Levis De-Icer

The Levis De-Icer is a High voltage direct current (HVDC) system, aimed at de-icing multiple AC power lines in Quebec, Canada. It is the only HVDC system not used for power transmission.
In the winter of 1998, Québec's power lines were toppled by icing, sometimes up to 75 mm. To prevent such a damage, a de-icing system was developed.
The Levis De-Icer can use a maximum power of 250 MW; its operation voltage is ±17.4 kV. It can be used on multiple 735 kV AC power lines.
When there is no icing, the Lévis De-Icer installed at Hydro-Québec's Lévis substation operates as static VAR compensator improving the stability of the AC lines.
What the De-icer is and what it does.
Because of what happened in Quebec in the winter of 1998, Hydro-Quebec TransEnergie created a De-icing machine to ensure that another event like this wouldn't happen again. The De-icer is a machine that runs a high direct current (DC) into a selected transmission line in order to melt the ice on it. However, because the operation in this mode may be very infrequent, when the installation is not being used as a De-icer it is used as a Static Var Compensator, SVC for short, by using the HVDC valves as a Thyristor Controlled Reactor. An innovative design is used, minimizing the power losses of the valves in SVC mode. The reason an AC current wasn't used is because AC current requires a lot of reactive support. It would take a much higher amount of voltage to push the necessary current through the line. The high voltage system in Quebec runs in two transmission corridors, one high voltage system runs in the north-west from the main load centres of Montreal and Quebec and the other runs north-east along the Saint-Lawrence river. It is the latter corridor that is mainly in an area prone to ice storms that deposit ice on the transmission lines.
How it works.
The required power line is configured in de-icing mode after being separated from their AC circuit. Then, a line de-icing circuit is created by a set of disconnect switches controlled by the DCU which sends all of the commands to the de-icing converter. The DC current is slowly raised to reach the desired level of current. The de-icing disconnect switches are opened, and the DCU then releases the power line back to the AC network. The lines to be de-iced must stay in normal operation during the entire period of DCU development and start-up. The final installation of the SVC/de-icer requires a de-icing line equipment pre-operational testing before being installed. The lines being de-iced must stay in normal operation during the start-up as well as throughout the whole period of DCU development. This system is rarely used, only for critical conditions as the operators would be under heavy stress and the man-machine interface (MMI) must be on guided mode. For the five lines being de-iced, there are 13 line topologies that have between 40 and 90 actions per line to be performed during the de-icing process. Out of the five lines, four have three de-icing circuit topologies and the other one only has one. The DCU must offer the possibility to manually confirm the equipment’s state to the operator in order to continue the process as there is always a chance of communication failure. Flexible stimulation sequences used for control logic and MMI validation, pre-operational testing and operator training are required for line equipment and SVC. For 735 kV lines, de-icing takes place in three steps while 315 kV double circuit lines only need one. A DCU supervises and coordinates all the actions required for de-icing each line in order to provide network security and ensure the de-icing sequences are reliable.
De-Icing Currents.
The current of the conductor needs to be just high enough to melt the ice on it without actually going above the thermal limit of the conductor. An ordinary 735 kV line with a bundle of four 1354 MCM conductors per phase, requires a de-icing current of 7200 A per phase. At −10 °C and wind velocity at 10 km/h, it would take 30 minutes of current injection on a phase to melt 12 mm of radial build-up of ice.
Description of the de-icing concept at Levis.
The dc converter at Lévis will be used to de-ice 5 lines: four 735 kV single-circuit lines and one 315 kV double-circuit line. Because of the different lengths and sizes of the conductor, the dc installation needs to be able to operate in various voltages and currents. To be de-iced, the line must be closed off from the ac current at both ends. Line conductors are used to form a closed loop.
Modes.
In the de-icer mode.
According to Chris Horwill (AREVA T&D) there are four main design ratings in the de-icer mode. The first one is the Standard de-icer mode. It works at 250 MW and 7200 A from ±17.4 kV at 10 °C. The second one is the Verification mode. It works at 200 MW and 5760 A from ±17.4 kV at 30 °C. The third one is the 1-hour overload. This one works at 300 MW and 7200 A from ±20.8 kV at 10 °C. The last one is the Low ambient overload. It works at 275 MW and 7920 A from ±17.4 kV at −5 °C. The range of operation of the current and voltage is large because all of the sections have different characteristics.
Circuit Schematic.
In "de-icer" mode, the installation provides a controlled high current of dc (direct current) power source which feeds a resistive load. The normal current rating in the de-icer mode is 7200 Adc, defines at an ambient temperature of +10 °C. The current rating is too high for a single converter bridge based on present-day HVDC technology. However, with two converter bridges in parallel, the required dc current per bridge can be met with 125 mm thyristors used in HVDC converters. With two thyristor converters connected in parallel, there are several possible circuit topologies. The three main alternatives considered were: Twelve Pulse Circuit, Double Twelve Pulse Circuit, Double Six Pulse Circuit.
"Twelve Pulse Circuit".
In this circuit, the two bridges are fed from separate windings of the step down transformer. To improve harmonic cancellation, they have a 30° phase shift between them. Since the two bridges are connected in parallel, a specialised "Inter-Phase Transformer" is required to balance the differences in their emf. Also, this system requires a complex, multi-winding, step-down transformer.
"Double Twelve Pulse Circuit".
In this circuit, two whole, 12 pulse bridges that are series-connected, are connected in parallel. For this one, the "Inter-Phase Transformer" is eliminated because the emf produced by the bridges is the same. The step-down transformer, like in the twelve pulse circuit, is also complex, along with the thrystor valves and their interconnecting busbars.
"Double Six Pulse Circuit".
This is a simple connection between two six-pulse thyristor bridges. The de-icer function can be achieved with only a two-winding step-down transformer. Unlike the other two, this circuit can simple controller because the two thyristor bridges can be triggered directly in parallel. As a result, this circuit produces a broader range of harmonic currents and voltages.
In the SVC mode.
According to Chris Horwill, there are also four main design ratings in the SVC mode. The first one is the Dynamic range. This one is at 225 MVAr, or −115 MVAr at nominal voltage. The next one is the Target voltage. It is at 315 kV±5%. The third one is just the Slope. And the last one is 3% on MVAr.


Electric Power Development Company

The , operating under the brand name J-POWER, formerly , is an electric utility in Japan. It mainly produces electricity from coal and hydroelectric power stations. It also has a few wind farms and is currently building a nuclear plant in Ohma, Aomori prefecture, that is scheduled to begin operations in November 2014. J-Power is the sole operator of the transmission lines connecting the four main islands of Japan.
History.
After World War II, as a part of many changes implemented, the Supreme Commander of the Allied Powers ordered the dismantling of , which at the time provided electricity to all of Japan with a semi-governmental status. This was broken up into a number of utilities, which have become Japan's modern electric utility companies. However, in the battered state of post-war Japan, there were few investors out there to put money in these new companies, and certainly not enough to allow for sufficient R&D of power sources that Japan needed to keep up with the demand of power, thus it was decided that the occupied government would specially create an electric company with such capabilities. On September 19, 1952 the Electric Power Development Company (EDPC) was established as a government agency.
In 1997, Japanese government announced privatization of EDPC, and in 2004, it went public and was listed on the Tokyo Stock Exchange.


GSEG Combined Cycle Power plant, Hazira

GSEG Combined Cycle Power plant, Hazira is a gas based combined cycle power plant located at Hazira, Gujarat. The project is a joint venture between Gujarat State Petroleum Corporation (GSPC) Ltd., GAIL, Krishak Bharati Cooperative (KRIBHCO) and other Government of Gujarat Companies. Gujarat State Energy Generation Ltd. GSEG is a power company in Gujarat, India. It is a subsidiary of GSPC. The company is engaged in gas based generation of electricity.
The average natural gas requirement for the project is 0.78 Million cubic metres (MCM)/day which is sourced from gas exploration company GSPC and is transported by gas transportation company Gujarat State Petronet Limited.


Photovoltaics manufacturing in Malaysia

In 2014, Malaysia was the world's third largest manufacturer of photovoltaics equipment, behind China and the European Union.
In 2013, Malaysia's total production capacity for solar wafers, solar cells and solar panels totalled 4,042 MW.
Background.
Malaysia is a major hub for solar equipment manufacturing, with factories of companies like First Solar, Panasonic, TS Solartech, Jinko Solar, JA Solar, SunPower, Q-Cells,and SunEdison in locations like Kulim, Penang, Malacca, Cyberjaya, and Ipoh.
Many international companies have the majority of production capacity located in Malaysia, such as the American company First Solar which has over 2000 MW of production capacity located in Kulim and only 280 MW located in Ohio, and German-based Q-Cells which produces 1,100 MW worth of solar cells in Cyberjaya while producing only 200 MW worth of solar cells in Germany. SunPower's largest manufacturing facility with a capacity of 1400 MW is also located in Malacca.


