Walter Bayley

Walter Bayley (1529–1593), was an English physician.
Life.
Bayley, called in Latin Bailæus and in English books also Baley and Baily, was born at Portesham, Dorset, in which county his father was a squire. He was educated at Winchester School, and became a fellow of New College in 1550. He graduated M.B. 1557, and M.D. 1563. He was already in holy orders, and was a canon of Wells until 1579. In 1561 he had been appointed regius professor of physic at Oxford University.
In 1566, he married Anne Evans, who lived in Oxford, and they had two sons and four daughters, one of the latter marrying Bayley’s successor as regius professor of medicine.
Queen Elizabeth made him one of her physicians, he entered the service of Robert Dudley, 1st Earl of Leicester, and was elected fellow of the College of Physicians in 1581. Latterly, he lived in London. He enjoyed large practice, and died in 1592–3. He is buried in the Chapel of New College, and his son William put up a tablet to his memory.
Works.
"A Brief Treatise of the Preservation of the Eyesight" is the best known of Bayley's works. It appeared in 1586, and was reprinted in 1616 at Oxford. Mainly it is an exposition in English of the opinions on its topic of Rhases, Avicenna, Arnaldus de Villa Nova, and other medieval authorities.The book contains an observation of his own, recording how one Hoorde preserved his sight till over 84 years of age, by the use of eye-bright, in ale and eggs. It also comments on the new method of brewing that had come in during Queen Elizabeth's reign, with some still preferring ale made with "grout" (a plant used before hops, according to the "Oxford English Dictionary").
In 1587 Bayley published "A Brief Discourse of Certain Bathes of Medicinal Waters in the County of Warwick." He also wrote "A Short Discourse of the Three Kinds of Pepper in Common Use."


Bacterial nanowires

Bacterial nanowires (also known as microbial nanowires) are electrically conductive appendages produced by a number of bacteria most notably from (but not exclusive to) the "Geobacter" and "Shewanella" genera. Conductive nanowires have also been confirmed in the oxygenic cyanobacterium "Synechocystis" PCC6803 and a thermophilic, methanogenic coculture consisting of "Pelotomaculum thermopropionicum" and "Methanothermobacter thermoautotrophicus". From physiological and functional perspectives, bacterial nanowires are diverse. The precise role microbial nanowires play in their biological systems has not been fully realized, but several proposed functions exist. Outside of a naturally occurring environment, bacterial nanowires have shown potential to be useful in several fields, notably the bioenergy and bioremediation industries.
Physiology.
"Geobacter" nanowires were originally thought to be modified pili, which are used to establish connections to terminal electron acceptors during some types of anaerobic respiration. Further research has shown that "Geobacter" nanowires are composed of stacked cytochromes, namely OmcS and OmcZ. Despite being physiologically distinct from pili, bacterial nanowires are often described as pili anyway due to the initial misconception upon their discovery. These stacked cytochrome nanowires form a seamless array of hemes which stabilize the nanowire via pi-stacking and provide a path for electron transport. Species of the genus "Geobacter" use nanowires to transfer electrons to extracellular electron acceptors (such as Fe(III) oxides). This function was discovered through the examination of mutants, whose nanowires could attach to the iron, but would not reduce it.
"Shewanella" nanowires are also not technically pili, but extensions of the outer membrane that contain the decaheme outer membrane cytochromes MtrC and OmcA. The reported presence of outer membrane cytochromes, and lack of conductivity in nanowires from the MtrC and OmcA-deficient mutant directly support the proposed multistep hopping mechanism for electron transport through "Shewanella" nanowires.
Additionally, nanowires can facilitate long-range electron transfer across thick "biofilm" layers. By connecting to other cells around them, nanowires allow bacteria located in anoxic conditions to still use oxygen as their terminal electron acceptor. For example, organisms in the genus "Shewanella" have been observed to form electrically conductive nanowires in response to electron-acceptor limitation.
History.
The concept of electromicrobiology has been around since the early 1900s when a series of discoveries found cells capable of producing electricity. It was demonstrated for the first time in 1911 by Michael Cressé Potter that cells could convert chemical energy to electrical energy. It wasn't until 1988 that extracellular electron transport (EET) was observed for the first time with the independent discoveries of "Geobacter" and "Shewanella" bacteria and their respective nanowires. Since their discoveries, other nanowire containing microbes have been identified, but they remain the most intensively studied. In 1998, EET was observed in a microbial fuel cell setting for the first time using "Shewanella" bacteria to reduce an Fe(III) electrode. In 2010, bacterial nanowires were shown to have facilitated the flow of electricity into "Sporomusa" bacteria. This was the first observed instance of EET used to draw electrons from the environment into a cell. Research persists to date to explore the mechanisms, implications, and potential applications of nanowires and the biological systems they are a part of.
Implications and potential applications.
Biological implications.
Microorganisms have shown to use nanowires to facilitate the use of extracellular metals as terminal electron acceptors in an electron transport chain. The high reduction potential of the metals receiving electrons is capable of driving a considerable ATP production. Aside from that, the extent of the implications brought on by the existence of bacterial nanowires is not fully realized. It has been speculated nanowires may function as conduits for electron transport between different members of a microbial community. This has potential to allow for regulatory feedback or other communication between members of the same or even different microbial species.   Some organisms are capable of both expelling and taking in electrons through nanowires. Those species would likely be able to oxidize extracellular metals by using them as an electron or energy source to facilitate energy consuming cellular processes. Microbes also could potentially use nanowires to temporarily store electrons on metals. Building up an electron concentration on a metal anode would create a battery of sorts that the cells could later use to fuel metabolic activity. While these potential implications provide a reasonable hypothesis towards the role of the bacterial nanowire in a biological system, more research is needed to fully understand the extent of how cellular species benefit from nanowire use.
Bioenergy applications in microbial fuel cells.
In microbial fuel cells (MFCs), bacterial nanowires generate electricity via extracellular electron transport to the MFC's anode. Nanowire networks have been shown to enhance the electricity output of MFCs with efficient and long-range conductivity. In particular, bacterial nanowires of "Geobacter sulfurreducens" possess metallic-like conductivity, producing electricity at levels comparable to those of synthetic metallic nanostructures. When bacterial strains are genetically manipulated to boost nanowire formation, higher electricity yields are generally observed. Coating the nanowires with metal oxides also further promotes electrical conductivity. Additionally, these nanowires can transport electrons up to centimeter-scale distances. Long-range electron transfer via microbial nanowire networks allows viable cells that are not in direct contact with an anode to contribute to electron flow.
To date, the currency produced by bacterial nanowires is very low. Across a biofilm 7 micrometers thick, a current density of around 17 microamperes per square centimeter and a voltage of around 0.5 volts was reported.
Other significant applications.
Microbial nanowires of "Shewanella" and "Geobacter" have been shown to aid in bioremediation of uranium contaminated groundwater. To demonstrate this, scientists compared and observed the concentration of uranium removed by piliated and nonpiliated strains of "Geobacter." Through a series of controlled experiments, they were able to deduce that nanowire present strains were more effective at the mineralization of uranium as compared to nanowire absent mutants.
Further significant application of bacterial nanowires can be seen in the bioelectronics industry. With sustainable resources in mind, scientists have proposed the future use of biofilms of "Geobacter" as a platform for functional under water transistors and supercapacitors, capable of self-renewing energy.
On 20 April 2020 researchers demonstrated a diffusive memristor fabricated from protein nanowires of the bacterium "Geobacter sulfurreducens" which functions at substantially lower voltages than the ones previously described and may allow the construction of artificial neurons which function at voltages of biological action potentials. Bacterial nanowires vary from traditionally utilized silicon nanowires by showing an increased degree of biocompatibility. More research is needed, but the memristors may eventually be used to directly process biosensing signals, for neuromorphic computing and/or direct communication with biological neurons.


Abella

Abella, often known as Abella of Salerno or Abella of Castellomata, was a physician in the mid fourteenth century. Abella studied and taught at the Salerno School of Medicine. Abella is believed to have been born around 1380, but the exact time of her birth and death is unclear. Abella lectured on standard medical practices, bile, and women's health and nature at the medical school in Salerno. Abella, along with Rebecca de Guarna, specialized in the area of embryology. She published two treatises: De atrabile (On Black Bile) and De natura seminis humani (on the Nature of the Seminal Fluid), neither of which survive today. In Salvatore De Renzi's nineteenth-century study of the Salerno School of Medicine, Abella is one of four women (along with Rebecca de Guarna, Mercuriade, and Constance Calenda) mentioned who were known to practice medicine, lecture on medicine, and wrote treatises. These attributes placed Abella into a group of women known as the Mulieres Salernitanae, or women of Salerno.
Legacy.
Abella is a featured figure on Judy Chicago's installation piece, "The Dinner Party". Abella is represented as one of the nine hundred and ninety-nine names included in the "Heritage Floor". The "Heritage Floor" is a supporting piece to Judy Chicago's "The Dinner Party". It is meant to represent the number of women who struggled into prominence to essentially have their names erased and/or forgotten. She is one of the "ladies of Salerno" who attended and taught at the Salerno School of Medicine featured in the "Heritage Floor", along with Rebecca de Guarna, Francesca of Salerno, and Mercuriade.
Mulieres Salernitanae.
The Salerno School of Medicine was the first university to allow women to enter. This resulted in a group of women known as , meaning women of Salerno or Salernitan wives. These women were known for their great learning. This group of women consisted of Abella, Trota of Salerno, Mercuriade, Rebecca de Guarna, Maria Incarnata, and Constance Calenda. The women of Salerno not only practiced medicine, but also taught medicine at the Salerno School of Medicine and wrote texts. This group of women worked against the common view and roles of women at the time, and are considered a pride of medieval Salerno and a symbol of beneficence.
Family of Castellomata.
The family of Castellomata was an extremely influential family in Salerno, one in which Abella is believed to belong to. The heavy influence of the family helped confirm the vital ties between the papal court and the Salerno School of Medicine. A significant member of this family was Giovanni of Castellomata, who held the title of medicus papae, or “doctor of the pope” to Pope Innocent III. The relationship between Abella and Giovanni of Castellomata is unclear.


