Electricity sector in India

India is the world's third largest producer and third largest consumer of electricity. The national electric grid in India has an installed capacity of 382.15 GW as of 31 March 2021. Renewable power plants, which also include large hydroelectric plants, constitute 36.8% of India's total installed capacity. During the fiscal year (FY) 2019-20, the gross electricity generated by utilities in India was 1,383.5 TWh and the total electricity generation (utilities and non utilities) in the country was 1,598 TWh. The gross electricity consumption in FY2019 was 1,208 kWh per capita. In FY2015, electric energy consumption in agriculture was recorded as being the highest (17.89%) worldwide. The per capita electricity consumption is low compared to most other countries despite India having a low electricity tariff.
India has a surplus power generation capacity but lacks adequate transmission and distribution infrastructure. India's electricity sector is dominated by fossil fuels, in particular coal, which during the 2018-19 fiscal year produced about three-quarters of the country's electricity. The government is making efforts to increase investment in renewable energy. The government's National Electricity Plan of 2018 states that the country does not need more non-renewable power plants in the utility sector until 2027, with the commissioning of 50,025 MW coal-based power plants under construction and addition of 275,000 MW total renewable power capacity after the retirement of nearly 48,000 MW old coal-fired plants. It is expected that non-fossil fuels generation
contribution is likely to be around 44.7% of the total gross electricity generation by the year 2029-30.
History.
The first demonstration of electric light in Calcutta (now Kolkata) was conducted on 24 July 1879 by P.W. Fleury & Co. On 7 January 1897, Kilburn & Co secured the Calcutta electric lighting license as agents of the Indian Electric Co, which was registered in London on 15 January 1897. A month later, the company was renamed the Calcutta Electric Supply Corporation. The control of the company was transferred from London to Calcutta only in 1970. The introduction of electricity in Calcutta was a success, and power was next introduced in Bombay (now Mumbai). The first electric lighting demonstration in Mumbai was in 1882 at Crawford Market and the Bombay Electric Supply & Tramways Company (BEST) set up a generating station in 1905 to provide electricity for the tramway.
The first hydroelectric installation in India was installed near a tea estate at Sidrapong for the Darjeeling Municipality in 1897. The first electric street light in Asia was lit on 5 August 1905 in Bangalore. The first electric train in the country ran on the Harbour Line between Bombay's Victoria Terminus and Kurla on 3 February 1925. On 18 August 2015, Cochin International Airport became the world's first fully solar powered airport with the inauguration of a dedicated solar plant.
India began using grid management on a regional basis in the 1960s. Individual State grids were interconnected to form 5 regional grids covering mainland India, the Northern, Eastern, Western, North Eastern and Southern Grids. These regional links were established to enable transmission of surplus electricity between states in each region. In the 1990s, the Indian government began planning for a national grid. Regional grids were initially interconnected by asynchronous high-voltage direct current (HVDC) back-to-back links facilitating the limited exchange of regulated power. The links were subsequently upgraded to high capacity synchronous links.
The first interconnection of regional grids was established in October 1991 when the North Eastern and Eastern grids were interconnected. The Western Grid was interconnected with these grids in March 2003. The Northern grid was also interconnected in August 2006, forming a Central Grid that was synchronously connected and operating at one frequency. The sole remaining regional grid, the Southern Grid, was synchronously interconnected to the Central Grid on 31 December 2013 with the commissioning of the 765 kV Raichur-Solapur transmission line, establishing the National Grid.
By the end of the calendar year 2015, despite poor hydroelectricity generation, India had become a power surplus nation with huge power generation capacity idling for want of demand. The calendar year 2016 started with steep falls in the international price of energy commodities such as coal, diesel oil, naphtha, bunker fuel, and liquefied natural gas (LNG), which are used in electricity generation in India. As a result of the global glut in petroleum products, these fuels became cheap enough to compete with pit head coal-based power generators. Coal prices have also fallen. Low demand for coal has led to coal stocks building up at power stations as well as coal mines. New installations of renewable energy in India surpassed installations of fossil fuel for the first time in 2016-17.
On 29 March 2017, the Central Electricity Authority (CEA) stated that for the first time India has become a net exporter of electricity. India exported 5,798 GWh to neighbouring countries, against a total import of 5,585 GWh.
The Government of India launched a program called "Power for All" in 2016. The program was accomplished by December 2018 in providing the necessary infrastructure to ensure uninterrupted electricity supply to all households, industries, and commercial establishments. Funding was made through a collaboration between the Government of India and its constituent states.
Installed capacity.
The total installed power generation capacity is the sum of utility capacity, captive power capacity, and other non-utilities.
Utility power.
Nearly 32,285 MW coal and gas based thermal power projects are under construction as on 1 April 2021.
The total installed utility power generation capacity as on 30 November 2020 by sector and type is given below.
Hydroelectric power plants with ≤ 25 MW generation capacity are included in Renewable category (classified as SHP - Small Hydro Project) .
The break up of renewable energy sources (RES) is:
Captive power.
The installed captive power generation capacity (above 1 MW capacity) associated with industry-owned plants is 78,000 MW as of 31 March 2020, In fiscal year 2019-20, captive power generation was estimated as 215,000 GWh. Diesel power generation sets of 75,000 MW capacity (excluding sets of size above 1 MW and below 100 kVA) are also installed in the country. In addition, there are a large number of diesel generators of capacity less than 100 kVA to cater to emergency power needs during power outages in all sectors.
Installed capacity by state or territory.
This is a list of states and territories of India by installed power generation capacity
Other Renewable Energy sources include SHP (Small Hydro Power - hydel plants ≤ 25 MW), Biomass Power, Urban & Industrial waste, Solar and Wind Energy
Demand.
During the fiscal year 2019-20, the utility energy availability was 1,284.44 billion KWh, a short fall relative to requirements by 6.5 billion KWh (-0.5%). Peak load met was 182,533 MW, 1,229 MW (-0.6%) below requirements. In the 2020 Load Generation Balance report, India's Central Electricity Authority anticipated energy surplus and peak surplus to be 2.7% and 9.1%, respectively, for the 2020–21 fiscal year. Power would be made available to few states expected to face shortages from states with a surplus, through regional transmission links. From calendar year 2015 onwards, power generation in India has been less of a problem than power distribution.
Nearly 0.07% of Indian households (0.2 million) have no access to electricity. The International Energy Agency estimates India will add between 600 GW to 1,200 GW of additional new power generation capacity before 2050. This added new capacity is similar in scale to the 740 GW total power generation capacity of the European Union (EU-27) in 2005. The technologies and fuel sources India adopts as it adds this electricity generation capacity may have a significant impact on global resource usage and environmental issues. The demand for electricity for cooling (HVAC) is projected to grow rapidly.
About 136 million Indians (11%) use traditional fuels – firewood, agricultural waste and dry animal dung fuel – for cooking and general heating needs. These traditional fuels are burnt in cook stoves, sometimes known as "chulah" or "chulha". Traditional fuel is an inefficient source of energy, and its burning releases high levels of smoke, PM10 particulate matter, NOX, SOX, PAHs, polyaromatics, formaldehyde, carbon monoxide and other air pollutants, affecting outdoor air quality, haze and smog, chronic health problems, damage to forests, ecosystems and global climate. The World Health Organization estimates that 300,000 to 400,000 people in India die of indoor air pollution and carbon monoxide poisoning every year because of biomass burning and use of chulahs. Burning traditional fuel in conventional cook stoves is estimated to release 5–15x more pollutants than industrial combustion of coal, and is unlikely to be replaced until electricity or clean-burning fuel and combustion technologies become reliably available and widely adopted in rural and urban India. The growth of the electricity sector in India may help find a sustainable alternative to traditional fuel burning.
In addition to air pollution problems, a 2007 study finds that discharge of untreated sewage is the single most important cause for pollution of surface and groundwater in India. The majority of government-owned sewage treatment plants remain closed most of the time in part because of the lack of a reliable electricity supply to operate the plants. Uncollected waste accumulates in urban areas, causing unhygienic conditions, and release heavy metals and pollutants that leaches to surface and groundwater. A reliable supply of electricity is required to address India's water pollution and associated environmental issues.
Other drivers for India's electricity sector are its rapidly growing economy, rising exports, improving infrastructure and increasing household incomes.
Note: Per Capita Consumption=(gross electricity generation by all sources plus net import) / mid year population. 'Consumption' is 'gross electricity generation by all sources plus net import' after subtracting transmission loses and auxiliary consumption in electricity generation.
The per capita annual domestic electricity consumption in India during the year 2009 was 96 kWh in rural areas and 288 kWh in urban areas for those with access to electricity. Globally the per capita annual average is 2,600 kWh and in the European Union it is 6,200 kWh.
Rural and Urban electrification.
India's Ministry of Power launched "Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Gram Jyoti Yojana" (DDUGJY) as one of its flagship programmes in July 2015 with the objective of providing round the clock power to rural areas. The programme focused on reforms in the rural power sector by separating feeder lines for rural households from those for agricultural applications, and strengthening transmission and distribution infrastructure. A previous scheme for rural electrification, "Rajiv Gandhi Grameen Vidyutikaran Yojana" (RGGVY) was subsumed into the new scheme. As of 28 April 2018, 12 days ahead of the target date, all Indian villages (a total of 597,464 census villages) were electrified.
India has also achieved close to 100% electrification of all rural and urban households. As of 4 January 2019, 211.88 million rural households were provided with electricity, close to 100% of the 212.65 million total rural households. As of 4 January 2019, 42.937 million urban households are provided with electricity, close to 100% of the 42.941 million total urban households.
Per-Capita consumption.
Note: Per capita consumption = (gross electricity generation + net import) / mid year population.
Electricity generation.
India has recorded rapid growth in electricity generation since 1985, increasing from 179 TW-hr in 1985 to 1,057 TW-hr in 2012. The majority of the increase came from coal-fired plants and non-conventional renewable energy sources (RES), with the contribution from natural gas, oil, and hydro plants decreasing in 2012-2017. The gross utility electricity generation (excluding imports from Bhutan) was 1,384 billion kWh in 2019-20, representing 1.0 % annual growth compared to 2018-2019. The contribution from renewable energy sources was nearly 20% of the total. In the year 2019-20, all the incremental electricity generation is contributed by renewable energy sources as the power generation from fossil fuels decreased. During the year 2020-2021, the utility power generation has decreased by 0.8% (11.3 billion kWh) with reduction in power generation from fossil fuels by 1% and power generation from non-fossil sources is more or less same of previous year. In 2020-21, India exported more electricity than it has imported from neighboring countries. Solar power generation in the year 2020-21, occupied third place after coal and hydro power generations surpassing wind, gas and nuclear power generations.
Notes: Coal includes lignite; Misc: includes contributions from emergency diesel generator sets, roof top solar, etc; *Hydro includes pumped storage generation; # Estimated value; na = data not available.
Thermal power.
Pollution from coal-based power plants.