Inertial confinement fusion

Inertial confinement fusion (ICF) is a type of fusion energy research that attempts to initiate nuclear fusion reactions by heating and compressing a fuel target, typically in the form of a pellet that most often contains a mixture of deuterium and tritium. Typical fuel pellets are about the size of a pinhead and contain around 10 milligrams of fuel.
To compress and heat the fuel, energy is delivered to the outer layer of the target using high-energy beams of laser light, electrons or ions, although for a variety of reasons, almost all ICF devices have used lasers. The heated outer layer explodes outward, producing a reaction force against the remainder of the target, accelerating it inwards, compressing the fuel. This process is also designed to create shock waves that travel inward through the target. A sufficiently powerful set of shock waves can compress and heat the fuel at the center so much that fusion reactions occur.
ICF is one of two major branches of fusion energy research, the other being magnetic confinement fusion. When it was first publicly proposed in the early 1970s, ICF appeared to be a practical approach to power production and the field flourished. Experiments during the 1970s and '80s demonstrated that the efficiency of these devices was much lower than expected, and reaching ignition would not be easy. Throughout the 1980s and '90s, many experiments were conducted in order to understand the complex interaction of high-intensity laser light and plasma. These led to the design of newer machines, much larger, that would finally reach ignition energies.
The largest operational ICF experiment is the National Ignition Facility (NIF) in the US, designed using the decades-long experience of earlier experiments. Like those earlier experiments, however, NIF has failed to reach ignition and is, as of 2015, generating about of the required energy levels.
Description.
Basic fusion.
Fusion reactions combine lighter atoms, such as hydrogen, together to form larger ones. This occurs when two atoms come close enough that the nuclear force pulls them together. Atomic nuclei are positively charged, and thus repel each other due to the electrostatic force. Overcoming this repulsion to bring the nuclei close enough costs a considerable amount of energy, which is known as the "Coulomb barrier" or "fusion barrier energy".
Generally, less energy will be needed to cause lighter nuclei to fuse, as they have less electrical charge and thus a lower barrier energy. Additionally, the nuclear force is increased with more nucleons, the total number of protons and neutrons. Thus, the overall energy barrier is minimized for atoms with the greatest number of neutrons compared to protons. This ratio is maximized in the two isotopes of hydrogen, deuterium with one proton and one neutron, and tritium with one proton and two neutrons. This is known simply as D-T, and is the most studied fusion fuel. As the mass of the nuclei increase, there is a point where the reaction no longer gives off net energy—the energy needed to overcome the energy barrier is greater than the energy released in the resulting fusion reaction.
A mix of D-T at standard conditions does not undergo fusion; the nuclei must be forced together before the nuclear force can pull them together into stable collections. Even in the hot, dense center of the sun, the average proton will exist for billions of years before it fuses. For practical fusion power systems, the rate must be dramatically increased by heating the fuel to tens of millions of degrees, or compressing it to immense pressures. The temperature and pressure required for any particular fuel to fuse is known as the Lawson criterion. These conditions have been known since the 1950s when the first H-bombs were built. To meet the Lawson Criterion is extremely difficult on Earth, which explains why fusion research has taken many years to reach the current high state of technical prowess.
Thermonuclear devices.
In a hydrogen bomb, the fusion fuel is compressed and heated with a separate fission bomb (see Teller-Ulam design). A variety of mechanisms transfers the energy of the fission "primary" explosion into the fusion fuel. A primary mechanism is that the flash of x-rays given off by the primary is trapped within the engineered case of the bomb, causing the volume between the case and the bomb to fill with an x-ray "gas". These x-rays evenly illuminate the outside of the fusion section, the "secondary", rapidly heating it until it explodes outward. This outward blowoff causes the rest of the secondary to be compressed inward until it reaches the temperature and density where fusion reactions begin.
When the reactions begin, the energy released from them in the form of particles keeps the reaction going. In the case of D-T fuel, most of the energy is released in the form of alpha particles and neutrons. In the incredibly high-density fuel mass, the alpha particles cannot travel very far before their electrical charge interacting with the surrounding plasma causes them to slow down. This transfer of kinetic energy heats the surrounding particles to the energies they need to undergo fusion as well. This process causes the fusion fuel to burn outward from the center. The electrically neutral neutrons travel much longer distances in the fuel mass and do not contribute to this self-heating process. In a bomb, they are instead used to either breed more tritium through reactions in a lithium-deuteride fuel, or are used to spark off fission events in a surrounding shell.
The requirement that the reaction has to be sparked off by a fission bomb makes the method impractical for power generation. Not only would the fission triggers be expensive to produce, but there is a minimum size that such a bomb can be built, defined roughly by the critical mass of the plutonium fuel used. Generally, it seems difficult to build nuclear devices much smaller than about 1 kiloton in yield, and the fusion secondary would add to this yield. This makes it a difficult engineering problem to extract power from the resulting explosions. Project PACER studied solutions to the engineering issues, but also demonstrated it was not economically feasible, the cost of the bombs was far greater than the value of the resulting electricity.
ICF mechanism of action.
One of the PACER participants, John Nuckolls, began to explore what happened to the size of the primary required to start the fusion reaction as the size of the secondary was scaled down. He discovered that as the secondary reaches the milligram size, the amount of energy needed to spark it fell into the megajoule range. Below this mass, the fuel became so small after compression that the alphas would escape.
A megajoule was far below even the smallest fission triggers, which were in the terajoule range. The question became whether there was some other way to deliver those megajoules. This led to the idea of a "driver", a device that would beam the energy at the fuel from a distance. That way the resulting fusion explosion did not damage it, so that it could be used repeatedly.
By the mid-1960s, it appeared that the laser could develop to the point where the required energy levels would be available. Generally, ICF systems use a single laser whose beam is split up into a number of beams which are subsequently individually amplified by a trillion times or more. These are sent into the reaction chamber, called the target chamber, by a number of mirrors positioned in order to illuminate the target evenly over its whole surface. The heat applied by the driver causes the outer layer of the target to explode, just as the outer layers of an H-bomb's fuel cylinder do when illuminated by the X-rays of the fission device. The explosion velocity is on the order of 108 meters per second.
The material exploding off the surface causes the remaining material on the inside to be driven inwards with great force, eventually collapsing into a tiny near-spherical ball. In modern ICF devices, the density of the resulting fuel mixture is as much as one-thousand times the density of water, or one-hundred that of lead, around 1000 g/cm3. This density is not high enough to create any useful rate of fusion on its own. However, during the collapse of the fuel, shock waves also form and travel into the center of the fuel at high speed. When they meet their counterparts moving in from the other sides of the fuel in the center, the density of that spot is raised much further.
Given the correct conditions, the fusion rate in the region highly compressed by the shock wave can give off significant amounts of highly energetic alpha particles. Due to the high density of the surrounding fuel, they move only a short distance before being "thermalised", losing their energy to the fuel as heat. This additional energy will cause additional fusion reactions in the heated fuel, giving off more high-energy particles. This process spreads outward from the centre, leading to a kind of self-sustaining burn known as "ignition".
Compression vs. ignition.
There is no limit to the advantages to compression in terms of alpha capture, in theory, a fuel with infinite density is best. Actually compressing the fuel has a number of practical limitations, especially once it begins to become electron degenerate, which occurs at about 1000 times the density of water (or 100 times that of lead). To produce this level of compression in D-T fuel, it must be imploded at about 140 km/second, which requires about 107 Joules per gram of fuel (J/g). For milligram-sized fuels, this is not a particularly large amount of energy and can be provided by modest devices.
Unfortunately, while this level of compression efficiently traps the alphas, it is not alone enough to heat the fuel to the required temperatures where fusion reactions will start, at least 50 million Kelvin. To reach these conditions, the velocity has to be about 300 km/second, requiring 109 J, which is significantly more difficult to achieve. There have been a number of suggestions on ways to reduce this.
In the most-used system to date, "central hot spot ignition", the pulse of energy from the driver is shaped such that a number of shocks (3 or 4) are launched into the capsule. This compresses the capsule shell and accelerates it inwards forming a spherically-imploding mass, which travels at about 300 km/sec. The shell compresses and heats the inner gas until its pressure increases enough to resist the converging shell. This launches a reverse shock wave which decelerates the shell, and briefly increases the density to enormous values. The goal of this concept is to spark off enough reactions that alpha self-heating takes place in the rest of the still inrushing fuel. This requires about 4.5x107 J/g, but a series of practical losses raise this to about 108 J.
In the "fast ignition" approach, a separate laser is used to provide the additional energy directly to the center of the fuel. This can be arranged through mechanical means, often using a small metal cone that punctures the outer fuel pellet wall to allow the laser light access to the center. In tests, this approach has failed as the pulse of light has to reach the center at a precise time, when it is obscured by the debris and especially free electrons from the compression pulse. It also has the disadvantage of requiring a second laser pulse, which almost always demands a completely separate laser.
A relatively new technique, , is "shock ignition". This is similar in concept to the hot-spot technique, but instead of ignition being achieved via compression heating of the hotspot, a final powerful, shock is sent into the fuel at a late time in order to trigger ignition through a combination of compression and shock heating. This increases the efficiency of the process with an eye to lowering the overall amount of power required.
Direct vs. indirect drive.
In the simplest conception of the ICF approach, the fuel is arranged as a sphere. This allows it to be pushed inward from all sides to collapse in the center. To produce the inward force, the fuel is placed within a thin shell that will capture the energy from the driver and explode outward. In practice, the capsules are normally made of a lightweight plastic and the fuel is deposited as a layer on the inside by inserting a small amount of gas into the shell and then freezing it.
The idea of having the driver shine directly on the fuel is known as the "direct drive" approach. In order for the fusion fuel to reach the required conditions, the implosion process must be extremely uniform in order to avoid significant asymmetry due to Rayleigh–Taylor instability and similar effects. For beam energy of 1 MJ in total, the fuel capsule cannot be larger than about 2 mm before these effects will destroy the implosion symmetry. This produces a very tight limit on the size of the beams, which may be difficult to achieve in practice.
This has led to an alternative concept, "indirect drive", where the beam does not shine on the fuel capsule directly. Instead, it shines into a small cylinder of heavy metal, often gold or lead, known as a "hohlraum". The beams are arranged so they do not hit the fuel capsule suspended in the center. The energy heats the hohlraum until it begins to give off X-rays. These X-rays fill the interior of the hohlraum and they perform the heating of the capsule. The advantage of this approach is that the beams can be larger and less accurate, which greatly eases the design of the driver. The disadvantage is that much of the delivered energy is used to heat the hohlraum until it is "X-ray hot", so the end-to-end efficiency is much lower than the direct drive concept.
Issues with successful achievement.
The primary problems with increasing ICF performance since the early experiments in the 1970s have been of energy delivery to the target, controlling symmetry of the imploding fuel, preventing premature heating of the fuel before maximum density is achieved, preventing premature mixing of hot and cool fuel by hydrodynamic instabilities, and the formation of a 'tight' shockwave convergence at the compressed fuel center.
In order to focus the shock wave on the center of the target, the target must be made with extremely high precision and sphericity with aberrations of no more than a few micrometres over its surface (inner and outer). Likewise the aiming of the laser beams must be extremely precise and the beams must arrive at the same time at all points on the target. Beam timing is a relatively simple issue though and is solved by using delay lines in the beams' optical path to achieve picosecond levels of timing accuracy. The other major problem plaguing the achievement of high symmetry and high temperatures/densities of the imploding target are so called "beam-beam" imbalance and beam anisotropy. These problems are, respectively, where the energy delivered by one beam may be higher or lower than other beams impinging on the target and of "hot spots" within a beam diameter hitting a target which induces uneven compression on the target surface, thereby forming Rayleigh-Taylor instabilities in the fuel, prematurely mixing it and reducing heating efficacy at the time of maximum compression. The Richtmyer-Meshkov instability is also formed during the process due to shock waves being formed.
