Thuringia

Thuringia (; ), officially the Free State of Thuringia ( ), is a state of Germany. Located in central Germany, it covers , being the sixth smallest of the sixteen German States (including City States). It has a population of about 2.15 million inhabitants.
Erfurt is the state capital and largest city. Other cities are Jena, Gera and Weimar. Thuringia is bordered by Bavaria, Hesse, Lower Saxony, Saxony-Anhalt, and Saxony.
It has been known as "the green heart of Germany" () from the late 19th century due to its broad, dense forest. Most of Thuringia is in the Saale drainage basin, a left-bank tributary of the Elbe.
Thuringia is home to the Rennsteig, Germany's best-known hiking trail. Its winter resort of Oberhof makes it a well-equipped winter sports destination – half of Germany's 136 Winter Olympic gold medals as of 2014 were by Thuringian athletes. Thuringia was favoured or was the birthplace of three key intellectuals and leaders in the arts: Johann Sebastian Bach, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, and Friedrich Schiller.
The state has the University of Jena, the Ilmenau University of Technology, the University of Erfurt, and the Bauhaus University of Weimar.
Thuringia had an earlier existence as the Frankish Duchy of Thuringia, established around 631 AD by King Dagobert I. The state was established in 1920 as a state of the Weimar Republic from a merger of the Ernestine duchies, save for Saxe-Coburg. After World War II, Thuringia came under the Soviet occupation zone in Allied-occupied Germany, and its borders were reformed, to become contiguous. Thuringia became part of the German Democratic Republic in 1949, but was dissolved in 1952 during administrative reforms, to be divided into the Districts of Erfurt, Suhl and Gera. Thuringia was re-established in 1990 following German reunification, slightly re-drawn, and became one of the new states of the Federal Republic of Germany.
Etymology and symbols.
The name "Thuringia" or "Thüringen" derives from the Germanic tribe Thuringii, who emerged during the Migration Period. Their origin is largely unknown. An older theory claims that they were successors of the Hermunduri, but later research rejected the idea. Other historians argue that the Thuringians were allies of the Huns, came to central Europe together with them, and lived before in what is Galicia today. Publius Flavius Vegetius Renatus first mentioned the Thuringii around 400; during that period, the Thuringii were famous for their excellent horses.
The Thuringian Realm existed until after 531, the Landgraviate of Thuringia was the largest state in the region, persisting between 1131 and 1247. Afterwards the state known as Thuringia ceased to exist; nevertheless the term commonly described the region between the Harz mountains in the north, the White Elster river in the east, the Franconian Forest in the south and the Werra river in the west. After the Treaty of Leipzig, Thuringia had its own dynasty again, the Ernestine Wettins. Their various lands formed the Free State of Thuringia, founded in 1920, together with some other small principalities. The Prussian territories around Erfurt, Mühlhausen and Nordhausen joined Thuringia in 1945.
The coat of arms of Thuringia shows the lion of the Ludowingian Landgraves of 12th-century origin. The eight stars around it represent the eight former states which formed Thuringia. The flag of Thuringia is a white-red bicolor, derived from the white and red stripes of the Ludowingian lion. The coat of arms and flag of Hesse are quite similar to the Thuringian ones, since they are also derived from the Ludowingian symbols.
Symbols of Thuringia in popular culture are the "Bratwurst" and the Forest, because a large amount of the territory is forested.
History.
Named after the Thuringii Germanic tribe who occupied it around AD 300, Thuringia came under Frankish domination in the 6th century.
Thuringia became a landgraviate in 1130 AD. After the extinction of the reigning Ludowingian line of counts and landgraves in 1247 and the War of the Thuringian Succession (1247–1264), the western half became independent under the name of "Hesse", never to become a part of Thuringia again. Most of the remaining Thuringia came under the rule of the Wettin dynasty of the nearby Margraviate of Meissen, the nucleus of the later Electorate and Kingdom of Saxony. With the division of the house of Wettin in 1485, Thuringia went to the senior Ernestine branch of the family, which subsequently subdivided the area into a number of smaller states, according to the Saxon tradition of dividing inheritance amongst male heirs. These were the "Saxon duchies", consisting, among others, of the states of Saxe-Weimar, Saxe-Eisenach, Saxe-Jena, Saxe-Meiningen, Saxe-Altenburg, Saxe-Coburg, and Saxe-Gotha.
Thuringia generally accepted the Protestant Reformation, and Roman Catholicism was suppressed as early as 1520; priests who remained loyal to it were driven away and churches and monasteries were largely destroyed, especially during the German Peasants' War of 1525. In Mühlhausen and elsewhere, the Anabaptists found many adherents. Thomas Müntzer, a leader of some non-peaceful groups of this sect, was active in this city. Within the borders of modern Thuringia the Roman Catholic faith only survived in the Eichsfeld district, which was ruled by the Archbishop of Mainz, and to a small degree in Erfurt and its immediate vicinity.
The modern German black-red-gold tricolour flag's first appearance anywhere in a German-ethnicity sovereign state, within what today comprises Germany, occurred in 1778 as the state flag of the Principality of Reuss-Greiz, an defunct principality in the modern state's borders.
Some reordering of the Thuringian states occurred during the German Mediatisation from 1795 to 1814, and the territory was included within the Napoleonic Confederation of the Rhine organized in 1806. The 1815 Congress of Vienna confirmed these changes and the Thuringian states' inclusion in the German Confederation; the Kingdom of Prussia also acquired some Thuringian territory and administered it within the Province of Saxony. The Thuringian duchies which became part of the German Empire in 1871 during the Prussian-led unification of Germany were Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach, Saxe-Meiningen, Saxe-Altenburg, Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, Schwarzburg-Sondershausen, Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt and the two principalities of Reuss Elder Line and Reuss Younger Line.
Free State of Thuringia.
In 1920, after World War I, these small states merged into one state, called Thuringia; only Saxe-Coburg voted to join Bavaria instead. Weimar became the new capital of Thuringia. The coat of arms of this new state was simpler than those of its predecessors.
In 1930 Thuringia was one of the free states where the Nazis gained real political power. Wilhelm Frick was appointed Minister of the Interior for the state of Thuringia after the Nazi Party won six delegates to the Thuringia Diet. In this position he removed from the Thuringia police force anyone he suspected of being a republican and replaced them with men who were favourable towards the Nazi Party. He also ensured that whenever an important position came up within Thuringia, he used his power to ensure that a Nazi was given that post.
After being controlled briefly by the US, from July 1945, the state of Thuringia came under the Soviet occupation zone, and was expanded to include parts of Prussian Saxony, such as the areas around Erfurt, Mühlhausen, and Nordhausen. Erfurt became the new capital of Thuringia. Ostheim, an exclave of "Landkreis" (roughly equivalent to a county in the English-speaking world) Eisenach, was ceded to Bavaria.
In 1952, the German Democratic Republic dissolved its states, and created districts () instead. The three districts that shared the former territory of Thuringia were Erfurt, Gera and Suhl. Altenburg Kreis was part of Leipzig Bezirk.
The State of Thuringia was recreated with slightly altered borders during German reunification in 1990.
Geography.
Topography.
From the northwest going clockwise, Thuringia borders on the German states of Lower Saxony, Saxony-Anhalt, Saxony, Bavaria and Hesse.
The landscapes of Thuringia are quite diverse. The far north is occupied by the Harz mountains, followed by the Goldene Aue, a fertile floodplain around Nordhausen with the Helme as most important river. The north-west includes the Eichsfeld, a hilly and sometimes forested region, where the Leine river emanates. The central and northern part of Thuringia is defined by the 3000 km2 wide Thuringian Basin, a very fertile and flat area around the Unstrut river and completely surrounded by the following hill chains (clockwise from the north-west): Dün, Hainleite, Windleite, Kyffhäuser, Hohe Schrecke, Schmücke, Finne, Ettersberg, Steigerwald, Thuringian Forest, Hörselberge and Hainich. Within the Basin the smaller hill chains Fahner Höhe and Heilinger Höhen. South of the Thuringian Basin is the Land's largest mountain range, marked by the Thuringian Forest in the north-west, the Thuringian Highland in the middle and the Franconian Forest in the south-east. Most of this range is forested and the Großer Beerberg (983 m) is Thuringia's highest mountain. To the south-west, the Forest is followed up by Werra river valley, dividing it from the Rhön Mountains in the west and the Grabfeld plain in the south. Eastern Thuringia, commonly described as the area east of Saale and Loquitz valley, is marked by a hilly landscape, rising slowly from the flat north to the mountainous south. The Saale in the west and the White Elster in the east are the two big rivers running from south to north and forming densely settled valleys in this area. Between them lies the flat and forested Holzland in the north, the flat and fertile Orlasenke in the middle and the Vogtland, a hilly but in most parts non-forested region in the south. The far eastern region (east of White Elster) is the Osterland or Altenburger Land along Pleiße river, a flat, fertile and densely settled agricultural area.
There are two large rivers in Thuringia. The Saale, a tributary of the Elbe, with its tributaries the Unstrut, Ilm and White Elster, drains the most part of Thuringia. The Werra - the headwater of the Weser - drains the south-west and west of the Land. Furthermore, some small areas on the southern border are drained by tributaries of the Main, itself a tributary of the Rhine. There are no large natural lakes in Thuringia, but it does have some of Germany's biggest dams, including the Bleiloch Dam and the Hohenwarte Dam on the River Saale, as well as the Leibis-Lichte Dam and the Goldisthal Pumped Storage Station in the Thuringian Highlands. Thuringia is Germany's only state with no connection to navigable waterways.
The geographic centre of the Federal Republic is in Thuringia, within the municipality of Vogtei next to Mühlhausen. The centre of Thuringia is eight kilometres south of the capital's Cathedral, in the municipality of Rockhausen.
Climate.
Thuringia's climate is temperate with humid westerly winds predominating. Increasingly as one moves from the north-west to the south-east, the climate shows continental features: winters can be cold for long periods, and summers can become warm. Dry periods are often recorded, especially within the Thuringian Basin, leeward to mountains in all directions. It is Germany's driest area, with annual precipitation of only 400 to 500 mm.
Artern, in the north-east, is warm and dry, with a mean annual temperature of 8.5 °C and mean precipitation of 450 mm; contrast this with wet, cool Oberhof, in the Thuringian Forest, where temperature averages only 4.4 °C and mean annual precipitation reaches 1300 mm.
Nature and environment.
Due to many centuries of intensive settlement, most of the area is shaped by human influence. The original natural vegetation of Thuringia is forest with beech as its predominant species, as can still be found in the Hainich mountains today. In the uplands, a mixture of beech and spruce would be natural. However, most of the plains have been cleared and are in intensive agricultural use while most of the forests are planted with spruce and pine. Since 1990, Thuringia's forests have been managed aiming for a more natural and tough vegetation more resilient to climate change as well as diseases and vermin. In comparison to the forest, agriculture is still quite conventional and dominated by large structures and monocultures. Problems here are caused especially by increasingly prolonged dry periods during the summer months.
