor is Peter Sørensen, a member of the Social Democratic party. The main town and the site of its municipal council is the city of Horsens.
History.
The municipality was created in 1970 due to a ("Municipal Reform") that combined the city of Horsens with a number of existing parishes:
On 1 January 2007 Horsens Municipality was, as the result of the Municipal Reform of 2007, merged with existing Brædstrup (except for Voerladegård Parish) and Gedved municipalities to form a new Horsens municipality.
The municipality is part of Business Region Aarhus and of the East Jutland metropolitan area, which had a total population of 1.378 million in 2016.
Geography.
In the northern part of Horsens municipality near the town of Yding, the "second" highest natural point of terrain in Denmark, namely Yding Skovhøj at 170.77 metres (560.27 ft), is situated, immediately west of the highest and third-highest points of natural terrain in Skanderborg municipality.
Politics.
Municipal council.
Horsens' municipal council consists of 27 members, elected every four years.
Below are the municipal councils elected since the Municipal Reform of 2007.


Argolis and Corinthia Prefecture

Argolis and Corinthia Prefecture (), commonly known as Argolidocorinthia (), was one of the prefectures of Greece. Its capital was Nafplio. It was one of the first prefectures established, first in 1833–1836 and again from 1845 until 1899, when it was split into Argolis Prefecture and Corinthia Prefecture. The split was reversed in the 1909 administrative reform, and the prefecture existed until split again in 1947.
The northern half became Corinthia with its capital at the city of Corinth, the southern half became Argolis with its capital at Nafplio. The islands Hydra, Spetses, and Kythira in the south became part of the Piraeus Prefecture.


Southern Transdanubia

Southern Transdanubia () is a statistical (NUTS 2) region of Hungary. It is part of the Transdanubia (NUTS 1) region. Southern Transdanubia includes the counties of Somogy, Tolna, and Baranya. Its capital is the city of Pécs.


List of civil parishes in Greater London

This is a list of civil parishes in the ceremonial county of Greater London. The City of London is a ceremonial county in its own right and is listed separately. There is currently just one civil parish in Greater London, since all were abolished in 1965. Before this date the civil parish had only a nominal role as all parish councils in the area had been abolished by 1934. The right to create civil parishes in London boroughs was reintroduced by the Local Government and Public Involvement in Health Act 2007.


Province of Brescia

The Province of Brescia (; Brescian: ) is a Province in Lombardy, northern Italy. It has a population of some 1,265,964 (as of January 2019) and its capital is the city of Brescia.
With an area of 4,785 km², it is the biggest province of Lombardy. It is also the second province of the region for the number of inhabitants and fifth in Italy (first, excluding metropolitan cities).
It borders the province of Sondrio to the north and north west, the province of Bergamo to the west, the province of Cremona to the south west and south, the province of Mantua to the south, and to the east the province of Verona (which is part of the Veneto region) and Trentino.
The province stretches between Lake Iseo in the west, Lake Garda in the east, the Southern Rhaetian Alps in the north and the Lombardian plains in the south. The main rivers of the province are the Oglio, the Mella and the Chiese.
Besides Brescia, other important towns in the province are Darfo Boario Terme, Desenzano del Garda, Palazzolo sull'Oglio, Montichiari, Ghedi, Chiari, Rovato, Gussago, Rezzato, Concesio, Orzinuovi, Salò, Gardone Val Trompia and Lumezzane.
Geography.
The province of Brescia is the largest in the region, boasts three main lakes, Lake Garda, Lake Iseo and Lake Idro, plus several other smaller lakes, three valleys, Val Camonica, Val Trompia and Valle Sabbia, as well as a wide flat area south of the city, known as the "Bassa Bresciana", and several hilly areas surrounding the city landscape and extending eastwards towards Veneto and west to Franciacorta.
Due to the altitude and morphological variety and the presence of large lakes, the province includes all kinds of biomes in Europe: from something similar to the maquis shrubland up to the perennial snow of Adamello (with the largest glacier in the Italian Alps).
Valleys.
The three main valleys on the territory of Brescia are the Val Camonica, crossed by the river Oglio and inserted in the northwestern part of the province from Adamello to Lake Iseo; Val Trompia, the river Mella basin, between the municipalities of Concesio and Collio; and the Valle Sabbia which includes the municipalities from Serle to Bagolino along the course of the river Chiese.
All the three valleys have the point of union the Croce Domini Pass, which takes the name from the "cross" formed by the union of the three basins.
Lakes.
Within the province there are eight lakes. The main lake basin, in both dimensional, climatic and cultural terms, is Lake Garda, shared with the Veneto and Trentino regions, which with its 370 km² of surface is the biggest lake in Italy. Because of its size, the lake has a considerable influence on the climate and the surrounding environment, generating a micro-geographic area in a more mitigated climate both in summer and winter.
Lake Iseo is the second lake of the area, and is situated at about 180 m above sea level, in an area called "Sebino", between Val Camonica (north) and Franciacorta (south), which divides the provinces of Bergamo and Brescia.
Lake Idro, the third lake within the provincial territory, is located in Valle Sabbia, on the border between Brescia and the province of Trento, and differs from the other two main lakes for its modest size. The waters of the lake are mainly exploited for the irrigation of crops in contiguous territories, as well as for the production of energy through a small power plant located in the municipality of Vobarno.
Other small lakes in the province are: Lago della Vacca (at an elevation of 2,358 m, in one of the coldest points of the province), Lago d'Arno, Lago Aviolo, Lago Baitone, Lago Moro and Lago di Valvestino.
Rivers.
There are about 45 watercourses crossing the territory of the province, but almost all of them are torrents. The only watercourses that can be defined as real rivers are just three: Oglio, Chiese and Mella; divided between the three main valleys.
Government.
The Province of Brescia is an administrative body of intermediate level between a municipality ("comune") and Lombardy region.
The three main functions devolved to the Province of Brescia are:
As an administrative institution, the Province of Brescia has its own elected bodies. From 1945 to 1995 the President of the Province of Brescia was chosen by the members of the Provincial Council, elected every five years by citizens. From 1995 to 2014, under provisions of the 1993 local administration reform, the President of the Province was chosen by popular election, originally every four, then every five years.
On 3 April 2014, the Italian Chamber of Deputies gave its final approval to the Law n.56/2014 which involves the transformation of the Italian provinces into "institutional bodies of second level". According to the 2014 reform, each province is headed by a President (or Commissioner) assisted by a legislative body, the Provincial Council, and an executive body, the Provincial Executive. President (Commissioner) and members of Council are elected together by mayors and city councilors of each municipality of the province respectively every four and two years. The Executive is chaired by the President (Commissioner) who appoint others members, called "assessori". Since 2015, the President (Commissioner) and other members of the Council do not receive a salary.
In each province, there is also a Prefect ("prefetto"), a representative of the central government who heads an agency called "prefettura-ufficio territoriale del governo". The Questor ("questore") is the head of State's Police ("Polizia di Stato") in the province and his office is called "questura". There is also a province's police force depending from local government, called provincial police ("polizia provinciale").
This is a list of the Presidents of the Province since 1945:
Municipalities.
Here is a list of the most populated municipalities of the province.
Subsequently a list of the municipalities divided into their geographical zone (municipalities with more than 15,000 inhabitants are in bold):
Municipal government.
Here is a list of the municipal government in cities and towns with more than 15,000 inhabitants:


