Cactus Air Force

Cactus Air Force refers to the ensemble of Allied air power assigned to the island of Guadalcanal from August 1942 until December 1942 during the early stages of the Guadalcanal Campaign, particularly those operating from Henderson Field. The term "Cactus" comes from the Allied code name for the island. In 1943 the Cactus Air Force was subsumed into AirSols, a joint command of Allied air units in the Solomon Islands.
Background.
On 7 December 1941, the Japanese attacked the U.S. Pacific fleet at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii. The attack crippled much of the U.S. battleship fleet and led to a state of war between the two nations. In launching this war, Japanese leaders sought to neutralize the American fleet, seize possessions rich in natural resources, and obtain strategic military bases to defend their far-flung empire. Japanese forces also attacked and took control of Hong Kong, the Philippines, Thailand, Malaya, Singapore, the Dutch East Indies, Wake Island, New Britain, and Guam.
Two attempts by the Japanese to extend their defensive perimeter in the south and central Pacific were thwarted in the Battle of the Coral Sea (May 1942) and the Battle of Midway (June 1942). These two strategic victories for the Allies provided an opportunity to take the initiative and launch a counter-offensive against the Japanese somewhere in the Pacific. The Allies chose the Solomon Islands, specifically the southern Solomon Islands of Guadalcanal, Tulagi, and Florida.
Allied strategists knew that the Japanese Navy had occupied Tulagi in May 1942 and had constructed a seaplane base near there. Concern grew when in early July 1942 the Japanese Navy began constructing a significant airfield near Lunga Point on nearby Guadalcanal island. These bases, when complete, would protect Japan's major base at Rabaul, threaten Allied supply and communication lines across the South Pacific to Australia and New Zealand, and establish a staging base for possible future offensives against the New Hebrides, Fiji, Samoa, and New Caledonia.
The Allied plan to attack the southern Solomons was conceived by U.S. Navy Admiral Ernest King, the Commander in Chief of the United States Fleet. King proposed the counter-offensive to deny the use of the southern Solomon Islands by the Japanese as bases to threaten the supply routes between the United States and Australia, and to use them as starting points for a campaign with the goal of isolating the new and major Japanese base at Rabaul while also supporting the Allied New Guinea campaign. All of this had the eventual goal of opening the way for the U.S. to retake the Philippines. The American Admiral Chester Nimitz, the Allied Commander-in-Chief for all forces in the Pacific, created the South Pacific theater of operations, with Vice Admiral Robert L. Ghormley placed in command on 19 June 1942, to direct the Allied offensive in the Solomons.
On 7 August 1942, the First Marine Division landed on Tulagi and Guadalcanal at Lunga Point, capturing the partially completed Japanese airfield and marking the first counter-offensive taken by the Allies in the Pacific Theater. More construction work began on the airfield immediately, mainly using captured Japanese equipment. On 12 August, the airfield was renamed Henderson Field, for Major Lofton R. Henderson, who was killed during the Battle of Midway and who was the first Marine Corps pilot killed during the battle. By 18 August, Henderson Field was ready for operation.
Henderson Field.
When the first planes began arriving, Henderson Field could barely be described as an airfield. It was an irregularly shaped blob cut out of the island growth, half in and half out of a coconut grove, with a runway that was too short and few revetments to protect the aircraft from shrapnel. Upon landing on Henderson Field on 4 September, the Commanding Officer of Marine Aircraft Group 25, Colonel W. Fiske Marshall described the field by stating it "looked like a Doré drawing of hell."
The runway was a northwest to southeast running, long gravel surface with an extra of Marston Matting that was frequently pockmarked with craters from Japanese artillery and naval gunfire. The strip was in such poor condition that it caused as many losses to aircraft as enemy action. In the heat, the field was a bowl of black dust which fouled the warplanes' engines. When it rained, the airfield quickly turned muddy, miring planes in liquid muck. Major Marion Carl described it as "...the only place on Earth where you could stand up to your knees in mud and still get dust in your eyes." The heavier SBD dive bombers had it the worst, since their hard rubber tires, designed for aircraft carrier landings and take-offs, ripped up the runways like plowshares. Wooden wheels were experimented with, but these did not fare any better. The runway was extended and widened several times during the long Guadalcanal campaign, and it was long and 150 wide by 4 September.
Henderson Field was also very close to the thinly-held lines of the U.S. First Marine Division, so security was always a concern. There were no fuel trucks, aircraft hangars, or repair buildings. Damaged aircraft were cannibalized for spare parts, and with no bomb hoists, all aircraft munitions had to be hand-loaded onto the warplanes. Fuel, always critically low, had to be hand pumped out of 55 gallon drums. Even after the arrival of fuel trucks, aviation gasoline still had to be hand-pumped into the trucks.
On 9 September 1942, the U.S. 6th Naval Construction Battalion (SeaBees) opened up a second runway about to the east of Henderson Field's original runway. This new runway, called "Fighter 1", consisted of tamped-down sod, and it was about long and wide. The Marine fighter squadrons began operating out of Fighter 1, with the rest of the aircraft operating out of Henderson Field continued to use the original runway – thereafter was referred to as "Bomber Field No. 1."
Henderson Field's facilities began to improve around 15 November, when it was officially declared a Marine Corps Air Base. Proper runways began to be installed using shipped-in ground-up coral, since the local coral was deemed to be too rotten and slushy.
Living conditions.
Living conditions on Guadalcanal were some of the most difficult ever faced by Marine aviation. Pilots and mechanics lived in mud-floored tents in a flooded coconut plantation called "Mosquito Grove." Most contracted tropical diseases such as malaria, dysentery, dengue fever, or fungal infections.
The misery was accompanied by mortal danger. The airfield was bombed nearly every day around noon by 20 to 40 Mitsubishi G4M "Betty" bombers flying at in a perfect "Vee formation" escorted by fighter planes. It was frequently shelled as well, by Japanese artillery in the day and Japanese warships at night. The worst night of bombardment was on 13–14 October 1942, when two Japanese battleships fired more than 700 heavy shells into Henderson Field, providing cover for the Japanese Navy's landing of Marine and army reinforcements further west on Guadalcanal.
Commanders.
From the time of the first Marine squadron landed on 20 August until 25 August there was no commanding officer for Marine air, which instead reported directly to General Vandegrift. The Marines had not designated an air operations commander, the Army already had a squadron present and the field had already acquired the air of a naval base after having been promised to certain naval units. The first Marine commander was Colonel William W. Wallace but he only retained command temporarily. Cactus Air Force technically was under the command of Rear Admiral John S. McCain, who commanded all land based Allied aircraft in the South Pacific. Vandegrift and his operational commanders, however, exercised local command over the Allied aircraft operating out of Henderson Field.
On 3 September 1942, the fortunes of the beleaguered aviators changed with the arrival of Brigadier General Roy Geiger on board the first Marine Aircraft Group 25 plane to land on the island, an R4D Skytrain. As the "Commander, Aircraft, Guadalcanal" (ComAirCACTUS) and the 1st Marine Aircraft Wing, Geiger set up his headquarters in a wooden Japanese pagoda that was up on a hill about from the airfield. Through his energy, example and sheer force of personality he raised the collective spirits of the squadron's survivors. He was described as "...curt, cold and some said ruthless...he was determined to squeeze the ultimate ounce of performance from men and machines". During his time in command, it was said that there was a "sense of desperation but never defeatism,"Ultimately, the strain of command and harsh living conditions seriously fatigued, both mentally and physically, the then 57-year-old Geiger. Geiger turned over the command on 7 November to his Chief of Staff, Brigadier General Louis E. Woods.
Brigadier Woods, a 21-year aviation veteran, commanded the Cactus fliers during what was viewed as the lowest point of the campaign. He was, however, the right man for the job and was quickly transformed from a "kindly colonel to a blood thirsty brigadier general." Woods also turned the Cactus command over, this time the day after Christmas, to Brigadier General Francis P. Mulcahy, then Commanding General of the 2nd Marine Aircraft Wing.
Japanese.
The great majority of the Japanese aircraft engaged by the Cactus Air Force during its history were from Imperial Japanese Navy air units. On 7 August, when the Guadalcanal campaign began, the 5th Air Attack Force, under Rear Admiral Sadayoshi Yamada, operated from Rabaul, New Britain, and Lae, Papua New Guinea, and was responsible for naval air operations in eastern New Guinea and the Solomon Islands. The 5th was a hybrid organization composed mainly of attached units from the 25th Air Flotilla and reported to the 11th Air Fleet (also called the "Base Air Force"), under Nishizo Tsukahara. On the morning of 7 August, the 5th's air strength consisted of 39 fighters, 32 medium bombers, 16 dive bombers, and 17 seaplanes, including the 15 seaplane aircraft at Tulagi that were destroyed in the initial Allied air strikes during the landings on Tulagi and Guadalcanal.
The 5th's principal bomber unit was the 4th Air Group that flew Mitsubishi G4M Type 1 "Betty" bombers. Twenty-four of the fighter aircraft in the 5th belonged to the Tainan Kōkūtai under Captain Masahisa Saito. The Tainan contained some of the top-scoring Japanese fighter aces and flew the A6M2 Zero fighter. With 55 pilots and 24 aircraft, only the most experienced and able Tainan pilots were allowed to consistently participate in combat operations. The dive bombers (Aichi D3A1 "Vals") and the rest of the fighters (A6M3 Zeros) belonged to the 2nd Air Group. Most of the dive bombers were lost during the 7 and 8 August strikes on the Allied landing forces. On 7 and 8 August, the Misawa Air Group of the 6th Air Attack Force (also called the 26th Air Flotilla) under Vice Admiral Seigo Yamagata from Tinian with 27 Type 1 bombers joined the 5th Air Attack Force at Rabaul. Around the same time, Admiral Tsukahara moved from Tinian to Rabaul to directly supervise air operations against Allied forces around Guadalcanal.
The 4th and Misawa Air Groups took heavy losses during attacks on the Allied landing fleets off Guadalcanal on 7 and 8 August, losing 24 bombers and 153 crewmen killed while the Tainan Air Group lost four Zeros and four pilots. Until reinforcements could arrive, the 5th was unable to continue attacking Marine positions on Guadalcanal, giving the U.S. time to prepare the captured airfield at Lunga Point uninterrupted by air attack. On 20 August 19 Type 1s from the Kisarazu Air Group of the 6th Air Attack Force arrived at Kavieng. On 2 September, ten Type 1s from the Chitose Air Group of the 24th Air Flotilla joined them at Kavieng. Both groups participated in subsequent bombing raids on Guadalcanal. Thirteen Zeros and pilots from the 6th Air Group joined the 2nd Air Group at Rabaul on 31 August and began flying combat missions over Guadalcanal on 11 September.
From 1 October until the end of the war, the 11th Air Fleet was commanded by Jinichi Kusaka, also located at Rabaul. Some notable pilots flying with the 11th Air Fleet included Hiroyoshi Nishizawa and Junichi Sasai.
A force of Japanese seaplanes called the R-Area Air Force was created on 28 August under Rear Admiral Takatsugu Jojima and operated from Rabaul as well as forward operating bases at Buin, the Shortland Islands, and Rekata Bay, Santa Isabel. The R-Area aircraft came from the four squadrons assigned to the Japanese seaplane tenders "Kamikawa Maru", "Chitose", "Sanyo Maru", and "Sanuki Maru". The R-Area Air Force mainly provided cover for Japanese convoys delivering troops and supplies to Guadalcanal, conducted reconnaissance missions around the Solomon Islands' area, and occasionally attacked Henderson Field. Also, air units from Japan's Combined Fleet's aircraft carriers, including "Shōkaku", "Junyō", "Zuikaku", and "Ryūjō", either operating from land bases with the 11th Air Fleet, or operating from the carriers themselves, engaged Cactus Air Force aircraft at various times during the Guadalcanal campaign.
Operations.
August.
On 20 August, the first Marine pilots landed their aircraft at Henderson Field. Part of Marine Aircraft Group 23 flying from the escort aircraft carrier USS "Long Island", they included 18 F4F Wildcat fighter planes of VMF-223 led by Major John L. Smith and a dozen SBD Dauntless dive bombers of VMSB-232 led by Lt. Colonel Richard Mangrum. These warplanes conducted combat missions the following day.
They were joined on 22 August by the U.S. Army's 67th Pursuit Squadron under Major Dale Brannon, with five Army P-400s (an "export" version of the P-39); and on 24 August by 11 SBD dive bombers that came from the aircraft carrier USS "Enterprise" because they were unable to land on their own carrier, damaged in the Battle of the Eastern Solomons. At the end of August, these warplanes were joined by 19 more Wildcats from VMF-224 under Major Robert E. Galer, and a dozen more SBD dive bombers from VMSB-231, also part of the Marine Air Group 23. This varied assortment of Army, Marine, and Navy pilots and warplanes was the beginnings of the Cactus Air Force.