Julie Story Byerley

Julie Story Byerley () is an American physician who is known as a leader in the fields of medical education and pediatrics. Byerley is a clinical professor and Vice Dean for Education for the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill School of Medicine.
Background.
Byerley was born on in Lynchburg, Virginia to Brenda and Ed Story. She was the oldest of two children.
Education.
Byerley attended Spartanburg High School in Spartanburg, South Carolina where she graduated in 1988.
In 1992, Byerley graduated with a Bachelor of Arts, cum laude from Rhodes College in Memphis, Tennessee. She majored in physics but also completed her teaching certification in secondary science. Byerley was a science teacher at North Charleston High School in Charleston, South Carolina from 1992 to 1993.
Byerley began her medical training at the Duke University School of Medicine in 1994. During her third year of medical school she completed a Master’s of Public Health at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. Her concentration was maternal and child health. She completed her MPH in 1998 and Doctorate of Medicine in 1998.
Upon completion of her MD, Byerley did her residency in pediatrics at University of North Carolina Hospitals where she also served as chief resident from 2001 to 2002.
Academic career.
After completing her residency in 2002, Byerley joined the faculty at UNC as Clinical Assistant Professor. Byerley is an advocate for women’s health issues and believes proper healthcare should begin with continuity of care for children.
In 2004, Byerley was named as the Director of Medical Student Education in Pediatrics. Funding was provided from The Medical Foundation Excellence Fund and The Medical Alumni Endowment Fund in 2006 to build the resources utilized by the faculty Teaching Center. These online resources support faculty development of their teaching skills.
The UNC Academy of Educators organized and inducted their first class in 2007. Byerley has remained an active fellow for this group since that time and even served as co-director until 2013.
She was promoted in 2008 to Clinical Associate Professor. Byerley began serving as Assistant Course Director to the School of Medicine Teaching Scholars in 2008 as well.
Byerley mentored two pediatrics residents in a 2009 QI project where they developed two journals. This project was funded by the NC Children’s Promise Grant.
In 2010, Byerley became the Pediatric Residency Program Director. Later that year, Byerley lead a $3.7 Million Health Resources and Services Administration grant to create the primary care pediatrics residency.
Jack and Wanda Entwistle provided funding to Byerley in 2010 through the NC Children’s Hospital Development Office to provide support for the Transition to Pediatric Internship Course. This course was designed to give graduating medical students valuable skills that will assist them as the become interns.
Byerley remained in the Pediatric Residency Program Director until 2013 when she was promoted to Clinical Professor and assumed the role of Vice Dean for Education in the UNC School of Medicine.
As the Vice Dean for Education, Byerley has overseen the transition from a traditional medical school curriculum to the new UNC Translational Education at Carolina (TEC) that began in 2014. The TEC curriculum is designed to improve “critical thinking and interpersonal communication skills have become more important than the memorization of information.”
Awards.
Byerley was inducted into the Phi Beta Kappa Society at Rhodes College in 1992.
While attending the Duke University School of Medicine, Byerley earned the Eva J. Salber Award in 1997 for her teen parenting needs assessment project. She also earned the 1998 Delta Omega Student Service Award from the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill School of Public Health for her presentation of “Epidemiology of Teen Parenting and Teen Parenting Needs Assessment Data”.
As a resident, Byerley was selected by the UNC medical students as the “Outstanding Teaching Resident” in 2000.
On beginning her career in academic medicine at UNC, she was a participant in the UNC School of Medicine Teaching Scholars Program in 2003 and 2004. In 2005, Byerley was a preceptor inductee to the Eugene Mayer Community Service Honor Society. Byerley was selected by the Chair of Pediatrics for the “Excellence in Teaching Award” from 2003 to 2006. The third and fourth year medical students chose her for the “Sun Trust Banks Excellence in Teaching Award” in 2006.
The American Academy of Pediatrics has awarded Byerley two Special Achievement Awards. The first was in 2006 for “successfully nurturing medical student interest in pediatric careers” and the second was in 2008 for her work in organizing chapter interest groups for young physicians and medical students.
In 2007, she was selected as a participant for the Association of American Medical Colleges Early Career Women Faculty Professional Development Seminar. The American Academy of Pediatrics selected Byerley as a participant in the 2008 Legislative Conference. In 2009 she participated in both the Academic Pediatric Association Leadership Development Seminar and the UNC Healthcare Program in Leadership Development Course.
Since 2007, Byerley has been selected as one of the “Best Doctors in America” every year.
Byerley was a faculty inductee to Alpha Omega Alpha in 2008.
While serving as the Pediatrics Clerkship Director, the senior medical students selected Pediatrics as the “Best Clinical Clerkship” in 2003, 2005, 2007, 2008, and 2009. Senior medical students also selected Byerley for the Hyman L. Battle Distinguished Excellence in Teaching Award in the Clinical Sciences for both 2005 and 2009. She then went on to be selected as a “UNC School of Medicine Pearls Session” speaker from 2005 to 2010. The graduating classes of both 2006 and 2010 named Byerley for the “UNC School of Medicine Professor Award”. Graduation classes in 2008 and 2011 had Byerley as their Medical School Graduation Hooder.
Senior pediatrics residents selected Byerley for the “Richard C. Morris Faculty Teaching Award” in both 2003 and 2010.
Byerley was the Medical Alumni Distinguished Teaching Professor 2006 - 2010.
The nurses of the North Carolina Children’s Hospital selected Byerley for the 2010 James Emonson Faculty Honour.
In 2013, Byerley was accepted as a participant for the Association of American Medical Colleges LEAD Program. She was also accepted as a participant in the Executive Leadership in Academic Medicine (ELAM) Program for Women.
Byerley received one of the 2015 Distinguished Teaching Awards for Post-Baccalaureate Instruction from UNC Chancellor Carol Folt.
Personal life.
Byerley met her husband while in college and they married in 1992. They have two sons. The family currently resides in Chapel Hill, North Carolina.


Eduard Heinrich Henoch

Eduard Heinrich Henoch (June 16, 1820, Berlin – August 26, 1910) was a German physician. He taught at the Berlin University (1868–1894). Henoch was of Jewish descent, and was the nephew of Moritz Heinrich Romberg.
Work.
After taking the degree of M.D. at Berlin (1843), he began to practise as a specialist in diseases of children. Until 1850 he was assistant at the children's dispensary of the university. In that year he became privat-docent; in 1858, assistant professor. In 1872 Henoch became director of the hospital and dispensary of the department of pediatrics at the Charité. In 1893 he resigned that position, received the title of "Medicinalrath", and lived in retirement at Meran until 1898, when he removed to Dresden.
In 1868 he described the association of colic, bloody diarrhea, painful joints, and rash in the condition, previously described by his former medical school teacher Johann Lukas Schönlein, of the allergic non-thrombopenic purpural rash that became known as Henoch–Schönlein purpura, though now known as IgA vasculitis.
Literary works.
Among his works may be mentioned:


Ewan Affleck

Dr. Ewan Affleck, is a family physician in Yellowknife, Northwest Territories, Canada. In 2013 he was named to the Order of Canada for his work in electronic medical records.