Obwalden

Obwalden, also Obwald (, ) is one of the 26 cantons forming the Swiss Confederation. It is composed of seven municipalities and the seat of the government and parliament is in Sarnen. It is traditionally considered a "half-canton", the other half being Nidwalden.
Obwalden lies in Central Switzerland and contains the geographical centre of Switzerland. It is bordered by the canton of Lucerne to the north, the canton of Nidwalden and Uri to the east and the canton of Bern to the south. The canton is essentially in the valley of the Sarner Aa south of Lake Lucerne, with an enclave around Engelberg.
It is one of the smallest cantons. The largest town is Sarnen, followed by Kerns and Alpnach.
Together with Nidwalden, Obwalden was part of the forest canton of Unterwalden, one of the three participants in the foundation of the Old Swiss Confederacy, named in the Pact of Brunnen of 1315 with Uri and Schwyz. The division of Unterwalden into two separate territories, Nidwalden and Obwalden, appears to develop over the course of the 14th and 15th centuries.
History.
Obwalden is one of the two valleys, along with Nidwalden, that make up Unterwalden. Throughout its history, the political situation and the extent of its independence have varied widely. Between 1291 and 1309, Unterwalden joined the nascent Swiss Confederation. During that time Obwalden was known as "Unterwalden ob dem Kernwald" and Nidwalden was "Unterwalden nit dem Kernwald". Unterwalden's votes in the Tagsatzung were split between the two valleys. Between 1798 and 1803 it became the District of Sarnen in the Canton of Waldstätten. From 1803 until 1999 it was the half-canton of Obwalden. In 1999, the new Federal Constitution eliminated the half-canton designation and made Obwalden a full canton, though they still shared representation in the Council of States and only had half a vote. Due to the complex history of Obwalden there will be some overlap between the histories of Obwalden, Nidwalden, and Unterwalden.
Prehistory.
The earliest archaeological traces in Obwalden is a stone knife from the 8th millennium BC, which was found in Brand by Lungern. Two Horgen culture sites from the 4th millennium BC have been found in the Canton. An ax and two bone blades were found in Giswil and a hammer-ax was found in Wilen. It appears that the valleys in Obwalden were at least temporarily inhabited during this time, but no evidence of agriculture or permanent settlements have been found.
An Early Bronze Age grave in Foribach in Kerns implies that there was a settlement in the surrounding area between 2000 BC and 1700 BC. There may have also been a settlement along the shores of Lake Sarnen during the same period. Between 1500 and 1100 BC there were several other settlements, including houses in the Rengg Pass and high alpine herding camps above the pass. Many of the place names in the canton have Celtic or Gallo-Roman roots.
In 1914-15 a Roman estate was unearthed in Alpnach. The estate was built in the late 1st century AD and remained in operation until a fire destroyed the main building in 270.
Around 700, the Alamanni began to migrate into Obwalden. They initially settled around the lakes while the Gallo-Romans lived up on the plateau. The Alamanni influence is noticeable around Lake Sarnen and the Kerns plateau where many place name end in -ingen, -wil and -hofen. The Gallo-Romans remained around Mt. Pilatus, the Giswilerstock and in the Melch valley. During the 8th to 11th centuries, the two populations intermarried and eventually all became Germanized. By the 9th century it was part of the Second Kingdom of Burgundy. It became part of the Holy Roman Empire following the winter military campaign of 1032-33 by Emperor Conrad II. Obwalden was given to the Counts of Lenzburg from Aargau. The counts built a castle on Landenberg hill to help them control the land.
Early middle ages.
During the Early Middle Ages, much of the land in Obwalden was controlled by monasteries (especially Murbach-Lucerne and Beromünster Abbey). The monasteries began to spread their authority and parishes into Obwalden during this time. St. Peter's Church in Sarnen was first mentioned in 1036, but was built on top of an 8th-century church. St. Mary's Church of Alpnach was probably built in the 8th or 9th century. The churches in Kerns, Sachseln, and Giswil all became parish churches by the 12th century and a church was mentioned in Lungern in 1275. During the 14th century, Engelberg Abbey began to acquire rights over the parishes in Obwalden. By 1415 the Abbey had de facto control over the appointment of parish priests in the entire valley. In 1460, this became de jure authority over all the parishes in the valley.
In the early 12th century the Counts of Lenzburg granted a large part of their lands in Obwalden to their monastery at Beromünster. In 1210 the Lenzburg castle at Landenberg was abandoned. However, in the 13th century, several small castles were built for the minor nobles. The Kellner of Sarnen (Obedientiaries of the main family) lived in the Lower Castle in Sarnen. In Giswil the Lords of Hunwil lived in Hunwil Castle while the Meier of Giswil, a Ministerialis (unfree knights in the service of a feudal overlord) family, lived in Rosenberg Castle. In Lungern, the Lords of Vittringen had a castle.
The political community of Sarnen (de Sarnon locorum homines) were first mentioned in a Papal bull in 1247, when they and the citizens of Schwyz were excommunicated for supporting Frederick II against their ruler, Rudolf of Habsburg-Laufenburg. In 1257, the Habsburgs had to grant their landlord rights in Obwalden to several of their vassals, all minor nobles. During the 13th century, Obwalden was home to a unified local political organization with enough autonomy to act against the best interests of their nominal rulers. The nobility in the canton were all minor nobles with limited power. This changed on 16 April 1291 when Rudolph I of Habsburg bought the Unterwalden (containing both Obwalden and Nidwalden) from Murbach Abbey. This made him the chief landowner, the count, and the emperor over the valley. Fearing a loss of their freedoms, on the 1 August 1291 Nidwalden (Obwalden is not named in the text of the document, though it is named on the seal appended to it) formed the Eternal Alliance with Uri and Schwyz. This alliance is considered the beginning of the Swiss Confederation and modern Switzerland.