India's electricity sector consumes about 72% of the coal produced in the country. For utility power generation, India consumed 622.22 million tons of coal during 2019-20 which is less by 1% compared to 628.94 million tons during 2018-19. However coal imports for utility power generation increased by 12.3% during year 2019-20 at 69.22 million tons from 61.66 million tons during 2018-19. A large part of the Indian coal reserve is similar to Gondwana coal: it is of low calorific value and high ash content, with poor fuel value. On average, Indian coal has a gross calorific value (GCV) of about 4500 Kcal/kg, whereas in Australia, for example, the GCV is about 6500 Kcal/kg . The result is that Indian power plants using India's coal supply consume about 0.7 kg of coal per kWh of power generation, whereas in the United States thermal power plants consume about 0.45 kg of coal per kWh. In 2017, India imported nearly 130 Mtoe (nearly 200 million tons) of steam coal and coking coal, 29% of total consumption, to meet the demand in electricity, cement and steel production.
The Centre for Science and Environment has assessed the Indian coal-based power sector as one of the most resource-wasteful and polluting sectors in the world, in part due to the high ash content in India's coal. India's Ministry of Environment and Forests has therefore mandated the use of coals whose ash content has been reduced to 34% (or lower) in power plants in urban, ecologically sensitive and other critically polluted areas. The coal ash reduction industry has grown rapidly in India, with current capacity topping 90 megatonnes.
Before a thermal power plant is approved for construction and commissioning in India it must undergo an extensive review process that includes environmental impact assessment. The Ministry of Environment and Forests has produced a technical guidance manual to help project proposers avoid environmental pollution from thermal power plants. As of 2016, the existing coal-fired power stations in the utility and captive power sectors were estimated to require nearly 12.5 million INR per MW capacity to install pollution control equipment to comply with the latest emission norms set out by the Ministry of Environment and Forests. Most of the coal fired stations have not complied installation of flue gas de-sulphurisation units for reducing the pollution. In April 2020, CPCB declared that over 42,000 MW thermal power plants have outlived their lives. India has also banned imports of pet coke for use as fuel. As a signatory to the Paris Agreement, India is also reducing power generation from coal to control the emission of greenhouse gases.
The state and central power generation companies are permitted by the Government of India to minimize the cost of coal transportation using flexible coal linkage swaps from inefficient plants to efficient plants, and from plants situated far from coal mines to plants close to the pit head, leading to a reduction in the cost of power. Although coal imports for consumption in the utility sector are declining, the overall imports of steam coal are increasing as the local coal production is unable to meet the requirements of coal-fired captive power plants. India is introducing single spot auctions/exchanges for all type of coal consumers.
Retirement of old thermal power plants.
India's coal-fired, oil-fired and natural gas-fired thermal power plants are inefficient and replacing them with cheaper renewable technologies offers significant potential for greenhouse gas (CO2) emission reduction. India's thermal power plants emit 50% to 120% more CO2 per kWh produced compared to average emissions from their European Union (EU-27) counterparts. The central government plans to retire coal-based plants that are at least 25 years old and contributing excessive pollution, totalling 11,000 MW of capacity. As of 2018 there is no similar retirement plan for the captive power sector. In 2020 Carbon Tracker estimated that phasing out 20 years or more old coal-fired plants and the coal fired plants under construction with electricity sale price exceeding INR 4/kWh with new renewables is more economical as these coal fired plants are imposing heavy financial burden on Discoms.
Some diesel generator plants and gas turbine plants were also decommissioned in 2016.
Integration of renewable power.
India has committed to install 275,000 MW renewable energy capacity by 2027. The existing base load coal and gas based power plants need to be flexible enough to accommodate the variable renewable energy. Also ramping up, ramping down, warm start up, hot start up capabilities of existing coal based power stations are critical to accommodate the frequent variations in renewable power generation. It is also examined to use the retired coal based electric generators as synchronous condensers for improving the grid inertia when it is dominated by static power generation sources like solar and wind power.
Natural gas supply constraints.
The installed capacity of natural gas-based power plants (including the plants ready to be commissioned with the commencement of natural gas supply) was nearly 26,765 MW at the end of the financial year 2014-15. These plants were operating at overall plant load factor (PLF) of 22% due to a severe shortage of natural gas in the country, and the fact that imported liquid natural gas (LNG) was too expensive for power generation. Many power stations were shut down throughout the year for lack of natural gas supply. The natural gas shortage for power sector alone was nearly 100 million cubic metre per day at standard conditions. The break-even price for switching from imported coal to LNG in electricity generation was estimated to be approximately US (themal energy). The Indian government has taken steps to enhance power generation from gas-based power plants by waiving import duties and taxes.
Gasification of coal or lignite or pet coke or biomass produces synthetic natural gas or syngas (also known as coal gas or wood gas) which is a mixture of hydrogen, carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide gases. Coal gas can be converted into synthetic natural gas by using the Fischer–Tropsch process at low pressure and high temperature. Coal gas can also be produced by underground coal gasification if the coal deposits are located deep in the ground or it is uneconomical to mine the coal. Synthetic natural gas production technologies promise to dramatically improve India's supply of natural gas. The Dankuni coal complex produces syngas that is piped to industrial users in Calcutta. Many coal-based fertiliser plants can also be economically retrofitted to produce synthetic natural gas. It is estimated that the production cost for syngas could be below US.
Renewable energy.
As of 31 March 2020, India's grid-connected electricity generation capacity is about 87.02 GW from non-conventional renewable technologies and 45.70 GW from conventional renewable power or major hydroelectric power plants.
Bids have been invited for installation of a further 115 GW, to achieve a total of 175 GW total installed capacity of non-conventional renewable power by 31 March 2022. The government has set up a fund of US$350 million to finance solar projects.
Hydro power.
The hydro-electric power plants at Darjeeling and Shivanasamudram were among the first in Asia, and were established in 1898 and 1902 respectively.
India's potential for hydro power has been assessed to be about 125,570 MW at 60% load factor. India is ranked fourth globally by underutilized hydro power potential. The estimated amount of viable hydro power varies with improved technology and the cost of electricity generation from other sources. In addition, there is an estimated 6,740 MW of potential for small, mini, and micro-hydro generators, and 56 sites for pumped storage schemes with an aggregate installed capacity of 94,000 MW have been identified. In 2020, the power tariff from Solar PV clubbed with pumped storage hydro have fallen below the coal based power plant tariffs in offering base load and peak load power supply.
The installed hydro power capacity as of 31 March 2018 was approximately 45,293 MW, 13.17% of total installed utility capacity at the time. Small, mini, and micro-hydro generators add another 4,486 MW capacity. The share of this sector operated by public companies is 97%. Companies engaged in the development of hydroelectric power in India include the National Hydroelectric Power Corporation (NHPC), Northeast Electric Power Company (NEEPCO), Satluj Jal Vidyut Nigam (SJVNL), Tehri Hydro Development Corporation, and NTPC-Hydro.
Pumped storage schemes offer the potential for centralized peak power stations for load management in the electricity grid. They also produce secondary /seasonal power at no additional cost when rivers are flooding with excess water. Storing electricity by alternative systems such as batteries, compressed air storage systems, etc. is more costly than electricity production by standby generator. India has already established nearly 4,785 MW pumped storage capacity as part of its installed hydro power plants.
Solar power.
The solar energy sector in India offers potentially enormous capacity, though little of this potential has so far been exploited. Solar radiation of about 5,000 trillion kWh per year is incident over India's land mass, with average daily solar power potential of 0.25 kWh/m2 of used land area with available commercially proven technologies. As of 31 December 2019, the installed capacity was 33.73 GW, or 2% of utility electricity generation.
Solar power plants require nearly land per MW capacity, which is similar to coal-fired power plants when life cycle coal mining, consumptive water storage and ash disposal areas are taken into account, and hydropower plants when the submergence area of the water reservoir is included. Solar plants with 1.33 million MW capacity could be installed in India on 1% of its land (32,000 square km). Large tracts of land that is unproductive, barren and devoid of vegetation exist in all parts of India, exceeding 8% of its total area. These are potentially suitable for solar power. It has been estimated that if 32,000 square km of these waste lands were used for solar power generation,2,000 billion kWh of electricity could be produced, twice the total power generated in the year 2013-14. At a price of 4 Rs/kWh, this would result in a land annual productivity/yield of per acre, which compares favorably with many industrial areas and is many times more than the best productive irrigated agriculture lands. Building solar power plants on marginally productive lands offers the potential for solar electricity to replace all of India's fossil fuel energy requirements (natural gas, coal, lignite, nuclear fuels, and crude oil), and could offer per capita energy consumption at par with USA/Japan for the peak population expected during its demographic transition.
The sale price of power generated by solar photovoltaics fell to per kWh in November 2020 which is lower than any other type of power generation in India. In the same year, the levelised tariff in US$ for solar electricity fell to 1.31 cents/kWh, far below the solar PV sale tariff in India. In 2020, the power tariff from Solar PV clubbed with pumped storage hydro or battery storage have fallen below the coal based power plant tariffs in offering base load and peak load power supply.
Land acquisition is a challenge for solar farm projects in India. Some state governments are exploring innovative ways to address land availability, for example, by deploying solar capacity above irrigation canals. This allows solar energy to be harvested while simultaneously reducing the loss of irrigation water by solar evaporation. The state of Gujarat was first to implement the Canal Solar Power Project, using solar panels on a long network of Narmada canals across the state to generate electricity. It was the first such project in India.
Synergy with other types of power generation
A major disadvantage of solar power is that it produces electricity only in daylight, and not during night time or cloudy daytime. This disadvantage can be overcome by installing grid storage, such as pumped-storage hydroelectricity. A proposed large-scale engineering project to interlink Indian rivers envisages coastal reservoirs for harnessing river waters that would also create pumped-storage hydro power capacity for use on daily basis by consuming the surplus solar power available during the day time. Existing and future hydropower stations can also be expanded with additional pumped-storage hydroelectricity units to cater for night time electricity consumption. Most of the groundwater pumping power required can be met directly by solar power during the day time.
Solar thermal power plants with thermal storage are also emerging as cheaper (US 5¢/kWh) and cleaner load following power plants than fossil fuel power plants. They can respond to demand round the clock, and work as base load power plants when there is excess solar energy. A mix of solar thermal and solar photovoltaic plants offers the potential to match load fluctuations without requiring costly battery storage.
Wind power.
India has the fourth largest installed wind power capacity in the world. The development of wind power in India began in the 1990s in Tamil Nadu and significantly increased in the last decade. As of 31 March 2018, the installed capacity of wind power was 34.05 GW, spread across many states of India. The largest wind power generating state is Tamil Nadu, accounting for nearly 23% of installed capacity, followed in decreasing order by Gujarat, Maharashtra, Rajasthan and Karnataka.