21 August brought the first Marine air-to-air combat, with mixed results. Japanese Zeros from the Tainan Air Group on a bomber escort mission (the bombers were fruitlessly searching for American carriers south of Guadalcanal) passed over Henderson Field on their way back to Rabaul, and six of these were met by four Cactus Air Force F4F Wildcats at . Major Smith claimed the first air-to-air victory for the CAF, but two other pilots crashed while landing their damaged aircraft, with both of the Wildcats deemed a total loss except for salvaged parts. The Japanese suffered no losses. That same night, an SBD Dauntless blew a tire on take-off, causing it to ground loop and crash for another aircraft loss.
On 24 August, during the naval Battle of the Eastern Solomons between aircraft carrier forces of Japan and the U.S. east of the Solomon Islands, Japanese Vice Admiral Chuichi Nagumo sent the Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) light carrier "Ryūjō" ahead of the main Japanese warship force to send an aircraft attack force against Henderson Field. The "Ryūjō" mission was most likely in response to a request from Nishizo Tsukahara, the naval commander at Rabaul, for help from the Japanese combined fleet in neutralizing Henderson Field. At 12:20 and northeast of Guadalcanal, the "Ryūjō" launched six "Kate" bombers and 15 A6M Zero fighters to attack Henderson Field in conjunction with an attack by 24 "Betty" bombers and 14 Zero fighters from Rabaul. Unknown to the "Ryūjō" force, the Rabaul aircraft had encountered severe weather and returned to their base at 11:30. The "Ryūjō"'s aircraft arrived over Henderson Field at 14:23 and tangled with 14 Marine Wildcats and four Army P-400s while bombing the airfield. In the resulting engagement three Kates, three Zeros, and three Marine fighters were shot down and no damage was done to Henderson Field. Two Marine pilots were killed in the engagement as well as eight Japanese aircrewmen. All of these Japanese aircraft were eventually lost because, while they were attacking Henderson Field, the "Ryūjō" was sunk by aircraft from the aircraft carrier USS "Saratoga", forcing the Japanese aircraft to ditch in the ocean upon returning to the previous location of their carrier.
On 31 August, the aircraft carrier USS "Saratoga" was torpedoed by a Japanese submarine. Since she was forced to return to Pearl Harbor for drydock repairs, most of the "Saratoga's" aircraft and aircrewmen remained behind at Espiritu Santo. Admiral McCain planned to send some of these aircraft to reinforce the Cactus Air Force at Guadalcanal.
September.
On 2 September, the U.S. Marine 3rd Defense Battalion began operating an air search radar at Henderson Field, which, along with reports from the coastwatchers, helped provide early warning of incoming Japanese warplanes.
By 3 September, the day of Geiger's arrival, the CAF consisted of only 64 flyable airplanes. Due to the heavy losses that the CAF had sustained, Admiral McCain decided to immediately deploy the USS "Saratoga's" fighter squadrons to Guadalcanal. On 4 September 24 F4Fs of VF-5 flew from Espiritu Santo to Henderson Field.
From 1 September through 8 September the Japanese aviation units at Rabaul concentrated on providing air cover for Japanese Army forces operating along the Kokoda Track on New Guinea, during the Kokoda Track campaign. On 9 September the Japanese resumed air operations against Henderson Field, with the objective of destroying the CAF and isolating the American forces on Guadalcanal.
Between 21 August and 11 September, the Japanese raided Guadalcanal a total of ten times, losing 31 aircraft destroyed and seven more heavily damaged, primarily due to the defensive efforts of CAF fighter planes. Most of the Japanese aircrewmen in the destroyed aircraft were killed. During this same time, the CAF Marine Corps fighter squadrons lost 27 aircraft with nine pilots killed.
On 12 September 25 Bettys and 15 Zeros from Rabaul raided Henderson Field. Alerted by the coastwatcher Donald Kennedy, and by the radar at Henderson Field, 20 Wildcat fighters from the Marine and Navy fighter squadrons took off to intercept this raid. In the resulting battle, two Betty bombers were shot down by Marine anti-aircraft fire, and four Bettys and one fighter were shot down by the Wildcats. One U.S. Navy pilot died attempting to land his damaged fighter back at Henderson Field following the action.
That night the field was shelled by the Japanese cruiser "Sendai" and three destroyers in support of the Japanese Army attacks on the Lunga perimeter – the first night of the Battle of Edson's Ridge. This shelling killed two pilots from VMSB-232 and one pilot from VMSB-231, but it did not damage any aircraft or the airfield.
On 13 September 18 Wildcats arrived at Henderson Field from the carriers USS "Hornet" and USS "Wasp". The morning of this same day, Tsukahara sent a reconnaissance mission of two Type 2 aircraft escorted by nine Zeros to find out if the Japanese Army had captured Henderson Field during the night. The Zeros tangled with Cactus Air Force fighters from VMF-223, VMF-224, and VF-5, losing four Zeros along with their pilots. The CAF lost four fighters, two in combat and two to accidents with two CAF pilots killed. An afternoon raid the same day by 27 Bettys and 12 Zeros attacked Henderson Field at 14:00 and again resulted in intense clashes with the Cactus defenders. In the skirmish, two Betty bombers were lost and two were heavily damaged, with three crewmen killed and six captured. Two Wildcats were lost, one each from VMF-212 and VF-5, with both pilots killed. On that same day, two R Area floatplane Zeros from Rekata Bay swept over Lunga Point and shot down a scoutplane SBD from VMSB-231, killing both of its crewmen. Another CAF scout SBD from VS-3 ditched in the ocean that afternoon during their search patrol, and both crewmen were lost. Later that day 12 VS-3 SBDs and six VT-8 TBF Avenger torpedo planes arrived at Henderson Field as reinforcements.
On 14 September, the R Area force attacked Henderson throughout the day with a total of 24 float fighters and bombers, losing eight of them with no losses to the CAF. A fighter sweep by seven 2nd Air Group Zeros from Rabaul also attacked Lunga that day, losing one aircraft and pilot. A Japanese reconnaissance aircraft was also shot down over Guadalcanal that day. The only CAF loss was one VMF-223 Wildcat that wrecked on takeoff, seriously injuring the pilot.
From 15 to 27 September, bad weather over the Bismarck Islands caused a lull in the air campaign over Guadalcanal, with no Japanese air raids. During this period, both sides reinforced their respective air units. The Japanese delivered 85 fighters and bombers to their air units at Rabaul, while the Americans brought in 23 fighters and bombers to Henderson Field. On 20 September, the Japanese counted 117 total aircraft at Rabaul while the CAF tallied 71 aircraft at Henderson Field.
October.
The Japanese battleships "Kongō" and "Haruna" bombarded Henderson Field during the night of 13 October with their 14-inch guns, destroying most of the planes and killing 46 Americans, including 9 pilots.
November.
The CAF reached its peak of combat power on 12 November with 47 fighters, 23 tactical bombers, and 12 medium bombers. After a month-and-a-half of enduring continual shelling at night, the CAF got their first crack at a Japanese battleship on 15 November, after the first night of the Naval Battle of Guadalcanal, in which "Hiei"'s steering was disabled. Unable to flee, "Hiei" was repeatedly attacked by aircraft from Henderson Field and from the . After suffering numerous direct hits, and being set ablaze, the "Hiei" was scuttled by the Japanese.
The first aviation unit from another country arrived at Henderson Field on 26 November 1942: No. 3 Squadron RNZAF, with Lockheed Hudson light bombers for reconnaissance work.
December.
On 26 December there were 161 aircraft of all types at Guadalcanal.
Tactics employed.
U.S. Navy and Marine fighter pilots, who had little high-altitude flying experience to begin with, were at a disadvantage from the start because their F4F Wildcat was slower, heavier, less maneuverable, and a poorer climber than Japanese A6M Zero. The American pilots learned quickly not to dogfight with the Zero. Instead, if they became engaged with one, they would give it a quick, diving firing-burst and then dive away to regroup, climb, and attack again. Cactus pilots had to constantly refine their tactics and techniques, rely on teamwork in dogfights and improve their gunnery to remain effective against the Zeroes.
Because of the Zero's maneuverability, American pilots quickly adapted hit-and-run tactics similar to those used by the American Flying Tigers in China and Burma. They also used a two-plane mutually protecting flight section, a technique previously developed by the U.S. Navy fighter pilots John Thach and Edward O'Hare and dubbed the "Thach Weave." The aircraft would remain in the same general area of one another and if Zeroes showed up, they had a better chance of engaging the aircraft on the tails of their wingmen.
One American pilot remarked, "One Zero against one Grumman is not an even fight, but with mutual support two Grummans are worth four or five Zeros."
The Wildcat had its merits. It was well-protected compared to the lightly armored Zero, had a self-sealing fuel tank, and possessed adequate firepower with six .50-caliber M-2 Browning machine guns. U.S. Marine pilots, skeptical since the Battle of Midway, placed a great deal of confidence in their aircraft at first.
Because they could not effectively dogfight the Zeroes, Henderson Field's defenders could not gain air superiority and completely drive off Japanese attacks. They realized that the best thing they could do was disrupt up each day's raid, whittle down the Japanese, and then break off to fight another day. With this in mind, their primary targets became the bombers rather than the fighters, and many of the tactics introduced were largely devised by Marine Major John L. Smith. The American pilots always sought to begin their attack at least above the Japanese formations, and they concentrated their attacks on trailing aircraft. This gave them good angles to shoot at the exposed fuel tanks of the Japanese bombers, and it also presented a difficult gunnery problem for the bombers, since the high overhead passes of the American fighters put them into the blindspots of the Japanese gunners. This tactic also caused the escorting Japanese fighters to climb and burn more of their fuel, thus reducing the already limited time they could spend over Guadalcanal itself.
From 3 September to 4 November 1942, the Cactus Air Force claimed 268 Japanese planes downed in aerial combat, and the damage inflicted on others is estimated to be as great.
Coastwatchers.
Because of the limited number of aircraft and fuel available during the early stages of the campaign the CAF was unable to maintain a standing combat air patrol over Henderson Field. Therefore, it was crucial for the CAF to receive early warnings of incoming Japanese aircraft so that its aircraft weren't caught on the ground during Japanese air attacks. Members of the Australian Coastwatchers, including W. J. Read in northern and Paul Mason in southern Bougainville, Donald Kennedy on New Georgia, and Geoffrey Kuper on Santa Isabel were able to relay ahead when Japanese airplane formations were heading for the island giving the defenders on Guadalcanal time to get airborne. On 16 August, Lieutenant Commander Hugh A. Mackenzie of the Royal Australian Navy, the Deputy Staff Intelligence Officer for the British Solomon Islands Protectorate, set up a radio station at Henderson Field to monitor coastwatcher transmissions and relay their warnings to the CAF. Admiral Bull Halsey would later say the coastwatchers "saved Guadalcanal".
Several coastwatchers were stationed at various points around Guadalcanal, including Martin Clemens (who was also a local official for the British Solomon Islands Protectorate), Leif Schroeder, Donald Macfarlan, Ken Hay, and Ashton Rhoades. These coastwatchers, with help from native Solomon Islanders, helped rescue and return several Allied pilots during the campaign.
Aftermath.
The Cactus Air Force's dive bombers and torpedo planes sank or destroyed 17 large enemy vessels, including one Japanese battleship, one heavy cruiser (the "Kinugasa"), one light cruiser (the "Yura"), three destroyers (the , "Murakumo", and "Natsugumo"), and twelve transports, possibly sank three destroyers and one heavy cruiser, and heavily damaged 18 other ships, including one heavy cruiser and five light cruisers. Most notable was the battleship "Hiei", which the CAF, along with aircraft from the "Enterprise", and B-17s from Espiritu Santo, finished off after she had suffered serious damage from American cruisers and destroyers during the Naval Battle of Guadalcanal.
The fifteen Marine combat squadrons that fought on Guadalcanal during this time suffered from 94 pilots killed or missing-in-action, with another 177 evacuated with wounds or with sickness (especially severe malaria). Total figures for Japanese aerial losses during the Guadalcanal campaign have never been calculated.
The Battle of Guadalcanal would become the defining point for Marine Corps aviation in World War II and for the next fifty years. The great lessons learned for Marine Corps aviation units were the debilitating effects of not having air superiority; the importance of the use of radar; the vulnerability of enemy transport and warship targets; and the vital importance of quickly acquiring expeditionary airfields during amphibious operations.
Medal of Honor recipients.
Six aviators who served in the "Cactus Air Force" received the Medal of Honor for their actions during the Battle of Guadalcanal (August 1942 – February 1943):
Order of battle.
All aviation units on Guadalcanal were subordinate to Commander, Aircraft, Guadalcanal (ComAirGuadal).