Environmental damage in Thuringia has been reduced to a large extent after 1990. The condition of forests, rivers and air was improved by modernizing factories, houses (decline of coal heating) and cars, and contaminated areas such as the former Uranium surface mines around Ronneburg have been remediated. Today's environmental problems are the salination of the Werra river, caused by discharges of K+S salt mines around Unterbreizbach and overfertilisation in agriculture, damaging the soil and small rivers.
Environment and nature protection has been of growing importance and attention since 1990. Large areas, especially within the forested mountains, are protected as natural reserves, including Thuringia's first national park within the Hainich mountains, founded in 1997, the Rhön Biosphere Reserve, the Thuringian Forest Nature Park and the South Harz Nature Park.
Demographics.
Demographic history.
During the Middle Ages, Thuringia was at the border between Germanic and Slavic territories, marked by the Saale river. The main Slavic tribe in what is now Thuringia were the Sorbs proper, who unified all tribes in what is now southern half of Eastern Germany. The Ostsiedlung movement led to the assimilation of Slavic people between the 11th and the 13th century under German rule. The population growth increased during the 18th century and stayed high until World War I, before it slowed within the 20th century and changed to a decline since 1990. Since the beginning of Urbanisation around 1840, the Thuringian cities have higher growth rates resp. smaller rates of decline than rural areas (many villages lost half of their population since 1950, whereas the biggest cities (Erfurt and Jena) kept growing).
Current population.
The current population is 2,170,000 (in 2012) with an annual rate of decrease of about 0.5%, which varies widely between the local regions. In 2012, 905,000 Thuringians lived in a municipality with more than 20,000 inhabitants, this is an urbanization rate of 42% which continues to rise.
In July 2013, there were 41,000 non-Germans by citizenship living in Thuringia (1.9% of the population − among the smallest proportions of any state in Germany). Nevertheless, the number rose from 33,000 in July 2011, an increase of 24% in only two years. About 4% of the population are migrants (including persons that already received the German citizenship). The biggest groups of foreigners by citizenship are (as of 2012): Russians (3,100), Poles (3,000), Turks (2,100) and Ukrainians (2,000). The number of foreigners varies between regions: the college towns Erfurt, Jena, Weimar and Ilmenau have the highest rates, whereas there are almost no migrants living in the most rural smaller municipalities.
The Thuringian population has a significant sex ratio gap, caused by the emigration of young women, especially in rural areas. Overall, there are 115 to 120 men per 100 women in the 25–40 age group ("family founders") which has negative consequences for the birth ratio. Furthermore, the population is getting older and older with some rural municipalities recording more than 30% of over-65s (pensioners). This is a problem for the regional labour market, as there are twice as many people leaving as entering the job market annually.
Natural and spatial tendencies.
The birth rate was about 1.8 children per women in the 1970s and 1980s, shrinking to 0.8 in 1994 during the economic crisis after the reunification and rose again to more than 1.4 children in 2010, which is a higher level than in West Germany. Nevertheless, there are only 17,000 births compared to 27,000 deaths per year, so that the annual natural change of the Thuringian population is about −0.45%. In 2015 there were 17.934 births, the highest number since 1990.
Migration plays an important role in Thuringia. The internal migration shows a strong tendency from rural areas towards the big cities. From 2008 to 2012, there was a net migration from Thuringia to Erfurt of +6,700 persons (33 per 1000 inhabitants), +1,800 to Gera (19 per 1000), +1,400 to Jena (14 per 1000), +1,400 to Eisenach (33 per 1000) and +1,300 to Weimar (21 per 1000). Between Thuringia and the other German states, the balance is negative: In 2012, Thuringia lost 6,500 persons to other federal states, the most to Bavaria, Saxony, Hesse and Berlin. Only with Saxony-Anhalt and Brandenburg the balance is positive. The international migration is fluctuating heavily. In 2009, the balance was +700, in 2010 +1,800, in 2011 +2,700 and in 2012 +4,800. The most important countries of origin of the Thuringia migrants from 2008 to 2012 were Poland (+1,700), Romania (+1,200), Afghanistan (+1,100) and Serbia/Montenegro/Kosovo (+1,000), whereas the balance was negative with Switzerland (−2,800) and Austria (−900).
Cities, towns and villages.
Of the approximately 850 municipalities of Thuringia, 126 are classed as towns (within a district) or cities (forming their own urban district). Most of the towns are small with a population of less than 10,000; only the ten biggest ones have a population greater than 30,000. The first towns emerged during the 12th century, whereas the latest ones received town status only in the 20th century. Today, all municipalities within districts are equal in law, whether they are towns or villages. Independent cities (i.e. urban districts) have greater powers (the same as any district) than towns within a district.
Religion.
Since the Protestant Reformation, the most prominent Christian denomination in Thuringia has been Lutheranism. During the GDR period, church membership was discouraged and has continued shrinking since the reunification in 1990. Today over two thirds of the population is non-religious. The Protestant Evangelical Church in Germany has had the largest number of members in the state, adhered to by 20.8% of the population in 2018. Members of the Catholic Church formed 7.6% of the population, while 71.6% of Thuringians were non-religious or adhere to other faiths. The highest Protestant concentrations are in the small villages of southern and western Thuringia, whereas the bigger cities are even more non-religious (up to 88% in Gera). Catholic regions are Eichsfeld in the northwest and parts of the Rhön Mountains around Geisa in the southwest. Protestant church membership is shrinking rapidly, whereas the Catholic Church is somewhat more stable because of Catholic migration from Poland, Southern Europe and West Germany. Other religions play no significant role in Thuringia. There are only a few thousand Muslims (largely migrants) and about 750 Jews (mostly migrants from Russia) living in Thuringia. Furthermore, there are some Orthodox communities of Eastern European migrants and some traditional Protestant Free churches in Thuringia without any societal influence.
The Protestant parishes of Thuringia belong to the Evangelical Church in Central Germany or to the Evangelical Church of Hesse Electorate-Waldeck (Schmalkalden region). Catholic dioceses are Erfurt (most of Thuringia), Dresden-Meissen (eastern parts) and Fulda (Rhön around Geisa in the very west).
Politics.
October 2019 state election.
Summary of the 27 October 2019 preliminary election results for the Landtag of Thuringia
! colspan="2" | Party
! Votes
! +/-
! Seats
! Seats %
! colspan=8|
! align="right" colspan=2| Valid votes
! align="right" | 1,108,388
! align="right" | 98.8
! align="right" | 0.2
! align="right" |
! align="right" |
! align="right" |
! align="right" colspan=2| Blank and invalid votes
! align="right" | 13,426
! align="right" | 1.2
! align="right" | 0.2
! align="right" |
! align="right" |
! align="right" |
! align="right" colspan=2| Total
! align="right" | 1,121,814
! align="right" | 100.0
! align="right" |
! align="right" | 90
! align="right" | 1
! align="right" |
! colspan="2" | Electorate / voter turnout
!1,729,242
!64.9
!12.2
!
Local government.
Thuringia is divided into 17 districts ("Landkreise"):
Furthermore, there are six urban districts, indicated on the map by letters:
Economy.
Thuringia's economy is marked by the economic transition that happened after the German reunification and led to the closure of most of the factories within the Land. The unemployment rate reached a peak in 2005. Since that year, the economy has seen an upturn and the general economic situation has improved.
Agriculture and forestry.
Agriculture and forestry have declined in importance over the decades. Nevertheless, they are more important than in the most other areas of Germany, especially within rural regions. 54% of Thuringia's territory is in agricultural use. The fertile basins such as the large Thuringian Basin or the smaller Goldene Aue, Orlasenke and Osterland are in intensive use for growing cereals, vegetables, fruits and energy crops. Important products are apples, strawberries, cherries and plums in the fruit sector, cabbage, potatoes, cauliflower, tomatoes (grown in greenhouses), onions, cucumbers and asparagus in the vegetable sector, as well as maize, rapeseed, wheat, barley and sugar beets in the crop sector.
Meat production and processing is also an important activity, with swine, cattle, chickens and turkeys in focus. Furthermore, there are many milk and cheese producers, as well as laying hens. Trout and carp are traditionally bred in aquaculture in many villages.
Most agricultural enterprises are large cooperatives, founded as Landwirtschaftliche Produktionsgenossenschaft during the GDR period, and meat producers are part of multinational companies. Traditional private peasant agriculture is an exception, as is organic farming.
Thuringia's only wine-growing district is around Bad Sulza north of Weimar and Jena along the Ilm and Saale valley. Its production is marketed as Saale-Unstrut wines.
Forestry plays an important role in Thuringia because 32% of the Thuringian territory is forested. The most common trees are spruce, pine and beech. There are many wood and pulp-paper factories near the forested areas.
Industry and mining.
Like most other regions of central and southern Germany, Thuringia has a significant industrial sector reaching back to the mid-19th-century industrialisation. The economic transition after the German reunification in 1990 led to the closure of most large-scale factories and companies, leaving small and medium-sized ones to dominate the manufacturing sector. Well-known industrial centres are Jena (a world centre for optical instruments with companies like Carl Zeiss, Schott and Jenoptik) and Eisenach, where BMW started its car production in the 1920s and an Opel factory is based today. The most important industrial branches today are engineering and metalworking, vehicle production and food industries. Especially the small and mid-sized towns in central and southwestern Thuringia (e.g. Arnstadt, Schmalkalden and Ohrdruf) are highly industrialised, whereas there are fewer industrial companies in the northern and eastern parts of the Land. Traditional industries like production of glass, porcelain and toys collapsed during the economic crises between 1930 and 1990.
Mining was important in Thuringia since the later Middle Ages, especially within the mining towns of the Thuringian Forest such as Schmalkalden, Suhl and Ilmenau. Following the industrial revolution, the old iron, copper and silver mines declined because the competition from imported metal was too strong. On the other hand, the late 19th century brought new types of mines to Thuringia: the lignite surface mining around Meuselwitz near Altenburg in the east of the Land started in the 1870s, and two potash mining districts were established around 1900. These are the "Südharzrevier" in the north of the state, between Bischofferode in the west and Roßleben in the east with Sondershausen at its centre, and the "Werrarevier" on the Hessian border around Vacha and Bad Salzungen in the west. Together, they accounted for a significant part of the world's potash production in the mid-20th century. After the reunification, the "Südharzrevier" was abandoned, whereas K+S took over the mines in the "Werrarevier". Between 1950 and 1990, uranium mining was also important to cover the Soviet Union's need for this metal. The centre was Ronneburg near Gera in eastern Thuringia and the operating company Wismut was under direct Soviet control.