In 2015-16, wind power accounted for 8.5% of India's total installed power capacity, and 2.5% of the country's power output. India aims to install a total 60 GW of wind power capacity by 2022. The wind power tariff of around 2.5 INR/kWh is the cheapest of all power generation sources in India.
Biomass power.
Biomass is organic matter from living organisms. As a renewable energy source, biomass can either be used directly via combustion to produce heat, or indirectly after converting it to various forms of biofuel using a range of methods which are broadly classified into thermal, chemical, and biochemical methods. Biomass, bagasse, forestry, domestic organic wastes, industrial organic wastes, organic residue from biogas plants, and agricultural residue and waste can all be used as fuel to produce electricity. Nearly 750 million tons of biomass that is not edible by cattle is available annually in India.
The total use of biomass to produce heat in India was nearly 177 Mtoe in 2013. 20% of households in India use biomass and charcoal for cooking purposes. This traditional use of biomass is being replaced by liquid petroleum gas in rural areas, resulting in increased burning of biomass in fields, This has become a major source of air pollution in nearby towns and cities.
Large quantities of imported coal are being used in pulverised coal-fired power stations. Raw biomass cannot be used directly in the pulverised coal mills as it is difficult to grind into fine powder due to caking. However, torrefaction makes it possible for biomass to replace coal. The hot flue gas of existing coal-fired power stations can be used as a heat source for torrefaction, so that biomass can be cofired with coal. Surplus agriculture/crop residue biomass is beginning to be used for this purpose. Instead of shutting down coal-fired power plants due to concerns over pollution, it has been argued that these units can be retrofitted economically to produce electricity from biomass. Biomass power plants can also sell Renewable Energy Certificates, increasing their profitability. Cofiring of biomass up to 10% with coal in existing pulverised coal-fired power stations is successfully implemented in India.
In 2011, India started a new initiative to demonstrate the utility of medium-size mixed feed biogas-fertiliser pilot plants. The government approved 21 projects with an aggregate capacity of 37,016 cubic metres per day, of which 2 projects were successfully commissioned by December 2011. India commissioned a further 158 projects under its Biogas-based Distributed/Grid Power Generation programme, with a total installed capacity of about 2 MW. In 2018, India has set a target of producing 15 million tons of biogas/bio-CNG by installing 5,000 large scale commercial type biogas plants which can produce daily 12.5 tons of bio-CNG by each plant. Rejected organic solids from biogas plants can be used in coal plants after torrefaction.
Biogas is primarily methane, and can also be used to generate protein rich feed for cattle, poultry and fish by growing "Methylococcus capsulatus", a bacterium that grows directly on methane. This can be done economically in villages with low requirements for land and water. The carbon dioxide gas produced as a by-product from these units can be used in cheaper production of algae oil or spirulina from algae cultivation, which may eventually substitute for crude oil. Using biogas for protein-rich feed production is also eligible for carbon credits as this sequesters carbon from the atmosphere. There is significant potential to extract useful biomass from breweries, textile mills, fertiliser plants, the paper and pulp industry, solvent extraction units, rice mills, petrochemical plants and other industries.
The government is exploring several ways to use agro waste or biomass in rural areas to improve the rural economy. For example biomass gasifier technologies are being explored to produce power from surplus biomass resources such as rice husk, crop stalks, small wood chips and other agro-residues in rural areas. The largest biomass-based power plant in India at Sirohi, Rajasthan has a capacity of 20 MW. During 2011, India installed 25 rice husk based gasifier systems for distributed power generation in 70 remote villages of Bihar, including a total of 1.20 MW in Gujarat and 0.5 MW in Tamil Nadu. In addition, gasifier systems were installed at 60 rice mills in India.
Geothermal energy.
Geothermal energy is thermal energy generated and stored in the Earth. India's geothermal energy installed capacity is experimental, and commercial use is insignificant. According to some estimates, India has 10,600 MW of geothermal energy available. The resource map for India has been grouped into six geothermal provinces:
India has about 340 hot springs spread over the country. Of these, 62 are distributed along the northwest Himalaya, in the states of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand. They are found concentrated in a 30-50-km wide thermal band mostly along the river valleys. The Naga-Lusai and West Coast Provinces also manifest a series of thermal springs. The Andaman and Nicobar arc is the only place in India where volcanic activity continues, potentially a good site for geothermal energy. The Cambay geothermal belt is 200 km long and 50 km wide, with Tertiary sediments. Thermal springs have been reported from the belt although they are not of very high temperature or flow levels. High subsurface temperature and thermal fluid have been reported in deep drill wells in depth ranges of 1.7 to 1.9  km during drilling in this area. Steam blowout has also been reported in drill holes in a depth range of 1.5 to 3.4  km. The thermal springs in India's peninsular region are more related to the faults, which allow water to circulate to considerable depths. The circulating water acquires heat from the normal thermal gradient in the area, and can emerge at a high temperature.
In a December 2011 report, India identified six promising geothermal sites for the development of geothermal energy. In decreasing order of potential, these are:
Puga and Chumathang area in Ladakh are deemed as the most promising geothermal fields in India. These areas were discovered in 1970s and initial exploratory efforts were made in the 1980s by Geological Survey of India (GSI). On February 6th 2021, the ONGC Energy Center (OEC) signed a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) with Ladakh and the Ladakh Autonomous Hill Development Council, Leh in the presence of current Lieutenant governor Radha Krishna Mathur.
Tidal power.
Tidal power, also called tidal energy, is a form of hydropower that converts energy obtained from tides into useful forms of power, mainly electricity. Local effects such as shelving, funneling, reflection and resonance can increase the potential of tidal energy in certain regions.
India's potential to harness tidal energy is significant. Energy can be extracted from tides in several ways. In one method, a reservoir is created behind a barrier, or barrage, and tidal waters are allowed to pass through turbines in the barrier to generate electricity. This method requires mean tidal differences greater than 4 metres and favourable topographical conditions to keep installation costs low. The Gulf of Khambhat and the Gulf of Kutch on India's west coast, with maximum tidal ranges of 11 m and 8 m, respectively, and an average tidal range of 6.77 m and 5.23 m, are promising sites for this type of technology. The Ganges Delta in the Sundarbans, West Bengal is another possibility, although it offers significantly less recoverable energy; the maximum tidal range in Sunderbans is approximately 5 m with an average tidal range of 2.97 m. It is estimated that barrage technology could harvest about 8 GW from tidal energy in India, primarily in Gujarat. The barrage approach has several disadvantages, however, one being that a badly engineered barrage can have significant negative effects on migratory fishes, marine ecosystems and aquatic life. Integrated barrage technology plants can also be expensive to build. In December 2011, the Ministry of New & Renewable Energy, Government of India and the Renewable Energy Development Agency of West Bengal jointly approved and agreed to implement India's first 3.75 MW Durgaduani mini tidal power project.
Another tidal wave technology harvests energy from surface waves or from pressure fluctuations below the sea surface. A report from the Ocean Engineering Centre, at the Indian Institute of Technology Madras estimated the annual wave energy potential along the Indian coast is 5 to 15 MW/metre, suggesting a theoretical maximum potential for electricity harvesting along India's 7500-kilometer coastline of about 40 GW. However, the realistic economical potential is likely to be considerably less than this. A significant barrier to surface energy harvesting is that its equipment may interfere with fishing and other sea-bound vessels, particularly in unsettled weather. India built its first surface energy harvesting technology demonstration plant in Vizhinjam, near Thiruvananthapuram.
The third approach to harvesting tidal energy is ocean thermal energy technology. This approach harvests the solar energy trapped in ocean waters. Oceans have a thermal gradient, the surface being much warmer than the deeper levels of the ocean. This thermal gradient may be harvested using the modified Rankine cycle. India's National Institute of Ocean Technology (NIOT) has attempted this approach without success. In 2003, NIOT attempted to build and deploy a 1 MW demonstration plant with Saga University of Japan, but mechanical problems prevented success. After initial tests near Kerala, the unit was scheduled for redeployment and further development in the Lakshadweep Islands in 2005.
Nuclear power.
As of 31 March 2019, India had 6.78 GW of installed nuclear power generation capacity or nearly 2% of total installed utility power generation capacity. Nuclear plants generated 37,812 million kWh at 63.67% PLF in 2018-19.
India's nuclear power plant development began in 1964. India signed an agreement with General Electric (United States) for the construction and commissioning of two boiling water reactors at Tarapur. In 1967, this effort was placed under India's Department of Atomic Energy. In 1971, India set up its first pressurized heavy water reactors with Canadian collaboration in Rajasthan.
In 1987, India created the Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited to commercialize nuclear power. The Nuclear Power Corporation of India is a public sector enterprise, wholly owned by the Government of India, under the administrative control of the Department of Atomic Energy. The state-owned company has ambitious plans to establish plants totalling 63 GW generation capacity by 2032.
India's nuclear power generation effort is subject to many safeguards and oversights. Its environmental management system is ISO-14001 certified, and it undergoes peer review by the World Association of Nuclear Operators, including a pre-start-up peer review. The Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited commented in its annual report for 2011 that its biggest challenge is to address public and policymaker perceptions about the safety of nuclear power, particularly after the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster in Japan.
In 2011, India had 18 pressurized heavy water reactors in operation, with another four projects launched totalling 2.8 GW capacity. India is in the process of launching its first prototype fast breeder reactor using plutonium-based fuel obtained by reprocessing the spent fuel of first-stage reactors. The prototype reactor is located in Tamil Nadu and has a capacity of 500MW.
India has nuclear power plants operating in the following states: Maharashtra, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. These reactors have an installed electricity generation capacity of between 100 MW and 540 MW each. The Kudankulam nuclear power plant (KNPP) is the single largest nuclear power station in India. KNPP Unit 1 with a capacity of 1,000  MWe was commissioned in July 2013, while Unit 2, also with a capacity of 1,000  MWe, attained criticality in 2016. Two additional units are under construction. The plant has suffered multiple shutdowns, leading to calls for an expert panel to investigate. First 700 MW PHWR unit under phase II of Kakrapar Atomic Power Station achieved first criticality in July 2020.
In 2011, uranium was discovered in the Tummalapalle uranium mine, the country's largest uranium mine and possibly one of the world's largest. The reserves were estimated at 64,000 tonnes, and could be as large as 150,000 tonnes. The mine began operation in 2012.
India's share of nuclear power plant generation capacity is 1.2% of worldwide nuclear power production capacity, making it the 15th largest nuclear power producer. India aims to supply 9% of its electricity needs with nuclear power by 2032 and 25% by 2050. Jaitapur Nuclear Power Project, India's largest nuclear power plant project, is planned to be implemented in partnership with Électricité de France under an agreement signed on 10 March 2018.
India's government is developing up to 62 additional nuclear reactors, mostly using thorium fuel, which it expects to be operational by 2025. It is the "only country in the world with a detailed, funded, government-approved plan" to focus on thorium-based nuclear power.
Electricity transmission and distribution.
As of 2013, India has a single wide area synchronous grid that covers the entire country except distant islands.

