Campaign to Suppress Bandits in Northern Guangdong

The Campaign to Suppress Bandits in Northern Guangdong was a counter-guerrilla / counterinsurgency campaign the communists fought against the nationalist guerrilla that was mostly consisted of bandits and nationalist regular troops left behind after the nationalist government withdrew from mainland China. The campaign was fought during the Chinese Civil War in the post-World War II era, and resulted in communist victory. This campaign is part of the Campaign to Suppress Bandits in Guangdong.
Strategies.
The nationalists had faced a precarious dilemma in waging the campaign against its communist enemy because of complex situation they had faced, and consequently, made several grave miscalculations which contributed to their eventual failure.
Nationalist miscalculations.
Like other nationalist futile attempts to fight guerrilla and insurgency warfare against the communists after being driven off from mainland China, the very first grave strategic miscalculation made by the retreating nationalist government contributed at least equally if not greater than the enemy's political and military pressure to the nationalist defeat in this campaign. The very first strategic miscalculation made by the retreating nationalist government was identical to the earlier one the nationalist government had made immediately after World War II, when it had neither the sufficient troops nor enough transportation assets to be deployed into the Japanese-occupied regions of China, and unwilling to let these regions falling into communist hands, the nationalist government ordered the Japanese and their turncoat Chinese puppet government not to surrender to the communists and allowed them to keep their fighting capabilities to "maintain order" in the Japanese occupied regions by fighting off the communists. This earlier miscalculation resulted in further alienation and resentment to the nationalist government by the local population, which had already blamed the nationalists for losing the regions to the Japanese invaders during the war. Half a decade later when the nationalists were driven from mainland China, they had made the similar miscalculation once again in their desperation, this time by enlisting the help of local bandits to fight the communists, and ordering the nationalist troops left behind to join these bandits in the struggle against the communism. However, the bandits were deeply feared and hated by the local populace they plagued for so long, and nationalist troops left behind joining the bandits certainly did not help them win the support of the general population. In fact, it served the exact opposite, strengthening the popular support of their communist enemy.
The second grave strategic miscalculation made by the retreating nationalist government was also similar to the one the nationalist government had made immediately after World War II, when it attempted to simultaneously solve the warlord problem that had plagued China for so long with the problem of the exterminating communists together: those warlords allied with Chiang Kai-shek's nationalist government were only interested in keeping their own power and defected to the Japanese side when Japanese invaders offered to let them keep their power in exchange for their collaborations. After World War II, these forces of former Japanese puppet governments once again returned to the nationalist camp for the same reason they defected to the Japanese invaders. Obviously, it was difficult for Chiang to immediately get rid of these warlords for good as soon as they surrendered to Chiang and rejoined nationalists, because such move would alienate other factions within the nationalist ranks, and those former Japanese puppet government's warlords could still help the nationalists to by holding on to what was under their control and fighting off communists, and they and the communists would both be weakened. Similarly, the bandits the nationalist governments had failed to exterminate were obviously not good candidates for evacuation to Taiwan half a decade later, and using them to fight communists appeared to be the only logical alternative. If the communists were great weakened by the bandits, then it would the nationalists would have easier time in their counterattacks to retake China. If the bandits were defeated, then the nationalists would have easier job to eradicate them later after retaking China. However, just like those warlords, these bandits were only interested in keeping their own power also, and thus did not put any real efforts to fight the communists like some of the nationalists who were dedicated to their political cause. The eradication of bandits by the communist government only strengthened its popular support since previous governments (including the nationalist government itself) dating back from Qing Dynasty had failed to do so.
The third grave strategic miscalculation made by the retreating nationalist government was similar to the second one, but this one was about its own troops left behind. The nationalist government had faced a dilemma: the highly disciplined troops were in desperate need to defend Taiwan, the last nationalist island sanctuary. The less disciplined second rate and undisciplined third rate troops, both of which mostly consisted of warlords' troop were definitely not suited to be withdrawn to defend the last stand nationalists had made, and they were not given the top priority for evacuation. Instead, they were left behind to fight the communists behind the enemy line, but such move had alienated many of the troops left behind, and it was impossible to expect them to fight their communist enemy with the same kind of dedication like those nationalist agents who believed in their political cause. Compounding the problem, due to the need of bandits' knowledge of local area, they were often rewarded with higher ranks than the nationalist troops left behind. As a result, the former-nationalist regular troops turned guerrilla fighters lacked any willingness to work together with the bandits they once attempted to exterminate, especially when many of the bandits had killed their comrades-in-arms earlier in the battles of eradications / pacifications. Many loyal nationalists were enraged by the fact that they had to serve under the former-enemy they once fought. Similarly, the bandits lacked the similar willingness and attempted to expend those nationalist troops whenever they could in order to save their own skin.
The fourth grave strategic miscalculation made by the retreating nationalist government was financial / economical: due to the lack of money, those bandits turned guerrillas were mostly provided with arms, but not sufficient supplies and money. The bandits turned guerrilla had no problem of looting the local population to get what they need, as they had done for decades, which inevitably drove the general popular support further into the communist side. The little financial support provided by the nationalist government was simply not enough to support such guerrilla and insurgency warfare on such a large scale. Another unexpected but disastrous result of the insufficient financial support was that it had greatly eroded the support of the nationalist government within its own ranks. The wealthy landowners and businessmen were the strong supporters of nationalist government and as their properties were confiscated by the communists and redistributed to the poor, their hatred toward the communist government was enough to cause many of them to stay behind voluntarily to fight behind the enemy line. However, the landowners and businessmen were also longtime victims of bandits due to their wealth, and many of them had suffered even more than the general populace who had far less wealth. As these former landowners and businessmen turned guerrilla fighters were ordered to join their former bandits who once threatened, looted, kidnapped and even killed them and their relatives, it was obvious that such cooperation was mostly in name only and could not produce any actual benefits, and the alienation and discontent toward the nationalist government harbored by these once ardent nationalists would only grow greater.
Another problem for the nationalists was the strong disagreement among themselves over how to fight the war against their communist enemy. Military professionals preferred to fight a total war, incapacitate the enemy's ability to fight, but this inevitably conflicted with the interest of another faction of strong supporters of the nationalist government: the landowners and businessmen, who joined bandits to oppose such tactic. The reason was that landowners and businessmen supporting and joining the nationalist guerrilla firmly believed that the nationalists would be able to retake mainland China within several years and they would be able to regain their lost lands, businesses, and other properties that were confiscated and redistributed to the poor by the communists. As the nationalist military professionals in the guerrilla suggested and destroyed the production facilities and businesses as part of the total war, the landowners and businessmen would not be able to regain any valuable properties after the return of the nationalist government because those properties had been destroyed. The bandits agreed with the businessmen and landowners to oppose the idea of total war for a different reason: when the properties were destroyed and productivity dropped, they would not be able to loot enough supply to survive. As a result, despite the animosities between the bandits and landowners and businessmen, they were united together in the opposition to the military professional faction of the nationalists.
