Electricity sector in Mexico

As required by the Constitution, the electricity sector is federally owned, with the Federal Electricity Commission (Comisión Federal de Electricidad or CFE) essentially controlling the whole sector; private participation and foreign companies are allowed to operate in the country only through specific service contracts. Attempts to reform the sector have traditionally faced strong political and social resistance in Mexico, where subsidies for residential consumers absorb substantial fiscal resources.
The electricity sector in Mexico relies heavily on thermal sources (75% of total installed capacity), followed by hydropower generation (19%). Although exploitation of solar, wind, and biomass resources has a large potential, geothermal energy is the only renewable source (excluding hydropower) with a significant contribution to the energy mix (2% of total generation capacity). Expansion plans for the period 2006-2015 estimate the addition of some 14.8 GW of new generation capacity by the public sector, with a predominance of combined cycles.
Electricity Supply and Demand.
Installed capacity.
Installed electricity capacity in 2008 was 58 GW. Of the installed capacity, 75.3% is thermal, 19% hydro, 2.4% nuclear (the single nuclear power plant Laguna Verde) and 3.3% renewable other than hydro. The general trend in thermal generation is a decline in petroleum-based fuels and a growth in natural gas and coal. Since Mexico is a net importer of natural gas, higher levels of natural gas consumption (i.e. for power generation) will likely depend upon higher imports from either the United States or via liquefied natural gas (LNG).
Gross generation was 234 TWh that same year (not including cogeneration and autogeneration), with 79.2% coming from conventional thermal sources, 16.6% from hydroelectricity, 4.2% from nuclear power and 3% from geothermal sources.
The expansion program contemplated by SENER for the period 2008-2017 includes the addition of 14,794 MW by the public service: 14,033 MW by CFE and 761 MW by LFC ("Luz y Fuerza del Centro"). Self-supply and cogeneration will add another 2,490 MW in new capacity. Total public installed capacity in 2017 is estimated at 61,074 MW, 40% and 21% of which would be combined-cycles and hydroelectric plants respectively. However, the deactivation of LFC on October 10, 2009, is likely to change this figure.
In 2009, 4,000 MW were already compromised (i.e. with secured financing). The table below summarizes the projects that are currently (September 2009) under construction:
"Source": SENER Statistics
Effective Energy Generation.
"Source:" Secretaría de Energía with data from Comisión Federal de Electricidad and Luz y Fuerza del Centro
Imports and exports.
The external electricity trade is carried out through nine interconnections between the United States and Mexico and one interconnection with Belize. These connections have primarily been used to import and export electricity during emergencies. In 2007, Mexico exported 1.3 TWh of electricity to the United States, while importing 0.6 TWh.
Companies have built power plants near the United States - Mexico border with the aim of exporting generation to the United States. There are also plans to connect Mexico with Guatemala and Belize as part of the Central American Interconnection System. The 400 kV interconnection line Mexico - Guatemala was commissioned in April 2009 and has an estimated transmission capacity of 200 MW from Mexico to Guatemala and 70 MW in the opposite direction.
CFE is not a part of the North American Electric Reliability Corporation, though its transmission system in northern Baja California is part of the Western Electricity Coordinating Council, and it also has a few other interconnections across the border with the United States.
Demand.
Consumption of electricity in 2008 was 184 TWh, which corresponds to 1,655 kWh per capita. Consumption share by sector was as follows:
Demand and supply projections.
Electricity demand has grown steadily in the last decade and the Energy Secretariat (SENER) forecasts that consumption will grow by 3.3% a year for the next ten years, reaching 281.5 TWh in 2017. Demand growth forecasts have been revised down, from an estimated 4.8% a year in the projections from 2006, due to the expected effects of the economic crisis on energy demand.
Reserve margin.
In 2008, the reserve margin (RM) in the National Interconnected System (SIN) was 45.8%, while the operating reserve margin (ORM) was 21.3%. It is estimated that both reserve margins will remain high during the 2009-2013 period. However, from 2014, the RM is expected to decrease to 29.2%, with the ORM reaching an 8.3%. Those values would be about 25% and 6% respectively in 2017. The commissioning of the Agua Prieta II, Norte II, Norte III, Noreste and Valle de Mexico II and III is essential to avoid power deficits in the northern and central parts of the country. However, irrespective of the reserve margins in the SIN, there are restrictions in transmission capacity that generate bottlenecks or the need to import power.
Access to electricity.
Total electricity coverage in Mexico is 98.7% (2015). With 99.7% coverage in urban areas with more than 100,000 inhabitants; 99.3% in locales with 15,000-99,999 inhabitants; 98.8% in areas with 2,500-14,999 inhabitants and 96.1% in locales with fewer than 2,500 inhabitants.
Service Quality.
Interruption frequency and duration.
In 2008, the average number of interruptions per subscriber was 2.3 for CFE and 4.2 for LFC. Duration of interruptions per subscriber was 2.2 hours for CFE and 3 for LFC.
Total losses.
Total electricity losses in 2008 were 11% for CFE and as high as 32% for LFC.
Responsibilities in the Electricity Sector.
Policy and Regulation.
The Energy Secretariat (SENER) is in charge of defining the energy policy of the country within the framework defined by the Constitution. The Energy Regulatory Commission (CRE) is, since 1995, the main regulatory agency of the electricity and gas sector. However, CRE's attributions are limited since CFE (Federal Electricity Commission) and LFC (Central Light and Power) are outside its scope.
Generation.
The generation sector was opened to private participation in 1992. However, the "Comisión Federal de la Electricidad" (CFE), the state-owned utility, is still the dominant player in the generation sector, with two-thirds of installed capacity. As of the end of 2008, private generators held about 23 GW of generation capacity, mostly consisting of combined-cycle, gas-fired turbines (CCGFT). Private generators have to sell all their output to CFE since they are not allowed to sell directly to users. There is indeed a commercialization monopoly controlled by CFE.
In the period between 1997 and 2009, CRE has awarded 22 permits for Independent Power Producers (IPP), for a total of 13 GW. Total private generation permits awarded by CRE as of September 2009 are summarized in the table below:
Transmission and Distribution.
CFE holds a monopoly on electricity transmission and distribution in the country. CFE operates the national transmission grid, composed of of high voltage lines, of medium voltage lines, and of low voltage distribution lines, through one of its departments, the "Centro Nacional de Control de la Energía" (CENACE).
Renewable Energy Resources.
The two main government agencies in charge of developing renewable energy resources are SEMARNAT and SENER. The Environment and Natural Resources Secretariat (SEMARNAT) is responsible for environmental policy and the preservation of renewable and non-renewable resources, while SENER defines the national energy policy. CONAE, the National Commission for Energy Savings, is responsible for promoting energy savings and energy efficiency. Finally, SEDESOL, the National Secretariat for Social Development, includes the promotion and use of renewable energy in some of their projects.
The Renewable Energy Development and Financing for Energy Transition Law (LAERFTE), which entered into force on November 28, 2008, mandated SENER to produce a National Strategy for Energy Transition and Sustainable Energy Use and a Special Program for Renewable Energy. The Special Program contains tentative targets for renewable generation for different technologies. Those targets will be revised as SENER and CRE advance in the completion of the activities included in the law.
Hydro.
About 19% of the electricity produced in Mexico comes from hydroelectric resources. The largest hydro plant in Mexico is the 2,400 MW Manuel Moreno Torres in Chicoasén, Chiapas, in the Grijalva river. This is the world's fourth most productive hydroelectric plant. The 750 MW El Cajon hydroelectric plant in Nayarit, which started operations in November 2006, is the latest completed large project.
The country has an important mini-hydro potential, estimated at 3,250 MW (in the states of Chiapas, Veracruz, Puebla and Tabasco) In 2009, there were 22 private mini-hydro installations (12 in operation, 2 inactive and 8 under construction), adding up to a total of 83.5 MW in operation, with 105 MW under development. The number of publicly owned hydro plants in 2009 was 42: 31 of them (270MW) belong to CFE, while the remaining 11 (23.4MW) belong to LFC.
Solar.
Mexico is the country with the world's third largest solar potential. The country's gross solar potential is estimated at 5 kWh/m2 daily, which corresponds to 50 times the national electricity generation. Currently, there is over 1 million square meters of solar thermal panels installed in Mexico, while in 2005, there were 115,000 square meters of solar PV (photo-voltaic). It is expected that in 2012 there will be 1.8 million square meters of installed solar thermal panels.
The project named SEGH-CFE 1, located in Puerto Libertad, Sonora, Northwest of Mexico, will have capacity of 46.8 MW from an array of 187,200 solar panels when complete in 2013.
Wind.
Wind power production is still very limited in Mexico, although the country's potential is estimated to be very high. Three main areas for wind generation have been identified: the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, in the state of Oaxaca; La Rumorosa, in the state of Baja California; The area of the Gulf of California, which includes Baja California, Baja California Sur, Sonora and Sinaloa, the Yucatán Peninsula, and the states of Zacatecas, Hidalgo, Veracruz.
In 2012, according to SENER, CFE will have 593MW of installed wind generation capacity in Mexico. Currently, there are several projects in operation and under development. The tables below show both the wind farms that have already been committed and some of the potential ones: in Mexico some groups are promoting wind power through outreach activities to increase population awareness of renewable energies.
"Source": SENER 2009, Programa especial para el aprovechamiento de energías renovables
"Source": SENER 2009, Programa especial para el aprovechamiento de energías renovables
Geothermal.