General economic parameters.
The GDP of Thuringia is below the national average, in line with the other former East German Lands. Until 2004, Thuringia was one of the weakest regions within the European Union. The accession of several new countries, the crisis in southern Europe and the sustained economic growth in Germany since 2005 has brought the Thuringian GDP close to the EU average since then. The high economic subsidies granted by the federal government and the EU after 1990 are being reduced gradually and will end around 2020.
The unemployment rate reached its peak of 17.1% in 2005. Since then, it has decreased to 5.3% in 2019, which is only slightly above the national average. The decrease is caused on the one hand by the emergence of new jobs and on the other by a marked decrease in the working-age population, caused by emigration and low birth rates for decades. The wages in Thuringia are low compared to rich bordering Lands like Hesse and Bavaria. Therefore, many Thuringians are working in other German Lands and even in Austria and Switzerland as weekly commuters. Nevertheless, the demographic transition in Thuringia leads to a lack of workers in some sectors. External immigration into Thuringia has been encouraged by the government since about 2010 to counter this problem.
The economic progress is quite different between the regions of Thuringia. The big cities along the A4 motorway such as Erfurt, Jena and Eisenach and their surroundings are booming, whereas nearly all the rural regions, especially in the north and east, have little economic impetus and employment, which is a big issue in regional planning. Young people in these areas often have to commute long distances, and many emigrate soon after finishing school.
The unemployment rate stood at 5.3% in 2019 and was higher than the German average.
Tourism.
Tourism is an important branch of the economy. Thuringia has a number of well known destinations: Wartburg castle (UNESCO World Heritage Site), Classical Weimar (UNESCO World Heritage Site), Bauhaus Weimar (UNESCO World Heritage Site), Thuringian Forest, Oberhof or Rennsteig (ridge walk). City tourism with the centers of Erfurt, Weimar, Jena, Eisenach and Mühlhausen is experiencing dynamic growth. A total of around 9.2 million overnight stays were booked in 2016, compared to 8.3 million ten years earlier. Around 6% of the bookings were made by foreign guests.
Infrastructure.
Transport.
As Germany's most central state, Thuringia is an important hub of transit traffic. The transportation infrastructure was in very poor condition after the GDR period. Since 1990, many billions of Euros have been invested to improve the condition of roads and railways within Thuringia.
During the 1930s, the first two motorways were built across the Land, the A4 motorway as an important east–west connection in central Germany and the main link between Berlin and south-west Germany, and the A9 motorway as the main north–south route in eastern Germany, connecting Berlin with Munich. The A4 runs from Frankfurt in Hesse via Eisenach, Gotha, Erfurt, Weimar, Jena and Gera to Dresden in Saxony, connecting Thuringia's most important cities. At Hermsdorf junction it is connected with the A9. Both highways were widened from four to six lanes (three each way) after 1990, including some extensive re-routing in the Eisenach and Jena areas. Furthermore, three new motorways were built during the 1990s and 2000s. The A71 crosses the Land in southwest–northeast direction, connecting Würzburg in Bavaria via Meiningen, Suhl, Ilmenau, Arnstadt, Erfurt and Sömmerda with Sangerhausen and Halle in Saxony-Anhalt. The crossing of the Thuringian Forest by the A71 has been one of Germany's most expensive motorway segments with various tunnels (including Germany's longest road tunnel, the Rennsteig Tunnel) and large bridges. The A73 starts at the A71 south of Erfurt in Suhl and runs south towards Nuremberg in Bavaria. The A38 is another west–east connection in the north of Thuringia running from Göttingen in Lower Saxony via Heiligenstadt and Nordhausen to Leipzig in Saxony. Furthermore, there is a dense network of federal highways complementing the motorway network. The upgrading of federal highways is prioritised in the federal trunk road programme 2015 ("Bundesverkehrswegeplan" 2015). Envisaged projects include upgrades of the B247 from Gotha to Leinefelde to improve Mühlhausen's connection to the national road network, the B19 from Eisenach to Meiningen to improve access to Bad Salzungen and Schmalkalden, and the B88 and B281 for strengthening the Saalfeld/Rudolstadt region.
The first railways in Thuringia had been built in the 1840s and the network of main lines was finished around 1880. By 1920, many branch lines had been built, giving Thuringia one of the densest rail networks in the world before World War II with about 2,500 km of track. Between 1950 and 2000 most of the branch lines were abandoned, reducing Thuringia's network by half compared to 1940. On the other hand, most of the main lines were refurbished after 1990, resulting in improved speed of travel. The most important railway lines at present are the Thuringian Railway, connecting Halle and Leipzig via Weimar, Erfurt, Gotha and Eisenach with Frankfurt and Kassel and the Saal Railway from Halle/Leipzig via Jena and Saalfeld to Nuremberg. The former has an hourly ICE/IC service from Dresden to Frankfurt while the latter is served hourly by ICE trains from Berlin to Munich. In 2017, a new high speed line will be opened, diverting long-distance services from these mid-19th century lines. Both ICE routes will then use the Erfurt–Leipzig/Halle high-speed railway, and the Berlin-Munich route will continue via the Nuremberg–Erfurt high-speed railway. Only the segment west of Erfurt of the Frankfurt-Dresden line will continue to be used by ICE trains after 2017, with an increased line speed of 200 km/h (currently 160 km/h). Erfurt's central station, which was completely rebuilt for this purpose in the 2000s (decade), will be the new connection between both ICE lines. The most important regional railway lines in Thuringia are the Neudietendorf–Ritschenhausen railway from Erfurt to Würzburg and Meiningen, the Weimar–Gera railway from Erfurt to Chemnitz, the Sangerhausen–Erfurt railway from Erfurt to Magdeburg, the Gotha–Leinefelde railway from Erfurt to Göttingen, the Halle–Kassel railway from Halle via Nordhausen to Kassel and the Leipzig–Hof railway from Leipzig via Altenburg to Zwickau and Hof. Most regional and local lines have hourly service, but some run only every other hour.
A few small airports are in Thuringia. In public transport is Erfurt–Weimar Airport, used for charter flights to the Mediterranean and other holiday destinations. In private flights, Leipzig–Altenburg Airport is a further key airport.
International hub airports are Frankfurt Airport, Berlin Brandenburg Airport and Munich Airport in adjacent states.
Thuringia is the only state without barge or ship waterways; its rivers are too small to be navigable to them.
Energy and water supply.
The traditional energy supply of Thuringia is lignite, mined in the bordering Leipzig region. Since 2000, the importance of environmentally unfriendly lignite combustion has declined in favour of renewable energies, which reached an amount of 40% (in 2013), and more clean gas combustion, often carried out as Cogeneration in the municipal power stations. The most important forms of renewable energies are Wind power and Biomass, followed by Solar energy and Hydroelectricity. Furthermore, Thuringia hosts two big pumped storage stations: the Goldisthal Pumped Storage Station and the Hohenwarte Dam.
The water supply is granted by the big dams, like the Leibis-Lichte Dam, within the Thuringian Forest and the Thuringian Highland, making a drinking water exporter of Thuringia.
Health.
Health care provision in Thuringia improved after 1990, as did the level of general health. Life expectancy rose, nevertheless it is still a bit lower than the German average. This is caused by a relatively unhealthy lifestyle of the Thuringians, especially in high consumption of grains, industrial seed oils, refined carbohydrates and alcohol, which led to significant higher rates of obesity compared to the German average.
Health care in Thuringia is currently undergoing a concentration process. Many smaller hospitals in the rural towns are closing, whereas the bigger ones in centres like Jena and Erfurt get enlarged. Overall, there is an oversupply of hospital beds, caused by rationalisation processes in the German health care system, so that many smaller hospitals generate losses. On the other hand, there is a lack of family doctors, especially in rural regions with increased need of health care provision because of overageing.
Education.
In Germany, the educational system is part of the sovereignty of the Lands; therefore each Land has its own school and college system.
School system.
The Thuringian school system was developed after the reunification in 1990, combining some elements of the former GDR school system with the Bavarian school system. Most German school rankings attest that Thuringia has one of the most successful education systems in Germany, resulting in high-quality outcomes.
Early-years education is quite common in Thuringia. Since the 1950s, nearly all children have been using the service, whereas early-years education is less developed in western Germany. Its inventor Friedrich Fröbel lived in Thuringia and founded the world's first Kindergartens there in the 19th century. The Thuringian primary school takes four years and most primary schools are all-day schools offering optional extracurricular activities in the afternoon. At the age of ten, pupils are separated according to aptitude and proceed to either the Gymnasium or the Regelschule. The former leads to the Abitur exam after a further eight years and prepares for higher education, while the latter has a more vocational focus and finishes with exams after five or six years, comparable to the Hauptschule and Realschule found elsewhere in Germany.
Universities.
The German higher education system comprises two forms of academic institutions: universities and polytechnics (Fachhochschule). The University of Jena is the biggest amongst Thuringia's four universities and offers nearly every discipline. It was founded in 1558, and today has 21,000 students. The second-largest is the Technische Universität Ilmenau with 7,000 students, founded in 1894, which offers many technical disciplines such as engineering and mathematics. The University of Erfurt, founded in 1392, has 5,000 students today and an emphasis on humanities and teacher training. The Bauhaus University Weimar with 4,000 students is Thuringia's smallest university, specialising in creative subjects such as architecture and arts. It was founded in 1860 and came to prominence as Germany's leading art school during the inter-war period, the Bauhaus.
The polytechnics of Thuringia are based in Erfurt (4,500 students), Jena (5,000 students), Nordhausen (2,500 students) and Schmalkalden (3,000 students). In addition, there is a civil service college in Gotha with 500 students, the College of Music "Franz Liszt" in Weimar (800 students) as well as two private colleges, the Adam-Ries-Fachhochschule in Erfurt (500 students) and the SRH College for nursing and allied medical subjects ("SRH Fachhochschule für Gesundheit Gera") in Gera (500 students). The most recent institution of higher education in Thuringia is the Duale Hochschule Gera-Eisenach (1400 students), a cooperative state college founded in 2016 through a merger of the colleges ("Berufsakademie") in Gera and Eisenach.
Research.
Thuringia's leading research centre is Jena, followed by Ilmenau. Both focus on technology, in particular life sciences and optics at Jena and information technology at Ilmenau. Erfurt is a centre of Germany's horticultural research, whereas Weimar and Gotha with their various archives and libraries are centres of historic and cultural research. Most of the research in Thuringia is publicly funded basic research due to the lack of large companies able to invest significant amounts in applied research, with the notable exception of the optics sector at Jena.