All of these problems have been substantially mitigated to varying degrees in the past two decades of research by using various beam smoothing techniques and beam energy diagnostics to balance beam to beam energy; however, RT instability remains a major issue. Target design has also improved tremendously over the years. Modern cryogenic hydrogen ice targets tend to freeze a thin layer of deuterium just on the inside of a plastic sphere while irradiating it with a low power IR laser to smooth its inner surface while monitoring it with a microscope equipped camera, thereby allowing the layer to be closely monitored ensuring its "smoothness". Cryogenic targets filled with a deuterium tritium (D-T) mixture are "self-smoothing" due to the small amount of heat created by the decay of the radioactive tritium isotope. This is often referred to as "beta-layering".
Certain targets are surrounded by a small metal cylinder which is irradiated by the laser beams instead of the target itself, an approach known as "indirect drive". In this approach the lasers are focused on the inner side of the cylinder, heating it to a superhot plasma which radiates mostly in X-rays. The X-rays from this plasma are then absorbed by the target surface, imploding it in the same way as if it had been hit with the lasers directly. The absorption of thermal x-rays by the target is more efficient than the direct absorption of laser light, however these "hohlraums" or "burning chambers" also take up considerable energy to heat on their own thus significantly reducing the overall efficiency of laser-to-target energy transfer. They are thus a debated feature even today; the equally numerous "direct-drive" design does not use them. Most often, indirect drive hohlraum targets are used to simulate thermonuclear weapons tests due to the fact that the fusion fuel in them is also imploded mainly by X-ray radiation.
A variety of ICF drivers are being explored. Lasers have improved dramatically since the 1970s, scaling up in energy and power from a few joules and kilowatts to megajoules (see NIF laser) and hundreds of terawatts, using mostly frequency doubled or tripled light from neodymium glass amplifiers.
Heavy ion beams are particularly interesting for commercial generation, as they are easy to create, control, and focus. On the downside, it is very difficult to achieve the very high energy densities required to implode a target efficiently, and most ion-beam systems require the use of a hohlraum surrounding the target to smooth out the irradiation, reducing the overall efficiency of the coupling of the ion beam's energy to that of the imploding target further.
History.
First conception.
In the US.
Inertial confinement fusion history can be traced back to the "Atoms For Peace" conference held in 1957 in Geneva. This was a large, international UN sponsored conference between the superpowers of the US and Russia. Among the many topics covered during the event, some thought was given to using a hydrogen bomb to heat a water-filled cavern. The resulting steam would then be used to power conventional generators, and thereby provide electrical power.
This meeting led to the Operation Plowshare efforts, given this name in 1961. Three primary concepts were studied as part of Plowshare; energy generation under Project PACER, the use of large nuclear explosions for excavation, and as a sort of nuclear fracking for the natural gas industry. PACER was directly tested in December 1961 when the 3 kt Project Gnome device was emplaced in bedded salt in New Mexico. In spite of all theorizing and attempts to stop it, radioactive steam was released from the drill shaft, some distance from the test site. Further studies as part of PACER led to a number of engineered cavities replacing natural ones, but through this period the entire Plowshare efforts turned from bad to worse, especially after the failure of 1962's Sedan which released huge quantities of fallout. PACER nevertheless continued to receive some funding until 1975, when a 3rd party study demonstrated that the cost of electricity from PACER would be the equivalent to conventional nuclear plants with fuel costs over ten times as great as they were.
Another outcome of the "Atoms For Peace" conference was to prompt John Nuckolls to start considering what happens on the fusion side of the bomb. A thermonuclear bomb has two parts, a fission-based "primary" and a fusion-based "secondary". When primary explodes, it releases X-rays which implode the secondary. Nuckolls' earliest work concerned the study of how small the secondary could be made while still having a large "gain" to provide net energy output. This work suggested that at very small sizes, on the order of milligrams, very little energy would be needed to ignite it, much less than a fission primary. He proposed building, in effect, tiny all-fusion explosives using a tiny drop of D-T fuel suspended in the center of a metal shell, today known as a hohlraum. The shell provided the same effect as the bomb casing in an H-bomb, trapping x-rays inside so they irradiate the fuel. The main difference is that the X-rays would not be supplied by a fission bomb, but some sort of external device that heated the shell from the outside until it was glowing in the x-ray region (see thermal radiation). The power would be delivered by a then-unidentified pulsed power source he referred to using bomb terminology, the "primary".
The main advantage to this scheme is the efficiency of the fusion process at high densities. According to the Lawson criterion, the amount of energy needed to heat the D-T fuel to break-even conditions at ambient pressure is perhaps 100 times greater than the energy needed to compress it to a pressure that would deliver the same rate of fusion. So, in theory, the ICF approach would be dramatically more efficient in terms of gain. This can be understood by considering the energy losses in a conventional scenario where the fuel is slowly heated, as in the case of magnetic fusion energy; the rate of energy loss to the environment is based on the temperature difference between the fuel and its surroundings, which continues to increase as the fuel is heated. In the ICF case, the entire hohlraum is filled with high-temperature radiation, limiting losses.
In Germany.
Around the same time (in 1956) a meeting was organized at the Max Planck Institute in Germany by the fusion pioneer Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker. At this meeting Friedwardt Winterberg proposed the non-fission ignition of a thermonuclear micro-explosion by a convergent shock wave driven with high explosives. Further reference to Winterberg's work in Germany on nuclear micro explosions (mininukes) is contained in a declassified report of the former East German Stasi (Staatsicherheitsdienst).
In 1964 Winterberg proposed that ignition could be achieved by an intense beam of microparticles accelerated to a velocity of 1000 km/s. And in 1968, he proposed to use intense electron and ion beams, generated by Marx generators, for the same purpose. The advantage of this proposal is that the generation of charged particle beams is not only less expensive than the generation of laser beams but also can entrap the charged fusion reaction products due to the strong self-magnetic beam field, drastically reducing the compression requirements for beam ignited cylindrical targets.
In the USSR.
In 1967, research fellow Gurgen Askaryan published an article proposing the use of focused laser beams in the fusion of lithium deuteride or deuterium.
Early research.
Through the late 1950s, Nuckolls and collaborators at the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL) ran a number of computer simulations of the ICF concept. In early 1960 this produced a full simulation of the implosion of 1 mg of D-T fuel inside a dense shell. The simulation suggested that a 5 MJ power input to the hohlraum would produce 50 MJ of fusion output, a gain of 10. At the time the laser had not yet been invented, and a wide variety of possible drivers were considered, including pulsed power machines, charged particle accelerators, plasma guns, and hypervelocity pellet guns.
Through the year two key theoretical advances were made. New simulations considered the timing of the energy delivered in the pulse, known as "pulse shaping", leading to better implosion. Additionally, the shell was made much larger and thinner, forming a thin shell as opposed to an almost solid ball. These two changes dramatically increased the efficiency of the implosion, and thereby greatly lowered the energy required to compress it. Using these improvements, it was calculated that a driver of about 1 MJ would be needed, a five-fold improvement. Over the next two years several other theoretical advancements were proposed, notably Ray Kidder's development of an implosion system without a hohlraum, the so-called "direct drive" approach, and Stirling Colgate and Ron Zabawski's work on very small systems with as little as 1 μg of D-T fuel.
The introduction of the laser in 1960 at Hughes Research Laboratories in California appeared to present a perfect driver mechanism. Starting in 1962, Livermore's director John S. Foster, Jr. and Edward Teller began a small-scale laser study effort directed toward the ICF approach. Even at this early stage the suitability of the ICF system for weapons research was well understood, and the primary reason for its ability to gain funding. Over the next decade, LLNL made several small experimental devices for basic laser-plasma interaction studies.
Development begins.
In 1967 Kip Siegel started KMS Industries using the proceeds of the sale of his share of an earlier company, Conductron, a pioneer in holography. In the early 1970s he formed KMS Fusion to begin development of a laser-based ICF system. This development led to considerable opposition from the weapons labs, including LLNL, who put forth a variety of reasons that KMS should not be allowed to develop ICF in public. This opposition was funnelled through the Atomic Energy Commission, who demanded funding for their own efforts. Adding to the background noise were rumours of an aggressive Soviet ICF program, new higher-powered CO2 and glass lasers, the electron beam driver concept, and the 1970s energy crisis which added impetus to many energy projects.
In 1972 Nuckolls wrote an influential public paper in "Nature" introducing ICF and suggesting that testbed systems could be made to generate fusion with drivers in the kJ range, and high-gain systems with MJ drivers.
In spite of limited resources and numerous business problems, KMS Fusion successfully demonstrated fusion from the ICF process on 1 May 1974. However, this success was followed not long after by Siegel's death, and the end of KMS fusion about a year later, having run the company on Siegel's life insurance policy. By this point several weapons labs and universities had started their own programs, notably the solid-state lasers (Nd:glass lasers) at LLNL and the University of Rochester, and krypton fluoride excimer lasers systems at Los Alamos and the Naval Research Laboratory.
Although KMS's success led to a major development effort, the advances that followed were, and still are, hampered by the seemingly intractable problems that characterize fusion research in general.
High-energy ICF.
High-energy ICF experiments (multi-hundred joules per shot and greater experiments) began in earnest in the early-1970s, when lasers of the required energy and power were first designed. This was some time after the successful design of magnetic confinement fusion systems, and around the time of the particularly successful tokamak design that was introduced in the early '70s. Nevertheless, high funding for fusion research stimulated by the multiple energy crises during the mid to late 1970s produced rapid gains in performance, and inertial designs were soon reaching the same sort of "below break-even" conditions of the best magnetic systems.
LLNL was, in particular, very well funded and started a major laser fusion development program. Their Janus laser started operation in 1974, and validated the approach of using Nd:glass lasers to generate very high power devices. Focusing problems were explored in the Long path laser and Cyclops laser, which led to the larger Argus laser. None of these were intended to be practical ICF devices, but each one advanced the state of the art to the point where there was some confidence the basic approach was valid. At the time it was believed that making a much larger device of the Cyclops type could both compress and heat the ICF targets, leading to ignition in the "short term". This was a misconception based on extrapolation of the fusion yields seen from experiments utilizing the so-called "exploding pusher" type of fuel capsules. During the period spanning the years of the late '70s and early '80s the estimates for laser energy on target needed to achieve ignition doubled almost yearly as the various plasma instabilities and laser-plasma energy coupling loss modes were gradually understood. The realization that the simple exploding pusher target designs and mere few kilojoule (kJ) laser irradiation intensities would never scale to high gain fusion yields led to the effort to increase laser energies to the 100 kJ level in the UV and to the production of advanced ablator and cryogenic DT ice target designs.
Shiva and Nova.
One of the earliest serious and large scale attempts at an ICF driver design was the Shiva laser, a 20-beam neodymium doped glass laser system built at the LLNL that started operation in 1978. Shiva was a "proof of concept" design intended to demonstrate compression of fusion fuel capsules to many times the liquid density of hydrogen. In this, Shiva succeeded and compressed its pellets to 100 times the liquid density of deuterium. However, due to the laser's strong coupling with hot electrons, premature heating of the dense plasma (ions) was problematic and fusion yields were low. This failure by Shiva to efficiently heat the compressed plasma pointed to the use of optical frequency multipliers as a solution which would frequency triple the infrared light from the laser into the ultraviolet at 351 nm. Newly discovered schemes to efficiently frequency triple high intensity laser light discovered at the Laboratory for Laser Energetics in 1980 enabled this method of target irradiation to be experimented with in the 24 beam OMEGA laser and the NOVETTE laser, which was followed by the Nova laser design with 10 times the energy of Shiva, the first design with the specific goal of reaching ignition conditions.