Mexico has a large geothermal potential due to its intense tectonic and volcanic activity. This potential has been estimated at 1,395 MW by CFE, although this figure is likely to be much higher. It ranks third in geothermal power production worldwide. In 2009, geothermal installed capacity was 964.5 MW and total production was 7.1 TWh. There are four geothermal fields under exploitation: Cerro Prieto, Los Azufres, Los Humeros and Las Tres Vírgenes.
"Source": SENER 2009, Programa especial para el aprovechamiento de energías renovables
Biomass.
Mexico also has a large potential to produce energy from biomass. It is estimated that, taking into account agricultural and forest waste with energy potential and solid urban waste from the ten main cities, the country has a potential capacity of 803 MW and could generate 4,507 MWh per year. In the sugarcane industry, the estimated power generation protential from bagasse is over 3,000 MWh per year.
History of the electricity sector.
20th Century.
The electricity sector in Mexico underwent its first serious process of reorganizations during the 1930s, under the mandate of the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI). The National Electricity Code was created and the Federal Electricity Commission (CFE), a newly create state-owned and state-financed enterprise, came to dominate all investment in new capacity. In 1960, a constitutional amendment nationalized the electricity industry and formally gave the government exclusive "responsibility" for generating, transmitting, transforming, and distributing electricity. During this decade, the government also created "Compañía de la Luz y Fuerza del Centro" (LFC) to supply electricity to Mexico City and the neighboring states.
During the 1960s and the 1970s, Mexico alienated private investment and decided to prevent market forces from entering the power system. In addition, the surge in oil prices of the 1970s provided a windfall to oil-rich Mexico, which allowed the country to maintain substantial subsidies for electricity generation. Only during the late 1980s and the early 1990s, the Mexican government implemented market reforms in several economic sectors, including electricity.
In 1992, president Carlos Salinas reformed the electricity law, establishing that private electricity production was not a public service. This modification, which allowed for private participation in generation, was debated as unconstitutional for a long time; in fact in 2002 the Mexican Supreme Court ruled that it "may have been" unconstitutional. The Energy Regulatory Commission (CRE) was created in 1993 as an autonomous agency in charge of regulating the natural gas and electricity industries. However, its functions were only related to private power producers (e.g. award of permits, arbitration, tariff studies) and did not cover CFE and LFC. In this period the CRE's functions were mainly focused on the gas sector and not on electricity.
Reform attempts 1990s and 2000s.
Attempts by president Ernesto Zedillo in the late 1990s, by the National Action Party (PAN) in 2000, and president Vicente Fox to carry out a comprehensive reform of the electricity sector in Mexico faced strong political resistance. In 1999, President Zedillo sent an ambitious bill to Congress requesting a change of the Constitution and allowing for the unbundling of the sector, including the creation of distribution companies under 3-year concessions. Existing power plants would also be sold, except for nuclear and hydro power plants. In 2001, President Fox issued a reform decree that would allow independent power producers to sell directly to industrial customers and would also allow the sale of private power to CFE under long-term contracts without competitive bidding. Among other issues, the decree also specified that electricity is not a public service of general interest but a commercial service. Both reform attempts failed, opposed on grounds that the electricity and, more broadly, the energy sector is strategic for national sovereignty. As required by the Constitution, the electricity sector remained federally owned, with the CFE essentially controlling the whole sector.
Among the different proposals for the reform of the electricity sector, the main ones are the creation of the CFE's Fundamental Law and the modification of this firm's operations and the extension of Electricity Regulatory Commission's (CRE) competencies. Also important is the promotion of private independent power production and the discussion of the role played by Pidiregas (see Financing below) in the financing of large projects.
Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency laws 2008.
During the term of president Felipe Calderón, on 28 November 2008 two decrees published in the Official Journal of the Federation created two laws, one addressing renewable energy and the other energy efficiency.
The Renewable Energy Development and Energy Transition Financing Law (LAERFTE) mandated the Secretary of Energy (SENER) to produce a Special Program for Development of Renewable Energy (PEAER), and a National Strategy for Energy Transition and Sustainable Energy Use (ENTEASE), to be updated yearly. The main objective of the law is to regulate the use of renewable energy resources and clean technology, as well as to establish financing instruments to allow Mexico to scale-up electricity generation based on renewable resources. SENER and the Energy Regulatory Commission (CRE) are responsible for defining those mechanisms and establishing legal instruments.
The following functions are the responsibility of SENER, among others: (a) defining a national program for ensuring a sustainable energy development both in the short and the longer term, (b) creating and coordinating the necessary instruments to enforce the law, (c) preparing a national renewable energy inventory, (d) establishing a methodology to determine the extent to which renewable energies may contribute to total electricity generation, (e) defining transmission expansion plans to connect power generation from renewable energy to the national grid, and (f) promoting the development of renewable energy projects to increase access in rural areas.
The CRE is responsible for developing rules and norms regarding the implementation of LAERFTE, including provisions for promotion, production, purchase and exchange of electricity from renewable sources. The CRE, in coordination with the Secretary of Finance (SCHP) and SENER, will determine the price that suppliers will pay to the renewable energy generators. Payments will be based on technology and geographic location. In addition, CRE will set rules for contracting between energy generators and suppliers, obliging the latter to establish long-term contracts from renewable sources.
The Sustainable Energy Use Law (LASE) has as its objective to provide incentives for the sustainable use of energy in all processes and activities related to its exploitation, production, transformation, distribution and consumption, including energy efficiency measures. More specifically, the law proposes:
In this context, the Government carries the following specific activities: (i) a program aimed at replacing incandescent bulbs (IBs) with compact fluorescent lamps (CFLs) in the residential sector, (ii) an appliances replacement program, (iii) the modernization of the public transport system for long distances and surroundings, (iv) a program for energy efficiency in municipalities, (v) industrial and commercial energy efficiency programs, (vi) supply side energy efficiency in the electricity sector, and (vii) energy efficiency in the national oil company, PEMEX.
Takeover of "Luz y Fuerza del Centro" 2009.
On 12 October 2009, the police seized the offices of the state-owned "Luz y Fuerza del Centro", dissolving the company, laying off the workers, and putting its operations, which supply power to 25 million Mexicans, under the control of the CFE. According to the government, spending at the company was increasingly outpacing sales.
Reforms from 2013 onwards.
The energy sector in Mexico was reformed by an initiative that president Enrique Peña Nieto presented to the Congress of the Union on 12 August 2013. The reform was approved by the Senate on 11 December of that year, and by the Chamber of Deputies one day later. On 18 December the reform was declared constitutional, and it was signed into effect on 20 December by its publication in the Official Journal of the Federation. The initiative proposed that Article 27 of the Constitution of Mexico returned to the wording that it had in 1938 when president Lázaro Cárdenas made a first reform, which affirmed that the natural resources belong exclusively to the nation, but allowed the participation of private enterprises in the extraction and handling of these resources on behalf of the state. In 1960 a protectionist reform had made it impossible for any private company to participate in the energy sector, so the 2013 decree restored Article 27 to its previous state and included a similar provision for developing the electrical sector: a market for electricity generation would be established in which private entities could participate, but the control, transmission and distribution would remain an exclusive task of the state as a public service.
By the end of 2014, several decrees transformed the Mexican national electric sector. On 11 August 2014 the following laws were published:
During this time the SENER published the general rules to obtain and assign clean energy certificates (CEL), which are equivalent to 1 MWh of clean energy, no matter the specific technology. The SENER also mandated that qualified users (big consumers) acquire 5% of their own consumption in CELs for 2018 and 2019. Furthermore, the SENER published simplified rules for interconnection of private generators.
On 30 June 2015 the government presented the Program for Development of the National Electric System (PRODESEN) which establishes a master plan for the electrical system until 2030. On 8 September 2015 the SENER published the first Rules for the Electricity Market establishing the new rights and obligations for the generators, resellers, and qualified users of the market, to be overseen by the CRE and the CENACE. The wholesale electric market officially commenced operations on 1 January 2016.
These reforms meant that in November 2015 the first public offering for private generation and CELs was made, with a decision of the winning bidders being announced on 30 March 2016. After a first round of evaluation, 227 offers were made by 69 private companies, which translated to 18 winning projects from 11 companies, including 84.6% of the requested CELs. The commencement of operation of the winning projects is scheduled to begin on 28 March 2018. The sole buyer of the energy is the CFE.