Province of Belluno

The Province of Belluno (; ; ) is a province in the Veneto region of Italy. Its capital is the city of Belluno.
It has an area of and a total population of about 205,000.
Geography.
The province of Belluno is rather wide, and almost entirely occupied by mountain areas. It encompasses the natural and historical regions of Cadore, Feltrino, Alpago, Val di Zoldo, Agordino, Comelico and Ampezzano. The eastern part of the province features the Dolomites, including the famous Tofane, Marmolada, Tre Cime di Lavaredo and Antelao. The province is rich in water, with the presence of the wide Piave River, with its affluents Boite and Cordevole.
The southern part is called Valbelluna, the widest and most populous valley of the province, which is bordered by the Venetian Prealps. The National Park of Belluno Dolomites is located in the province.
Climate.
The province of Belluno's climate is among the most severe in the Alps. It is mostly influenced by the continental, provided by the Dolomites and it is very similar to the eastern Tyrol's climate, or even more severe in the Prealps of the southern side.
The province may be divided in the following climatic zones:
History.
The oldest archaeological find in the province is that of Lagole di Calalzo, in Cadore, belonging to a c. 5th century BC sanctuary dedicated to a health god of Paleoveneti. A larger site, a necropolis, has been excavated in the "commune" of Mel. Findings from these sites are now housed in the Museums of Pieve di Cadore and Mel.
From 1420 until 1797, the area of Belluno was part of the Republic of Venice. When conquered by the French, it became a subject of the Austrian Empire as a part of Venetian Province. Belluno remained under Austrian control after the Napoleonic Wars, as part of the Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia until 1866, when it was ceded to the newly formed Kingdom of Italy. In 1923, the Province of Belluno obtained Cortina d'Ampezzo, Saint Lucia and Livinallongo Colle del Col di Lana which had been part of Austria-Hungary (the County of Tyrol).
In 1943, when the Italian government signed an armistice with the Allies, the province was occupied by Nazi Germany, which reorganised it as the Operation Zone of the Alpine Foothills and put it under the administration of Gauleiter Franz Hofer. The region was de facto annexed to the German Reich (with the addition of the region of Trentino-Südtirol) until the end of the war. This status ended along with the Nazi regime and Italian rule was restored in 1945.
Economy.
Until recently, the province's economy was based on poor mountain agriculture, now less important, with the exception of the cultivation of beans in the Lamon highlands and the production of Piave cheese in the Dolomites valleys. Today, Belluno has one of the most important industrial sectors of northern Italy, the production of eyeglasses (Luxottica has its headquarters in Agordo, for example). Also important are the manufacturing sectors of home appliances (Zanussi and others) and bathroom fixtures (Ceramica Dolomite, IdealStandard).
One of the most important factors of the Bellunese economy is tourism. Cortina d'Ampezzo, Alleghe, Arabba, Sappada, and other locations are renowned in Italy and abroad.
Linguistic minorities.
In the province, language minorities are present and recognized by law:
Inhabitants with foreign citizenship.
The top ten countries of origin of the inhabitants of Belluno with foreign citizenship at December 31, 2018 were:
"Comuni".
There are 61 "comuni" (singular: "comune") in the province. As of December 31, 2018, the main "comuni" by population are:


Bauska District

Bauska District () was an administrative division of Latvia, located in Semigallia region, in the country's centre. It was organized into a city, a municipality and fifteen parishes, each with a local government authority. The principal city was Bauska.
History.
In the 15th century, Bauska Castle was built as a stronghold of the Livonian Order and a settlement developed around the fortification, called Vairogmiests. In 1584, Gotthard Kettler instituted a plan to remove the settlement and organize streets for a new town of Bauska, which received its town charter in 1609. The area was annexed by the Russian Empire in 1795, and an administrative unit was formed 1819 as Kreis Bauske (). When Latvian independence was declared on 18 November 1918 the kreis was renamed, reorganized and included territory which is now part of Lithuania. By 1920, Bauska County () included: Bauska Town and 20 parishes: Bauska, Bārbele, Brukna, Ceraukste, Code, Iecava, Īslīce, Jaunsaule, Kurmene, Mežotne, Misa, Panemune, Rundāle, Skaistkalne, Stelpe, Svitene, Taurkalne, Vecsaule, Vecumnieki, and Zālīte.
During World War II Bauska was occupied by Soviet forces and heavy fighting destroyed many of the structures of the main town. The Jewish Latvian population of the area were largely exterminated by Nazi forces and several thousand residents of the district were deported in 1941 and 1949 during political unrest. Reoccupation of Latvia by the Soviet Union at the end of World War II resulted in creation of the Bauska District () in 1949. The Baldone parish took over administration of Iecava, Misa, Stelpe, Vecumnieki and Zālīte parishes. The Eleja parish absorbed Svitene Parish and Jaunjelgava parish added the territories of Kurmene and Taurkalne parishes.
Latvia regained its independence in 1991. The Districts of Latvia were reformed in 2009 and Bauska District was rendered defunct. It was split between the Bauska, Iecava, Rundāle and Vecumnieki municipalities.


Preveza (regional unit)

Preveza () is one of the regional units of Greece. It is part of the Epirus region. Its capital is the town of Preveza.
Geography.
The regional unit of Preveza is located northwest of the Ambracian Gulf. The Ionian Sea lies to the west. The terrain is mostly hilly. The mountains of Xerovouni are in the far northeast. Rivers include the Louros in the east, and Acheron in the north.
Its climate is typically Mediterranean with hot dry summers and cool winters. Snow is not uncommon in winter at higher elevations.
Administration.
The regional unit Preveza is subdivided into 3 municipalities. These are (number as in the map in the infobox):
Prefecture.
Preveza was established as a prefecture in 1915 (). As a part of the 2011 Kallikratis government reform, the regional unit Preveza was created out of the former prefecture Preveza. The prefecture had the same territory as the present regional unit. At the same time, the municipalities were reorganised, according to the table below.
History.
The area was first settled by the Greek tribe of the Thesprotians and subsequently formed part of the Kingdom of Epirus and later the Roman Empire. The Battle of Actium took place in the area in 31 BC, following which the city of Nicopolis ("city of victory") was built by Augustus. The area became part of the Byzantine Empire, and following the Fourth Crusade, split off along with the rest of Epirus to form the Despotate of Epirus. The area passed to Ottoman rule in the 14th century, which lasted until 1913. Following the Balkan Wars, the area was awarded to Greece in 1913, at which point the prefecture was created. The prefecture included the island of Lefkada, until the latter was split off in 1955 as a separate prefecture Lefkada.
Sights.
The ruins of the ancient cities of Nicopolis and Cassope, and the Necromanteion lie in the prefecture. Zalongo is a mountain village, known for its monastery. Parga is a historic port town and a resort.
Transport.
The Aktio-Preveza Undersea Tunnel, which runs underneath the Ambracian Gulf, connects Preveza with Aetolia-Acarnania to the south.