Nova also failed in its goal of achieving ignition, this time due to severe variation in laser intensity in its beams (and differences in intensity between beams) caused by filamentation which resulted in large non-uniformity in irradiation smoothness at the target and asymmetric implosion. The techniques pioneered earlier could not address these new issues. But again this failure led to a much greater understanding of the process of implosion, and the way forward again seemed clear, namely the increase in uniformity of irradiation, the reduction of hot-spots in the laser beams through beam smoothing techniques to reduce Rayleigh–Taylor instabilities imprinting on the target and increased laser energy on target by at least an order of magnitude. Funding for fusion research was severely constrained in the 80's, but Nova nevertheless successfully gathered enough information for a next generation machine.
National Ignition Facility.
The resulting design, now known as the National Ignition Facility, started construction at LLNL in 1997. NIF's main objective will be to operate as the flagship experimental device of the so-called nuclear stewardship program, supporting LLNLs traditional bomb-making role. Completed in March 2009, NIF has now conducted experiments using all 192 beams, including experiments that set new records for power delivery by a laser.
The first credible attempts at ignition were initially scheduled for 2010, but ignition was not achieved as of September 30, 2012. As of October 7, 2013, the facility is understood to have achieved an important milestone towards commercialization of fusion, namely, for the first time a fuel capsule gave off more energy than was applied to it. This is still a long way from satisfying the Lawson criterion, but is a major step forward. In June, 2018 the NIF announced attainment of a record production of 54kJ of fusion energy output.
Fast ignition.
A more recent development is the concept of "fast ignition," which may offer a way to directly heat the high density fuel after compression, thus decoupling the heating and compression phases of the implosion. In this approach the target is first compressed "normally" using a driver laser system, and then when the implosion reaches maximum density (at the stagnation point or "bang time"), a second ultra-short pulse ultra-high power petawatt (PW) laser delivers a single pulse focused on one side of the core, dramatically heating it and hopefully starting fusion ignition. The two types of fast ignition are the "plasma bore-through" method and the "cone-in-shell" method. In the first method the petawatt laser is simply expected to bore straight through the outer plasma of an imploding capsule and to impinge on and heat the dense core, whereas in the cone-in-shell method, the capsule is mounted on the end of a small high-z (high atomic number) cone such that the tip of the cone projects into the core of the capsule. In this second method, when the capsule is imploded, the petawatt has a clear view straight to the high density core and does not have to waste energy boring through a 'corona' plasma; however, the presence of the cone affects the implosion process in significant ways that are not fully understood. Several projects are currently underway to explore the fast ignition approach, including upgrades to the OMEGA laser at the University of Rochester, the GEKKO XII device in Japan, and an entirely new £500 million facility, known as HiPER, proposed for construction in the European Union. If successful, the fast ignition approach could dramatically lower the total amount of energy needed to be delivered to the target; whereas NIF uses UV beams of 2 MJ, HiPER's driver is 200 kJ and heater 70 kJ, yet the predicted fusion gains are nevertheless even higher than on NIF.
Other projects.
Laser Mégajoule, the French project, has seen its first experimental line achieved in 2002, and its first target shots were finally conducted in 2014. The machine was roughly 75% complete as of 2016.
Using a different approach entirely is the "z"-pinch device. "Z"-pinch uses massive amounts of electric current which is switched into a cylinder comprising extremely fine wires. The wires vaporize to form an electrically conductive, high current plasma; the resulting circumferential magnetic field squeezes the plasma cylinder, imploding it and thereby generating a high-power x-ray pulse that can be used to drive the implosion of a fuel capsule. Challenges to this approach include relatively low drive temperatures, resulting in slow implosion velocities and potentially large instability growth, and preheat caused by high-energy x-rays.
As an energy source.
Practical power plants built using ICF have been studied since the late 1970s when ICF experiments were beginning to ramp up to higher powers; they are known as inertial fusion energy, or IFE plants. These devices would deliver a successive stream of targets to the reaction chamber, several a second typically, and capture the resulting heat and neutron radiation from their implosion and fusion to drive a conventional steam turbine.
Technical challenges.
IFE faces continued technical challenges in reaching the conditions needed for ignition. But even if these were all to be solved, there are a significant number of practical problems that seem just as difficult to overcome. Laser-driven systems were initially believed to be able to generate commercially useful amounts of energy. However, as estimates of the energy required to reach ignition grew dramatically during the 1970s and '80s, these hopes were abandoned. Given the low efficiency of the laser amplification process (about 1 to 1.5%), and the losses in generation (steam-driven turbine systems are typically about 35% efficient), fusion gains would have to be on the order of 350 just to energetically break even. These sorts of gains appeared to be impossible to generate, and ICF work turned primarily to weapons research.
With the recent introduction of fast ignition and similar approaches, things have changed dramatically. In this approach gains of 100 are predicted in the first experimental device, HiPER. Given a gain of about 100 and a laser efficiency of about 1%, HiPER produces about the same amount of "fusion" energy as electrical energy was needed to create it. It also appears that an order of magnitude improvement in laser efficiency may be possible through the use of newer designs that replace the flash lamps with laser diodes that are tuned to produce most of their energy in a frequency range that is strongly absorbed. Initial experimental devices offer efficiencies of about 10%, and it is suggested that 20% is a real possibility with some additional development.
With "classical" devices like NIF about 330 MJ of electrical power are used to produce the driver beams, producing an expected yield of about 20 MJ, with the maximum credible yield of 45 MJ. Using the same sorts of numbers in a reactor combining fast ignition with newer lasers would offer dramatically improved performance. HiPER requires about 270 kJ of laser energy, so assuming a first-generation diode laser driver at 10% the reactor would require about 3 MJ of electrical power. This is expected to produce about 30 MJ of fusion power. Even a very poor conversion to electrical energy appears to offer real-world power output, and incremental improvements in yield and laser efficiency appear to be able to offer a commercially useful output.
Practical problems.
ICF systems face some of the same secondary power extraction problems as magnetic systems in generating useful power from their reactions. One of the primary concerns is how to successfully remove heat from the reaction chamber without interfering with the targets and driver beams. Another serious concern is that the huge number of neutrons released in the fusion reactions react with the plant, causing them to become intensely radioactive themselves, as well as mechanically weakening metals. Fusion plants built of conventional metals like steel would have a fairly short lifetime and the core containment vessels will have to be replaced frequently.
One current concept in dealing with both of these problems, as shown in the HYLIFE-II baseline design, is to use a "waterfall" of FLiBe, a molten mix of fluoride salts of lithium and beryllium, which both protect the chamber from neutrons and carry away heat. The FLiBe is then passed into a heat exchanger where it heats water for use in the turbines. The tritium produced by fissioning lithium nuclei can also be extracted in order to close the power plant's thermonuclear fuel cycle, a necessity for perpetual operation because tritium does not exist in quantity naturally and must be manufactured. Another concept, Sombrero, uses a reaction chamber built of Carbon-fiber-reinforced polymer which has a very low neutron cross section. Cooling is provided by a molten ceramic, chosen because of its ability to stop the neutrons from traveling any further, while at the same time being an efficient heat transfer agent.
Economic viability.
Even if these technical advances solve the considerable problems in IFE, another factor working against IFE is the cost of the fuel. Even as Nuckolls was developing his earliest detailed calculations on the idea, co-workers pointed this out: if an IFE machine produces 50 MJ of fusion energy, one might expect that a shot could produce perhaps 10 MJ of power for export. Converted to better known units, this is the equivalent of 2.8 kWh of electrical power. Wholesale rates for electrical power on the grid were about 0.3 cents/kWh at the time, which meant the monetary value of the shot was perhaps one cent. In the intervening 50 years the price of power has remained about even with the rate of inflation, and the rate in 2012 in Ontario, Canada was about 2.8 cents/kWh.
Thus, in order for an IFE plant to be economically viable, fuel shots would have to cost considerably less than ten cents in year 2012 dollars. At the time this objection was first noted, Nuckolls suggested using liquid droplets sprayed into the hohlraum from an eye-dropper-like apparatus. Given the ever-increasing demands for higher uniformity of the targets, this approach does not appear practical, as even the inner ablator and fuel itself currently costs several orders of magnitude more than this. Moreover, Nuckolls' solution had the fuel dropped into a fixed hohlraum that would be re-used in a continual cycle, but at current energy levels the hohlraum is destroyed with every shot.
Direct-drive systems avoid the use of a hohlraum and thereby may be less expensive in fuel terms. However, these systems still require an ablator, and the accuracy and geometrical considerations are even more important. They are also far less developed than the indirect-drive systems, and face considerably more technical problems in terms of implosion physics. Currently there is no strong consensus whether a direct-drive system would actually be less expensive to operate.
Projected development.
The various phases of such a project are the following, the sequence of inertial confinement fusion development follows much the same outline:
At the moment, according to the available data, inertial confinement fusion experiments have not gone beyond the first phase, although Nova and others have repeatedly demonstrated operation within this realm. In the short term a number of new systems are expected to reach the second stage.
For a true industrial demonstration, further work is required. In particular, the laser systems need to be able to run at high operating frequencies, perhaps one to ten times a second. Most of the laser systems mentioned in this article have trouble operating even as much as once a day. Parts of the HiPER budget are dedicated to research in this direction as well. Because they convert electricity into laser light with much higher efficiency, diode lasers also run cooler, which in turn allows them to be operated at much higher frequencies. HiPER is currently studying devices that operate at 1 MJ at 1 Hz, or alternately 100 kJ at 10 Hz.
R&D continued on inertial fusion energy in the European Union and in Japan. The High Power laser Energy Research (HiPER) facility is a proposed experimental fusion device undergoing preliminary design for possible construction in the European Union to continue the development of laser-driven inertial confinement approach. HiPER is the first experiment designed specifically to study the "fast ignition" approach to generating nuclear fusion. Using much smaller lasers than conventional designs, yet produces fusion power outputs of about the same magnitude would offer a much higher "Q" with a reduction in construction costs of about ten times. Theoretical research since the design of HiPER in the early 2000s has cast doubt on fast ignition but a new approach known as "shock ignition" has been proposed to address some of these problems. Japan developed the KOYO-F fusion reactor design and laser inertial fusion test (LIFT) experimental reactor. In April 2017, Bloomberg News reported that Mike Cassidy, former Google vice-president and director of Project Loon with Google[x], started a clean energy startup, Apollo Fusion, to develop a hybrid fusion-fission reactor technology.
Nuclear weapons program.
The very hot and dense conditions encountered during an Inertial Confinement Fusion experiment are similar to those created in a thermonuclear weapon, and have applications to the nuclear weapons program. ICF experiments might be used, for example, to help determine how warhead performance will degrade as it ages, or as part of a program of designing new weapons. Retaining knowledge and corporate expertise in the nuclear weapons program is another motivation for pursuing ICF. Funding for the NIF in the United States is sourced from the 'Nuclear Weapons Stockpile Stewardship' program, and the goals of the program are oriented accordingly. It has been argued that some aspects of ICF research may violate the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty or the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty. In the long term, despite the formidable technical hurdles, ICF research might potentially lead to the creation of a "pure fusion weapon".
Neutron source.
Inertial confinement fusion has the potential to produce orders of magnitude more neutrons than spallation. Neutrons are capable of locating hydrogen atoms in molecules, resolving atomic thermal motion and studying collective excitations of photons more effectively than X-rays. Neutron scattering studies of molecular structures could resolve problems associated with protein folding, diffusion through membranes, proton transfer mechanisms, dynamics of molecular motors, etc. by modulating thermal neutrons into beams of slow neutrons. In combination with fissionable materials, neutrons produced by ICF can potentially be used in Hybrid Nuclear Fusion designs to produce electric power.