Communist strategies.
In contrast to the nationalists, the communists had much simpler but effective strategy because they did not have the dilemma the nationalists had, all they had to do was to eradicate bandits. The job of fighting a counterinsurgency and counter guerrilla war was made much easier for the communists by the grave strategic miscalculations nationalists had made themselves, and the communists exploited these to the maximum for their advantage. As with all other bandit eradication campaigns, the most important communist strategy was to mobilize the entire population to fight the bandits, and furthermore, additional strategies were devised specifically to fit the local situation to fight the bandits.
Order of battle.
Nationalists
Communists
1st Stage.
As the nationalists withdrew from Guangzhou to escape the advancing communists, the nationalist military intelligence head Mao Renfeng (毛人凤) ordered Li Jilan (李及兰), the nationalist commander-in-chief of Guangzhou Garrison to organize local bandits to fight a guerrilla war against the communists, causing as much damage as possible to the enemy. This was achieved via providing bandits with weaponry and money in silver, and sending agents to each band of bandits as advisors. The local bandits were united under the command of Anti-communist National Salvation Army. In response, the communists launched a campaign to suppress these local bandits, an effort headed by the communist 132nd Division.
The Fifth Hamlet (Wucun, 五村) of the Triple Mountain (Sanshan, 三山) Township of Yingde was the home base of bandits headed by Ou Yang (欧阳), who established his reign ruthlessly by executing those who are suspected of being sympathetic of communists. Additionally, the hamlet chief was punished as well, fined heavily in terms of rice that totaled 1,200 kg. However, such brutal acts only alienated him and his fellow bandits from the local population, with many of them fleeing their homes to escape the bandits. Despite the initial fear and reluctance to talk to the communists when the communist 2nd Company of the 394th Regiment of the 132nd Division first entered the hamlet in September 1950, the local populace was soon won over by the communists, nine of villagers joined the communist forces, while those who fled their homes also returned, after hearing the good words about communists from those who stayed behind and met the communists. On November 19, 1950, communist forces set up an ambush in the area where Ou Yang was known to be, the foothills of the Changbeng (长崩) Mountain based on the intelligence provided by the local populace. Around 8:00 pm, Ou Yang and his bodyguard approached the communists in hiding, but discovered the ambush and opened up on the communists first. The communists returned fire and managed to kill Ou Yang's bodyguard, and wounded his leg. The next, following the blood trial, communists captured Ou Yang in a cave. With their chieftain captured alive, the surviving bandits in Ou Yang's band dispersed and went into hiding in the mountains.
In the border region of Yingde and Yangshan (阳山), there was another band of bandits headed by a father – son team. During the bandit suppression campaign, the father, Huang Yuan (黄元), was first captured by the communists. Huang Yang (黄阳), the son, refused to surrender and in his desperate attempt to escape, he ordered his bandits to kidnap more than a dozen innocent young children as a human shield. As they had made their successful escape, the young children obviously could not keep up with bandits. Feeling the children were slowing them down, Huang Yang ordered all of them to be executed. The atrocities committed by Huang Yang had completed alienated the local populace and drove his very last sympathizers to the communist side, who provided intelligence to the communists on the bandits whereabouts from then on. On December 17, 1950, based on the intelligence provided by the local populations, communist 394th Regiment begun their search in the Yali (鸦理) Mountains in the region to the west of the Liumei (流眉) region. After one and half a day of search, the hiding place of Huang Yang was discovered and in the gunfight that followed, Huang Yang managed to wound three communists but all of his bandits were killed, and Huang Yang himself severely wounded. As communists approached, Huang Yang fired a last shot, wounding two communists with on bullet, before he was killed by the returning fire from the communists. This marked the end of large scale battles in the campaign, and the following operation became eradication operations on much smaller scale.
2nd Stage.
With bandits dispersed and went into hiding, the communists changed their tactics accordingly in the following mopping up operations. Political pressure increased with the mobilization of local population, with a team of three to five members stationed in every hamlet. In addition, ordinary bandits were treated differently than their chieftains in an attempt to convince them to give themselves up, and the practice proved to be effective, especially in the area that had been plagued by bandits previously, such as in the Yellow Flower (Huanghua, 黄花) township of Yingde.
Wang Min (王敏), the deputy political commissar of the communist 2nd Company led his team to station in the Weishan (唯山) hamlet of the Yellow Flower (Huanghua, 黄花) township of Yingde. One night, the local populace reported that a bandit had returned to the hamlet and the communists managed to capture him. Based on the interrogation, another bandit returning to the hamlet was also captured on the next day. The bandits were soon convinced to switch to the communist side, leading a communist platoon to the hiding place of their former chieftain, Liu Yu (刘裕), the nationalist regimental commander of 2nd Regiment of the Northern River Column of the Anti-communist National Salvation Army. Liu Yu managed to narrow escape his capture, but both of his concubines were captured alive by the communists. Because Liu Yu's two concubines did not commit any crimes, they were soon released, and to help them settle down for a new life, food and vegetables were provided to them at no cost. The concubines were very grateful and volunteered to write to Liu Yu to ask him to give himself up, which he did. After turning himself in, it was discovered Liu Yu only joined the nationalist guerrilla but he and his bandits did not commit any serious crime against the general population like Huang Yang, so Liu Yu was soon released also. To help him to settle down to a new life, food and agricultural production tools were provide to him and his family free of charge. This policy had since become a wide practice in the local region, succeeding in convincing more than 230 bandits to surrender to the communist 395th Regiment stationed in the area, and only 8 bandits were killed for refusing to surrender.
The success at the Yellow Flower township was adopted by the others in the entire northern Guangdong, and with emphasis on the relatives of those bandits. The result was that not only low-ranking bandits, but also their chieftains begun to turn themselves in, including Ou Yang's relatives, such as Ou Yakang (欧亚康), Ou Shenmei (欧沈妹), Ou Yazhang (欧亚章) and 28 other bandit chieftains. As the general population turned to the communists and many of their comrades-in-arms turned themselves in, the surviving bandits found it increasingly difficult to operate and recruit. The commander-in-chief of the bandits turned nationalist guerrilla, Liang Mengxiong (梁猛熊), was reduced to recruit and resupply by death threats, executing those who dared to say no. However, executing civilians who refused to corporate only further drive the general population away, into the communist sides. As a result, the bandits were reduced to a mere dozen, all of them were eventually captured in caves, and Liang Mengxiong was barely able to escape with his own life, becoming the only one who had successfully managed to escape. Fearing that he would be prosecuted for his rapid failure by the nationalist government, Liang Mengxiong dared not to flee to Taiwan, but instead, fled overseas. Ironically, many of Liang Mengxiong's relatives, including his distant nephew Liang Daping (梁达平) and niece Liang Shaomei (梁少梅) joined the communists during the campaign, and eventually became important officers in the People's Liberation Army local garrison. After four months of operations, by the end of January 1951, the local bandits were completely eradicated and the communist 132nd Division was reassigned to a different task of supporting land reforms in Zengcheng, Dongguan and Boluo (博罗).
Outcome.
Although sharing the common anticommunist goal, the nationalist guerrilla and insurgency warfare was largely handicapped by the enlistment of bandits, many of whom had fought and killed nationalist troops earlier in the eradication / pacification campaign, and also looted, kidnapped and even killed landlords and business owners, an important faction that supported the nationalist government, but now must united against the common enemy, which is half-hearted at the best. Compounding the problem further with additional differences within the ranks of the nationalist guerillas themselves, the futile nationalist guerrilla and insurgency warfare against its communist enemy was destined to fail.


