Clearing the Channel Coast

Clearing the Channel Coast was a World War II task undertaken by the First Canadian Army in August 1944, following the Allied Operation Overlord and the victory, break-out and pursuit from Normandy.
The Canadian army advanced from Normandy to the Scheldt river in Belgium. En route, they were to capture the Channel ports needed to supply the Allied armies, clear the Germans from the Channel littoral and launch sites for the V-1 flying bombs. The German 15th Army was able only to oppose the advance with sporadic resistance, wary of being outflanked and isolated by the rapidly advancing British Second Army on the right of the Canadians and executed an orderly retreat north-eastwards towards the Scheldt.
On 4 September Adolf Hitler declared the Channel ports to be fortresses but Dieppe and Ostend were taken without opposition. Le Havre, Boulogne and Calais were subjected to set-piece assaults, after massed bombing and an attack on Dunkirk was cancelled and the garrison contained. Troops investing Dunkirk were freed for the Battle of the Scheldt, where the First Canadian Army reduced the Breskens Pocket, cleared the mouth of the Scheldt and opened Antwerp to Allied shipping.
Background.
Normandy to the Seine.
The German armies had strongly resisted the Allied break-out from Normandy and when the German front collapsed in August they had insufficient reserves of manpower and equipment to resist and no defence lines between Normandy and the Siegfried Line. The British I Corps, with four divisions attached to the Canadian army, had been advancing eastwards from the River Dives along the coast. The 6th Airborne Division and attached units captured Troarn and overran the German coastal artillery at Houlgate but deliberate flooding by the Germans, the defences of Cabourg and positions nearby at Dozulé, slowed the advance across the Dives delta. On 16 August, as soon as German resistance faltered. Reconnaissance had been ordered on 19 August and the authorization for a full advance and pursuit by the Canadians was issued on 23 August.
General Bernard Montgomery, the 21st Army Group commander issued a directive on 26 August, that all German forces in the Pas de Calais and Flanders were to be destroyed and Antwerp was to be captured. The First Canadian Army was required to cross the Seine and capture Dieppe and Le Havre with the minimum of forces and delay, while capturing the coast as far as Bruges. The Canadian army was to advance with a strong right wing and envelop resistance by swinging towards the coast; support could be expected from the First Allied Airborne Army. The Second Army was to operate on the inland flank of the Canadians and dash for Amiens, cutting the communications of the German forces facing the Canadian Army.
It is a measure of the German disintegration that the 1st Polish Armoured Division was in Ypres on 6 September and Canadian units were at Dunkirk on 7 September, just fifteen days after Falaise, despite their losses in the Normandy battles. There was significant resistance in the Canadian sector. Adolf Hitler had ordered that most of the Channel ports be established as fortresses and prepared to withstand a siege. Since the Allies needed the port facilities to supply their advance, they could not be sealed off and left to wither on the vine. The Germans had established artillery positions capable of shelling Dover, threatening allied shipping and there were launch sites for the V-1 flying bombs bombarding London.
Prelude.
Allied armies.
The composition of the First Canadian Army varied to meet changing demands but in general terms it was composed of the II Canadian Corps and the I British Corps. Within these formations, at various times, were Czech, Polish, French, Dutch and Belgian units. After Normandy, the Polish and Czech formations were augmented by countrymen who had been conscripted into the German Army and changed sides.
The First Canadian Army had fought several battles in Normandy, resulting in depleted commanders and manpower at all levels. This was particularly serious in the infantry rifle companies. The I British Corps (commanded by Lieutenant-General John Crocker), attached to the First Canadian Army, had the 7th Armoured Division and the 49th (West Riding) Infantry Division, 51st (Highland) Division and the British 6th Airborne Division. The infantry divisions had not performed satisfactorily in Normandy and had been relegated to defensive positions on the eastern flank of the bridgehead. The 6th Airborne Division had landed in Operation Tonga on D-Day and despite its lack of heavy weapons, remained defending the area. It had suffered many casualties and Major-General Richard Gale, had been ordered to harry the German retreat yet conserve its manpower for the rebuilding that was due. The 6th Airborne Division was reinforced by the 1st Belgian Infantry Brigade and the Royal Netherlands Brigade (Prinses Irene), which were to gain "operational experience in quieter sections of the line in the hope that ultimately they would return to their own countries and form nuclei around which larger national forces might be organized".
The I British Corps advanced along the Channel coast, with the II Canadian Corps on the right.
German.
Much of Army Group B ("Heeresgruppe" B) had been destroyed or shattered in Normandy and the Falaise Pocket but divisions deployed east of the Allied bridgehead were largely intact. German troops within the "fortress cities" were generally second-rate and included some Austrian and other nationalities, that were not trusted enough to carry arms.
Advance to the Seine.
The First Canadian Army advance to the Seine was called Operation Paddle. It had been hoped by the Allied commanders that a defeat comparable with the Falaise Pocket could be inflicted on the Germans by trapping them against the Seine and the sea. The American Third Army advanced northwards to Elbeuf, across the Second Army line of advance, to cut off the route towards Paris and was a partial success. Although much of its remaining transport and the bulk of its armour was lost west of the Seine, Army Group B held up the Canadians, protecting improvised river crossings and significant quantities of men and materiel were saved.
The towns along the River Touques were evacuated by the Germans around 24 August and the capture of Lisieux, about east of Caen, opened an important route eastwards. Next day, the next natural barrier, the River Risle was crossed just north of Brionne by the 11th Hussars, with other units close behind. The 6th Airlanding Brigade of the 6th Airborne Division took Honfleur on the Seine estuary but progress along the coast was slower than inland, rivers being wider and more difficult to cross. The 6th Airborne Division occupied the west bank of the Risle from Pont Audemer downstream to the Seine on 26 August, completing its tasks in France and the division returned to Britain on 3 September. Clearance of the last German units west of the Seine was completed on 30 August.
Crossing the Seine.
I British Corps put patrols across the Seine on 31 August. The advance to the Seine had outstripped the preparations of the Royal Canadian Engineers for bridging equipment and assault boats but newly assembled assault boats carried the 3rd Canadian Infantry Division across the Seine at Elbeuf on 27 August. Ferries for wheeled and armoured vehicles were in operation in the afternoon.
Liberations.
Dieppe.
Dieppe had been abandoned by the Germans before the order Hitler sent for it to be defended as a "fortress" had been received and it was captured by the 2nd Canadian Infantry Division on 1 September, which had last been in the port during the Dieppe Raid in 1942. A ceremonial parade was held on 5 September and despite demolitions, the port was cleared and in use on 7 September, a delivery of oil and petrol being shipped to Brussels on 9 September.
Le Havre.
Le Havre was attacked by the I British Corps, supported by Hobart's Funnies, specialized armoured vehicles of the 79th Armoured Division and bombardment from land, sea and air. It was taken on 12 September after 48 hours but the port needed lengthy clearance and repair.
Boulogne.
Boulogne was reached on 5 September but the garrison had received the Hitler "fortress" order. The city was protected by high ground and was attacked by the 3rd Canadian Division with extensive air and artillery support from 17–22 September.
Rocket sites.
On 1 September, the last V-1 was launched against London as the Canadians were moving through the launch areas.
Calais and Cap Gris Nez.
Calais was sealed off in early September and Wissant was quickly captured, though an early attack on Cap Gris Nez failed.
The assault on Calais itself opened on 25 September and the town fell on 30 September. A second attack on the Cap Gris Nez batteries opened on 29 September and the positions secured by the afternoon of the same day. Despite the strong defences and although the city had been declared a Fortress, the garrison needed little persuasion to surrender and their reluctance to fight to the end was repeated at Cap Gris Nez.
Dunkirk.
Although Dunkirk had been reached by 7 September, it soon became clear that the garrison would fight to hold a port that was largely destroyed. It was then judged to be a better use of men and materiel to clear the Germans from the Scheldt estuary and open the port of Antwerp, which had been captured intact. A brigade sized force was left to isolate Dunkirk, which eventually surrendered on 9 May 1945, after the general German surrender. The investment was conducted by the 1st Czechoslovak Armoured Brigade, in which Belgian Resistance members assisted with information and French Resistance members were converted to regular units.
Belgium.
Ostend had been omitted from Hitler's list of "fortresses" and so was evacuated, despite its strong defences. The port had been demolished. The 1st Polish Armoured Division crossed the Belgian border and captured Ypres on 6 September, reaching the Ghent-Bruges Canal on 9 September.
Scheldt.
A long and costly operation was required to clear the Germans from both banks of the Scheldt, so that the Port of Antwerp could be opened.
Aftermath.
Although Dieppe came rapidly into use, it could supply only a quarter of the needs of the 21st Army Group. The capture of Le Havre, Boulogne, Calais and Ostend only eased Allied supply problems after extensive clearance of debris and mines. Ostend was restricted to personnel only but the Boulogne terminal for a Pluto oil pipeline (Dumbo) was of great benefit, becoming the "... main supplies of fuel during the winter and spring campaigns" of the Allies. It has been questioned whether the capture of the defended ports was worthwhile, given the need for much effort to bring them into use and the greater potential benefit of Antwerp.
After the failure of Operation Market Garden, Eisenhower "turned to Antwerp, which despite the long-delayed capture of Le Havre on 12 September, of Brest on the 18th and of Calais on the 30th, remained, as the closest, largest and best-preserved of the ports, the necessary solution to the difficulties of supply." Antwerp was opened in November 1944 after the delayed Battle of the Scheldt, and this largely solved Allied supply problems.
Further reading.
Books
Reports