Transmission of hepadnaviruses

The transmission of hepadnaviruses between their natural hosts, humans, non-human primates, and birds, including intra-species host transmission and cross-species transmission, is a topic of study in virology.
Hepadnaviruses are a family of viruses that can cause liver infections in humans and animals. They are Group VII viruses that possess double-stranded DNA genomes and replicate using reverse transcriptase. This unique replication strategy, combined with their extremely small genomes and a very narrow host and tissue tropism, has distinguished them enough to be classified in the family Hepadnaviridae. There are two recognized genera:
Structure.
With the example of human HBV: the particular feature of the HBV structure is the presence of three different forms in the plasma of infected patients:
Genome.
As with the example of HBV, showing in figure 2, four open reading frames are encoded (ORFs), all ORFs are in the same direction, defining the minus- and plus-strands. And the virus has four known genes, which encode the core protein, the virus polymerase, surface antigens (preS1, preS2, and S) and the X protein.
The minus-strand DNA is complete and spans the entire genome, while the plus strand spans only about two-thirds of the genome length and have variable 3' ends. But for the avihepadnaviruses they normally extend plus-strands almost all the way to the modified 5' end. The minus-strand is linked to the viral reverse transcriptase and can encode all the known viral proteins, but the plus-strain cannot encode viral proteins.
Replication.
With the example of HBV: the mechanisms of infecting hepatocytes are still not well understood, but among the studies, it was revealed that the PreS1 domain of the L protein, plays a critical role in the infection, thus exhibiting different host specificity between different hepadnaviruses. Figure show the general process of the HBV infecting host cell: attachment-entry-uncoating-replicate-assembly-release.
About the viral entry, several proteins have been identified as possible virus receptors, and studies show that the binding of virion with receptors can be neutralized by anti-PreS1 antibodies.
The replication is the unique reverse transcriptase strategy: after uncoating, nucleocapsids are transported to the host cell nucleus, the virion DNA will be converted into covalently closed circular (CCC) DNA, the template for the transcription of the viral RNAs. Then undergoes transcription by the host cell RNA polymerase and the transcript is translated by host cell ribosomes; the high capacity of this replicating part contributes many errors which may help the virus adapt to the host.
New virus particles are formed, which acquire lipid from the endoplasmic reticulum of the host cell, and the genome is packaged within these particles, which then bud off from the cell; and some part of the new genome may return to the host cell nucleus for replication more genomes.
Phylogenetic tree.
All the members of family hepadnaviridae share remarkable similarities in the genome organization and the replication strategies, however, it also shows the differences between different species, different genotypes, and different subtypes. The species specificity of them are determined, to some extent, at the level of virus entry, involving the PreS1 part of the large envelop protein L, which could be a reason for their specificity of host range.
Orthohepadnavirus.
Viruses in this genus infect mammals, including human, apes, and rodents, with a narrow host range for each virus. The only known natural host for HBV is human, chimpanzees maybe infected experimentally.
The orthohepadnaviruses have been divided into four distinct species, with HBV ("human hepatitis B virus"), WHV ("woodchuck hepatitis virus"), GSHV ("ground squirrel hepatitis virus "), and WMHBV ("woolly monkey hepatitis B virus") as the prototypes, based on the host range from a limited number of studies.
From the result of molecular studies about the polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-based assays, information about the number and geographic distribution of HBV genotypes and naturally occurring HBV mutants are gained. Eight HBV genotypes, A to H, have been identified in human and three closely related genotypes in apes are found, like gibbon, orangutan, chimpanzee; and he eight HBV genotypes have further diverged into at least 24 subgenotypes. With different analysis, including analysis of recombinants, the new Genotype J was provisionally assigned to be a genetic variant of HBV which is divergent from known human and ape genotypes, it was isolated from a Japanese patient.
Avihepadnavirus.
Viruses in this genus exclusively infect birds; duck hepatitis B virus (DHBV) and heron hepatitis B virus (HHBV) are the prototypes. Avihepadnaviruses have been detected in various duck species. As the same with the orthohepadnaviruses, avihepadnaviruses have a rather narrow host range, but its common host are ducks and geese, other possible hosts are herons, stocks and crane.
Transmission.
Orthohepadnaviruses.
Within humans.
Until 2000, there were more than 5.2 million cases of acute hepatitis B infection, and chronically infects approximately 5% of the human population. HBV is the most common one among those hepatitis viruses. It can cause chronic infection of liver in humans, which has become a global public health problem, since chronic hepatitis can cause cirrhosis or death from liver failure within certain times. And it is the major cause of HCC, contributing about 60-80% of the HCC cases around the world.
HBV is transmitted by parenteral contact with body fluids, such as blood and lymph; perinatal exposure of infants to carrier mothers. It is thought that mother-to-child perinatal transmission and the establishment of a lifelong highly infectious carrier state are responsible for the observed high rates of endemicity in high-prevalence regions such as South and East Asia and sub-Saharan Africa. In some cases breast milk of HBsAg positive mothers has been found to be positive for the virus, but there have not been any reports of HBV transmission through breast-feeding, even before the availability of hepatitis B vaccine for infants.
Cross-species transmission.
Cross-species transmission has not been proven yet, but if this occurs, the chance to eradicate HBV infection by immunization will be diminished due to the difficulty in controlling of natural virus reservoir. And increasing human encroachment on rainforest habitat and fragmentation of declining populations increases the interactions and consequently the risks of disease transmission between wild primates and human populations. Transmission of mammalian hepadnavirus strains between cross-species primate hosts has been found in many cases, recombination of hepadnavirus strains from cross-species primate hosts, further demonstrates that primate associated HBV strains can indeed share hosts in nature, and cross-species transmission of primate-associated HBV strains provides the probability of interspecies recombination.
Between humans and non-human mammals.
Since the similarity between human and apes, and common ancestors human and apes shared long time ago, there are possibilities to happen transmission of HBVs among them.
The prevalence of HBV infection in the natural primate habitat is unknown. Most data resulted from the studies performed on samples obtained from captive animals, wild-born or captive-born. Human HBV infects only humans and closely related primates, such as chimpanzee, chacma baboon, and to some extent, tree shrew, but does not infect woolly monkeys. HBV isolates have been shown to infect gibbon apes and chimpanzees, but not convincing evidence of an infection of macaques or other members of the Cercopithecidea family. Macaca sylvanus is able to replicate HBV in vivo replication in primary macaque hepatocytes. However, susceptibility of these animals has not been shown.
In general, these results imply that nonhuman primate HBV variants may be transmittable to humans. At least they infect representatives of the families Pongidae and Hylobatidae. However, at present it remains to be elucidated if nonhuman primate HBV variants are transmittable to humans and whether they cause disease in humans. And till now, no report of HBV transmission from captive animals to humans currently exists.
However the potential for zoonotic disease transmission exists where blood or body fluid exposure is common. Such scenarios could include chronically infected animals kept as family pets, close contact with caretakers, in situations in which chimpanzees are slaughtered and used as bushmeat.
Avihepadnaviruses.
Within birds.
Many cases about avihepadnaviruses transmission between or within species have been studied.
Between humans and birds.
There is no evidence for transmission of avian hepadnavirus between avian and human, but recombination of avihepadnavirus strains between cross-species avian hosts can offer potentials for the transmission between human and bird, considering that many birds are one of the main sources of food for human.
Factors affecting transmission.
The special replication strategy gives this genus a special character, but also the high replication capacity and high error rate of the viral reverse transcriptase, thus HBVs from this genus have the ability to adapt to the host's environment, and varies from different hepadnaviruses, thus exhibiting species specificities.
Pre S1 regions of the L protein, exhibiting different host specificity, if proteolytically being removed from HBV particles results in a loss of infectivity. The S protein therefore is needed, but not sufficient for HBV entry. In contrast to the M protein, the L protein is essential for the viral infectivity.
These special proteins plays different role in different viruses, thus determining the different host ranges, if this were strictly true, we would expect that divergence in pre-S would affect cross-species infection, which then can contribute the different transmission of different hepadnaviruses.
Potentials.
A lot of studies have well characterized the horizontal transmission of HBV through parenteral routes and co-infections with different genotypes of HBV have also been reported, including genotypes A and D, genotypes A and G, and genotypes B and C. In Asia, genotypes B and C account for almost all HBV infections. Infection with genotype C may induce more severe liver diseases than infection with genotype B. Recombination between genotypes B and C can occur as the result of co-infection of the two genotypes and recombinant strains may possess an enhanced disease-inducing capacity compared with genotype B. It has also been reported that the predominance of recombinant strains between genotypes B and C might be associated with the development of hepatocellular carcinoma in young carriers in Taiwan.
Though the hepadnaviruses have a very limited host range, with the potential cross-species transmission of hepadnavirus among primates and some families of birds, combined with recombinants, it might change the hepadnavirus host specificity. Interspecies recombination between hepadnaviruses from cross-species hosts would provide a large variation of virus genome, which will change the pathogenicity and transmissibility, and enlarge the host range; the first evidence of potential recombination between chimpanzee HBV and human HBV genome was documented, recombination between human and non-human primate HBV strains, between GiHBV strains from different genera of gibbons, and between birds HBV strains from different avian sub-families were confirmed. All those experiments provided data allowing us to better understand the background, virus hosts, and zoonotic transmission of the non-human primate HBVs.


Ludwig Bandl

Ludwig Bandl (1 November 1842 – 26 August 1892) was an Austrian obstetrician and gynecologist born in Himberg, Niederösterreich.
In 1867 he received his medical doctorate from the University of Vienna, where he studied under Karl von Braun-Fernwald (1822–1891), Joseph Hyrtl (1810–1894), and Johann von Dumreicher (1815–1880). In 1878 he became head of the department of obstetrics at the general polyclinic in Vienna, and later on, was named an associate professor of obstetrics and gynecology (1880). Six years later, Bandl attained a full professorship at Prague, but within a matter of weeks had to resign his position due to mental illness. He spent his final years institutionalized in a Vienna asylum.
Bandl is remembered for his description of the uterine contraction ring, a constriction located at the junction of the corpus uteri and the isthmus of uterus. This structure is sometimes referred to as the "pathologic retraction ring", or as "Bandl's ring of contraction".


Kenneth X. Robbins

Kenneth X. Robbins is a psychiatrist, collector of south Asian art, and author known for his studies of expatriate communities in Asia. In 1990, Robbins donated a collection of materials relating to India to the Smithsonian Institution.


Ernst Julius Gurlt

Ernst Julius Gurlt (13 September 1825 - 9 January 1899) was a German surgeon born in Berlin. He was the son of veterinarian Ernst Friedrich Gurlt (1794–1882).
He studied medicine in Berlin, where he later became an assistant to Bernhard von Langenbeck. In 1853 he received his habilitation for surgery, becoming an associate professor in 1862 at the University of Berlin. He gained battle-related surgical experience during the First Schleswig War (1848), Second Schleswig War (1864), Austro-Prussian War (1866) and the Franco-Prussian War (1870/71).
Gurlt specialized in the treatment and research of bone and joint injuries. He is remembered for studies conducted in the field of medical statistics.
Written works.
He was the author of an excellent three-volume work on the history of surgery, ("Geschichte der Chirurgie und ihre Ausübung", 1898), that was acclaimed for its thoroughness.


Harry Rozmiarek

Harry Rozmiarek (March 27, 1939 – June 15, 2013) was a noted veterinarian, academic, and laboratory animal care specialist.
Rozmiarek was born in Pulaski, Wisconsin. He graduated from the University of Minnesota in 1962 with a veterinary degree. He joined the United States Army and was assigned as an attending army veterinarian at Fort Myer, Virginia. Among his duties, Rozmiarek attended to Black Jack, the famous riderless horse in the funeral of President John F. Kennedy. He also consulted on the health of the Kennedy family dog and cared for some Irish deer that had been a gift to Kennedy from the people of Ireland. The remainder of his 20-year military career took him to Thailand where he conducted infectious disease research with the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO). And he spent several years as director of The U.S. Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases (USAMRIID) in Frederick, Maryland. He retired from the Army in 1983 with the rank of Colonel.
After the Army, Rozmiarek spent the next two decades in academia as a professor of laboratory animal medicine. In 1983 he went to The Ohio State University where he served as Professor of Laboratory Animal Medicine and Director of University Laboratory Animal Resources through 1986. In 1987 he joined the University of Pennsylvania as University Veterinarian and Professor and Director of University Laboratory Animal Resources. He retired from the University of Pennsylvania in 2004. He was the Director of Laboratory Animal Medicine and Facilities at the Fox Chase Cancer Center in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania from 2004 until his death in 2013.
During his career, Rozmiarek was active in the development of guidelines for the proper care and use of laboratory animals in research. He served in leadership positions of national and international organizations that promote the humane treatment of animals in science including AAALAC, AALAS, ACLAM, and ICLAS. He was a contributing author to the IACUC Handbook.
Rozmiarek represented the United States as the National Member to the International Council for Laboratory Animal Science (ICLAS) from 2003 to 2013; was elected to the ICLAS Governing Board in 2007; and served as Secretary-General from 2011 to 2013 until his death. ICLAS is an international scientific organization advancing human and animal health by promoting the ethical care and use of laboratory animals in research worldwide.
Rozmiarek was the recipient of numerous awards for his lifetime of accomplishments in the area of laboratory animal care: the AALAS Research Award (1983); the AALAS Griffin Award (1995), the AVMA Charles River Prize (1996); the AAALAC Bennett J. Cohen Award (2012); the AALAS Nathan R. Brewer Lifetime Achievement Award (2013).
Harry Rozmiarek died in Boston, Massachusetts on June 15, 2013.