Four Northern Banks

Four Northern Banks () referred to the four most capitalized commercial banks in the north of the Yangtze River in the Republic of China in the 1920s, in contrast to the Three Southern Banks (南三行) of Southern China.
The four banks were the Yien Yieh Commercial Bank (鹽業銀行), the Kincheng Banking Corporation (金城銀行), the Continental Bank (大陸銀行) and the China & South Sea Bank (中南銀行).


Until They Sail

Until They Sail is a 1957 American black-and-white CinemaScope drama film directed by Robert Wise and starring Jean Simmons, Joan Fontaine, Paul Newman, Piper Laurie, and Sandra Dee. The screenplay by Robert Anderson, based on a story by James A. Michener included in his 1951 anthology "Return to Paradise", focuses on four New Zealand sisters and their relationships with U.S. Marines during World War II.
Plot.
The film opens in a Christchurch courtroom, where testimony prompts Barbara Leslie to flashback to the events that led to the trial. She and her sisters Anne, Evelyn, and Delia live in Christchurch, where most of the male residents, including their brother Kit and Barbara's new husband Mark, are preparing to leave for World War II duty. Delia announces her engagement to Phil "Shiner" Friskett, who is one of the city's few remaining bachelors, but word of Kit's death dampens the celebration. Repressed and judgmental spinster sister Anne disapproves of the upcoming nuptials, but Barbara defends Delia's decision.
Within weeks of the marriage, the sisters come to resent Shiner's abuse and are happy to see him leave for active duty. Delia moves to Wellington to work for the New Zealand Navy. When several hundred U.S. Marines are shipped to Christchurch following the 1941 attack on Pearl Harbor, the lonely local women are flattered by the attention they pay them. When Evelyn invites Capt. Richard "Dick" Bates to dinner, he declines the offer, but not without attracting Anne's eye.
Concerned about Delia, Anne sends Barbara to Wellington, where she discovers her sister is registered at the St. George Hotel under her maiden name. Shiner is now a prisoner of war, and Delia has become involved with an American lieutenant named Andy. She plans to divorce Shiner and emigrate to the United States. Andy introduces Barbara to his friend Jack Harding, a Marine reviewing the backgrounds of prospective New Zealand brides of American soldiers. Although Barbara intends to remain faithful to her husband, she finds herself attracted to Jack.
Back in Christchurch, Anne is outraged by the lewd comments made by American servicemen in the lingerie shop where she works and writes a letter of complaint to the local paper. Following its publication, Dick is sent to the Leslie home to deliver a formal apology on behalf of the Marine Corps. Anne invites him to dinner, and Dick arrives with a gift of perfume for each sister. Anne accuses him of trying to seduce them.
Soon after, Barbara and Anne learn of Mark's death in North Africa and Dick's departure for active duty. He eventually returns to New Zealand to recuperate from an injury, and a romance between him and Anne blossoms. He proposes, but before the required marital investigation can take place, he is given offshore duty, leaving Anne expecting their child and unsure of what the future holds for them.
Jack arrives at the Leslie home to conduct his investigation of Anne, and he advises her that wartime romances stem from loneliness rather than love. Barbara tells him his assessment is heartless. Shortly after, she discovers Dick's name on the latest casualty list. Weeks later, Jack runs into Barbara at a local dance, where she suggests he uses alcohol to avoid intimacy. He breaks down in her arms, and a strong friendship between the two blossoms.
Jack celebrates Christmas Eve with the Leslie family, which now includes Anne's newborn son. When he announces his imminent departure, he and Barbara share an amorous embrace. Months later, Evelyn's sweetheart Tommy returns from war and proposes to her. Barbara sees an item from Richard's mother in the personals section of the newspaper, containing a request from Dick's mother to hear from any New Zealand family who knew her son. After Barbara writes to her, Dick's mother sends money to finance Anne and her baby's move to Oklahoma to live with their family.
The day of Anne's departure coincides with the Japanese announcing the end of hostilities. Delia has arrived in Wellington to see Anne off and to ask Shiner, recently rescued from a P.O.W. camp, for a divorce so she can leave for America with her latest lover. Infuriated, Shiner kills his wife with a Japanese sword he brought back from the war.
Weeks later, during the murder trial, Jack is forced to reveal his investigation report detailing Delia's seven affairs with American soldiers. Upset that her sister's infidelities seemingly have justified her savage murder, Barbara refuses Jack's invitation to leave New Zealand with him. Upon reflection, she packs her belongings and arrives at Jack's hotel to tell him she's ready to embark upon a new life with him.
Music.
The score for the film was composed and conducted by David Raksin. The title song included lyrics by Sammy Cahn and was performed under the main titles by vocalist Eydie Gorme.
The complete score was issued on CD in 2009, on "Film Score Monthly" records.
Production.
Robert Wise and Mark Robson had originally purchased the rights for Michener's story when they were at RKO. Casting problems forced them to delay the filming when the rights went to Hecht-Hill-Lancaster Productions who were going to cast Burt Lancaster. When the company made "The Kentuckian" instead, MGM acquired the rights, first intending their contract lead Glenn Ford playing the lead Marine. Robert Wise then reacquired the film through MGM in his last film of his contract with the studio.
Wise visited New Zealand to familiarise himself with the nation and the people, but filmed the movie on the MGM back lot.
He had originally intended to shoot the film in colour.
It was Sandra Dee's first film. (The 1957 Soviet animated feature "The Snow Queen" is often listed as Dee's first film credit, because she and other Hollywood stars did the voices for the English-language version, but that English-language audio was not actually made until 1959.)
Stewart Granger was once announced for the lead.
Box office.
According to MGM records the film earned $745,000 in the US and Canada and $675,000 elsewhere, resulting in a loss of $1,055,000.
Critical reception.
Bosley Crowther of "The New York Times" observed, "The genuine tugs at the heart are few and far between in this bittersweet but basically restrained chronicle. Robert Anderson's adaptation . . . is honest and straightforward . . . Unfortunately there is a good deal of introspective soul-searching before this narrative arrives at its sad and happy endings."
William K. Zinsser of the "New York Herald Tribune" wrote that the film "has moments of genuine tenderness and truth."


Arthur Tell Schwab

Arthur Tell Schwab (4 September 1896 – 27 February 1945) was a Swiss race walker. He won an Olympic silver medal over 50 kilometres in Berlin 1936. Two years earlier he had won a silver medal at the European Championships.
His son Erich Arthur Fritz Schwab won an Olympic bronze medal in 1948 and a silver in 1952 over 10 kilometres walk.
He was killed in an air raid bombing during World War II.
Sources.
"This article is based on a translation of an article from the ".