Electric Kiwi

Electric Kiwi is an independent online New Zealand electricity retailer.
Established in 2014, Electric Kiwi has a focus on using cloud computing and smart meters to service customers in the major urban areas around the country. Its services depend on the presence of the smart meters in the customer's home. Over one million households in New Zealand were equipped with smart meters as of January 2014.
It is owned by Energy Collective limited, 66.8% of stock is owned by Scientific Investors Ltd. of the United Kingdom and the other 33.2% by private investors.
Electric Kiwi offers a free off-peak hour of power to its customers between 9am-5pm and 9pm-7am every day. As at 30 November 2020, Electric Kiwi had 70,900 customers, giving it a 3.2% share of the retail market and making it the 10th-largest retailer in New Zealand. Nearly all (69,800 or 98.4%) of its customers are classified as residential.
History.
Electric Kiwi was established in mid-2014 and took on its first ‘test’ customers in December of that year, before launching to the public in May 2015. The company's founders, including Julian Kardos, saw an opportunity in the electricity retailing market for a provider which leveraged the capabilities of smart meters which it and Consumer advocacy group Consumer NZ believed were being under utilised at that time.
Electric Kiwi used the information from smart meters to allow the more accurate purchase of electricity from wholesalers with the intent of passing on those savings to its customers.
In April 2017, Electric Kiwi accused competitor Trustpower of intentionally slowing the uptake of smart meters with their customers to prevent them shifting to retailers that rely on smart meter technology. The Electricity Authority said they were satisfied with efforts by retailers to roll out smart meter use.
In July 2018, it was reported that Electric Kiwi's free hour of power was causing local lines in northern Dunedin to overload, causing regular outages. The area is home to a large number of students from the University of Otago and Otago Polytechnic, many of whom had chosen the same hour for free power. Electric Kiwi claimed the issue was due to inadequate local lines infrastructure and low-quality housing in the areas, while local lines company Aurora Energy claimed that it would be uneconomical to provide extra capacity to deal with short term spikes and that retailers should ensure any promotion does not cause disruptions on their network. In September 2019 the Energy Efficiency Conservation Authority launched the 'Gen Less' campaign targeted at this demographic to encourage less energy use.
During an October 2018 spike in prices in the New Zealand wholesale electricity market, Electric Kiwi announced a halt on customers switching from spot-price providers. Electric Kiwi CEO Luke Blincoe stated "Choosing a spot-based retailer is similar to not insuring your car. You can end up paying more if something goes wrong. While we would love to help, it's a bit like calling your insurance company to get cover after a car crash has happened."
Electric Kiwi laid a joint complaint to the Electricity Authority in October 2018 with Flick Electric, Pulse and Vocus Communications over the market spike, alleging an 'Undesirable Trading Situation'. In February 2019, the Electricity Authority found that the price spike had been a result of outages and a lack of information about gas supply, finding no evidence of anti-competitive behavior by generators.
In June 2019 Electric Kiwi complained to the Commerce Commission and the Advertising Standards Authority that competitor Meridian Energy was 'greenwashing' in their advertising campaign stating that they generate power from 100% renewable energy sources. As most energy generated in New Zealand goes into the same lines for distribution, they argued this could mislead consumers to believe the power they were getting from Meridian was the power they generated. Both the ASA and CC dropped the complaint.
In 2019, Electric Kiwi funded two studies by Auckland University of Technology on 'kiwi' identity.
After heavy rainfall and flooding in Southland in November 2019, Electric Kiwi joined small retailers in lodging a complaint to the Electricity Authority over competitors Meridian Energy and Contact Energy's spilling of water from their hydro power stations. Both stated that they had acted correctly.
In April 2020 Electric Kiwi complained to the Electricity Authority that competitor Genesis Energy were breaching the New Zealand Government Electricity Pricing Review Panel's ban on 'Win Backs', a practice where customers would be offered a better deal by their electricity retailer if they said they would leave. Genesis admitted it was a clerical error and apologised.
On May 16 while New Zealand was in isolation at home during the COVID-19 epidemic, Electric Kiwi sponsored the 'Jam on Toast' live music festival, streamed online through Facebook.
Awards.
Winner 2018 Deloitte Fast 50.
Winner of the 2018 Consumer NZ energy retailer of the year.
Recipient of a 2018 People’s Choice Award from Consumer NZ.
Canstar Blue awarded Electric Kiwi the 2017 Most Satisfied Customers Award – Electricity Providers.
Areas of operation.
Electric Kiwi services customers in the following local lines company areas.


Calpine

Calpine Corporation is the largest generator of electricity from natural gas and geothermal resources in the United States, with operations in competitive power markets.
A Fortune 500 company based in Houston, Texas, the company is owned by an affiliate of Energy Capital Partners and a consortium of other investors, including Access Industries Inc. and Canada Pension Plan Investment Board.
Operations.
Through wholesale power operations and its retail businesses, Calpine serves customers in 23 states, Canada and Mexico.
As of March 2018, the directors of Calpine are CEO Thad Hill; Executive Vice Chairman Thad Miller; Tyler Reeder, Douglas Kimmelman, Andrew Singer and Andrew Gilbert of Energy Capital Partners; and Donald Wagner of Access Industries, Inc. The executive leadership team includes President/CEO Thad Hill, EVP/Chief Legal Officer Thad Miller, EVP/Chief Financial Officer Zamir Rauf, EVP/Power Operations Charlie Gates and EVPs of Commercial Operations Andrew Novotny and Caleb Stephenson.
Its fleet of 78 power plants in operation or under construction represents nearly 26,000 megawatts of generation capacity.
History.
In response to the 1973 oil crisis and the 1979 energy crisis, much legislation was passed that made domestic energy production an attractive enterprise. In 1984, Peter Cartwright and four of his co-workers, the Guy F. Atkinson Construction Company of South San Francisco, and the Electrowatt corporation struck an investment arrangement, and Calpine was born with initial capital of US$1 million. It was essentially a Silicon Valley startup company. The name "Calpine" is derived from the company's original California location and alpine, a reference to the Zürich home base of Electrowatt. Calpine is the largest generator of electricity from natural gas and geothermal resources in the United States.