Federation of International Sports, Aerobics and Fitness

The Federation of International Sports, Aerobics and Fitness (FISAF) is an international non-profit "umbrella organization" active in over 40 countries. It is self-described as "the largest fitness industry organisation in the world" and "the largest instructor certification agency in the world". The FISAF International Training Course grants certificates of accreditation. Every year, over 20,000 fitness enthusiasts attend FISAF accredited courses and endorsed programs.
FISAF offers core courses in which participants can train to be aerobics instructors or personal trainers. They also offer workshops in other athletic and physical fitness-related activities such as on pilates, kick boxing, yoga, and power walking. Courses are offered for both children and adults.
Besides offering training and accreditation, the Federation of International Sports, Aerobics and Fitness hosts a variety of national-and international-level sports aerobics competitions leading up to an annual World Championship.
FISAF has its strongest presence in Europe, Asia and Oceania. Countries with affiliated organizations include Australia (the "Australian Fitness Network"), China (the "Physical Club"), Netherlands (the "Dutch Championships Aerobics Federation"), Switzerland (the "Swiss Academy of Fitness & Sports") and Finland ("Suomen Voimisteluliitto Svoli")


Brain Research Foundation

The Brain Research Foundation (BRF) is a non-profit private organization in Chicago, Illinois. The foundation was established in 1953 to promote and support scientific research concerning the brain. The BRF aides scientists in their pursuits to understand, prevent, treat, and cure brain disorders. Brain tumors, multiple sclerosis, Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases, epilepsy, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), learning disorders, depression and many others are disorders the BRF has helped raise awareness for.


Joseph Comiti

Joseph Comiti (4 June 1920 – 10 November 2000, Bastia) was a French physician, a gastroenterological surgeon by training, working at the Hôpital de la Timone in Marseille, and a politician during the term of the Prime Minister Maurice Couve de Murville in the late 1960s while Charles de Gaulle was President of France and again during the term of Jacques Chaban-Delmas, working in youth affairs and sports. Until 1998 he chaired the finance committee of the Regional Council of Provence-Alpes-Côte-d'Azur.


Mark Gerard

Mark Gerard (6 October 1934 – 21 June 2011) was an American equine veterinarian. He was born in Brooklyn, New York, and graduated from Cornell University.
As a student, he worked as an exercise rider for, among others, Hall of Fame trainer James E. Fitzsimmons.
Gerard started practice as a veterinarian for racehorses, some highly successful ones, such as Canonero II, who won the Kentucky Derby; he also cared for Triple Crown winner Secretariat. In 1977, he masterminded a highly publicized scandal involving horse switching. He had imported two horses from Uruguay, a champion named Cinzano, and the much cheaper Lebon. After Lebon had under-performed in his earlier races, Gerard ran Cinzano in its name. Cinzano subsequently won, as a 57-1 outsider, at New York's Belmont Park, and Gerard collected a $77,920 winning on a bet.
Later, a Uruguayan journalist recognized the horse as Cinzano from a newspaper photo, and an investigation was started. The story was broken in the States on October 21, 1977 by "News World"s racing editor, Daniel Keating in New York. When John Piesen of the "New York Post" told Keating that he had broken a story on October 23rd, Keating told him he broke it two days ago. Keating also asked Rupert Murdoch to cease claiming the Post had broken the story. Nothing happened. In September 1978, Gerard, represented by attorney F. Lee Bailey, testified that Lebon had "died in an accident at Gerard's New York farm the day he and Cinzano arrived from Uruguay", and his wife testified that she had switched horses without his knowledge. Gerard was convicted of fraud, then fined $1,000 and sentenced to one year in prison, which was shortened on appeal by four months, otherwise retaining his ill-gotten gains.


Foundation for Advancement of International Medical Education and Research

The Foundation for Advancement of International Medical Education and Research (FAIMER) is a nonprofit organization whose mission is to "support the Educational Commission for Foreign Medical Graduates (ECFMG) as it promotes international health professions education through programmatic and research activities." These activities include:
One of the data resources developed by FAIMER was the International Medical Education Directory (IMED), a free web-based listing of medical schools recognized by the appropriate government agencies in the countries where the medical schools are located. The directory is now discontinued and has been replaced by the World Directory of Medical Schools
History.
FAIMER was established in 2000 by the Educational Commission for Foreign Medical Graduates (ECFMG).FAIMER launched the International Medical Education Directory (IMED) in 2002. In 2004, two new directories were approved: the Directory of Organizations that Recognize/Accredit Medical Schools (DORA) and the Postgraduate Medical Education (PME) Project. In 2014, FAIMER and the World Federation for Medical Education (WFME) announced the launch of the World Directory of Medical Schools by merging the organizations’ respective directories: FAIMER’s International Medical Education Directory (IMED) and WFME’s Avicenna Directory for medicine, which is used by the ECFMG to determine eligibility of international medical graduates for the USMLE examinations and ECFMG certification.


Laryngomalacia

Laryngomalacia (literally, "soft larynx") is the most common cause of chronic stridor in infancy, in which the soft, immature cartilage of the upper larynx collapses inward during inhalation, causing airway obstruction. It can also be seen in older patients, especially those with neuromuscular conditions resulting in weakness of the muscles of the throat. However, the infantile form is much more common. Laryngomalacia is one of the most common laryngeal congenital disease in infancy and public education about the signs and symptoms of the disease is lacking.
Signs and symptoms.
In infantile laryngomalacia, the supraglottic larynx (the part above the vocal cords) is tightly curled, with a short band holding the cartilage shield in the front (the epiglottis) tightly to the mobile cartilage in the back of the larynx (the arytenoids). These bands are known as the aryepiglottic folds. The shortened aryepiglottic folds cause the epiglottis to be curled on itself. This is the well known "omega shaped" epiglottis in laryngomalacia. Another common finding of laryngomalacia involves the posterior or back part of the larynx, where the arytenoid cartilages or the mucosa/tissue over the arytenoid cartilages can collapse into the airway and cause airway obstruction.
Laryngomalacia results in partial airway obstruction, most commonly causing a characteristic high-pitched squeaking noise on inhalation (inspiratory stridor). Some infants have feeding difficulties related to this problem. Rarely, children will have significant life-threatening airway obstruction. The vast majority, however, will only have stridor without other more serious symptoms such as dyspnea (difficulty breathing).
Causes.
Although laryngomalacia is not associated with a specific gene, there is evidence that some cases may be inherited. Relaxation or a lack of muscle tone in the upper airway may be a factor. It is often worse when the infant is on his or her back, because the floppy tissues can fall over the airway opening more easily in this position.
Diagnosis.
The physician will ask some questions about the baby's health problems and may recommend a flexible laryngoscopy to further evaluate the infant's condition. Additional testing can be done to confirm the diagnoses including; flexible fiberoptic laryngoscopy, airway fluoroscopy, direct laryngoscopy and bronchoscopy.
Treatment.
Time is the only treatment necessary in more than 90% of infant cases. In other cases, surgery may be necessary. Most commonly, this involves cutting the aryepiglottic folds to let the supraglottic airway spring open. Trimming of the arytenoid cartilages or the mucosa/ tissue over the arytenoid cartilages can also be performed as part of the supraglottoplasty. Supraglottoplasty can be performed bilaterally (on both the left and right sides at the same time), or be staged where only one side is operated on at a time.
Treatment of gastroesophageal reflux disease can also help in the treatment of laryngomalacia, since gastric contents can cause the back part of the larynx to swell and collapse even further into the airway. In some cases, a temporary tracheostomy may be necessary.
Prognosis.
Laryngomalacia becomes symptomatic after the first few months of life (2–3 months), and the stridor may get louder over the first year, as the child moves air more vigorously. Most of the cases resolve spontaneously and fewer than 15% of the cases will need surgical intervention. Parents need to be supported and educated about the condition.
Epidemiology.
Although this is a congenital lesion, airway sounds typically begin at age 4–6 weeks. Until that age, inspiratory flow rates may not be high enough to generate the sounds. Symptoms typically peak at age 6–8 months and remit by age 2 years.
Late-onset laryngomalacia may be a distinct entity, which can present after age of 2 years.


Strain (biology)

In biology, a strain is a genetic variant, a subtype or a culture within a biological species. Strains are often seen as inherently artificial concepts, characterized by a specific intent for genetic isolation. This is most easily observed in microbiology where strains are derived from a single cell colony and are typically quarantined by the physical constraints of a Petri dish. Strains are also commonly referred to within virology, botany, and with rodents used in experimental studies.
Microbiology and virology.
It has been said that "there is no universally accepted definition for the terms 'strain', 'variant', and 'isolate' in the virology community, and most virologists simply copy the usage of terms from others".
A strain is a genetic variant or subtype of a microorganism (e.g., a virus, bacterium or fungus). For example, a "flu strain" is a certain biological form of the influenza or "flu" virus. These flu strains are characterized by their differing isoforms of surface proteins. New viral strains can be created due to mutation or swapping of genetic components when two or more viruses infect the same cell in nature. These phenomena are known respectively as antigenic drift and antigenic shift. Microbial strains can also be differentiated by their genetic makeup using metagenomic methods to maximize resolution within species. This has become a valuable tool to analyze the microbiome.
Artificial constructs.
Scientists have modified strains of viruses in order to study their behavior, as in the case of the H5N1 influenza virus. While funding for such research has aroused controversy at times due to safety concerns, leading to a temporary pause, it has subsequently proceeded.
In biotechnology, microbial strains have been constructed to establish metabolic pathways suitable for treating a variety of applications. Historically, a major effort of metabolic research has been devoted to the field of biofuel production. "Escherichia coli" is most common species for prokaryotic strain engineering. Scientists have succeeded in establishing viable minimal genomes from which new strains can be developed. These minimal strains provide a near guarantee that experiments on genes outside the minimal framework will not be effected by non-essential pathways. Optimized strains of "E. coli" are typically used for this application. "E. coli" are also often used as a chassis for the expression of simple proteins. These strains, such as BL21, are genetically modified to minimize protease activity, hence enabling potential for high efficiency industrial scale protein production.
Strains of yeasts are the most common subjects of eukaryotic genetic modification, especially with respect to industrial fermentation.
Plants.
The term has no official ranking status in botany; the term refers to the collective descendants produced from a common ancestor that share a uniform morphological or physiological character. A strain is a designated group of offspring that are either descended from a modified plant (produced by conventional breeding or by biotechnological means), or which result from genetic mutation.
As an example, some rice strains are made by inserting new genetic material into a rice plant, all the descendants of the genetically modified rice plant are a strain with unique genetic information that is passed on to later generations; the strain designation, which is normally a number or a formal name, covers all the plants that descend from the originally modified plant. The rice plants in the strain can be bred to other rice strains or cultivars, and if desirable plants are produced, these are further bred to stabilize the desirable traits; the stabilized plants that can be propagated and "come true" (remain identical to the parent plant) are given a cultivar name and released into production to be used by farmers.
Rodents.
A laboratory mouse or rat strain is a group of animals that is genetically uniform. Strains are used in laboratory experiments. Mouse strains can be inbred, mutated, or genetically modified, while rat strains are usually inbred. A given inbred rodent population is considered genetically identical after 20 generations of sibling-mating. Many rodent strains have been developed for a variety of disease models, and they are also often used to test drug toxicity.
Insects.
The common fruit fly ("Drosophila melanogaster") was among the first organisms used for genetic analysis, has a simple genome, and is very well understood. It has remained a popular model organism for many other reasons, like the ease of its breeding and maintenance, and the speed and volume of its reproduction. Various specific strains have been developed, including a flightless version with stunted wings (also used in the pet trade as live food for small reptiles and amphibians).