The total length of high voltage direct current (HVDC) transmission lines (220kV and above) would be enough to form a square matrix of area 266 km2 (i.e. a square grid 16.3 km on a side, so that on average there is at least one high voltage line within a distance of 8.15 km) over the entire area of the country. This represents a total of almost 20% more high voltage transmission lines than that of the United States ( of 230 kV and above). However the Indian grid transmits far less electricity. The installed length of transmission lines of 66 kV and above is (on average, there is at least one ≥66 kV transmission line within 4.95 km across the country). The length of secondary transmission lines (400 V and above) is as of 31 March 2018. The spread of total transmission lines (≥400 V) would be sufficient to form a square matrix of area 0.36 km2 (i.e. on average, at least one transmission line within 0.31 km distance) over the entire area of the country.
The all-time maximum peak load met was 182,610 MW on 30 May 2019. The maximum achieved demand factor of substations is nearly 60% at the 220 kV level. However the operational performance of the system is not satisfactory in meeting peak electricity loads. This has led to the initiation of detailed forensic engineering studies, with a plan to make capital investments in a smart grid that maximises the utility of the existing transmission infrastructure.
The introduction of an availability based tariff (ABT) originally helped to stabilise the Indian transmission grids. However, as the grid transitions to power surplus the ABT has become less useful. The July 2012 blackout, affecting the north of the country, was the largest power grid failure in history as measured by the number of people affected.
India's aggregate transmission and commercial (ATC) losses were nearly 21.35% in 2017-18. This compares unfavorably to the total ATC loss in the electricity sector of the United States, which was only 6.6% out of 4,404 billion kWh electricity supplied during the year 2018. The Indian government set a target of reducing losses to 17.1% by 2017 and to 14.1% by 2022. A high proportion of non-technical losses are caused by illegal tapping of lines, faulty electric meters and fictitious power generation that underestimates actual consumption and also contributes to reduced payment collection. A case study in Kerala estimated that replacing faulty meters could reduce distribution losses from 34% to 29%.
Regulation and administration.
The Ministry of Power is India's top central government body regulating the electrical energy sector in India. The ministry was created on 2 July 1992. It is responsible for planning, policy formulation, processing of projects for investment decisions, monitoring project implementation, training and manpower development, and the administration and enactment of legislation in regard to power generation, transmission and distribution. It is also responsible for the administration of India's Electricity Act (2003), the Energy Conservation Act (2001) and has the responsibility of undertaking amendments to these Acts when necessary to meet the Indian government's policy objectives.
Electricity is a concurrent list subject at Entry 38 in List III of the seventh Schedule of the Constitution of India. In India's federal governance structure, this means that both the central government and India's state governments are involved in establishing policy and laws for the electricity sector. This requires the central government and individual state governments to enter into memoranda of understanding to help expedite projects in the individual states. To disseminate information to the public on power purchases by the distribution companies (discoms), the government of India recently started posting data on its website on a daily basis.
Trading.
Bulk power purchasers can buy electricity on a daily basis for short, medium and long term durations from a reverse e-auction facility. The electricity prices transacted by the reverse e-auction facility are far less than the prices agreed under bilateral agreements. The commodity derivative exchange Multi Commodity Exchange has sought permission to offer electricity future markets in India. The Government of India is also planning reverse procurement process in which generators and discoms with surplus power can seek e-bids for power supply for up to a one-year period, to put an end to bilateral contracts and determine the market-based price for electricity.
Government-owned power companies.
India's Ministry of Power administers central government-owned companies involved in the generation of electricity in India. These include the National Thermal Power Corporation, the SJVN, the Damodar Valley Corporation, the National Hydroelectric Power Corporation and the Nuclear Power Corporation of India. The Power Grid Corporation of India is also administered by the Ministry; it is responsible for the inter-state transmission of electricity and the development of the national grid.
The Ministry works with state governments on matters related to state government-owned corporations in India's electricity sector. Examples of state corporations include the Telangana Power Generation Corporation, the Andhra Pradesh Power Generation Corporation Limited, the Assam Power Generation Corporation Limited, the Tamil Nadu Electricity Board, the Maharashtra State Electricity Board, the Kerala State Electricity Board, the West Bengal State Electricity Distribution Company and Gujarat Urja Vikas Nigam Limited.
Funding of power infrastructure.
India's Ministry of Power administers the Rural Electrification Corporation Limited and the Power Finance Corporation Limited. These central-government-owned public sector enterprises provide loans and guarantees for public and private electricity sector infrastructure projects in India. Excessive plant construction loans at 75% of overestimated costs on overrated plant capacities have led to stranded assets of US$40 to 60 billion. The central and state-owned power generators escaped this crisis as they had entered PPAs with state-owned monopolistic discoms on a cost-plus basis at higher than prevailing market power tariffs, without undergoing competitive bidding process. Many direct and indirect subsidies are given to various sectors.
Budgetary support.
After the enactment of Electricity Act 2003 budgetary support to the power sector is negligible. Many State Electricity Boards were separated into their component parts after the act came into force, creating separate entities for generating, transmitting and distributing power.
Human resource development.
The rapid growth of the electricity sector in India has generated high demand for trained personnel. India is making efforts to expand energy education and to enable existing educational institutions to introduce courses related to energy capacity addition, production, operations and maintenance. This initiative includes conventional and renewable energy.
The Ministry of New and Renewable Energy announced that State Renewable Energy Agencies are being supported to organise short-term training programmes for installation, operation and maintenance and repair of renewable energy systems in locations where intensive renewable energy programmes are being implemented. Renewable Energy Chairs have been established at the Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee and the Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur. The Central Training Institute Jabalpur is a training institute for power distribution engineering and management. The NTPC School of Business Noida has initiated an energy-centred two year post-graduate diploma in management program and a one year post-graduate diploma in management (executive) program, to cater to the growing need for management professionals in this area. Education and availability of skilled workers is expected to be a key challenge in India's effort to expand its electricity sector.
Problems with India's power sector.
India's electricity sector faces many issues, including:
Key implementation challenges for India's electricity sector include efficient performance of new project management and execution, ensuring availability and appropriate quality of fuel, developing the large coal and natural gas resources available in India, land acquisition, obtaining environmental clearances at state and central government level, and training skilled manpower.
Foreign electricity trade.
India's National Grid is synchronously interconnected to Bhutan, and asynchronously linked with Bangladesh and Nepal. An interconnection with Myanmar, and an undersea interconnection to Sri Lanka (India–Sri Lanka HVDC Interconnection) have also been proposed.
India has been exporting electricity to Bangladesh and Nepal and importing excess electricity from Bhutan. In 2015, Nepal imported 224.21 MW of electric power from India, and Bangladesh imported 500MW. In 2018 Bangladesh proposed importing 10,000 MW power from India.
Bangladesh, Myanmar and Pakistan produce substantial amounts of natural gas for electricity generation. Bangladesh, Myanmar and Pakistan produce 55 million cubic metres per day (mcmd), 9 mcmd and 118 mcmd respectively, out of which 20 mcmd, 1.4 mcmd and 34 mcmd are consumed for electricity generation. Natural gas production in India is not even adequate to meet non-electricity requirements. There is thus an opportunity for mutually beneficial trading in energy resources with these countries. India could supply surplus electricity to Pakistan and Bangladesh in return for the natural gas imports by gas pipelines. Similarly, India can develop hydro power projects in Bhutan, Nepal and Myanmar on a build-operate-transfer basis. India might also be able to enter into long term power purchase agreements with China for developing the hydro power potential of the Yarlung Tsangpo Grand Canyon in the Brahmaputra River basin of Tibet. India could also supply its surplus electricity to Sri Lanka by undersea cable link.
Electricity as substitute to imported LPG and kerosene.
India's net import of liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) is 6.093 million tons and the domestic consumption is 13.568 million tons with Rs. 41,546 crores subsidy to domestic consumers in 2012-13. The LPG import content is nearly 40% of total consumption in India. The affordable electricity retail tariff (860 Kcal/Kwh at 90% heating efficiency) to replace LPG (net calorific value 11,000 Kcal/Kg at 75% heating efficiency) in domestic cooking is 6.47 Rs/Kwh, while the retail price of LPG cylinder is Rs 1000 (without subsidy) with 14.2 kg LPG content. Replacing LPG consumption with electricity would reduces imports substantially.
The domestic consumption of kerosene is 7.349 million tons with Rs. 30,151 crores subsidy to the domestic consumers in the year 2012-13. The subsidised retail price of kerosene is 13.69 Rs/litre whereas the export/import price is 48.00 Rs/litre. The affordable electricity retail tariff (860 Kcal/Kwh at 90% heating efficiency) to replace kerosene (net calorific value 8240 Kcal/litre at 75% heating efficiency) in domestic cooking is 6.00 Rs/kWh when the kerosene retail price is 48 Rs/litre (without subsidy).
In 2014-15, the plant load factor (PLF) of coal-fired thermal power stations was only 64.46%. These stations can run above 85% PLF if there is adequate electricity demand. The additional electricity generation at 85% PLF is nearly 240 billion units, enough to replace all the LPG and kerosene consumption in domestic sector. The incremental cost of generating additional electricity is only the coal fuel cost, less than 3 Rs/Kwh. Enhancing the PLF of coal-fired stations and encouraging domestic electricity consumers to substitute electricity in place of LPG and kerosene in household cooking would reduce government subsidies. It has been proposed that domestic consumers who are willing to surrender subsidized LPG/kerosene permits should be given a free electricity connection and a subsidized electricity tariff.
Since 2017, IPPs have offered to sell solar and wind power below 3.00 Rs/Kwh to feed into the high voltage grid. After considering distribution costs and losses, solar power appears to be a viable economic option for replacing the LPG and kerosene used in the domestic sector.
Electric vehicles.
The retail prices of petrol and diesel are high enough in India to make electricity driven vehicles relatively economical. The retail price of diesel was 65.00 Rs/litre in 2017-18, and the retail price of petrol was 70.00 Rs/litre. The electricity retail price to replace diesel would be 12.21 Rs/Kwh (860 Kcal/Kwh at 75% input electricity to shaft power efficiency versus diesel's net calorific value of 8572 Kcal/litre at 40% fuel energy to crank shaft power efficiency), and the comparable number to replace petrol would be 17.79 Rs/Kwh (860 Kcal/Kwh at 75% input electricity to shaft power efficiency versus petrol's net calorific value at 7693 Kcal/litre at 33% fuel energy to crank shaft power efficiency). In 2012-13, India consumed 15.744 million tons of petrol and 69.179 million tons of diesel, both mainly produced from imported crude oil.
Electricity driven vehicles are expected to become popular in India when energy storage/battery technology offers improved range, longer life and lower maintenance. Vehicle to grid options are also attractive, potentially allowing electric vehicles to help to mitigate peak loads in the electricity grid. The potential for continuous charging of electric vehicles through wireless electricity transmission technology is being explored by Indian companies and others.
Energy reserves.
India has abundant potential solar wind, hydro and biomass power. In addition, as of January 2011 India had approximately 38 trillion cubic feet (Tcf) of proven natural gas reserves, the world's 26th largest reserve. The United States Energy Information Administration estimates that India produced approximately 1.8 Tcf of natural gas in 2010 while consuming roughly 2.3 Tcf of natural gas. India already produces some coalbed methane and has major potential to expand this source of cleaner fuel. India is estimated to have between 600 and 2000 Tcf of shale gas resources (one of the world's largest reserves).