Northern Combat Area Command

The Northern Combat Area Command or NCAC was a subcommand of the Allied South East Asia Command (SEAC) during World War II. It controlled Allied ground operations in northern Burma. For most of its existence, NCAC was commanded by US Army General Joseph "Vinegar Joe" Stilwell (who concurrently held more senior command positions). In 1945 after Stilwell was recalled, his deputy, Lieutenant General Daniel Sultan, was promoted to and assumed command.
Chinese National Army personnel constituted most of the combat units within NCAC.
While it was initially intended that NCAC would operate as an integral part of the British 11th Army Group, Stilwell refused to work under General George Giffard and was made subordinate to the Supreme Commander of SEAC, Lord Louis Mountbatten.
Composition.
In 1942, Northern Combat Area Command was formed at Ramgarh Cantonment, in India, from X Force: units (including the 22nd and 38th Divisions), which had retreated out of Burma. After its arrival in India, X Force was reinforced – eventually becoming the New 1st Army – a corps-level formation. It was re-equipped at British expense and re-trained by US Army instructors.
For the campaigning season of early 1944, NCAC was augmented with Merrill's Marauders – a brigade-sized formation created by the US Army for commando-type operations in Burma. During 1944, NCAC forced the Japanese 18th Division to retreat out of northern Burma and US Army engineering battalions, assisted by Indian laborers built the Ledo Road – which joined the northern end of the Burma Road and reestablished communications between India and China. Towards the end of 1944, NCAC was reinforced by the British 36th Infantry Division.
In 1945, under Sultan's command, NCAC – which now included the Chinese New 6th Army – aided in the drive to retake the rest of Burma.
Campaigns.
The main combat power of NCAC, at least in terms of numbers were its Chinese divisions. When British and Chinese forces had been bundled out of Burma at the start of 1942, some Chinese forces had been obliged to retreat to India, rather than to China. It was from these formations that the genesis of NCAC came.
Many times during World War II, British and American commanders in India were frustrated by their Chinese allies. A combination of fickleness and over-centralisation by the Chinese generalissimo, Chiang Kai-shek and the limited training of the Chinese forces meant that they often failed to live up to their potential. However, the Chinese forces in NCAC were considerably better than their contemporaries in China itself. Greater access to American equipment and training and less influence from the Chinese leadership meant the four Chinese divisions in NCAC could be trusted a great deal more in combat.
However, it was not only from NCAC's divisions that trouble sprang. Its first commander was an extremely controversial character. Stilwell had first been posted to China as Chief of Staff to Chiang Kai-shek. However, as the campaign in Burma developed, he also took on a role there. The US Army established the China Burma India Theater (CBI Theater), and placed Stilwell in command. The CBI Theater was not supposed to be an operational headquarters. It was merely supposed to be in charge of the administration of the American military formations in China, Burma and India. However, Stilwell often broke the chain of command and communicated directly with the Joint Chiefs of Staff on operational matters, when all such communications were supposed to go to Admiral Lord Mountbatten the Supreme Allied Commander, South East Asia and also on taking operational control of NCAC through General George Giffard commander of 11th Army Group.
The initial idea was that as General Stilwell would be commanding several Chinese divisions which would attack out of India from the West and with the large but amorphous Yunnan armies attacking out of China from the East, he would be commanding a large army. So his command should be placed under 11th Army Group at the same level as the Fourteenth which was under the command of General William Slim. The attacks could then be co-ordinated at Army Group level.
At a meeting to sort out the operational chain of command for the three fronts in Burma, Stilwell astonished everyone by saying "I am prepared to come under General Slim's operational control until I get to Kamaing". Rather than sack him, Mountbatten reluctantly agreed to this, but it was a dangerous compromise. It created a complicated chain of command where Slim theoretically had to report to two different commanders. Giffard for Fourteenth Army actions and Mountbatten for Stilwell's formations. Under a general less gifted than Slim this could have caused serious problems, if Slim had not been able to command Stilwell at an operational level without disagreement (which given Stilwell's proven track record was more than likely). But at an operational level Slim was able to work with Stilwell and "this illogical command set-up worked surprisingly well".
The reason why it was essential that there was one operational commander for the three fronts, North, Central and Southern, was so that the intended attacks in late 1944 could be co-ordinated to prevent the Japanese concentrating large numbers of reserves for a counterattack on any one front.
Stilwell thus had four different jobs to perform, which required him to be in different places at once. For example, as Chief of Staff to Chiang, he was often needed in Chungking, the Chinese capital, and as Deputy Allied Supreme Commander he was needed at HQ South East Asia Command at Kandy in Ceylon and as NCAC commander he was required to be relatively near the frontline in Burma. His personality also caused problems. Stilwell clashed frequently with the commander of the 11th Army Group, General Giffard, and would not accept being under his command, instead insisting that NCAC came directly under the Supreme Commander. As Deputy Allied Supreme Commander he was Giffard's superior but as operational commander of NCAC Giffard was his superior, as the two men did not get on this inevitably lead to conflict and confusion.
NCAC's first months were frustrating, as the time was for all Allied formations in the theater. Its first real success did not come until the 1943-44 campaigning season. The Chindits had been dropped behind enemy lines after the end of the 1943 monsoon to cause havoc by cutting communications. This they did, but the original operational plan failed for a number of reasons. In the end, they were sent northwards into NCAC's area of operations.
At the time, NCAC's main job was to capture the town of Myitkyina, as a prelude to connecting the Ledo Road to the Burma Road and reestablishing land communications to China. During the offensive, NCAC intelligence staff serving under General Stilwell repeatedly underestimated Japanese troop strength in Burma. A thrust from the northwest by NCAC was meeting with some success, but Stilwell also needed to use the Chindits in his plan. However, he not only used them but misused them. The Chindits were designed as a light raiding force, not as conventional infantry. They had negligible artillery support and were much smaller in number than equivalent conventional formations. However, Stilwell insisted on using them as conventional infantry. He assigned them the task of capturing Mogaung south of Myitkyina, which was strongly held by the Japanese. The Chindits succeeded in their task but had horrendous casualties. Even then Stilwell was not finished. He demanded still further miracles from the Chindits and their commander Brigadier Lentaigne. Reduced to the equivalent of less than a battalion, the Chindits assisted in the final assault on Myitkyina before finally being flown out to India as a completely broken force, almost to a man. The American equivalent of the Chindits, Merrill's Marauders also suffered from the same treatment during the campaign, consistently being asked to perform missions that were beyond their power without superhuman effort.
After the fall of Myitkyina, only a small area of Japanese territory separated NCAC from the Chinese forces. As the 1944 monsoon ended, NCAC opened an offensive. It had been reinforced with the British 36th Infantry Division, which gave it a considerably increased punch. However, the Japanese 33rd Army under General Masaki Honda performed a very creditable delaying action against the forces attacking them. The Japanese were outnumbered several times but still managed to hold the Chinese forces at bay for several months. In the end, it was events on the main front further south that forced them to withdraw, as they were in danger of being cut off from their supply lines. 36th Division was used to support the left-wing of the Fourteenth Army under Lieutenant General William Slim.
In October 1944, due to personal disagreements with Chiang, Stilwell was recalled to the United States by President Roosevelt. His former role was split as was the CBI Theater:
His replacements were not only less abrasive characters but as they each concentrated on one area there was less institutional conflict and confusion.
NCAC's main role in the last few months of the war was to support the British main offensive further south and to further improve the Burma Road to allow more supplies to get into China.
After the war, NCAC was quickly disbanded. It had achieved its objectives, but the route to those objectives was strewn with command problems and missed opportunities.


Battle of Cheriton

The Battle of Cheriton of 29 March 1644 was an important Parliamentarian victory during the First English Civil War. Sir William Waller's "Army of the Southern Association" defeated a Royalist force jointly commanded by the Earl of Forth and Sir Ralph Hopton. Defeat ended Royalist hopes of retaking South East England and forced them onto the defensive for the rest of 1644.
Although less well known than the Battle of Marston Moor, in his "History of the Rebellion" senior Royalist advisor Clarendon considered Cheriton an equally disastrous defeat.
Background.
In summer 1643, a Royalist army led by Lord Hopton invaded Hampshire and Sussex, whose Wealden iron industry was Parliament's main source of armaments. Despite initial success, by early January 1644 a series of defeats led Charles I to order a retreat into Wiltshire. When Hopton argued for remaining in Hampshire, Charles sent him a detachment from the Royalist field army in Oxford led by the Earl of Forth.
By the end of February, Sir William Waller's "Army of the Southern Association" based in Arundel had been increased to over 8,000. Parliament ordered him to slip past Hopton and retake South West England, lost to the Royalists after defeat at Roundway Down the previous summer. When one of his commanders, Sir Richard Grenville, deserted to Hopton in early March with this information, Forth and Hopton determined to seize New Alresford, placing themselves between Waller and London.
Advancing from their base at Winchester, they reached the town late on 27 March, just ahead of the Parliamentarian cavalry under Sir William Balfour. The next day they advanced cautiously south towards Cheriton; as night fell, a reconnaissance patrol under Sir George Lisle occupied an outpost near Cheriton Wood and reported the Parliamentarians were retreating.
Battle.
The Parliamentarians had been outmanoeuvred up to this point, and had indeed begun to retreat, but overnight Waller changed his mind and ordered an advance. As dawn broke, the City of London Brigade occupied Cheriton Wood. Hopton had moved to Lisle's outpost, and realised that it would have to be hastily withdrawn. The Royalists retreated to a ridge north of the wood, as Waller advanced.
Hopton was determined to recapture Cheriton Wood, and sent forward 1,000 "commanded" musketeers under Colonel Appleyard, supported by a battery of guns. There was some hot fighting, but the Parliamentarians abandoned the wood. Forth and Hopton intended to stand on the defensive at this point, but an impetuous infantry commander, Sir Henry Bard, launched his regiment of foot against the Parliamentarian left wing horse. Bard's regiment was overwhelmed and destroyed by a charge from Sir Arthur Haselrig's heavily armoured London lobsters. The Royalist cavalry on the right wing tried to support him, but were forced to make disjointed attacks along narrow lanes and were defeated in turn.
Hopton sent the Royalist horse from the left wing under Sir Edward Stawell to make a better prepared attack, but they were also defeated. Haselrig now attacked the Royalist foot moving up in support, and drove them back. The Parliamentarians also attacked the Royalist left, which had been denuded of its horse, and regained Cheriton Wood. The Royalists fell back to their ridge, but Hopton and Forth realised they could not withstand another attack and as evening fell, they retreated to Basing House.
Aftermath.
Bard was wounded and captured, while other Royalist casualties included senior commanders Lord John Stewart, Sir John Smith, Sir Edward Stowell; and Henry Sandys, who died of his wounds on 6 April. Defeat ended Royalist plans of retaking Sussex and Kent and allowed the Parliamentarian armies of Essex and Waller to concentrate against Oxford. Sir Edward Walker, secretary of the Royalist War Council, later commented "defeat necessitated his Majesty to alter the scheme of his affairs and replace an offensive with defensive war".
After lengthy debate, it was decided to merge the remnants of Hopton's army into the Oxford army at a review held at Aldbourne during April 1644. The infantry was formed into a single brigade under Sir Bernard Astley, with the cavalry divided between Sir Humphrey Bennet and Lord Wilmot. Although they partially restored the situation later in 1644 by gaining victories at Cropredy Bridge and Lostwithiel, the Royalists never resumed their offensive in southern England. In his "History of the Rebellion", Royalist advisor Clarendon wrote defeat had a disastrous impact on their prospects.