On 24 December 2015 the Energy Transition Law (LTE) was published, strengthening the integration of renewables into the generation mix. It also establishes ambitious plans for having 35% of renewable energy by 2024, from 28% in 2015 (which includes 18% of hydroelectric energy). After announcing the winners of the first bid, the second public offering for energy was shortly announced, and the resulting decision made in October 2016, in which 28% is renewable energy, mostly photovoltaic and eolic.
The Supreme Court of Justice of the Nation (SCJN) ruled that a May 2020 order by the Secretariat of Energy (SENER) limiting connections to the CFE distribution by private renewable energy producers was unconstitutional.
On 1 February 2021, President Andrés Manuel López Obrador (AMLO) sent an initiative to reform the Electricity Industry Law to the Congress of the Union. The proposal, which must be approved in 30 days, would reverse the energy reform approved under former president Enrique Peña Nieto. There are four priorities: 1) hydroelectric energy, 2) other energy produced by CFE (nuclear, geothermal, thermoelectric, and combined cycle gas turbines), 3) wind and solar energy produced by individuals, and 4) other. AMLO insists that previous reforms were made with the intention of privatizing the energy sector and will require either massive subsidies or huge price increases for consumers.
Tariffs, Cost Recovery and Subsidies.
Tariffs.
During the last decade, average electricity tariffs in Mexico have been held below cost with the aim of maintaining macroeconomic and social stability. For all tariffs, an interagency group composed of CFE (Federal Electricity Commission, or "Comisión Federal de Electricidad"), LFC (Central Light and Power, or "Luz y Fuerza del Centro"), SHCP (Ministry of Finance and Public Credit, or "Secretaria de Hacienda y Crédito Público"), SENER (Ministry of Energy, or "Secretaria de Energia"), CRE (Regulatory Commission of Energy, or "Comisión Reguladora de la Energía"), and CNA (National Water Commission, or " Comisión Nacional del Agua") meet regularly and once a year they prepare a tariff proposal for the subsequent year. Tariffs are approved by SHCP and not by the energy sector regulator.
Except for the tariff set for the agricultural sector, average electricity prices have followed an upward trend since the year 2002. In 2008, average tariffs for the different sectors were:
The average tariff, US$0.137/kWh, was 16.5% higher in 2008 when compared to 2007.
Subsidies.
For the industrial and commercial sectors, electricity supply is priced on a rational cost basis for large firms. As a result, they receive no government subsidy, while subsidies for small firms are relatively small. On the other hand, agricultural and residential customers have traditionally received large subsidies since the electricity they consume is significantly underpriced. Extensive subsidies have contributed to a rapid growth in demand. In 2000, the average residential tariff covered only 43% of the costs, while the average tariff for agricultural use covered 31%. Total subsidies amounted to 46% of total electricity sales. In addition, residential subsidies were mostly captured by medium and high income classes as the amount of the subsidy raised with consumption.
In 2002, a restructuring of residential tariffs significantly raised the infra-marginal tariffs paid by middle and especially high consumers of electricity. Currently, billing schedules vary by temperature, season and consumption level. In spite of this reform, price/cost ratio was still under 40% in 2002, even after the 21% increase in price due to the reform. In addition, the share of subsidies going to the non-poor population remained high, estimated at 64%. Agricultural tariffs were also modified in 2003, when a fixed price per kWh was fixed. These new tariffs sought charging higher prices for excess energy use.
The low tariffs, together with LFC's inefficiencies, absorb a large amount of fiscal resources. For 2008, it was estimated that the subsidies paid through electricity tariffs to final CFE and LFC consumers by the Federal Government amounted to US$10 billion (close to 1% of GDP).
Investment and Financing.
Investment by sub-sector.
Necessary investment to carry out the 2008-2017 expansion plan amounts to MXN 629,106 million (US$47 billion). The breakdown of the investment is: 41.2% for generation, 21.2% for transmission, 23.9% for distribution, 11.8% for maintenance and 1.9% for other needs.
From the required total, 33.9% corresponds to OFP ("Obras Públicas Financiadas" or Financed Public Works), 8.8% to Independent Power Production, 51.5% to budgeted works and the remaining 5.9% to financial schemes still to be defined.
Financing.
Pidiregas.
In 1995-1996 the Mexican government created Pidiregas ("Proyectos de Inversión Diferida En El Registro del Gasto " – Investment Projects with Deferred Expenditure Registration) to finance long-term productive infrastructure projects. Due to budgetary restrictions, the government realized that it could not provide all the resources needed and decided to complement the public sector's efforts with Pidiregas, a deferred financing schedule. This mechanism, which only applied to investments carried out by PEMEX(Petróleos Mexicanos) and CFE aimed to create the conditions for the penetration of private initiatives in hydrocarbon exploration and electricity generation. Pidiregas have been extended and have also grown in amount (PEMEX uses them for as much as four times the amount of CFE), although the original motivation for their existence is gone.
Following a project finance scheme, for a project to be executed under Pidiregas, the resources that it generates from the sale of goods and services have to be enough to cover the incurred financial obligations. Projects are paid with the revenues generated during their operation and require the signature of a contract in which a product or work is involved. The State assumes the risk since PEMEX or CFE sign the contract as guarantee, while the investors recover their investment in the agreed time. As a result, Pidiregas cannot be considered as true private investment since, under true private sector participation, firms would make investment decisions and bear the full risk. The viability of the program has been questioned as its effect in the public budget is similar to the emission of public debt. Furthermore, until 2006, the Pidigeras scheme resulted in losses.
Grid extension.
Since 1995, states and municipalities hold the responsibility for the planning and financing of grid extension and off-grid supply. A large part of the investment is financed through FAIS (Fund to Support Social Infrastructure). The National Commission for Indigenous People and SEDESOL (Secretariat for Social Development) also finance an important share of grid extension. Once a particular system has been constructed, its assets and operational and financial responsibility are transferred to CFE.
Recent studies have concluded that interconnecting Baja California with the National Interconnected System (SIN) would be both a technically and economically sound decision. This interconnection would allow to serve peak demand in the Baja California system with generation resources from the SIN. Conversely, in period of low demand in Baja California, surplus electricity and base load (i.e. geothermal and combined cycles) could be exported to the SIN. As a result, there would be a reduction of investment costs in generation infrastructure and of total production costs. In addition, the interconnection would open new opportunities for electricity exchanges with power utilities in Western United States through the existing transmission links with California. It is expected that the interconnection will be commissioned in 2013.
Renewable energy.
The Renewable Energy Law creates a Fund for the Energy Transition and the Sustainable Use of Energy. This fund will assure the financing of projects evaluated and approved by the Technical Committee, chaired by SENER. The fund will begin with US$200 million for each year between 2009 and 2011.
Summary of private participation in the electricity sector.
As required by the Constitution, the electricity sector in Mexico remains federally owned, with the Comisión Federal de Electricidad (CFE) essentially controlling the whole sector. Although generation was opened to private participation in 1992, CFE is still the dominant player, with two-thirds of installed capacity.
Electricity and the environment.
Responsibility for the environment.
The Secretariat of Environment and Natural Resources (SEMARNAT), created in 2000 from the previous Secretariat of Environment, Natural Resources and Fishing (also SEMARNAT) holds the responsibilities for the environment in Mexico.
SEMARNAT was one of the government agencies within the Intersectoral Commission for Climate Change that elaborated Mexico's Climate Change Strategy.
Greenhouse gas emissions.
According to Mexico's Third National Communication to the UNFCCC, the country emitted 643 million tons of carbon dioxide equivalent (Mt CO2e) in 2002, of which almost 400 Mt CO2e resulted from the combustion of fossil fuels (over 60 percent of total emissions). The sources of Mexico's GHG emissions are energy generation (24%), transport (18%), forests and land-use change (14%), waste management (10%), manufacturing and construction (8%), industrial processes (8%), agriculture (7%), fugitive emissions (6%), and other uses (5%).
Climate change mitigation.
Although the Kyoto Protocol does not require Mexico to reduce its GHG emissions, the country has committed to reduce its emissions voluntarily. In May 2007, President Calderón announced the National Climate Change Strategy which focuses on climate change as a central part of Mexico's national development policy. The ENACC sets the long-term climate change agenda for the country, together with medium to long-term goals for adaptation and mitigation. In December 2008, Mexico announced that it would reduce its GHG emissions by 50% below 2002 levels by 2050.
In June 2009, the Government of Mexico formally committed itself to a detailed long-term plan for emission reductions embedded in the Special Climate Change Program (PECC) that provides an accounting of emissions by sector, creates a framework for monitoring improvements and establishes a legally binding blueprint for emission reduction initiatives, sector by sector. The PECC sets out a four pillar program that includes (i) a long-term vision for government action; (ii) sectoral plans for GHG mitigation; (iii) plans for adaptation; and (iv) cross-cutting policy initiatives.
CDM projects in electricity.
In September 2009, there are 47 energy-related registered CDM projects in Mexico with a total emission reduction potential of about 3.5 million tons of CO2 equivalent. The table below presents the number of projects by type:
"Source": United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
External assistance.
World Bank.
Currently, the World Bank is contributing funds and assistance through several projects related to the energy sector in Mexico.
IDB.
Currently, four IDB financed energy activities are under implementation in Mexico.