Houma Campaign

The Houma Campaign (侯马战役), also dubbed as Houma Counteroffensive (侯马反击战), was a series of battles fought between the nationalists and the communists during Chinese Civil War in the post World War II era, and resulted in the communist victory.
Order of battle.
Nationalist order of battle:
Communist order of battle:
Campaign.
On 19 January 1946, Yan Xishan ordered his 13th Army Group to deploy its 34th Army from Linfen, and to strike southward along the Tatong-Puzhou Railway. Yan believed that the communists would let their guard down due to the truce signed by Chiang Kai-shek and Mao Zedong in Chongqing on 10 January 1946, and his surprise attack would eradicate communist in his targeted regions. On 21 January 1946, the nationalists succeeded in taking regions to the west of Houma, including Eastern Height Hamlet (Donggaocun, 东高村), Western Height Hamlet (Xigaocun, 西高村), and Horse Village (Mazhuang, 马庄). The nationalists planned to carry out their next goal by driving the enemy into the region to the east of Quwo (曲沃), thus securing the southern section of Tatong-Puzhou Railway. However, the nationalist force was thinly spread when they were dispersed to guard the newly conquered territory, and this weakness was immediately captured and exploited by the enemy.
In the evening of 22 January 1947, Chen Geng concentrated three brigades of the communist 4th Column and launched a surprise attack on the unsuspecting nationalists, who were completely caught off guard. Within a short period of several hours, the nationalist lost an entire division, with over three thousand troops captured by the enemy, including the commander of the 45th Division. After repeated nationalist attacks were beaten back by the stubborn enemy, Yan Xishan was forced to accept defeat by ordering Wang Jingguo to sign a truce with Chen Geng, and the condition prior to the campaign was restored. The biggest winner of the campaign, however, was neither Yan Xishan nor the communists, but Chiang Kai-shek instead. The reason was that no matter who had won, the outcome always benefited Chiang's central government: if Yan had won, the communists would be weakened, and when the communists won, warlord was weakened, and since Chiang's troops were not involved, there was no political fallouts for breaking the truce for Chiang. The communist victory therefore had helped Chiang's central government to reduce the problem of warlords in weakening the local warlord in Shanxi.