Vaslui County

Vaslui County () is a county (județ) of Romania, in the historical region Western Moldavia, with the seat at Vaslui.
Demographics.
In 2011, it had a population of 395,499 and the population density was 74/km².
Geography.
This county has an area of 5,318 km².
The county lies on a plane, being bounded by the Prut River on the east and crossed in its centre by Bârlad River, a tributary of Siret River.
Economy.
Vaslui County was heavily industrialised during the Communist period and had large industrial complexes that went bankrupt during the 1990s. Today, the county's industry is mainly agricultural one, with other industries concentrated in the main urban areas.
County's main industries:
Tourism.
The main tourist destinations are the cities of Vaslui, Bârlad, and Huși. The Vaslui County Council, the county councils of the Leova and Hîncești districts in Republic of Moldova, and the European Union (through the Phare program), have set up a program which seeks to promote tourism in these regions. The main tourist attractions of the Vaslui-Hîncești-Leova touristic program are, among others, the medieval and early modern churches and monasteries, the Manuc Bei Hunting Palace and the Manuc - Mirzaian Manor Palace (similar to Manuc's Inn in Bucharest) in Hîncești, as well as the region's natural riches.
Politics.
The Vaslui County Council, renewed at the 2020 local elections, consists of 34 counsellors, with the following party composition:
Administrative divisions.
Vaslui County has 3 municipalities, 2 towns and 81 communes
Historical county.
The county was located in the central-eastern part of Romania, in the center of the historical region of Moldavia. At present, most of its territory is included in the current Vaslui County borders, smaller parts being included in Iași County and Bacău County. It bordered on the north with the Iași County, to the west with Roman County, to the east with Fălciu County and to the south with the Tutova and Bacău Counties.
Administration.
The county was originally divided administratively into four districts ("plăṣi"):
Subsequently, the territory of the county was reorganized, being divided into three different districts:
Population.
According to the 1930 census data, the county population was 139,503 inhabitants, 93.4% Romanians, 3.6% Jews, 2.3% Romanies, as well as other minorities. From the religious point of view, the population was 95.7% Eastern Orthodox, 3.6% Jewish, 0.2% Roman Catholic, as well as other minorities.
Urban population.
In 1930, the county's urban population was 15,310 inhabitants, comprising 72.5% Romanians, 21.4% Jews, 3.0% Romanies, as well as other minorities. From the religious point of view, the urban population was composed of 76.4% Eastern Orthodox, 21.4% Jewish, 1.1% Roman Catholic, as well as other minorities.


Esbjerg Municipality

Esbjerg Municipality () is a municipality (Danish, "kommune") in Region of Southern Denmark on the west coast of the Jutland peninsula in southwest Denmark. Its mayor is Jesper Frost Rasmussen, from the Venstre (Center-Right Party) political party. By 1 January 2007, the old Esbjerg municipality was, as the result of "Kommunalreformen" ("The Municipal Reform" of 2007), merged with the former Bramming and Ribe and a small part of Helle municipalities to form the new Esbjerg municipality. This municipality has an area of 741 km² (286 sq. miles) and a total population of 114,244 (2008).
Overview.
The main town and the site of its municipal council is the city of Esbjerg, the fifth largest city in Denmark.
Neighboring municipalities with land connection are Tønder to the south, Haderslev to the southeast, Vejen to the east, and Varde to the north. The neighboring municipality to the west is Fanø, an island municipality located in Fanø Bay ("Fanø Bugt"). Beyond the island of Fanø and Fanø Bay is the North Sea.
Politics.
Esbjerg's municipal council consists of 31 members, elected every four years. The municipal council has seven political committees.
Municipal council.
Below are the municipal councils elected since the Municipal Reform of 2007.
Twin towns – sister cities.
Esbjerg is twinned with:


Brno-Country District

Brno-Country District () is one of seven districts ("okres") within South Moravian Region of the Czech Republic. Its administrative center is in the city of Brno. The most populated town of the district is Kuřim. The district is made by 187 municipalities, which is the highest number within all districts of the Czech Republic.
Complete list of municipalities.
Babice nad Svitavou -
Babice u Rosic -
Běleč -
Bílovice nad Svitavou -
Biskoupky -
Blažovice -
Blučina -
Borač -
Borovník -
Branišovice -
Branišovice -
Bratčice -
Brumov -
Březina (former Blansko District) -
Březina (former Tišnov District) -
Bukovice -
Čebín -
Černvír -
Česká -
Chudčice -
Čučice -
Cvrčovice -
"Deblín" -
Dolní Kounice -
Dolní Loučky -
Domašov -
"Doubravník" -
Drahonín -
Drásov -
Hajany -
Heroltice -
Hlína -
Hluboké Dvory -
Holasice -
Horní Loučky -
Hostěnice -
Hradčany -
Hrušovany u Brna -
Hvozdec -
Ivaň -
Ivančice -
Javůrek -
Jinačovice -
Jiříkovice -
Kaly -
Kanice -
Katov -
Ketkovice -
Kobylnice -
Kovalovice -
Kratochvilka -
Křižínkov -
Kupařovice -
Kuřim -
Kuřimská Nová Ves -
Kuřimské Jestřabí -
Lažánky -
Ledce -
Lelekovice -
Lesní Hluboké -
Litostrov -
Loděnice -
"Lomnice" -
Lomnička -
Lubné -
Lukovany -
Malešovice -
Malhostovice -
Maršov -
"Medlov" -
Mělčany -
Měnín -
Modřice -
Mokrá-Horákov -
Moravany -
Moravské Bránice -
Moravské Knínice -
Moutnice -
Nebovidy -
"Nedvědice" -
Nelepeč-Žernůvka -
Němčičky -
Neslovice -
Nesvačilka -
Níhov -
Nosislav -
Nová Ves -
Nové Bránice -
Odrovice -
Ochoz u Brna -
Ochoz u Tišnova -
Olší -
Omice -
Opatovice -
Ořechov -
Osiky -
Oslavany -
Ostopovice -
"Ostrovačice" -
Otmarov -
Pasohlávky -
Pernštejnské Jestřabí -
Podolí -
Pohořelice -
Ponětovice -
Popovice -
Popůvky -
"Pozořice" -
Prace -
Pravlov -
Prštice -
Předklášteří -
Přibice -
Příbram na Moravě -
Přibyslavice -
Přísnotice -
Radostice -
Rajhrad -
Rajhradice -
Rašov -
Rebešovice -
Řícmanice -
Říčany -
Říčky -
Řikonín -
Rohozec -
Rojetín -
Rosice -
Rozdrojovice -
Rudka -
Senorady -
Sentice -
Šerkovice -
Silůvky -
Sivice -
Skalička -
Skryje -
Šlapanice -
Sobotovice -
Sokolnice -
Stanoviště -
Štěpánovice -
Strhaře -
Střelice -
Šumice -
Svatoslav -
Synalov -
Syrovice -
Telnice -
Těšany -
Tetčice -
Tišnov -
Tišnovská Nová Ves -
Trboušany -
Troskotovice -
Troubsko -
Tvarožná -
Újezd u Brna -
Újezd u Rosic -
Újezd u Tišnova -
Unín -
Unkovice -
Úsuší -
Velatice -
Veverská Bítýška -
Veverské Knínice -
Viničné Šumice -
Vlasatice -
Vohančice -
Vojkovice -
Vranov -
Vranovice -
Vratislávka -
Všechovice -
Vysoké Popovice -
Žabčice -
Zakřany -
Zálesná Zhoř -
Zastávka -
Žatčany -
Zbraslav -
Zbýšov -
Žďárec -
Želešice -
Železné -
Zhoř -
Židlochovice