Delaware Electric Cooperative

Delaware Electric Cooperative (DEC) is a utility cooperative that distributes electricity to rural areas in Kent and Sussex counties in the state of Delaware, serving 104,000 members. The cooperative, which was founded in 1936, is headquartered in Greenwood. It is a Touchstone Energy Cooperative and a member of Old Dominion Electric Cooperative, an electric generation and transmission cooperative. As an electric cooperative, DEC is owned by the members who it provides electricity to.
History.
The Delaware Rural Electric Association was founded in 1936 following the creation of the Rural Electrification Administration by President Franklin D. Roosevelt as part of his New Deal. The goal of the electric cooperative was to provide affordable and sustainable electricity to rural areas where electric companies would not invest in improvements. Farmers in Delaware got together and purchased utility poles, built a substation, and installed a few miles of power lines. In 1946, the Delaware Rural Electric Association became known as Delaware Electric Cooperative. The electric cooperative moved into its current headquarters in Greenwood in 1998. Since 2000, Delaware Electric Cooperative has seen its membership significantly increase with the rapid development that has taken place in southern Delaware. On June 19, 2017, winds from a severe thunderstorm caused significant damage to Delaware Electric Cooperative's headquarters in Greenwood.


SY4307A

The EIA type 4307A is a power output pentode possessing a similar power rating, but significantly different characteristics to the far more common type 807 thermionic valve/vacuum tube. The "SY" prefix denotes the site of manufacture as being Sydney. The plant, operated by Standard Telephones and Cables Pty. Ltd. was located on Mandible Street in the suburb of Alexandria and existed under that corporate entity from 1937 to 1970.. Although the remaining structure postdates the depicted device, this device was likely assembled on an adjoining property upon which the structures have been demolished and site re-purposed.
Electrically equivalent devices marked "307A" were manufactured in North America by Western Electric and these possibly predate the Australian version.
Uses.
Although the 807 is used for both audio amplification, (usually class AB), and radio frequency amplification in the 1-30 MHz range, (usually class C), this type was usually used for the latter.
This tube/valve is a pentode with a 'directly heated cathode', meaning that the cathode consists of an emissive oxide coated filament. These features suggest the 4307A could predate and is contemporary with, the 807 which is a beam power tetrode, a more advanced design with a more linear transfer characteristic and a more complex 'indirectly heated cathode'.
Similarity to 807.
If the pinout of the 4307A is compared to that of the 807 the similarity is striking. All pins are assigned equivalent electrodes with the exception of pin 4, which is the suppressor grid, g3, in this type but in the 807 pin 4 is connected to the equivalent of a suppressor grid, the 'beam plates' and also the separate indirectly heated cathode.
It is possible to interchange the two with the relatively minor alteration involving the linking of pins 4 and 5 and ensuring the heater supply is floating (not connected to other heaters). If the heater is supplied from an A.C. source, linking pin 4 to the centre of that source and the cathode bootstrap minimizes hum pickup.
Historical significance.
The STC/Brimar-made SY4307A was used extensively during World War II by the Australian armed forces and the example depicted is marked on the Bakelite collar of its base with the "D broad arrow D" commonwealth department of defense mark.
Two SY4307As were used, wired in parallel, as the output stage, or "final", in a transmitter constructed clandestinely by the Australian soldiers of Sparrow Force in Japanese occupied Portuguese Timor in 1942. This transmitter became known affectionately as "Winnie the War Winner", named after the British wartime Prime Minister, Winston Churchill.


Baltimore Gas and Electric

Baltimore Gas and Electric Company (BGE) is a subsidiary of the Exelon Corporation and Maryland’s largest gas and electric utility. BGE earlier had created the holding company Constellation Energy in 1999. Constellation Energy was acquired by Exelon in 2012.
Headquartered in Baltimore, BGE provides service to more than 1.2 million electric customers and more than 650,000 natural gas customers in central Maryland. BGE employs 3,100 people in the state of Maryland, making the company one of the 15 largest private employers in the region.
History.
Artist / sculptor /museum operator Rembrandt Peale, (1778-1860), incorporated the "Gas Light Company of Baltimore" on June 17, 1816, after having exhibited gas lighting at his Holliday Street museum which was designed by famed local architect Robert Cary Long, Jr., built and opened in 1814 (between East Saratoga and East Lexington Streets - after a variety of uses including as Baltimore's City Hall, 1830–1875, later in 1931 to become the Municipal Museum of the City of Baltimore, popularly known once again as the Peale Museum into 1997) ; this was the first gas company in the Americas. The first streetlamp installed by the Gas Light Company of Baltimore stood at the corner of North Holliday and East Baltimore streets and was lit on February 7, 1817. By February 1818, only 28 gas-lit lamps existed. The Belvidere Theatre became the first public building to be lit using gas. Over the next decades the company experimented with piping, meters, and other mechanical technology. Baltimore committed to gas for municipal use, including the installation of gas service in all public markets between by 1851. Private subscription also steadily increased; by 1870, the company had 15,301 customers in Baltimore.
In 1955, the company rebranded to become Baltimore Gas and Electric, and began to recognize the acronym BGE sometime during the 1990s.
Baltimore Gas and Electric is under common control with Maryland's second and third largest electric utilities after the Maryland Public Service Commission approved the acquisition of Pepco Holdings by Exelon in 2015. The acquisition of Pepco Holdings by Exelon was completed in 2016.
Controversies.
The Public Service Commission released a report stating: "Based on the response and evidence submitted by BGE, Staff concludes that BGE failed to provide for safe operation and maintenance of the facilities" following a 2019 gas explosion in Columbia, Maryland which destroyed a 57,000 square-foot commercial building.
2020 gas explosion.
On August 10, 2020 at approximately 9:54 AM (EDT) a major natural gas explosion leveled 3 homes in Reisterstown Station on the 4200 block of Labyrinth Road, trapping multiple people, killing two and injuring seven. Representatives for BGE stated the cause of the explosion is unknown.
Operations.
BGE's electric service territory includes Baltimore City and all part of the Central Maryland counties including: Anne Arundel, Baltimore, Calvert, Carroll, Harford, and Howard counties
BGE is a member of two shared-crew networks in the southeast and mid-Atlantic regions, and frequently sends crews to help restore power to customers across those regions after severe weather events. The utility has dealt with major outages following meteorological events in the mid-Atlantic region, including the derecho of June 2012 and Hurricane Sandy in October of the same year. In the aftermath of Hurricane Sandy, BGE restored power to more than 300,000 customers. The utility has proposed the construction and operation of microgrids, capable of generating and distributing electricity during larger outages to the centralized electrical grid; however, in July 2016, the Maryland Public Service Commission rejected BGE's request to construct microgrids.
In 2012, the company began replacing analog electric meters with smart meters to create a more cost effective smart grid system. In June 2016, the Maryland Public Service Commission turned down BGE's request for a rate increase to recover the $48 million cost of installing smart meters, granting them instead an increase that was only 50% of what the utility requested. The $2.80 rate increase went into effect in June 2016 and raised BGE customers’ average electric bill to $134.33 per month.
In October 2015, BGE filed a lawsuit against the city of Baltimore over the city's attempt to increase the fee it charges the utility for the use of its underground conduit system. In November 2016, BGE and the city settled the suit, with the utility accepting an increase to $24 million a year to use the city's long conduit system.
Community.
Through its Green Grants program, BGE offers grants of up to $10,000 to environmental non-profits in central Maryland. Since 2013, the company has awarded more than $1 million through the program. Past recipients include:
In 2015, BGE launched a program that allows customers to report osprey nests on or near electrical lines. The company then insulates or moves the nest to platforms. In the program's first year, learned of 23 nests built on electrical equipment.
As part of BGE's bicentennial celebration in 2016, the company added large, decorative murals to the three large storage tanks on its Spring Gardens campus in south Baltimore. BGE also partnered with the Cal Ripken, Sr. Foundation in 2016 to construct Eddie Murray Field in west Baltimore.


