600-ship Navy

The 600-ship Navy was a strategic plan of the United States Navy during the 1980s to rebuild its fleet after cutbacks that followed the end of the Vietnam War. The plan, which originated with Republican leaders, was an important campaign plank of Ronald Reagan in the 1980 presidential election, who advocated a larger military and strategic confrontation with the Soviet Union.
The actual number of ships peaked at 594 in 1987, before declining sharply after the end of the Cold War in 1989–1991.
The program included:
The idea was supported by John F. Lehman, who became Reagan's Secretary of the Navy, and Caspar Weinberger, Reagan's Secretary of Defense.
Background.
The idea behind the 600-ship Navy can be traced back to the Vietnam War. During the war, the armed services rapidly expanded to meet the demands placed on them.
The Soviet Union, which had been supporting North Vietnam, began staging their naval vessels from former US ports in South Vietnam. Building on this gain, Soviet vessels began to sail in all seven seas with increased vigor and even ventured into the Gulf of Mexico. Soviet forces also stepped up infantry, armor and air force deployments in Eastern Europe.
Reagan plan.
It was against this backdrop in 1980 that the United States began an election year. Ronald Reagan continued this in 1984, releasing a campaign commercial "Bear," which played on the use of the bear as a national symbol of Russia in order to promote higher vigilance and defense expenditures against the Soviet Union.
The overseas strategic retaliation arm was strengthened and the development of new weaponry like the B-1B bomber, the Bradley fighting vehicle, and the Abrams tank was completed and they were put into production.
Lehman attempted to "front-load" the program, by committing the Navy to the building program, but in the end the funds were not available and it fell short.
Ships and weapons systems deployed during the plan.
The Navy saw the largest benefit of the rebuilding. Under the Reagan Administration, the first of the ballistic missile submarines was completed. This class was the largest submarine ever built in the US. The ship carried 24 Trident I nuclear-capable missiles, each one with a range. Construction of the "Nimitz" class of supercarriers and attack submarines was dramatically stepped up. The revolutionary new Aegis combat system was installed on the upcoming ships, production of which was also stepped up. Several aircraft carriers were put through Service Life Extension Programs (SLEPs) aimed at keeping them in service longer. The "Iowa"-class battleships, built in the 1940s, were all recommissioned and refitted with RGM-84 Harpoon, BGM-109 Tomahawk, and Phalanx CIWS system capabilities, plus their armor plating would be more resilient against anti-ship missiles. The first Harpoons, Tomahawks, and AGM-88 HARM missiles all debuted on the navy's ships. Naval aviation was stepped up with the introduction of the F/A-18 Hornet, along with improved versions of the EA-6 Prowler electronic countermeasure aircraft, the A-6 Intruder, and the F-14 Tomcat. In addition, the nation's strategic retaliatory arm was strengthened with advanced B-1B bombers and deploying Pershing II theater missiles to Europe. The initiative also included deployment of Abrams main battle tanks and Bradley armored fighting vehicles.
Build-up by year.
Aircraft carriers
Battleships
Cruisers
Destroyers
Frigates
Amphibious assault ship
Dock landing ship
Amphibious transport dock
Amphibious cargo ship
Tank landing ship
Command Ship
Hospital ship
Minesweeper
Patrol ships
Replenishment oiler
Tanker
Ammunition ship
Combat stores ship
Fast combat support ships
Roll-on/roll-off
Destroyer tender
Submarine tender
Crane Ship
Heavy-lift ship
Cable ship
Rescue and salvage ship
Tracking ship
Ocean surveillance ship
Oceanographic research ship
Attack Submarines
Ballistic missile submarines
End of the plan.
Eventually political pressure to reduce the national budget deficit resulted in Congress reversing itself and passing a series of declining defense budgets beginning in 1986. Weinberger clashed with Congress over the cuts, resigning in late 1987, and was succeeded by Frank Carlucci. Lehman's successor as Navy Secretary, Jim Webb, remained a fierce proponent of the expanded fleet, and disagreed with Carlucci over how to cut the Navy budget in line with other services. Webb resigned rather than endorse Carlucci's cut of 16 frigates. As revealed in "The Reagan Diaries", Reagan reflected about Webb's resignation on 22 February 1988: "Present Sec. Webb resigned over budget cuts. I don't think Navy was sorry to see him go."
Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union in the early 1990s and the lack of a perceived threat against the United States, several of the Reagan Administration's policies and plans, such as the "600-ship Navy", were scaled back or abandoned. US bases across Europe and North America were slowly decommissioned and closed, others were mothballed through the Base Realignment and Closure process. In the Navy, this resulted in the retirement of several older carriers, the decommissioning of all four of the "Iowa"-class battleships and the cancellation of the remaining s.


Camp Dunlap

Camp Dunlap was a United States Marine Corps base in Imperial County, California. The camp was named for Brigadier General Robert H. Dunlap. It was used to train artillery and anti-aircraft units of the Fleet Marine Force. The base was located at the present-day location of Slab City.
Camp Dunlap was activated on October 15th, 1942, acting as a training facility during World War II. On August 29th, 1951, the California State Lands Commission approved the sale of the to the Navy at per acre, with the state retaining the mineral rights, and with the understanding that the land would revert to state ownership once the Navy had abandoned it. In October 1961, the United States Department of Defense conveyed the land on which Camp Dunlap was situated back to the State of California.