Convoys ONS 20/ON 206

ONS 20 and ON 206 were North Atlantic convoys of the ONS/ON series which ran during the battle of the Atlantic in World War II.
They were the subject of a major U-boat attack in October 1943, the third battle in the "Kriegsmarine"s autumn offensive.
Background.
Despite the losses suffered by "Rossbach" and poor results achieved during its attack on SC 143, and
still believing their new weapons and tactics gave them an advantage, BdU ("Befehlshaber der Unterseeboote" Commander of the Submarines) re-organized the boats then in the North Atlantic into patrol line "Schlieffen" with the intention of intercepting the expected west-bound convoys. These were ONS 20 and ON 206.
Ships involved.
ONS 20 departed Liverpool on 9 October 1943.
Composed of 52 ships it was bound for Halifax, and was escorted by B-4 escort group, which comprised 6 destroyer escorts led by HMS "Bentinck" (Cdr HR Paramor as Senior Officer Escort).
ON 206 departed Liverpool on 11 October 1943;
Composed of 62 ships, mainly in ballast, it was bound for New York and was escorted by B-6 escort group, comprising 2 destroyers, "Fame" (Cdr RA Currie SOE) and , the frigate , and 3 corvettes.
Also in the vicinity was Escort group B-7, in the role of a support group; it comprised 2 destroyers, "Duncan" (Cdr P Gretton) and , and 4 corvettes.
Group "Schlieffen" comprised a number of U-boats from group "Rossbach", re-inforced by newcomers from bases in France and Germany. It had already come under attack whilst re-fueling by aircraft from USS "Card"; one boat was damaged and forced to retire, and 2 boats ("U-402" and "U-603" ) had been sunk. Another 2 boats had collided, and one of these was also forced to return to base for repair.
At the time of the attack on convoys "Schlieffen" consisted of 14 boats, with a mix of experience and type.
When Allied intelligence learned of the position of "Schlieffen", Western Approaches Command decided to seek battle, increasing the defence by joining the two convoys and their escorts, and sending B-7 as reinforcement.
Action.
On 15 October 1943 the convoys were sighted by "U-844", and group "Schlieffen" was direct to converge on the position.
By evening a number of boats were in position and commenced the attack, which became one of the most calamitous of the entire campaign for the U-boat Arm ("U-Bootwaffe", UBW).
During the night of 15/16 October the U-boats attacked but were repelled; "U-844" was damaged by "Duncan" and "Vanquisher" and driven off.
Later on 16 October "U-844" was attacked and sunk by two Liberators, from RAF 86 and 59 squadrons; one Liberator was shot down, but the crew rescued by the corvette "Pink".
Also on 16th "U-964" was sunk by a Liberator of RAF 86; her survivors were later picked up by "U-231".
Early that day "U-470" was damaged by a Sunderland of RCAF 422 squadron; the Sunderland was also damaged, ditching later near the ships of ONS 20 and its crew rescued by HMS "Drury". Later, "U-470" was attacked again, by 2 Liberators from RAF 120 and another from RAF 59, and sunk; 2 of her crew only were picked up by "Duncan".
The only success for the "Schlieffen" boats that day was when "U-426" sank the freighter "Essex Lance", which was straggling from ONS 20.
During the night of 16/17 October the attack was renewed, but repelled with no success;
"U-540" was attacked and damaged by a Liberator of 59 squadron; later that day she was attacked again and sunk by 2 Liberators from RAFs 59 and 120.
Also on 17 October U-841 was sunk by "Byard" of B-4 group.
During the night of 17th/18th the shadower "U-631" was sunk by "Sunflower" of B-7 group.
At this point the convoys made a drastic alteration in course, in order to shake off any shadowers; this was successful in that BdU received two conflicting reports from U-91 and U-413, leading to Schlieffen being sent in the wrong direction.
After pursuit was shaking off, "Schlieffen" was unable to re-gain contact, and in view of the losses sustained BdU ordered the group to retire.
On 20 October, with no further attack developing, B-7 Group detached from the convoys to join ON 207, which was following;
ONS 20 was handed over to its Western Local Escort Group on 22 October, and arrived at Halifax without further loss on 26 October 1943.
ON 206 met its Local Escort Group on 24 October and arrived at New York on 27 October 1943.
Conclusion.
BdU regarded this operation as a setback, but remained confident that their new weapons and tactics would achieve success. However the loss of 6 U-boats for the sinking of just one ship was a major defeat for the UbW and seen as a victory for the Allies.
Tables.
Allied ships sunk
Axis submarines destroyed


Madden and Lewis Company

Madden, Lewis or Madden and Lewis Company or Madden and Lewis Corp. was a wooden shipbuilding company in Sausalito, California. To support the World War 2 demand for ships Madden, Lewis shipyard switched over to military construction and built: US Navy tugboats and Harbour Defence Motor Launch. The company was founded by James Herbert Madden Sr., who was also active in the Sausalito Yacht Club. James Herbert Madden Sr. and Gertrude Murphy Madden raised five children in Sausalito. Madden and Lewis Company also owned the Sausalito side of the Golden Gate Ferry Company that ran before the completion of the Golden Gate Bridge, the ferry was run by the Northwestern Pacific Railroad now the site of the Sausalito Ferry Terminal. After the war the yard returned to pleasure craft building and repair. On March 19, 1960 a large fire broke out at the boatyard. The boatyard was in Richardson Bay at 200 Johnson street, Sausalito, near the current Sausalito Yacht Harbor.
US Navy Tugboats.
US Navy YTL, 60-foot, 70 ton, Harbor Tugs, Little, YLT had a displacement 70 tons lite, 80 tons full, a length of 66 feet, a beam of 18 feet, a draft of 4 feet 11 inches, a crew of 4, no armament, and diesel engine with a single propeller with 300shp. A Type V ship.
Harbour Defence Motor Launch.
Madden and Lewis built Harbour Defence Motor Launch (HDML) were built for the US Navy, but all four went to the Royal New Zealand Navy (RNZN) for anti-submarine patrols.
HDML had a length of 76 feet, a beam of 16 feet a draft: 5 feet and a displacement of 54-tons. HDML had two engines. They had acrew of 10 men, armed with one 3 or 4 pounder gun and four .303 AA guns. Had a top speed of 11 knots.


Battle of Bell Island

In 1942, the German U-boats attacked Bell Island two times which led to four ore boats sinking, and more than 60 men dead, making it one of the few places in the Dominion of Newfoundland raided during the Second World War. The Germans also tried to capture St. John's, the capital of Newfoundland. These engagements are considered part of the larger Battle of the St. Lawrence. Bell island is an island in Conception Bay, Newfoundland and the waters were part of an important Atlantic convoy route that allowed supplies to flow from the United States to its allies in Europe. Many ships brought supplies in these waters to Britain's troops, but many of them were cut off by the German U-boats. Later in the war, many other ships sunk which led to the death of more than 137 people.
The German U-boat Attacks.
On the night of 4 September 1942 The German boat, "U-513", which was under the command of Kapitänleutnant Rolf Ruggeberg, followed the iron ore carrier "Evelyn B" to Conception Bay. There, they spent the night under twenty metres of water. The next morning on 5 September the U-513 attacked and sank SS "Lord Strathcona" and SS "Saganaga". A total of twenty-nine men who were all on "Saganaga" died. Right after the attack, "U-513" left the fight following "Evelyn B". On 2 November at 3 a.m., the waters off Bell Island saw a second attack, this time executed by "U-518". Commanded by Kapitänleutnant Friedrich Wissmann, and she was at the southern end of Bell Island in an area known as “The Tickle,” also known as Wabana Anchorage. Over the course of an hour, she fired a torpedo at the 3,000 ton "Anna T". It missed and went under SS "Flydingdale" which then exploded towards the loading dock. This explosion startled many in Bell Island. Wissman fired twice more. The torpedoes went straight towards SS "Rose Castle", and the ship immediately sank, killing twenty-eight men with her.
The Free French ship "Paris Lyon Marseille 27" was also attacked, and right after she was hit, sank losing twelve men. After these shootings, "U-518" escaped even though there were two patrol boats nearby. This whole attack lasted ten minutes. Governor of Newfoundland Sir Humphrey Walwyn, was angered by these sinkings. Upon his return to St. John's, he called the Chief of Staff, Captain F.L. Houghton, and said “It was madness to let ships lie unprotected”. However, Houghton felt that it was better for the ships to be left alone in St. John's.
Aftermath.
After all the attacks had happened, the result was indecisive. Many Newfoundlanders wittnesed the aftermath of the raids. Evidence of the battle persist to today. Many pictures were taken of the ruins from the battle. Later on in 1942, On October 13, the ship SS "Caribou", departed from Sydney at 9:30 p.m. The next morning, the boat U-69 under the command of Kapitänleutnant Ulrich Gräf, raided the vessel and it sank in the Gulf of St. Lawrence taking 137 people with it, including women and children.