Cometa (HVDC)

COMETA (abbreviation for COnexión MEditerránea Transporte Alta tensión; also known as the Majorca–Valencia interconnector and the Romulus project) is an undersea electric power transmission system between mainland Spain and the island of Majorca. It connects Morvedre near Valencia and Santa Ponsa near Palma de Mallorca. The project was developed by Red Electrica de España. The project aims were to connect the Baleric Islands with the Spanish peninsular grid, providing a better electrical supply to the two isolated Balearic grids.
History.
On 26 September 2007, contracts between Red Electrica de España and the cable manufacturers Nexans and Prysmian were signed. On 9 October 2007, a contract with Siemens was signed for supplying two converter stations.
The laying of the first cable started on 13 January 2011 and the laying of the second cable started on 27 January 2011. The first cable was laid by the cable ship "Giulio Verne" and the second cable was laid by the cable ship "Nexans Skagerrak". Trenching was done by waterjet from the Multipurpose Supply Vessel (MPSV) "Edda Fjord" and dredger "Argo I".
COMETA became operational in early 2012, initially at reduced capacity then fully from August 2012. The total cost of the project was €375 million. During the first operational quarter, the Spanish grid operator estimated that the connection would mean 25 million €/year in savings, due to more efficient supply to the islands and less carbon rights.
It is planned to extend the connection to Ibiza and Formentera with a second underwater cable, (115 km) long and 800 m deep, operating at 132 kV AC.
Technical description.
The cable was produced and laid by Prysmian Group and Nexans SA. The system consists of two bipolar high-voltage direct current (HVDC) cables with a transmission capacity of 200 MW and an operating voltage of 250 kV of each, and a metal return cable. It has a total transmission capacity of 400 MW. The maximum depth of the submarine cable is . It is the second longest submarine power cable after NorNed and the second deepest after SAPEI. The submarine part of the cable is long and the land cable is long. There are converter stations in Morvedre and Santa Ponsa, built by Siemens.


Sovtek

Sovtek is a brand of vacuum tube owned by Mike Matthews's New Sensor Corporation and manufactured in Saratov, Russia. They are often used in guitar amplification and include versions of the popular 12AX7, EL84, EL34, and 6L6. Many of the vacuum-tube amplifiers in modern production are factory-fitted with Sovtek valves. Originally, Sovtek guitar amplifier valves were claimed to have been descendants of earlier wartime Russian-made components and carried blast proof capabilities. This, however, was later dispelled as urban myth, attributed to a sales person who promoted early product at music industry trade shows worldwide.
In the 1990s, Sovtek also manufactured tube amplifiers at factories in Saint Petersburg, Saratov, and Novosibirsk. Several models were offered for guitar and bass. Sovtek brand speaker cabinets fitted with US-made Eminence speakers were also offered. At the same time, Sovtek manufactured variants of several effects pedals already manufactured in New York City, USA by Electro-Harmonix, another company owned by Mike Matthews. Sovtek released versions of the Electro-Harmonix Big Muff and Small Stone pedals. Those pedals, along with the Bass Balls pedal, were later manufactured in both the US and Russia, under the Electro-Harmonix name; manufacturing in Russia was later discontinued.
 Sovtek was used only as a brand name for vacuum tubes distributed by the New Sensor Corporation.