Black Guard (Brazil)

The Black Guard of the Redemptress (Portuguese: "Guarda Negra da Redentora") was a paramilitary secret society in Rio de Janeiro composed of Brazilian former slaves freed on May 13, 1888. by the signature of the Golden Law by Isabel, Princess Imperial of Brazil. The group was led by José do Patrocínio, a former republican, and its ostensible purpose was to protect the well-being of the Brazilian Imperial Family and to ensure the Princess Imperial's accession to the throne, in opposition to the rising threat of a republican coup. The group began its activities soon after the abolition of slavery and lasted until shortly around the Proclamation of the Republic in Brazil on November 15, 1889.
Background.
During the 1880s, Brazil continued to prosper and social diversity increased markedly, including the first organized push for women's rights. Although the king, Pedro II, had two daughters, he had no son. Thus, there was no heir to the monarchy. Isabel, Princess Imperial of Brazil, did not see herself becoming monarch, and her husband was unpopular. Throughout the decade, movements advocating Republicanism grew in membership, notably of slaveholders. The Golden Law was signed on May 13, 1888 by Isabel, Princess Imperial of Brazil, ending slavery in Brazil. The law was widely well received. After its passage, Joaquim Nabuco wrote that "the monarchy is more popular than ever." Isabel became very popular among former slaves, known as 'the Redeemer of the blacks'.
History.
Soon after the signing of the law, the Black Guard was organized in Rio de Janeiro by a group called the "Inhabitants of the Moon". Dedicated to protecting Isabel, the guard was initially a secret society. The abolitionist José do Patrocínio is thought to have led the organization of the group; he also encouraged it to cooperate with white organizations. Largely a response to the increasing republicanism movement, the organization had over 600 members after six months and stood in direct opposition to the Republican Party of São Paulo. As a result, there were violent confrontations between members of the group and republicans. Members of the group supported Isabel and thought she would succeed Pedro. Historian Evaristo de Moraes wrote that "there was no way to contain that frenzy, unfolding in genuflection at the feet of the golden-haired mother of the slaves [Princess Isabel] and going so far as the creation of a Black Guard."
The first commander of the guard was Clarindo de Almeida, an employee of the Brazilian government. Opponents of the group argued that it was being used by João Alfredo Correia de Oliveira, the President of the Council of Ministers. Police generally ignored the Guard's activities. On December 23, 1888, members of the Guard interrupted a gathering of Republicans in Rio who were listening to Silva Jardim speak. On December 30, the Black Guard threatened Jardim and José Lopes da Silva, who were planning a rally at Rio's French School. At the rally, 500 blacks gathered outside before a fight broke out between two blacks in the audience and the Republicans. The ensuing conflict lasted for 30 minutes, as members of the Black Guard attempted to get into the building, until mounted police ended the fight. Jardim finished speaking, and as the Republicans left the building they were again attacked. A riot spread across the city, and there were various skirmishes between opposing groups with one death.
In January 1889, there were rumors of a branch being organized in São Paulo and similar tactics were used in Espírito Santo. Throughout February, armed blacks continued to disrupt and attack Republicans, particularly Jardim who was touring to gain support for his movement. Local authorities requested that Jardim bring army troops when he visited their town. Three hundred blacks gathered to protest him in Angostura, and riots broke out at other places Jardim traveled. Although no evidence links the riots directly to the Black Guard, historian Michael R. Trochim states that such violence was "associated in the minds of many Brazilians with the Black Guard." There were fears the unrest would degenerate into widespread civil war. In July, the Black Guard was involved in further conflict with the Republicans. By late 1889, racial violence had largely ended as Republicans gained control in the Brazilian Army, and the Black Guard was effectively ended by the Proclamation of the Republic on November 15, 1889. Floriano Peixoto stated that the coup was motivated by a belief the Black Guard was about to launch an attack in Rio, and it was used as a justification by other army officers.


Officer and Aircrew Selection Centre

The Royal Air Force Officer and Aircrew Selection Centre, located at Adastral Hall, RAF Cranwell, is the centre through which every potential RAF officer must go to be selected for Initial Officer Training (IOT) and through which potential non-commissioned aircrew must go to be selected for the Direct Entry Senior Non-commissioned Officer (DE-SNCO) course. The selection centre is attached to two large hangars, plus the candidates' mess. The centre is home to everything required by a candidate during their selection. This includes a large aptitude testing centre, medical centre (including an optician and a hearing testing facility), interview rooms, syndicate rooms and the leadership exercises.
History.
In 1947 the Aviation Candidate Selection Board was established at RAF Hornchurch following the closure of the Combined Selection Centre at RAF North Weald. In 1952 the name was changed to Aircrew Selection Centre. The centre closed with the airfield in 1962 and was transferred to RAF Biggin Hill. In 1992 it was decided to transfer the selection centre to its current location at RAF Cranwell.


Navy Ten Nautical Miler

The Navy Ten Nautical Miler (Navy 10 nm, 11.5 mi) is a run held at Naval Support Activity Mid-South in Millington, Tennessee. It is unique because it is the only race measured in nautical miles as opposed to statute miles.
The Navy Ten Nautical Miler is an event officially sanctioned by USA Track & Field, the national governing body for track and field, long-distance running, and race walking in the United States. The event is coordinated in association with the Memphis Runners Track Club.
Inspiration.
The Navy Ten Nautical Miler was founded in 2010 to give the United States Navy a premiere foot race to replace the disestablished Blue Angels Marathon. The length of ten nautical miles was chosen as the length because it is roughly the distance from the shore to the horizon when viewed at sea level. It was also the distance traveled by the Allied Forces on D-Day, significant because the inaugural run of the Navy Ten Nautical Miler took place on June 6, 2010, the anniversary of D-Day.
A nautical mile is approximately the distance of one minute of arc of latitude on the Earth's surface. Sailors throughout history have used this form of measurement as opposed to statute miles or kilometers.
Route.
The race begins at the North 82 Gym, onboard NSA Mid-South, and runs north through the Glen Eagle Golf Course, the Lazy Anchor Stables, and the Navy Lake recreational facility before turning south down Bethuel Road, then west across Navy Road. The route then turns into the south side of the base, and follows the perimeter road around the base housing area, then turns south up Singleton Parkway before exiting back out to Navy Road. The run ends back at the North 82 Gym.
In keeping with the theme, mile markers throughout the route are also marked off in nautical miles rather than statute miles.
Awards.
Awards will be presented three deep in the following categories:
Afghanistan.
In April 2010, race coordinators were contacted by Navy personnel serving in Farah, Afghanistan interested in running a satellite version of the race there. As such, the race was ran concurrently in both locations, with winners in each category crowned locally in both locations. The two locations were connected via satellite uplink.