The Old Swiss Confederation.
Initially, the Eternal Alliance was a mutual defense pact between the three cantons, each of which was independently ruled. In 1304 the two valleys of Obwalden and Nidwalden were joined together under the same local deputy of the count. In 1309 Emperor Henry VII confirmed to Unterwalden all the liberties granted by his predecessor, though the exact terms are unknown. The Emperor also granted the valleys imperial immediacy which placed Unterwalden on an equal political footing with Uri and Schwyz.
In 1314, Duke Louis IV of Bavaria (who would become Louis IV, Holy Roman Emperor) and Frederick the Handsome, a Habsburg prince, each claimed the crown of the Holy Roman Emperor. The Confederates supported Louis IV because they feared the Habsburgs would annex their countries as Habsburg property. War broke out over a dispute between the Confederates of Schwyz and the Habsburg-protected monastery of Einsiedeln regarding some pastures, and eventually, the Confederates of Schwyz conducted a raid on the monastery.
In support of their allies, Unterwalden joined the Confederates in the Battle of Morgarten and drove back an invasion of the Brünig Pass. After the decisive Confederation victory over the Habsburgs, Unterwalden renewed the Eternal Alliance in the Pact of Brunnen. During the 14th century, the communities in Obwalden grew increasingly powerful at the expense of the nobility. The formerly powerful Kellner of Sarnen family retired from politics after 1307. The White Book of Sarnen mentions the conquest of the Lower Castle in Sarnen, the home of the family, which may explain why they left politics. The Strättligen and Ringgenberg families married into the Lords of Hunwil and used the power of the dynastic marriages to reduce Habsburg power to a vague suzerainty in the 1330s and 40s, though the Habsburg still owned some land in Obwalden. During the early 14th century, an organization of livestock farmers developed in the Hunwil lands. Throughout the century, their political power grew as they acquired more land and grew wealthy. The organization eventually became an alternative political structure and following conflicts between the organization and the Hunwil nobles, in 1382 the Landsgemeinde excluded the Hunwils from holding political or court offices. During the 13th and 14th century Obwalden established its own local governance, despite having had a joint assembly with Nidwalden up to around 1330.
During the 14th century, Obwalden participated in several other wars with the Swiss Confederation, including the Battle of Sempach in 1386 and the Gugler war in 1375. It peacefully acquired Alpnach in 1368 and Hergiswil in 1378. In 1403 Obwalden joined Uri to invade the Leventina area (today located in the canton of Ticino) to establish new markets for cheese and cattle. They conquered the Val d' Ossola in 1410. In 1419 the Confederation bought Bellinzona. Milan attacked the city three years later in 1422 after an offer to buy Bellinzona was rejected by the Swiss Confederation. The troops from Uri and Obwalden were quickly driven from the city and later defeated at the Battle of Arbedo on 30 June 1422. This defeat drove the Confederates out of Bellinzona and the Val d' Ossola and Leventina. An attempt to pull the Entlebuch region away from Lucerne ended with the Obwalden supported Entlebuch leader Peter Amstalden arrested, tried and executed in 1478. In 1500, Nidwalden, Schwyz, and Uri conquered Ticino again and ruled until 1798. While Obwalden participated in the conquests of Aargau (1415), Thurgau (1460), and Locarno, (1512), and in the temporary occupation of the Val d' Ossola (1410–14, 1416–22, 1425–26, 1512–15) it was never able to incorporate any captured territory or grow.
During the Burgundian Wars (1474–77) Unterwalden, like the other Forest cantons, hung back through jealousy of Bern, but came to the rescue in time of need. Following the Swiss victories in the Burgundian Wars the Old Swiss Confederation was nearly torn apart by internal conflict when the city cantons insisted on having the lion's share of the proceeds since they had supplied the most troops. The country cantons resented this and the "Tagsatzung" or leadership of each of the cantons met in Stans in Nidwalden in 1481 to resolve the issues. However, they were unable to resolve the issues and war seemed inevitable. A local hermit, Niklaus von der Flüe from Obwalden, was consulted on the situation. According to legend he requested that a message be passed on to the members of the "Tagsatzung" on his behalf. The details of the message have remained unknown to this day, however, it did calm the tempers and led to the drawing up of the "Stanser Verkommnis". As part of the "Verkommnis" Fribourg and Solothurn were admitted into the confederation.
The Reformation.
The Landsgemeinde of Obwalden stood firmly against the Protestant Reformation. When attempts to resolve the conflicts between the Protestant and Catholic cantons in the Tagsatzung and during the disputation of Baden (1526) were unsuccessful, Obwalden adopted an aggressively pro-Catholic stance. In 1528, they sent troops over the Brünig Pass to try to force the Bernese Oberhasli region to hold the old faith. The Obwalden invasion and the Bernese response, which drove them out of Bern, were part of the general unrest leading to the First War of Kappel in 1529. While the First War of Kappel ended in a peace treaty without loss of life, two years later the Second War of Kappel ended in the death of reformer Huldrych Zwingli and a victory for the Catholic side. However, since about half of the Confederation remained Protestant, the Catholic cantons began to make alliances with neighboring Catholic leaders including France and Spain. Most of the leading political families in Obwalden became pro-French.