Todd M. Hutton

Todd M. Hutton is an American psychiatrist specializing in transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS). He is Associate Clinical Professor of Psychiatry at the Keck School of Medicine of the University of Southern California. Hutton is also currently President of the Clinical TMS Society, as well as the founder and medical director of the Southern California TMS Center.
Hutton is particularly known for his pioneering work in the field and practice of transcranial magnetic stimulation, including various published studies about its clinical efficacy. He has also appeared as a featured guest on the national televised talk show "The Doctors", produced by Phil McGraw, and was interviewed about his role in the development of transcranial magnetic stimulation as a clinical treatment method.
Education.
In 1985, Hutton graduated with a B.A. in Biology from the University of California, Irvine. In 1989, he received his M.D. from the University of California, Irvine School of Medicine, and in 1993 completed residency training at LAC+USC Medical Center. He also completed advanced TMS Therapy Fellowship at Duke University Medical Center in 2014.
Career.
Hutton has been practicing psychiatry since 1993, and has previously practiced at Community Medical Center Long Beach. He is currently on staff at the Huntington Memorial Hospital. Hutton founded the Southern California TMS Center in Pasadena, California as one of the first TMS providers in the United States, and has subsequently steadily expanded it to include several locations across the Greater Los Angeles area.
Hutton is a specialist in transcranial magnetic stimulation, which uses low-frequency magnetic fields to treat patients with depressive disorders. First used in 1985, the treatment method focuses on stimulating the left frontal lobe, which is often underactive in people with depressive and refractory mood disorders. Hutton has taken part in several studies on the clinical efficacy of TMS.
Active in the Clinical TMS Society since its founding in 2013, Hutton was elected Society President in 2018.
Media.
Hutton was a featured guest on the U.S. national talk show "The Doctors", and has also been interviewed in several podcasts.
Awards and affiliations.
Some of Todd Hutton's selected awards, recognitions, and professional affiliations are listed below.
Selected publications.
Some of Hutton's selected publications are listed below.


Robert Bartlett (surgeon)

Robert (Bob) Bartlett (born May 8, 1939) is an American physician and medical researcher who is credited with developing a lifesaving heart-lung technology known as extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO). He is an emeritus professor of surgery at the University of Michigan Medical School .
Career.
Bartlett graduated from Albion College and the University of Michigan Medical School. After completing general surgery and thoracic surgery training at Brigham and Children's hospitals in Boston, Bartlett spent ten years on the faculty of the University of California, Irvine School of Medicine. Through laboratory research that began in the 1960s, Bartlett helped to develop ECMO technology for babies with potentially reversible heart or lung dysfunction.
Bartlett reported the first neonatal survivor of ECMO, referred to as Baby Esperanza, in 1976. Baby Esperanza suffered lung damage from meconium aspiration syndrome and she was so sick that ECMO was applied as a last-ditch effort to save her life. The baby spent three days on Bartlett's machine and she recovered.
In 1980, Bartlett came back to the University of Michigan and joined the faculty. He spent 25 years as the director of Michigan's surgical intensive care unit. He held positions as Chief of General Surgery, program director of the Surgical Critical Care fellowship, and director of the extracorporeal life support laboratory and clinical service. He helped to start a breast care center affiliated with the university health system in 1984. He established the Extracorporeal Life Support Organization in 1989. He retired from the operating room in 2005 and directs the extracorporeal life support laboratory. The University of Michigan Medical School established the Robert Bartlett Professorship in Pediatric Surgery.
Bartlett began to write fiction late in his medical career. He became interested in writing stories about medicine and the law after testifying as an expert on burns in the appeal of a man's conviction for child abuse. Though Bartlett was convinced that the defendant was innocent, the man's conviction was not overturned. Bartlett began to write fiction based in part on his experience with burn patients. His first novel was published in 2005. His second novel is "Piece of Mind", a novel of medicine and philosophy which explores the mind/body question from the point of view of a neurosurgeon and his patients.
Bartlett's research has been continuously funded by NIH since 1971. In addition to ECMO he made major contributions to critical care physiology, acute kidney injury and continuous hemofiltration, and nutrition in critical illness. He has been president of the American Society of Artificial Internal Organs and the International Federation of Artificial Organs. He is a charter member of the American Institute of Biomedical Engineering and consults with medical companies related to critical care. With others he founded the bioengineering company MC3 and is the chief medical officer for CytoSorbents Corporation, a biomedical company that manufactures blood purification technology to treat critically ill patients.
In 2003, Bartlett was awarded the William E. Ladd Medal by the American Academy of Pediatrics. The organization says that the medal "represents the highest honor that the Section on Surgery bestows on a physician in recognition of outstanding contributions to the field of pediatric surgery." He was awarded the Medallion of Achievement by the American Surgical Association, the Robert E. Gross award by the American Pediatric Surgical Association, and the Sheen Award by the American College of Surgeons. He was elected to the Institute of Medicine of the National Academy of Sciences.


Mosaic Outdoor Clubs of America

Mosaic Outdoor Clubs of America (often abbreviated MOCA or Mosaic) is an international non-profit network of Jewish outdoor clubs in the United States, Canada, and Israel.
History and Organization.
The first Mosaic Club was founded in Colorado by Steve Harris Millmond in reaction to his perception that modern Judaism had lost touch with the outdoors and the environment. The name, "Mosaic," refers to Moses, the Biblical prophet and an "outdoor Jew." The initial group still exists as the Mosaic Outdoor Mountain Club; its first event, a hike in the Rocky Mountains of Colorado, was held in December 1988.
The international umbrella organization, Mosaic Outdoor Clubs of America, was founded in 1995, incorporated in May 1996, and obtained 501(c)(3) non-profit status in April 1997; Rick Dronsky was its first executive director, serving from 1996 until 2002. Mosaic Outdoor Clubs of American recognizes local chapters in three countries and is overseen by a volunteer board of directors that has traditionally been elected at Mosaic's annual international gathering. The umbrella organization is largely responsible for coordinating the annual gathering and assisting with the formation of new chapters. When its first board was elected in 1998, twelve chapters were recognized; as of 2007, this total now stands at over 20.
Local chapters host hikes, trail cleanups, and environmental education efforts, in addition to being a social and recreational outlet and a meeting venue for Jewish singles interested in the outdoors. The more active local affiliates count their membership in the hundreds, and host outdoor events every weekend or several times per month.
International gatherings of Mosaic members have been held annually since 1991, usually in the United States around the Labor Day weekend; the 2007 international event saw over 200 attendees.


Prefrontal bone

The prefrontal bone is a bone separating the lacrimal and frontal bones in many tetrapod skulls. It first evolved in the sarcopterygian clade Rhipidistia, which includes lungfish and the Tetrapodomorpha. The prefrontal is found in most modern and extinct lungfish, amphibians and reptiles. The prefrontal is lost in early mammaliaforms and so is not present in modern mammals either.
In dinosaurs.
The prefrontal bone is a very small bone near the top of the skull, which is lost in many groups of coelurosaurian theropod dinosaurs and is completely absent in their modern descendants, the birds. Conversely, a well developed prefrontal is considered to be a primitive feature in dinosaurs. The prefrontal makes contact with several other bones in the skull. The anterior part of the bone articulates with the nasal bone and the lacrimal bone. The posterior part of the bone articulates with the frontal bone and more rarely the palpebral bone. The prefrontal bone sometimes forms part of the upper margin of the orbit. This bone is part of the skull roof, which is a set of bones that cover the brain, eyes and nostrils.


Srinivas Gada

Srinivas Gada is an Oxford-based doctor, lecturer and academic. His work revolves around autism/ASD in children, Dyspraxia, Developmental Delay, Learning Disability, Emotional & Behavioural Disorders and Cerebral Palsy. Dr Gada has been teaching at University of Oxford. Dr Sri Gada is an Hon Senior Lecturer since 2007


John MacFarlane Cliff

Professor John MacFarlane Cliff FRCP (1921–1972) was a senior British physician, and Professor of Naval Medicine at Royal Hospital Haslar.
Biography.
Born on 28 October 1921, John MacFarlane Cliff was educated at Bedford School, at Christ's College, Cambridge, and at St Thomas's Hospital Medical School. He was house surgeon at Addenbrooke's Hospital before gaining a commission in the Royal Navy Medical Service in 1946. He was elected as a Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians in 1966 and appointed as Professor of Naval Medicine at Royal Hospital Haslar in 1971. He published widely on reactive arthritis, asthma, mediastinal emphysema, and iatrogenesis.
Professor John MacFarlane Cliff died in Haslar, Hampshire on 3 July 1972.


Joseph H. Kler

Joseph H. Kler (1903-1983), was an American physician who founded the infirmary at Rutgers University in 1931 and is best known for his collections of particularly stamps. In the early 1960s, he gave his Rotary Golden Anniversary stamps to the Smithsonian Institution in Washington.