United States Naval Observatory Flagstaff Station

The United States Naval Observatory Flagstaff Station (NOFS), is an astronomical observatory near Flagstaff, Arizona, US. It is the national dark-sky observing facility under the United States Naval Observatory (USNO). NOFS and USNO combine as the Celestial Reference Frame manager for the U.S. Secretary of Defense.
General information.
The Flagstaff Station is a command which was established by USNO (due to a century of eventually untenable light encroachment in Washington, D.C.) at a site west of Flagstaff, Arizona in 1955, and has positions for primarily operational scientists (astronomers and astrophysicists), optical and mechanical engineers, and support staff.
NOFS science supports every aspect of positional astronomy to some level, providing national support and beyond. Work at NOFS covers the gamut of astrometry and astrophysics in order to facilitate its production of accurate/precise astronomical catalogs. Also, owing to the celestial dynamics (and relativistic effects) of the huge number of such moving objects across their own treks through space, the time expanse required to pin down each set of celestial locations and motions for a perhaps billion-star catalog, can be quite long. Multiple observations of each object may themselves take weeks, months or years, by themselves. This, multiplied by the large number of cataloged objects that must then be reduced for use, and which must be analyzed after observation for a very careful statistical understanding of all catalog errors, forces the rigorous production of most extremely precise and faint astrometric catalogs to take many years, sometimes decades, to complete.
The United States Naval Observatory, Flagstaff Station celebrated its "50th anniversary" of the move there from Washington, D.C. in late 2005. Dr. John Hall, Director of the Naval Observatory's Equatorial Division from 1947, founded NOFS. Dr. Art Hoag became its first director in 1955 (until 1965); both later were to also become directors of nearby Lowell Observatory. NOFS has had 6 directors since 1955; its current and 6th director is Dr. Paul Shankland.
NOFS remains active in supporting regional "dark skies", both to support its national protection mission, and to promote and protect a national resource legacy for generations of humans to come.
Site description.
NOFS is adjacent to Northern Arizona's San Francisco Peaks, on the alpine Colorado Plateau and geographically above the Mogollon Rim. Flagstaff and Coconino County minimize northern Arizona light pollution through legislation of progressive code – which regulates local lighting.
Indeed, despite a half-century-young history, NOFS has a rich heritage which is derived from its parent organization, USNO, the oldest scientific institution in the U.S. Notable events have included support to the Apollo Astronaut program hosted by USGS' nearby Astrogeology Research Center; and the discovery of Pluto's moon, Charon, in 1978 (discussed below). At an elevation of approximately , NOFS is home to a number of astronomical instruments (some also described in the worldwide list of optical telescopes); some additional instrumentation is on nearby Anderson Mesa. NOFS (with parent USNO) also do fundamental science on the UKIRT Infrared telescope in Hawaii.
The Navy provides stewardship of the facility, land and related dark sky protection efforts through its Navy Region Southwest, through Naval Air Facility El Centro.
Kaj Strand Telescope.
The Kaj Strand Telescope (or Kaj Strand Astrometric Reflector, "KSAR") remains the largest telescope operated by the U.S. Navy. Congress appropriated funding in 1961 and it saw first light in 1964. This status will change when the NPOI four 1.8-meter telescopes see their own first light in the near future. KSAR rides in the arms of an equatorial fork mount. The telescope is used in both the visible spectrum, and in the near infrared (NIR), the latter using a sub-30-kelvin, helium-refrigerated, InSb (Indium antimonide) camera, "Astrocam". In 1978, the 1.55-m telescope was used to "discover the moon of dwarf planet Pluto, named 'Charon'". (Pluto itself was discovered in 1930, across town at Lowell Observatory). The Charon discovery led to mass calculations which ultimately revealed how tiny Pluto was, and eventually caused the IAU to reclassify Pluto as a dwarf (not a principal) planet. The 1.55-meter telescope was also used to observe and track NASA's Deep Impact Spacecraft, as it navigated to a successful inter-planetary impact with the celebrated Comet 9p/Tempel, in 2005. This telescope is particularly well-suited to perform stellar parallax studies, narrow-field astrometry supporting space navigation, and has also played a key role in discovering one of the coolest-ever known brown dwarf objects, in 2002. The KSAR dome is centrally located on NOFS grounds, with support and office buildings attached to the dome structures. The large vacuum coating chamber facility is also located in this complex. The chamber can provide very accurate coatings and overcoatings of Angstrom thickness (approximately 56 aluminium atoms thick), for small-to-multi-ton optics up to in diameter, in a vacuum exceeding , using a vertical-optic, 1500-ampere discharge system. A dielectric coating capability has also been demonstrated. Large optics and telescope components can be moved about NOFS using its suite of cranes, lifts, cargo elevators and specialized carts. The main complex also contains a controlled-environment, optical and electronics lab for laser, adaptive optics, optics development, collimation, mechanical, and micro-electronic control systems needed for NOFS and NPOI.
The KSAR Telescope's diameter steel dome is quite large for the telescope's aperture, owing to its telescope's long f/9.8 focal ratio (favorable for very accurate optical collimation, or alignment, needed for astrometric observation). It uses a very wide 2-shutter, vertical slit. Development studies have taken place to successfully show that planned life-cycle replacement of this venerable instrument can be efficiently done "within the original dome", for a future telescope with an aperture of up to , by using fast, modern-day optics. However, the 61-inch telescope remains unique in its ability to operationally conduct both very high-accuracy relative astrometry to the milliarcsecond level, and close-separation, PSF photometry. Several key programs take advantage of this capability to this day.
1.3-m telescope.
The large-field Ritchey–Chrétien telescope was produced by DFM Engineering and then corrected and automated by NOFS staff. Corning Glass Works and Kodak made the primary mirror. The hyperbolic secondary has an advanced, computer-controlled collimation (alignment) system in order to permit very precise positions of stars and satellites (milliarcsecond astrometry) across its wide field of view. This system analyzes optical aberrations of the optical path, modeled by taking slope fits of the wavefront deviations revealed using a Hartmann mask. The telescope also now sports a state-of-the art, cryogenic wide-field mosaic CCD camera. It will also permit employment of the new "Microcam", an orthogonal transfer array (OTA), with Pan-STARRS heritage. Other advanced camera systems are also deployed for use on this telescope, such as the LANL-produced RULLI single photon counter, nCam. Using the telescope's special software controls, the telescope can track both stars and man-made satellites orbiting the Earth, while the camera images both. The 1.3 m dome itself is compact, owing to the fast overall optics at f/4. It is located near by and southwest of, the very large 61-inch dome. In addition to astrometric studies (such as for Space Situational Awareness, SDSS and SST), research on this telescope includes the study of blue and K-Giant stars, celestial mechanics and dynamics of multiple star systems, characterizations of artificial satellites, and the astrometry and transit photometry of exoplanets. Astrometrically, exoplanets also confuse centroid of a parent star's PSF – and there are many exoplanets – so the impact of their not-bland dynamics must be understood.
1.0-m telescope.
The "Ritchey–Chrétien Telescope" is also an equatorially driven, fork-mounted telescope. The Ritchey is the original Station telescope which was moved from USNO in Washington in 1955. It is also the first R-C telescope ever made from that famous optical prescription, and was coincidentally the last telescope built by George Ritchey himself. The telescope is still in operation after a half century of astronomy at NOFS. It performs key quasar-based reference frame operations (International Celestial Reference Frame), transit detections of exoplanets, Vilnius photometry, M-Dwarf star analysis, dynamical system analysis, reference support to orbiting space object information, horizontal parallax guide support to NPOI, and it performs photometric operations support to astrometric studies (along with its newer siblings). The 40-inch telescope can carry a number of liquid nitrogen-cooled cameras, a coronagraph, and a nine-stellar magnitude neutral density spot focal plane array camera, through which star positions are cross-checked before use in fundamental NPOI reference frame astrometry.
This telescope is also used to test internally developed optical adaptive optics (AO) systems, using tip-tilt and deformable mirror optics. The Shack–Hartmann AO system allows for corrections of the wavefront's aberrations caused by scintillation (degraded seeing), to higher Zernike polynomials. AO systems at NOFS will migrate to the 1.55-m and 1.8-m telescopes for future incorporation there.
The 40-inch dome is located at the summit and highest point of the modest mountain upon which NOFS is located. It is adjacent to a comprehensive instrumentation shop, which includes sophisticated, CAD-driven CNC fabrication machinery, and a broad array of design and support tooling.
0.2-m FASTT.
A modern-day example of a fully robotic transit telescope is the small Flagstaff Astrometric Scanning Transit Telescope (FASTT) completed in 1981 and located at the observatory. FASTT provides extremely precise positions of solar system objects for incorporation into the USNO Astronomical Almanac and Nautical Almanac. These ephemerides are also used by NASA in the deep space navigation of its planetary and extra-orbital spacecraft. Instrumental to the navigation of many NASA deep space probes, data from this telescope is responsible for NASA JPL's successful 2005 navigation-to-landing of the Huygens Lander on Titan, a major moon orbiting Saturn, and provided navigational reference for NASA's New Horizons deep space mission to Pluto, which arrived in July 2015. FASTT was also used to help NASA's SOFIA Airborne Observatory correctly locate, track and image a rare Pluto occultation. FASTT is located southwest of the primary complex. Attached to its large "hut" is the building housing NOFS' electronics and electrical engineering laboratories and clean rooms, where most of the advanced camera electronics, cryogenics and telescope control drives are developed and made.
Navy Precision Optical Interferometer.
NOFS operates the Navy Precision Optical Interferometer (NPOI) in collaboration with Lowell Observatory and the Naval Research Laboratory at Anderson Mesa, south-east of Flagstaff. NOFS (the operational astrometric arm of USNO) funds all principle operations, and from this contracts Lowell Observatory to maintain the Anderson Mesa facility and make the observations necessary for NOFS to conduct the primary astrometric science. The Naval Research Laboratory (NRL) also provides additional funds to contract Lowell Observatory's and NRL's implementation of additional, long-baseline siderostat stations, facilitating NRL's primary scientific work, synthetic imaging (both celestial and of orbital satellites). The three institutions – USNO, NRL, and Lowell – each provide an executive to sit on an Operational Advisory Panel (OAP), which collectively guides the science and operations of the interferometer. The OAP commissioned the chief scientist and director of the NPOI to effect the science and operations for the Panel; this manager is a senior member of the NOFS staff and reports to the NOFS Director.
NPOI is a successful astronomical interferometer of the venerable and proven Michelson interferometer design. As noted, the majority of interferometric science and operations are funded and managed by NOFS; however, Lowell Observatory and NRL join in the scientific efforts through their fractions of time to use the interferometer; 85% Navy (NOFS and NRL); and 15% Lowell. NPOI is one of the few major instruments globally which can conduct "optical" interferometry. See an illustration of its layout, at bottom. NOFS has used NPOI to conduct a wide and diverse series of scientific studies, beyond just the study of absolute astrometric positions of stars. Additional NOFS science at NPOI includes the study of binary stars, Be stars, oblate stars, rapidly rotating stars, those with starspots, and the imaging of stellar disks (the first in history) and flare stars. In 2007–2008, NRL with NOFS used NPOI to obtain first-ever closure phase image precursors of satellites orbiting in geostationary orbit.


HMS Culver

USCGC "Mendota" (1928) was a belonging to the United States Coast Guard launched on 20 June 1928 and commissioned on 23 March 1929. After 12 years of service with the Coast Guard, she was transferred to the British Royal Navy as part of the Lend-Lease Act. She was sunk in January 1942 when struck by two torpedoes fired by the .
Career.
U.S. Coast Guard - "Mendota".
After commissioning in March 1929, "Mendota" was homeported in Norfolk, Virginia. On 22 December 1939, attempted to assist the Greek steamship "Aliakmon", which had grounded north of Wash Woods, Virginia. The hawser that had been secured to the vessel parted, but "Mendota", having arrived a few hours later, was able to float the $200,000 vessel.
Royal Navy - "Culver".
As part of the Lend-Lease Act she was transferred to the Royal Navy where she was renamed HMS "Culver" (Y87) and commissioned on 30 Apr 1941. On 31 October 1941, "Culver" picked up 25 people from the Dutch merchant vessel "Bennekom" which had been sunk by a torpedo from .
Sinking.
On 31 January 1942, while escorting convoy SL 98, "Culver" came under fire by . At 23:31 hours, she was struck twice, once on the port side in the forward boiler room and once further aft that likely struck the vessel's magazine. "Culver" broke in two and sank in less than a minute. The commander, 7 officers and 119 ratings were lost. A single officer and 12 ratings survived the sinking and were rescued by .