Marjorie Sterrett Battleship Fund Award

The Marjorie Sterrett Battleship Fund Award is presented annually by the U.S. Navy's Chief of Naval Operations to one ship in the U.S. Atlantic Fleet and one in the U.S. Pacific Fleet. A list of winners appears at the end of this article.
Generally the recipient is the ship with the highest score in the fleet's annual competitions for Battle Efficiency Awards, and is therefore often thought of as the fleet's most battle-ready ship. This isn't strictly correct, because it has been the policy to rotate eligibility for the award annually among the various type commands (aircraft carriers, submarines, amphibious ships, etc.).
The award includes a small monetary stipend (about $500 in 2004). Commanding officers receiving the award must put the money into the ship's recreation fund, where it can be spent on athletic equipment, prizes for athletic or marksmanship competitions, recreation room furniture, dances, parties, and similar recreational activities.
History.
The Marjorie Sterrett Battleship Fund was established in 1917 by the Tribune Association. It was initiated by a contribution which accompanied the following letter, printed on February 4, 1916:
The letter was written during the buildup to America's entry into World War I, and it generated a huge response. Former president Theodore Roosevelt responded immediately with a handwritten letter and a dollar contribution; within a few days he met with Marjorie in Manhattan. The Tribune printed the name of every contributor, and newspapers across the country reprinted Marjorie's letter and received additional donations.
Ultimately 200,000 dimes were collected, each typically in the name of a child or a contributor's yet-to-be born grandchild. The money was offered to the Navy, but Secretary Josephus Daniels at first rejected it, citing legal prohibitions. A law was soon enacted allowing the Navy Department to accept the money, and by early 1918 the $20,000 ( today) had been transferred to the government.
Prior to World War II, income from the fund was used to pay prizes annually to turret and gun crews making the highest scores in short-range battle practice, and to submarine crews making the highest scores in torpedo firing.
Since the end of World War II, the Navy has emphasized readiness and fitness of the ship rather than competition between individual departments.
Marjorie Sterrett-Raun died in March 1927 in Wattsburg, Pennsylvania.
List of Post-WWII Winners.
1948 was the first post-World War II year in which awards were made. Awards were discontinued in 1951 due to the Korean War, and were not reinstated until 1958.
14 ships received the award in 1961 and 1962.
The 1963 ship history for reported that they were awarded the (presumably 1962) Marjorie Sterrett Battleship Fund Award in August 1963.


Jeannette Medal

The Jeannette Medal is a Congressional Gold Medal awarded in 1890, to officers and crew of the "Jeannette" expedition. Eight gold and twenty-five silver medals were struck, resulting in all thirty-three members of the crew receiving a medal. Twenty of the crew died during the expedition.
Statute.
""Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled," That the President be, and hereby is, authorized, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, to advance Chief Engineer George Wallace Melville, United States Navy, one grade, to take rank from the same date but next after the junior chief engineer having the relative rank of commander at the passage of this act, as a recognition of his meritorious services in successfully directing the party under his command after the wreck of the Arctic exploring steamer Jeannette, and of his persistent efforts through dangers and hardships to find and assist his commanding officer and other members of the expedition before he himself was out of peril; and that he be allowed the pay of a chief engineer as if he had been commissioned on the same date as the junior chief engineer having the relative rank of commander at the passage of this act; such increased rate of pay to begin from the date of the passage of this act."
"That the said Melville shall hereafter continue to be next junior to the junior chief engineer having the relative rank of commander at the passage of this act; and whatever grade he may hereafter occupy shall be increased by one number, but the total number of chief engineers shall not be increased: "Provided", That nothing in this act shall cause any officer to be retarded in his promotion or receive a less rate of pay than would otherwise have been the case."
"That suitable medals be struck at the United States Mint in commemoration of the perils encountered by the officers and men of the said Jeannette Arctic Expedition, and as an expression of the high esteem in which Congress holds their services in the said expedition; and that one of the said medals be presented to each of the survivors of said expedition, and one to the heirs of each of the deceased members."
"That a sufficient sum for the purposes of this act is hereby appropriated out of any money in the Treasury not otherwise appropriated."
Recipients.
A total of eight gold and twenty-five silver medals were struck, in decoration form and distributed as follows:


USCGC Catenary

USCGC "Catenary" (WYTL-65606) was a cutter in the United States Coast Guard (USCG). Constructed by the Gibbs Gas Engine Company and commissioned in early 1962, the vessel served as part of the USCG for over 30 years before being decommissioned in mid-1995 and sold to the United States Merchant Marine Academy. During her service "Catenary" was based primarily on the east coast of the United States where she was utilized mainly in a law enforcement role.
Construction and design.
Crewed by five personnel, "Catenary" was a small vessel displacing 74 tons. She was long, with a beam of and a draft. The vessel's powerplant consisted of one Caterpillar D375 V-8 diesel engine which produced 400 shaft horsepower and drove a single propeller, giving a cruising speed of and a cruising range of . Her maximum speed was , at which she could patrol . She carried no armament, but was fitted with a SPN-11 detection radar. Upon completion she cost a total of $US 158,366 to construct.
History.
"Catenary" was one of fifteen steel-hulled icebreaking small harbor tugs that were put into service in the 1960s to replace wooden-hulled harbor tugs that the Coast Guard had used since the 1940s. "Catenary" was one of six in her class constructed by the Gibbs Gas Engine Company (later acquired by Aerojet General Corp.) in Jacksonville, Florida. After being commissioned in April 1962, she was initially homeported at Gloucester City, New Jersey, and served there until June 1988 when she was reassigned to Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Her duties included law enforcement and search and rescue as well as ice operations.
On 1 May 1995, "Catenary" was decommissioned and sold to the United States Merchant Marine Academy. She is currently serving as a training vessel under the name MV "Growler". She performs training missions involving shiphandling, maneuvering, navigation, and towing, as well as participating in Merchant Marine Academy public relations trips throughout Long Island Sound, the East River, and New York Harbor. The vessel is operated by crews of midshipmen participating in the Academy's Power Squadron, a fleet of power-driven vessels used for everything from fishing to long-range trips.


USCGC Katherine Walker

USCGS "Katherine Walker" is a Keeper-class Coastal Buoy Tender of the United States Coast Guard. Her keel was laid on 8 April 1996 by Fincantieri Marine Group. Her namesake is Katherine Walker the keeper of the Robbins Reef Light; Mrs. Walker was responsible for saving the lives of 50 people. As well as keeping many ships away from the rocks. USCGC "Katherine Walker" is responsible for a total of 335 aids to navigation (ATON).