Electricity sector in Venezuela

The electricity sector in Venezuela is one of the few in the world to rely primarily on hydroelectricity, which accounted for 64% in 2015 (71% in 2004).
Electricity production.
In 2015, the total of electricity production reaches 117 TWh, of which 64% comes from hydro, 19% from gas and 17% from oil. Losses however are uncommonly high, reaching 34% of production.
In 2015, Venezuela produced 75 TWh of hydropower, which accounts 1.9% of world's total, a small increase over the production of 2004 of 70 TWh . The installed capacity had however in 2012 reached 26 GW from a total of 13.76 GW at the end of 2002, where 4.5 GW were under construction and 7.4 GW planned. The World Energy Council energy resource report of 2010 estimates the gross theoretical hydropower production could reach 731 TWh per annum, of which 100 TWh are economically exploitable, an increase over the 320 TWh estimates of 2004.
Hydroelectricity production is concentrated on the Caroní River in Guayana Region. Today it has 4 different dams. The largest hydroplant is the Guri dam with 10,200 MW of installed capacity, which makes it the third-largest hydroelectric plant in the world. Other hydroelectric projects on the Caroní are Caruachi Dam, Macagua I, Macagua II and Macagua III, with a total of 15.910 MW of installed capacity in 2003. A new dams, Tocoma (2 160 MW) and Tayucay (2 450 MW), was under construction between Guri and Caruachi in 2003. With a projected installed capacity for the whole Hydroelectric Complex (upstream Caroni River and downstream Caroni River), between 17.250 and 20.000 MW were planned for 2010.
Organizations.
The largest power companies are state-owned CVG (EDELCA), a subsidiary of the mining company Corporación Venezolana de Guayana (CVG), and Compania Anonima de Administracion y Fomento Electrico () accounting respectively for approximately 63% and 18% of generating capacities. Other state-owned power companies are (ENELBAR) and (ENELVEN) and Energía Eléctrica de la Costa Oriental (ENELCO) or ENELVEN-ENELCO (approximately 8% of capacities). In 2007, PDVSA bought 82.14% percent of Electricidad de Caracas (EDC) from AES Corporation as part of a renationalization program. Subsequently, the ownership share rose to 93.62% (December 2008). EDC has 11% of Venezuelan capacity, and owns the majority of conventional thermal power plants. The rest of the power production is owned by private companies.
The national transmission system (Sistema Interconectado Nacional, SIN) is composed by four interconnected regional transmission systems operated by EDELCA, CADAFE, EDC and ENELVEN-ENELCO. "Oficina de Operación del Sistema Interconectado" (OPSIS), jointly owned by the four vertical integrated electric companies, operate the SIN under an RTPA regime.


Rio Solare

Rio Solare (Literal translation being "River of the Sun") is a Closed-Loop Society concept in the area where Arizona, Nevada, and California meet. The project covers a 22-mile stretch of the Colorado River from Laughlin, Nevada in the north to Needles, California in the south. The project at this time includes 5 major installations along this route, each of which is a world's first demonstration of proven technologies that exist today.
History.
Conception and Design.
Rio Solare was the idea of entrepreneur Richard Brindisi who derived of the concept while driving through the mountains surrounding Bullhead City, Arizona in 2008. The concept of Rio Solare is a self-sustained, closed loop community similar to other global projects such as “Kacare “in Saudi Arabia or “Masdar“ in Abu Dhabi. Like Epcot Center at Disney World, this concept would be an exposé of technologies showcasing imagination, creativity, and application.
The Installations.
At this time there are five proposed installations in the Rio Solare project. These are America's first High Speed Magnetic Levitated Train (MAG–LEV), America's first combination sugar cane to ethanol and cellulose electric power plant, a National Renewable Energy Lab (NREL) satellite campus, the world's first Eco Park with vertical farming, a golf course, a national media center, and a coal to solar electric generating plant.


Waubra Foundation

The Waubra Foundation describes itself as an advocacy group for properly conducted, multidisciplinary research into alleged health problems reported by people living in the vicinity of wind turbines and other industrial uses. The foundation is named after the town of Waubra, Victoria Australia, but is not linked to it in any other way. The town is home to the 128 turbine Waubra Wind Farm.
Pseudo scientific claims.
Claims made by the Waubra Foundation relating to wind turbine syndrome and wind farm syndrome are considered pseudo scientific and are not recognised as actual diseases by any international disease classification system, nor do they appear in any title or abstract in the United States National Library of Medicine's PubMed database. Wind turbine syndrome has been characterized as pseudoscience. Since 2003, 25 reviews have been published of the scientific literature on wind turbines and health. These studies have consistently found no reason to believe that wind turbines are harmful to health.
History.
The Foundation was originally known as the 'Waubra Disease Foundation' after claims that health problems reported by some residents of Waubra were caused by wind turbines. The Waubra Foundation has claimed that wind turbines have a mental and physical health impact on some people, largely as a result of infrasound. The Foundation claims the following symptoms are consistent with the impacts of wind turbine proximity: sleep disturbance, headache including migraines, tinnitus, ear pressure (often described as painful), balance problems / dizziness, vertigo, nausea, visual blurring, irritability, problems with concentration and memory, panic episodes, and tachycardia (fast heart rate). In 2009, the term Wind Turbine Syndrome was coined to encompass the broad range of symptoms described by complainants living near turbines. The Foundation has published reports from sufferers of wind turbine syndrome symptoms living as far as 17 kilometres from the nearest turbine.
In November 2013, Senator Richard Di Natale, at that time health spokesperson for the Australian Greens, and former general practitioner, lodged a written complaint with both the Australian Charities and Not-for-profits Commission (ACNC) and the Australian Tax Office, questioning the Waubra Foundation's qualification as a health promotion charity, on the basis that the foundation’s claims are false and misleading, and that they might actually be causing harm. On 11 December 2014, the ACNC revoked the foundation’s registration as a health promotion charity, with the Assistant Commissioner saying, "It is not possible for me to find that the Foundation's principal activity promotes the prevention or control of disease in human beings". In December 2017, the decision was affirmed after a failed appeal.


Hydroelectricity in Japan

Hydroelectricity is the second most important renewable energy source after solar energy in Japan with an installed capacity of 50.0 gigawatt (GW) as of 2019.
According to the International Hydropower Association Japan was the world's sixth largest producer of hydroelectricity in 2020.
Most of Japanese hydroelectric power plants are pumped-storage plants.
Conventional hydropower plants account for about 20 GW out of the total installed capacity as of 2007.
Conventional hydropower potential of Japan is considered to be almost fully developed, with little opportunity for further capacity increase.
In recent years, almost exclusively pumped storage plants were commissioned, significantly increasing the ratio of pumped storage capacity over conventional hydro.
The large capacity of pumped storage hydropower was built to store energy from nuclear power plants, which until the Fukushima disaster constituted a large part of Japan electricity generation.
As of 2015, Japan is the country with the highest capacity of pumped-storage hydroelectricity in the world, with 26 GW of power installed.
After the 2011 nuclear power shutdowns, pumped-storage plants have been increasingly used to balance the variable generation of renewable energy sources such as solar, which have been growing rapidly in recent years.
As of September 2011, Japan had 1,198 small hydropower plants with a total capacity of 3,225 megawatt (MW). The smaller plants accounted for 6.6% of Japan's total hydropower capacity. The remaining capacity was filled by large and medium hydropower stations, typically sited at large dams. Cost per kilowatt-hour for power from smaller plants was high at ¥15-100, hindering further development of the energy source.