Coast Guard Air Station Clearwater

United States Coast Guard Air Station Clearwater (CGAS Clearwater) is the United States Coast Guard's largest air station. It is located at the St. Petersburg-Clearwater International Airport in Clearwater, Florida and is home to nearly 700 USCG aviation and support personnel. As of March 2021, there are ten MH-60T Jayhawk helicopters, four HC-130H Hercules aircraft assigned to CGAS Clearwater. Also on static display is USCG 1023, a restored Grumman HU-16 Albatross.
Air Station Clearwater also operates two aviation facilities in The Bahamas, one at Great Inagua and one at the United States Navy's Atlantic Undersea Test and Evaluation Center (AUTEC) installation at Andros Island. These facilities support continually deployed HH-60Js and MH-60Ts from various air stations for Operations Bahamas, Turks and Caicos (OPBAT), a joint U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA), U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE) and U.S. Coast Guard counter-narcotics (CN) and migrant smuggling interdiction operation.
History.
In 1934, an air station was commissioned on the west coast of Florida at Albert Whitted Airport in downtown St. Petersburg. Designated as Coast Guard Air Station St. Petersburg, it subsequently became a home base for various Coast Guard amphibious aircraft and helicopters. In 1976, the addition of four land-based HC-130 Hercules aircraft prompted the move to, and construction of, new facilities at St. Petersburg-Clearwater International Airport. With this move, the air station's name was changed to U.S. Coast Guard Air Station Clearwater.
CGAS Clearwater has a rich history, and its operations have been at the heart of significant events in Florida and the Caribbean for many years. In the early 1980s, its high operations tempo earned Clearwater two Coast Guard Meritorious Unit Commendations, the Humanitarian Service Medal, and the Coast Guard Unit Commendation. It was during this time that the Air Station provided crucial support to the surface fleet during the Cuban boat lift. Shortly thereafter Clearwater answered the call to duty during Operation Urgent Fury—the Grenada rescue mission, and was awarded the Armed Forces Expeditionary Medal for its support of the invasion as well as the Coast Guard Meritorious Unit Commendation for its continual support efforts. Later that same year another Coast Guard Meritorious Unit Commendation was awarded to the Air Station for its role in Operation Wagon Wheel, an international drug interdiction effort.
In 1986, following on the success of the previous operation, Clearwater conducted Operation Hunter. This drug interdiction effort planted the seeds for what is today's OPBAT (Operation Bahamas and Turks and Caicos). Perhaps the single most noteworthy mission for the Air Station also came in 1986, during the launch of the Space Shuttle "Challenger". Air Station Clearwater crews responded immediately, the initial crew arriving on scene so quickly it had to stand off while the debris from the explosion continued to fall from the sky. In all, Air Station Clearwater flew 33 sorties on the "Challenger" mission and was awarded a Coast Guard Unit Commendation with Operational device.
CGAS Clearwater became the Coast Guard's largest air station in 1987 with the expansion of the drug interdiction mission, "Operations Bahamas, Turks, and Caicos" or OPBAT. This large ongoing mission resulted in the assignment of 12 HH-60J Jayhawk helicopters, the newest in the Coast Guard fleet, and boosted personnel strength to its current level of over 500 men and women. Also during this period, three additional HC-130s were stationed at Air Station Clearwater to support the increased law enforcement efforts. The air station's motto of "Anytime, Anywhere" accurately describes its pace of operations.
The 1990s were no less dramatic for the men and women of CGAS Clearwater. In 1991, the station's HC-130s responded rapidly to fly personnel and supplies in and out of the combat theater in support of Operation Desert Storm. During the Haitian uprising in 1992, CGAS Clearwater crews evacuated American embassy personnel and transported U.S. Special Forces into Haiti. When south Florida and Louisiana were devastated by Hurricane Andrew, CGAS Clearwater crews flew missions round the clock, transporting hundreds of tons of badly needed supplies. In March 1993, the "Storm of the Century" struck Florida leaving numerous sunken vessels in its wake. Air Station Clearwater crews launched at the height of the storm and pulled 62 people from the water in what was the busiest search and rescue day in the air station's history. In the summer of 1994 air crews participated in a massive SAR effort which located and rescued 34,568 Cubans and 23,389 Haitian migrants from the waters of the Caribbean.
In 1997, the U.S. renewed its effort towards the War on Drugs, and Clearwater responded as part of Operations Frontier Shield, Gulf Shield, and Frontier Lance. Those operations were aimed at stemming the flow of illegal drugs and migrants and spanned from the Leeward Islands of the Caribbean to the southern coastline of Texas. The Coast Guard set new records for both drug seizures and arrests.
In 2005, Air Station Clearwater crews helped support the survivors of the tsunami in the Indian Ocean. In 2006, the United States Navy Reserve vacated the former Navy Operational Support Center St. Petersburg/Clearwater (formerly Naval Reserve Center St. Petersburg/Clearwater) adjacent to the air station, transferring the facility to the Coast Guard and placing it under the oversight of Coast Guard Air Station Clearwater.
Current aircraft.
The HC-130 first became a part of Air Station Clearwater in 1976. The Lockheed HC-130H model is the current version assigned, with 5 such aircraft in the air station's current inventory. HC-130s from Air Station Clearwater have deployed worldwide including most of the contiguous 48 states, Alaska, Hawaii, throughout the Caribbean, Central America, South America, Europe, Asia, Africa, and Australia. The HC-130 Hercules performs numerous missions in support of Search and Rescue, Law Enforcement, Marine Environmental Protection, and logistics. The aircraft is an ideal platform for long range Search and Rescue, with over 14 hours of airborne endurance and large scanner windows built into the airframe side.
The 9 Sikorsky HH-60J Jayhawk helicopters previously assigned to the air station have since been replaced by 13 upgraded MH-60T Jayhawk versions. This aircraft has a long-range capability of 600 nautical miles (1100 km) to support Coast Guard cutters on Law Enforcement patrols, deliver dewatering pumps to sinking vessels, evacuate injured crew members from vessels far at sea, and many other missions. Air Station Clearwater helicopter aircrews fly an average of over 400 Search and Rescue cases each year along both the east and west coasts of Florida, the Bahamas, and beyond.


Deputy Assistant Secretary of the Air Force (Energy)

Deputy Assistant Secretary of the Air Force (Operational Energy) (abbreviated SAF/IEN) is the title of a civilian office in the United States Department of the Air Force, with its main offices at the Pentagon in Arlington, Virginia. SAF/IEN falls under the Assistant Secretary of the United States Air Force for Installations, Environment, and Energy (SAF/IE), and assists the Assistant Secretary of the Air Force, the Under Secretary of the Air Force, and the Secretary of the Air Force in drafting energy policy, supporting optimization initiatives, and championing projects related to operational energy (aviation fuel) across the US Air Force. Established in 2010, SAF/IEN focuses on fuel supply and logistics, aerodynamic drag reduction, propulsion efficiency, software development, optimized planning, and fuel data capture.
Since 2015, Roberto Guerrero has served as the Deputy Assistant Secretary of the Air Force for Operational Energy.
History.
Energy conservation in the Air Force dates back to the 1970s and initially focused on installations and facilities. Prior to 1972, the Air Force was converting coal-fired installations to oil or natural gas under a Department of Defense air pollution reduction program. After the Yom Kippur War, the energy crisis of the 1970s prompted the Air Force to identify their first energy reduction goals and monitoring systems. By the late 1970s, the Air Force had developed a 10-year energy reduction plan for its facilities under the Energy Policy and Conservation Act. It also created the first Air Force Energy Office at Tyndall Air Force Base, Florida, which became the focal point for all of the service’s energy matters and policies.
In 1985, the Air Force developed the Energy Information Management System, which was designed to collect all service energy data. Under this system, all Air Force installations were required to conduct energy security assessments every 1 to 3 years.
In response to the Energy Policy Act of 1992, the Air Force set new goals and mandates for utilities, increasing requirements for the use of clean energy, and improving overall energy efficiency. In an effort to achieve these goals, the Air Force began working with private industry to upgrade its facilities. Through Energy Savings Performance Contracts (ESPC), industry made energy efficiency upgrades to facilities and the Air Force paid for them with the cost saved over time. The first of these was implemented at Randolph Air Force Base, Texas with Johnson Controls, where 14,500 light fixtures were retrofitted with energy-saving assets.
The 21st Century brought an increased focus on energy conservation in the Air Force. The Undersecretary of the Air Force was designated the senior Air Force Energy Official, a role traditionally reserved for senior Air Force facility engineers. This raised visibility of energy conservation and usage amongst Air Force and Department of Defense leadership.
In 2006, the Air Force conducted the first flight by a military aircraft using a domestic synthetic fuel blend. The test was conducted at Edwards Air Force Base, California in a B-52 Stratofortress, and it culminated in four flights using all eight engines with the synthetic blend for the duration of each.
The following year was a pivotal point in the history of Air Force Energy, beginning with Executive Order 13423 mandating that all Federal agencies operate in an energy-conscious manner.
In 2008 Air Force Policy Memo (AFPM) 10-1 directed the development of an Energy Strategic Plan, designated Roles and Responsibilities, and created a new management structure under the Energy Program Management Office (EPMO) in 2009. The EPMO’s mission was to bring greater visibility to Air Force energy consumption trends and initiatives, and ensure energy was a consideration across Air Force missions. With energy’s quickly growing importance, Air Force leadership determined a broader effort was necessary. As a result, the EPMO became the Office of the Deputy Assistant Secretary of the Air Force (Energy) on 18 November 2010, appointing a Senior Executive Service (SES) as the Deputy Assistant Secretary to lead it, and becoming the first military service to identify energy as a major policy focus area.
Present day.
The Office of the Deputy Assistant Secretary of the Air Force (Operational Energy) currently has personnel integrated into Air Force Acquisition Operations, Aviation Operations, Facility Management, Expeditionary Operations, and Logistics. In addition, the Operational Energy Office has established a relationship with the US Department of Energy (DoE), to research future opportunities for integrating alternative fuels into Air Force operations. The office also employs an outreach staff to address energy culture change across the service. Among other achievements, the Air Force Energy Office has led the first-ever pilot project to produce a 100% electric vehicle fleet at Los Angeles Air Force Base, California, directed the inaugural A-10 Warthog flight using a 50-50% blend of alcohol-to-jet (ATJ) and JP-8 fuel, and achieved nearly $1 million in utility cost savings from a new solar panel array at the US Air Force Academy.


William Dempster

William John Duncan Dempster (21 October 1876 – 25 October 1964) was a member of the North-West Mounted Police (NWMP) in the Yukon Territory during the early 20th century. He gained notice for his involvement in finding the Lost Patrol, three NWMP officers and an ex-NWMP officer/guide who disappeared on the trail between Fort McPherson and Dawson City in the winter of 1910–11. The Dempster Highway in northern Canada is named for him.
Early life and career.
Dempster was born in Wales on 21 October 1876. He emigrated to Canada as a young man. In 1897, he joined the North-West Mounted Police and was posted to the Yukon the following year.
He served in various communities in the north for the next ten years. In 1907, he began participating in the annual mid-winter dog sled mail patrols between the NWMP detachments in Dawson City and Fort McPherson, a trip of through the wilderness.
The Lost Patrol.
In the winter of 1910–11, the mail patrol was commanded by Inspector Francis Joseph Fitzgerald. The patrol included Fitzgerald, Constables George Kinney and Richard Taylor, and former constable Samuel Carter as guide. They left Fort McPherson on December 21, 1910. The time required for the trip depended heavily on the weather; previous patrols had taken as few as 14 days and as many as 56 for the one-way journey. Fitzgerald took enough supplies for 30 days and may have been seeking to set a new speed record for the trip.
Weather conditions on the trail were poor, with heavy snow and low temperatures. Carter, who had only traveled the route in the opposite direction, was not able find the path through the Richardson Mountains. In late December, the patrol encountered local Kutchin families but Fitzgerald did not choose to hire one as a guide. Conditions worsened after January 3, with temperatures averaging and strong winds. On January 12, with only nine days food remaining, they were still lost. Fitzgerald was determined to continue, and it was not until January 18 that they turned back to Fort McPherson.
When the patrol failed to arrive in Dawson City by late February 1911, Corporal Dempster was dispatched with Constables J.F. Fyfe and F. Turner and First Nations guide Charlie Steward to find and rescue them. They departed Dawson on February 28. Dempster was initially confident of finding the patrol, given Fitzgerald's experience in the north.
Dempster's patrol soon found evidence of trouble, including abandoned dog harnesses and gear, and campsites that showed Fitzgerald's patrol had lost their way. They later found parts of dog carcasses which indicated that the lost men had resorted to eating their sled animals. On March 22 and 23, the bodies of the four missing men were discovered from Fort McPherson. Dempster's patrol continued to Fort McPherson and then returned to Dawson City. On the return to Dawson, Dempster set a new record, covering the distance in 11 days.
Later career.
After the loss of Fitzgerald's patrol, the NWMP tasked Dempster with making the patrol route safer. He worked on this through 1912 and 1913, making trail markers and building supply caches and shelters.
Dempster continued to lead the winter patrols for several years, establishing several speed records, including 14 days in 1920. He was able to achieve his patrols safely, avoiding unnecessary risks and employing local First Nations guides when required. In 1917, he was asked to find a route from the Porcupine River to Dawson that did not cross United States territory. He was able to find a route within three weeks through unexplored parts of the Ogilvie Mountains. First Nations he encountered on the way stated their surprise when his party appeared, saying: "this trail has never been travelled over by white men or Indians, although different parts are travelled by different Indians". The difficulty of the terrain meant that no other patrols were sent on the same route.
He eventually reached the rank of Inspector, retiring from the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (successor to the NWMP) in 1934. At his retirement he was considered to be "the best trail man in the Yukon". Dempster married Catherine Smith in 1926. They had one son and one daughter.
Dempster died October 25, 1964, at the age of 88. Shortly before his death, he was advised that the highway being constructed from Dawson to Aklavik would be named in his honour. The Dempster Highway, eventually routed to Inuvik instead of Aklavik, opened in 1979.