Under the Helvetic Republic.
During the 1798 French invasion, Obwalden still had a strongly pro-French government. The von Flüe had grown wealthy and politically powerful in mercenary service in France. The clergy saw France still as supporters of the Catholic Church. On 1 April 1798, Obwalden became the first of the original Swiss cantons to accept the Helvetic Republic. However, it was then forced by its neighbors to reject the new Republic and resist the French. When the French armies crushed the rebellion, the old Forest Cantons were merged into the single Canton of Waldstätten. Obwalden became the district of Sarnen in this new Canton. The leadership of the new district were supporters of Helvetic Republic and the French army.
After the collapse of the Helvetic Republic, the Act of Mediation of 1803 dissolved Waldstätten and in the 15th section specifically divided Unterwalden into the half-cantons "ob dem Wald" and "nid dem Wald". The leading "Helvetiker" or supporters of the Republic lost the favor of their fellow citizens. However, a large portion of the councilors before 1798 were also civil servants under the Republic and were re-elected by the Landsgemeinde in 1803. While the politicians remained the same, there were several important changes in the half-canton. The major change was that every resident of the canton gained equal rights, where before there had been citizens and resident aliens each with different rights. Other changes included raising the voting age from 14 to 20 and requiring military service at age 20.
From the Helvetic Republic to the founding of the Federal State.
In 1815 the monastery of Engelberg and the municipality of the same name joined Obwalden. The cantonal constitution documents of 19 and 24 November 1815 partially guaranteed the traditional rights of the Abbey and its surrounding community. Then, in 1816, the constitution was altered to include Engelberg as a municipality in the canton. During the Restoration period the government began to roll back many of the reforms of the Helvetic Republic. In the 1830s and 40s, Landammann Nikodem Spichtig began to expand the power of his office. In 1840, a coalition of liberals and radicals gained the majority in the Federal Diet. They introduced a number of reforms and proposed a new constitution that included many radical reforms. In response to this radical government, the Catholic and conservative cantons, including Obwalden, formed the "Sonderbund" or separate alliance in 1843. When the radicals attempted to dissolve this separate alliance in 1847, they started the Sonderbund War. Though Obwalden participated in the War, the Sonderbund council surrendered before the Federal army reached the Canton.
After the Sonderbund War, the old government was replaced with a liberal government. In response to the wide-ranging powers that Landammann Spichtig had held, the new government eliminated some levels of government and replaced lifetime appointments to Landammann with term limits. Spichtig was seen as having pulled Obwalden into the Sonderbund, and he was driven out of office and politics.
Modern Obwalden.
In 1850, the Catholic Church was recognized as the only cantonal religion. However, in 1867 the cantonal constitution was completely rewritten. It changed the organization of the government and allowed the Reformed churches some rights, including the right to run their own schools. The 1867 constitution also weakened many of the special privileges that the Landmann held. In 1902 the constitution was rewritten again and it allowed citizens to demand a referendum on any law. In the following years a number of initiatives and referendums were submitted, some of which succeeded. In 1909, an initiative was approved which allowed 1,200 citizens to demand a secret vote on constitutional revisions. In 1922, the power of the Landsgemeinde was weakened further with the introduction of secret ballots on constitutional, legal and tax laws.
The last complete revision of the cantonal constitution was in 1968. This revision addressed a number of small issues and clarified a number of laws, but there were no major changes. In 1972, women were first allowed to vote in cantonal elections and in 1983 the voting age dropped to eighteen. The Landsgemeinde was finally abolished in 1998.
Geography.
Highest elevation: Titlis (Urner Alps), 3238 m
Lakes in the canton include: parts of Lake Lucerne (Vierwaldstättersee), Lake Sarnen (Sarnersee), Lake Lungern (Lungerersee), Wichelsee, Tannensee and Melchsee.
The total area of the canton is . , or about 40.2% of the canton is wooded. , or about 37.9% is used in agriculture. Of the rest of the area, or 3.2% is developed (structures and roads) and or 18.7% is classed as unproductive (rivers, mountains or glaciers).
Politics.
Within the Swiss Confederation Obwalden is a half canton. This gives Obwalden all the rights and duties of full cantons, with the exception that the canton can only send one deputy to the Council of States. The small size of the canton allows a small government with only five members.
Federal elections.
In the 2011 federal election the most popular party was the Christian Social Party of Obwalden which received 56.9% of the vote. The other party in the election was the SVP with 43.1%. The CSP OW jumped from having no candidate or votes in 2007 to a majority in 2011.
Cantonal elections.
In the Cantonal Council election, on 7 March 2010, the centre maintained its dominance of the Cantonal Council. The Christian Democrats lost three seats, but remained the largest party with 20. The Swiss People's Party gained five seats to the become the second largest party, while the FDP.The Liberals retained 10 seats but dropped to the third largest. The Social Democratic Party remained steady with 6 seats and the Christian Social Party of Obwalden lost two seats to have 8.
The evolving party membership in the Kantonsrat is shown in the following chart (for selected dates):
Demographics.