Ernst Adolf Coccius

Ernst Adolf Coccius (September 19, 1825November 24, 1890) was a German ophthalmologist who was a native of Knauthain, which today is part of the city of Leipzig.
He studied medicine in Leipzig, Prague and Paris, and earned his degree in 1848 with the thesis "De morbis typhum sequentibus". From 1849 to 1857 he served as an assistant to Friedrich Philipp Ritterich at the Leipzig Eye Clinic, becoming its director and a full professor in 1867, positions he held up until his death in 1890. After his death, he was succeeded by Hubert Sattler (1844-1928) at the University of Leipzig.
In 1853, Coccius provided the first description of retinal breaks of the eye, and subsequently made the association to retinal detachment. In 1853 he devised an ophthalmoscope that was a modification of the device invented by Hermann von Helmholtz (1821-1894).
His elder brother was the pianist and pedagogue Theodor Coccius (1824-1897).


James Earle

Sir James Earle (1755–1817) was a celebrated British surgeon, renowned for his skill in lithotomy.
Earle was born in London. After studying medicine at St. Bartholomew's Hospital, he became the institution's assistant surgeon in 1770. Due to the temporary incapacity of one of the hospital's surgeons, Earle performed one-third of St. Bartholomew's operations between 1776 and 1784. At the end of this phenomenal feat, Earle was elected to be a surgeon on 22 May 1784 and remained until 1815. Just two years later, he was appointed surgeon-extraordinary to George III.
In March, 1794 he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society. He was knighted in 1807. He married the daughter of Percivall Pott, the hospital's senior surgeon, and their third son, Henry Earle, also became a surgeon at St. Bartholomew's.
Earle write a memoir of Pott that was subsequently attached to his complete works (1790) and a biography of William Austin. Earle was renowned for his surgery skills, particularly in lithotomy. He also published several medical works: "A Treatise on the Hydrocele" (1791, with additions in 1793, 1796, and 1805), "Practical Observations on the Operation for Stone" (1793), "A New Method of Operation for Cataract" (1801), and "Letter on Fractures of the Lower Limbs" (1807).


Jackson Laboratory

The Jackson Laboratory (often abbreviated as JAX) is an independent, nonprofit biomedical research institution. It employs more than 2,100 employees in Bar Harbor, Maine; Sacramento, California; and at a genomic medicine institute in Farmington, Connecticut. The institution is a National Cancer Institute-designated Cancer Center and has NIH Centers of Excellence in aging and systems genetics.
The laboratory is also the world's source for more than 8,000 strains of genetically defined mice, is home of the Mouse Genome Informatics database and is an international hub for scientific courses, conferences, training and education.
Major research areas.
Jackson Laboratory research, represented by the activities of more than 60 laboratories, performs research in six areas:
History.
Historic research highlights.
The Jackson Laboratory was founded in 1929 in Bar Harbor, Maine, by former University of Maine and University of Michigan president C. C. Little under the name Roscoe B. Jackson Memorial Laboratory. (Roscoe B. Jackson was a one-time head of the Hudson Motor Company who helped provide the funds for the first laboratory building at the property and the first five years of operation.)
Recent research has provided insight into cancer stem cells and treatments for leukemia; progress with type 1 diabetes and lupus; and a breakthrough in extending mammalian life span.
The Jackson Laboratory Cancer Center.
The Jackson Laboratory Cancer Center (JAXCC) first received its National Cancer Institute designation in 1983 in recognition of the foundational cancer research conducted there. The JAXCC is one of seven NCI-designated Cancer Centers with a focus on basic research.
The Jackson Laboratory Cancer Center has a single program, “Genetic Models for Precision Cancer Medicine,” composed of three biological themes: cancer cell robustness, genomic and genetic complexity, and progenitor cell biology. The themes emphasize the systems genetics of cancer and translational cancer genomics, and all are supported by the JAX Cancer Center's technological initiatives in mouse modeling, genome analytics and quantitative cell biology.
The Morrell Park fire.
On May 10, 1989, a flash fire destroyed the Morrell Park mouse production facility. The fire raged for five hours, requiring over 100 firefighters from 15 companies and a total of 16 trucks for the fire to be contained. Four workers of the Colwell Construction Company who were installing fiberglass wallboard in the room where the fire broke out were injured, one with burns over 15 percent of his body. While none of the foundation strains were lost, 300,000 production mice (about 50% of their stock) died, resulting in a national shortage of laboratory mice and the layoff of 60 employees.
This was the second fire to severely affect the laboratory; the 1947 fire that burned most of the island destroyed most of the laboratory, and its mice. Worldwide donations of funds and mice allowed the lab to resume operations in 1948.
Business model.
The Jackson Laboratory is recognized by the IRS as a public charity. According to organization literature, revenue comes primarily from the sale of materials and services (~70%) and from government support (~25%). Less than 5% of 2012 revenue came from charitable donations.
Controversy.
In 2013, a jury in Maine found that Jackson Laboratory did not violate that state's whistleblower protection law when they fired an employee who claimed to have been terminated after reporting her concerns about the treatment of animals to the National Institutes of Health Office for Laboratory Animal Welfare. The worker accused the laboratory of “allowing mice to suffer and then die in their cages instead of euthanizing them” and of cutting off the toes of mice to identify them. Jackson laboratory denied the allegations and said the worker was fired for her confrontational demeanor.
In 2009, Jackson Laboratory was fined $161,680 by the EPA for improperly handling and storing hazardous materials.


David Kerr (nephrologist)

Professor David Nichol Sharp Kerr (1927–2014) was a British nephrologist.
Kerr was born on 27 December 1927 in Hackney, London, England.
He attended George Watson's Boys School, Edinburgh, and then the University of Edinburgh, where he obtained his MB ChB with Honours in 1951. He subsequently undertook an MSc in Anatomy at the University of Wisconsin.
He undertook National Service as a surgeon-lieutenant with the Royal Naval Volunteer Reserve from 1953 to 1955.
He worked at University of Newcastle upon Tyne Medical School, where he rose to the position of professor of renal medicine, from 1968 to 1983, and Hammersmith Hospital, where he was both professor of renal medicine and dean from 1984 to 1992.
He served as editor of the "Journal of the Royal College of Physicians of London" from 1994 to 1998.
He was made a Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in 1991, and delivered the 1968 Goulstonian lecture and the 1983 Lumleian lecture.
He died on 20 April 2014.


Scott Sims (veterinarian)

Scott Sims DVM (1955 – July 25, 2015) was an American veterinarian and television personality. He is best known for his factual television series "Aloha Vet", which aired in 2015.
Early life and education.
Sims was born in New Jersey and raised in California. He took his first equestrian lesson at 4 years old and bought his first horse, with his own money, at 7 years old.
He obtained his pilot's license shortly after graduating from high school. He graduated from University of California, Davis in 1979 with a Bachelor of Science in zoology. He then graduated from the University of California, Davis, School of Veterinary Medicine in 1984.
Career.
Sims was a large and small animal veterinarian. He co-founded the Davis Wildlife Care Association shortly after graduating from the University of California, Davis, School of Veterinary Medicine in 1984. He also founded a veterinary clinic, Pegasus Veterinary Clinic, in Novato, California.
In 2001, Sims and his clinic moved to Kauai, Hawaii after taking a vacation to Hawaii in 2000. Sims operated his clinic from his estate, worked primarily with two long-time employees, Dia and Ella, and saw approximately 20 patients a day. His clinic was of one of approximately 20 veterinary clinics on Kauai, but most specialized in pets and did not make house calls. While he performed most surgeries and procedures in his office, he frequently responded to emergency calls out of his office. He traveled by a specially fitted out Lexus sport utility vehicle, on an all-terrain vehicle, by horseback, or in his from-a-kit, home-built, single-engine, single-prop plane to visit sick and injured animals of all kinds on multiple Hawaiian Islands, including his home island of Kauai, Oahu, Maui, Molokai, and the Island of Hawaii (also known as The Big Island of Hawaii). He also has some clients as far away as Texas. Sims assisted the US Fish and Wildlife Service in Hawaii with injured animals. He estimated that his practice was 40% domestic pets, 50% farm animals, and 10% exotic animals.
His clinic was the subject of a Nat Geo Wild factual television series, "Aloha Vet". The idea for the series was presented to Sims by the show's production company, Shine America, after he appeared in a segment of a reality show featuring professional surfer Laird Hamilton. Filming began in 2014, using a makeshift studio on his estate. The show premiered on March 21, 2015. He was in talks for a second season when he was diagnosed with bladder cancer.
Sims was writing a book, "Eating Horses Don't Die."
Personal life.
Sims had no spouse or children, but did live with his grey parrot, Oliver.
He founded The Pegasus Foundation to establish a nonprofit "Pay-what-you-can" animal hospital on Kauai.


Warren Warwick

Warren J. Warwick was an American pediatrician, notable for co-inventing a chest wall oscillation device called the Vest Airway Clearance System, or "The Vest", a mechanical vest for clearing the lungs of children with cystic fibrosis. He was Professor of Pediatric Pulmonology at the University of Minnesota and director from 1962 to 1999 of the Cystic Fibrosis Center at the University of Minnesota, recognized by peer institutions as the best in the United States.


Viral gastroenteritis


George Napoleon Epps

George Napoleon Epps (22 July 181528 May 1874) was an English homœopathic practitioner and author.
Life.
Epps was the half-brother of physician and homeopath John Epps, and was born on 22 July 1815. He was educated at Mill Hill School in London After being for some years his brother's pupil and assistant, he became a member of the London College of Surgeons in 1845, and was in the same year appointed surgeon to the Homœopathic Hospital in Hanover Square. He was successful in treating spinal curvatures and deformities.
Epps had a large practice to which he was devoted, never sleeping out of his house for twenty years. In 1833 he married Charlotte Bacon. He died on 28 May 1874.
Works.
In 1849 Epps published "Spinal Curvature, its Theory and Cure". He added a third part to Joseph Hippolyt Pulte's "Homœopathic Physician", brought out by his brother in 1852, on the "Treatment of Accidents"; and published revised editions of Walter Williamson's "Diseases of Infants and Children", and "Diseases of Women and their Homœopathic Treatment", in 1857. In 1859 he published a work, "On Deformities of the Spine and on Club Foot".
Family.
Epps married in 1833 Charlotte Bacon. Their daughter Ellen (1850–1929) married Edmund Gosse, and their daughter Laura Theresa (1852–1909) married Lawrence Alma-Tadema.