Coast Guard Station South Padre Island

United States Coast Guard Station South Padre Island is a large-sized Search & Rescue Station home to the Aids to Navigation Team (ANT) South Padre Island, and the cutter USCGC ALLIGATOR (WPB-87372). It belongs to the United States Coast Guard 8th District, Sector Corpus Christi.
History.
The Coast Guard has a long presence on South Padre Island. The original station, named Brazos Santiago, was established in 1881. A lifesaving station was established in 1918 on Boca Chica Beach named Station Brazos. A new location was opened in 1923 on the southern end of South Padre Island to a building that was used for 50 years.
The current station was constructed in 1974, which houses the main office spaces and duty crew berthing. In 1998 the station was named Coast Guard Station South Padre Island reflecting on the island geographic location of the station.
References.
http://www.uscg.mil/d8/d8units.asp


United States Space Force rank insignia

United States Space Force rank insignia are used to indicate the rank and status of its officers and enlisted personnel. Equivalency between the military services is indicated by associated NATO code and pay grade.
Rank insignia wear.
On the service dress uniform metal rank is worn on the epaulets. On the OCP uniform, the Space Force's combat utility uniform, embroidered navy blue rank is worn on an OCP patch on the center of the chest.
History.
The creation of the Space Force marked the first time since the 1947 creation of the Air Force that a new branch was created. This created an interest in the rank structure and insignia. In February 2020, it was announced that the Space Force would ask military space professionals for opinions on ranks.
Eighty-six graduates of the United States Air Force Academy class of 2020 commissioned directly into the USSF, becoming the service's first new officers and second lieutenants. On July 28, 2020, four general officers from the Air Force were nominated to transfer to the Space Force in their current grade of major general, and then be promoted to lieutenant general. On August 6, 2020, a number of Air Force officers are being transferred to the Space Force in the ranks of major, lieutenant colonel and colonel. On September 1, 2020, the Air Force transferred 2410 active-duty airmen to the Space Force to become enlisted space professionals. The space professionals were all transferred to the Space Force in their current enlisted ranks.
The Space Force was set to announce its new rank structure in late August 2020 but decided to delay it temporarily, as a proposed amendment included in the United States House of Representatives's version of the 2021 National Defense Authorization Act would require the Space Force to adopt a rank structure based on that of the United States Navy for its officers and enlisted space professionals. The Space Force decided to wait until after the 2021 NDAA was passed, before moving forward with their permanent rank structure. While awaiting the passage of the NDAA, all members of the Space Force retained their respective grade and rank carried over from the Air Force. On November 16, 2020, the United States Senate passed the House of Representative's version of the NDAA, but attached an amendment which would remove the clause requiring the Space Force to adopt naval ranks, and sent it back to the House for consideration. The House unanimously disagreed with the Senate's amendment and sent the amended bill back to their armed services committee on November 18, for consideration of passage. The final version of the NDAA removed any requirement for the Space Force to adopt naval ranks. The official rank structure became effective on 1 February 2021, which includes the rank of specialist being used for paygrades E-1 to E-4 for the first time since the Army discontinued its use of multiple specialist ranks in 1985. The rank of 'Sergeant' replaces 'Staff Sergeant' as used by the Air Force in the pay grade of E-5. It has also been confirmed that the Space Force will continue to use the Air Force enlisted rank design until a majority of guardian feedback is collected for the creation of its own unique design.
Enlisted rank insignia development.
On 2 March 2021, the Space Force released a survey for guardians to give feedback on four sets of enlisted rank insignia. One version of the proposed enlisted rank insignia mirrors the current Air Force design, but with the Air Corps star replaced by the Delta, Globe, and Orbit. Another version resembles Army and Marine Corps enlisted insignia, but with the Delta, Globe, and Orbit at the bottom of the design. A third inverts the Army/Marine Corps' styled chevrons. A fourth option resembles Navy and Coast Guard rank insignia.


National Civil Guard

The National Civil Guard (, "Ethniki Politophylaki") was the security force of the Political Committee of National Liberation (PEEA), the government that the National Liberation Front (EAM) had established in the territory it controlled during the Nazi occupation of Greece in 1944. It was the successor of the EAM'S Organization for the Protection of the People's Struggle (OPLA).
The military commander of the National Civil Guard was Panagiotis Nasis, a former Greek Army major general who had decided to join EAM during the occupation, while Vasos Georgiou, a communist journalist, was appointed as political commissar of the force.
The National Civil Guard was abolished in February 1945 following the Varkiza Agreement.


USCGC Bitt

USCGC "Bitt" (WYTL-65613) was a cutter in the US Coast Guard. Constructed by Western Boat Building Corp and commissioned in 1966, the vessel served as part of the USCG for sixteen years before being decommissioned in 1982 and transferred to the National Science Foundation (NSF). During her Coast Guard service "Bitt" was based in Washington and Alaska where she was utilized mainly in a law enforcement and search and rescue (SAR) role. She is still in active service as a research vessel with the NSF.
Construction and design.
Crewed by five personnel, "Bitt" was a small vessel displacing 74 tons. She was long, with a beam of and a draft. The vessel's main drive engine consisted of one Caterpillar D379 V-8 diesel which produced 400 shaft horsepower and drove a single propeller, giving a cruising speed of and a cruising range of . Her maximum speed was , at which she could patrol . She carried no armament, but was fitted with a SPN-11 detection radar. Upon completion she cost a total of $US 158,366 to construct.
History.
"Bitt" was one of fifteen steel-hulled icebreaking small harbor tugs that were put into service in the 1960s to replace wooden-hulled harbor tugs that the Coast Guard had used since the 1940s. She was initially homeported at Bellingham, Washington where her duties included law enforcement and SAR as well as ice operations. On 5 January 1969 she assisted in the evacuation of a stranded person near the Nooksack River when a dike broke. On 29 July 1969 she towed the disabled fishing vessel "Jet Stream" to safety from Admiralty Inlet. On 20 October 1975 she rescued two persons from a capsized sailboat. She transferred to Valdez, Alaska in 1978. She was decommissioned in October 1982 and transferred to the National Science Foundation for use as the Research Vessel "Clifford A. Barnes". She is currently in service through an agreement with the University of Washington School of Oceanography research facilities at Seattle Washington.


David R. Thompson

David R. Thompson (December 26, 1930 – February 19, 2011) was a United States Circuit Judge of the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit.
Education and career.
Born in San Diego, California, Thompson received a Bachelor of Science degree in business from University of Southern California in 1952. He received a Bachelor of Laws from USC Gould School of Law in 1955. He was in the United States Navy from 1955 to 1957. He was in private practice of law in San Diego from 1957 to 1985.
Federal judicial service.
On October 7, 1985, Thompson was nominated by President Ronald Reagan to a new seat on the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit created by 98 Stat. 333. He was confirmed by the United States Senate on December 16, 1985, and received commission on December 17, 1985. He assumed senior status on December 31, 1998, serving in that status until his death.
Death.
Thompson died on February 19, 2011, after a sudden illness. Thompson had traveled to San Francisco to hear oral arguments in several cases. He died at the city's St. Mary's Medical Center.


Advanced Systems and Development Directorate

The Advanced Systems and Development Directorate (SMC/AD) is a directorate of the United States Space Force's Space and Missile Systems Center, located at Kirtland Air Force Base. It has operating divisions at Los Angeles Air Force Base, Hill Air Force Base, and Johnson Space Center.
History.
In June 1992 the Space and Missile Systems Center created the Space Experimentation Program Office, consolidating the Rocket Systems Launch Program (RSLP), Department of Defense Space Test Program (STP), the Research and Development Space and Missile Operations program (RDSMO), and test and evolution functions at Vandenberg Air Force Base into the new organization. In June 1993 the research, development, test and evaluation functions of the Space Test Program, located at Los Angeles Air Force Base, Research and Development Space and Missile Operations program, located at Onizuka Air Force Station, and the Rocket Systems Launch Program, located in San Bernardino, California, were moved to Kirtland Air Force Base.
In July 1995 the Space Experimentation Program Office was renamed the Space and Missile Test and Evaluation Directorate.
On 29 June 2001, the Space Experimentation Program Office became Space and Missile Systems Center Detachment 12, in preparation for the 1 October 2001 transfer of the Space and Missile Systems Center from Air Force Materiel Command to Air Force Space Command.
On 1 August 2006 the Space Development and Test Wing was activated, replacing SMC Directorate 12. On 10 November 2010 the Space Development and Test Wing was redesignated again, becoming the Space Development and Test Directorate (SMC/SD), part of the Space and Missile System Center's transition from a wing-structure to a directorate-structure.
On 9 October 2014 the Development Planning Directorate (SMC/XR) and Space Development and Test Directorate were deactivated, and activated the Advanced Systems and Development Directorate (SMC/AD).