Integral Molten Salt Reactor

The Integral Molten Salt Reactor (IMSR) is designed for the small modular reactor (SMR) market. It employs molten salt reactor technology which is being developed by the Canadian company Terrestrial Energy.
It is based closely on the denatured molten salt reactor (DMSR), a reactor design from Oak Ridge National Laboratory. It also incorporates elements found in the SmAHTR, a later design from the same laboratory.
The IMSR belongs to the DMSR class of molten salt reactors (MSR) and hence is a "burner" reactor that employs a liquid fuel rather than a conventional solid fuel; this liquid contains the nuclear fuel and also serves as primary coolant.
In 2016, Terrestrial Energy engaged in a pre-licensing design review for the IMSR with the Canadian Nuclear Safety Commission and entered the second phase of this process in October 2018 after successfully completing the first stage in late 2017.
The company claims it will have its first commercial IMSRs licensed and operating in the 2020s.
Design.
The Integral Molten Salt Reactor is so called because it integrates into a compact, sealed and replaceable nuclear reactor unit, called the IMSR Core-unit. The core-unit comes in a single size designed to deliver 400 megawatts of thermal heat which can be used for multiple applications. If used to generate electricity then the notional capacity is 190 megawatts electrical.
The unit include all the primary components of the nuclear reactor that operate on the liquid molten fluoride salt fuel: moderator, primary heat exchangers, pumps and shutdown rods.
The Core-unit forms the heart of the IMSR system. In the Core-unit, the fuel salt is circulated between the graphite core and heat exchangers.
The Core-unit itself is placed inside a surrounding vessel called the guard vessel. The entire Core-unit module can be lifted out for replacement. The guard vessel that surrounds the Core-unit acts as a containment vessel. In turn, a shielded silo surrounds the guard vessel.
The IMSR belongs to the denatured molten salt reactor (DMSR) class of molten salt reactors (MSR).
It is designed to have all the safety features associated with the Molten Salt class of reactors including low pressure operation (the reactor and primary coolant is operated near normal atmospheric pressure), the inability to lose primary coolant (the fuel is the coolant), the inability to suffer a meltdown accident (the fuel operates in an already molten state) and the robust chemical binding of the fission products within the primary coolant salt (reduced pathway for accidental release of fission products).
The design uses standard assay low-enriched uranium fuel, with less than 5% U235 with a simple converter (also known as a "burner") fuel cycle objective (as do most operating power reactors today). The proposed fuel is in the form of uranium tetrafluoride (UF4) blended with carrier salts. These salts are also fluorides, such as lithium fluoride (LiF), sodium fluoride (NaF) and/or beryllium fluoride (BeF2). These carrier salts increase the heat capacity of the fuel and lower the fuel's melting point.
The fuel salt blend also acts as the primary coolant for the reactor.
The IMSR is a thermal-neutron reactor moderated by vertical graphite tubular elements.
The molten salt fuel-coolant mixture flows upward through these tubular elements where it goes critical.
After heating up in this moderated core the liquid fuel flows upward through a central common chimney and is then pulled downward by pumps through heat exchanges positioned inside the reactor vessel.
The liquid fuel then flow down the outer edge of the reactor core to repeat the cycle.
All the primary components, heat exchangers, pumps etc. are positioned inside the reactor vessel.
The reactor’s integrated architecture avoids the use of external piping for the fuel that could leak or break.
The piping external to the reactor vessel contain two additional salt loops in series: a secondary, nonradioactive coolant salt, followed by another (third) coolant salt.
These salt loops act as additional barriers to any radionuclides and improve the system's heat capacity. It also allows easier integration with the heat sink end of the plant; either process heat or power applications using standard industrial grade steam turbine plants are envisioned by Terrestrial Energy.
The IMSR Core-unit is designed to be completely replaced after a 7-year period of operation. This ensures that a sufficient operational lifetime of materials used in the IMSR reactor core can be achieved. During operation, small fresh fuel/salt batches are periodically added to the reactor system. This online refueling process does not require the mechanical refueling machinery required for solid fuel reactor systems.
Many of these design features are based on two previous molten salt designs from Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) – the ORNL denatured molten salt reactor (DMSR) from 1980 and the solid fuel/liquid salt cooled, small modular advanced high temperature reactor (SmAHTR), a 2010 design. The DMSR, as carried into the IMSR design, proposed to use molten salt fuel and graphite moderator in a simplified converter design using LEU , with periodic additions of LEU fuel. Most previous proposals for molten salt reactors all bred more fuel than needed to operate, so were called breeders. Converter or "burner" reactors like the IMSR and DMSR can also utilize plutonium from existing spent fuel as their makeup fuel source. The more recent SmAHTR proposal was for a small, modular, molten salt cooled but solid TRISO fuelled reactor.
Replaceable Core-unit.
The design uses a replaceable Core-unit. When the graphite moderator's lifetime exposure to neutron flux causes it to start distorting beyond acceptable limits, rather than remove and replace the graphite moderator, the entire IMSR Core-unit is replaced as a unit. This includes the pumps, pump motors, shutdown rods, heat exchangers and graphite moderator, all of which are either inside the vessel or directly attached to it. To facilitate a replacement, the design employs two reactor silos in the reactor building, one operating and one idle or with a previous, empty, spent Core-unit in cool-down. After 7 years of operation, the core-unit is shut down and cools in place to allow short lived radionuclides to decay. After that cool-down period, the spent core-unit is lifted out and eventually replaced.
Simultaneously, a new Core-unit is installed and activated in the second silo. This entails connection to the secondary (coolant) salt piping, placement of the containment head and biological shield and loading with fresh fuel salt. The containment head provides double containment (the first being the sealed reactor vessel itself). The new Core-unit can now start its 7 years of power operations.
The IMSR vendor accumulates sealed, spent IMSR Core-units and spent fuel salt tanks in onsite, below grade silos. This operational mode reduces uncertainties with respect to long service life of materials and equipment, replacing them by design rather than allowing age-related issues such as creep or corrosion to accumulate.
Online refueling.
The IMSR employs online fueling. While operating, small fresh fuel salt batches are periodically added to the reactor system. As the reactor uses circulating liquid fuel this process does not require complex mechanical refueling machinery. The reactor vessel is never opened, thereby ensuring a clean operating environment. During the 7 years, no fuel is removed from the reactor; this differs from solid fuel reactors which must remove fuel to make room for any new fuel assemblies, limiting fuel utilization.
Safety.
Nuclear power reactors have three fundamental safety requirements: control, cooling, and containment.
Control.
Nuclear reactors require control over the critical nuclear chain reaction. As such, the design must provide for exact control over the reaction rate of the core, and must enable reliable shut-down when needed. Under routine operations, the IMSR relies on intrinsic stability for reactivity control; there are no control rods. This behavior is known as negative power feedback - the reactor is self-stabilizing in power output and temperature, and is characterized as a load-following reactor. Reactor power is controlled by the amount of heat removed from the reactor: increased heat removal results in a drop in fuel salt temperature, resulting in increased reactivity and in turn increased power. Conversely, reducing heat removal will increase reactor temperature at first, lowering reactivity and subsequently reducing reactor power. If all heat removal is lost, the reactor power will drop to a very low power level.
As backup (and shutdown method for maintenance), the IMSR employs shutdown rods filled with neutron absorber. These rods are normally held out of the critical region by the upward pressure of the pumped salt in circulation but will drop into place to stop criticality if pumped circulation is lost due to a power outage or pump failure.
As with other molten salt reactors, the reactor can also be shut down by draining the fuel salt from the Core-unit into storage tanks.
A failsafe backup is provided in the form of meltable cans, filled with a liquid neutron absorbing material that will permanently shut down the reactor in the event of a severe overheating event.
Cooling.
A nuclear reactor is a thermal power system—it generates heat, transports it and eventually converts it to mechanical energy in a heat engine, in this case a steam turbine.
Such systems require that the heat is removed, transported and converted at the same rate it is generated.
A fundamental issue for nuclear reactors is that even when the nuclear fission process is halted, heat continues to be generated at significant levels by the radioactive decay of the fission products for days and even months.
This is known as decay heat and is the major safety driver behind the cooling of nuclear reactors, because this decay heat must be removed.
For conventional light water reactors the flow of cooling water must continue in all foreseeable circumstances, otherwise damage and melting of the (solid) fuel can result.
Light water reactors operate with a volatile coolant, requiring high pressure operation and depressurization in an emergency.
The IMSR instead uses liquid fuel at low pressure.
IMSR does not rely on bringing coolant to the reactor or depressurizing the reactor, using instead passive cooling.
Heat continuously dissipates from the Core-unit.
During normal operation, heat loss is reduced by the moderate temperature of the reactor vessel in normal operation, combined with the stagnant air between the Core-unit and guard vessel, which only allows radiant heat transfer. Radiant heat transfer is a strong function of temperature; any increase in the temperature of the Core-unit will rapidly increase heat loss.
Upon shutdown of the primary salt pumps, the reactor passively drops power to a very small level.
It can still heat up slowly by the small but constant decay heat as previously described. Due to the large heat capacity of the graphite and the salts, this increase in temperature is slow.
The higher temperatures slowly increase thermal radiant heat loss, and subsequent heat loss from the guard vessel itself to the outside air.
Low pressure nitrogen flows by natural convection over the outside of the guard vessel, transporting heat to the metal reactor building roof.
This roof provides the passive heat loss required, acting as a giant radiator to the outside air.
As a result, heat loss is increased while decay heat naturally drops; an equilibrium is reached where temperatures peak and then drop.
The thermal dynamics and inertia of the entire system of the Core-unit in its containment silo is sufficient to absorb and disperse decay heat.
In the long term, as decay heat dissipates almost completely, and the plant is still not recovered, the reactor would increase power to the level of the heat loss to IRVACS, and stay at that low power level (and normal temperature) indefinitely.
In the event that the low pressure nitrogen coolant leaks from the IRVACS then natural air will offer similar cooling capability. Albeit with a minor nuclear activation of the argon in the air.
The molten salts are excellent heat transfer fluids, with volumetric heat capacities close to water, and good thermal conductivity.
Containment.
All molten salt reactors have features that contribute to containment safety. These mostly have to do with the properties of the salt itself. The salts are chemically inert. They do not burn and are not combustible. The salts have low volatility (high boiling point around 1400 °C), allowing a low operating pressure of the core and cooling loops. This provides a large margin above the normal operating temperature of some 600 to 700 °C. This makes it possible to operate at low pressures without risk of coolant/fuel boiling (an issue with water cooled reactors).
The high chemical stability of the salt precludes energetic chemical reactions such as hydrogen gas generation/detonation and sodium combustion, that can challenge the design and operations of other reactor types. The fluoride salt reacts with many fission products to produce chemically stable, non-volatile fluorides, such as cesium fluoride. Similarly, the majority of other high risk fission products such as iodine, dissolve into the fuel salt, bound up as iodide salts. However, for the MSRE "of the order of
one-fourth to one-third of the iodine has not been
adequately accounted for.". There is some uncertainty as to whether this is a measurement error, as the concentrations are small and other fission products also had similar accounting problems. See liquid fluoride thorium reactor and molten salt reactor for more information.
The IMSR also has multiple physical containment barriers. It uses a sealed, integral reactor unit, the Core-unit. The Core-unit is surrounded by the guard vessel on its side and bottom, itself surrounded by a gas-tight structural steel and concrete silo. The Core-unit is covered up from the top by a steel containment head which is itself covered by thick round steel and concrete plates. The plates serve as radiation shield and provide protection against external hazards such as explosions or aircraft crash penetration. The reactor building provides an additional layer of protection against such external hazards, as well as a controlled, filtered-air confinement area.
Most molten salt reactors use a gravity drain tank as an emergency storage reservoir for the molten fuel salt. The IMSR deliberately avoids this drain tank. The IMSR design is simpler and eliminates the bottom drain line and accompanying risks from low level vessel penetrations. The result is a more compact, robust design with fewer parts and few failure scenarios. The salt can however be drained from the reactor by pumping it out the top.
Relative to light water reactors the scale and capital cost of the containment building is significantly reduced as there is no need to deal with the phase change risk associated with a water based coolant.
Economics.
The economics of conventional nuclear reactors are dominated by the capital cost—the cost to build and finance the construction of the facility. Uranium costs are relatively low however conventional fuel fabrication is a significant cost of operation.
Due to the dominance of capital cost, most nuclear power reactors have sought to reduce cost per Watt by increasing the total power output of the reactor system. However, this often leads to very large projects that are difficult to finance, manage and to standardize.
Terrestrial Energy is arguing for a different approach: to produce a more compact, more efficient reactor system, with a safety case that relies more on physics than engineered systems. And a fuel system that avoids complex fabrication processes.
As molten salts have a low vapor pressure and high heat volumetric heat capacity the reactor and containment can be compact and low pressure. This allows for more modularity in construction.
The higher operating temperature with molten salts improves thermodynamic efficiency. The IMSR produces around 40% more electricity than a comparably sized water-cooled SMR. The result is around 40% more revenue from the same reactor size. This has a large impact on economics. The design also extracts more energy from the same quantity of fuel before it is considered “spent”.
Safety Approach.
A large part of the cost of nuclear power reactors is related to safety and the resulting quality and regulatory requirements that can drive costs up.
The IMSR approach is to rely on inherent and passive safety features rather than complex active systems, potentially reducing costs in this important area, while increasing the safety profile.
Efficiency.
Conventional nuclear reactors, such as pressurized and boiling water reactors, use water as a coolant. Due to water's high vapor pressure at elevated temperatures, they are limited to operating at a relatively low temperature, usually near 300°C. This limits the thermodynamic efficiency, typically to around 32-34%. In other words, water-cooled power reactors generate 32-34 watts of electricity for every 100 watts of reactor power.
The higher thermal stability and low vapor pressure of the salt allows operation at higher temperatures. IMSR provides final heat at temperatures of around 550-600°C, which results in an efficiency in the 45-48% range.
The IMSR produces around 1.4 times more electricity per unit reactor heat output compared to conventional commercial reactors. Thus it generates some 40% more revenues from the same reactor power. This has a large impact on the project economics. In addition, the higher temperature of the IMSR allows for the use of more compact, lower-cost turbine systems, already in common use with coal fired power stations, as opposed to conventional nuclear power plants that usually need specialized low-temperature turbines that are not used anywhere else. This helps to further lower the capital cost.
Nuclear efficiency - the amount of nuclear fuel used per unit electricity generated - is less important to economics; fuel costs in a nuclear facility are low.
Modularity.
A key cost driver is in the nature of the equipment used. Standardized, manufactured components are lower cost than specialized, or even custom components.
Molten salts have high volumetric heat capacity, a low vapor pressure and no hydrogen generation potential, so there is no need for large-volume, high-pressure vessels for the reactor and containment or other equipment areas. This reduces the size of the Core-unit and containment compared to water-cooled reactors. Similarly, molten salt heat exchangers used are more compact than the large steam generators employed in PWRs.
The compact Core-unit forms the basic modularity of the IMSR system. Core-units are identical and small enough to be fabricated in a controlled in-door environment.
Reactor Pressure.
High pressure is a cost driver for any component, as it increases both quality requirements and required materials (thickness). Large, high pressure components require heavy weldings and forgings that have limited availability. A typical operating pressure for a pressurized water reactor (PWR) is over 150 atmospheres. For the IMSR, due to the low vapor pressure and high boiling point of the salt, the Core-unit operates at or near atmospheric pressure (other than a few atmospheres of pressure from the hydrostatic weight of the salt). This is despite the higher operating temperature. The results is lighter, thinner components that are easier to manufacture and modularize.
Other Markets.
Various non-electric applications exist that have a large market demand for energy: steam reforming, paper and pulp production, chemicals and plastics, etc. Water-cooled conventional reactors are unsuitable to most of these markets due to the low operating temperature of around 300 °C, and too large in size to match single point industrial heat needs. The IMSR's smaller size and higher operating temperature (around 700 °C in the reactor, up to 600°C delivered) could potentially open up new markets in these process heat applications. In addition, cogeneration, the production of both heat and electricity, are also potentially attractive.
Licensing.
Terrestrial Energy was founded in Canada in 2013 with the objective of commercialising the IMSR, and is currently working to license (in both Canada and the USA) an IMSR design with a thermal power capacity of 400 MW (equivalent to 190 MW electrical).
As standard industrial grade steam turbines are proposed, cogeneration, or combined heat and power, is also possible.
In 2016, Terrestrial Energy engaged in a pre-licensing design review for the IMSR with the Canadian Nuclear Safety Commission.
It successfully completed the first stage of this process in late 2017, and entered the second phase of the design review in October 2018.
Terrestrial Energy claims it will have its first commercial IMSRs licensed and operating in the 2020s.
Terrestrial Energy had previously proposed designs in 3 other sizes, generating 80 MW, 300 MW and 600 MW thermal power, and 33, 141, and 291 MW of electricity respectively, using standard industrial grade steam turbines. However it has not sought to take these alternate designs through the licensing process.