Visayan Electric Company

Visayan Electric Company, Inc., also known as VECO, is the second largest electric utility in the Philippines and serves the cities of Cebu, Mandaue, Talisay and Naga and four municipalities of the greater part of Metro Cebu - Liloan, Consolacion, Minglanilla and San Fernando. Its franchise service covers an area of about 672 square kilometers with an estimated population of 1.73 million.
History.
 VECO was founded in 1905 by a group of Cebu businessmen led by Messrs. M. Levering, A. Bryan, R. Landon and A. Pond. It started with an 800 kW generating facility by the Cebu pier. By 1918 the Escaño family had acquired control and began expanding both the generation capacity and the distribution network.
During the Second World War the United States Armed Forces in the Far East (USAFFE) bombed all the generation units in order to deprive the occupying Japanese forces control of the network. In December 1945, with the war over, VECO was back in business delivering power to its customers.
Legislative Order.
VECO was granted its legislative franchise under Act No. 3499 which was approved by the Philippine Legislature in 1928. It authorized VECO to install, operate and maintain electric light, heat and power system in the Municipalities of Cebu (now City), Talisay (now City), Minglanilla, Naga, San Fernando, Mandaue (now City), Consolacion, Liloan and Compostela. The period of existence of the franchise was for 50 years. This was subsequently extended for another 25 years by RA 6454 which took effect in 1972. In 2005, RA 9339 was signed extending the term of VECO's franchise for another 25 years. At present, VECO's franchise area covers the cities of Cebu, Mandaue, Talisay and Naga plus the municipalities of Consolacion, Liloan, Minglanilla and San Fernando.
VECO uses a SCADA (Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition) system to monitor and control its electric distribution assets via remote control. It also has a GIS (Geographic Information System) to map and manage its facilities.
In early 2005, VECO opened a full service center at SM City Cebu with a Call Center equipped with Voice Over Internet Protocol (VoIP) telephone system integrated with a Customer Relation Management System (CRMS). A second, albeit smaller, full service center also opened in Talisay City in 2007 to attend to the needs of customers in the southern part of the franchise area. VECO is owned and managed by publicly listed Aboitiz Power Corporation (PSE: AP) and Vivant Corporation. Approximately 800 individual shareholders comprise the VECO shareholders' roster.


Greater Sudbury Utilities

Greater Sudbury Utilities Inc. (GSU) delivers utility services in the area of Greater Sudbury, Ontario. Its sole shareholder is the City of Greater Sudbury.
Greater Sudbury Hydro Inc. and West Nipissing Energy Services Ltd. are subsidiaries of Greater Sudbury Utilities Inc.


Celesc

Celesc is the electricity utility for the southern Brazilian state of Santa Catarina. In 2014 the company had around 2.6-million customers and sold around 23.3 TWh of electricity. It generates power from 16 plants, all of them hydroelectric, with installed capacity of around 126MW. The company also owns some 5,100 km of distribution lines and a 148,164 km distribution network. Celesc is headquartered in the Santa Catarina capital of Florianópolis.
It is controlled by the state of Santa Catarina, who owns just over 20% of Celesc's stocks, that are traded on B3 (formerly BM&F Bovespa).
In October 2006, the company passed by a reorganization process, in which it was transformed into a "holding" that kepts the name Centrais Elétricas de Santa Catarina. Two new companies had been created, one of them responsible for the distribution (Celesc Distribuição) and another responsible for the generation of electric power (Celesc Geração).