Avnet

Avnet, Inc. is a distributor of electronic components headquartered in Phoenix, Arizona, named after Charles Avnet, who founded the company in 1921. After its start on Manhattan's Radio Row, the company became incorporated in 1955 and began trading on the New York Stock Exchange in 1961. On May 8, 2018 Avnet changed stock markets to Nasdaq, trading under the same ticker, $AVT.
History.
19201930.
In 1921, Charles Avnet, a 33-year-old Russian-Jewish immigrant, began buying surplus radio parts and selling them to the public on the Radio Rows of United States port cities. As radio manufacturing grew, parts distribution took off. In the mid-1920s, when factory-made radios began to replace radio parts, he adjusted his distribution pipeline and began selling parts to manufacturers and dealers. In the mid-1920s, Avnet diversified by branching out into car radio kits and automobile assembly kits. During the Great Depression, he shifted the focus from retailing to wholesaling.
19301940.
During World War II, Avnet made antennas for the U.S. armed forces. Charles's son, Lester, joined the business at that time. After the war was over, Avnet focused on buying and selling surplus electronic and electrical parts.
19501960.
In 1955, Avnet Electronic Supply Company was incorporated with a primary business of selling capacitors, fasteners and switches. In 1956, the corporation opened a second connector assembly plant near Los Angeles specifically for the aircraft industry. Three years after it incorporated, the company changed its name to Avnet Electronics Corporation, and went public on the American Stock Exchange the following year.
19601970.
In 1960, Avnet made its first acquisition, British Industries Corp., an audio equipment company. With this acquisition, it began selling die casting machines, guitars, and television antennas, and earned a spot trading on the New York Stock Exchange. In the mid-1960s, the company briefly owned several record labels including Liberty Records and Blue Note. Avnet acquired guitar manufacturer Guild Musical Instruments in 1965; in that year a Guild Starfire 12 guitar was presented to Beatles legends John Lennon and George Harrison.
Over the course of the decade (from 1960 to 1970), Avnet expanded with several acquisitions, as shown in the following illustration:
These acquisitions expanded the company into the new fields of semiconductors, relays, and potentiometers. In 1964, the company renamed itself again as Avnet, Incorporated. Founder Charles Avnet died that same year, and his son Lester became president and chairman.
19701980.
In 1973, Avnet became Intel Corp.'s first distributor, solidifying Avnet's place in the computer business. Together, Avnet and supplier Intel began selling computer peripherals, complete systems, and software. In 1979, Avnet hit $1 billion in revenue for the first time.
In 1979, Lester Avnet died and was succeeded by Simon Sheib as chief executive officer. Sheib, along with Anthony Hamilton, president of the Hamilton Electro Corporation acquisition, combined the two companies to form Hamilton/Avnet, which eventually became Avnet Electronic Marketing Group, led by Hamilton. The combine shifted its strategy during this time to focus on sales, warehouse and stocking facilities, product development, and expanding markets, and became the first distributor of semiconductors, integrated circuits, and microprocessors.
19802000.
In 1998, Roy Vallee entered as CEO and chairman, the same year that the company relocated its corporate headquarters to Phoenix (from Great Neck, NY).
2010present.
In July 2010, the company purchased Bell Microelectronics for $631 million. In July 2011, CEO Roy Vallee retired, and then-COO Richard Hamada was appointed CEO.
In March 2012 Avnet, Inc. acquired Ascendant Technologies and in October 2012, BrightStar Partners, Inc. and BSP Software LLC. This was done to expand Avnet Technology Solutions.
In September 2016, Tech Data announced that it had entered into an agreement to acquire the Technology Solutions operating group from Avnet, Inc. in a stock and cash transaction valued at approximately US$2.6 billion. Under the terms of the agreement, Avnet received at closing approximately $2.4 billion in cash and 2.785 million shares of Tech Data common stock, representing an approximate 7 percent ownership position in Tech Data. In October 2016, the company purchased British components distributor Premier Farnell for £691M.
In March 2019, Avnet announced that it was working with blockchain payment provider BitPay to accept cryptocurrency as payment for products and services. Avnet stated that it had already closed "several multi-million dollar cryptocurrency transactions" in the first month of accepting Bitcoin.
Leadership history.
Chief Executive Officers since the 1970s for Avnet have included:


Click Energy

Click Energy is an Australian energy retailer selling electricity to private and business customers in Victoria, New South Wales, South Australia and Queensland.
Services.
Click Energy's services include:
History.
The company was established in April 2006, and in June 2006 it acquired its electricity licence. Click Energy started in Victoria and received its electricity licence in June 2006, with its first customer transfers in January 2007. In March 2007, Click Energy entered the Queensland electricity market and in March 2013 the New South Wales electricity market.
The company was acquired by Nu Energy in July 2012 and formed a partnership with the American energy technology company Stem in April 2013.
In July 2013 Click Energy reached an agreement with consumer-driven network One Big Switch to offer an electricity deal to One Big Switch members in Queensland.
One Big Switch and Click Energy collaborated again in October 2013, when they offered electricity at a discounted rate to New South Wales residents.
2015 Winner of Canstar's Most Satisfied Customers Electricity Providers - QLD Award
2015-2016 Winner of Canstar's Value For Money Electricity Providers - QLD Award
In October 2017, Click Energy was acquired by Amaysim for $120 million.
2017 Winner of ProductReview.com.au services award.
In September 2020, AGL Energy signed an agreement to acquire Click Energy from Amaysim for $115 million.


CPFL Energia

CPFL Energia (former name: Companhia Paulista de Força e Luz) is the second largest non state-owned group of electric energy generation and distribution in Brazil and the third biggest Brazilian electric utility company, after Eletrobras and Energisa. The corporation is composed by CPFL Brasil, CPFL Piratininga, CPFL Paulista, CPFL Geração, CPFL Renováveis, Rio Grande Energia (RGE) and SEMESA. Each of these companies operates as a holding company that owns dozens of other companies. Its headquarters are located in Campinas, the third largest city in state of São Paulo.
Operating segments.
CPFL Energia and its subsidiaries operates in the segments of generation, distribution and commercialization of electric energy and renewable energy, in addition the company in the segment of value-added services.
In the Distribution segment the company has 13.0% of the market share, CPFL Energia heads the distribution segment through its eight distributors. All together, these distributors serve 569 municipalities, and in 2011 accounted for the distribution of electric energy to 18.0 million customers in the States of São Paulo, Rio Grande do Sul, Paraná and Minas Gerais.
In 2011, of particular note was the growth in sales within the distribution companies’ concession areas, which totaled 54,590 GWh, a 4.9% increase. Of this, 14,674 GWh were invoiced in the form of the Tariff for the Use of the Distribution System (TUSD). Sales to the captive market totaled 39,917 GWh, up 1.7%.
The company is also one of the largest Brazilian companies in the Generation segment 41 operating plants, 8 Power Plants (PPH), 33 Smal lHydro Power (SHP) and Thermoelectric which together represent an Installed capacity of 1672 MW, 831 average MW of assured energy and 2% market share.
In the Commercialization segment the company operates around the Brazil being leader in this sector with 21% market share with more than 10.500 GWh in sales of energy in Brazil.
CPFL Energia operates in the segment of Generation of renewable energy sources through CPFL Renováveis. It owns a 63.0% interest in CPFL Renováveis through CPFL Geração, with 35.5% and CPFL Brasil with 27.5%.
The Camargo Corrêa and Bradespar are one of the largest shareholders of CPFL Energia.


Arc Innovations

Arc Innovations started as a subsidiary of Meridian Energy. Launched in 2003, Arc Innovations was established to develop and deploy electricity meters using advanced meter infrastructure. In 2014, Vector Limited was granted clearance to buy Arc Innovations from the Commerce Commission from Meridian Energy with the sale completed for an undisclosed price on 1 December 2014.
Arc Innovations was the first company to introduce Smart Meters in New Zealand, rolling out the country’s pilot Smart Meter program in Central Hawkes Bay in 2005. Arc Innovation’s smart meter network relies on a mix of GPRS, RF Mesh network and satellite for the meter’s two-way communication.
History.
Following Arc Innovation’s launch in 2003 the company spent two years researching and developing smart meters. The introduction of this first generation of smart meters saw 6,000 meters installed in Central Hawkes Bay over 2005 and 2006. Following this, 125,000 smart meters were deployed to the wider Christchurch area.
In 2009, approximately 70% of Christchurch homes were installed with smart meters, making it the largest smart metering network in Australasia at that time.
Christchurch earthquake.
Following the two major earthquakes in September 2010 and February 2011, smart meters in Christchurch were able to be used to provide information to the city’s distribution network about power outages to individual homes.
Christchurch’s smart meter infrastructure was also used to switch on hot water cylinders in several hundred homes following the February earthquake.