Obwalden has a population () of . , 12.9% of the population are resident foreign nationals. Over the last 10 years (2000–2010) the population has changed at a rate of 8.7%. Migration accounted for 5.7%, while births and deaths accounted for 2.5%. Most of the population () speaks German (29,920 or 92.3%) as their first language, Albanian is the second most common (452 or 1.4%) and Serbo-Croatian is the third (399 or 1.2%). There are 144 people who speak French, 329 people who speak Italian and 32 people who speak Romansh.
Of the population in the canton, 14,867 or about 45.8% were born in Obwalden and lived there in 2000. There were 4,374 or 13.5% who were born in the same canton, while 8,228 or 25.4% were born somewhere else in Switzerland, and 4,000 or 12.3% were born outside of Switzerland.
, children and teenagers (0–19 years old) make up 26.7% of the population, while adults (20–64 years old) make up 59.3% and seniors (over 64 years old) make up 14.1%.
, there were 15,026 people who were single or never married in the canton. There were 14,674 married individuals, 1,691 widows or widowers and 1,036 individuals who are divorced.
, there were 12,445 private households in the canton, and an average of 2.5 persons per household. There were 3,835 households that consist of only one person and 1,349 households with five or more people. , the construction rate of new housing units was 8.8 new units per 1000 residents. The vacancy rate for the canton, , was 0.8%.
Historic population.
The historic population is given in the following chart:
Municipalities.
There are seven municipalities: Sarnen, Kerns, Sachseln, Alpnach, Giswil, Lungern and Engelberg. The capital Sarnen is subdivided into "Sarnen-Dorfschaft", "Kägiswil", "Schwendi/Wilen" and "Ramersberg". The autonomy of the municipalities in Obwalden is significant. Two thirds of the tax revenue flows to the municipalities, which for example pay for education without grants from the canton.
Economy.
Small and middle-sized businesses dominate the economy of Obwalden. Many of them are specialists in areas such as miniature engines, synthetics, medical equipment, or nanotechnology.
Traditional industries are still of great importance. Particularly forestry and related businesses are significant, as is agriculture. Agriculture in Obwalden is specialized in integrated dairy and meat farming. The farms are still family-run.
In 2007 Obwalden replaced the former regressive income tax (lower tax rates for higher incomes) with a flat 1.8% income tax, which is the lowest in the country. This cantonal tax is in addition to federal and local taxes.
, Obwalden had an unemployment rate of 1.5%. , there were 1,871 people employed in the primary economic sector and about 750 businesses involved in this sector. 6,499 people were employed in the secondary sector and there were 452 businesses in this sector. 10,037 people were employed in the tertiary sector, with 1,380 businesses in this sector.
 the total number of full-time equivalent jobs was 15,215. The number of jobs in the primary sector was 1,157, of which 1,052 were in agriculture and 105 were in forestry or lumber production. The number of jobs in the secondary sector was 6,008 of which 3,648 or (60.7%) were in manufacturing, 46 or (0.8%) were in mining and 2,139 (35.6%) were in construction. The number of jobs in the tertiary sector was 8,050. In the tertiary sector; 1,892 or 23.5% were in the sale or repair of motor vehicles, 520 or 6.5% were in the movement and storage of goods, 1,440 or 17.9% were in a hotel or restaurant, 140 or 1.7% were in the information industry, 347 or 4.3% were the insurance or financial industry, 708 or 8.8% were technical professionals or scientists, 528 or 6.6% were in education and 1,213 or 15.1% were in health care.
Of the working population, 10.7% used public transportation to get to work, and 54.6% used a private car.
Tourism.
Tourism is a major sector of the economy. The central location in the Swiss Alps meant that Obwalden was able to establish itself as a significant tourist location in the 19th century. Many facilities built for tourism now benefit the local industry and the population. Two of the mountains, namely Pilatus and Titlis, are the main attractions. Winter sports, in particular skiing and snowboarding, attract many tourist. The main resorts are Engelberg, Melchsee-Frutt, Lungern-Schönbüel, Mörlialp and Langis. During the summer, hiking and mountaineering are the main attractions. One-quarter of the population is directly or indirectly employed in the tourism sector.
Religion.
From the , 25,992 or 80.2% were Roman Catholic, while 2,255 or 7.0% belonged to the Swiss Reformed Church. Of the rest of the population, there were 464 members of an Orthodox church (or about 1.43% of the population), there were 14 individuals (or about 0.04% of the population) who belonged to the Christian Catholic Church, and there were 497 individuals (or about 1.53% of the population) who belonged to another Christian church. There were 5 individuals (or about 0.02% of the population) who were Jewish, and 985 (or about 3.04% of the population) who were Islamic. There were 41 individuals who were Buddhist, 82 individuals who were Hindu and 8 individuals who belonged to another church. 1,212 (or about 3.74% of the population) belonged to no church, are agnostic or atheist, and 1,109 individuals (or about 3.42% of the population) did not answer the question.
Education.
In Obwalden about 11,601 or (35.8%) of the population have completed non-mandatory upper secondary education, and 3,241 or (10.0%) have completed additional higher education (either university or a "Fachhochschule"). Of the 3,241 who completed tertiary schooling, 66.0% were Swiss men, 22.0% were Swiss women, 7.3% were non-Swiss men and 4.8% were non-Swiss women.
Culture.
Traditional culture in Obwalden has been kept alive by many local organizations. There is traditional music, carnival, dances, costumes, theatres, and festivals. There are also a number of modern artists, including Josef Garovi (composer), Caspar Diethelm (composer), Julian Dillier (poet), Franz Bucher (painter), Kurt Sigrist (sculptor) and Alois Spichtig (sculptor).