Marine expeditionary unit

Marine expeditionary units (MEU, pronounced as one syllable "" IPA: ) are the smallest air-ground task forces (MAGTF) in the United States Fleet Marine Force. Each MEU is an expeditionary quick reaction force, deployed and ready for immediate response to any crisis, whether it be natural disaster or combat missions. "Marine amphibious unit" ("MAU") was the name used until the late 1980s.
An MEU is normally composed of: a reinforced USMC infantry battalion (designated as a Battalion Landing Team) as the ground combat element, a composite medium tiltrotor squadron forming the aviation combat element, a combat logistics battalion providing the logistics combat element, and a company-size command element serving as the MEU headquarters group. Troop strength is about 2,200 members and usually commanded by a colonel, and is deployed from amphibious assault ships. Currently, an MEU embarks personnel and equipment onto the amphibious warfare ships of an expeditionary strike group (ESG) which also includes escort warships and submarines to protect them from air, surface, and submarine threats. For further protection and strong air support, an ESG is often deployed along with one or more carrier strike groups.
Attributes.
The MEU is unique in that its air and ground combat elements are combined with a logistics combat element under one commander; other services do not unite the command of air and ground forces until much higher command levels.
The MEU's ground combat element also combines artillery, light armor and tanks at a much lower level than was common in the Army until the development of the brigade combat team early in the War on Terror, with a similar concept, the combat command, being utilized in World War II.
This air-ground task force concept is designed to thoroughly exploit the combat power inherent in air and ground assets by closely integrating them into a single force. The MEU brings all the supplies and logistical support it needs to sustain itself for quick mission accomplishment or to pave the way for any follow-up forces. This self-sustainment allows more flexibility in disposition and operations of forces, and allows the MEU to initiate operations sooner and let support catch up later, without having to wait for external logistical support to begin a mission. Deployments on U.S. Navy amphibious assault ships allows MEUs to seabase around the globe, ready for deployment at short notice.
A typical MEU has approximately 2,200 members, including navy sailors. It is equipped with:
Many types of equipment are, or will soon, undergo a transitory phase as they are replaced. Some examples include the Amphibious Combat Vehicle replacing the AAV-7, the F-35 Lightning II replacing the AV-8B Harrier, and the CH-53K Super Stallion replacing the CH-53E.
Elements.
Ground combat element.
The ground combat element (GCE) is based on the "battalion landing team" ("BLT"), an infantry battalion reinforced with an artillery battery, amphibious assault vehicle platoon, combat engineer platoon, light armored reconnaissance company, tank platoon, reconnaissance platoon, and other units as the mission and circumstances require. The total strength is approximately 1,100 members, including navy sailors.
The reconnaissance platoon provides the basic element for the Maritime Special Purpose Force. This force consists of four elements. The assault platoon (a direct action platoon augmented from Force Recon), security (a selected infantry platoon from the battalion landing team), reconnaissance and surveillance assets, and a headquarters section. The total strength is approximately 350 members, including navy sailors.
Aviation combat element.
The aviation combat element (ACE) is a USMC composite squadron (reinforced) composed of a medium tiltrotor squadron augmented with detachments of heavy, light, and attack helicopters, one detachment of amphibious flight-deck-capable jets, and a Marine air control group detachment with tactical air command, air traffic control, direct air support, and anti-aircraft assets, as well as wing headquarters, wing communications, and wing support squadron personnel. Total strength is approximately 600 troops.
Logistics combat element.
The logistics combat element (LCE) (formerly "combat service support element" or "CSSE") is based on the MEU combat logistics battalion (CLB) (formerly "MEU service support group" or "MSSG"). It contains all the logistics specialists and equipment necessary for the MEU to support and sustain itself for up to 15 days in an austere expeditionary environment. It includes service support (postal and disbursing), medical, dental, intermediate maintenance, intermediate supply (consumables and secondary reparable), transportation (distribution and landing support), explosive ordnance disposal, utilities production and distribution, bulk fuels, internal communications, and various other technical experts. It consists of approximately 300 members, including navy sailors.
Command element.
The command element (CE), which includes the MEU commander and his supporting staff, provides command and control over the other three elements. It includes specialized detachments for air naval gunfire liaison, reconnaissance, surveillance, specialized communications, radio reconnaissance (SIGINT), electronic warfare, intelligence and counterintelligence, law enforcement, and public affairs missions. The overall strength is about 200 members, including navy sailors.
Expeditionary strike group.
Recently, MEUs have been deployed within an expeditionary strike group (ESG) in the Mediterranean, the Western Pacific, and periodically, the Atlantic and Indian Oceans. An ESG is typically composed of three amphibious ships that embark the necessary troops and equipment and are escorted by a guided missile cruiser (CG) and guided missile destroyers (DDG) and submarine (SSN) support.
Before the ESG, MEUs were typically deployed as part of an amphibious ready group (ARG).
The MEU cycle.
MEUs maintain their subordinate elements in fifteen month cycles: nine months stateside (with six set aside for training), and a six-month deployment aboard ship. These cycles ensure that at least two of the seven MEUs are deployed forward at any given time.
Interim or buildup period: Upon completion of a deployment, the MEU remains "special operations capable" for approximately one month, prepared to respond to events around the world. They are not, however, considered a special operations unit by the Department of Defense. The MEU then releases its major subordinate elements (MSEs), retaining only its command element. This period provides the command element a chance to rotate select personnel and begin planning for the addition of newly assigned MSEs and “work-up” training. When the MSEs are received, the MEU begins six months of intense pre-deployment training.
Work-up period: Training during the six-month work-up period is often referred to as "crawl, walk, run". Marines and sailors progress through curriculum and exercises that teach individual, small unit, and unit tactics while integrating the separate MEU elements into a cohesive, flexible, and powerful force. The work-up period includes training in many combat and noncombat skills, to include:
Exercises conducted during the work-up period can include:
Deployment: Following the work-up period, the MEU deploys for six months in support of geographic combatant commanders. During this time, the MEU is a forward-deployed, self-sustaining force that combatant commanders can direct to accomplish a variety of special operations and conventional missions.
The missions may include:
List of MEUs.
West Coast MEUs.
West Coast MEUs fall under I Marine Expeditionary Force, and their main area of operations includes the western Pacific and Indian oceans (to include the Persian Gulf).
East Coast MEUs.
East Coast MEUs fall under II Marine Expeditionary Force and maintain presence in the Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean Sea.
Japan MEU.
The 31st MEU is the only permanently forward-deployed MEU, maintaining a presence in the Pacific Ocean at all times as part of III Marine Expeditionary Force.


4th Medical Battalion (United States Marine Corps)

4th Medical Battalion is a unit of the United States Marine Corps, staffed by personnel from both the United States Marine Corps and the United States Navy that provides medical support to United States Marine Corps forces. The unit is based out of San Diego, California and falls under the command of the 4th Marine Logistics Group and the Marine Forces Reserve.
Mission.
To provide direct and general Health Service Support (HSS) to Marine Forces Reserve in order to sustain the combat effort. Secondary mission is to provide security for the Shock Trauma Platoons (STP) and Forward Resuscitative Surgical Systems (FRSS).
History.
4th Medical Battalion was deployed as a whole in 2003 in support of operation Iraqi Freedom. Upon arrival to Kuwait the forces supported the mission. Since then the unit has been actively deployed in support of operations in Iraq.
In 2006 reservists from San Diego H&S Detachment mobilized for combat operations in the Anbar Province of Al Fallujah, Iraq with 1st Battalion-24th Marines, Weapons Company. Also in September 2007, reservists from 4th Medical Battalion deployed in support of Operation Iraqi Freedom as part of Combat Logistics Battalion 4, Combat Logistics Battalion 8, Surgical Company Bravo, Al Taqqadum Surgical, Camp Fallujah and Al Taqqadum|Camp Taqaddum. These members returned in late March and demobilized while more reservists from the battalion deployed to replace those stationed at TQ and Korean Village.
As of May 2010, many of the reservists from H&S Company have volunteered for duty in Afghanistan, with Provisional MP Company and PSD. Regardless of rank and MOS, reservists at 4th medical Battalion continue to move forward and volunteer for deployment.


Military of the Sasanian Empire

The Sasanian army was the primary military body of the Sasanian armed forces, serving alongside the Sasanian navy. The birth of the army dates back to the rise of Ardashir I (r. 224–241), the founder of the Sasanian Empire, to the throne. Ardashir aimed at the revival of the Persian Empire, and to further this aim, he reformed the military by forming a standing army which was under his personal command and whose officers were separate from satraps, local princes and nobility. He restored the Achaemenid military organizations, retained the Parthian cavalry model, and employed new types of armour and siege warfare techniques. This was the beginning for a military system which served him and his successors for over 400 years, during which the Sasanian Empire was, along with the Roman Empire and later the East Roman Empire, one of the two superpowers of Late Antiquity in Western Eurasia. The Sasanian army protected "Eranshahr" ("the realm of Iran") from the East against the incursions of central Asiatic nomads like the Hephthalites and Turks, while in the west it was engaged in a recurrent struggle against the Roman Empire.
Army.
In the character of their warfare, the Persians of the Sasanian period differed greatly from their forebears under the Achaemenid kings. The principal changes which time had brought about were an almost entire disuse of the war chariot, the advance of the elephant corps into a very prominent and important position, and the increased use and pre-eminence of cavalry on the Parthian model, including both heavy cataphracts and horse-archers. Four main arms of the service were recognized, each standing on a
different level: the elephants, the horse, the archers, and the ordinary footmen.
Divisions.
In Pahlavi language, smaller divisions of the "spāh" were referred to as "vasht" and larger divisions were designated as "gond". The Arabic word "jund" (), meaning "army", is derived from the latter.
Ranks.
Head of the military was the "Shahanshah" (the King of Kings). The empire's military command was split into four. Initially, the offices of the Great King of Armenia, King of Meshan, King of Gilan, and King of Sakastan fulfilled these roles. After the reforms of Khosrow I, there were four "spahbeds" (Army Commanders), each for a cardinal direction. Other attested military ranks throughout the Sasanian period are as follows: (the exact nature of some of these are not well-understood)
The military appointments were mostly dominated by the noble houses of Suren, Mihran, and Spandiyadh.
Cavalry.
The backbone of the "Spâh" in the Sasanian era was its heavy armoured cavalry, known since Classical antiquity in the west as Cataphracts. This was made up of noblemen who underwent extensive exercises in warfare and military manoeuvres through military training, gaining discipline and becoming true soldiers. Within the Sasanian military, the cavalry was the most influential element, and Sasanian cavalry tactics were adopted by the Romans, Arabs, and Turks. Their weaponry, battle tactics, tamgas, medallions, court customs, and costumes greatly influenced their Romano-Byzantine neighbours. The Romans had long contended against opponents who fielded heavy cavalry, notably the Sarmatians and the Parthians, and the recurrent wars with the Sasanian were an important factor in the Roman turn to new military organizations and battlefield tactics that centered around the use of heavy cavalry in the 3rd and 4th centuries. The Romans called these newly formed units "clibanarii"; It is said that the word "clibanarii" is derived from Persian word "grivpanvar" or "griva-pana-vara" meaning "neck-guard wearer". Another, more direct and often quoted, etymology is the Greek word "ho klibanos", which refers to a covered pot in which bread was baked or a small oven; perhaps a joking reference to the one-piece mask helmets they wore. The Roman term appears for the first time in the "vita Alexandri Severi" (56.5) in the "Historia Augusta", a work from the very end of the 4th century AD.
Shapur II (r. 309–379) further reformed the army by adopting heavier and more effective cavalry. These mounted units were clad in thick iron plates which covered their entire body. This made them look very much like moving iron statues. Some were armed with a lance and some with a sword and/or mace. Depictions of aforementioned cavalry still survive, with one of the best preserved ones being a rock relief at Taq-e Bostan where Khosrau II is seen riding his favourite horse, Shabdiz.
The fighting equipment of the heavily armed Sasanian horsemen were:
The heavy cavalry was complemented by lighter cavalry, which were not made up of Sasanian, but were recruited from among their allies and supplemented by mercenary troops. Gelani ("Guilani"), Albani, Hephthalites, Kushans and the Khazars were the main suppliers of this light- to medium-armoured cavalry. They were an essential part of the "Spâh" because of their endurance and speed on the battlefield.
It is possible that the mainly light cavalry were intended for the battles with the central Asiatic tribes, while the more heavy cavalry were used in encounters with Rome.
In short, there were the following classes of mobile cavalry troops:
Depictions from the Sasanian art show different forms of horse archery: frontal shot, Parthian shot, shooting with stirrups and shooting while riding the horse backwards.
War elephants.
Both types of cavalry units were supported by war elephants and foot archers who showered the enemy with storms of arrows. The elephant corps held the first position. It was recruited from India, but was at no time very numerous. Great store was set by it; and in some of the earlier battles against the Arabs the victory was regarded as gained mainly by this arm of the service. It acted with best effect in an open and level district; but the value put upon it was such that, however rough, mountainous, and woody the country into which the Persian arms penetrated, the elephant always accompanied the march of the Persian troops, and care was taken to make roads by which it could travel. The elephant corps was under a special chief, known as the "Zend−hapet", or "Commander of the Indians," either because the beasts came from that country, or because they were managed by natives of Hindustan. These giant beasts acted as walking towers on battlefields and caused panic and disorder in enemy ranks, creating openings in the lines that cavalry could take advantage of.
Infantry.
There is growing conjecture that the historical view that all Sasanian infantry were mostly lightly armed spearmen, who, like their Achaemenid ancestors, were usually levied troops of little fighting ability, is in fact an incomplete picture of the actual composition of these forces. The truth may be that Sasanian armies often fielded a complex mix of infantry troop types, some much more effective than others. However, the long held view of modern historians has been greatly influenced by classical Roman views, which disparaged the infantry components of Sasanian armies. Procopius of Caesarea, for example, famously derided them as "a crowd of pitiable peasants who come into battle for no other purpose than to dig through walls and to despoil the slain and in general to serve the soldiers [i.e. the cavalrymen]". In some battles, however, significant numbers of heavy infantry were deployed. These were well-paid, heavy mail armoured infantry (carrying sword and large rectangular shields). The Daylam provinces of the empire in particular were famous for providing high-quality foot soldiers.
The archers formed the elite of the Persian infantry. They were trained to deliver their arrows with extreme rapidity, and with an aim that was almost unerring. The huge wattled shields, adopted by the Achaemenid Persians from the Assyrians (called "sparabara" by the Achaemenids), still remained in use; and from behind a row of these, rested upon the ground and forming a sort of loop−holed wall, the Sasanian bowmen shot their weapons with great effect; nor was it until their store of arrows was exhausted that the Romans, ordinarily, felt themselves upon even terms with their enemy. Sometimes the archers, instead of thus fighting in line, were intermixed with the heavy horse, with which it was not difficult for them to keep pace. They galled the foe with their constant discharges from between the ranks of the horsemen, remaining themselves in comparative security, as the legions rarely ventured to charge the Persian armoured cavalry. If they were forced to retreat, they still shot backwards as they fled; and it was a proverbial saying with the Romans that they were then especially formidable. Infantry was divided into the following types:
Note: Murmillo were a type of specifically sword armed Roman gladiator, distinctive by their large rectangular shield and their sword arm harness (manicae). The remains of a Paighan infantryman - wearing a Sasanian spangenhelm and a mail shirt was excavated in the Tower 19 collapsed siege tunnel at Dura-Europos
Siege warfare.
The Sasanian had organized and efficient methods of siege warfare for conquering walled towns. First of all, they would mine the walls of besieged fortifications, as such a tunnel containing the body of a Sasanian soldier has been discovered underneath the walls of Roman Dura-Europos. Their siege machinery included crossbows, catapults and battering rams, but they also had excellent defensive tactics for their fortifications, such as methods for using and countering catapults, for countering mining, for throwing stones or pouring boiling liquid on the attackers or by hurling fire brands and blazing missiles. In the fourth century CE, the Persians still used moving armoured siege towers, in order to strafe the battlements with artillery and to allow their soldiers to climb over them . In the sixth century however, Procopius and Agathias no longer mention such towers, perhaps because at that time wheeled vehicles had almost entirely disappeared from the Middle East (Bulliet The Camel and the Wheel 1975). Instead of siege towers, Sasanian besiegers would now build a high siege mound, placing their artillery on its summit to target the defenders on the walls below. Like the Romans, the Sasanians also adopted the perrier or traction-trebuchet originating in the Far East, the forerunner of the later counterweight-trebuchet. They protected their sappers and soldiers with earthworks, shelters and mantlets.
Foreign and mercenary soldiers.
The Sasanian army, especially during the late Sasanian period, employed foreign mercenary troops from many different regions. The most frequently used types of mercenaries were Kurdish mercenaries from the northern boundary of the Zagros, who begin to appear in 6th-century sources, tribal people from Gilan and Daylam, Caucasian Albanians (regarded as elite soldiers equal to Huns in the 4th-century), and Sakastanis.
The Sasanians also often recruited foreign auxiliaries, such as Sabir Huns from the North Caucasus - or resettled on Sasanian territory - The Turks who had been divided in 568/9 - and the abundant Arab tribes in the south who were integrated into a "nexus of alliances managed by the Sasanians' Lakhmid client-kingdom from its capital at al-Hira" (James-Howard Johnston).
Gond-i Shahanshah.
During the reign of Khosrow II (r. 590-628), probably some time after 600, he resettled 4,000 Daylamites in Ctesiphon and used them as an elite unit, where they became known as the "Gond-i Shāhanshāh" ("the army of the Shahanshah").
After the Sasanian Empire suffered a major defeat in 636 to the Arabs at the battle of al-Qadisiyyah, the Gond-i Shahanshah defected to the Arabs, converted to Islam, and settled in Kufa, where they had their own quarter.
Azadan nobility.
This class of nobility was first formed in Parthian times, and was carried over into the Sasanian state, where they were a force to be reckoned with. They accompanied the king in the wars and displayed great courage and discipline. They are clearly the forerunners and founders of the "Knights" of later history. The "Aztan" ("Azadan", آزادان, "freemen") formed a numerous minor aristocracy of lower-ranking administrators, mostly living on their small estates and providing the cavalry backbone of the Sasanian army. Most prestigious among them were the armoured "Asvaran" اسوران, who normally decided the outcome of a battle.
Despite their downfall in the 7th century AD, the legacy of the "Savaran" endured in the Caucasus, India and the Muslim world. It was the elite cavalry of Sasanian Persia, who were the forerunners of the later Arabian Faris, the Caucasian horsemen, the Indian Sowar (derived from Persian Savar), and the Turkish Tarkhans.
The amount of money involved in maintaining a warrior of the "Asavaran" ("Azatan") knightly caste required a small estate, and the Asavaran knightly caste received that from the throne, and in return, were the throne's most notable defenders in time of war.
Buildings and structures.
The Sasanians made use of fortifications, sometimes massive ones (such as Iraj Castle), as military and campaign bases. Sasanian defense lines of fortifications (such as those of Derbent and Gorgan) were later built on the borders opposite the territories of the opponents.