Grand River Dam Authority

The Grand River Dam Authority (GRDA) is a non-profit Oklahoma agency created to control, develop, and maintain the Grand River waterway. It was created by the Oklahoma state legislature in 1935, and is headquartered in Tulsa, Oklahoma. GRDA was designed to be self-funding from the sales of electricity and water. The state of Oklahoma was to provide no funding from taxes. The Authority was authorized to issue revenue bonds to fund large-scale capital investments.
According to GRDA's 2012 Annual Report, the agency had nearly US $412 million in operating revenue for 2012, compared to nearly US $395.5 million in 2011.
It operates three hydroelectric facilities and two reservoirs, Grand Lake, Lake Hudson, and the Salina Pumped Storage Project, which includes W. R. Holway Reservoir, It also owns and operates the GRDA Energy Center (formerly named the GRDA Coal-Fired Complex). The Energy Control Center, home of the GRDA's System Operations Center, is at the Robert S. Kerr Dam, just north of Locust Grove, Oklahoma. In July 2016, it absorbed the mission of the Oklahoma Scenic Rivers Commission to manage, preserve and protect the waters of the scenic Illinois River. Its joint ventures include the Canadian Hills wind farm. GRDA's jurisdiction covers 24 counties in northeastern Oklahoma.
History.
The "Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture" credits Henry Holderman, a member of the Cherokee tribe, as first envisioning Grand River as a source for hydroelectric power for the Cherokee Nation. Even prior to Oklahoma statehood in 1907, Holderman began building political support for such a project. A feasibility study by the Army Corps of Engineers attracted favorable attention in the Oklahoma legislature, leading to creation of the Grand River Dam Authority (GRDA), a state agency, in 1935. Construction began in 1938 on the Pensacola Dam on the Grand River (lower Neosho River) as a Works Progress Administration project. The dam was completed in March 1940, creating the lake behind it. Between 1941 and 1946, the U.S. government took control of Pensacola Dam to divert power to the war effort. Control was returned to the GRDA by the Congress and President Truman amid local celebration in August 1946.
The second hydroelectric facility built by GRDA was the Markham Ferry project. In 1961, the Markham Ferry dam (since renamed as the Robert S. Kerr Dam) was begun downstream of Pensacola Dam on the Grand River. The lake it impounded was named Lake Hudson. The project was completed in 1964. The powerhouse has four hydroelectric turbines, providing a total capacity of 114,000 kW. GRDA states that an average year can provide 211 million kWh.
The Salina Pumped Storage Project constructed for GRDA during 1968 - 1971, created Lake W. R. Holway. It was designed to produce 260 MW of power during peak consumption periods. During periods of lower power demand, water is pumped from Lake Hudson to Lake Holway and released back down through the pump-generators during periods of high energy demand.
In 1970, the Authority decided to build the GRDA Coal-fired Power Generation Complex, located near Chouteau, Oklahoma. Now more than four decades old, the two units need extensive retrofits to meet new emission regulations and to improve energy efficiency with more modern technologies.
In 2008, GRDA, Oklahoma Gas & Electric (OG&E) and Oklahoma Municipal Power Authority (OMPA) jointly purchased the Redbud Generation facility near Luther, Oklahoma for 434.5 million. The facility uses natural-gas fueled turbines to generate electricity. Rated capacity was 1230 MW. GRDA owns 36 percent of the venture, while OG&E owns 51 percent and is designated as the operator. OMPA owns the balance.
GRDA broke ground in 2013 for a new visitors' center adjacent to Pensacola Dam. The building was designed to be the home of GRDA Ecosystems Management offices, a state-of-the-art water research lab, offices for the Grand Lake Area Chamber of Commerce, a community auditorium and historical exhibits.
On June 13, 2012, GRDA approved becoming a member of the Large Public Power Council (LPPC). The LPPC consists of the largest publicly owned not-for-profit, electric utilities in the U.S. LPPC’s priorities include tax and finance issues, interaction with the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission, energy and environmental policies.
Recent developments.
Proposed privatization.
Governor Mary Fallin (R) issued an executive order in July 2013 to establish a 15-member task force that would research the possibility of dismantling GRDA and selling its assets. The members chosen by the governor have “experience or interest in energy issues.” It would include two members of her “Bold Ideas” task force.
Governor Fallin announced on August 13, 2013, that she was suspending the task force and its work indefinitely. She said that she still supported the mission of the task force, she realized that the timing was bad and that the review could undermine GRDA's efforts to sell revenue bonds.
Canadian Hills wind farm.
GRDA has a financial interest in a wind turbine "farm" near El Reno, Oklahoma developed by Apex Wind Energy Holdings LLC and Atlantic Power Corp. Known as the Canadian Hills wind farm, it will sell power to GRDA, the Oklahoma Municipal Power Authority and Southwestern Electric Power Co., a Louisiana-based unit of American Electric Power. The facility initially had 135 turbines and a design output of 300 megawatts of electric power. Google, Inc. contracted with GRDA to buy up to 48 megawatts of this power for its data center in Pryor, Oklahoma.
Natural gas fired generation facility.
On January 14, 2014, the GRDA Board of Directors approved purchase and installation of gas turbine generators to be installed at the GRDA Coal-Fired Complex in Chouteau. The new unit, which is known as Unit 3, is estimated to cost US$372 million, is designed to produce 495 megawatts (MW) of electric power. The turbine-generators alone will cost US$77.84 million. Mitsubishi Power Systems is supplying M501J gas turbines and SRT-50 steam turbines for the new unit.
Concurrently, the Authority renamed the Chouteau complex as the Grand River Energy Center.
The new combined cycle generation process is energy-efficient because natural gas fuels a gas turbine that directly generates power. Then the hot turbine exhaust gas is cooled by boiling water to generate more steam, which drives a steam-powered generator and generates more electric power. The new generation unit was expected to be put in service in 2017, and has since been brought on-line.
Organization.
Officers.
As of January 2019
Budget and Personnel.
Standard & Poor's (S&P) Rating Services upgraded GRDA's credit rating in 2007 from "BBB+" to "A-", and improved the outlook from "stable" to "positive". While GRDA has received three rating outlook improvement from rating agencies in recent years, S&P's announcement was historic, marking the first rating upgrade in GRDA's history. The Fitch Rating Service followed suit in 2008. The A- rating was still in effect at the end of 2012, meaning that GRDA has very favorable terms for borrowing money.
According to GRDA's 2012 Annual Report, the agency had nearly US $412 million in operating revenue for 2012, compared to nearly US $395.5 million in 2011.
GRDA, as of Fiscal Year 2009, had an annual operating budget of $314 million and employed 450 employees (390 classified and 60 unclassified).


List of solar power stations in the United States

This is a list of operational solar power stations in the United States.
In 2018, there was more than 2,500 utility scale solar power stations in the United States. In 2019, solar accounted for 1.8% of the United States' electricity production. While this amount is less than that from most other sources including natural gas, coal, nuclear, wind, and hydro, solar's share in the United States' generation mix has been increasing at a rapid rate in recent years due to the cost of solar decreasing dramatically and aging coal plants becoming more expensive. In the same year 40% of capacity additions were solar and 13.3 GWs were added.


James W. Voss

James 'Jim' Wilson Voss is an American senior nuclear engineer who has managed nuclear materials and radioactive waste since graduating from Arizona University in the 1970s. Voss became known to Australians through his managing directorship of Pangea Resources, a consortium which planned to establish a nuclear waste repository in Australia in the late 1990s. Pangea's proposal was ultimately rejected following the efforts of the anti-nuclear movement in Australia. Voss is currently working at UCL Australia as an Honorary Reader. As of 2015 Voss is a partner at Predicus Consulting and a director of companies in the USA and the United Kingdom.
Career.
In 1998, Voss attempted to build a case for the establishment and private management of a nuclear waste repository at Billa Kalina in Australia.
He has been responsible for what he describes as "nuclear waste engineering and radioactive facility and site remediation activities" in North America, Europe, Australia and Japan. Voss has also held Chief Executive positions in several companies in the USA, Europe and Australia through which he has managed project financing, revenue streams and corporate strategies. Voss has served in the Executive Office of the President of the United States under two Presidents and has advised senior government officials in many countries.
Voss is a licensed engineer in the European Union (EurIng), a Chartered Engineer in the UK and a Fellow of the UK Nuclear Institute. He organises the Waste Management Symposium, which is held annually in Tucson, Arizona.
On 25 March 2014, Voss delivered a UCL Grote Lecture in Adelaide, South Australia. His presentation was entitled "Energy and environmental public policy: Joining the dots between public policy, economics and implementation".
In late 2015, Voss gave testimony on nuclear fuel leasing as an expert witness to the Nuclear Fuel Cycle Royal Commission in South Australia.
In May 2016, Voss spoke at another Grote Lecture series event at UCL Australia entitled "Circular Economy Series: Nuclear: A waste of time, energy and money?"
Voss is the Managing Director of the waste management symposium "Australian Nuclear Fuel Cycle '16". Its inaugural event was held in Adelaide, South Australia on 15–16 November 2016.


Geothermal power in the Philippines

The Philippines is one of the world's top producers of geothermal power, owing to its location along the Ring of Fire zone of Pacific volcanoes. The country commissioned the 12-megawatt Maibarara Geothermal Power Plant-2 on March 9, 2018, in Santo Tomas, Batangas.
The Geothermal Education Office and a 1980 article titled "The Philippines geothermal success story" by Rudolph J. Birsic published in the journal Geothermal Energy note the remarkable geothermal resources of the Philippines. During the World Geothermal Congress 2000 held in Beppu, Ōita Prefecture of Japan held from May to June 2000, it was reported that the Philippines is the largest consumer of electricity from geothermal sources and highlighted the potential role of geothermal energy in providing energy needs for developing countries.
According to the International Geothermal Association (IGA), worldwide, the Philippines ranks second to the United States in producing geothermal energy. As of 2010, the US had a capacity of 3093 megawatts of geothermal power, while that of the Philippines was 1904 megawatts. The Philippines was followed by Mexico with 958 MW. Early statistics from the Institute for Green Resources and Environment stated that Philippine geothermal energy provides 16% of the country's electricity. By 2005, geothermal energy accounted for 17.5% of the country's electricity production. More recent statistics from the IGA show that combined energy from the nation's six geothermal fields, located in the islands of Luzon, Leyte, Negros and Mindanao, still accounts for approximately 17% of the country's electricity generation. Leyte island is where the first geothermal power plant, a 3 megawatt wellhead unit, started operations in July 1977. Larger-scale commercial production of geothermal power began in 1979 with the commissioning of a 110-megawatt plant at Tiwi field in Albay province. IGA figures as of December 2009 show the nation's installed geothermal capacity stands at 1904 megawatts, with gross generation of 10,311 gigawatt-hrs for all of 2009, representing 17% of the nation's total power generation mix.
As of 2017, the International Renewable Energy Agency estimates the Philippines' net installed geothermal energy capacity to at 1.9 gigawatts (GW)—out of the global geothermal installed capacity of 12.7 GW ranking behind the United States (2.5 GW) and ahead of Indonesia (1.5 GW). It also estimates that the country can potentially generate 2.1 GW from geothermal sources by 2025.


Global Centre for Nuclear Energy Partnership

Global Centre for Nuclear Energy Partnership is World's first nuclear energy partnership centre at [Jasaur Kheri]] village of Bahadurgarh teshil in Jhajjar district of Haryana state in India. This center facilitates deliberation and discussions of international experts on various issues including innovation in nuclear reactors and the nuclear fuel cycle, development of proliferation-resistant reactors, security technologies and the effects of radiation exposure.
Campus.
One among 6 research institutes of Department of Atomic Energy of Govt of India, this campus is located on 400 acre land in NCR Delhi.
Schools.
5 schools are:
Courses.
The institute offers training courses and workshops in various areas through its schools.
External links.
official website


Fenchuganj Combined Cycle Power Plant

Fenchuganj Combined Cycle Power Plant or Fenchuganj Combined Cycle Gas () also known as Fenchuganj Power Plant is a gas-turbine and steam turbine based power station in Fenchuganj Upazila, Sylhet District of Bangladesh. This station is governed by Bangladesh Power Development Board.
Geography.
Fenchuganj Power Plant is located at . It is situated on the west side of Jetighat beside Sylhet-Moulvibazar Road. It stands on 2 km west of the Fenchuganj Bridge comprising a land of 33.5 acres on the bank of Kushiyara River.
History.
Fenchuganj power plant was built in 1994 with a capacity of 90 MW. It started operation with two gas turbine generators ( each of 30 MW) and a steam turbine (30 MW) respectively. It is also called Fenchuganj 90 MW power plant as it supplied 90 MW from the beginning. This Power Plant is the first ever combined cycle power station in the country.