Enlisted Performance Report

An Enlisted Performance Report (EPR) is an evaluation form used by the United States Air Force. Instructions for constructing an EPR appear in chapter 3 of Air Force Instruction 36-2406: "Officer and Enlisted Evaluation Systems". The EPR replaced the Airman Performance Report (APR) in the late 1980s.
The USAF commissioned officer equivalent is the Officer Performance Report (OPR). The United States Navy equivalent is the Fitness Report (FITREP). The United States Army equivalent is the Enlisted Evaluation Report (EER).
Evaluation.
An EPR evaluates the performance of an enlisted member both on and off duty. The period of time covered by the EPR is normally no less than 120 days and no longer than 365 days. EPRs are normally written by the member's supervisor with additional input provided by their supervisor's supervisor.
Although the bulk of the evaluation is focused on their duty (job) performance, enlisted members are also evaluated on their off-duty performance in areas such as volunteerism and continuing education. This is arguably the biggest difference between the Air Force EPR and civilian counterparts.
Personnel who have left the Air Force and are seeking jobs in the civilian world will sometimes use EPRs to augment their résumé.
Stratification statements.
Stratification is the "rack-and-stack" process senior raters use to identify their top promotion-eligible master sergeants and senior master sergeants. Senior raters are limited to stratifying the top 10 percent of their master sergeant promotion-eligible Airmen and the top 20 percent of their senior master sergeant promotion-eligible Airmen. Promotion-eligible senior NCOs who are not stratified will have their evaluations close out at the deputy evaluator (first O-6) or intermediate evaluator (unit commander) level. Only those who are stratified will have their evaluation signed/closed out by the senior evaluator (senior rater).
Stratification statements must be stated in quantitative terms (#1 of 125 MSgts) and will be based on the number of peers (in the same grade as the ratee) assigned within the evaluator's rating scheme. Stratification statements on all other performance reports, to include CMSgt reports, are strictly prohibited.
Static Closeout Dates (SCOD).
In 2014/2015 reports were changed to close out on the same date every year and change of reporting official reports were eliminated.
History.
On 12 July 2007 the Air Force announced a major overhaul of the content of the EPR and OPR reports in an effort to decrease the time required to accomplish the report. EPR narrative comments were significantly reduced and performance assessment areas now reflect the increased responsibility Airmen are charged with as they progress in rank. A section on physical fitness was added, with those scoring less than 75 receiving a referral report. Another new feature of the EPR is the ratee's signature as well as the use of digital signatures using the Common Access Card (CAC).
The implementation dates of the new versions were as follows:
The format for entries in the Enlisted Performance Report continues to be the "bullet statement format".
On 1 January 2014 a revised AFI and slightly revised EPR forms were released adding organizational climate to the listed of items to consider in the Primary/Additional Duties section.
Starting November 2014, static -or fixed - annual close out dates will be used for each rank tied to regular Air Force (RegAF) promotion eligibility cut-off dates (PECD). The static dates will enable the implementation of the forced distribution and restricted stratification policy and result in more accurate, useful performance-based evaluations. The new reports will include a section for promotion recommendations that will curb inflation through forced distribution and stratification restrictions.
Criticism.
The EPR system has come under heavy criticism from all ranks in the Air Force. The primary complaint is that the system has become inflated. While technically the 1 through 5 scale is supposed to award an "average" performer a 3 and the 5 should be reserved for members that are "Truly Among the Best", the practice has been that nearly all personnel receive a 5 unless there are major disciplinary problems. The 2010 SSgt promotion cycle statistics show that the average eligible SrA received 128.79 points from a possible 135 from their EPR ratings, meaning the average eligible tester received one "4" and two "5" ratings. A cause may be that there is no additional guidance on the definition of a truly stellar member, and the deciding factor is most often other portions of WAPS testing, where performance is meant to be rated.


James C. Van Sice

James C. Van Sice is a retired Rear Admiral (upper half) in the United States Coast Guard. He was the 38th Superintendent of the United States Coast Guard Academy in New London, Connecticut, succeeding Rear Admiral Robert C. Olsen. He was succeeded by Rear Admiral J. Scott Burhoe. Rear Admiral Van Sice retired from the Coast Guard in 2007. .
Retirement.
In 2006 Van Sice requested retirement following an investigation. . Cmdr. Jeff Carter, spokesman for the service, said information about Van Sice arose during the task force's review of the academy. Members of the task force decided the information was 'beyond the scope of their charter,' so they forwarded the matter to the Coast Guard chief of staff, Vice Adm. Robert Papp, who had formed the task force.
Papp assigned another rear admiral, Larry L. Hereth, to conduct an 'administrative investigation' into the matter. Carter said the administrative review didn't play into the job switch for Van Sice and that Van Sice's new job as director of personnel management shows that his superiors still have 'confidence he can effectively serve.' Van Sice's new job puts him in charge of pay, recruiting, housing and personnel policy for the entire 56,000 member Coast Guard. By the second week in January, Burhoe, who leaves a job as Assistant Commandant for governmental and public affairs in Washington, will be in charge of the school as it deals with the fallout from two recent sexual assault cases involving cadets. The timing of the job switch, according to a statement from Papp, is based on the expected release of the task force's findings next month. Burhoe will lend a 'fresh perspective' to act on the task force's recommendations for the school. Carter said Burhoe is somebody 'who has not been involved in any of the issues the task force is looking at.' It was after Van Sice took command of the 130-year-old school that an internal investigation resulted in sexual assault charges being brought against a cadet, Webster Smith.
Education.
Van Sice graduated in 1974 from the United States Coast Guard Academy. He later earned a Master of Science in Engineering from Purdue University and a Master of Arts degree in business from Webster College.
Coast Guard assignments.
Rear Admiral Van Sice's first duty assignment was aboard the Coast Guard Cutter "Munro" (WHEC 724) where he served as Anti-Submarine Warfare Officer and Deck Watch Officer. In 1976 he graduated from Naval Flight Training in Pensacola, Florida. An aircraft commander and instructor pilot in the C-131 Convair and HU-25 Falcon aircraft, Rear Admiral Van Sice has approximately 5,000 total hours in fixed and rotary wing aircraft.
Van Sice has served in a variety of command and staff assignments including Chief of Operations and Chief of Staff for the Eighth Coast Guard District in New Orleans, Louisiana, Commander of Coast Guard Air Station Borinquen, Puerto Rico, and operational command experience on the Gulf of Mexico and in the Pacific Northwest.
He served as the first Deputy Director of Operations, United States Northern Command, Peterson Air Force Base, Colorado. In this position, he advised the Commander on operations to deter, prevent, defeat, and mitigate threats and aggression aimed at the United States, its territories and interests. He ensured effective air, land, and maritime defense throughout the assigned area of responsibility to include military assistance to civil authorities.
Prior to assuming the position of Superintendent at the Coast Guard Academy, Van Sice was the Director of Reserve and Training for the U.S. Coast Guard where he served as a member of the Reserve Forces Policy Board, which advises the Secretary of Defense on Reserve matters.
Awards and honors.
His awards include the Defense Superior Service Medal, Meritorious Service Medal (three awards), the Coast Guard Commendation Medal, Coast Guard Achievement Medal, and Commandant's Letter of Commendation Ribbon with Operational Distinguishing Device.
Personal data.
Van Sice is a native of Wilmington, Delaware. He is married to the former Clarke Hutchinson of Wilmington, Delaware. Rear Admiral and Mrs. Van Sice have two children.


United States Coast Guard Research and Development Center

The United States Coast Guard Research & Development Center (CG RDC) located in New London, Connecticut is the Coast Guard's center for operational analysis and mission execution solutions. The Research & Development Center is dedicated to maximizing its contribution by maintaining a balanced portfolio of projects that support the Coast Guard's short, medium, and long range requirements across all major missions. is the Coast Guard's sole facility performing research, development, test and evaluation (RDT&E) in support of the Coast Guard's major mission areas of; Environmental Protection, Maritime Law Enforcement, Protection of Life and Property at Sea and National Defense Preparedness. The R& D Center's technology research includes: detection, interdiction and prosecution of drug smugglers; cleaning up oil spills; maritime navigation safety; alertness and performance of commercial and CG crews; eliminating invasive species for ship ballast water. It is located in the Fort Trumbull section of New London at 1 Chelsea St. New London, 06320


Marengo order of battle

The Battle of Marengo (14 June 1800) was fought between the French army of First Consul Napoleon Bonaparte and an Habsburg army led by General der Kavallerie Michael von Melas. With Napoleon's army lying across the Habsburg army's line of communications to the west, Melas resolved to attack. Early in the morning, the Habsburg army advanced from the city of Alessandria and took the French army by surprise. It was not until 9:00 am before Melas' army completely moved through a bottleneck at the Bormida River bridges. At first the Austrian attack stalled, slowed by bitter French resistance. By 3:00 pm, the Habsburg army compelled their outnumbered opponents to retreat. Sore from having two horses killed under him, Melas handed over command of the pursuit to a subordinate and went to the rear. Later in the afternoon, a newly-arrived French division suddenly attacked the pursuing Austrians. Combined with a quick burst of cannon fire and a well-timed cavalry charge, the surprise assault caused a complete collapse of the Austrian center column, which fled to the temporary safety of Alessandria. The French suffered at least 7,700 casualties, including two generals killed and five wounded. The Austrians admitted losing 9,416 killed, wounded and missing, but some estimates range as high as 11,000–12,000 casualties. The Austrians lost one general killed and five wounded. The next day, Melas requested an armistice. The victory gave Bonaparte enough bargaining leverage to gain control of northwest Italy during the subsequent negotiations.