Viking Brittany

Viking Brittany refers to the Viking occupation of Brittany during the High Middle Ages. Throughout the 9th century, the Bretons faced threats from various flanks: they resisted full incorporation into the Frankish Carolingian Empire yet they also had to repel an emerging threat of the new duchy of Normandy on their eastern border by these Scandinavian colonists.
The Bretons therefore walked a tightrope between these two powers, often using one against the other to mitigate the other's expansionist agendas. This would eventually lead to the downfall of the short-lived Kingdom of Brittany and a two-decade long occupation by the Norse only for this to be finally broken with support arriving from surprising sources.
Opportunistic raids.
In the early 840’s, the Norse generally were involved in small coastal and river raids throughout the region. They would be based each summer on the island of Noirmoutier at the mouth of the river Loire.
Norse-Breton alliance.
The following events give an indication that the Bretons allied themselves with these strangers in attacks on the Franks:
In May 843, Breton leader Nominoe took advantage of the confusion in the Frankish Carolingian Empire to consolidate his territory. In alliance with a rebel Frank, Lambert II of Nantes and the Norse warlord Hastein, Nominoe's son Erispoe defeated the Franks at the Battle of Messac, killing Count Renaud of Nantes.
In June 843 the Norse attacked and sacked the Frankish-controlled city of Nantes as it was bereft of defenders due to the Battle of Messac. They sailed up the Loire river with a fleet of 67 ships. Crowds had gathered to celebrate the feast of St. John. Most historians think that the raid was led by a Norse leader called Asgeir who was known for raiding up the River Seine. It is also quite possible that among the Norse leaders at Nantes was Hastein.
The Breton army under Nominoe in 845 defeated the forces of Charles the Bald, King of West Francia, at the Battle of Ballon, in the eastern part of Brittany near Redon and the Frankish border. Nominoe gained control over Rennes and Nantes, which had previously formed part of a Frankish border zone known as the Breton March.
The Frankish army was again defeated in 851 at the Battle of Jengland by the Bretons under Erispoe and control over Rennes, Nantes and the Pays de Retz was secured. Consequently the Franks recognised the independence of Brittany and determined borders between the two states.
Under Salomon, King of Brittany, Hastein's Norse in 865 united with the Bretons again to defeat a Frankish army at the Battle of Brissarthe, near modern-day Le Mans. Two Frankish leaders, Robert the Strong and Ranulf I of Aquitaine, were killed. The Franks were forced to confirm Brittany's independence from the Franks and a expanded Breton territory. The Norse tactically helped their Breton allies by making devastating pillaging raids on the Frankish kingdom.
In 867 Hastein’s forces ravaged Bourges and a year later attacked Orléans. Peace lasted until the spring of 872 when the Norse fleet sailed up the Maine and occupied Angers, which led to a siege by Charles the Bald. A peace was agreed in October 873.
Norse occupation.
Hastein remained in the Loire country and was finally expelled by the Franks in 882 and relocated his forces north to the Seine. From this point the Norse seem to also become occupiers of land. By 907 Hastein appears to have been the leader of an area now called Upper Brittany, with Nantes as its capital.
Between 914 and 919 the Frankish King Robert of Neustria continued to fight the invading Norse. The Norse Rognvaldr killed the Breton Gourmaelon in battle and under this pressure, the Breton nobility fled to Mercia in Britain and Francia. The Chronicle of Nantes condemns the aristocrats abandonment of Brittany:
"The evil race of Normans, a most cruel and perverse people, sailed across the ocean with a huge fleet of ships and laid waste to all of Brittany. Frightened counts and viscounts and machiterns fled in panic before them, scattering to Francia, Burgundy and Aquitaine. Only poor Bretons tilling the soil stayed under the domination of the barbarians, without leaders or defenders."
In 919 the Franks ceded Nantes to Rognvaldr, who renamed it Namsborg, made peace and agreed to convert to Christianity for being allowed to keep Upper Brittany. Rognvaldr ravaged the lands between the Seine and Loire rivers in 924, then Burgundy, but was finally defeated at Chalmont. The Franks launched another failed attempt in 927 to retake Nantes.
According to local legends, a Viking band arrived in Guerande in 919 determined to pillage the city. The Guerandais apparently took refuge in the collegiate church praying to St Aubin who apparently sent a sign giving courage to the locals who took up arms and drove out the invaders.
Rognvaldr reigned until his death in 930.
Hakon Rognvaldrsson, known to the Franks as Incon, replaced him as Norse leader. King Rudolph of the Franks defeated Incon at Estress in the same year. This was however not deemed conclusive.
Breton revolt.
In 931 The Norse assembled an army on the Loire to attack the Franks. Breton peasants seized this opportunity and rebelled. The Norse appear to have been taken by surprise, a counterattack however ensured that Brittany is reconquered.
By 935 Incon was isolated after William Longsword of Normandy reconciled with the Franks and exiled Bretons started returning from Britain. Alan Barbetorte returned to Brittany from England between 936 and 938, and engaged the Norse. Incon was slain and Nantes recaptured in 937. With support from the Anglo-Saxon King Athelstan, the Bretons rebellion spread throughout the peninsula.
The Battle of Trans-la-Fôret was fought on 1 August 939 between the occupying Norse and the Bretons, led by a joint army of Alan II of Brittany, Judicael Berengar of Brittany and the Frank Hugh II, Count of Maine, who decisively attacked and defeated the Norse stronghold, bringing a end to the occupation.
Outcome.
The Breton victory at Trans-la-Forêt freed Brittany from Norse occupation and led to the re-establishment of the Breton State not as a Kingdom, but as a sovereign duchy under Alan II, due to a new fealty owed to the Franks for helping remove the Norse. Brittany became fortified by returning Breton lords.
Norse piracy affected the vibrant maritime trade between the Bretons and their Welsh cousins, isolating the Bretons.
Armorican texts protected by monks for centuries were lost after this period. The Breton capital was moved from Nantes to Rennes, which was considered more defensible. This would become a future point of discord between the two cities.
A Norse saga attributed to Snori Sturluson mentions that sporadic attacks continued into 1015 when the Breton town of Guerande was destroyed.