Electricity sector in Japan

The electric power industry in Japan covers the generation, transmission, distribution, and sale of electric energy in Japan. Japan consumed 995.26 TWh of electricity in 2014.
Before the 2011 Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster, about one third of electricity in the country was generated by nuclear power.
In the following years, most nuclear power plants have been on hold, being replaced mostly by coal and natural gas.
Solar power is a growing source of electricity, and Japan has the third largest solar PV installed capacity with about 50 GW as of 2017.
Japan has the second largest pumped-hydro storage installed capacity in the world after China.
The electrical grid in Japan is isolated, with no international connections, and consists of four wide area synchronous grids. Unusually the Eastern and Western grids run at different frequencies (50 and 60 Hz respectively) and are connected by HVDC connections. This considerably limits the amount of electricity that can be transmitted between the north and south of the country.
During the Second Sino-Japanese War and the succeeding Pacific War, the entirety of Japan's electricity sector was state-owned; the system at the time consisted of a and several electricity distributors. At the behest of the Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers, Nippon Hassōden became the Electric Power Development Co., Limited in the fifties; and almost all of the electricity sector that are not under the control by EPDC was privatized into nine government-granted monopolies. The Ryukyu Islands electricity provider was, during the USCAR era, publicly owned; it was privatized shortly after the islands' admission into Japan.
Consumption.
In 2008, Japan consumed an average of 8507 kWh/person of electricity. That was 115% of the EU15 average of 7409 kWh/person and 95% of the OECD average of 8991 kWh/person.
Compared with other nations, electricity in Japan is relatively expensive.
Liberalization of the electricity market.
Since the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster, and the subsequent large scale shutdown on the nuclear power industry, Japan's ten regional electricity operators have been making very large financial losses, larger than US$15 billion in both 2012 and 2013.
Since then steps have been made to liberalize the electricity supply market. In April 2016 domestic and small business mains voltage customers became able to select from over 250 supplier companies competitively selling electricity, though many of these only sell locally mainly in large cities. Also wholesale electricity trading on the Japan Electric Power Exchange (JEPX), which previously only traded 1.5% of power generation, was encouraged. By June 2016 more than 1 million consumers had changed supplier. However total costs of liberalization to that point were around ¥80 billion, so it is unclear if consumers had benefited financially.
In 2020 transmission and distribution infrastructure access will be made more open, which will help competitive suppliers cut costs.
Transmission.
Electricity transmission in Japan is unusual because the country is divided for historical reasons into two regions each running at a different mains frequency.
Eastern Japan (consisting of Hokkaido, Tohoku, Kanto, and eastern parts of Chubu) runs at 50 Hz; Western Japan (including most of Chubu, Kansai, Chugoku, Shikoku, and Kyushu) runs at 60 Hz. This originates from the first purchases of generators from AEG for Tokyo in 1895 and from General Electric for Osaka in 1896.
This frequency difference partitions Japan's national grid, so that power can only be moved between the two parts of the grid using frequency converters, or HVDC transmission lines. The boundary between the two regions contains four back-to-back HVDC substations which convert the frequency; these are Shin Shinano, Sakuma Dam, Minami-Fukumitsu, and the Higashi-Shimizu Frequency Converter. The total transmission capacity between the two grids is 1.2 GW.
The limitations of these links have been a major problem in providing power to the areas of Japan affected by the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster.
Mode of production.
According to the International Energy Agency, Japanese gross production of electricity was 1,041 TWh in 2009, making it the world's third largest producer of electricity with 5.2% of the world's electricity. After Fukushima, Japan imported an additional 10 million short tons of coal and liquefied natural gas imports rose 24% between 2010 and 2012. In 2012 Japan used most of its natural gas (64%) in the power sector.
Nuclear power.
Nuclear power was a national strategic priority in Japan. Following the 2011 Fukushima nuclear accidents, the national nuclear strategy is in doubt due to increasing public opposition to nuclear power. An energy white paper, approved by the Japanese Cabinet in October 2011, reported that "public confidence in safety of nuclear power was greatly damaged" by the Fukushima disaster, and it calls for a reduction in the nation's reliance on nuclear power.
Following the 2011 accident, many reactors were shut down for inspection and for upgrades to more stringent safety standards. By October 2011, only 11 nuclear power plants were operating in Japan, and all 50 nuclear reactors were offline by 15 September 2013, leaving Japan without nuclear energy for only the second time in almost 50 years. Carbon dioxide emissions from the electricity industry rose in 2012, reaching levels 39% more than when the reactors were in operation.
Sendai 1 reactor was restarted on 11 August 2015, the first reactor to meet new safety standards and be restarted after the shutdown. As of July 2018, there are nine reactors that have been restarted.
Hydro power.
Hydroelectricity is Japan's main renewable energy source, with an installed capacity of about 27 GW, or 16% of the total generation capacity, of which about half is pumped-storage. The production was 73 TWh in 2010.
As of September 2011, Japan had 1,198 small hydropower plants with a total capacity of 3,225 MW. The smaller plants accounted for 6.6 percent of Japan's total hydropower capacity. The remaining capacity was filled by large and medium hydropower stations, typically sited at large dams.
Other renewables.
The Japanese government announced in May 2011 a goal of producing 20% of the nation's electricity from renewable sources, including solar, wind, and biomass, by the early 2020s.
Citing the Fukushima nuclear disaster, environmental activists at a United Nations conference urged bolder steps to tap renewable energy so the world doesn't have to choose between the dangers of nuclear power and the ravages of climate change.
Benjamin K. Sovacool has said that, with the benefit of hindsight, the Fukushima disaster was entirely avoidable in that Japan could have chosen to exploit the country's extensive renewable energy base. Japan has a total of "324 GW of achievable potential in the form of onshore and offshore wind turbines | 222 GW| , geothermal power plants | 70  GW| , additional hydroelectric capacity | 26.5 GW| , solar energy | 4.8 GW| and agricultural residue | 1.1 GW| ."
One result of the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster could be renewed public support for the commercialization of renewable energy technologies. In August 2011, the Japanese Government passed a bill to subsidize electricity from renewable energy sources. The legislation will become effective on 1 July 2012, and require utilities to buy electricity generated by renewable sources including solar power, wind power and geothermal energy at above-market rates.
, Japan plans to build a pilot floating wind farm, with six 2-megawatt turbines, off the Fukushima coast. After the evaluation phase is complete in 2016, "Japan plans to build as many as 80 floating wind turbines off Fukushima by 2020."
Grid storage.
Japan relies mostly on pumped storage hydroelectricity to balance demand and supply. As of 2014, Japan has the largest pumped storage capacity in the world, with over 27 GW.


Asian Super Grid

The Asian Super Grid is a project to establish an electrical power transmission network, or super grid, connecting China, South Korea, Taiwan, Mongolia, Russia, and Japan.
It will transmit electrical power from renewable sources from areas of the world that are best able to produce it to consumers in other parts of the world. The idea is dependent on development of an ultra-high voltage grid operating at more than 1,000 kilovolts AC and 800 kilovolts DC over thousands of kilometers. It envisions interconnecting grids across regions, nations, and even continents with a capacity of over 10 gigawatts.
The concept is the result of an idea by Masayoshi Son, founder and head of the telecom and Internet giant SoftBank Group. After the devastation at the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear plant following the 2011 Tohoku earthquake, Son was so shocked by events that he established the Renewable Energy Institute soon afterwards to help develop and promote renewable energy.
A diverse and widely sourced mix of both renewable and nonrenewable energy sources connected by super grid could reduce the region’s risk of power outages; as experienced after the 2011 Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Disaster, and 2011 South Korea blackouts.


Emera

Emera Incorporated is a publicly traded Canadian multinational energy holding company based in Halifax, Nova Scotia. Created in 1998 during the privatization of Nova Scotia Power, a provincial Crown corporation, Emera now invests in regulated electricity generation as well as transmission and distribution across North America and the Caribbean.
History.
Emera was created out of the privatization of the provincial Crown corporation Nova Scotia Power Incorporated (NSPI). On December 2, 1998, NSPI shareholders voted to restructure the company to create a holding company which would be shareholder-owned, with the regulated utility being a wholly owned subsidiary of the holding company. On December 9, 1998, NSPI received approval to establish NS Power Holdings Incorporated and NSPI shareholders exchanged their shares in NSPI for shares in NS Power Holdings Inc. on a one-to-one basis on January 1, 1999. Common shares in NS Power Holdings Inc. began trading on the Toronto Stock Exchange and Montreal Stock Exchange on January 6, 1999. The NS Power Holdings Inc. name was changed to Emera Incorporated on July 17, 2000.
In 2013, Emera acquired the Bridgeport Energy, Rumford Power, and Tiverton Power plants from Capital Power Corporation for $541 million.
On September 4, 2015, Emera announced the acquisition of TECO Energy, a utility company based in Tampa, Florida, whose holdings include Tampa Electric, Peoples Gas (no relation to the Chicago-based company of the same name), and New Mexico Gas. Emera paid $10.4 billion for TECO. The deal closed in July 2016.


Fawley Tunnel

Fawley Tunnel is a diameter, long tunnel under Southampton Water between Fawley Power Station and Chilling near Warsash. It was constructed between 1962 and 1965 to carry two 400 kV circuits as part of the National Grid.The tunnel was built with a 3 feet 1.125 inch gage railway to help with maintenance access. The railway was operated with a single battery powered locomotive that was scrapped in the late 70s.