Battle of Stoke Field

The Battle of Stoke Field on 16 June 1487 may be considered the last battle of the Wars of the Roses, since it was the last major engagement between contenders for the throne whose claims derived from descent from the houses of Lancaster and York respectively. The Battle of Bosworth Field, two years previously, had established King Henry VII on the throne, ending the last period of Yorkist rule and initiating that of the Tudors. The Battle of Stoke Field was the decisive engagement in an attempt by leading Yorkists to unseat him in favour of the pretender Lambert Simnel.
Though it is often portrayed as almost a footnote to the major battles between York and Lancaster, it may have been slightly larger than Bosworth, with much heavier casualties, possibly because of the terrain which forced the two sides into close, attritional combat. In the end, though, Henry's victory was crushing. Almost all the leading Yorkists were killed in the battle.
The pretender.
Henry VII of England held the throne for the New Royal line the (House of Tudor), and had tried to gain the acceptance of the Yorkist faction by his marriage to their heiress, Elizabeth of York, but his hold on power was not entirely secure.
The chief claimant of the York dynasty was the queen's first cousin, Edward, Earl of Warwick, the son of George, Duke of Clarence. This boy was kept confined in the Tower of London.
An impostor claiming to be Edward (either Edward, Earl of Warwick or Edward V as Matthew Lewis hypothesises), whose name was Lambert Simnel, came to the attention of John de la Pole, Earl of Lincoln through the agency of a priest called Richard Symonds. Lincoln, although apparently reconciled with the Tudor king , himself had a claim on the throne; moreover, the last Plantagenet, Richard III of England, had named Lincoln, his nephew, as the royal heir. Although he probably had no doubt about Simnel's true identity, Lincoln saw an opportunity for revenge and reparation.
Lincoln fled the English court on 19 March 1487 and went to the court of Mechelen (Malines) and his aunt, Margaret, Duchess of Burgundy. Margaret provided financial and military support in the form of 2000 German and Swiss mercenaries, under the commander Martin Schwartz. Lincoln was joined by a number of rebel English Lords at Mechelen, in particular Richard III's loyal supporter, Lord Lovell, Sir Richard Harleston, the former governor of Jersey and Thomas David, a captain of the English garrison at Calais. The Yorkists decided to sail to Ireland, where the Yorkist cause was popular, to gather more supporters.
The Yorkist rebellion.
The Yorkist fleet set sail and arrived in Dublin on 4 May 1487. With the help of Gerald FitzGerald, 8th Earl of Kildare and his brother Thomas FitzGerald of Laccagh, Lord Chancellor of Ireland, Lincoln recruited 4,500 Irish mercenaries, mostly kerns, lightly armoured but highly mobile infantry.
With the support of the Irish nobility and clergy, Lincoln had the pretender Lambert Simnel crowned "King Edward VI" in Dublin on 24 May 1487. Although a Parliament was called for the new "King", Lincoln had no intention of remaining in Dublin and instead packed up the army and Simnel and set sail for north Lancashire.
On landing on 4 June 1487, Lincoln was joined by a number of the local gentry led by Sir Thomas Broughton. In a series of forced marches, the Yorkist army, now numbering some 8,000 men, covered over 200 miles in five days. On the night of 10 June, at Bramham moor, outside Tadcaster, Lovell led 2,000 men on a night attack against 400 Lancastrians, led by Lord Clifford. The result was an overwhelming Yorkist victory.
Lincoln then outmanoeuvred King Henry's northern army, under the command of the Earl of Northumberland by ordering a force under John, Lord Scrope to mount a diversionary attack on Bootham Bar, York, on 12 June. Lord Scrope then withdrew northwards, taking Northumberland's army with him.
Lincoln and the main army continued southwards. Outside Doncaster, Lincoln encountered Lancastrian cavalry under Edward Woodville, Lord Scales. There followed three days of skirmishing through Sherwood Forest. Lincoln forced Scales back to Nottingham, where Scales' cavalry stayed to wait for the main royal army. However, the fighting had slowed down the Yorkist advance sufficiently to allow King Henry to receive substantial reinforcements under the command of Lord Strange by the time he joined Scales at Nottingham on 14 June. Rhys ap Thomas, Henry's leading supporter in Wales, also arrived with reinforcements.
Henry's army now outnumbered the Yorkists. In addition, it was "far better armed and equipped" than the Yorkist army. His two principal military commanders, Jasper Tudor and John de Vere, 13th Earl of Oxford, were also more experienced than the Yorkist leaders.
Battle.
On 15 June, King Henry began moving north east toward Newark after receiving news that Lincoln had crossed the River Trent. Around nine in the morning of 16 June, King Henry's forward troops, commanded by the Earl of Oxford, encountered the Yorkist army assembled in a single block, on a brow of Rampire Hill surrounded on three sides by the River Trent at the village of East Stoke. Their right flank was anchored on a high spot known as Burham Furlong.
Henry's army was divided into three battles, of which Oxford led the vanguard. As at Bosworth, the king left the direction of the fighting itself to Oxford. Before the fight began some unusual lights in the sky were interpreted as ill-portents by Lancastrian soldiers, leading to some desertions, but Oxford and other nobles were able to restore morale, and soon the army was in "good array and in a fair battle".
The Yorkists, arrayed in a single concentrated formation, were assaulted by arrows. Suffering from the arrows, they chose to surrender the high ground by immediately going on to the attack in the hope of breaking the Lancastrian line and rolling up the enemy army. Though outnumbered overall, the Yorkists had the advantage of a "core of well-trained foreign mercenaries", and their concentrated force outnumbered Oxford's vanguard, which was the only part of the Lancastrian army engaged.
The vanguard was badly shaken, but Oxford was able to rally his force. The battle was bitterly contested for over three hours, but eventually, sheer attrition told against the Yorkists after they failed to break the Lancastrian position early on. Henry chose not to commit his other "battles", leaving the struggle to the vanguard, which was probably repeatedly reinforced as Lancastrian contingents came up, directed by Jasper Tudor. Though the German mercenaries were equipped with the latest handguns, the presence of large numbers of traditional archers in the Lancastrian army proved decisive. The skilled longbowmen were able to shoot volley after volley into the Yorkist position. The lack of body armour on the Irish troops in particular meant that they were cut down in increasing numbers by repeated showers of arrows.
Unable to retreat (with the river on three sides), the German and Swiss mercenaries fought it out. According to Jean Molinet, by the end of the battle they were "filled with arrows like hedgehogs". The broken Yorkists fled towards the Trent down a ravine (known locally even today as the Bloody Gutter) in which many were cornered and killed. Most of the Yorkist commanders—Lincoln, Fitzgerald, and Schwartz—fell fighting. Only Lord Lovell and Broughton may have escaped. Lovell disappeared after the battle and was never seen again. He may have gone to Scotland, as there is evidence of a safe conduct pass being granted him there, but his later fate is unknown. In the 18th century a body was found inside a secret room at his house in Minster Lovell, Oxfordshire, leading to conjecture that it was his.
Aftermath.
Simnel was captured, but was pardoned by Henry in a gesture of clemency which did his reputation no harm. Henry realised that Simnel was merely a puppet for the leading Yorkists. He was given a job in the royal kitchen, and later promoted to falconer. The Irish nobles who had supported Simnel were also pardoned, as Henry believed he needed their support to govern Ireland effectively. However, Henry later persuaded the Pope to excommunicate the Irish clergy who had supported the rebellion. Two other Yorkist conspirators were also captured: Richard Symonds and John Payne, Bishop of Meath. Symonds was the man who had introduced Lincoln to Simnel; Payne had preached the sermon at Simnel's coronation. Neither was executed: Symonds was imprisoned, and Payne was pardoned and eventually restored to royal favour.
To mark his victory, Henry raised his standard on Burham Furlong. The spot is marked by a large stone memorial with the legend "Here stood the Burrand Bush planted on the spot where Henry VII placed his standard after the Battle of Stoke 16 June 1487". Henry knighted many of his supporters in the aftermath of the battle. A handwritten list of the new knights by John Writhe survives inserted into a copy of the book "Game and Play of Chess". Thirteen new bannerets were created and fifty two men were knighted.
Henry had hoped to capture Lincoln alive in order to learn from him the true extent of support for the Yorkists. Instead Henry launched a series of enquiries, the outcome of which was "relatively few executions and very many fines", consistent with Henry's policy of controlling the aristocracy by weakening it financially. After the battle, he progressed north through Pontefract, York, Durham, and Newcastle to show himself in those areas that had been strongholds of Richard III's supporters.
Later in Henry's reign, the 1490s, another pretender to the throne emerged, in the person of Perkin Warbeck; however, this time the matter was resolved without having to fight a major battle.