Southern Italy

Southern Italy (; ; ), also known as Meridione or Mezzogiorno (, literally "Midday"; in ; in ), is a macroregion of Italy consisting of the southern half of the Italian state.
Southern Italy covers the historical and cultural region that was once politically under the administration of the former Kingdoms of Naples and Sicily (officially denominated "Regnum Siciliae citra Pharum" and "ultra Pharum", that is "Kingdom of Sicily on the other side of the Strait" and "across the Strait"), and which later shared a common organization into Italy's largest pre-unitarian state, the Bourbon-led Kingdom of the two Sicilies. The island of Sardinia, which had never been part of the aforementioned region and had once been under the rule of the Alpine House of Savoy, is nonetheless often subsumed into the "Mezzogiorno".
The Italian National Institute of Statistics (ISTAT) employs the term "South Italy" ("Italia meridionale" or also just "Sud") to identify one of the five statistical regions in its reportings without Sicily and Sardinia, which form a distinct statistical region denominated "Insular Italy" ("Italia insulare" or simply "Isole"). These same subdivisions are at the bottom of the Italian First level NUTS of the European Union and the Italian constituencies for the European Parliament.
Etymology.
In a similar fashion to France's "Midi" ("midday" or "noon" in French), the Italian term "Mezzogiorno" refers to the intensity and the position of sunshine at midday in the South of the Italian peninsula. The term later came into vogue after the annexation of the Bourbon Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, together with the other Italian states, and the subsequent Italian unification of 1861.
Regions.
Southern Italy is generally thought to comprise the administrative regions that correspond to the geopolitical extent of the historical Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, starting of Apulia, Basilicata, Campania, Calabria, Molise, and Sicily; despite geographically being located in the center Abruzzo is included as part of southern Italy due to also being apart of the Kingdom of Two Sicilies
Due to the fact that southern Italian dialects are spoken there as well, some also include the southernmost and easternmost parts of Lazio, (namely the districts of Frosinone, Sora, Cassino, Gaeta, Cittaducale, Formia and Amatrice) within the "Mezzogiorno". The island of Sardinia, although being culturally, linguistically and historically less related to the aforementioned regions than any of them is to each other, is frequently included as part of the "Mezzogiorno", often for statistical and economical purposes.
Geography.
Southern Italy forms the lower part of the Italian "boot", containing the ankle (Campania), the toe (Calabria), the arch (Basilicata), and the heel (Apulia), Molise (north of Apulia) and Abruzzo (north of Molise) along with Sicily, removed from Calabria by the narrow Strait of Messina. Separating the "heel" and the "boot" is the Gulf of Taranto, named after the city of Taranto, which is at an angle between the heel and the boot itself. It is an arm of the Ionian Sea.
The island of Sardinia, situated to the west of the Italian peninsula and right below the French island of Corsica, may also often be included.
On the eastern coast is the Adriatic Sea, leading into the rest of the Mediterranean through the Strait of Otranto (named after the largest city on the tip of the heel). On the Adriatic, south of the "spur" of the boot, the peninsula of Monte Gargano; on the Tyrrhenian Sea, the Gulf of Salerno, the Gulf of Naples, the Gulf of Policastro and the Gulf of Gaeta are each named after a large coastal city. Along the northern coast of the Salernitan Gulf and on the south of the Sorrentine Peninsula runs the Amalfi Coast. Off the tip of the peninsula is the isle of Capri.
The climate is mainly Mediterranean (Köppen climate classification Csa), except at the highest elevations (Dsa, Dsb) and the semi-arid eastern stretches in Apulia and Molise, along the Ionian Sea in Calabria and the southern stretches of Sicily (BSw). The largest city of Southern Italy is Naples, an originally Greek name that it has historically maintained for millennia. Bari, Taranto, Reggio Calabria, Foggia, and Salerno are the next largest cities in the area.
The region is geologically very active, with the exception of Salento in Apulia, and highly seismic: the 1980 Irpinia earthquake killed 2,914 people, injured more than 10,000 and left 300,000 homeless.
History.
Prehistory and antiquity.
In the 8th and 7th centuries BCE, for various reasons, including demographic crisis (famine, overcrowding, etc.), the search for new commercial outlets and ports, and expulsion from their homeland, Greeks began to settle in Southern Italy. Also during this period, Greek colonies were established in places as widely separated as the eastern coast of the Black Sea, Eastern Libya and Massalia (Marseille). They included settlements in Sicily and the southern part of the Italian Peninsula. The first Greek settlers found Italy inhabited by three major populations: Ausones, Oenotrians and Iapyges (these last ones were subdivided into three tribes: Daunians, Peucetians and Messapians). The relationships between the Greek settlers and the native peoples were initially hostile (especially with the Iapygian tribes), but finally the Hellenic influence definitely shaped their culture and way of life.
The Romans used to call the area of Sicily and coastal Southern Italy "Magna Graecia" ("Great Greece"), since it was so densely inhabited by the Greeks; the ancient geographers differed on whether the term included Sicily or merely Apulia and Calabria—Strabo being the most prominent advocate of the wider definitions.
With this colonisation, Greek culture was exported to Italy, in its dialects of the Ancient Greek language, its religious rites and its traditions of the independent "polis". An original Hellenic civilization soon developed, later interacting with the native Italic and Latin civilisations. The most important cultural transplant was the Chalcidean/Cumaean variety of the Greek alphabet, which was adopted by the Etruscans; the Old Italic alphabet subsequently evolved into the Latin alphabet, which became the most widely used alphabet in the world.
Many of the new Hellenic cities became very rich and powerful, like "Neapolis" (Νεάπολις, Naples, "New City"), "Syrakousai" (Συράκουσαι, Syracuse), "Akragas" (Ἀκράγας, Agrigento), and "Sybaris" (Σύβαρις, Sibari). Other cities in Magna Graecia included "Tarentum" (Τάρας), "Epizephyrian Locri" (Λοκροὶ Ἐπιζεφύριοι), "Rhegium" (Ῥήγιον), "Croton" (Κρότων), "Thurii" (Θούριοι), "Elea" (Ἐλέα), "Nola" (Νῶλα), "Syessa" (Σύεσσα), "Bari" (Βάριον), and others.
After Pyrrhus of Epirus failed in his attempt to stop the spread of Roman hegemony in 282 BCE, the south fell under Roman domination and remained in such a position throughout the barbarian invasions (the Gladiator War is a notable suspension of imperial control). It was restored to Eastern Roman control in the 530s after the fall of Rome in the West in 476, and some form of imperial authority survived until the 1070s. Total East Roman rule was ended by the Lombards by Zotto's conquest in the final quarter of the 6th century.
Middle Ages.
Following the Gothic War (535–554), and until the arrival of the Normans, much of Southern Italy's destiny was linked to the fortunes of the Eastern Empire, even though Byzantine domination was challenged in the 9th century by the Lombards, who annexed the area of Cosenza to their Duchy of Benevento. Consequently, the Lombard and the Byzantine areas became influenced by Eastern monasticism and much of Southern Italy experienced a slow process of orientalisation in religious life (rites, cults and liturgy), which accompanied a spread of Eastern churches and monasteries that preserved and transmitted the Greek and Hellenistic tradition (the Cattolica monastery in Stilo is the most representative of these Byzantine monuments). From then to the Norman conquest of the 11th century, the south of the peninsula was constantly plunged into wars between the Byzantines, Lombardy, and the Islamic Caliphate. The latter established two Emirates in southern Italy: the Emirate of Sicily and, for 25 years, the Emirate of Bari. Amalfi, an independent republic from the 7th century until 1075, and to a lesser extent Gaeta, Molfetta and Trani, rivalled other Italian maritime republics in their domestic prosperity and maritime importance.
From 999 to 1139, the Normans occupied all the Lombard and Byzantine possessions in Southern Italy, ending a millennium of imperial Roman rule in Italy, and eventually expelled the Muslims from Sicily. The Norman Kingdom of Sicily under Roger II was characterised by its competent governance, multi-ethnic nature and religious tolerance. Normans, Jews, Muslim Arabs, Byzantine Greeks, Lombards and "native" Sicilians lived in relative harmony. However, the Norman domination lasted only several decades before it formally ended in 1198 with the reign of Constance of Sicily, and was replaced by that of the Swabian Hohenstaufen dynasty, thanks to Constance's marriage to Henry VI, member of this family.
In Sicily, King Frederick II endorsed a deep reform of the laws culminating with the promulgation of the Constitutions of Melfi (1231, also known as "Liber Augustalis"), a collection of laws for his realm that was remarkable for its time and was a source of inspiration for a long time after. It made the Kingdom of Sicily a centralised state and established the primacy of written law. With relatively small modifications, the" Liber Augustalis" remained the basis of Sicilian law until 1819. His royal court in Palermo, from around 1220 to his death, saw the first use of a literary form of an Italo-Romance language, Sicilian, that had a significant influence on what was to become the modern Italian language. During this period, he also built the Castel del Monte, and in 1224, he founded the University of Naples, now called, after him, Università Federico II.
In 1266, conflict between the Hohenstaufen house and the Papacy led to Sicily's conquest by Charles I, Duke of Anjou. Opposition to French officialdom and taxation combined with incitement of rebellion by agents from the Byzantine Empire and the Crown of Aragon led to the Sicilian Vespers insurrection and successful invasion by king Peter III of Aragon in 1282. The resulting War of the Sicilian Vespers lasted until the Peace of Caltabellotta in 1302, dividing the old Kingdom of Sicily in two. The island of Sicily, called the "Kingdom of Sicily beyond the Lighthouse" or the Kingdom of Trinacria, went to Frederick III of the house of Aragon, who had been ruling it. The peninsular territories, contemporaneously called Kingdom of Sicily, but called Kingdom of Naples by modern scholarship, went to Charles II of the House of Anjou, who had likewise been ruling it. Thus, the peace was formal recognition of an uneasy "status quo". Despite the king of Spain being able to seize both the two crowns starting from the 16th century, the administrations of the two halves of the Kingdom of Sicily remained separated until 1816, when they were reunited in the Kingdom of Two Sicilies.
Early modern history.
In 1442, however, Alfonso V conquered the Kingdom of Naples and unified Sicily and Naples once again as dependencies of the Crown of Aragon. At his death in 1458, the kingdom was again separated and Naples was inherited by Ferrante, Alfonso's illegitimate son. When Ferrante died in 1494, Charles VIII of France invaded Italy, using the Angevin claim to the throne of Naples, which his father had inherited on the death of King René's nephew in 1481, as a pretext, thus beginning the Italian Wars. Charles VIII expelled Alfonso II of Naples from Naples in 1495, but was soon forced to withdraw due to the support of Ferdinand II of Aragon for his cousin, Alfonso II's son Ferrantino. Ferrantino was restored to the throne, but died in 1496, and was succeeded by his uncle, Frederick IV. The French, however, did not give up their claim, and in 1501 agreed to a partition of the kingdom with Ferdinand of Aragon, who abandoned his cousin King Frederick. The deal soon fell through, however, and the Crown of Aragon and France resumed their war over the kingdom, ultimately resulting in an Aragonese victory leaving Ferdinand in control of the kingdom by 1504.
The kingdom continued to be a focus of dispute between France and Spain for the next several decades, but French efforts to gain control of it became feebler as the decades went on, and Spanish control was never genuinely endangered. The French finally abandoned their claims to the kingdom by the Treaty of Cateau-Cambrésis in 1559. With the Treaty of London (1557) the new client state of the so-called "Presidi" ("state of the garrisons") was established and governed directly by Spain, as part of the Kingdom of Naples.
The administration of the Kingdom of Naples and Sicily, as well as the Duchy of Milan, was run by the Council of Italy. The island of Sardinia, which had fully come to be under Iberian sovereignty in 1409 upon the fall of the last indigenous state, was an integral part of the Council of Aragon instead and remained as such until the first years of the XVIII° century, when Sardinia was ceded to Austria and eventually handed over to the Alpine-based House of Savoy in 1720.
After the War of the Spanish Succession in the early 18th century, possession of the kingdom again changed hands. Under the terms of the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713, Naples was given to Charles VI, the Holy Roman Emperor. He also gained control of Sicily in 1720, but Austrian rule did not last long. Both Naples and Sicily were conquered by a Spanish army during the War of the Polish Succession in 1734, and Charles, Duke of Parma, a younger son of King Philip V of Spain was installed as King of Naples and Sicily from 1735. When Charles inherited the Spanish throne from his older half-brother in 1759, he left Naples and Sicily to his younger son, Ferdinand IV. Despite the two kingdoms being in a personal union under the House of Bourbon from 1735 onwards, they remained constitutionally separated.
Early 19th century.
Being a member of the House of Bourbon, King Ferdinand IV was a natural opponent of the French Revolution and Napoleon. In January 1799, Napoleon Bonaparte, in the name of the French Republic, captured Naples and proclaimed the Parthenopaean Republic, a French client state, as successor to the kingdom. King Ferdinand fled from Naples to Sicily until June of that year. In 1806, Bonaparte, by then French Emperor, again dethroned King Ferdinand and appointed his brother, Joseph Bonaparte, as King of Naples. In the Edict of Bayonne of 1808, Napoleon removed Joseph to Spain and appointed his brother-in-law, Joachim Murat, as King of the Two Sicilies, though this meant control only of the mainland portion of the kingdom. Throughout this Napoleonic interruption, King Ferdinand remained in Sicily, with Palermo as his capital.