C-ration

The C-ration, or Type C ration, was a prepared and canned wet combat ration intended to be issued to U.S. military land forces when fresh food (A-ration) or packaged unprepared food (B-ration) prepared in mess halls or field kitchens was not possible or not available, and when a survival ration (K-ration or D-ration) was insufficient. Development began in 1938 with the first rations being field-tested in 1940 and wide-scale adoption following soon after. Operational conditions often caused the C-ration to be standardized for field issue regardless of environmental suitability or weight limitations.
The C-Ration was replaced in 1958 with the Meal Combat Individual (MCI). Although officially a new ration, the MCI was derived from and very similar to the original C-Ration, and in fact continued to be called "C-Rations" by American troops throughout its production life as a combat ration (1958–1980). Although the replacement for the MCI, the MRE, was formally adopted as the Department of Defense combat ration in 1975, the first large-scale production test did not occur until in 1978 with the first MRE I rations packed and delivered in 1981. While the MRE officially replaced the MCI in 1981, previously packed MCI rations continued to be issued until depleted.
Background and development.
"Iron ration" (1907–1922).
The first U.S attempt to make an individual ration for issue to soldiers in the field was the "iron ration", introduced in 1907. It contained three 3-ounce cakes (made from a concoction of beef bouillon powder and parched and cooked wheat), three 1-ounce bars of sweetened chocolate and packets of salt and pepper. The ration was issued in a sealed tin packet that weighed one pound, to be carried in an infantryman's top tunic pocket, and was designed for emergency use when the troops were unable to be supplied with food. It was later discontinued by the adoption of the "Reserve Ration", but findings from the development and use of the Iron Ration went into the development of the emergency D-ration.
"Reserve ration" (1917–1937).
The Reserve Ration was issued during the later part of World War I to feed troops who were away from a garrison or field kitchen. It originally consisted of of bacon or of meat (usually canned corned beef), two cans of hard bread or hardtack biscuits, a packet of of pre-ground coffee, a packet of of granulated sugar, and a packet of of salt. There was also a separate "tobacco ration" of of tobacco and 10 cigarette rolling papers, later replaced by brand-name machine-rolled cigarettes.
After the war, there were attempts to improve the ration based on input from the field. In 1922, the ration was reorganized to consist of of meat (usually beef jerky), of canned corned beef or chocolate, of hard bread or hardtack biscuits, coffee and sugar. In 1925, the meat ration was replaced with canned pork and beans. In 1936, there was an attempt at variety by having an "A"-menu of corned beef and a "B"-menu of pork and beans. This was cancelled upon introduction of the new Field Ration, Type C, in 1938.
Field ration, Type C (1938–1945).
The original Type C ration, commonly known as the C-Ration, was intended to replace the Reserve Ration as a short-term individual ration designed for short use, to be supplemented by the D-Ration emergency ration.
Development of a replacement for the Reserve Ration was undertaken by the newly formed Quartermaster Subsistence Research and Development Laboratory in Chicago in 1938 with the aim of producing a ration that was more palatable, nutritionally balanced, and had better keeping qualities.
The first Type C ration consisted of a 'meat' unit (M-unit) (reduced to after being field tested during the 1940 Louisiana maneuvers). In the initial Type C ration, there were only three variations of the main course: meat and beans, meat and potato hash, or meat and vegetable stew. Also issued was one bread-and-dessert can, or B-unit. Each daily ration (i.e. enough food for one soldier for one day) consisted of six cans (three M-units and three B-units), while an individual meal consisted of one M-unit and one B-unit. The original oblong can was replaced with the more common cylindrical design in June 1939 due to mass production problems with the former shape of can.
The C-Ration can was about tall and in diameter. It was made of non-corrugated tinplate, had a visible tin solder seam, and incorporated an opening strip. A key for use on the opening strip was soldered to the base of every B unit can.
The first C-Ration cans had an aluminized finish, but in late 1940, this was changed to a gold lacquer finish to improve corrosion resistance. There was noticeable variation in the depth of gold color in World War II vintage cans, because of the large number of suppliers involved. Late in the war this was changed to drab green paint, which remained standard through the remainder of the C-ration’s service life, as well as that of its (very similar) successor, the Meal Combat Individual (MCI).
During the war, soldiers frequently requested that the cylindrical cans be replaced with flat, rectangular ones (similar to a sardine can), comparable to those used in the earliest versions of contemporary K rations, because of their compactness and packability; but this was deemed impractical because of the shortage of commercial machinery available to produce rectangular cans. After 1942 the K ration too, reverted to the use of small round cans.
Initially, C-Ration cans were marked only with paper labels, which soon fell off and made a guessing game out of evening meals; US Soldiers and Marines receiving an unpopular menu item several nights in a row often found themselves powerless to bargain for a more palatable one.
The C-Ration was, in general, not well liked by U.S. Army or Marine forces in World War II, who found the cans heavy and cumbersome, and the menu monotonous after a short period of time. There were also inevitable problems with product consistency given the large number of suppliers involved and the pressures of wartime production. When issued to British or other Commonwealth forces formerly issued hardtack and bully beef-type rations, the C ration was initially accepted, but monotony also became a chief complaint after a few days of consumption. Australian forces tended to dislike the C ration, finding the canned food items generally bland, overly soft in texture, and unappealing. Originally intended only for infrequent use, the exigencies of combat sometimes forced supply authorities to make the C ration the only source of sustenance for several weeks in succession. In 1943, a ration board reviewing medical examinations of soldiers after long-term use of Type C rations recommended that they be restricted to a maximum of five continuous days in the absence of supplementation with other rations.
While the initial specification was officially declared obsolete in 1945, and production of all Type C rations ended in 1958, existing stockpiles of both original and revised Type C rations continued to be issued to troops serving in Korea and even as late as the Vietnam War. A Marine tank commander serving in Vietnam in 1968 noted his unit was frequently supplied with older stocks of C rations, complete with early 1950s dates on the cans.
"M" Unit.
The M-unit contained a canned entrée originally made of stew meat (a mixture of beef and pork) seasoned with salt, various spices, and chopped onions. They initially came in three varieties: Meat Stew with Beans, Meat with Vegetable Hash, and Meat Stew with Vegetables (carrots and potatoes). The commonplace nature of the menu was intentional, and designed to duplicate the menu items (hash, stews, etc.) soldiers were normally served as A- or B-rations in Army mess halls.
Another new menu item, "Meat & Spaghetti in Tomato Sauce", was added in 1943. In late 1944 "Chopped Ham, Egg, and Potato", "Meat and Noodles", "Pork and Rice", "Frankfurters and Beans", "Pork and Beans", "Ham and Lima Beans", and "Chicken and Vegetables" were introduced in an attempt to increase the C rations' period of continuous use. The unpopular Meat Hash and equally unpopular experimental "Mutton Stew with Vegetables" meal were dropped. In the final revision, "Beef Stew with Vegetables" was added in 1945. By all accounts, after the meat hash and mutton stew, the Ham and Lima Beans entree was the most unpopular; despite continued negative field reports, it inexplicably remained a standard entree item not only during World War II, but also during the Korean War and Vietnam War.
"B" Unit.
The B-unit (bread and dessert portion) contained several calorie-dense crackers, 3 sugar tablets, 3 dextrose energy tablets, and a packet or small can of beverage mix (instant coffee, powdered synthetic lemon drink, containing the rations' main source of vitamin C; or bouillon soup powder). Later revisions added orange drink powder (1944), sweetened cocoa powder (1944), and grape drink powder (1945), all enriched with Vitamin C, to the list of beverages. In 1941, the energy tablets were replaced with loose candy, such as candy-coated peanuts or raisins, Charms hard candy, or Brachs chocolate or vanilla caramels. Due to spoilage, the loose candy was replaced in 1944 with a chocolate disk (e.g. Brachs fudge disk) or a cookie sandwich (e.g., Jim Dandee), and the number of biscuits was reduced to 4.
Another B-unit, consisting of pre-mixed oatmeal cereal, was introduced in 1944 as a breakfast ration that was usually paired with the "Ham, Egg, and Potato" Meal.
Accessory pack.
The inclusion of additional accessories and condiments led to the development of an accessory package.
The brown butcher paper accessory pack contained sugar tablets, halazone water purification tablets (for a brief period in 1945), a flat wooden spoon, a piece of candy-coated chewing gum, 3 "short" sample 3-packs or one "long" sample 9-pack of commercial-grade cigarettes and a book of 20 cardboard moisture-resistant matches, a paper-wrapped P-38 can opener printed with instructions for its proper use, and typically 22.5 sheets of toilet paper (compared to 3 sheets for the British Army). The P-38 can openers were generally worn on the GI's "dog tag" chain to facilitate opening the next meal's cans.
In 1945, the accessory pack was modified. Per the order of the Surgeon General, the halazone tablets were removed and salt tablets were added. Also, feedback from the field revealed that some soldiers opened up accessory packs just to get the cigarettes and threw away the rest of the items. To reduce waste, the accessory pack was now divided into the "short" pack with cigarettes and matches, and the "long" pack containing the other accessories.
Cigarette brands issued included Camel, Chelsea, Chesterfield, Craven A, Lucky Strike, Old Gold, Philip Morris, Player's, Raleigh, and Wings.
Crates.
The rations came packed in a small rectangular wooden crate that weighed 40 lbs. and had a volume of 1.12 cubic feet. Each crate contained 8 daily rations of 3 meals each for a total of 24 "M" units, 24 "B" units, and 24 accessory packs.
Early rations came with a variety of 8 "Meat and Beans", 8 "Meat & Vegetable Hash", and 8 "Meat & Vegetable Stew" "M" units and 24 "B" units. Later rations (c.1944–1945) added a breakfast meal of 8 "Chopped Ham, Egg, & Potato" "M"-units and 8 "Compressed Cereal" "B"-units in place of the "Meat and Vegetable Hash". Alternate "M"-unit menu items came packed in cases of 24 "M" units (and 24 "B" units) rather than a mixed 8-8-8 menu like the main items.
Field ration, Type E (1946–1948).
After World War II there was an attempt to combine the best features of the C-ration and the K-ration into a new individual ration. Called the E-ration, it was for all intents and purposes the same canned C-ration, with the addition of some new components. In field testing, the bread component of the E-ration was found to be so unpalatable that the E-ration was quickly dropped from classification and inventory.
Ration, Individual, Combat, Type C (Revised) (1948–1958).
After the failure of the E-Ration, ration planners decided to save costs by returning to the basic C-ration designation, intermittently revised with new menus and item specifications.
Type C-2 ration (1948–1951).
The C-2 ration was described in TB-QM-53, Department of the Army, dated March 1948, as an individual ration which consisted of packaged pre-cooked foods which could be eaten hot or cold. It replaced the World War II C-Ration, and later, the short-lived E-Ration. It could be carried and prepared by the individual soldier. The revised C-Ration was now intended for feeding combat troops continuously, up to three weeks (21 days). Due to the required individual portability of this ration, maximum nourishment had to be provided in the smallest physical unit. The components of this ration were prepared in five different menus.
Each menu included an accessory packet which consisted of essential toilet articles, tobacco, and confections.
Type C-3 ration (1951–1953).
In 1951, a new C-3 menu for the Type C ration was introduced. The C-3 ration was composed of the same five menus of the C-2, but offered greater variety. In addition to new and improved “B” (bread) and “M” (meat) units, each menu contained an accessory packet, fruit, and cigarettes. The ration was very heavy, weighing 5 lbs. 8.5 oz. [2.5 kg.], and was packed in 8 small cans in a cardboard box. There were 6 daily ration boxes per cardboard case.
Field cooking equipment was not required for the preparation of this ration. The C-3 ration was more adequate than the original C ration in respect to its nutritional value.
Type C-4 ration (1954–1958).
In 1954, the C-4 ration was developed as a modification of the C-3 ration, and was called Ration, Combat, Individual. It included the issue of two cans of fruit for 2 meals to replace the one can issued for one meal in the C-3 ration.
A sample C-4 ration (stamped March 1954) contained:
End of the C-Ration.
At its introduction, the QMC stated that the Type C ration was intended for short-term use for periods not to exceed three days. After the war, in light of field evaluation reports of monotony, the QMC Food Services Branch used this limitation as a defense to the largely negative response to the C ration during the war, while at the same time advocating standardization on the C-Ration as the sole individual packaged ration for U.S. troops. Not only did the QMC decide not to develop or introduce new alternative lightweight individual rations, it successfully campaigned for the elimination of alternatives, including the K-ration, Mountain ration, Jungle ration, and even the 10-in-1 group ration (which had proven somewhat useful in boosting nourishment and alleviating complaints of monotony for men living for extended periods on C-Rations or K-Rations).
Instead, the C-Ration, still designated as a packaged ration intended for infrequent or short-term use, went through a series of largely unsuccessful minor revisions. This decision resulted in limiting troops in the field to a single class of packaged ration that despite meal variances, was neither suited to varied field environments nor for long-term use. Troops continued to complain of the monotony of a single class of field ration with one or more unpalatable menu items, especially where A and B rations were not available for extended periods.
Primarily implemented due to cost concerns, the selection of a heavy canned wet ration resulted in a severe weight penalty for troops marching on foot and forced to carry a multi-day supply of rations. The overuse of the canned wet ration reached an extreme during the Vietnam War, where American troops resorted to placing stacked ration cans in socks to save bulk and reduce noise on patrol, while their enemy increased their mobility by carrying lightweight rations of dry rice. The Quartermaster Branch's insistence on canned wet rations for all postwar field issue, and the failure to develop a suitable lightweight dehydrated or other dry ration for jungle and other extreme environments led directly to the hurried development of the LRP ration or Long Range Patrol ration in 1966.
Starting in 1958, C-Rations were slowly replaced by the nearly identical canned Meal, Combat, Individual ration.
These rations were issued for most of the next two plus decades, until they were replaced by Meal Ready to Eat or MREs in the early 1980s.
Influence.
The C-Rations during the Korean War led later to the introduction of instant coffee to South Korea.