Black Hills Power


Veresen

Veresen Inc. was a Calgary, Alberta-based energy infrastructure company with three main lines of business: Pipelines, Natural Gas and Power Generation. It was a publicly traded company on the Toronto Stock Exchange, and was known as Fort Chicago Energy Partners L.P. under January 2011. In 2017, it was acquired by Pembina Pipeline for $9.7 billion.
Move into Renewable Energy.
Beginning in the spring of 2010, Fort Chicago began aggressively moving into the renewable energy sector, with a particular focus on British Columbia.
Pristine Power.
In September 2010, Fort Chicago reached an agreement to purchase Pristine Power, which develops biomass and hydro power projects. Prior to this transaction, Fort Chicago had an 11.4% stake in Pristine.
In September 2009, Pristine Power increased its ownership position from 10% to 47% in the Klinaklini project proposed by Kleana Power. The deal was structured as a nominal down payment with future payments coming after various milestones, notably the signing of a PPA (however the project was unsuccessful in 2008 Call). With this deal, Pristine increased its ownership position in several other projects, including Machmell River, and expected that its generation portfolio would double to 282MW.
ENMAX Power Corporation.
In September 2010, Fort Chicago reached an agreement to purchase three BC-based hydro assets of ENMAX, the City of Calgary’s municipally-owned electric utility.


Wind Powering America

Wind Powering America (WPA) is an initiative of the United States Department of Energy (DOE) that seeks to increase the use of wind energy throughout the United States. WPA collaborates with key state and regional stakeholders, including farmers, ranchers, Native Americans, rural electric cooperatives, consumer-owned utilities, and schools to break down barriers associated with wind energy development.
Throughout its history, WPA has focused on states with strong potential for wind energy generation but with few operational projects. WPA provides fair and unbiased information about the challenges, benefits, and impacts of wind technology implementation. This information allows policymakers, organizations, and citizens to make educated and informed decisions about wind energy implementation in their communities.
History.
Formed in 1999 by DOE’s Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy (EERE), WPA’s original goals were to:
Conceived as a national public-private partnership, WPA’s methodology was to work with organizations, typically state-based Wind Working Groups, and other stakeholders to provide information and direct technical assistance to support the responsible implementation of wind technologies.
This model assumed that supporting the development of an initial 20 MW of wind power capacity in a state would allow project developers and communities to work through permitting and implementation issues, providing an example for similar projects. Over time it was determined that implementing only 20 MW of wind was not sufficient to provide such examples in each state, and that 100 MW of installed capacity more accurately provided clear examples of how these projects could be successfully implemented. As increasing amounts of wind capacity were installed, new challenges, including general public acceptance, transmission constraints, and grid stability emerged, so WPA added a new threshold: 1,000 MW of wind power capacity installed in a state.
Mission.
Throughout its history, WPA has focused on states with strong potential for wind energy generation but with few operational projects. WPA provides fair and unbiased information about the challenges, benefits, and impacts of wind technology implementation. This information allows policymakers, organizations, and citizens to make educated and informed decisions about wind energy implementation in their communities.
According to the American Wind Energy Association, 14 states have more than 1,000 MW of wind energy installed capacity and 30 states have more than 20 MW installed. At the end of 2009, wind energy technology supplied about 2.5% of the nation’s energy.
Initiative focus areas.
WPA encourages further wind energy growth by working with national, regional, and state partners in communicating the benefits of wind energy to communities and industry stakeholders. WPA now works to achieve DOE’s 20% wind energy by 2030 scenario by focusing on the following areas for large land-based and offshore wind technologies, community-scale wind projects, and small and distributed wind applications:
State Wind Working Groups.
In 2000, WPA helped establish the program’s first official Wind Working Group in North Dakota. Group members include landowners and agricultural sector representatives, utilities and regulators, colleges and universities, advocacy groups, and state and local officials. WPA supports Wind Working Groups by providing group members with information on the current state of wind technology, wind resources, economic development impacts, and policy options. There are 34 Wind Working Groups in the United States.
Regional activities.
In 2005, WPA helped launch the New England Wind Forum to provide a Web-based, comprehensive source for up-to-date information on a wide range of wind energy development issues in the northeastern United States. The New England Wind Forum and the Great Lakes Wind Collaborative are pilots for developing expanded regionally based information support for other areas of the country.
As wind energy technology grows, WPA expects to employ a more regional focus by supporting regional organizations that will assist state organizations. Expanding the regional focus is expected to improve integration with local private and public stakeholders and strengthen collaboration between states addressing common wind energy development issues while reducing the overall need for federal funding.
Rural and agricultural outreach.
Farmers, ranchers, and others in the agricultural community are looking to wind energy as a way to stabilize income and provide an additional cash crop. In addition to farmers and ranchers, WPA works with rural community leaders such as banks, economic development organizations, businesses, agriculture cooperatives and extensions, chambers of commerce, schools, and county governments to provide knowledge about the economic development potential of the wind energy sector. WPA also sends representatives to rural areas in the United States to facilitate or participate in workshops and events to disseminate accurate wind energy information to communities.
Wind for Schools Project.
As wind power provides an increasing percentage of America’s energy requirements, a key challenge is the need for talented workers to support the industry. WPA’s Wind for Schools project is an education and outreach effort that recruits and provides training for wind technicians, engineers, scientists, and other workers who will meet the growing needs of the wind industry. WPA engages universities, rural schools, and communities in wind energy education through the installation of small wind turbines at K-12 schools. The project has four objectives:
Established in 2006 using Colorado as the pilot state, Wind for Schools now has 11 states working toward educating future generations about wind energy. WPA also supports states or schools interested in implementing similar projects through a defined affiliate program.
Wind for Schools establishes Wind Application Centers at universities in target states that support the development of wind energy classes and degree programs. The program provides opportunities for university students to install small wind turbines at elementary and secondary schools. Host schools incorporate wind energy topics, including math and engineering, into the curriculum. Supported by local businesses and utilities, small wind turbines at rural schools also introduce the concept of energy and the need for national strategic thinking on energy issues to the communities that participate in the program.
Anemometer loan program.
To help states and Native American communities understand their wind resources, WPA created an anemometer loan program. Participants borrow anemometers and installation equipment to measure wind resources. Anemometer data can be used to help businesses, developers, farmers, ranchers, and homeowners determine wind potential in selected areas. Each anemometer collects wind speed data in 10-minute intervals. The data aid wind farm developers in determining whether an area is suitable for developing a large-scale installation.
Support for Native Americans.
There are more than 700 Native American tribes and Native Alaskan villages and corporations. WPA supports the development of wind resources on native lands by providing a wide range of technical assistance and outreach activities. In addition to the anemometer loan program, WPA provides pre-feasibility studies and wind energy training through the DOE-supported Wind Energy Applications and Training Symposium (WEATS). WPA’s Native American program is becoming part of DOE’s Tribal Energy Program.
Economic and workforce development.
In 2004, WPA helped develop the Jobs and Economic Development Impacts (JEDI) model to analyze the costs and benefits of new wind energy projects. WPA also published case studies about the economic impact of wind farms in rural communities. The studies provide insight into the type of information that is gathered in undertaking an economic impact study, what kind of information is most helpful in promoting wind energy development in rural communities, and the limitations on collecting data for the studies. The studies are available on WPA’s website.
WPA has also conducted extensive activities to address workforce development, including producing a wind workforce roadmap, conducting technology-specific training, supporting the identification of job classification to aid the wind industry, and developing wind energy curricula at all academic levels.
Public lands.
WPA assists the Bureau of Land Management, the U.S. Coast Guard, Army National Guard, and other entities in evaluating wind energy development on public lands. The program also provides outreach and educational services and supports federal and state mandates for the expanded use of clean, renewable energy technologies.
Wind resource maps.
WPA supports a collaborative effort between the National Renewable Energy Laboratory and AWS Truepower to update the map of U.S. wind energy potential. New wind energy resource maps with potential estimates at 80 meters and 100 meters were recently completed, and a 30-meter map focusing on small and community wind will soon follow. These products support understanding of wind energy potential at the local, state, and national levels.
Wind technology technical support.
Wind technologies can be used in many applications, including land-based and offshore utility-scale wind farms, community-scale projects, and distributed applications for homes and businesses. WPA provides information on wind energy issues to stakeholders in each of these sectors. WPA produces application-specific information, including a series of small wind consumer’s guides and other outreach materials.
Website, resources, and tools.
The WPA website provides multiple resources pertaining to wind energy development in the United States, including wind maps, the JEDI model, consumer’s guides, wind energy videos, podcasts and audio files, publications, news, wind-related events, and past events involving WPA.
Funding and implementation.
WPA is managed and supported by DOE’s Wind and Water Power Program with primary strategic and implementation support by the National Renewable Energy Laboratory and DOE’s Golden Field Office staff. Work is also supported by state energy offices, energy industry participants, universities, and non-government organizations.