9th Communication Battalion

9th Communication Battalion (9th Comm) is a communications battalion in the United States Marine Corps. It is part of the I Marine Expeditionary Force (I MEF) and is headquartered at Marine Corps Base Camp Pendleton, California.
History.
Early years.
9th Communication Battalion was activated 1 June 1966 at the Marine Corps Air Ground Combat Center Twentynine Palms, California. They were assigned to Force Troops, Fleet Marine Force Pacific in July 1967. The unit was reduced to zero strength and deactivated 15 October 1974. The Communication Support Company was activated 16 October 1974 but was quickly deactivated on 30 November 1976. It was again activated on 1 December 1976 as Communication Support Company, (Reinforced), 9th Communication Battalion at 29 Palms and assigned to Force Troops, FMF, Pacific. On 15 February 1979, Force Troops was deactivated and the battalion was assigned to Marine Corps Air Ground Combat Center (MCAGCC), 29 Palms.
1980s & 1990s.
1 December 1982: Communication Company (Reinforced), 9th Communication Battalion redesignated at Camp Pendleton, California, as the 9th Communication Battalion, Fleet Marine Force
January 1984: Reassigned to I Marine Amphibious Force
5 February 1988: I Marine Amphibious Force redesignated as I Marine Expeditionary Force
July 1989: Reassigned to 1st Surveillance, Reconnaissance, and Intelligence Group, I Marine Expeditionary Force
August 1990-March 1991: Operation Desert Shield and Desert Storm, Southwest Asia
December 1992-April 1993: Operation Restore Hope, Somalia
Reassigned during June 1998 to I Marine Expeditionary Force Headquarters Group
Global War on Terror.
9th Comm has made four, year long deployments in support of Operation Iraqi Freedom OIF. They deployed to Kuwait in late 2002 and subsequently took part in the 2003 invasion of Iraq. After that they have spent year long deployments for OIF during 2004, 2006 and 2008.
9th Comm has also participated in multiple deployments in support of Operation Enduring Freedom OEF. Their cumulative deployments saw the installation, operation, and maintenance of the largest enterprise network ever established by a Marine Corps unit aboard Camp Leatherneck. During this time, Camp Leatherneck and surrounding areas saw significant upgrades in telecommunications infrastructure as well as an increase in the availability of commercialized network services to support all base personnel. 9th Comm's presence on Camp Leatherneck lasted until the end of operations in October 2014 when the camp was turned over to Afghan control.
Unit awards.
A unit citation or commendation is an award bestowed upon an organization for the action cited. Members of the unit who participated in said actions are allowed to wear on their uniforms the awarded unit citation. 9th Comm has been presented with the following awards:


Jim Eglinski

William James Eglinski (born December 15, 1948) is a Canadian politician who represented the riding of Yellowhead from 2014 to 2019 as a member of the Conservative Party.
Background.
Eglinski was born in Two Hills, Alberta and raised in Chipman, Alberta on a farm. He worked for 40 years as a Royal Canadian Mounted Police officer, and served as a councillor and eventually mayor for the town of Fort St. John, British Columbia.
Federal Politics.
Eglinski was first elected to represent the riding Yellowhead in a 2014 by-election.
He was re-elected in the 2015 Canadian federal election with over 70 percent of the vote. In the 42nd Canadian Parliament, his Conservative Party formed the Official Opposition. While he was not assigned to a critic role, Eglinski did introduce one private member bill into the House of Commons, "An Act to amend the Criminal Code (abuse of vulnerable persons)" (Bill C-206), which sought to make physical, emotional, sexual or financial abuse of a senior or someone who depends on others due to a mental or physical disability to be an aggravating circumstance for sentencing purposes. The bill was introduced on December 10, 2015, but did not advance to second reading.
In 2016, Eglinski surprised many by participating in the flag-raising to kick off Pride Week in Jasper, Alberta, a rare move for a Conservative MP. Acknowledging that he once opposed condoning homosexuality and saw no need for LGBT pride celebration, Eglinski credited his change of heart to the coming-out of one of his grandchildren.
In the 2017 Conservative Party leadership contest, Eglinski initially endorsed eventual winner Andrew Scheer, but later switched his endorsement to Erin O'Toole.
In late 2017, Eglinski faced nomination challenge for re-election from Ryan Ouderkirk, a parliamentary assistant to fellow MP David Yurdiga. "Surprised" by and "not happy" with the challenge, Eglinski announced in January 2018 that he would not seek re-election in 2019.