Zhong Wanxie

Zhong Wanxie (; born 24 February 1934), also known as Wan-Xie Zhong, is a Chinese civil engineer and physicist. He is a professor at the Dalian University of Technology who specializes in computational mechanics and engineering mechanics. He pioneered computational mechanics in China and served as the founding Chairman of the Chinese Association for Computational Mechanics and an executive committee member of the International Association for Computational Mechanics. He was elected an academician of the Chinese Academy of Sciences in 1993.
Biography.
Zhong was born in 24 February 1934 in Shanghai, Republic of China. His father, Zhong Zhaolin (钟兆琳), was a distinguished professor of electrical engineering at Shanghai Jiao Tong University. After graduating from Tongji University in 1956, he entered the Institute of Mechanics of the Chinese Academy of Sciences and studied under Qian Weichang and Hu Haichang. From 1958, he taught mechanics at the University of Science and Technology of China.
In 1962, on the recommendation of Hu Haichang, Zhong was transferred to the Dalian University of Technology (DUT) to work under Qian Lingxi. Their collaboration soon bore fruit. They published two papers in "Science in China" and "Acta Mechanica Sinica", on the "general variational theory of limit analysis and plasticity". The research was used in submarine design and was awarded national prizes. He remained a professor at DUT for the rest of his career.
In the early 1970s, Zhong pioneered computational mechanics, the use of computer technology in mechanics, in China. He led a team of scientists, including Cheng Gengdong, that designed engineering software using group theory. It was successfully used to design major projects such as the Shanghai TV Tower, the Liaoning Indoor Stadium, and the Shanghai Indoor Stadium.
In 1984, he was elected the first chairman of the newly established Chinese Association for Computational Mechanics (CACM). Two years later, he was elected an executive committee member of the International Association for Computational Mechanics (IACM).
Zhong was elected an academician of the Chinese Academy of Sciences in 1993. He was awarded the State Natural Science Award multiple times and the Ho Leung Ho Lee Prize in Mathematics and Mechanics. He is an honorary professor of the University of Hong Kong and the University of Wales.


Mano Gai airstrike

The Mano Gai or Manogi airstrike was the killing of Afghan children in Mano Gai, Dara-I-Pech District, Kunar province, Afghanistan on March 1, 2011.
Nine boys aged 8–14 were killed by gunfire from NATO helicopters while collecting firewood for their family.
The next day hundreds of Afghan villagers protested the killing chanting slogans against the United States and the Afghan government as they marched to the bombing site. General David Petraeus said "We are deeply sorry" while Mohammed Bismil, the 20-year-old brother of two boys killed in the strike said "I don't care about the apology. The only option I have is to pick up a Kalashnikov, RPG or a suicide vest to fight." President Hamid Karzai called the attack "ruthless".


800 Heroes Song

The 800 Heroes Song, also known by the title "China Will Not Perish", is a Chinese patriotic song from the Second Sino-Japanese War. The song was written to commemorate the heroic efforts of the lone battalion of the National Revolutionary Army in the Defense of Sihang Warehouse during the final stage of the Battle of Shanghai (1937).
After winning the war of resistance against Japan and knowing China was certainly not going to perish, the Chinese Nationalist Government changed the title and lyrics to "China Shall be Strong" ().