Herbert Scheibe

Herbert Scheibe (born Hohenmölsen 28 November 1914: died Berlin 7 February 1991) was an East German Generaloberst and, between 1967 and 1972, Commanding general of the country's Airforce.
Life.
Early years.
Scheibe was born in a sleepy market town in Saxony-Anhalt, some 45 km (28 miles) south-west of Leipzig. His father was a labourer and his mother was a cook. Scheibe was bought up by his grandparents, both of whom were early members of the German Communist Party (KPD). He received a basic education at the small local school and then undertook an apprenticeship as a in Gohlis (Leipzig).
Political activism and detention during the Nazi years.
Between 1930 and 1933 Scheibe was a member of the Young Communists (KJVD / "Kommunistischer Jugendverband Deutschlands"). In January 1933 the National Socialists seized power and membership of political parties (other than of the Nazi Party) almost immediately became illegal. During the ensuing twelve years most of Scheibe's life was spent in prisons and concentration camps. He was arrested in August 1933, charged with preparing to commit high treason ("Vorbereitung zum Hochverrat") and sentenced to eight months of detention, which he spent at the Bautzen Correction Centre. He was released in June 1934 but appears to have continued to undertake illegal political activities and was arrested again in June 1935, faced the same charge as a before, and was sentenced to a further two years. He was initially taken back to Bauzen before being transferred, in 1937, to Buchenwald where at one stage he was put in charge of the camp post office. He also spent a large amount of time during the Nazi period in a Correction Centre in Zwickau.
The Soviet occupation zone / The German Democratic Republic.
The war ended in May 1945 and with it the Nazi regime. Scheibe at once joined the Communist Party (KPD), which the next year, following a forced merger of political parties, would leave him as a member of the country's ruling Socialist Unity Party (SED/ "Sozialistische Einheitspartei Deutschlands").
Military career.
On 1 June 1945 he joined the People's Police (VP / "Volkspolizei") in the Soviet occupation zone (SBZ / "Sowjetische Besatzungszone"), in the central part of what had till recently been Germany. This was the part of the country in which he had grown up, and it was the part that during the next few years would evolve into the German Democratic Republic (East Germany). From 1945 till 1948 Scheibe was deputy head of the Criminal Police in Leipzig, then serving from 1948 till 1949 as the Head of the Criminal Police in Görlitz. The following year he was selected and sent for special training in the Soviet Union.
After returning to East Germany he joined the Volkspolizei-Bereitschaft (literally "Standby Police") in Prenzlau. Immediately following the Second World War there had been agreement among the occupying powers that there was no place for an army in Germany, but in East Germany the Volkspolizei (people's police) nevertheless retained some of the quasi-military characteristics associated with the police services under the Hitler regime: by 1950 the "Standby Police" were coming to be seen as a military force by another name. Between 1951 and 1956 Scheibe served in various leadership capacities with the Kasernierte Volkspolizei (literally " People's Police in barracks"), a different (and in the end larger) quasi-military police service which would in retrospect become recognised as the precursor of the East German National People's Army.
Promotions
The National People's Army (NVA / "Nationale Volksarmee ") was founded in 1956. Herbert Scheibe took a job with the Ministry of National Defence (MfNV) as Chief of Military Reconnaissance. A period of study at the General Staff (Military) Academy in Moscow followed. Scheibe returned from Moscow in 1959 and became Deputy Chief of the General Staff and Chief of Operations in the newly established army. Between 1960 and 1967 he served as Chief and Chief of Staff in the Air-force. In 1967 he was appointed Chief of the Air-force, a high-profile position which he held till 1972.
Political promotions.
Scheibe was placed on the (lengthy) candidate list for membership of the Party Central Committee in 1967. He served as a member of the Central Committee from 1975 till 1986. From 1972 till his retirement from active service on 15 March 1985 General Colonel Scheibe served in succession to as Head of the Security Department of the Party Central Committee.


South African Air Force squadron identification codes

The South African Air Force adopted Royal Air Force squadron identification codes during the Second World War and continued to use these codes after the war. The last use of the wartime code system was on a 22 Squadron PV-1 Ventura in 1960.
Aircraft deployed for the East African Campaign did not carry any squadron codes - and these were first introduced when the SAAF deployed to North Africa in 1942. Squadron codes were assigned by the RAF from a theater annex to SD110. Aircraft used in South Africa did not carry squadron codes, except for aircraft of the 11 OTU which carried the squadron codes of their parent squadrons (1 and 2 Squadron SAAF).
Historically, the codes were usually two alphabetic characters, painted on the rear fuselage next to the roundel. These formed a suffix or prefix to the call sign of each aircraft (on the other side of the roundel) which was usually a single letter (e. g. "G for George"). In general, when an aircraft was lost or withdrawn from use, its call sign was applied to its replacement or another aircraft.


Patrol Base Jaker

Patrol Base Jaker in Afghanistan was a military expeditionary base used by the United States Marine Corps and British Army. It was in along the Helmand River Valley in Nawa-I-Barakzayi. It was originally built by the British Army of Task Force Helmand in 2008. In June 2009, it was transferred to the Marines of 2nd Marine Expeditionary Brigade. It was also the setting for the documentary film "Patrol Base Jaker".
Units


List of commanders of the First Army of Turkey

This list includes commanders of the First Army of Turkey, who were, in their time of service, nominal heads of the First Army (), one of the four field armies of the Turkish Land Forces.
The current Commander of the First Army is General Musa Avsever, since 28 July 2016.


Partisan Long March

The Partisan Long March was the redeployment of Josip Broz Tito's Partisan Supreme Headquarters and the major fighting elements of the Yugoslav Partisans across the Independent State of Croatia (, NDH), from south-eastern to north-western Bosnia that commenced in late June 1942. The march followed the first large-scale joint German-Italian counter-insurgency operation in the NDH, Operation Trio, and the combined Italian-Montenegrin Chetnik offensive in Montenegro and eastern Herzegovina.
The majority of the units of the National Liberation Army (1st and 2nd Proletarian, 3rd Sandžak and 4th Montenegrin Brigades) and the Supreme Headquarters of the NOV and POJ set out from the territory of Mt Zelengora on June 24, 1942, for western Bosnia. Along the way, battles were fought with the enemy (Konjic, Bugojno, Prozor, Livno, Kupres) and a new liberated territory was created. At the end of July, the 5th Montenegrin Brigade joined these forces with the Herzegovinian NOP Detachment, from which the 10th Herzegovinian Proletarian Strike Brigade was then formed.
The campaign in Bosnian Krajina was not intended as a march, but to strike at the enemy, expand free territory in western Bosnia and create favorable conditions for further development of the uprising in the western parts of Yugoslavia, so it was planned to be carried out gradually, in stages. In the first stage, a sudden attack was to break and destroy enemy crews and destroy the Sarajevo-Mostar railway, and then, in the next stage, continue to advance to the northwest, take control of the territory on the right bank of the Neretva, in the upper Vrbas and Kupres, Livno, Imotski and connect with Krajina and Dalmatian units.
Background.
Partisan forces in early 1942.
During the first six months of 1942, the partisans suffered heavy losses in Second and Third Enemy Offensives in eastern Bosnia, Herzegovina, Sandžak and Montenegro. Because of these losses, as well as because of the successful Chetnik subversion in many partisan detachments, and to some extent also because of some serious mistakes in the so-called Leftist errors, partisan activity in the those areas almost died out, and the partisan position became critical. At the same time, the Chetniks became stronger in these areas, partly due to subversion in partisan detachments, partly due to collaboration with the Italians, and in some areas with the Croatian Quisling forces to some extent, and thus indirectly with the Germans.
At the beginning of March 1942, the Supreme Headquarters sent the 1st and 2nd Proletarian Brigades to eastern Bosnia, where they overwhelmed Chetnik forces and liberated the region, thus providing significant assistance to the partisan forces there. In the first months of 1942, Montenegrin partisans kept most of Montenegro in their hands, despite increased pressure from Italians and Chetniks. By the joint action of the 2nd Proletarian Brigade, Herzegovinian and Montenegrin partisans, Borač, a strong Ustashe stronghold, near Kalinovik, was liberated. With the liberation of Kalinovik, the liberated territory of eastern Bosnia was connected with the liberated territory in Herzegovina and Montenegro.
In western Bosnia, partisan detachments grew, consolidating free territory and liberating new areas. The insurgent forces in Grmeč and Kozara increased especially, and on May 16, 1942, the 1st and 2nd Krajina detachments liberated Prijedor, which was defended by about 2,000 enemy soldiers.
German-Italian offensive.
In order to prevent the further spread of the uprising, Germans and Italians, on 3 March 1942, in Opatija, signed an agreement which reached a plan for a general offensive against the partisans. According to that plan, the first operations began on 15 April 1942 in eastern Bosnia, for the purpose of which the "Bader" battle group was formed. The goal of this operation was to destroy partisan units in the area of Rogatica-Kalinovik-Foča.
Due to the delays of the Italian divisions, which were held back by partisan forces in Herzegovina, as well as the successful resistance of the 1st and 2nd Proletarian Brigades and other partisan forces, the enemy's plan failed. 1st and 2nd Proletarian Brigades managed to move to Sandžak and Montenegro, and partly to Herzegovina, to help the partisan forces, to which the Italians, with a very strong force of about 9 divisions, launched an offensive in mid-1942, and managed to master these areas by the end of June.
March to Bosnian Krajina.
The Supreme Headquarters, which was in Foča until 10 May 1942, managed, with the help of the 1st and 2nd Proletarian Brigades, to withdraw part of the partisan forces from Montenegro and Herzegovina and form new units from them: 3rd Proletarian Sandžak Brigade, 4th and 5th Proletarian Montenegrin Brigade and the Herzegovina Detachment.
Decision of Partisan Supreme HQ to move west proved to be very prudent for a number of reasons, the most important of which was the fact that the Italians, on the basis of the Zagreb agreement concluded on June 19, withdrew a large part of their troops from zones II and III. Ustashe regime had neither the time nor the strength to adequately protect these areas.
Group of brigades, which consisted of: the 1st and 2nd Proletarian, 3rd Sandžak and 4 Montenegrin Brigades, together the Supreme Headquarters, moved from the Zelengora region on 24 June 1942 to western Bosnia in the general direction Kalinovik-Prozor-Kupres. 5th Proletarian Montenegrin Brigade and the Herzegovinian Detachment with a partisan hospital were left on the border of Herzegovina, Montenegro and Bosnia, in order to penetrate Montenegro and Herzegovina in a more favorable situation.
After managing to break up the Ustasha forces around the Treskavica mountain, on 3 July 1942, partisan brigades carried out a surprise attack on the Sarajevo-Konjic railway between Hadžići and Konjic. During the night, the brigades defeated the enemy crews at the stations, destroyed important station facilities, destroyed the railway in several places, as well as all important bridges. Dozens of wagons and several locomotives were destroyed.
Attack on Konjic.
After a series of diversions on the railway, 1st Proletarian Brigade broke up the enemy garrison in Konjic on the night between July 7 and 8, defending a battalion of Croatian Home Guard and two Ustasha companies, liberated the city and destroyed the railway station and furnace with about 25 locomotives. This was a major blow to the occupying forces and the NDH, because ties with Herzegovina were severed for more than two months and the transport of bauxite from the Mostar region was prevented.
From the railway, partisan brigades Group continued its operations in two directions: the right column, composed of 2nd Proletarian and 4th Montenegrin Brigade, attacked the enemy garrisons in the upper course of the Vrbas via Bitovanje and Vranica; the left column, made up of 1st Proletarian and 3rd Sandžak Brigades, headed in the direction of Prozor-Livno. After the capture of Gornji Vakuf, the right column fought fierce battles around Bugojno and Donji Vakuf, while the left column liberated Prozor, Šujica and Duvno, and in cooperation with the Dalmatian and Krajina partisans liberated Livno on August 5.
Attack on Livno.
The liberation of Livno was a great success of the NOVJ. 2nd Battalion of the 1st Proletarian Brigade invaded the city through clearings, high wire barriers and between masonry-concrete bunkers, destroyed the enemy forces it encountered, severed ties and disrupted the enemy's command, and cooperated with other battalions attacking the city.
The Ustasha garrison had losses of about 200 dead (including those executed), with its own losses of 5 dead and 20 wounded. Partisans seized all weapons and ammunition, including 6 tons of explosives. About 300 captured members of Home Guard were disarmed and released, and 12 Germans were captured, who were employees of Organization Todt, that was engaged in the economic exploitation of the occupied areas. These Germans would exchanged in September for captured partisans and arrested activists. This would the first exchange of prisoners between Partisan forces on the one hand, and the German authorities on the other.
At the beginning of August, 5th Proletarian Montenegrin Brigade and the Herzegovinian Detachment arrived in the liberated Prozor, and after fierce fighting with the Axis and Chetnik forces in the wider region of Zelengora, they were forced to move in this direction.
Attack on Kupres.
Particularly difficult battles were fought group of partisan brigades, composed of 2nd Proleterian and 4th Montenegrin Brigades, parts of 3rd Sandžak and 10th Herzegovinian Brigades (formed on August 10 by the Herzegovinian Detachment and the Konjic Partisan Battalion), together with 1st Krajina Brigade and 3rd Krajina Detachment for Kupres from 11 to 14 August.
Aftermath.
Merging free territory.
In further battles, Proleterian brigades with the Krajina and Dalmatian units liberated: Aržano, Mrkonjić Grad and Jajce. This created the conditions for the development of the partisan movement in the areas that had been under the influence of the Ustashas until then, and the newly liberated territory was connected with the liberated territory in the Bosnian Krajina via Livno and Mrkonjić Grad. At the end of August, partisan brigades reached Bosanski Petrovac via Drvar. Preparations for the attack on Bihać and the establishment of the Bihać Republic will follow.
Axis and Quisling reactions.
Although in autumn 1942 Partisans would be forced to leave Prozor to the Italians, Livno to the Croatian quisling forces, and Jajce to the Germans, the partisans nevertheless controlled the area from the western approaches to the Neretva in the south to Karlovac in the north, an area of 250 km in length and 40 - 70 km in width. The crisis of partisan war fortunes seemed to have passed: they now had nine divisions and many independent partisan detachments, their military organization strengthened, they built a system of civilian government in those areas in the form of national liberation committees, and they confirmed themselves politically by convening an assembly in newly liberated Bihać, which was constituted as the Anti-Fascist Council of the People's Liberation of Yugoslavia (AVNOJ). It was obvious that they were now able to intensify their activity against the Axis and the Croatian Quisling forces, as well as against the Chetniks.