Province of Teramo

The Province of Teramo (; Abruzzese: "") is a province in the Abruzzo region of Italy. Its capital is the city of Teramo. The province has an area of , a population of 313,029 (2012), and is subdivided into 47 comunes (), see Comunes of the Province of Teramo. The Province of Teramo shares its northern border with the Province of Ascoli Piceno in the Marche Region, southern and southwestern borders with the Province of L'Aquila in the Abruzzo Region, and a western border with the Province of Rieti in the Region of Lazio. To the south is the Abruzzo Province of Pescara and to the east is the Adriatic Sea.
Geography.
The landscape of the Province of Teramo is dominated almost entirely on the east by a large body of water with the beaches of the Adriatic sea and by the Apennine Mountains which his highest peak of Gran Sasso d'Italia westside. The province is indeed divided latitudinally by the characteristic hills and valleys rich in vineyards and olive groves that begin in the Apennines and run almost to the coast. Colline Teramane (Teramo Hills) has become a trademark and are one of the most significant areas where extra virgin olive oil and Abruzzo wines are produced. Unique of the province of Teramo is the short distance between the beaches of the Adriatic sea and the snowcapped Gran Sasso peaks. They can be reached within an hour from one point to the other.
The peaks of the Gran Sasso rise to the west of the Province of Teramo while those of the Monti della Laga dominate its northern border. These two ridges are among the most distinctive and the most relevant of the entire Apennine Mountain range. The majestic Gran Sasso rises at its peak, the Corno Grande, to an elevation of and is characterized by steep, and in places virtually inaccessible, gorges with nature reserves and protected living species. A good part of Gran Sasso and Monti della Laga National Park is nestled in the province. Calderone, the southernmost glacier in Continental European, is found nearby. In contrast to the rugged and isolated Gran Sasso area, the Monti della Laga are characterised by thick forests, shallow gorges, rolling slopes and valleys, and several spectacular waterfalls.
In addition to the provincial capital, the most populous and important commercial centers include Roseto degli Abruzzi and Giulianova with populations of 25,000 and 24,000 inhabitants respectively. On the eastern portion of the province are the so-called "seven sister" beaches directly adjacent to the Adriatic Sea. These resorts are noted for one of the highest blue flag beaches density, very fine white sand and their mild and wholesome Mediterranean climates which support a rich flora of palm, pine and oleander trees. Much of the province is hilly and very few large flat plains are to be found. Running from the west to the east are a number of valley streams and rivers which eventually empty into the Adriatic Sea.
The province of Teramo can easily be reached by car or bus from Rome via the A24 highway and it is also connected to the A14 highway.
Culture.
Towns in the Province of Teramo include Civitella del Tronto and Atri. The first stood as the northernmost protective point of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. In Atri there is a Roman Catholic cathedral and a theatre. The provincial capital of Teramo hosts a large cathedral and has for centuries served all of Abruzzo as a main administrative and economic center.
On 15 September 2005 the President of Italy, Carlo Azeglio Ciampi, went to Teramo to make a special presentation in honour of the resistance movement that arose in this town against the Nazi forces during the Second World War. A special note was made of the young Italian partisans who gathered in the village of Bosco Martese. There they risked deportation, severe reprisals, and other barbarous acts.
Tourism.
Main tourist attractions include:
From north to south, the province of Teramo boasts several blue flag beaches on the Adriatric Seacoast, called the seven sisters, are the following:
Transportation.
Major highways.
The Province of Teramo can be reached from the north and the south by the main highway, the A14, that runs along the Adriatic Coast. It can be reached from the west by the A24 coming from Rome via L'Aquila.
Railroad lines.
The central railroad station of the province is located in Giulianova. From here is it possible to follow the coastline to the north and south or to travel in a westerly direction towards the provincial capital.
Seaports.
The port of Giulianova is the maritime terminal of the Province of Teramo.
Administration.
Since 2009, the president of the province has been Valter Catarra of the centre-right political party.
Major "comuni".
The main "comuni" and towns by population as of 2005 are:
Teramo (52,794), Roseto degli Abruzzi (23,669), Giulianova (21,875), Silvi Marina (15,247), Martinsicuro (15,047), Pineto (13,763), Atri (11,269), Alba Adriatica (11,219), Sant'Egidio alla Vibrata (9,177), Mosciano Sant'Angelo (8,559), Tortoreto (8,536), Montorio al Vomano (8,072), Campli (7,598), Bellante (7,208).