Guam Insular Force Guard

The Guam Insular Force Guard was a former military formation of Guam.
History.
After gaining control of Guam during the 1898 Spanish–American War, the United States declared the entire island of Guam a naval installation that led to the US Navy governing the island.
On 5 April 1901, President William McKinley created the Insular Force of the U.S. Navy, authorizing the Secretary of the Navy to enlist up to 500 natives of Guam and the Philippines. Originally nine men strong at their formation, the force rose to 85 ratings by 1906 in order to protect US Naval installations on Guam.
The strength of the Guard was 110 men organised and uniformed in the manner of the US Navy but received half the pay of the corresponding American naval ratings. Rather than being classed as members of the US Navy, the Guardsmen were classified as "native seamen".
With the situation in the Pacific growing more tense the Guard was increased in size to 234 men. The Guard was armed with the same weapons as the US Navy, M1903 Springfield rifles, Thompson submachine guns and Lewis Guns, however with the increase to the size of the Guard there were not enough weapons to go around.
During the Battle of Guam in December 1941 four members of the Guard were killed in action with 22 men wounded. Insular Force Guardsmen were held as prisoners of war on Guam instead of being shipped to Japan.
Legacy.
The Guam Insular Force Memorial in Hagatna commemorates the history and bravery of the unit


Hangar One (Mountain View, California)

Hangar One is one of the world's largest freestanding structures, covering at Moffett Field near Mountain View, California in the San Francisco Bay Area.
The massive hangar has long been one of the most recognizable landmarks of California's Silicon Valley. An early example of mid-century modern architecture, it was built in the 1930s as a naval airship hangar for the USS "Macon" and is now part of the NASA Ames Research Center.
Design and construction.
Designed by German air ship and structural engineer Dr. Karl Arnstein, Vice President and Director of Engineering for the Goodyear Zeppelin Corporation of Akron, Ohio, in collaboration with Wilbur Watson Associates Architects and Engineers of Cleveland, Ohio, Hangar One is constructed on a network of steel girders sheathed with galvanized steel. It rests firmly upon a reinforced pad anchored to concrete pilings. The floor covers 8 acres and can accommodate six (360 feet x 160 feet) American football fields. The airship hangar measures long and wide. The building has an aerodynamic architecture. Its walls curve inward to form an elongated approximate catenary form 198 feet (60 m) high. The clam-shell doors were designed to reduce turbulence when the "Macon" moved in and out on windy days. The "orange peel" doors, weighing 200 short tons (180 metric tons) each, are moved by their own motors operated via an electrical control panel.
The hangar's interior is so large that fog sometimes forms near the ceiling.
Standard gauge tracks run through the length of the hangar. During the period of lighter-than-air dirigibles and non-rigid aircraft, the rails extended across the apron and into the fields at each end of the hangar. This tramway facilitated the transportation of an airship on the mooring mast to the hangar interior or to the flight position. During the brief period that the "Macon" was based at Moffett, Hangar One accommodated not only the giant airship but several smaller non-rigid lighter-than-air craft simultaneously.
Similar structures.
Hangar One is similar to the Goodyear Airdock in Akron, Ohio which was built by the Goodyear Zeppelin Corporation in 1929. At the time the Goodyear Airdock was built, the structure, located in Northeast Ohio, was the largest building in the world without interior supports. It provided an unusually extensive room for the construction of "lighter-than-air" ships (later known as airships, dirigibles, or blimps). The first two airships to be constructed and launched at the Goodyear Airdock were USS "Akron" and its sister ship, USS "Macon", built in 1931 and 1933, respectively. These two airships were 785 feet (239 m) in length.
Other historic references date back to Europe. An outstanding example are the two "hangars d'Orly" for dirigibles at Orly Air Base near Paris. They were designed and built in 1921–1922 by French structural and civil engineer Eugène Freyssinet, the major pioneer of prestressed concrete, and destroyed in World War II.
Another remarkable example of a similar concrete construction are the two airplane hangars for the Italian Air Force in Orvieto, Italy, by Italian architect and structural engineer Pier Luigi Nervi, designed in 1935 and built in 1938. They were also destroyed during World War II.
History.
On February 24, 1994, the Shenandoah Plaza National Historic District, including Hangar One, was accepted into the National Register of Historic Places.
On May 20, 2008, Hangar One was listed as one of the 11 most endangered historic places in the U.S. by the National Trust for Historic Preservation.
Plans to convert it to a space and science center were put on hold with the discovery in 2003 that the structure was leaking toxic chemicals into the sediment in wetlands bordering San Francisco Bay. The chemicals originated in the lead paint and toxic materials, including polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), used to coat the hangar. Proposed options included tearing down the hangar and reusing the land, or cleaning the toxic waste from the site and refurbishing the hangar for future preservation. An offer to clean the hangar and coat its outsides with solar panels to recoup the costs of cleaning was proposed by a private company, but the plan never saw fruition due to its cost.
In December 2010, the Navy began remediating the PCBs, lead and asbestos, and NASA was evaluating options for reuse of the hangar. Some historic and nonprofit groups expressed a desire for the hangar to be preserved as a historic landmark, as the hangar is a major Bay Area landmark and historic site. In April 2011, after months of planning and preparation, work to remove the exterior panels began, requiring "the biggest scaffolding job in the history of the West Coast." The work was completed in mid-2012.
In October 2011, Google top executives Larry Page, Sergey Brin and Eric Schmidt proposed paying the full $33 million cost of revamping Hangar One, in exchange for being able to use up to two-thirds of the floor space to shelter eight of their private jets.
In 2014, NASA and the General Services Administration selected Planetary Ventures (a subsidiary of Google) to manage Hangar One and Moffett airfield, and Google paid $1.16 billion over 60 years for the lease.
In May 2016, Google announced that it is prepared to begin testing different techniques to remove the toxic chemicals from the hangar. In May 2017, it was announced that the restoration of the hangar would be completed in 2025.


North West Europe campaign

The North West Europe campaign was a campaign by the British Commonwealth armed forces in North West Europe, including its skies and adjoining waters during World War II. The term Western Front has also sometimes been used informally. The United States military refers to this campaign as the European Theater of Operations.
Hence the battle honour "North-West Europe" was awarded to any unit involved in land, sea and air campaigns and operations in, over or near Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Norway and the United Kingdom during World War II. It includes many more specific campaigns and/or battle honours.
Subsidiary battle honours.
The battle honour "North-West Europe campaign of 1940, was awarded to some army units that were involved in the Battle of France, and was restricted to the Belgian and French Channel ports. During this campaign, the French Army was responsible for the rest of the Western Front from Luxembourg to Switzerland, much of which was defended by the Maginot Line. The first campaign ended for the British forces with the defeat of the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) and its evacuation from the beaches of Dunkirk.
Between 1940 and 1944, Commonwealth army units conducted coastal raids in German-Occupied Europe, the largest of which was the Dieppe raid of 1942.
British Commonwealth air force units who served over Occupied Europe, between the fall of France and D-Day were awarded the battle honour "Fortress Europe 1940–1944."
The battle honour North-West Europe campaign of 1944–1945, was typically awarded to units of the British Second Army and First Canadian Army, as elements of the British 21st Army Group. The campaign started with the landings in Normandy and ended on 4 May 1945 with Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery taking the German military surrender of all German forces in the Netherlands, north west Germany and Denmark on Lüneburg Heath, (situated between the cities of Hamburg, Hanover and Bremen).


Bayshore/NASA station

Bayshore/NASA is a light rail station operated by Santa Clara Valley Transportation Authority (VTA), located in Mountain View, California. This station is served by the Orange Line of the VTA Light Rail system.
Location.
The station is on Manila Drive at the Ellis Street entrance to the NASA Ames Research Center and Moffett Federal Airfield.