Marine Corps Legacy Museum

The Marine Corps Legacy Museum was located on the northwest corner of the Town Square in Harrison, Arkansas, United States. It closed in 2010.
Information.
The museum contained exhibits and artifacts relating to the heritage and history of the U. S. Marine Corps. In 2003, the museum won the prestigious Colonel John H. Magruder III Award from the Marine Corps Heritage Foundation.


Phoenix Mobility Program

The PHOENIX MOBILITY (PM) PROGRAM is an Air Mobility Command(AMC)-sponsored professional development program for board selected Air Force officers with 4–8 years commissioned service. The purpose of the program is to develop officers with a strong foundation in expeditionary mobility operations while developing an understanding of senior leadership responsibilities. The PHOENIX MOBILITY program is open to rated and nonrated line officers. Selected officers will become fluent in Air and Space Operations Center (AOC) operations, Contingency Response Wing (CRW) operations, and En Route Mobility Operations (EMO). This 36-month assignment builds mobility leaders by immersing the officers into the heart of the AMC mission. Rated PHOENIX MOBILITY officers who are current and qualified in a MWS will be authorized to fly in attached status.
Competencies.
The program focuses on establishing a foundation of competencies associated with expeditionary mobility operations. These competencies can be divided into four distinct areas: AOC operations, CRW operations, EMO and Officer Professional Development (OPD). Each PHOENIX MOBILITY officer will gain an in-depth knowledge of each area to meet the overall goal of developing future senior leaders with a sound understanding of all aspects of air mobility operations. PHOENIX MOBILITY officers can expect to be transitioned throughout the CRW/Expeditionary Mobility Task Force (EMTF) in order to gain exposure to the full spectrum of mobility operations.
Locations.
The PHOENIX MOBILITY PROGRAM is a bicoastal organization. The east coast part of the program is in the Twenty-First Expeditionary Task Force at McGuire Air Force Base, New Jersey. The west coast part of the program is in the Fifteenth Expeditionary Task Force at Travis Air Force Base, California.
Air and Space Operations Center (AOC) Operations.
Members will focus on the operational level of warfare with particular respect to planning, execution, and command and control of theater airlift/tanker assets from the perspective of the Air Mobility Division through serving in a deployed or exercise AOC.
Contingency Response Wing (CRW) Operations.
Members will focus on Contingency Response Group (CRG) and Contingency Response Element (CRE) operations in support of an airbase opening during contingences, humanitarian relief operations, or exercises.
En Route Mobility Operations (EMO).
Members will gain exposure and firsthand familiarity with the AMC fixed en route structure and its ability to support the AMC mission.
External links.
615th Contingency Response Wing<br>
621st Contingency Response Wing


Alain Savary

Alain Savary (25 April 1918, Algiers – 17 February 1988, Paris) was a French Socialist politician, deputy to the National Assembly of France during the Fourth and Fifth Republic, chairman of the Socialist Party (PS) and a government minister in the 1950s and in 1981–1984, when he was appointed by President François Mitterrand as Minister of National Education.
Life.
In 1940, as soon as France was occupied by the German army, Savary enlisted in the Resistance. He organized the rallying of Saint-Pierre et Miquelon to the Free French Forces and became its governor. After the war, he participated in the restoring of the Republican State.
A member of the French Section of the Workers' International (Socialist Party, SFIO) he was deputy for Saint-Pierre et Miquelon throughout most of the Fourth Republic, from 1944 to 1946 and from 1951 to 1958. In 1956, he was nominated Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs in Guy Mollet's cabinet, but resigned due to his opposition to the repressive policy of Mollet in Algerian War (1954–62) and to the arrest of Ahmed Ben Bella. He left the SFIO in 1958, because of the party's support for Charles de Gaulle's comeback and for the new Constitution elaborating a presidential regime (the Fifth Republic).
With Pierre Mendès-France, he founded the dissident Autonomous Socialist Party (PSA) which became, in 1960, the Unified Socialist Party (PSU). However, he left it in 1967 and founded the Union of Clubs for the Renewal of the Left, which joined the Federation of the Democratic and Socialist Left (FGDS) which had supported left-wing candidate François Mitterrand at the 1965 presidential election. Then, he returned to the "old socialist house" when it was replaced by the Socialist Party (PS).
In the PS.
Reconciled with Guy Mollet, Savary succeeded him to the leadership of the party in 1969. As First Secretary of the PS, he promised to begin an "ideological dialogue" with the French Communist Party (PCF), which was the largest left-wing party in France at the time. He was faced with growing pressure from internal opponents insisted that he remain dependent on Mollet's followers and not to pursue the "renewal" of the party. Two years later, during the Epinay Congress, he was removed by François Mitterrand, who proposed an alliance with the Communists based on a "Common Program".
Savary became a Deputy for Haute Garonne in 1973. In 1981 he became Minister of National Education under President François Mitterrand. As minister of education, Savary appointed a series of charges de missions and study commissions to survey problems and propose possible remedies in a variety of areas: the Jeantet Commission on higher education, the Prost Coommissin on the lycees, the Legrand Commission on the colleges, Bertrand Schwartz on the educational and employment problems of 16- to 18-year-olds, Andre Peretti on training of elementary and secondary school teachers, Jean-Louis Quermonne on the status of teachers in higher education, and Laurent Schwartz and the Commission du Bilan on the educational system as a whole.
In June 1984, Mitterrand decided to withdraw the "Savary Bill" to limit the financing of private schools due to large demonstrations by the supporters of private schools. Savary resigned in July 1984. At the same time the government of Prime Minister Pierre Mauroy was replaced by a new government led by Laurent Fabius.
He retired from government at this point and held no further offices prior to his death at age 69.
References.