Henry Mabb

Henry Liddell Mabb (January 24, 1872—1961) was a politician, Mountie, and rancher who lived in Manitoba, Canada in the late 19th and early 20th century.
Early life.
He was born at Hull in Yorkshire, England. He was the son of Henry Liddell Mabb, Sr. and Ellen Holder, both of whom were born and raised in Yorkshire. Mabb was the oldest of 12 children.
Sometime in the late 19th century, his father relocated the family to Antwerp, Belgium. They settled among a community of British expatriates and were congregants at the Chapelle des Tanneurs, which had served as the place of worship for Anglicans (Church of England) in Antwerp since 1821. Several of Mabb's brothers and sisters were christened in the chapel. Henry received his secondary education at the Athénée Royal. He studied and reputedly mastered four languages while living in Belgium.
The Mabb family appears to have moved back to England, where brother Stanley Holder Mabb was born at Sutton in 1886. The family then moved to Canada in the spring of 1887, with Winnipeg as their ultimate destination. However, according to a 1911 census document, for some reason Henry indicates he immigrated to Canada in 1890. Other family testimonials suggest the senior Mabb family might have made its way into Canada and specifically Manitoba from the United States, but there is no documentation to support this.
Career.
Young Henry served the Government of Canada as a constable in the North-West Mounted Police (N.W.M.P.) from 1890 to 1895. Engaging in treks over the prairies, Mabb's mastery of languages permitted him to develop fluency in Cree and Sioux. Some newspaper accounts suggest Mabb was involved as a translator in talks between representatives of the Crown and the Lakota leader Sitting Bull. Mabb was fully engaged in service for five years until he was discharged with honours in 1895. In addition to working the land as a rancher, Mabb was also employed by the Crown as a homestead inspector in northern Manitoba, between the lakes.
During his political career, he lived in Fisher Branch, Manitoba. He was elected to the Manitoba legislature in the 1920 provincial election, defeating two Liberal candidates in the constituency of Fisher. Mabb was elected as an "independent Farmer" candidate, and served with the opposition Independent-Farmer bloc for the next two years. He served in the Legislative Assembly of Manitoba from 1920 to 1922. Unlike others in the Independent-Farmer bloc, Mabb did not run for the United Farmers of Manitoba in the 1922 provincial election. Nicholas Bachynsky received the UFM nomination, while Mabb ran for re-election as an independent candidate. Bachynsky won by 327 votes. Mabb later joined the Conservative Party, and challenged Bachynsky again in the 1927 election. He lost by 444 votes.
Personal life.
Mabb married twice, first to Bertha May Mullett (1872—1904), and then, in 1905, to Clara Bird. He was honoured by the RCMP Veteran's Association in 1955, marking the 60th anniversary of his discharge from the N.W.M.P. He died in 1961.


Multiple Threat Alert Center

United States Department of the Navy's Multiple Threat Alert Center (MTAC) provides indications and warning for a wide range of threats to Navy and Marine Corps personnel and assets around the world.
The MTAC is at the NCIS HQ's located Russell-Knox Building, 27130 Telegraph Road Quantico, VA 22134.
Operated by the Naval Criminal Investigative Service (NCIS), the MTAC utilizes NCIS' worldwide presence and combination of law enforcement, counterintelligence, intelligence and security capabilities to identify all available threat indicators. Analysts, special agents, and military personnel work in the MTAC around the clock to produce indications and warning of possible terrorist activity, foreign intelligence threats and criminal threats that may affect naval operations.
The MTAC is an outgrowth of the Navy Antiterrorist Alert Center (ATAC). The ATAC was established in December 1983 to address the terrorist threat after the bombing of the Marine Corps barracks in Beirut, Lebanon, and the murders of Navy officers in Greece by the Revolutionary Organization 17 November and in El Salvador by the FMLN. As the first 24-hour terrorism watch center in the U.S. Intelligence Community, the ATAC successfully supported the Navy and Marine Corps team for nearly two decades.
The MTAC epitomizes the multi-faceted nature of the NCIS mission by linking terrorism, counterintelligence, intelligence, cyber, criminal, and security information. The MTAC is a unique platform in that it merges intelligence from other agencies with information from NCIS source networks and law enforcement activities worldwide to provide the most relevant operational support to Navy and Marine Corps commanders.
Jonathan Pollard.
Convicted Israeli spy Jonathan Pollard was a civilian intelligence analyst at the ATAC from June 1984 until his arrest in November 1985. Retired Naval Investigative Service/NCIS Special Agent Ron Olive outlines Pollard's espionage activities in the 2006 book "Capturing Jonathan Pollard".
USS "Cole" incident.
A growing appreciation of the changing threat facing the Department of the Navy in the 21st century, culminating with the terrorist attacks against the in Aden, Yemen, and September 11, 2001, led NCIS to transform the ATAC into the MTAC in 2002.
In popular culture.
A version of the Multiple Threat Alert Center is featured on the hit drama television show, "NCIS". However, within the series, it is called the "Multiple Threat Assessment Center" and is located at the Washington Navy Yard, where the series takes place.


Patrol Forces Southwest Asia

Patrol Forces Southwest Asia (PATFORSWA) is a United States Coast Guard command based in Manama, Bahrain. PATFORSWA was created in November 2002 as a contingency operation to support the U.S. Navy with patrol boats. The command's mission is to train, equip, deploy and support combat-ready Coast Guard forces conducting operations in support of Operation Iraqi Freedom (OIF), Operation Enduring Freedom (OEF) and Operation Inherent Resolve (OIR) in the Naval Forces Central Command's area of responsibility.
It was commissioned as a permanent duty station in June 2004. In July 2003 PATFORSWA moved from its own compound to facilities at Naval Support Activity Bahrain.
Elements.
Patrol boats.
There are six Coast Guard 110' Island class patrol boats assigned to PATFORSWA: , , , , , and . The Coast Guard currently plans to base six new Sentinel-class cutters in Bahrain to replace the aging Island-class cutters.
Unit History.
Establishment.
Initial preparations for naval operations supporting OIF began with the U.S. Navy in the
summer and fall of 2002. The navy drew upon its standing contingency plans for combat
operations involving Iraq and, in September 2002, United States Naval Forces Central Command
(NAVCENT) requested U.S. Coast Guard support for a mission termed “Operation Iraqi
Freedom.” The Navy saw the Coast Guard's cutters and skilled personnel as ideally suited to
naval operations supporting Operation Iraqi Freedom. The shallow coastal areas and waterways
of Iraq are subject to heavy silting and strategists believed that Iraq's primary threat to American
naval units came from small boats, patrol craft and mine laying vessels. The Coast Guard's
patrol boats would expand the naval presence to shallow littoral areas where larger naval
combatants could not navigate and Coast Guard cutters could remain on station for days as
opposed to only a few hours typical of the Navy's Special Forces boats. In addition, the law
enforcement background of Coast Guard personnel would expand the Navy's ability to intercept
and board Iraqi vessels and Coast Guard cutters could serve in force protection and escort duty,
thereby freeing naval assets to conduct offensive combat operations.
The Navy called on the Coast Guard to perform missions that have always formed part of
the service's peace-time mission. The Navy had very limited capability in boarding, maritime
interdiction and even environmental protection and yet operations in Iraq would require units
trained in these operations. As a result, the Coast Guard's Port Security Units (PSUs), Law Enforcement Detachments (LEDETs), National Strike Force (NSF), cutters and a variety of other units and personnel deployed overseas to support military operations in OIF. These units included cutters assigned to provide escort and force protection to battle groups and Military Sealift Command (MSC) convoys passing from the Strait of Gibraltar to the eastern Mediterranean.
As it had in previous American combat operations, the Coast Guard conducted operations well suited to cutters and their crews. The maritime conditions of Iraq and the Persian Gulf can greatly limit the operations of most naval vessels and warships. U.S.-led coalition forces that allied against the Iraqi regime of Saddam Hussein included Gulf-based nations that had their own coast guard forces. However, these particular coalition forces dedicated the use of their smaller vessels to protecting Kuwait, rather than operations in Iraqi territorial waters. Due to this and the Coast Guard's expertise in littoral and shallow-water operations, a large part of the request by United States Central Command (CENTCOM) centered on the Coast Guard's smaller patrol boats. Although various Coast Guard units and personnel had served in Operations Desert Shield and Desert Storm in the 1990s, deployment of the service's island-class patrol boats overseas would represent the first combat deployment of Coast Guard patrol boats since the Vietnam War.
Even though the Coast Guard served a similar mission in Vietnam, there existed no operational plan to provide guidance for OIF planning and preparations. The Coast Guard began its earliest preparations in the final months of 2002 and the lack of any pre-existing plan or blueprint for this sort of mission proved the Coast Guard's greatest challenge. The service's Atlantic Area Command (LANTAREA), headquartered in Portsmouth, Virginia, created a shore detachment to support its cutter operations overseas. These patrol forces detachments would oversee all aspects of operational support, including cutter maintenance and crew rotation. In October, LANTAREA created a shore detachment to oversee personnel, supply and maintenance requirements for patrol boat operations in the Persian Gulf. It designated this detachment as Patrol Forces, Southwest Asia (PATFORSWA). LANTAREA assigned a commanding officer of PATFORSWA and selected four 110-foot Island-class patrol boats (WPBs) for the mission based on their superior maintenance records. These WPBs included "Adak", "Aquidneck", "Baranof" and "Wrangell". LANTAREA created a second shore detachment for patrol boat operations in the Mediterranean; designated it Patrol Forces, Mediterranean (PATFORMED); and selected four more patrol boats for Mediterranean service. These WPBs included "Bainbridge Island", "Grand Isle", "Knight Island" and "Pea Island".
In 2004, two additional WPBs, "Monomoy" and "Maui", were brought to the PATFORSWA fleet for a total number of six Coast Guard Patrol Boats in the Persian Gulf.
PATFORMED.
The Coast Guard deployed its PATFORMED patrol boats in similar fashion to the PATFORSWA 110s. WPBs , , and arrived at Augusta Bay, Sicily, after a one-month transit on board BBC "Spain". It took a monumental effort by PATFORMED support staff to prepare for patrol boat operations in the Mediterranean because no Coast Guard infrastructure existed in the region.
In the Mediterranean, Coast Guard operations supported naval and Military Sealift Command operations in the region. During combat operations in the Persian Gulf, PATFORMED patrol boats supported naval operations in the Mediterranean. The WPB's primary mission had been to escort U.S. Navy supply vessels and Military Sealift Command ships out of Souda Bay, Crete, the eastern Mediterranean's logistics port for American and NATO forces. The naval command cancelled this mission when Turkey would not support the use of its territory for supplying a northern front in Iraq. The four cutters then came under the operational command of the Navy's Task Force 60 for Leadership Interdiction Operations (LIO) in the eastern Mediterranean. This mission required the cutters to cut off a waterborne escape route for Iraqi leaders fleeing through Syria and into the Mediterranean. Syria, however, agreed to seal its borders, cutting off the escape route through its territory to the Mediterranean coast. Shortly after Syria closed its borders, the Sixth Fleet released the PATFORMED cutters from operations in the Mediterranean, the cutters then returned to United States.
Maritime Engagement Team (MET).
The Maritime Engagement Team (MET) is responsible for providing specialized law enforcement training to all cutters in theater and certifying their Level II Non-Compliant Boarding Teams. They also regularly augment other teams and assets in theater and perform boardings in the Persian Gulf, train foreign military units throughout the region, and conduct demonstrations for visiting VIPs.
Redeployment Assistance Inspection Detachments.
Redeployment Assistance Inspection Detachments (RAID) consisted of Coast Guardsmen deployed with the U.S Army to support the shipment of materials in and out of war zones. Their mission was to assist the Department of Defense with the safe re-deployment of containerized cargo as well as the storage and segregation of hazardous materials. The Coast Guard's goal was to ensure that hazardous material was properly prepared for shipment and re-entry to U.S. ports. The team moved between Forward Operating Bases, making them among the few Coast Guardsmen to have been so far forward with the U.S. Army in a combat zone.
The first RAID was deployed in 2003 and they were brought under the PATFORSWA command structure in 2010. The Raid was demobilized in May 2015.
Shoreside Support and Security.
Shoreside personnel augment and share responsibility for all cutter maintenance, much like a Maintenance Assistance Team and a Sector. In addition, all shoreside personnel provide Anti-Terrorism Force Protection (ATFP) support. To most observers, the Boat Division remains the most visible element of a PATFORSWA. The ATFP shore support team is tasked to provide protection to vessels in security zones and pier areas. They also provide security for internal unit functions such as the Command Center, Communications Center, berthing areas, Entry Control Points (ECPs), Vehicle Control Points (VCPs) and traffic control/vehicle movement.
2016 U.S. Iran Naval Incident.
Referred to as the 2016 U.S.–Iran naval incident. PATFORSWA played an integral role on the rescue of the U.S. Navy Sailors. January 12, 2016, two United States Navy riverine command boats (RCBs) cruising from Kuwait to Bahrain with a combined crew of nine men and one woman on board strayed into Iranian territorial waters which extend three nautical miles around Farsi Island in Persian Gulf. Patrol craft of Iran's Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC) Navy seized the craft and detained the crew at a military base on Farsi Island.
According to military sources, the two RCBs were on a routine transit from Kuwait to Bahrain, which serves as the home port for Task Force 56 under the Fifth Fleet. They left Kuwait at 12:23 p.m local time and were scheduled to refuel with the U.S. Coast Guard Island Class Patrol Cutter "Monomoy" at 5 p.m. During the transit one RCB developed an engine problem, and both boats stopped to solve the mechanical issue. During this time they drifted into Iranian waters. At 5:10 p.m. the boats were approached by the two small Iranian center-console craft followed by two more boats. There was a verbal exchange between the Iranian and U.S personnel and the officer commanding the RCBs allowed the Iranian sailors to come aboard and take control. The Iranian forces made the sailors kneel with their hands behind their heads. The RCBs reported their engine failure to Task Force 56, and all communications were terminated after the report. A U.S. search-and-rescue effort was launched leading to "robust bridge-to-bridge communications" with Iranian military vessels, wherein the Iranians informed U.S. Navy cruiser at 5:15 p.m that “the RCBs and their crew were in Iranian custody at Farsi Island and were safe and healthy.” By the time a search-and-rescue effort got under way (it included sending a U.S. Navy and U.S. Coast Guard vessel inside Iranian territorial waters over concern U.S. sailors could have been lost overboard), the sailors were already ashore.
John Kerry spoke with Iranian foreign minister Mohammad Javad Zarif at least five times by telephone. He called Zarif within five minutes. He states he "gave him a very direct statement about what would happen if we didn't have their release very quickly." Zarif called back within 20 minutes with assurances that the sailors would be released soon and that they were being "well taken care of." John Kerry has stated that in his other phone calls about the situation he "made it crystal clear" how serious it was and that "it was imperative to get it resolved." The sailors had a brief verbal exchange with the Iranian military and were released unharmed along with all their equipment the next day on January 13 after 15 hours, and they departed the island at 08:43 GMT on their boats. They later were escorted by a U.S. Coast Guard patrol cutter, while U.S. Navy overwatched and supported. The Pentagon oversaw the escort on high alert.
The IRGC stated that they released the sailors after their investigation concluded the “illegal entry into Iranian water was not the result of a purposeful act.”
United States Central Command stated, "A post-recovery inventory of the boats found that all weapons, ammunition and communication gear are accounted for minus two SIM Cards that appear to have been removed from two handheld satellite phones." The statement did not account for navigation equipment. A Navy command investigation continues and more details will be provided when it is completed.
The U.S. Navy disciplined and/or reprimanded nine of the sailors involved in the incident, ranging from higher commanders to sailors present on the boats.
2018 Syrian Missile Strike.
During the 2018 Syrian missile strike, Patrol Forces Southwest Asia supported the action with the deployment of "Adak" and "Aquidneck". The two patrol boats joined the Surface Action Group, and subsequently launched 23 Tomahawk Land Attack Missiles against chemical weapons sites in Syria. Interestingly, "Higgins", "Adak", and "Aquidneck" previously worked together at the beginning of Operation Iraqi Freedom--also for TLAM strikes.