After Napoleon's defeat, King Ferdinand IV was restored by the Congress of Vienna of 1815 as Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies. He established a concordat with the Papal States, which previously had a claim to the land. There were several rebellions on the island of Sicily against the King Ferdinand II, but the end of the kingdom was only brought about by the Expedition of the Thousand in 1860, led by Garibaldi, an icon of the Italian unification, with the support of the House of Savoy and their Kingdom of Sardinia with its economic, political and cultural powerhouse in Northern Italy. The expedition resulted in a striking series of defeats for the Sicilian armies against the growing troops of Garibaldi. After the capture of Palermo and Sicily, he disembarked in Calabria and moved towards Naples, while in the meantime the Piedmontese also invaded the Kingdom from the Marche. The last battles fought were that of the Volturnus in 1860 and the siege of Gaeta, where King Francis II had sought shelter, hoping for French help, which never came. The last towns to resist Garibaldi's expedition were Messina (which capitulated on 13 March 1861) and Civitella del Tronto (which capitulated on 20 March 1861). The Kingdom of the Two Sicilies was dissolved and annexed to the new Kingdom of Italy, founded in the same year.
Southern and Northern Italy in 1860.
At the time of Italian unification, the gap between the former Northern states of Italy and the Southern two Sicilies was significant: Northern Italy had about 75,500 kilometers of roads and 2,316 kilometers of railroads, combined with a wide range of canals connected to rivers for freight transportation; iron and steel production was 17,000 tons per year. By contrast, in the former Bourbon Southern state, there were 14,700 kilometers of roads, 184 kilometers of railroads (only around Naples), no canals connected to rivers and iron and steel production was 1,500 tons per year.
In 1860, illiteracy rates on the Italian peninsula averaged 75%, with the lowest level of 54 % in the northwestern Kingdom of Sardinia (also known as "Piedmont"), and the highest in the south, where illiteracy in the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies reached 87%.
In 1860 the southern merchant navy amounted to 260,000 tons, whereas the northern merchant navy came to 347,000 tons, apart from the Venetian navy annexed in 1866 and assessed at 46,000 tons. In 1860 the whole Italian merchant navy was the fourth largest in Europe at about 607,000 tons.
The Southern merchant navy was made up of sailing vessels mainly for fishing and coastal shipping in the Mediterranean Sea and it had very few steamships, even if one of the first steamers was built and fitted out in Naples in 1818. Both merchant and military navy were insufficient compared to the great coastal extent of Southern Italy defined by the Italian historian Raffaele De Cesare: "… a great pier towards the South".
In addition to the merchant navy we must also consider the waterway network made up of rivers and canals, which was used to transport goods in a large area; the waterway network was highly developed in the north and nonexistent in the south.
In the article "This is Not Italy! Ruling and Representing the South", it is clear how the Northern elites considered the South. The Piedmontese North felt the need to invade the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies and establish a new form of governance based on the Northern system, since they viewed the South as under-developed and lacking in social capital. These views of the South can largely be attributed to the letters of correspondents in southern Italy who sent biased letters to leaders of the North, specifically Camillo Benso, urging the invasion and reformation of the South. Although these views of the South were condescending, they also came with a genuine belief that in order to create a unified Italy, help from the North was necessary. Viewing southern Italy as barbaric served as a sort of justification to allow the "civilized, Piedmontese north" (167) to intervene. Another view however was marked by disdain for Southern Italy. According to the article, "such manifestations of the south's difference threaten the glowing and gloating sense of northern superiority" (167). These viewpoints clearly indicate the divide between Northern and Southern Italy in the 1860s.
In an attempt to explain the striking difference between the annexed territory of the former Two Sicilies and the economic and political powerhouse centred in the North, racist theories were postulated, suggesting that such a divide had its roots in the coexistence of two mostly incompatible races.
Denis Mack Smith, British historian, describes the radical difference between Northern and the newly annexed Southern Italy in 1860, for these two halves were on quite different levels of civilization, pointing out that the Bourbon in the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies were staunch supporters of a feudal system and that they had feared the traffic of ideas and had tried to keep their subjects insulated from the agricultural and industrial revolutions of northern Europe.
The above-mentioned study by Denis Mack Smith is confirmed by the Italian historian and left wing politician Antonio Gramsci in his book "The Southern Question", by which the author emphasizes the "absolutely antithetical conditions" of Northern and Southern Italy at the time of Italian unification in 1861, when South and North were united again after more than one thousand years.
Gramsci remarks that, in the North of Italy, the historical period of the Comunes had given a special boost to history and in Northern Italy existed an economic organization similar to that of the other states of Europe, propitious to further development of capitalism and industry, whereas in Southern Italy history had been different and the fatherly Bourbon administrations produced nothing of value; the bourgeois class did not exist, agriculture was primitive and insufficient to satisfy the local market, there were no roads, no ports, the few waterways that the region had were not exploited, due to its special geographical features.
The living conditions of the people of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies are also illustrated by Raffaele De Cesare, who reports that the king of Naples Ferdinand II had no interest in doing useful works to improve the neglected condition of public hygiene, particularly in the provinces where scarcity of sewer systems and often water shortages were known issues.
The problem of brigandage is explained in the book "Heroes and Brigands" by the southern Italian historian and politician Francesco Saverio Nitti, outlining that brigandage was endemic in Southern Italy, since the Bourbons themselves relied on it as their military agent.
Unlike Southern Italy, there was little brigandage in the other annexed states of northern and central Italy, like the Kingdom of Lombardy-Venetia, the Duchy of Parma, the Duchy of Modena, the Grand Duchy of Tuscany and the Papal States, because the situation of Southern Italy was different, owing to the previous centuries of history.
According to the southern Italian historian Giustino Fortunato, and Italian institutional sources the problems of Southern Italy existed way before Italian unification, and Giustino Fortunato emphasizes that the Bourbons were not the only ones responsible for the problems of the South, which had ancient and deep origins also in previous centuries of poverty and isolation, caused by foreign domination and foreign governments.
In literature the period of 1860 is depicted by the Sicilian writer Giuseppe Tomasi di Lampedusa in his famous novel The Leopard ("Il Gattopardo") set in Sicily at the time of Italian unification; in a famous final scene prince Salina, when invited to join the senate of unified Italy, tells a high-ranking Piedmontese officer " …the Sicilian will never want to change, because the Sicilian feels perfect …", by which and by other words the author underlines the problem for the Sicilians to change their old life-style while remaining in their island. The novel was adapted in the homonymous film The Leopard (1963 film) by Luchino Visconti, in which the actor Burt Lancaster played Prince Salina.
After 1861.
The southern economy greatly suffered after the Italian unification and the process of industrialisation was interrupted. Poverty and organised crime were long-standing issues in Southern Italy as well and it got worse after unification. Cavour stated the basic problem was poor government, and believed the solution lay in the strict application of the Piedmonese legal system. The main result was an upsurge in brigandage. Because of this, the South experienced great economic difficulties resulting in massive emigration leading to a worldwide Italian diaspora, especially to North America, South America, Australia, and other parts of Europe. Many natives also relocated to the industrial cities in northern Italy, such as Genoa, Milan and Turin. A relative process of industrialisation has developed in some areas of the "Mezzogiorno" after World War II. In the 1946 referendum after the war, the region voted to keep the monarchy, with its greatest support coming in Campania. Politically, it was at odds with northern Italy, which won the referendum to establish a republic. Today, the South remains less economically developed than the northern and central regions, which enjoyed an "economic miracle" in the 1950s and 1960s and became highly industrialized.
Economy.
Starting from the unification of Italy in 1861–1870, a growing economic divide between the northern provinces and the southern half of Italy became evident. In the early decades of the new kingdom, the lack of effective land reform, heavy taxes, and other economic measures imposed on the South, along with the removal of protectionist tariffs on agricultural goods imposed to boost northern industry, made the situation nearly impossible for many tenant farmers, small businesses and land owners. Multitudes chose to emigrate rather than try to eke out a meagre living, especially from 1892 to 1921. In addition, the surge of brigandage and mafia provoked widespread violence, corruption and illegality. Prime Minister Giovanni Giolitti once conceded that places existed "where the law does not operate at all".
After the rise of Benito Mussolini, the "Iron Prefect", Cesare Mori tried to defeat the already powerful criminal organizations flowering in the South, with some degree of success. However, when connections between mafia and the Fascists emerged, Mori was removed and the Fascist propaganda declared the mafia defeated. Economically, Fascist policy aimed at the creation of an Italian Empire and Southern Italian ports were strategic for all commerce towards the colonies. Naples enjoyed a demographic and economic rebirth, mainly due to the interest of King Victor Emmanuel III, who was born there.
Starting from the 1950s, the Cassa per il Mezzogiorno was set up as a huge public master plan to help industrialise the South, that aimed to do this in two ways: by land reforms creating 120,000 new small farms, and through the "Growth Pole Strategy" whereby 60% of all government investment would go to the South, thus boosting the Southern economy by attracting new capital, stimulating local firms, and providing employment. However, the objectives were largely missed, and as a result the South became increasingly subsidised and state-dependent, incapable of generating private growth itself. Presently, huge regional disparities still persist. Problems still include pervasive organised crime and very high unemployment rates.
Due to Southern Italy's lack of progress in bettering the area, it has had record numbers of emigration. The most prevalent issue in Southern Italy is its inability to attract businesses, and therefore create jobs. Between 2007 and 2014, 943,000 Italians were unemployed. From this figure, 70% were Italians from the South. Employment in the South is ranked the lowest when compared to countries in the European Union. Italians from the South are also ranked the lowest in terms of financial contributions into the economy of the Italy from immigrants. In Southern Italy tourism, distribution, food industries, wood furniture, whole sale, vehicle sales, sales in mineral and artisan fields are among the leading areas contributing to the projected employment growth. The economy of the South heavily relies on tourism. It attracts tourists through its rich historical background.
A report published in July 2015 by the Italian organization "SVIMEZ" shows that Southern Italy has had a negative GDP growth in the last seven years, and that from the year 2000 it has been growing half as much as Greece.
In 2016, Southern Italy's GDP and economy was growing twice as much as Northern Italy's. According to Eurostat figures published in 2019, Southern Italy is the European area with the lowest employment percentages: in Apulia, Sicily, Campania and Calabria, less than 50% of the people aged between 20 and 64 had a job in 2018. This is largely due to the low participation of women in the workforce, as slightly more than 30% of the women are employed, compared to a national and European average of 53.1% and 67.4%, respectively.
Culture.
The regions of Southern Italy were exposed to some different historical influences than the rest of the peninsula, starting most notably with Greek colonisation. Greek influence in the South was dominant until Latinisation was completed by the time of the Roman Principate. Greek influences returned by the late Roman Empire, especially following the reconquests of Justinian and the Byzantine Empire.
Sicily, a distinctive Norman-Arab-Byzantine culture throughout the Middle Ages, was captured by Muslims and turned into an Emirate for a period, and via Sicily, elements of Arab culture were introduced to Italy and Europe. The rest of the mainland was subject to a struggle of power among the Byzantines, Lombards, and Franks. In addition, the Venetians established outposts as trade with Byzantium and the Near East increased.
Until the Norman conquests of the 11th and 12th centuries much of the South followed Eastern rite (Greek) Christianity. The Normans who settled in Sicily and Southern Italy in the Middle Ages significantly impacted the architecture, religion and high culture of the region. Later, Southern Italy was subjected to rule by the new European nation states, first the Crown of Aragon, then Spain, and then Austria. The Spanish had a major impact on the culture of the South, having ruled it for over three centuries.
Jewish communities lived in Sicily and Southern Italy for over 15 centuries, but in 1492 King Ferdinand II of Aragon proclaimed the Edict of expulsion. At their height, Jewish Sicilians probably constituted around one tenth of the island's population. After the Edict, they partially converted to Christianity and some moved to Ottoman Empire and other places in Southern Italy, Rome and Europe. In the 19th century, street musicians from Basilicata began to roam worldwide to seek a fortune, most of them would become professional instrumentalists in symphonic orchestras, especially in the United States.
Southern Italy has many major tourist attractions, such as the Palace of Caserta, the Amalfi Coast, Pompeii and other archaeological sites (many of which are protected by UNESCO). There are also many ancient Greek cities in Southern Italy, such as Sybaris and Paestum, which were founded several centuries before the start of the Roman Republic. Some of its beaches, woodlands and mountains are preserved in several National Parks; a major example is La Sila, a mountainous plateau occupying the provinces of Cosenza and Catanzaro in the region of Calabria.
In recent years, Southern Italy has experienced a revival of its traditions and music, such as the Neapolitan song and the Tarantella.