Timothy Galvin

Timothy P. Galvin (August 7, 1894 – January 27, 1993) was a lawyer and Deputy Supreme Knight of the Knights of Columbus.
Personal life.
Galvin was born in Pierceton, Indiana on August 7, 1894. He later settled in Hammond, Indiana after beginning his law career. During World War I, after serving as a Knights of Columbus secretary at Camp Greene in North Carolina, he joined the American Expeditionary Forces in July 1918, and returned a year later.
Galvin married Mary Graziella Chevigny, who predeceased him in 1947, and together they had a daughter and two sons, Mary Anne, Timothy P., Jr., and Patrick Joseph. Both sons attended Notre Dame. He had a brother, Francis Joseph Galvin, Sr., with whom he had a law practice, another brother, Edward, and two sisters, Nell and Catherine.
Early career.
Notre Dame.
Galvin was a member of the Class of 1916 at the University of Notre Dame. As a student, he was an editor of the Notre Dame Dome and was on the debate team.
In the 1930s, Galvin was president of the Notre Dame Alumni Association. Beginning in 1946, he served as a University lay trustee.
Career.
Galvin began his law career in the office of the Daniel E. Celly in Valparaiso in September 1916 before moving his practice to Hammond in 1923. There he was a partner in the firm of Tinkam and Galvin. He was a senior partner at the law firm of Galvin, Galvin and Leeney (established 1934) with his brother, Francis, and Edmond J. Leeney. Prior to this, he was a member of the firm of Tinkham & Galvin. As an attorney, Galvin was admitted to the Supreme Court of the United States bar on November 18, 1943.
Galvin was a president of the Hammond Chamber of Commerce, a director of the Mercantile National Bank of Hammond, and of the Citizens Federal Savings and Loan Association of Hammond.
Later career.
Knights of Columbus.
He joined the Knights when he turned 18, and became grand knight of Valparaiso Council before becoming a district deputy in the area. Galvin was state deputy of Indiana from 1925 to 1928. Galvin was first elected to the Supreme Board in 1933 and served as Supreme Master of the Fourth Degree of the Knights from 1941 to 1945. In 1945 he was elected Deputy Supreme Knight and resigned from that post and from the Board of Directors in 1949.
Galvin was elected Deputy Supreme Knight during a power struggle for control of the Order between his close personal friend and future Supreme Knight, Luke E. Hart, and the then-Supreme Knight, Francis P. Matthews. Over several years, Supreme Advocate Hart had orchestrated the election of directors who had a different vision for the future of the Order than Matthews.
Matthews opposed having a convention in 1945 to preserve hotel space for returning WWII soldiers, but a convention was called anyway in the expectation that something could be worked out. The convention assembled in Montreal but, upon determining that a convention there would not be feasible, they adjourned to Plattsburgh, New York. Matthews felt such an action was illegal, declared himself not a candidate, and Hart's slate of officers were all elected, including Galvin and Supreme Knight John E. Swift.
In recognition of his service to the church, he was made a Knight of the Pontifical Equestrian Order of St. Gregory the Great, one of the five Orders of Knighthood of the Holy See, by Pope Pius XII in 1942. The Timothy P. Galvin K.S.G. Outstanding Catholic Layman Award is awarded each year by the Indiana State Council in his honor.
As Deputy Supreme Knight during World War II, he argued that the United States was "fighting to uphold the doctrine at all men are created equal in the sight of God."
Volunteer work.
Galvin also served on the board of the Gibault School for Boys, an institution established by the Indiana Knights, for several decades, and as a trustee of Our Sunday Visitor. He was also on the Lay Advisory Board of St. Joseph’s College, Calumet Center, and served as a Trustee of All Saints Parish, Hammond.
Galvin was the first commander of the Charles Pratt Post of the American Legion in Valparaiso. During the Second World War, Galvin was a member of Lake County's Selective Service Board No. 4. He also was a member of the Benevolent and Protective Order of Elks was active with the American Legion.
In 1957, B'nai B'rith of Hammond honored Galvin as the outstanding citizen of that city.


United States Under Secretary of the Air Force

The under secretary of the Air Force (USECAF, or SAF/US), sometimes referred to as the under secretary of the Department of the Air Force, is the second-highest ranking civilian official in the Department of the Air Force of the United States of America, serving directly under the Secretary of the Air Force. In the absence of the Secretary, the Under Secretary exercises all the powers and duties of the Secretary and serves as Acting Secretary when the position of Secretary is vacant. The Under Secretary of the Air Force is appointed by the President, by and with the advice and consent the Senate.
The Secretary and Under Secretary, together with two military officers (the Chief of Staff of the Air Force and the Chief of Space Operations), constitute the senior leadership team of the Department of the Air Force.
The Under Secretary of the Air Force supervises the following officials:
The current Acting Under Secretary of the Air Force is Anthony P. Reardon since February 2, 2021.


Mole hole

A mole hole, officially designated the Readiness Crew Building (RCB), is a type of structure built by the United States Air Force at former Strategic Air Command (SAC) bases around the country during the 1950s and 1960s. RCBs were located adjacent to an Alert Ramp, also called a "Christmas Tree", where Ready Alert aircraft were parked. These aircraft were initially Boeing B-47 Stratojet aircraft armed with nuclear weapons, augmented by Boeing KC-97 Stratofreighter aerial refueling aircraft. As SAC introduced newer bomber and aerial tanker aircraft into its inventory, the B-47 and KC-97 were later superseded by Boeing B-52 Stratofortress, Convair B-58 Hustler, General Dynamics FB-111 or Rockwell B-1 Lancer bombers, augmented by Boeing KC-135 Stratotanker or McDonnell Douglas KC-10 Extender aerial refueling aircraft.
History.
Due to aircraft being parked at the "Christmas Tree" being on constant alert duty, the Strategic Air Command realized that they needed specialized buildings to house crews who rotated on alert duty. In 1958, Leo A Daly, an architect from Omaha, Nebraska, was hired to design buildings that would respectively hold 70, 100, and 150 men. These standardized structures would eventually be nicknamed "mole holes" due to the fact that the men would run out onto the "Christmas Tree" through corrugated steel tunnels attached to the lower level of the building when the alert Klaxon sounded. The buildings would house readiness crews and contained thick concrete exteriors, bathrooms, a briefing room for crew members, dormitories, several classrooms, a kitchen and a dining facility. Since crews were typically assigned on alert for seven-day periods, some installations would later incorporate outdoor athletic facilities on site, such as baseball fields or swimming pools, as well as picnic facilities where families could visit crewmembers on duty.
Crews on alert duty would typically be on alert for seven days out of a 21-day period, while being on rotational alert duty. During their alert duty, they would fly no training missions, as they were to be kept always ready for an operational launch in the event of a nuclear strike.
During an alert scramble, flight crews and ground crews would run out to the "Christmas Tree", where they would travel on foot and/or by waiting alert vehicles to the alert bomber and tanker aircraft that were waiting to launch, typically between four and nine in number. Once all engines were started, the aircraft would perform an elephant walk to the runway, where a Minimum Interval Takeoff (MITO) might be performed.
Over the course of their construction, eleven facilities to house 150 people were built. These were supplemented by an additional ten facilities for housing 100 men, and 45 facilities for housing 70 men at a total of 65 SAC bases, other USAF bases where a SAC wing was a tenant command, and Royal Canadian Air Force bases where an SAC wing was present. The facilities replaced various facilities that housed crew members earlier, including house trailers, which sat next to the aircraft.
Locations.
Readiness Crew Buildings designed to accommodate 150 Airmen were located at the following Air Force Bases:
Readiness Crew Buildings designed to accommodate 100 Airmen were located at the following Air Force Bases:
Readiness Crew Buildings designed to accommodate 70 Airmen were located at the following Air Force Bases:
In addition to the United States Air Force bases listed above, Readiness Crew Buildings designed to accommodate 70 Airmen were also operated at the following Royal Canadian Air Force bases:


Hugh B. Miller

Hugh Barr Miller, Jr. (January 10, 1910 - June 21, 1978) was a U.S. Naval officer in the Pacific Theater during World War II, who after being shipwrecked and left for dead behind enemy lines, single-handedly fought the Japanese for weeks until his rescue. The only authorized biography, by his son Landon C. G. Miller, is available for sale on Amazon under the title "Lt. Hugh Barr Miller, Jr - The US Navy's One Man Army". There are a large number of other books, comic books, and sections of books that include Miller's heroic saga, Including the authoritative "100 Best True Stories of World War II", Hardcover – 1945. A recently published book by Steven Harding on the incident is currently being adapted for production for a major Hollywood film.
Biography.
In college, Miller was the quarterback of the University of Alabama’s Crimson Tide football team, playing in the 1931 Rose Bowl, earning him the nickname "Rose Bowl" on his ship. At the outbreak of World War II, he was appointed as an Officer, and was eventually sent to serve in the Pacific.
Miller's ship, the USS Strong, was sunk by a Japanese torpedo in the Solomon Islands on the night of July 4–5, 1943, leaving Miller in the water with 22 other men.
Three days later, Miller washed up on Arundel Island (now renamed) with three shipmates (some had died in the water while still others had been separated at night). After hiding from the enemy for days, Miller eventually ordered the other three men to take his boots and knife, and leave him behind, given his severely-wounded condition. He said later, "I thought I was dying, but then I rallied..." The others did leave him behind, attempting to return to U.S.-held territory. They were never heard from again.
Miller, though, recovered from his wounds, some of which remained with him for the rest of his life. Eventually, he found a washed ashore body of a Japanese soldier, and took his hand grenades and bayonet. These Japanese hand grenades were first used to ambush and kill at least half a dozen enemy soldiers on patrol who has gotten too close to his hideout. He then began to systematically attack Japanese machine gun nests, usually manned by 5 soldiers, using just the hand grenades, all while stranded and alone. Eventually he accounted for over 20 men, all killed by Miller without a rifle or handgun, just recovered grenades and the bayonet. Forty three days after the torpedo attack, Miller signaled to a passing U.S. plane, and was then, later that day, rescued by a single engine "duck" float plane manned by a 3 person volunteer crew.
After his ordeal, Miller was personally awarded many medals in a ceremony with Eleanor Roosevelt, the wife of then President Roosevelt, and Fleet Admiral William "Bull" Halsey. Now famous, there were numerous newspapers, comic books, magazines (including LIFE Magazine) and TV shows recounting this epic story, including the weekly TV Show, "This Is Your Life", which was hosted by future US President Ronald Reagan, and the TV show "Navy Log". Miller was twice recommended for the Medal of Honor, but it was never granted. He was, however, awarded the Navy Cross, 2 Silver Stars, 6 Bronze Stars, 2 Purple Hearts, and 27 other individual and unit decorations.
Numerous books recount Miller's biography. The self-published, only authorized biography, book by son Landon C.G. Miller, titled "Lt. "Rose Bowl" Miller: The U.S. Navy's One Man Army"., the many other publications as noted above, and the latest version, "Castaway's War" The book "Castaway's War" was optioned in 2016 by film production company Gold Circle.
Miller's ordeal has been documented by National Geographic channel's 'Ultimate Survival World War II', episode 'Desert Island Manhunt' with Hazen Audel.


List of Royal Air Force Ground Trades

This is a list of Royal Air Force Trade Groups. Each ground trade in the Royal Air Force is assigned to a Trade Group which it operates under for command and control.
Originally, the trades were organized in groups numbering I, II, III, IV & V and M for any medical associated trades. They were changed into the 22 Trade Groups as shown below in 1951, and have since undergone amalgamation into 19 groups in 1964 and down to 18 by the early 2000s. With further amalgamations, only 17 of the original groups now exist.