Ever Power IPP Co., Ltd.

The Ever Power IPP Co., Ltd. () is an independent power producer company in Taiwan. It operates as the subsidiary of Singapore Power International Pte. Ltd.
History.
The company was founded on 30 January 1996.


Pepco

The Potomac Electric Power Company (PEPCO) is a public utility that supplies electric power to the city of Washington, D.C. and to surrounding communities in Maryland. It is owned by Exelon.
The company's current trademarked slogan is "Your life. Plugged in." Its former slogan was "We're connected to you by more than power lines."
Pepco's bulk transmission system consists of transmission lines operating at 115 kV, 138kV, 230 kV and 500 kV. Pepco has interconnections with Potomac Edison (230kV, 500kV), Baltimore Gas and Electric (500kV, 230kV, 115kV), and Dominion Virginia Power (500kV, 230kV).
History.
The company's predecessor, Potomac Electric Co., was organized in 1891 to provide street lighting and streetcar power in Georgetown and Northwest D.C. After suffering during the Panic of 1893, the company filed bankruptcy and, on November 6, 1895, was acquired by Oscar T. Crosby and Charles A. Lieb for $5,500.
The company was incorporated as Potomac Electric Power Company on April 28, 1896 in Virginia. It became a subsidiary of the North American Company, which owned the Washington Traction and Electric Company, one of the private streetcar companies in Washington.
On December 17, 1896, after a court battle, the company received a contract to light the city of Washington D.C.
In January 1889, the company merged with its rival, United States Electric Lighting Company.
In 1899, the company merged with Washington Traction and Electric Company.
In June 1901, the company filed for bankruptcy and was acquired by the Washington Railway and Electric Company.
In 1905, revenues exceeded $1 million for the first time.
In 1906, the company began construction of the first unit of the Benning Road Power Plant, along the Anacostia River. When its last unit was completed in 1931, the power plant had a 185,000-kilowatt capacity.
In 1928, the North American Company, a holding company that owned many public utilities, gained control of Washington Railway and Electric.
The Public Utility Holding Company Act was enacted in 1935 to force the breakup of large utility holding companies. Under this law, the Securities and Exchange Commission in 1942 ordered the North American Company and its subsidiaries to split up. A years-long legal battle ensued, culminating in a Supreme Court decision upholding the order. As a result, Pepco's stock was distributed to Washington Railway's shareholders in December 1947, making Pepco an independent, publicly traded company.
In 1954, revenue exceeded $50 million for the first time.
In 1969, the company suspended its dividend due to rising costs.
In 1980, the company cancelled plans to build a $930 million power plant in Montgomery County as a result of reduced demand.
In September 1995, the company announced a merger with Baltimore Gas & Electric; however, the merger was cancelled in December 1997.
In 2001, the company was reorganized and became a unit of Pepco Holdings. In 2003, the holding company took over Pepco's investment subsidiary.
In 2014, Pepco Holdings agreed to be acquired by Exelon for $6.8 billion. The deal faced opposition from Pepco customers and from officials in Washington and Maryland, but was ultimately approved. The acquisition was completed on March 23, 2016, making Pepco a subsidiary of Exelon.
Controversies.
Most hated company in America.
In 2011, "Business Insider" named the company first on its list of "The 19 Most Hated Companies In America" based on its American Customer Satisfaction Index rating.
Poor reliability and outages.
An investigation by "The Washington Post" in 2010 faulted Pepco for poor reliability. The report noted that the company's performance had slipped since 2005, comparing poorly to other major utilities in the frequency and duration of power outages. Thousands of people lost power for as many as five days after only 5-8 inches of heavy wet snow.
During the June 2012 North American derecho, more than half of the customers in Montgomery County, Maryland lost electric power. The company was criticized for being slow to restore power and for charging its customers for the power outage.
Environmental impact.
The company's Benning Road Power Plant produced air pollution that negatively affected neighboring communities. In 2017, the company agreed to pay regulators $1.6 million for violations of the Clean Water Act.


Fitchburg Gas and Electric Light Company


Arrow Electronics

Arrow Electronics is an American Fortune 500 company headquartered in Centennial, Colorado. The company specializes in distribution and value added services relating to electronic components and computer products. The company ranked No. 110 in the 2019 Fortune 500 list of the largest United States corporations by total revenue.
History.
Arrow Electronics was founded in 1935 when a retail store named Arrow Radio opened on Cortlandt Street in the heart of lower Manhattan's "Radio Row," the birthplace of electronics distribution. Arrow Radio, established by Maurice ("Murray") Goldberg, sold used radios and radio parts to retail customers. Other industry pioneers with businesses nearby were Charles Avnet and Seymour Schweber.
By the 1940s, Arrow was selling new radios—manufactured by RCA, GE, and Philco—and other home entertainment products, as well as surplus radio parts that were retailed over-the-counter in a parts department at the back of the store. Soon the firm started seeking franchises to sell new parts; the first manufacturers to franchise Arrow were RCA and Cornell Dubilier. The business was incorporated as Arrow Electronics, Inc. in 1946.
In the early 1950s, with additional franchises and a small field sales organization, Arrow began selling electronic parts to industrial customers. A second storefront/sales office was opened in Mineola, Long Island in 1956. By 1961, when the company completed its initial public offering and listed its shares on the American Stock Exchange, total sales amounted to $4 million, over half of which came from the industrial sales division, with the remainder from the traditional retail business. During the 1960s, Arrow moved its headquarters to Farmingdale, New York (Long Island), and opened additional branches in Norwalk, Connecticut and Totowa, New Jersey. The company relocated its headquarters office to Centennial, Colorado in 2011.
In 1968, Glenn, Green & Waddell, a partnership formed by three recent graduates of the Harvard Business School, B. Duke Glenn, Jr., Roger E. Green, and John C. Waddell, led a private investor group that acquired the controlling interest in Arrow. The investors saw an opportunity to consolidate the fragmented electronics industry. Duke Glenn served as chairman.
1970s.
Entering the 1970s with $9 million of annual distribution sales, Arrow ranked no. 12 among U.S. electronics distributors. No. 1-ranked Avnet was 8-times Arrow's size.
During the ’70s decade, by winning key semiconductor franchises (led by Texas Instruments in 1970) and opening sales offices in over 20 U.S. cities, Arrow grew its electronics distribution business at an average annual rate of 34 percent. By the end of the decade, the company's electronics distribution sales had climbed to $177 million, making Arrow the country's second largest electronics distributor.
The company took on high levels of debt through frequent public bond offerings, to fund its growth strategy. Additional growth capital was provided through the 1969 acquisition of Schuylkill Metals Corporation, a lead recycling company. (This business, having served its purpose, was sold in 1987 amidst problems associated with being designated an EPA Superfund site contaminated with lead and chromium.)
In the 1970s, Arrow discontinued its retail operations and inaugurated the electronics distribution's first integrated on-line, real-time computer system to provide up-to-the-minute inventory positions and facilitate remote order entry. In 1979, Arrow was listed on the New York Stock Exchange. That same year, it acquired Cramer Electronics (historically the U.S.’s second-largest distributor), the company's first major industry acquisition, which provided access to many markets in the western United States.
1980s to present.
On December 4, 1980, a fire in a Harrison, New York, hotel conference center killed 13 members of Arrow's senior management, including Glenn and Green. Waddell assumed leadership and, in 1982, recruited Stephen P. Kaufman, formerly a partner of McKinsey & Company, to join Arrow as President of the company's Electronics Distribution Division. Kaufman succeeded Waddell as CEO in 1986 and as chairman in 1994.
In 1988, Arrow adopted a growth strategy by acquiring Kierulff Electronics. According to Forbes, the company closed down all four Kierulff Electronics warehouses and within a year it experienced "miraculous" growth that went from a bottom line of $16 million loss in 1987 to operating profits of $10 million.
During his nearly two decades with Arrow, Kaufman led the company's consolidation of the U.S. electronics distribution industry as well as the company's expansion into Europe and the Asia-Pacific region. Under Kaufman's leadership, Arrow completed over 50 acquisitions of electronics distributors, including such prominent names as Ducommun (Kierulff), Lex (Schweber), Zeus, Anthem, Bell, and Wyle (all in the U.S.), Spoerle (Germany), Silverstar (Italy), and CAL (Hong Kong and China). Kaufman also led the company into the national distribution of commercial computer products, initially through its acquisition of Gates/FA Distributing. Arrow entered the 21st century with global sales of $9 billion—$6 billion of electronic components and $3 billion of computer products.
Kaufman stepped down as CEO in 2000, retired as chairman in 2002, and was succeeded by Daniel W. Duval, a 15-year Arrow board veteran. In 2003, William E. Mitchell, former President of the Global Services Division of Solectron Corporation, joined Arrow as chief executive officer and, in 2006, became chairman. During Mitchell's six years at Arrow, sales climbed to $17 billion as the company increased shareholder returns, improved operating efficiencies, and completed 17 acquisitions.
In 2009, Michael J. Long succeeded Mitchell as CEO, and in 2010 took over as chairman. A long-time Arrow executive, Long joined the company in 1991 and served in various senior management positions before becoming CEO. Since Long's appointment, Arrow has completed over 40 strategic acquisitions that further expand its global components and computer systems businesses. In 2015, Arrow acquired United Technical Publishing from Hearst, adding properties such as "Electronic Products" and Schematics.com. In June 2016, UBM reached agreement to divest its electronics media portfolio to an affiliate of Arrow Electronics Inc. for a cash consideration of $23.5m. The portfolio comprises the US and Asian versions of EE Times, EDN, ESM, Embedded, EBN, TechOnline and Datasheets.com.
The company ranked No. 110 in the 2020 Fortune 500 list of the largest United States corporations by total revenue.