States of Austria

Austria is a federal republic made up of nine states (German: Länder). Since "Land" is also the German word for "country", the term Bundesländer (literally "federated countries") is often used instead to avoid ambiguity. The Constitution of Austria uses both terms. Austrian land can decide laws that stays in the limits of the constitution and each land has representatives in the main Austrian parliament.
Geography.
The majority of the land area in the states of Upper Austria, Lower Austria, Vienna, and Burgenland is situated in the Danube valley and thus consists almost completely of accessible and easily arable terrain. The other five states, in contrast, are located in the Alps and thus are comparatively unsuitable for agriculture. Their terrain is also relatively unfavourable to heavy industry and long-distance trade. Accordingly, the population of what now is the Republic of Austria has been concentrated in the former four states since prehistoric times. Austria's most densely populated state is the city-state of Vienna, the heart of what is Austria's only metropolitan area. Lower Austria ranks only fourth in population density even though it contains Vienna's suburbs; this is due to large areas of land being predominantly agricultural. The alpine state of Tyrol, the less alpine but geographically more remote state of Carinthia, and the non-alpine but near-exclusively agricultural state of Burgenland are Austria's least densely populated states. The wealthy alpine state of Vorarlberg is something of an anomaly due to its small size, isolated location and distinct Alemannic culture.
The following ranked list of Austrian states cites official Statistik Austria population on 1 January 2015. Areas are given in square kilometres, population density is expressed in inhabitants per square kilometre. For the purpose of the above list, a city is a community defined to be a city by Austrian law; a town is a community not defined to be a city. Many of Austria's cities have population figures on the order of ten thousand inhabitants; some are even smaller.
Politics.
The nine states (Bundesländer) of Austria in alphabetical order are:
Federalism and state powers.
Each Austrian state has an elected legislature, the "Landtag", and a state government ("Landesregierung") headed by a governor ("Landeshauptmann" or "Landeshauptfrau"). Elections are held every five years (six years in Upper Austria). The state constitution, among other things, determines how the seats in the state government are assigned to political parties, with most states having a system of proportional representation based on the number of delegates in the "Landtag" in place. The "Landeshauptmann" is elected by the "Landtag", though in practice he or she is the leader of the majority party or coalition in the "Landtag."
Vienna, the capital of Austria, plays a double role as city and "Bundesland." The mayor has the rank of a state governor, while the city council also functions as a "Landtag." Under the municipal constitution, however, city and state business must be kept separate. Hence, while the city council and "Landtag" have identical memberships, they hold separate meetings, and each body has separate presiding officers. When meeting as a city council, the deputies can only deal with city affairs; when meeting as a "Landtag," they can only deal with state affairs.
Austrian federalism is largely theoretical as the states are granted few legislative powers. The federal constitution initially granted all legislative powers to the states, but many powers have been subsequently taken away, and only a few remain, such as planning and zoning codes, nature protection, hunting, fishing, farming, youth protection, certain issues of public health and welfare and the right to levy certain taxes.
All other matters, including but not limited to criminal law, civil law, corporate law, most aspects of economic law, defense, most educational matters and academia, telecommunications, and much of the healthcare system are regulated by federal laws. There is also no judiciary of the Länder, since the federal constitution defines the judiciary as an exclusively federal matter. This centralisation follows a historic model where central power during the time of the empire was largely concentrated in Vienna.
However, the state governor ("Landeshauptmann") is in charge of the administration of much of federal administrative law within the respective state, which makes this post an important political position. Furthermore, state competences include zoning laws, planning issues and public procurement on the regional level, which adds considerable weight to state politics. As a practical matter, there have been cases where states have been able to block projects endorsed by the federal government, as in the case of a railway tunnel that was to be built below the Semmering.
Austrian "Länder" are endowed formally and practically with a much smaller degree of autonomy than American or German states. Even so, Austrians tend to identify passionately with their respective "Land" and often defend what little independent governance their states have. It is not unheard of for Austrians to consider themselves, for instance, Tyrolean first, Austrian second.
Historical development.
In terms of boundaries, the present-day states arose from the crown lands of Austria-Hungary, an extensive multiethnic realm whose German-speaking nucleus emerged as the Republic of Austria after the dissolution of the Dual Monarchy at the end of World War I.
The states of Upper Austria and Lower Austria are essentially equivalent to what were since 1783/84 the two autonomous halves of the Archduchy of Austria, a principality which formed the empire's historic heartland. Salzburg is coterminous with the former Austro-Hungarian Duchy of Salzburg (the former Archbishopric). Similarly, the state of Carinthia descends from the Duchy of Carinthia, the state of Styria descends from the Duchy of Styria, and the state of Tyrol descends from the Princely County of Tyrol; these states had to cede territories to Italy and Yugoslavia when Austria emerged in its present form. Also, the state of Vorarlberg had been a semi-autonomous part of the County of Tyrol since 1861.
The city-state of Vienna was a part of Lower Austria up until 1921. The state of Burgenland is made up of the predominantly German-speaking area that the Kingdom of Hungary until 1921 had to cede to the First Austrian Republic after World War I as a result of the Treaties of Trianon and Saint-Germain-en-Laye.