USCGC Androscoggin (WHEC-68)

USCGC "Androscoggin" (WHEC-68) was an high endurance cutter built for World War II service with the United States Coast Guard. The war ended before the ship was completed and consequently "Androscoggin" did not see wartime service until the Vietnam war.
"Androscoggin" was built by Western Pipe & Steel at the company's San Pedro shipyard. Named after Androscoggin Lake, Maine, she was commissioned as a patrol gunboat with ID number WPG-68 on 26 September 1946. Her ID was later changed to WHEC-68 (HEC for "High Endurance Cutter" - the "W" signifies a Coast Guard vessel).
Service history.
"Androscoggin" was stationed at Boston, Massachusetts, in 1947 and 1948. She was used primarily on ocean station duty in the North Atlantic. From 1948 to 3 July 1949, she was stationed at New York City. She was decommissioned and stored at the Coast Guard Yard, Curtis Bay, Maryland, from 31 October 1949 to 8 May 1950. On 8 May 1950, "Androscoggin" received the crew from cutter "Mocoma", was recommissioned, and stationed at Miami Beach, Florida, until 27 February 1973.
"Androscoggin" was subsequently used primarily for law enforcement and search and rescue operations, but also served several ocean station tours. On 29 and 30 May 1952, she towed a disabled Navy PBM Mariner aircraft southeast of Miami to Miami, Florida. In 1956, she served on Campeche Patrol. In April and May 1956, she was assigned special duty relating to Loran-C testing and visited Ecuador, Jamaica, Colombia, and Panama. In July 1956, she served on the annual reserve cruise to San Juan, Puerto Rico, and Port-au-Prince, Haiti. From 17 April to 4 July 1959, she shared International Ice Patrol duty with the "Acushnet". She sailed to Reykjavík, Iceland, in January 1960 on a special mission.
In November 1961, she took part in a special mission involving the USAF and the Air National Guard relating to the Berlin crisis. In 1962, the "Androscoggin" served as Coast Guard schoolship at the Navy’s Fleet Sonar School, Key West.
In late August 1965, she evacuated Cuban refugees from Cay Sal to Key West. On 10 January 1966, she rescued the crew from the sinking MV "Lampsis" and unsuccessfully attempted to save the vessel. On 3 February 1966, she stood by the distressed MV "Aroin" until a commercial tug arrived. On 19 February 1966, she rescued three Cuban refugees from Anguila Cay and transported them to Miami. On 25 May 1966, she embarked 12 Cuban refugees from Cay Lobos and transported them to Key West.
Vietnam War.
"Androscoggin" was assigned to Coast Guard Squadron Three, South Vietnam, from 4 December 1967 to 4 August 1968. On 1 March 1968, she assisted in the destruction of an enemy steel trawler in a gun battle at the mouth of the Song Cau River. In May 1968, she rescued 27 Vietnamese from the South China Sea.
Return to peacetime duties.
In 1969, "Androscoggin" assisted the Dutch MV "Alida Gothern". On 19 February 1970, she stood by the disabled MV "Stellanova" until a commercial tug arrived. On 29 April 1970, she provided medical assistance to USS "Dahlgren" off Bermuda.
She was decommissioned on 27 February 1973, and sold for scrap on 7 October 1974.


Coast Guard Honor Guard Badge

The Coast Guard Honor Guard Badge is a qualification badge of the United States Coast Guard which recognizes those personnel who are/have been permanently assigned to the Ceremonial Honor Guard Unit at the U.S. Coast Guard Telecommunications and Information Systems Command (TISCOM), Alexandria, Virginia. The badge was inspired by the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier Guard Identification Badge.
Qualification.
To qualify for the Honor Guard service members must be between 6 ft-6 ft 4in for men and 5 ft 10in-6 ft 4in for women. This is a regulation throughout all the five services' honor guards for uniformity on parade. All recruits must pass background clearances, health check-ups on back and legs (for long periods of standing and marching), no visible tattoos, unsightly scars and facial acne.
To be awarded the Coast Guard Honor Guard Badge, a service member must qualify in at least two fields of expertise the fields include, "Body bearing, Colors Detail, and Firing Party". Once a member is qualified in two of these fields they are issued a temporary badge. The badge is authorized to wear at this point while serving out the Honor Guard commitment. At the end of the members Honor Guard term the member is evaluated and can earn the right to wear the badge permanently throughout their Coast Guard career.
Afterwards the trainee performs (keeping with the Coast Guard creed of poise, pride, perfection) ceremonies that attest and demonstrate poise before their peers, pride in their uniform, perfection in their drills and knowledge of their job sequencing. When perfected the trainee will receive their Honor Guard Badge and take their oath, becoming one of a select few. The Honor Guard performs over 1,600 ceremonies each year.
Wear.
The badge is then worn directly above all awards and decorations on the left side of the Coast Guard uniform. Formerly, the badge was worn on the right pocket following departure from an Honor Guard assignment.
Recently, Coast Guard Honor guard badge became an identification badge, given to every honor guard member upon completion of an honor guard tour. Although it can be issued before an Honor guardsman departs, and the conditions are still the same - qualify in 2 out of 3 specialties. Wear of the badge has changed from the right pocket to directly above the ribbon rack, or directly below if a more pertinent insignia is authorized (cutterman pin, for example).
According to the Coast Guard Uniform Manual, CIM 1020.6j, the Honor Guard badge is "authorized for past and present members assigned to the Ceremonial Honor Guard."