Liverpool Blitz

The Liverpool Blitz was the heavy and sustained bombing of the English city of Liverpool and its surrounding area, during the Second World War by the German "Luftwaffe".
Liverpool was the most heavily bombed area of the country, outside London, due to the city having, along with Birkenhead, the largest port on the west coast and being of significant importance to the British war effort. Descriptions of damage were kept vague to hide information from the Germans, and downplayed in the newspapers for propaganda purposes; many Liverpudlians thus felt that their suffering was overlooked compared to other places. Around 4,000 people were killed in the Merseyside area during the Blitz. This death toll was second only to London, which suffered over 40,000 by the end of the war.
Liverpool, Bootle and the Wallasey Pool complex were strategically very important locations during the Second World War. The Port of Liverpool had for many years been the United Kingdom's main link with North America, and would prove to be a key part in the British participation in the Battle of the Atlantic. As well as providing anchorage for naval ships from many nations, the port's quays and dockers would handle over 90 per cent of all the war material brought into Britain from abroad with some 75 million tons passing through its of quays. Liverpool was the eastern end of a Transatlantic chain of supplies from North America. Other industries were also heavily concentrated in Liverpool and across the Mersey in Birkenhead.
Preparations for war.
The evacuation of children (Operation Pied Piper) at the start of the war, in September 1939, was a pre-emptive measure to save the population of urban or military areas from German aerial bombing. Between 1–6 September the evacuations, organised by Liverpool Corporation, saw 8,500 children, parents and teachers moved from the city to rural areas and small towns in Lancashire, Wales, Cheshire, Shrewsbury and Shropshire.
As months went by with no signs of an air-raid by the Luftwaffe, many parents brought their children back to Liverpool and, by January 1940, 40% of the evacuated children were back in the city.
Beginning of the blitz.
The first major air raid on Liverpool took place in August 1940, when 160 bombers attacked the city on the night of 28 August.
This assault continued over the next three nights, then regularly for the rest of the year. There were 50 raids on the city during this three-month period. Some of these were minor, comprising a few aircraft, and lasting a few minutes, with others comprising up to 300 aircraft and lasting over ten hours. On 18 September, 22 inmates at Walton Gaol were killed when high-explosive bombs demolished a wing of the prison.
28 November saw a heavy raid on the city, and the most serious single incident, when a hit on an air-raid shelter in Durning Road caused 166 fatalities. Winston Churchill described it as the "single worst incident of the war".
The air assault in 1940 came to a peak with the Christmas blitz, a three-night bombardment from 20–22 December.
Christmas blitz.
A series of heavy raids took place in December 1940, referred to as the Christmas blitz, when 365 people were killed between 20 – 22 December. The raids saw several instances of direct hits on air raid shelters; on 20 December, 42 people died when a shelter was hit, while another 40 died when a bomb struck railway arches on Bentinck Street, where local people were sheltering. On 21 December, another hit on a shelter killed 74 people.
The bombing decreased in severity after the new year.
May blitz.
May 1941 saw a renewal of the air assault on the region; a seven-night bombardment that devastated the city.
The first bomb landed upon Seacombe, Wallasey, Wirral, at 22:15 on 1 May. The peak of the bombing occurred from 1 – 7 May 1941. It involved 681 "Luftwaffe" bombers; 2,315 high explosive bombs and 119 other explosives such as incendiaries were dropped. The raids put 69 out of 144 cargo berths out of action and inflicted 2,895 casualties
Liverpool Cathedral was hit by a high explosive bomb which pierced the roof of the south-east transept before being deflected by an inner brick wall and exploding mid-air, damaging many stained glass windows. Another landed on the front steps without exploding but incendiaries destroyed equipment in the contractor's yard at the west end.
One incident on 3 May involved the , a ship carrying munitions which was berthed in the Huskisson Dock. Although its eventual explosion is often attributed to a burning barrage balloon, this fire was put out. However flames from dock sheds that had been bombed spread to the "Malakand", and this fire could not be contained. Despite valiant efforts by the fire brigade to extinguish the flames, they spread to the ship's cargo of 1,000 tons of bombs, which exploded a few hours after the raid had ended. The entire Huskisson No. 2 dock and the surrounding quays were destroyed and four people were killed. The explosion was so violent that some pieces of the ship's hull plating were blasted into a park over away. It took seventy-four hours for the fire to burn out.
The seven night bombardment resulted in over 6,500 homes being completely demolished by aerial bombing and a further 190,000 damaged leaving 70,000 people homeless. 500 roads were closed to traffic as well as railways and tram lines being destroyed. 700 water mains and 80 sewers were damaged alongside gas, electricity and telephone services.
9,000 workers from outside the city and 2,700 troops helped to remove debris from streets. On the night of the 3rd and 4th of may alone, 400 fires were attended to by the fire brigade
Bootle, to the north of the city, suffered heavy damage and loss of life. One notable incident here was a direct hit on a Co-op air raid shelter on the corner of Ash Street and Stanley Road. The exact total of casualties is unclear, though dozens of bodies were recovered and placed in a temporary mortuary which itself was later destroyed by incendiaries with over 180 corpses inside.
"The Times" stated that between 31 March until 13 April 1941 "The Germans stated that the attack on Liverpool and the surrounding area was one of the heaviest ever made by their air force on Britain. Several hundred bombers had been used, visibility was good and docks and industrial works, storehouses and business centres, had been hit. In addition to many smaller fires, one conflagration, it was claimed, was greater than any hitherto observed during a night attack."
End of the blitz.
After the raids in May 1941, the German air assault diminished, as Hitler's attention turned towards attacking the Soviet Union.
The last German air raid on Liverpool took place on 10 January 1942, destroying several houses on Upper Stanhope Street. By a quirk of fate one of the houses destroyed was number 102, which had been the home of Alois Hitler, Jr, half brother of Adolf Hitler and the birthplace of Hitler's nephew, William Patrick Hitler. The house was never rebuilt and the whole site was eventually cleared of housing and grassed over.
By the end German bombs had killed 2,716 people in Liverpool, 442 people in Birkenhead, 409 people in Bootle and 332 people in Wallasey.
Aftermath.
Today one of the most vivid symbols of the Liverpool Blitz is the burnt outer shell of St Luke's Church, located in the city centre, which was destroyed by an incendiary bomb on 5 May 1941. The church was gutted during the firebombing but remained standing and, in its prominent position in the city, was a stark reminder of what Liverpool and the surrounding area had endured. It eventually became a garden of remembrance to commemorate the thousands of local men, women and children who died as a result of the bombing of their city and region. Affectionately known as "The Bombed Out Church" by the locals, St Luke's regularly hosts food and drink festivals, film screenings, art installations and many more events both in the ruins and in the surrounding garden.
Other architectural casualties of the Blitz included the Custom House, Bluecoat Chambers, and Liverpool Museum. However, many buildings were restored after the War, while the Custom House was controversially demolished.
British Prime Minister Winston Churchill in May 1941 said after visiting Liverpool and the surrounding area,
"I see the damage done by the enemy attacks, but I also see ... the spirit of an unconquered people."


Bluie

Bluie was the United States military code name for Greenland during World War II. It is remembered by the numbered sequence of base locations identified by the 1941 United States Coast Guard South Greenland Survey Expedition, and subsequently used in radio communications by airmen unfamiliar with pronunciation of the Inuit and Old Norse names of those locations. These were typically spoken BLUIE (direction) (number), with direction being east or west along the Greenland coast from Cape Farewell.