Franz von Pitha

Franz Freiherr von Pitha (born "Jiří František Piťha", 8 February 1810 – 29 December 1875) was an Austrian surgeon who was a native of Řakom, a village near Klatovy, Bohemia. He was rector of the Charles University in Prague in 1854–1855.
In 1836 he received his medical doctorate at Prague, and was later a professor of surgery at Charles University in Prague, and at Josephs Academy (Josephinum) in Vienna, where he was chair of surgery from 1857 to 1874.
During the Italian Wars of Independence, Pitha was chief of field medical services. In this role he made advancements in Austrian military hygiene, and also gained experience regarding battle-related injuries. He published a treatise titled "Verletzungen und Krankheiten der Extremitäten" (Injuries and Diseases of the Extremities), as a result of his war-time experiences.
Pitha was instrumental in acquiring a position for Theodor Billroth (1829–1894) at the medical faculty in Vienna, and with Billroth he published an important textbook on surgery called "Handbuch der allgemeinen und speciellen Chirurgie mit Einschluss der topographischen Anatomie, Operations- und Verbandlehre" (Textbook of General and Specialized Surgery with the Inclusion of Topographical Anatomy, Operations and Bandaging Skills).
Pitha was knight of the Order of Leopold and recipient of the Order of the Iron Crown 2nd class. He was ennobled in 1859 and raised to the baronial rank in January 1875. He had three daughters with his wife Emilia née Barter.


Bernard Glueck Sr.

Bernard Charles Glueck Sr. (December 10, 1884 - October 5, 1972) was a Polish-American forensic psychiatrist and psychoanalyst. He established the first prison psychiatric clinic and was an expert witness in the Leopold and Loeb trial. He also served as president of the American Psychopathological Association in 1945.
Life and career.
Glueck was born in Poland and emigrated to the United States in 1900. He earned his medical degree from Georgetown University in 1909, then started a career in public health.
Glueck founded the first prison psychiatric clinic at Sing Sing Prison in 1915. He served in the Medical Corps of the United States Army, starting in 1918. In 1920, he introduced his brother Sheldon Glueck to his brother's future wife Eleanor Glueck. Sheldon and Eleanor Glueck went on to have a lifelong collaboration studying juvenile delinquency.
Later, Glueck worked for the New York School of Social Work (which would later become the Columbia University School of Social Work) and the New York City Board of Education Bureau of Child Guidance.
In 1924, Clarence Darrow sought out Glueck and two other alienists to testify for the defense the kidnapping/murder trial of Nathan Leopold and Richard Loeb. Both were convicted.
Glueck founded the private Stony Lodge Hospital in Ossining, New York in 1927. After retiring in 1947, Glueck continued to work for the Veterans Administration, the University of North Carolina, and John Umstead Hospital in Butner, North Carolina.
His son Bernard Glueck Jr. (1914–1999) was also a psychiatrist, affiliated with the Institute for Living in Connecticut.


Raymond Corsini

Raymond "Ray" J. Corsini (June 1, 1914 – November 8, 2008, Honolulu) was an encyclopedist and lexicographer in the field of psychology.


Wayne Bowen

Wayne Bowen is an American pharmacologist and biologist, currently the Upjohn University Professor of Pharmacology at Brown University.


Vegetius


Joseph Igersheimer

Joseph Igersheimer(1879–1965) was a German born ophthalmologist known for his work on arsphenamine for the treatment of syphilis. AJew, after escaping the Nazis, While in forced exile from Nazi Germany between 1933 and 1939, Joseph Igersheimer was the architect of modern ophthalmology in Turkey. Earlier he was a pioneer in addressing the impact of syphilis on eyesight. He was the first to use arsphenamine in the treatment of syphilis of the eye and the first to operate on retinal detachment by closing the holes. In 1939 he joined the faculty of Tufts University School of Medicine and became a major contributor to America's ophthalmology..


John Elefteriades

John Alex Elefteriades is a medical doctor and cardiac surgeon. He is the William W. L. Glenn Professor of Cardiothoracic Surgery and Chief of Cardiothoracic Surgery in the Yale School of Medicine and Yale-New Haven Hospital. He serves as the Director of the Yale Center for Thoracic Aortic Disease.
Education.
He received his undergraduate degree with a triple major in Physics, French and Psychology from Yale University. He received his MD degree from the Yale School of Medicine in 1976 and did residencies at Yale in general surgery and cardiothoracic surgery. He then joined the Yale faculty. In 2006 he was appointed the William W. L. Glenn Professor of Cardiothoracic Surgery, named for Elefteriades’ mentor.
He specializes and practises suspended animation on his patients


Charles McIlveen

Charles Elmer McIlveen (August 8, 1919 – May 4, 2007) was a Canadian physician and politician, who represented Oshawa in the Legislative Assembly of Ontario from 1971 to 1975 as a Progressive Conservative member. McIlveen was elected in the PC sweep, taking the seat for the working-class riding of Oshawa previously held by Cliff Pilkey and considered an NDP stronghold. In addition to serving as a member, or Chair, of several Standing and Select Committees of the Legislature, McIlveen served as the Parliamentary Assistant to the Minister of Transportation and Communication during the short-lived government of Bill Davis in 1975.
In the 1975 Ontario election, New Democrat Michael Breaugh easily reclaimed the seat.
A physician by profession, McIlveen died May 4, 2007 at the age of 87.


Costal facet

A costal facet is a site of connection between a rib and a vertebra. The costal facets are located on the vertebrae that the rib articulates with. They are the superior costal facet, the inferior costal facet, and the transverse costal facet. Rib 1 only articulates with a transverse costal facet. A transverse costal facet is a facet on the transverse process of the vertebrae for articulation with the tubercle on the rib.
The superior costal facet joins the rib to the top of a vertebra. The transverse costal facet joins the rib to the transverse process of a vertebra, and the inferior costal facet joins the rib to the lower part of the vertebra. The joints formed are known as the costovertebral joints.


Brazilian purpuric fever

Brazilian purpuric fever (BPF) is an illness of children caused by the bacterium "Haemophilus influenzae" biogroup aegyptius which is ultimately fatal due to sepsis. BPF was first recognized in the São Paulo state of Brazil in 1984. At this time, young children between the ages of 3 months and 10 years were contracting a strange illness which was characterized by high fever and purpuric lesions on the body. These cases were all fatal, and originally thought to be due to meningitis. It was not until the autopsies were conducted that the cause of these deaths was confirmed to be infection by "H. influenzae aegyptius". Although BPF was thought to be confined to Brazil, other cases occurred in Australia and the United States during 1984–1990.
"Haemophilus" species are non-spore-forming gram-negative coccobacilli . They lack motility and are aerobic or facultatively anaerobic. They require preformed growth factors that are present in blood, specifically hemin (X factor) and NAD or NADP (V factor). The bacterium grows best at 35–37 °C and has an optimal pH of 7.6. "Haemophilus" species are obligate parasites and are part of the normal flora of the human upper respiratory tract.
Presentation.
In documented BPF cases, the symptoms include high fever (101.3 °F/38,5 °C or higher), nausea, vomiting, severe abdominal pain, septic shock, and ultimately death. A history of conjunctivitis 30 days prior to the onset of fever was also present in the documented BPF cases.
The physical presentation of children infected with BPF include purpuric skin lesions affecting mainly the face and extremities, cyanosis, rapid necrosis of soft tissue, particularly the hands, feet, nose, and ears. Analysis of the fatalities due to BPF showed hemorrhage in the skin, lungs, and adrenal glands. Histopathology showed hemorrhage, intravascular microthrombi and necrosis in the upper dermis, renal glomeruli, lungs, and hepatic sinusoids.
Risk factors.
The risk factors associated with BPF are not well known. However, it has been suggested that children under 5 years of age are more susceptible to BPF since they lack serum bactericidal activity against the infection. Older children and adults have much higher titers of bactericidal antibodies, which serve as a protective measure. Also children residing in warmer geographic areas have been associated with a higher risk of BPF infection.
Transmission.
The eye gnat ("Liohippelates") was thought to be the cause of the conjunctivitis epidemic which occurred in Mato Grosso do Sul in 1991. These gnats were extracted from the conjunctival secretions of the children who were infected with conjunctivitis. 19 of those children developed BPF following the conjunctivitis. Other modes of transmission include contact with the conjunctival discharges of infected people, ophthalmic instruments which have not been properly sterilized, sharing eye makeup applicators or multiple-dose eye medications.
Pathogenesis.
The pathogenesis of BPF is not well established but it is thought that patients become pharyngeal or conjunctival carriers of "H. aegyptius", which is followed by spreading to the bloodstream. This hypothesis is supported by the isolation of from both the conjunctiva and oropharynx of documented BPF cases with "H. aegyptius" bacteremia. Possible virulence factors of "H. aegyptius" include lipooligosaccharides (LOS), capsular polysaccharides, pilus proteins (mediates adhesion to mucosal membrane), immunoglobulin A1 (IgA1), membrane associated proteins, and extracellular proteins. In a study conducted by Barbosa "et al.", a 60 kilodalton hemagglutinating extracellular product was suggested to be the major pathogenic factor linked to the hemorrhagic manifestations of BPF. This molecule was found to be absorbable by human O-type erythrocytes. After the molecule had been injected into rabbits, they showed reactions similar to that of BPF patients. Further research is being conducted to determine the mechanisms involved with the other virulence factors of" H. aegyptius." The overall pathogenesis of BPF probably involves multiple steps and a number of bacterial factors.
Diagnosis.
A positive BPF diagnosis includes the clinical symptoms (mainly the fever, purpuric lesions, and rapid progression of the disease), isolation of "Haemophilus Influenzae" Biogroup aegyptius from blood, and negative laboratory tests for "Neisseria meningitidis".
The negative tests for "Neisseria meningitidis" rules out the possibility of the symptoms being caused by meningitis, since the clinical presentations of the two diseases are similar.
Prevention.
The basic method for control of the conjunctivitis includes proper hygiene and care for the affected eye. If the conjunctivitis is found to be caused by "H. aegyptius" Biogroup III then prompt antibiotic treatment preferably with rifampin has been shown to prevent progression to BPF. If the infected person resides in Brazil, it is mandatory that the infection is reported to the health authority so that a proper investigation of the contacts can be completed. This investigation will help to determine the probable source of the infection.
Treatment.
It is extremely difficult to successfully treat BPF, mainly because of the difficulty obtaining a proper diagnosis. Since the disease starts out with what seems to be a common case of conjunctivitis, "H. aegyptius" is not susceptible to the antibiotic eye drops that are being used to treat it. This treatment is ineffective because it treats only the local ocular infection, whereas if it progresses to BPF, systemic antibiotic treatment is required. Although BPF is susceptible to many commonly used antibiotics, including ampicillin, cefuroxime, cefotaxime, rifampin, and chloramphenicol, by the time it is diagnosed the disease has progressed too much to be effectively treated. However, with the fast rate of progression of BPF it is unlikely that it will be successfully treated. With antibiotic therapy, the mortality rate of BPF is around 70%.