Ashton B. Collins Sr.

Ashton Budd Collins Sr. (September 14, 1885 – December 16, 1976) was an American inventor and marketer. He was the creator of Reddy Kilowatt, a popular corporate trade symbol for the electric utility industry for much of the 20th century.
Creator of Reddy Kilowatt.
Mr. Collins was working as the commercial manager for the Alabama Power Company in 1926 when he was asked to create a display for the company at the Alabama Electrical Exposition. Like many utilities in the 1920s, the company was seeking to expand its reach into rural areas not yet connected to the electrical grid. Mr. Collins sought to humanize the service as a marketing and public relations tool.
In later years, Mr. Collins described how he watched jagged bolts of lightning strike the ground during an electrical storm. The image inspired him to create a lanky stick figure with lightning bolts for arms and legs, a round head with a light bulb for a nose and wall sockets for ears, and a pair of sparks atop his head for hair (or possibly horns). Collins gave the character a pair of safety gloves and a jaunty smile and called his creation “Reddy Kilowatt”.
Collins asked Dan Clinton, an Alabama Power engineer, to develop the first sketches of the character for the exhibition and related newspaper advertising. Alabama Power copyrighted Reddy on March 6, 1926, and the character first appeared in print in an advertisement in The Birmingham News eight days later.
Marketer.
In 1933, Collins left Alabama Power to join the fledgling Edison Electric Institute, an association set up to represent investor-owned utilities. Alabama Power allowed him to retain the rights to Reddy Kilowatt and he applied for a U.S. patent for the character in 1933.
A friend, Dorothea Warren, prepared several new renderings of Reddy to help him market the trademark under the banner of the “Reddy Kilowatt Service” to member utilities.
While with the EEI Collins travelled the United States promoting the use of electrical energy. He used the opportunity to sell other companies on the value of humanizing their product. By the end of 1934 he had signed up at least six, including Pennsylvania Power and Light. In 1957, Collins incorporated his business for the first time as Reddy Kilowatt, Inc.
Soon after introducing Reddy Kilowatt to the American marketplace, Collins began promoting the character in other countries, securing trademarks in Canada, the United Kingdom, Australia, Mexico, South America, the Caribbean and elsewhere. In 1957 the number of companies employing Reddy around the globe totaled 222. It's estimated that by the early 1970s, when the industry's focus shifted from expansion to conservation, Reddy had served as ambassador for more than 300 organizations.
In 1946, Collins was credited as producer on an animated film starring Reddy Kilowatt, created by the Walter Lantz animation studio, called "Reddy Made Magic".
Advocate.
Collins was a strong believer in the capitalist system and he insisted that Reddy would be licensed only to publicly traded, tax-paying utility companies. Following World War II Collins became increasingly concerned about the spread of government and cooperative-run electric companies. The Reddy Kilowatt Service began producing ads that equated such organizations with the spread of socialism. In 1950, he created the Grass Roots Impact Plan to advance the promotion of this theme.
Collins was convinced of the importance of delivering his pro-capitalist message to young audiences, encouraging Reddy Kilowatt licensees to launch youth clubs in the late 1940s. In the middle of the dissent-filled 60s he developed a comprehensive education program to teach young people capitalist economic values. A supporting slide presentation, aimed at executives, called “Fission, Fertility, and the Future” emphasized the importance of reaching youth during times of social upheaval in order to protect the interests of investor-owned utilities.
In 1956, Collins took aim at the National Rural Electric Cooperative Association, an association of cooperative-owned utilities. Members of that organization, unable to license the Reddy Kilowatt service mark, created their own in 1952. The Willie Wiredhand character featured a body of electric cable with electric plug feet. Reddy Kilowatt, Inc. filed suit against the cooperatives but on January 7, 1957, the court ruled the characters were different and dismissed the complaint.
Personal life.
In 1931, Collins married Hughie Beatty (1903–2001). The couple raised two children, Ashton Jr. (1932), and Croom Beatty (1936). After his release from the Air Force, Ash Collins Jr. joined Reddy Kilowatt, Inc., starting in the mailroom in 1956. In 1962, he became president of the company while Ashton Sr. became chairman of the Board of Directors. Beatty Collins also served on the company's board of directors.
Reddy Kilowatt, Inc. was renamed Reddy Communications, Inc. in 1976. In 1998 the company and its trademarks were purchased by Northern States Power, now a subsidiary of Xcel Energy.