The Ground Truth

The Ground Truth (also known as The Ground Truth: After the Killing Ends) is a 2006 documentary film about veterans of the Iraq War. It was directed and produced by Patricia Foulkrod.
Plot.
The film addresses the issues many soldiers face upon their return from the War in Iraq, including problems with posttraumatic stress disorder and an inability to meld back into "normal" society. The film includes footage of soldiers in Iraq and personal interviews with about two dozen people directly affected by the war (either veterans or family members/friends of veterans). The veterans, both men and women, speak of their experiences before, during, and after the war. The veterans speak about recruitment and training, combat, their returns home, facing their families, and their difficulties in making the necessary changes needed to fit back into society. The Ground Truth was released in theatres on September 15 of 2006 and released on DVD on September 26 of the same year. People can sign up to host screenings of the film online at The Ground Truth or view a low-resolution copy online, see bottom. l
About the soldiers and veterans.
The soldiers give their accounts of being in the U.S. military and stationed in Iraq. They focus on their experiences before, there, and the dealings afterwards.
Before stationed, they joined the military forces and went through basic training. In basic training they mention such concepts as desensitization and depersonalization. The accounts given for the experiences in Iraq consist of the injuries to their physical bodies and to their own mentality. After they were discharged, they have to face and adapt back to the world they lived in before being stationed. Many mention the idea of post traumatic stress disorder, while also the adaptations made to their injuries; such as an amputated limb.
The accounts.
Robert Acosta is a specialist in the U.S. Army and felt his time in the army saved him from facing time in prison. He lost his right hand and part of his right foot in Iraq in a grenade explosion.
Charles Anderson served in the U.S. Navy from 1996-2005, serving time in Iraq in 2003. When discharged he was diagnosed with posttraumatic stress disorder. Upon his return from the war, Anderson became actively involved in the anti-war effort and publicly supported increased government-provided care for veterans returning from Iraq.
Aidan Delgado was a specialist in the U.S. Army Reserve. Delgado served in Iraq in 2003 and was discharged in 2005. After finishing his service in Iraq, he became active in an anti-war program where he spoke publicly about what he felt to be the truth about Iraq. He also became a member of Iraq Veterans Against the War and the Buddhist Peace Fellowship.
Kelly Doughtery served as a medic and military policewoman in the U.S. Army National Guard. Kelly spent a year in Iraq from 2003-2004. After returning home, she became the co-founder and Southwest Coordinator for Iraq Veterans Against the War. She also gave worldwide speeches expressing her views on the war.
Jim Driscoll helped found Vets4Vets, an organization which provides peer support for veterans.
Sean Huze served as a corporal in the U.S. Marine Corps. He served in Iraq in 2003. Upon his dischange, he was awarded a Navy and Marine Corps Achievement Medal, Certificate of Commendation, the Combat Action Ribbon, the Presidential Unit Citation, the Global War on Terrorism Expeditionary Medal, Global War on Terrorism Service Medal, Good Conduct Medal, the National Defense Service Medal, and the Sea Service Deployment Ribbon. After his return he became involved in theatre and used dramatic art and expression to address the issue of posttraumatic stress disorder. He founded and is currently the artistic director for The VetStage Foundation, a non-profit theatre company for veterans.
Denver Jones was a U.S. Army Sergeant after serving in DS, Desert Storm and re-enlisted initially in Army Reserve/NG (with the rank of PFC) to serve in Iraq after the attacks on 9/11. Denver lost his higher rank status, due to prior service rules at the ]]time, and his determined desire to serve, as soon as possible. During his service he was involved in a PLS accident, which shattered his lower spine as well as receiving head injury, severe enough to bust two molars and brain damage. These injuries resulted in loss of use of his bladder and bowels, as well as the use of his Legs. The accident left him completely disabled. Jones suffered from posttraumatic stress disorder after his return from Iraq. Jones also has other disabilities as well as being divorced due to his injuries. However he chooses not to ask for credit by reporting his awards and various MOS.(military Job classification)
Joyce and Kevin Lucey became involved in the anti-war effort after their son (Jeffery Lucey – a 23-year-old veteran of the Iraq war) committed suicide. Jefferey had spent five months in Iraq in 2003, and fought in the Battle of Nasiriyah. He suffered from posttraumatic stress disorder after the war.
Camilo Mejía is a sergeant in the U.S. Army National Guard and fought in Iraq for a period of six months. After his return to America, he began to speak publicly about his experiences and disagreement with the War in Iraq.
Demond Mullins enlisted in the U.S. Army National Guard and served five years. He was deployed to Iraq for one year in 2004. After his return he joined Iraq Veterans Against the War.
Perry O'Brien was discharged as a conscientious objector (CO) after spending eight months in Afghanistan with the 82nd Airborne. He later founded Peace-Out, a website offering assistance to soldiers wishing to obtain CO status. He also became a member of Iraq Veterans Against the War and Veterans for Peace.
Paul Rieckhoff served as a platoon leader in Iraq. After returning home, he joined the anti-war effort by trying to spread word of what he felt are the true conditions soldiers in Iraq face. He is the creator of the Iraq and Afghanistan Veterans of America.
Stephen L. Robinson is a former Airborne Ranger and instructor at Ranger School. From September 2001 to January 2006, he served as Executive Director of the National Gulf War Resource Center. Robinson has been recognized as an expert on chemical and biological weapons and on Gulf War Illness. He served in the Gulf War, and also on the Veterans Affairs Research Advisory Committee on Gulf War Illnesses, and also as a Special Advisor for Vietnam Veterans of America. Robinson also became involved as the Government Relations Director for Veterans of America.
Awards and critical acclaim.
At the 2006 Sundance and Nantucket Film Festivals, critics hailed The Ground Truth as "powerful" and "quietly unflinching." The film has caused a great deal of critical controversy, mostly over its dealings with the sensitive subject of the Iraq War. The film has also been mentioned/critiqued in notable sources such as Newsweek, Time Magazine, The New Yorker, USA Today, and the New York Times. The film was one of 15 on the Oscar "short list" for the 2007 Academy Awards.
Associated organizations.
10% of proceeds from the sale of "The Ground Truth" DVDs go to Operation Helmet. Other associated organizations include Iraq Veterans Against the War, AMVETS, Appeal for Redress, Iraq and Afghanistan Veterans of America, the National Center for PTSD, the National Veterans Foundation, Purple Hearts Project, Soldiers Project, US Vets, Veterans for America, Veterans of Foreign Wars, Wounded Warrior Project, Vets 4 Vets, and several faith-based and student organizations.


Military Vicariate of Brazil


Sifis Valirakis

Iosif (Sifis) Valirakis (, 12 March 1943 – 24 January 2021) was a Greek politician of the historic Panhellenic Socialist Movement (PASOK) cadre. His first name, the Greek form of Joseph, is commonly represented in its Cretan diminutive "Sifis" ("Joe"), by which he is popularly known.
Life.
He was born in 1943 in Chania on the island of Crete. His father, Ioannis Valirakis, was an officer in the Hellenic Army and a member of the Centre Union party. He studied electrical engineering in Germany and Sweden, with a specialization in industrial automation. He spoke English, German and Swedish in addition to Greek.
Anti-junta activity.
As a leading member of the anti-junta resistance and of the armed branch of the Panhellenic Liberation Movement, Valirakis was wanted by the Greek military regime for three years for bombings and was finally apprehended in 1971 and jailed by the Special Investigative Section (ETA) of the Greek Military Police (ESA). Nevertheless, he escaped by cutting the bars of his cell and causing a short-circuit in the jail's electrical grid. He remained on the loose in Athens for fifteen days before fleeing his safe house for Patras, where he hopped on the roof of a train that was heading to Yugoslavia. Unluckily for him, the train stopped for provisioning at the border, and he was captured and retaken into custody. After that incident, he was transported to a prison on the island of Corfu, to a new cell with extra strong bars.
At length he made another escape, this time by swimming to Albania. He avoided hypothermia by covering himself with butter stolen from a prison kitchen, and kept his clothes dry in a nylon bag. But when he got there, the regime of Enver Hoxha thought that he was a spy for the Greek junta, and initially sentenced him to three years hard labour at a camp near Fier. The conditions at Fier were worse than the military prisons under the junta in Greece, and for fifteen days he was cold, over-worked and on punishment, in which he was permitted fifteen grammes of meat in the morning, his sole ration for each day in that period. However, he was fortunate at that time as Andreas Papandreou was mobilizing his contacts in the international Maoist and Sinophile movements — Albania at that time was a major satellite of Maoist China — to save him. At long last, the then-Sovereign Prince and once-and-future King of Cambodia, Norodom Sihanouk, a close friend of Andreas Papandreou, intervened with the Chinese, who then intervened with the Albanians, and thus Sifis Valirakis was released.
Political career.
After the fall of the junta, he was elected to parliament the first time for Andreas Papandreou's Panhellenic Socialist Movement (PASOK) in 1977. He was appointed Deputy Minister of Transport and Communications (October 1981 - November 1984), Deputy Minister of Culture and Sport (July 1985 - June 1988), Deputy Minister of Public Order (June 1988 - July 1989 and July 1994 - March 1995) and Minister of Public Order (March 1995 - January 1996).
On 1 February 2009, Sifis Valirakis was detained for several hours by American authorities immediately after his arrival at the airport in New York, because of the revocation of the visa for which he had applied. That restriction brought to the fore Valirakis' old hostility against the United States government, which in the decade of the 1980s had theorized him to be the "founder" of the Revolutionary Organization 17 November.
He was married to the noted painter Mina Papatheodorou-Valiraki, who has earned many international accolades for her works. The couple had two children.
Death.
On the morning of 24 January 2021, Valirakis went alone on a small boat trip on the coast of Eretria, Euboea, Greece. At about 12:00 local time, his wife tried to contact him but there was no signal. After trying again, with no results, she alerted police and coast guards that her husband was not traceable. His boat was then found near the scene, with the engine running. Valiraki's body was later found on the evening of the same day, and was declared dead at the scene. He was 77.