Charley Parkhurst

Charley Darkey Parkhurst (born Charlotte Darkey Parkhurst 1812–1879), also known as "One-Eyed Charley" or "Six-Horse Charley", was an American stagecoach driver, farmer and rancher in California. Raised a girl in New England, Parkhurst ran away as a youth, taking the name Charley and began living as a man. He started work as a stable hand and learned to handle horses, including to drive coaches drawn by multiple horses. He worked in Massachusetts and Rhode Island, traveling to Georgia for associated work.
In his late 30s, Parkhurst sailed to California following the Gold Rush in 1849; there he became a noted stagecoach driver. In 1868, he may have been the first person assigned female at birth to vote in a presidential election in California. After his death, it was discovered that his sex was female and he had given birth at an earlier time. Parkhurst is an important figure in transgender history.
Life and career.
Charley Parkhurst was born Charlotte Darkey Parkhurst in 1812 in Sharon, Vermont, to Mary (Morehouse) Parkhurst and Ebenezer Parkhurst. Parkhurst had two siblings, Charles D. (1811–1813) and Maria. The mother, Mary, died in 1812. Some time after Charles D. died, Charley and Maria were taken to an orphanage in Lebanon, New Hampshire. (Some sources say Charley was born there.) They were raised under the care of Mr. Millshark.
Parkhurst ran away from the orphanage at age 12, adopted the name Charley, and assumed a masculine presentation. According to one account, Parkhurst soon met Ebenezer Balch, who had a livery stable in Providence, Rhode Island. He took what he thought was an orphaned boy under his care and returned to Rhode Island. Treating Parkhurst like a son, Balch taught him to work as a stable hand and gradually with the horses. He developed an aptitude with horses, and Balch taught him to drive a coach, first with one, then four, and eventually six horses. Parkhurst worked for Balch for several years. He may have gotten to know James E. Birch, who was a younger stagecoach driver in Providence.
In 1848, the 21-year-old Birch and his close friend Frank Stevens went to California during the Gold Rush to seek their fortunes. Birch soon began a stagecoach service, starting as a driver with one wagon. He gradually consolidated several small stage lines into the California Stage Company.
Seeking other opportunities as well, Parkhurst, in his late 30s, also left for California, sailing on the "R.B. Forbes" from Boston to Panama; travelers had to cross the isthmus overland and pick up other ships on the west coast. In Panama, Parkhurst met John Morton, returning to San Francisco where he owned a drayage business; Morton recruited the driver to work for him. Shortly after reaching California, Parkhurst lost the use of one eye after a kick from a horse, leading to his nickname of "One Eyed Charley" or "Cockeyed Charley".
Later Parkhurst went to work for Birch, where he developed a reputation as one of the finest stage coach drivers (a "whip") on the West Coast. This inspired another nickname for him, "Six-Horse Charley." He was ranked with "Foss, Hank Monk and George Gordon" as one of the top drivers of the time. Stagecoach drivers were also nicknamed "Jehus," after a Biblical passage in Kings 9:20: "…and the driving is like the driving of Jehu the son of Nimshi; for he driveth furiously."
Among Parkhurst's routes in northern California were Stockton to Mariposa, "the great stage route" from San Jose to Oakland, and San Juan to Santa Cruz. Stagecoach drivers carried mail as well as passengers, and had to deal with hold-up attempts, bad weather, and perilous, primitive trails. As historian Charles Outland described the era, "It was a dangerous era in a dangerous country, where dangerous conditions were the norm."
Seeing that railroads were cutting into the stagecoach business, Parkhurst retired from driving some years later to Watsonville, California. For fifteen years he worked at farming and lumbering in the winter. He also raised chickens in Aptos.
He later moved into a small cabin about six miles from Watsonville, and suffered from rheumatism in his later years. Parkhurst died there on December 18, 1879, due to tongue cancer.
Posthumous revelation.
After Parkhurst died in 1879, neighbors came to the cabin to lay out the body for burial and discovered that his body appeared to be female. Rheumatism and cancer of the tongue were listed as causes of death. In addition, the examining doctor established that Parkhurst had given birth at some time. A trunk in the house contained a baby's dress. The "LA Times" reported, "The discovery of her true sex became a local sensation," and was soon carried by national newspapers.
The obituary about Parkhurst from the "San Francisco Call" was reprinted in "The New York Times" on January 9, 1880, so the extraordinary driving career and the post-mortem discovery of Parkhurst's sex received national coverage. The headline was: "Thirty Years in Disguise: A Noted Old Californian Stage-Driver Discovered. After Death. To be a Woman."
The article noted how unusual it was that Parkhurst could have lived so long with no one discovering his sex, and to "achieve distinction in an occupation above all professions calling for the best physical qualities of nerve, courage, coolness and endurance, and that she should add to them the almost romantic personal bravery that enables one to fight one's way through the ambush of an enemy..." was seen to be almost beyond believing, but there was ample evidence to prove the case.
1868 vote, legacy, and honors.
The "Santa Cruz Sentinel" of October 17, 1868, lists Charles Darkey Parkhurst on the official poll list for the election of 1868. There is no record that Parkhurst actually cast a vote.
Parkhurst has been variously interpreted as either a woman using a persona to be able to work and have freedoms that were not allowed for women during that time, or a transgender man or other figure in trans history. If Parkhurst was a woman and did vote in 1868, the stagecoach driver may have been the first female to vote in a presidential election in California. Local legend and Parkhurst's gravestone claims that Parkhurst was "the first woman to vote in the U.S." and the fire station in Soquel, California, has a plaque reading:
The first ballot by a woman in an American presidential election was cast on this site November 3, 1868, by Charlotte (Charley) Parkhurst who masqueraded as a man for much of her life. She was a stagecoach driver in the mother lode country during the gold rush days and shot and killed at least one bandit. In her later years he drove a stagecoach in this area. She died in 1879. Not until then was she found to be female. She is buried in Watsonville at the pioneer cemetery.
In 1955, the Pajaro Valley Historical Association erected a monument at Parkhurst's grave, which reads:
In 2007, the Santa Cruz County Redevelopment Agency oversaw the completion of the Parkhurst Terrace Apartments, named for the stagecoach driver and located a mile along the old stage route from the place of his death.


Peng Tee Khaw

Sir Peng Tee Khaw is a Chinese-Malaysian British Consultant Ophthalmic Surgeon at Moorfields Eye Hospital in London, specialising in adult and paediatric glaucoma.
Career.
Khaw was born on 8 October 1957 in Singapore. His father, Tan Sri Khaw Kai Boh, was a Cabinet member of Tunku Abdul Rahman. His family moved back to Malaysia soon after, and he studied at St John’s Institution in Kuala Lumpur before leaving for the UK.
Khaw studied medicine at Southampton University Medical School and qualified in 1980. He subsequently joined Moorfields in 1987 and specialised in adult and paediatric glaucoma (1989-1994), simultaneously preparing for his PhD in "ocular wound healing and advanced therapies to prevent scarring". He has perhaps the greatest experience in his field in the United Kingdom and he has developed techniques for glaucoma surgery that are now in worldwide use.
Khaw is Director of the National Institute of Health's Biomedical Research Centre at Moorfields, and University College London's Institute of Ophthalmology. He has raised more than £120 million for research and buildings including funding for the world’s largest Children's Eye Hospital and translational research clinical centre.


Modernising Scientific Careers

Modernising Scientific Careers (MSC) is a UK-wide government initiative to address the training and education needs of the whole healthcare science workforce in the National Health Service (NHS). The initiative won a Healthcare Innovation Award in 2013. Its stated aims are to introduce flexibility, sustainability and modern career pathways for the healthcare science workforce to meet future needs of the NHS.
Background and history.
Modernising Scientific Careers is a joint initiative of the four health departments of the UK led by the Chief Scientific Officer at the Department of Health, Professor Sue Hill OBE. It is analogous to the Modernising Medical Careers scheme for doctor training.
The genesis of MSC came from a series of stakeholder consultation events in early 2008 and the June 2008 report 'A High Quality Workforce', part of the Darzi Review
of the NHS.
This led to the publication of a policy consultation document at the end of 2008, which outlined a revised training structure for the 50,000 plus healthcare scientists in the NHS, providing a single coherent framework for all the healthcare science disciplines.
The final policy proposals were published in February 2010 in the document 'Modernising Scientific Careers: The UK Way Forward'
Key elements.
There are four main elements to Modernising Scientific careers:
This includes qualifications and awards and arrangements for assessment of previous 'equivalent' education and skills.
Career stages.
The new MSC career pathway has four stages:
Implementation in devolved administrations.
Scotland
The Health Directorate of the Scottish Government has agreed to participate in the UK-wide framework for healthcare science education and training, while retaining the best of current Scottish practice. NHS Education for Scotland is leading on the work for Scotland and is participating on the UK-wide Healthcare Science Education and Training Board arrangements.
Award.
The Modernising Scientific Careers programme won the Workforce Innovation category in the 2013 Guardian Healthcare Awards where it was praised for its leadership in involving patients and staff, professions and academic institutions.


John David (academic)

John David is an American physician currently the Richard Pearson Strong Professor of Tropical Public Health, Emeritus at Harvard School of Public Health. David earned his medical degree at the University of Chicago.,