Tonkin Expeditionary Corps

The Tonkin Expeditionary Corps () was an important French military command based in northern Vietnam (Tonkin) from June 1883 to April 1886. The expeditionary corps fought the Tonkin Campaign (1883–86) taking part in campaigns against the Black Flag Army and the Chinese Yunnan and Guangxi Armies during the Sino-French War (August 1884–April 1885) and the period of undeclared hostilities that preceded it (August 1883–June 1884), and in important operations against Vietnamese guerrilla bands during the subsequent 'Pacification of Tonkin' (May 1885–February 1886).
Commanders and campaigns.
General Alexandre-Eugène Bouët (1833–87).
The expeditionary corps was established in June 1883 in the wake of Henri Rivière's defeat and death at the Battle of Paper Bridge, to entrench the French protectorate in Tonkin. Its first commander was "général de brigade" Alexandre-Eugène Bouët (1833–87), the most senior marine infantry officer available in the French colony of Cochinchina. Bouët introduced a lightweight black pyjama summer uniform for French troops in Tonkin, and also ordered them to cover their white pith helmets with black cloth to make themselves less conspicuous. These were sensible innovations, which were appreciated by the common soldiers. Bouët's first task was to secure the French posts in Hanoi, Nam Định and Haiphong against Black Flag and Vietnamese attacks. In July 1883 he prepared to go over to the offensive, recruiting a force of 800 Yellow Flag soldiers to augment the French forces at his disposal. Pressured by the civil commissioner-general Jules Harmand to attack the Black Flags as soon as possible in their positions on the Day River, he took the field in August 1883, despite the heat and humidity of the Tonkin summer. Bouët twice attacked the entrenchments held by Liu Yongfu's Black Flag army, at the Battle of Phủ Hoài (15 August 1883) and the Battle of Palan (1 September 1883). Both battles were disappointing for the French, and Bouët's command was also dogged by disagreements with Jules Harmand over French strategy in Tonkin. In early September 1883 Bouët resigned. Shortly before his resignation he recommended to the French government that the Tonkin Expeditionary Corps should be constituted as a regular two-brigade army division with the normal complement of artillery and ancillary support. This recommendation was accepted by the army ministry and implemented in February 1884.
Lieutenant-Colonel Anicet-Edmond-Justin Bichot (1835–1908).
In the wake of Bouët's unexpected resignation, command of the expeditionary corps fell briefly to Lieutenant-Colonel Anicet-Edmond-Justin Bichot (1835–1908), the ranking marine infantry officer in Tonkin. Bichot's interregnum lasted only a few weeks, and saw no large-scale battles between the French and the Black Flags. His short tenure of command was chiefly notable for a reconnaissance in force towards Sơn Tây on 18 September 1883, in the course of which the French discovered the remains of Commandant Henri Rivière, who had been killed in action at the Battle of Paper Bridge (19 May 1883) and whose mutilated body had been buried close to the battlefield, in the village of Kien Mai.
Admiral Anatole-Amédée-Prosper Courbet (1827–85).
Upon the arrival of substantial French reinforcements in Tonkin in November and December 1883, the French government placed Admiral Amédée Courbet, the commander of the Tonkin Coasts naval division, in command of the expeditionary corps. Courbet commanded the expeditionary corps during the Sơn Tây Campaign (December 1883). Among his many other talents, Courbet was a first-class administrator, and was deeply respected by the men of the expeditionary corps for the pains he took to ensure that military life ran as smoothly as possible for them. Long after his departure, this aspect of his command was remembered. If the mail went astray, or if a unit lost its way during a route march, the soldiers would say 'This wouldn't have happened if Courbet were still in command!'
The 1883 campaigns in Tonkin were conducted, like most French colonial enterprises, by the "troupes de marine", and had been overseen by the navy ministry. In December 1883, however, in view of the increasing commitment of troops from Algeria to Tonkin, the army ministry insisted on appointing a general from the regular army to command of the Tonkin Expeditionary Corps, which would be henceforth be constituted as a two-brigade infantry division with the normal complement of artillery and other supporting arms. Jules Ferry's cabinet approved this recommendation, and Courbet was replaced in command of the expeditionary corps on 16 December 1883 by General Charles-Théodore Millot—ironically, on the very day on which he captured Sơn Tây. He resumed command of the Tonkin Coasts naval division, and for the next six months played a most unwelcome subordinate role, hunting down bands of Vietnamese pirates in the Gulf of Tonkin while Millot was winning glory in the Bắc Ninh campaign.
General Charles-Théodore Millot (1829–89).
In early 1884 the arrival of substantial reinforcements from France and the African colonies raised the strength of the expeditionary corps to over 10,000 men. Its new commander, "général de division" Charles-Théodore Millot (1829–1889), organised this force into two brigades. The 1st Brigade was commanded by "général de brigade" Louis Brière de l'Isle (1827–1896), who had earlier made his reputation as governor of Senegal. The 2nd Brigade was commanded by "général de brigade" François de Négrier (1842–1913), a charismatic young Foreign Legion commander who had recently quelled a serious Arab rebellion in Algeria.
Millot commanded the expeditionary corps for eight months, from February to September 1884. During his tenure of command he organised two major campaigns to capture Bắc Ninh and Hưng Hóa (March and April 1884) and two more modest expeditions to capture Thái Nguyên and Tuyên Quang (May and June 1884). In the Bắc Ninh campaign he won a spectacular walkover victory against Xu Yanxu's Guangxi Army. In the Hưng Hóa campaign he flanked Liu Yongfu out of a formidable defensive system without losing a man. Having argued strenuously against sending a column to occupy Lạng Sơn in the heat of the Tonkin summer, he emerged unscathed from the official enquiry into the circumstances of the Bắc Lệ Ambush (June 1884).
Millot was arguably the most successful of the many commanders of the expeditionary corps, but he was unpopular with both his officers and his men, who considered him overcautious. Significantly, his decision to halt General de Négrier's pursuit of the defeated Chinese forces in the Bắc Ninh campaign was held against him, even though he had sound military reasons for this decision. The troops immediately gave sardonic Vietnamese nicknames to their three generals. The much-admired de Négrier became "Maolen" ('Quick!'), Brière de l'Isle "Mann Mann" ('Slow!'), and Millot "Toi Toi" ('Stop!). Millot's career in Tonkin ended on a sour note. In poor health, and dismayed at the way the French government used the Bắc Lệ ambush as a pretext for war with China, he submitted his resignation in September 1884. In his last order of the day, he described himself as 'a sick and disappointed man'.
General Louis-Alexandre-Esprit-Gaston Brière de l'Isle (1827–96).
Millot was replaced as general-in-chief by his senior brigade commander, Louis Brière de l'Isle. Brière de l'Isle appointed Colonel Dujardin to the interim command of the 1st Brigade during the autumn and winter of 1884. In January 1885, on the eve of the Lạng Sơn Campaign, Colonel Ange-Laurent Giovanninelli (1839–1903) arrived in Tonkin and assumed command of the 1st Brigade. General de Négrier remained in command of the 2nd Brigade.
Brière de l'Isle was a natural leader of men, and under his command the expeditionary corps achieved a high standard of professional excellence. In October 1884, in the Kep Campaign, Brière de l'Isle defeated a major Chinese invasion of the Tonkin Delta, skilfully exploiting the mobility of the French gunboats to concentrate his forces successively against both wings of the Guangxi Army. In the first fortnight of February 1885, in the Lạng Sơn Campaign, he took the expeditionary corps in triumph to Lạng Sơn. The success of the campaign owed as much to Brière de l'Isle's meticulous planning and organisation as it did to the courage and professionalism of the troops he led. In mid-February, pausing only a few days at Lạng Sơn to resupply his troops, Brière de l'Isle marched personally with Giovanninelli's 1st Brigade from Lạng Sơn back to Hanoi, and then up the Red and Clear Rivers to relieve the Siege of Tuyên Quang. Although the French suffered heavy casualties in the Battle of Hòa Mộc (2 March 1885), they captured Liu Yongfu's blocking position and broke through to Tuyên Quang. The relief of Tuyên Quang, on 3 March 1885, was the high point of Brière de l'Isle's career.
Brière de l'Isle's record of solid professional achievement was marred in the second fortnight of March 1885, with simultaneous French defeats on 24 March at the Battle of Phu Lam Tao and (far more serious) the Battle of Bang Bo. Although de Négrier retrieved his defeat at Bang Bo by inflicting crippling casualties on the Guangxi Army at the Battle of Ky Lua on 28 March, the disastrous decision by Lieutenant-Colonel Paul-Gustave Herbinger to retreat from Lạng Sơn transformed a French tactical victory into a strategic defeat. Although Brière de l'Isle soon stabilised the situation, the French had lost the hard-won gains of the February campaign. Meanwhile, Brière de l'Isle knew that he would now go down in history not as the victor of Lạng Sơn and Tuyên Quang but as the general who had sent the notorious 'Lạng Sơn telegram' that brought down the government of Jules Ferry. In later years, whenever asked about his experiences during the Sino-French War, he would reply 'Let's talk about something else. That campaign left a bitter taste in everybody's mouth!'
Strong reinforcements were sent to Tonkin in the wake of the Retreat from Lạng Sơn (March 1885), bringing the total number of French soldiers in Tonkin to 35,000 in the summer of 1885. In May and June 1885 thousands of fresh French troops poured into Tonkin, swamping the veterans of the two brigades that had fought the Sino-French War, and the expeditionary corps was reorganised into two two-brigade divisions. Brière de l'Isle was replaced in command of the expeditionary corps on 1 June 1885 by General Philippe-Marie-Henri Roussel de Courcy (1827–1887), but remained in Tonkin for several months as commander of the 1st Division of the expanded expeditionary corps. De Négrier, who had recovered from the wound he sustained at the Battle of Ky Lua (28 March 1885), was given command of the 2nd Division.
General Philippe-Marie-Henri Roussel de Courcy (1827–1887).
De Courcy's command was marked by growing resistance to French rule in Tonkin and by outright insurrection in Annam. It was also memorable for a cholera epidemic which swept through the expeditionary corps in the summer and autumn of 1885, exacerbated by de Courcy's neglect of quarantine precautions, in which more French soldiers died than in the entire nine months of the Sino-French War. Elements of the Tonkin expeditionary corps were attacked at Huế on 2 July 1885 in the so-called 'Huế Ambush', which initiated the Annamese insurrection. Forbidden by the French government to launch a full-scale invasion of Annam, de Courcy landed troops along the vulnerable coastline of central Vietnam to seize a number of strategic points and to protect Vietnamese Catholic communities in the wake of massacres of Christians by the Annamese insurgents at Quảng Ngãi and Bình Định. Key moments in de Courcy's intervention were the occupation of Vinh by Lieutenant-Colonel Chaumont in August, and the relief of Qui Nhơn and capture of Bình Định by General Prud'homme in September. In November 1885 a so-called 'Annam column' under the command of Lieutenant-Colonel Mignot set off from Ninh Bình in southern Tonkin and marched down the narrow spine of Vietnam as far as Huế, scattering any insurgent bands that attempted to dispute its progress.
In Tonkin, the expeditionary corps undertook a large-scale campaign in October 1885 to capture the Yunnan Army's old base at Thanh May on the Red River, occupied by Vietnamese insurgents under the command of Nguyễn Quang Bích since the end of the Sino-French War. De Négrier also conducted a major sweep of the Bai Sai region near Hanoi. De Courcy was warned by his senior medical officers not to mix units in which cholera had already broken out with uninfected units. He ignored this advice, with the result that there were appalling fatalities from cholera in both the Thanh May and Bai Sai columns.
General Charles-Auguste-Louis Warnet (1828–1913).