AGL Energy

AGL Energy Ltd () is an Australian listed public company involved in both the generation and retailing of electricity and gas for residential and commercial use.
AGL Energy generates energy from power stations that use thermal power, natural gas, wind power, hydroelectricity, solar energy, gas storage and coal seam gas sources.
Making it the largest fully Integrated energy company, telecommunications company, and utility in Australia, AGL claimed in September 2020 that it had more than 4.2 million residential and business customer accounts across New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia and Queensland. AGL entered the residential and commercial gas market in Western Australia in July 2017. It has large investments in the supply of gas and electricity, and is Australia's largest private owner, operator and developer of renewable energy assets.
AGL is Australia's largest electricity generator, and the nation's largest carbon emitter.
History.
The Australian Gas Light Company was formed in Sydney, New South Wales in 1837, and supplied town gas for the first public lighting of a street lamp in Sydney in 1841. AGL was the second company to list on the Sydney Stock Exchange. The company gradually diversified into electricity and into a number of different locations.
ActewAGL, a joint venture between the Australian Gas Light Company and ACTEW Corporation, a government-owned enterprise of the ACT Government, was formed in October 2000 as Australia's first utility joint venture. Twenty-five per cent owned by AGL Energy, ActewAGL provides electricity, natural gas, and telecommunication services to business and residential customers in the Australian Capital Territory and south-east New South Wales.
On 6 October 2006, the Australian Gas Light Company and Alinta Ltd merged and restructured to create two new listed companies, a restructured Alinta Ltd and AGL Energy Ltd.
In Victoria, in June 2012, AGL Energy acquired Loy Yang A Power Station and the Loy Yang coal mine. Loy Yang A has four generating units with a combined capacity of .
In New South Wales, in September 2014 AGL Energy acquired Macquarie Generation from the New South Wales Government for $1.5 billion. Macquarie Generation's assets included the 2,640 MW Bayswater Power Station, the 2,000 MW Liddell Power Station, the 50 MW Hunter Valley Gas Turbines and the Liddell Solar Thermal Project. From the two thermal coal power stations and two oil-fired gas turbines, Macquarie Generation supplies approximately 12% of the National Electricity Market and 30% of the New South Wales electricity market. In early stages, Macquarie has commenced development of solar thermal power as a renewable source of energy.
AGL announced in April 2015 and reaffirmed in September 2017 that it intends to close the Liddell Power Station in 2022. The closure of this and other coal-burning power stations in Australia led to the Prime Minister of Australia at the time, Malcolm Turnbull, to seek advice from the Australian Energy Market Operator on extending the life of a number of them, to head off future power shortages. Turnbull said the government had been advised that if the Liddell plant were to close in 2022, there would be a 1,000 MW gap in base load, dispatchable power generation.
In 2018, AGL was among 17 energy businesses that supported the launch of the "Energy Charter", a global initiative aimed at bringing together all parts of the power supply chain to give customers more affordable and reliable energy.
In 2019, AGL entered the telecommunications industry with the purchase of Southern Phone, a regional telecommunications company.
In April 2021, AGL's Managing Director and CEO, Brett Redman stepped down.
Operations and significant assets.
AGL has a diverse power generation portfolio—including base, peaking and intermediate generation plants—spread across traditional thermal generation as well as renewable sources including hydro and wind. The following tables listing significant assets are based on AGL's 2016 Annual Report.
Upstream gas projects.
In 2015 the EPA ordered the suspension of AGL's Gloucester operations after finding toxic chemicals had been introduced into Hunter Water's systems. The EPA subsequently found no "evidence of harm to the environment or pollution of waters" and AGL was allowed to continue its Gloucester operations.
In February 2016, AGL announced that exploration and production of natural gas assets would no longer be a core business for the company. This announcement included clarification that AGL would not proceed with the Gloucester gas project and that it would cease production at the Camden Gas Project in South West Sydney in 2023, twelve years earlier than previously proposed.
AGL has implemented a decommissioning and rehabilitation program for its well sites and other infrastructure in the Gloucester region. In November 2016, AGL commenced the progressive decommissioning and rehabilitation of wells at the Camden site.
Power generation projects in development.
Coopers Gap Wind Farm.
In August 2017, it was announced that the Coopers Gap Wind Farm would proceed to construction, with AGL securing funding from the Powering Australian Renewables Fund. When completed the 453 MW Coopers Gap Wind Farm will be the largest in Australia.
The final wind turbine at the Coopers Gap Wind Farm was completed in April 2020.
Silverton Wind Farm.
In May 2017, it was announced that construction had commenced on the 200 MW Silverton Wind Farm in north western New South Wales.
Barker Inlet Power Station.
In June 2017, AGL announced the development of a new $295 million gas-fired generator in South Australia. The Barker Inlet Power Station, will replace two of the four Torrens Island A turbines which are expected to be decommissioned in late 2020. The island's B turbines will continue to operate as usual.
The Barker Inlet Power Station was officially completed and handed over to AGL in early 2020.
Crib Point Gas Import Jetty.
In August 2017, Crib Point Import Jetty was announced as the preferred location for a new terminal importing gas from other markets. The project is expected to cost $250 million, with construction expected to commence in 2021.
Kanmantoo pumped hydro.
In April 2019, AGL announced that it had acquired the right to develop a pumped hydroelectric energy storage project in the mined-out main pit of the Kanmantoo mine on the eastern side of the Adelaide Hills in South Australia. The project is expected to be capable of storing and generating 250MW of electricity from 2024.
In early 2020, AGL announced that it would not be proceeding with the Kanmantoo Pumped Hydro project.
Powering Australian Renewables Fund.
In February 2016, AGL announced the creation of the Powering Australian Renewables Fund. The Powering Australian Renewables Fund or PARF, will own and develop more than 1,000MW of large-scale renewable energy projects to support Australia's renewable energy capacity and transition to a low-carbon economy. Once fully invested, PARF expects to own approximately 10% of Australia's renewable energy capacity.
In June 2016, QIC and the Future Fund joined AGL as investors in the Powering Australian Renewables Fund.