Midlands Region, Ireland

The Midlands Region (coded IE063) is a NUTS Level III statistical region of Ireland. It consists of the territory of the counties of Laois, Offaly, Westmeath and Longford. The Midlands region spans 6,524 km2, 9.5% of the total area of the state and according to the 2016 census has a population of 292,301.
Prior to 2014, the region was governed by the Midlands Regional Assembly. Statutory Instrument No. 573/2014 abolished that assembly. Since that date, the association between Regional Assemblies and NUTS regions has ceased. The NUTS regions are used for statistical reporting to Eurostat, while the Regional Assemblies are responsible for planning at a local government level.
The Midlands Region is also a tourist destination due to its natural environment which includes lakes, waterways and canals, as well as a history, heritage and culture which dates from early Christian times.
Midland Regional Authority.
The Midlands region was administered by the Midland Regional Authority, which consisted of 24 elected representatives including the region's representative on the EU Committee of the Regions. These representatives met once a month and were nominated from the four local government councils of the region:
The Regional Authorities were dissolved in 2014 and were replaced by Regional Assemblies.
Demography.
According to the 2011 census, the region had a population of 282,410, which constitutes 6.2% of the national population. Its population density was 43.3 persons per km2.
The region has a growing dependency ratio which is stated as having implications on health care, the types of housing needed as well as care for the elderly.
Economy.
The most significant industry in the Midlands region is the peat industry, as well as wood processing. Its wood processing industry now accounts for over one-third of the total processed timber produced in Ireland. Other strong industries include medicine, healthcare, engineering and chemical. It also has some very successful food and drink producers.
According to Eurostat figures for 2012, the region has GDP of €5.765 bn and a GDP per capita of €20,100 the lowest in the Republic.
The workforce of the region in 2015 was 114,000, which equated to an 87.6% employment rate.
In 2017 the largest employment sectors in the Midlands region were:
Major settlements.
A list of the ten largest settlements in the Midlands region. County capitals are included and are shown in bold.


Znojmo District

Znojmo District () is one of seven districts ("okres") within South Moravian Region of the Czech Republic. Its capital is the town of Znojmo.
Complete list of municipalities.
Bantice -
Běhařovice -
Bezkov -
Bítov -
Blanné -
"Blížkovice" -
Bohutice -
Bojanovice -
Borotice -
Boskovštejn -
Božice -
Břežany -
Čejkovice -
Čermákovice -
Černín -
Chvalatice -
Chvalovice -
Citonice -
Ctidružice -
Damnice -
Dobelice -
Dobřínsko -
Dobšice -
Dolenice -
Dolní Dubňany -
Dyjákovice -
Dyjákovičky -
Dyje -
Džbánice -
Grešlové Mýto -
Havraníky -
Hevlín -
Hluboké Mašůvky -
Hnanice -
Hodonice -
Horní Břečkov -
Horní Dubňany -
Horní Dunajovice -
Horní Kounice -
Hostěradice -
Hostim -
Hrabětice -
Hrádek -
Hrušovany nad Jevišovkou -
Jamolice -
Jaroslavice -
Jevišovice -
Jezeřany-Maršovice -
Jiřice u Miroslavi -
Jiřice u Moravských Budějovic -
Kadov -
Korolupy -
Kravsko -
Křepice -
Krhovice -
Křídlůvky -
Kubšice -
Kuchařovice -
Kyjovice -
Lančov -
Lechovice -
Lesná -
Lesonice -
Litobratřice -
Lubnice -
Lukov -
Mackovice -
Mašovice -
Medlice -
Mikulovice -
Milíčovice -
Miroslav -
Miroslavské Knínice -
Morašice -
Moravský Krumlov -
Našiměřice -
Němčičky -
Nový Šaldorf-Sedlešovice -
"Olbramkostel" -
Olbramovice -
Oleksovice -
Onšov -
Oslnovice -
Pavlice -
Petrovice -
Plaveč -
Plenkovice -
Podhradí nad Dyjí -
Podmolí -
Podmyče -
Práče -
Pravice -
Přeskače -
Prokopov -
"Prosiměřice" -
Rešice -
Rozkoš -
Rudlice -
Rybníky -
Šafov -
Šanov -
Šatov -
Skalice -
Slatina -
Slup -
Stálky -
Starý Petřín -
"Štítary" -
Stošíkovice na Louce -
Strachotice -
Střelice -
Suchohrdly u Miroslavi -
Suchohrdly -
Šumná -
Tasovice -
Tavíkovice -
Těšetice -
Trnové Pole -
Trstěnice -
Tulešice -
Tvořihráz -
Uherčice -
Újezd -
Únanov -
Valtrovice -
Vedrovice -
Velký Karlov -
"Vémyslice" -
Vevčice -
"Višňové" -
Vítonice -
Vracovice -
"Vranov nad Dyjí" -
Vranovská Ves -
Vratěnín -
Vrbovec -
Výrovice -
Vysočany -
Zálesí -
Zblovice -
Želetice -
Žerotice -
Žerůtky -
Znojmo


East Attica

East Attica () is one of the regional units of Greece. It is part of the region of Attica. The regional unit covers the eastern part of the urban agglomeration of Athens, and also the rural area to its east.
Administration.
The regional unit East Attica is subdivided into 13 municipalities. These are (number as in the map in the infobox):
With respect to parliamentary elections East Attica belongs to the electoral district of Attica.
Prefecture.
As a part of the 2011 Kallikratis government reform, the regional unit East Attica was created out of the former prefecture East Attica (). The prefecture had the same territory as the present regional unit. At the same time, the municipalities were reorganised, according to the table below.
Provinces.
Before the abolishment of the provinces of Greece in 2006, part of the East Attica prefecture was in the Attica Province, which also covered part of West Attica.


Prachatice District

Prachatice District () is a district ("okres") within South Bohemian Region of the Czech Republic. Its capital is Prachatice.
Complete list of municipalities.
Babice -
Bohumilice -
Bohunice -
Borová Lada -
Bošice -
Budkov -
Buk -
Bušanovice -
Chlumany -
Chroboly -
Chvalovice -
Čkyně -
Drslavice -
"Dub" -
Dvory -
Horní Vltavice -
Hracholusky -
Husinec -
Kratušín -
Křišťanov -
Ktiš -
Kubova Huť -
Kvilda -
Lažiště -
Lčovice -
Lenora -
"Lhenice" -
Lipovice -
Lužice -
Mahouš -
Malovice -
Mičovice -
Nebahovy -
Němčice -
Netolice -
Nicov -
Nová Pec -
Nové Hutě -
Olšovice -
Pěčnov -
Prachatice -
Radhostice -
Stachy -
Stožec -
"Strážný" -
"Strunkovice nad Blanicí" -
Šumavské Hoštice -
Svatá Maří -
Těšovice -
Tvrzice -
Újezdec -
Vacov -
Vimperk -
Vitějovice -
Vlachovo Březí -
Volary -
Vrbice -
Záblatí -
Zábrdí -
Zálezly -
Zbytiny -
Zdíkov -
Žárovná -
Želnava -
Žernovice


Regions of the Czech Republic

According to the Act no. 129/2000 Coll. ("Law on Regions") on higher-level territorial self-governing units ("vyšší územní samosprávné celky"), which implements Chapter VII of the Czech Constitution, the Czech Republic is divided into thirteen regions ("kraje") and one capital city ("hlavní město") with regional status as of 1 January 2000. The older administrative units seventy-six districts ("okresy", singular "okres") are still recognized and remain the seats of various branches of state administration, such as the judicial system.


List of municipalities of Estonia by density

This is a listing of the municipalities of Estonia by the population density as of 2005.
The land area is expressed in km², and the density is expressed in inhabitants per km² of land area.