In December 1885, disgusted with de Courcy's obtuseness, General Briere de l'Isle submitted his resignation and returned to France. Shortly afterwards de Courcy's chief of staff General Charles-Auguste-Louis Warnet (1828–1913) also asked to return to France. The army ministry belatedly realised that things were very wrong in Tonkin. It refused Warnet's resignation and instead recalled de Courcy to France on 16 January 1886. De Courcy was briefly replaced in command of the expeditionary corps by General Warnet.
Warnet, despite a wealth of evidence that Tonkin was far from pacified, was a political general. Knowing that the French public wanted to hear no more depressing news of bandits and pirates in Tonkin, he declared that Tonkin was pacified and recommended to the army ministry the formal downgrading of the expeditionary corps into a division of occupation. Some colour was given to this claim by Warnet's decision to secure the line of the Red River all the way up to the Yunnan border. In March 1886 Lieutenant-Colonel de Maussion advanced up the Red River, meeting almost no resistance, and occupied the town of Lào Cai on the Chinese border. In April 1886 the expeditionary corps was reduced to a three-brigade division of occupation under the command of General Édouard-Ferdinand Jamont (1831–1918).
Strength, organisation and orders of battle.
Although the Tonkin expeditionary corps eventually reached a strength of 35,000 men, it was never able to put more than a fraction of its troops into the field against the Chinese armies. Most of its men were tied down in garrison duty and in sweeps against concentrations of Vietnamese resistance fighters ('bandits' or 'pirates', as the French called them). Courbet fielded 9,000 troops during the Sơn Tây Campaign, and Millot 12,000 troops in the Bắc Ninh campaign. De Négrier commanded slightly fewer than 3,000 men during the Kep Campaign of October 1884, and Brière de l'Isle was only with difficulty able to put 7,200 men into the field in the February 1885 Lạng Sơn Campaign. De Courcy, using a sledgehammer to crack a nut, concentrated 6,000 infantry, seven artillery batteries and three squadrons of cavalry for the October 1885 Thanh May campaign.
Order of battle, Phủ Hoài, Palan and Sơn Tây campaigns.
During Bouët and Courbet's tenures of command, the bulk of the expeditionary corps was drawn from the "troupes de marine", as befitted a traditional colonial campaign, and the campaign was overseen by the navy ministry. During June and July 1883 the handful of marine infantry companies in Tonkin that had fought under Rivière's command at Nam Định and Paper Bridge were reinforced by an influx of marine infantry from France and New Caledonia. At the Battle of Phủ Hoài (15 August 1883), Bouët fielded three marine infantry battalions ("chefs de bataillon" Chevallier, Lafont and Roux), three marine artillery batteries (Captains Isoir, Dupont and Roussel), five companies of Cochinchinese tirailleurs (riflemen) and around 450 Yellow Flag auxiliaries. The battle of Palan (1 September 1883), a smaller affair, was fought by two marine infantry battalions ("chefs de bataillon" Berger and Roux), Roussel's battery and the Yellow Flags. The Yellow Flag auxiliaries plundered a peaceful Vietnamese village shortly after the battle, and Bouët was forced to disband them. Many of the discharged Yellow Flags promptly joined Liu Yongfu's Black Flag Army at Sơn Tây. Three months later they would be fighting against their former paymasters.
The commitment of marine infantry and marine artillery units reached a peak in the Sơn Tây Campaign (December 1883). Courbet's column included four marine infantry battalions ("chefs de bataillon" Roux, Chevallier, Dulieu and Reygasse) and six marine artillery batteries (Captains Isoir, Dupont, Roussel, Roperh, Péricaud and Dudraille). As often in French colonial warfare, the "marsouins" and "bigors" were supported by native auxiliaries and naval detachments. The Sơn Tây column included a "Fusiliers Marins" battalion ("capitaine de frégate" Laguerre), 800 Tonkinese tirailleurs ("chef de bataillon" Bertaux-Levillain), four companies of Cochinchinese tirailleurs and a 65-millimetre naval battery ("lieutenant de vaisseau" Amelot).
But the column also included two recently arrived Turco battalions ("chefs de bataillon" Jouneau and Letellier) and the 1st Foreign Legion Battalion (Lieutenant-Colonel Donnier), and the presence of Legion and Turco units at Sơn Tây was a portent of things to come. The army ministry insisted that the Tonkin campaign should be run by a general from the regular army, and Courbet was relieved of the command of the expeditionary corps on 16 December 1883 (ironically, the very day on which he captured Sơn Tây). Thereafter, the army in Algeria would supply most of the formations sent to Tonkin, and the war on land against the Black Flags and China would be run by the army ministry.
February 1884 reinforcements.
In November 1883 the Chamber of Deputies approved the despatch of a further 6,500 troops to Tonkin. This was the largest single troop movement of its kind during the conflict with China. The newcomers included six fresh infantry battalions, which were grouped into two marching regiments. The first regiment, which included three line infantry battalions from France, was under the command of Lieutenant-Colonel Defoy. Its three battalions—the 23rd, 111th and 143rd—were commanded respectively by "chef de bataillon" Godart, Lieutenant-Colonel Chapuis and "chef de bataillon" Farret. The second regiment, led by Lieutenant-Colonel Jacques Duchesne of the Foreign Legion, was supplied by the 19th Army Corps in Algeria and included a Legion battalion, a Turco battalion and one of the penal African light infantry battalions. These three battalions—the 2nd Legion Battalion, the 1st Battalion, 3rd Algerian tirailleurs Regiment, and the 2nd African Battalion—were commanded respectively by "chefs de bataillon" Hutin, de Mibielle and Servière.
The artillery reinforcements consisted of two 80-millimetre army artillery batteries, under the command of Captains Jourdy and de Saxcé, and a battery of "canons-revolvers" served by sailors. A cavalry detachment of 50 "chasseurs d'Afrique" under the command of Captain Laperrine was also sent to give the expeditionary corps a capability for scouting and pursuit, plus a number of specialist units, including a balloon detachment (Lieutenant Jullien). A draft of nearly 200 men was also despatched to bring Donnier's Legion battalion, which had suffered heavy casualties at Sơn Tây, back up to its paper strength of 800 men.
The reinforcements sailed from France and North Africa in December 1883 and January 1884 in two convoys. On 23 December the transports "Vĩnh Long", "Européen", "Comorin" and "Cholon" left Toulon to embark the Legion, Turco and "Bat' d'Af"' reinforcements at Mers-el-Kebir and Oran. On 10 January the three line battalions, the artillery and specialist troops set sail from Toulon aboard the transports "Saint-Germain", "Poitou", "Annamite" and "Mytho". Two smaller vessels, "Sarthe" and "Shamrock", accommodated the overflow.
Order of battle, Bắc Ninh campaign.
The expeditionary column that General Millot led to Bắc Ninh in March 1884 was organised into two brigades, under the respective command of Generals Louis Brière de l'Isle and François de Négrier. After making troop deductions for garrison duty, Millot was able to give each of his brigade commanders two marching regiments ("régiments de marche"), each containing the equivalent of three infantry battalions. Professional protocol prevented him from mixing the battalions of the marine infantry, the "armée d'Afrique" and the metropolitan army ("armée de terre"), and he was obliged to create one regiment of marine infantry, two 'Algerian' regiments of troops from the "armée d'Afrique", and one French regiment. One of the 'Algerian' regiments contained the three Turco battalions then in Tonkin, the other the white formations of the Foreign Legion and African Light Infantry. These four marching regiments were commanded respectively by Lieutenant-Colonels Bertaux-Levillain, Belin, Duchesne and Defoy.
Order of battle, Lạng Sơn and Tuyên Quang campaigns.
During the Lạng Sơn Campaign (February 1885) and the campaigns of March 1885 around Tuyên Quang and Lạng Sơn, both brigades of the expeditionary corps contained two marching regiments ("régiments de marche"), each of two or three battalions, with supporting artillery, Tonkinese skirmishers and field hospital and engineering detachments. Giovanninelli's 1st Brigade consisted of a two-battalion marine infantry regiment, a two-battalion regiment of Algerian tirailleurs (Turcos), a battalion of Tonkinese tirailleurs and three artillery batteries. De Négrier's 2nd Brigade consisted of a 'French' regiment of three line infantry battalions from the metropolitan army, an 'Algerian' regiment of two Foreign Legion battalions and one battalion of African Light Infantry, a battalion of Tonkinese tirailleurs and three artillery batteries:
The artillery complements of the two brigades were reorganised before the 1st Brigade left Lạng Sơn to relieve the Siege of Tuyên Quang. Roussel and Roperh's batteries were left at Lạng Sơn, and Jourdy's battery was transferred to the 1st Brigade.
March 1885 reinforcements.
In March 1885 the expeditionary corps was reinforced by two battalions of zouaves ("chefs de bataillon" Mignot and Simon), under the overall command of Lieutenant-Colonel Callet, a third Algerian Tirailleur battalion, an army artillery battery (Captain Gradoz), and two squadrons of spahis (Captains Pfeiffer and Marochetti). Mignot's zouave battalion was defeated at the Battle of Phu Lam Tao on 23 March. Pfeiffer's spahi squadron joined the 2nd Brigade during the retreat from Lạng Sơn, and was forbidden by the acting brigade commander, Lieutenant-Colonel Herbinger, to charge a small party of Chinese skirmishers at Pho Cam.
June 1885 reinforcements.
In April 1885 the French government responded to the news of the Retreat from Lạng Sơn by arranging for reinforcements of just under 8,000 men to be dispatched to Tonkin. It decided to bring the three depleted French line battalions up to their proper strength of just over 3,000 men by calling for volunteers from the classes of 1881 and 1882 from all the line regiments in the metropolitan army. This appeal produced just under 1,700 officers and soldiers, more than doubling the existing strength of the French marching regiment. Meanwhile, the "armée d'Afrique" was asked to furnish just under 4,000 men in fresh drafts from its zouave, Turco, Legion and African light infantry battalions. It was also asked to send a third zouave battalion under the command of "chef de bataillon" Hubert Metzinger to Tonkin, and to provide a squadron of spahis and a half-squadron of "chasseurs d'Afrique" to swell the meagre cavalry contingent of the expeditionary corps. Five army artillery batteries and one marine artillery battery (around 30 guns and 1,400 men) were also earmarked for Tonkin.
Deployment of 1st and 2nd Divisions, June 1885.
With the arrival of these reinforcements from France in June 1885, the expanded expeditionary corps was a formidable force on paper. Four Turco battalions, three zouave battalions, two marine infantry battalions, four Foreign Legion battalions, three line infantry battalions, two "zéphyr" battalions and seven Tonkinese Tirailleur battalions, plus supporting artillery, cavalry and engineer units, were grouped into four brigades deployed around the strategic locations in the Delta:
1st Division (General Brière de l'Isle), at Hanoi
2nd Division (General de Négrier), at Haiphong
3rd Division.
A reserve 3rd Division of 9,000 men was assembled at Pas de Lanciers near Marseilles in April 1885, in case the Chinese showed any reluctance to implement the provisions of the recently signed peace protocol. The 3rd Division, under the command of General Coiffé, consisted of two brigades, each of two line infantry regiments and a battalion of "chasseurs à pied". The division's 1st Brigade (General de Pereira) consisted of the 47th Infantry Regiment (from Saint-Malo), the 62nd Infantry Regiment (from Lorient) and the 22nd Battalion, "chasseurs à pied" (from Morlaix). The 2nd Brigade (General de Sermensan) consisted of the 63rd Infantry Regiment (from Limoges), the 123rd Infantry Regiment (from La Rochelle) and the 28th Battalion, "chasseurs à pied" (from Bayonne). The division was struck by an epidemic of typhoid fever and had to evacuate its camps. Had its men ever been sent to Tonkin, they would probably have suffered a high mortality rate. In the event, China punctiliously implemented the terms of the peace settlement, and the division was broken up in late June 1885.
Marine infantry companies in Tonkin, 1883–1886.
The following table lists all marine infantry companies known to have served in Tonkin between April 1882 and April 1886. Six companies of the 2nd Marine Infantry Regiment were detached from the Tonkin expeditionary corps in September 1884 to take part in the Keelung Campaign in northern Formosa. Officers killed in action are marked (†).