28 Bolsheviks

The 28 (and a half) Bolsheviks (二十八个半布尔什维克) were a group of Chinese students who studied at the Moscow Sun Yat-sen University from the late 1920s until early 1935, also known as the "Returned Students". The university was founded in 1925 as a result of Kuomintang's founder Sun Yat-Sen's policy of alliance with the Soviet Union, and was named after him. The university had an important influence on modern Chinese history by educating many prominent Chinese political figures. The most famous of these were collectively called the 28 Bolsheviks.
Members.
There are several rival lists of the 28. One lists 29 active members, including: Wang Ming and his wife Meng Qingshu (孟庆树); Bo Gu; Zhang Wentian; Wang Jiaxiang; Yang Shangkun; Chen Changhao with his wife Du Zuoxiang (杜作祥); Shen Zemin and his wife Zhang Qinqiu; Kai Feng; Xia Xi; He Zishu; Sheng Zhongliang; Wang Baoli (王宝礼); Wang Shengrong (王盛荣); Wang Yuncheng; Zhu Agen; Zhu Zishun (朱自舜, female); Sun Jimin (孙济民); Song Panmin; Chen Yuandao; Li Zhusheng; Li Yuanjie (李元杰); Wang Shengdi (汪盛荻); Xiao Tefu (肖特甫); Yin Jian; Yuan Jiayong, Xu Yixin. The extra person can be attributed to Xu Yixin because of his pendulous left and right stances, and thus this group is also known as "28 and a half Bolsheviks".
Rise and fall.
With support from their mentor Pavel Mif, president of Sun Yat-sen University and envoy of Comintern at that time, they returned to China after graduating. This provoked a struggle with Li Lisan and his allies, who controlled the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). Dissidents against Li inside the Party also objected to their return, but, in the 4th Plenary Meeting of the Communist Party's 6th National Congress, and with the presence and direct support of Pavel Mif, Wang Ming and his group won a landslide victory. Wang was elected to the Communist Party's politburo, while Bo Gu and Zhang Wentian took up other, equally important, positions.
As a result, the conflict between the Central Committee and Mao Zedong's fledgling Chinese Soviet Republic began once again. Although Wang Ming returned to Moscow after a short stay in Shanghai, Bo Gu and Zhang Wentian both took the position of General Secretary of Central Committee of the Party in turn, and led the Chinese revolution in a radical manner.
Following Chiang Kai-shek's Shanghai massacre of 1927, the CCP went deep underground in Shanghai and other cities. By the early 1930s, even that was unsafe and leaders began to converge at Mao Zedong's Jiangxi Soviet. Among the first to arrive, and to begin dismantling Mao's power, was Zhou Enlai. In 1933, when Bo Gu arrived, the job was mostly finished.
After a series of successful defenses against Nationalist Army attacks, Chiang's German advisers switched tactics and began building concentric circles of fortified positions closer and closer to the communist base. This forced the party to embark in the famous Long March of October 1934 to October 1935. Shortly after the march began, party leaders held an enlarged congress to determine the direction and leadership of the revolution. At the Zunyi Conference in 1935, the 28 Bolsheviks were defeated by Mao Zedong and his allies, primarily due to the backing of Zhou Enlai and Zhu De.
Bo Gu supported the Comintern military advisor Otto Braun, while Zhang and Wang Jiaxiang, General Commissar of the Red Army, and Yang Shangkun, Commissar of the Third Field Army of Red Army at that time, defected to Mao. This led to the disintegration of the 28 Bolsheviks. Wang Ming was exiled to Moscow where he later died. Zhang was demoted to the field of ideological research in Yan'an, and later appointed Deputy Foreign Minister after 1949. He died during the Cultural Revolution after forming a "counterrevolutionary group" with Peng Dehuai. Bo Gu died in an air crash in the 1940s when he returned to Yan'an.
Disputes.
The standard Western interpretation is that the group neglected the contribution of peasants who contributed to the success of Mao's Mobile Warfare. That, and as protégés of Pavel Mif, they thought they were destined to take charge of the Chinese revolution.
Thomas Kampen's "Mao Zedong, Zhou Enlai and the Evolution of the Chinese Communist Leadership" argues that they were only a coherent group in Moscow, opposed to both Kuomintang and Trotskyist influences among Chinese students. It's also claimed that they did return to China at various times, but failed to form an effective faction. Additionally, there are questions as to whether the entire group gained notoriety only by association with the theories of the most prominent member, Wang Ming. Frederick Litten writes agreeing with Kampen that there was no such faction in the Jiangxi Soviet and goes further to question whether the group acted in any kind of coordinated way at all. Litten's view is that the idea of a 'Leftist' versus 'Maoist' dichotomy at this time is a later invention retrospectively applied.
The 28 Bolsheviks became pawns in the power struggle between their mentor, Pavel Mif, and the Communist Party of China. The group's members were relatively innocent in the ways of revolution, despite their collective power. Although its members had different fates, as a group the 28 Bolsheviks were destined to fail. Today in China, "the 28 Bolsheviks" is synonymous with dogmatism.


Dimitris Soulas

Dimitris Soulas () (born 1938), is a former Greek photojournalist. He worked as an independent photojournalist in Germany between 1967 and 1974.
Soulas was born in 1938 in Thessaloniki from a family originated from Souli. For the years 1960 to 1965, he studied Economics at the Wolfgang Goethe University of Frankfurt and Sociology at the Institute for Social Research. After his studies, he began working in the marketing department of the fruit import company "Atlanta Handelsgesellschaft Harder & Co.", in Munich. On April 1967, Soulas co-founded with other Greek people living in Munich, the "Panhellenic Anti-junta Association" against the 1967-1974 military regime of Greece. Because of his participation in the anti-junta movement, he had his Greek passport withdrawn and was denied entry to the country. Also, the Greek Junta authorities exerted pressure to the company Soulas was working, which asked Soulas to quit the Anti-junta Association. After his denial to quit he was fired from his position in the company.
After his dismissal, he began working as a freelance photojournalist selling his photos to newspapers. Soon, he became an associate of the Associated Press, while newspapers of Munich assigned projects to him. During his career as a photojournalist, he worked for notable magazines of Germany, such as Stern, Quick, Neue Revue, and worked with Magnum agency.
In 1974, after the Greek Junta collapse, he returned in Greece. Estimating that photojournalism had still not matured in Greece, he decided to quit working as a professional photographer and he turned toward business and trade. In 1977 he established an import business for children's toys and subsequently worked as a marketing consultant. Now, he lives in Garmisch and Thessaloniki and works in a film documentary.
In 2004, Soulas donated his archive to the Fotomuseum of the Munich Stadtmuseum. In 2008, the Museum organized a retrospective exhibition on the work of Dimitris Soulas which was shown in many European cities.