Bethlehem Shipbuilding San Pedro

Bethlehem Shipbuilding San Pedro was a major shipbuilding company on Terminal Island in San Pedro, California owned by Bethlehem Shipbuilding Corporation. To support the World War 2 demand for ships Bethlehem Shipbuilding San Pedro built: US Navy Destroyers and after the war tugboats. At its peak during the war about 6,000 worked at the yard, Bethlehem Shipbuilding San Pedro shipyard was opened in 1918 as Southwestern Shipbuilding by Western Pipe & Steel. Western Pipe & Steel sold the shipyard to Bethlehem Shipbuilding Corporation in 1925. Shipbuilding ended after World War 2 in 1946. In 1983 the shipyard was sold to Southwest Marine. In 1997 Southwest Marine operated four shipyards, which they sold to The Carlyle Group. Carlyle Group renamed the shipyard US Marine Repair. In 2002 US Marine Repair sold all six of its yards to United Defense Industries. In 2005 it was sold to BAE Systems but the yard has was not used and the yard is now part of the Port of Los Angeles. The shipyard was located at 1047 South Seaside Ave, San Pedro.
Destroyers.
Bethlehem Shipbuilding San Pedro destroyers built from 1942 to 1945:
Fletcher-class destroyers:
Robert H. Smith-class destroyers:
Benson-class destroyers:
Allen M. Sumner-class destroyers"
Gearing-class destroyers"
Hisada-class district harbor tug.
Bethlehem Shipbuilding San Pedro built. in 1946, four Hisada-class district harbor tugboats. These district Harbor Tug, Medium are 260 tons, a length of , a beam= , a draft of , power diesel engine, with a single screw. A top speed of .
The three tugs are:
Southwestern Shipbuilding.
Southwestern Shipbuilding owned the shipyard Bethlehem Shipbuilding San Pedro from 1918 to 1925. Many of the ships were built under United States Shipping Board (USSB)'s Emergency Fleet Corporation (EFC) contacts.
Ships built:


Battle of Maldon

The Battle of Maldon took place on 11 August 991 AD near Maldon beside the River Blackwater in Essex, England, during the reign of Æthelred the Unready. Earl Byrhtnoth and his thegns led the English against a Viking invasion. The battle ended in an Anglo-Saxon defeat. After the battle Archbishop Sigeric of Canterbury and the aldermen of the south-western provinces advised King Æthelred to buy off the Vikings rather than continue the armed struggle. The result was a payment of 10,000 Roman pounds (3,300 kg) of silver, the first example of Danegeld in England.
An account of the battle, embellished with many speeches attributed to the warriors and with other details, is related in an Old English poem which is usually named "The Battle of Maldon". A modern embroidery created for the millennium celebration in 1991 and, in part, depicting the battle, can be seen at the Maeldune Centre in Maldon.
One manuscript of the "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle" states that a certain Olaf, possibly the Norwegian Olaf Tryggvason, led the Viking forces, these estimated to have been between 2,000 and 4,000 fighting men. A source from the 12th century, , written by the monks at Ely, suggests that Byrhtnoth had only a few men to command: "he was neither shaken by the small number of his men, nor fearful of the multitude of the enemy". Not all sources indicate such a disparity in numbers.
The poem "The Battle of Maldon".
"The Battle of Maldon" is the name conventionally given to a surviving 325-line fragment of Old English poetry. Linguistic study has led to the conjecture that initially the complete poem was transmitted orally, then in a lost manuscript in the East Saxon dialect and now survives as a fragment in the West Saxon form, possibly that of a scribe active at the Monastery of Worcester late in the 11th century. It is fortuitous that this was attached at an early date to a very notable manuscript, Asser's "Life of King Alfred", which undoubtedly assisted in its survival. The manuscript, by now detached, was burned in the Cotton library fire at Ashburnham House in 1731. The keeper of the collection, John Elphinstone (or his assistant, David Casley), had transcribed the 325 lines of the poem in 1724, but the front and back pages were already missing from the manuscript (possibly around 50 lines each): an earlier catalogue described it as ('mutilated at head and heel'). As a result, vital clues about the purpose of the poem and perhaps its date have been lost.
At the time of battle, English royal policy of responding to Viking incursions was split. Some favoured paying off the Viking invaders with land and wealth, while others favoured fighting to the last man. The poem suggests that Byrhtnoth held this latter attitude, hence his moving speeches of patriotism.
The Vikings sailed up the Blackwater (then called the Panta), and Byrhtnoth called out his levy. The poem begins with him ordering his men to stand and to hold weapons. His troops, except for personal household guards, were local farmers and villagers of the Essex Fyrd militia. He ordered them to "send steed away and stride forwards": they arrived on horses but fought on foot. The Vikings sailed up to a small island in the river. At low tide, the river leaves a land bridge from this island to the shore; the description seems to have matched the Northey Island causeway at that time. This would place the site of the battle about two miles southeast of Maldon. Olaf addressed the Saxons, promising to sail away if he was paid with gold and armour from the lord. Byrhtnoth replied, "We will pay you with spear tips and sword blades."
With the ebb of the tide, Olaf's forces began an assault across the small land bridge. Three Anglo-Saxon warriors, Wulfstan, Ælfhere and Maccus blocked the bridge, successfully engaging any Vikings who pressed forward (lines 72-83). The Viking commander requested that Byrhtnoth allow his troops onto the shore for formal battle. Byrhtnoth, (line 89b), let the enemy force cross to the mainland. Battle was joined, but an Englishman called Godrīc fled riding Byrhtnoth's horse. Godrīc's brothers Godwine and Godwīg followed him. Then many English fled, recognizing the horse and thinking that its rider was Byrhtnoth fleeing. To add insult to injury, it is stated that Godric had often been given horses by Byrhtnoth, a detail that, especially during the time period, would have had Godric marked as a coward and a traitor, something that could have easily been described as worse than death. The Vikings overcame the Saxons after losing many men, killing Byrhtnoth. After the battle Byrhtnoth's body was found with its head missing, but his gold-hilted sword was still with his body.
There is some discussion about the meaning of "". Although literally meaning "over-heart" or "having too much heart", it could mean either "pride" or "excess of courage" (compare the Danish or German , which mean both "hubris" and "recklessness"). One argument is that the poem was written to celebrate Byrhtnoth's actions and goad others into heroic action, and Byrhtnoth's action stands proudly in a long tradition of heroic literature. Another viewpoint, most notably held by J. R. R. Tolkien, is that the poem is an elegy on a terrible loss and that the monastic author pinpoints the cause of the defeat in the commander's sin of pride, a viewpoint bolstered by the fact that is, in every other attested instance, used to describe Satan's pride. There is a memorial window, representing Byrhtnoth's dying prayer, in St Mary's church at Maldon.
It is believed by many scholars that the poem, while based upon actual events and people, was created to be less of a historical account and more of a means of enshrining and lifting up the memories of the men who fought and lost their lives on the battlefield protecting their homeland, especially in the case of the English commander of the battle, Byrhtnoth. He (Byrhtnoth) seems to embody many of the virtues that are uplifted in the Anglo-Saxon world, and is compared often by many scholars to the character Beowulf.
Norse invaders and Norse raiders differed in purpose. The forces engaged by the Anglo-Saxon were raiding, or (in Old Norse) "", to gather loot, rather than to occupy land for settlement. Therefore, if Byrhtnoth's forces had kept the Vikings off by guarding the causeway or by paying them off, Olaf would likely have sailed farther up the river or along the coast, and raided elsewhere. As a man with troops and weapons, it might be that Byrhtnoth had to allow the Vikings ashore to protect others. The poem may, therefore, represent the work of what has been termed the "monastic party" in Ethelred's court, which advocated a military response, rather than tribute, to all Norse attacks.
Other sources.
The death of Byrhtnoth, an ealdorman of Essex, was recorded in four versions of the "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle". Its Cotton Tiberius manuscript (Version B) says for the year 991:
"The Life of Oswald", written in Ramsey around the same time as the battle, portrays Byrhtnoth as a great religious warrior, with references to Biblical prophetic era figures.
In 1170, the "Book of Ely" retold and embroidered the story and made the battle two fights, with the second being a fortnight long against overwhelming odds. These texts show, to some degree, the growth of a local hero cultus.
Chronology.
The Winchester (or Parker) version of the "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle" (Version A), has the most detailed account of the battle, but places it under the heading for the year 993. As all the other versions of the "Chronicle" place it in 991, this is believed to be either a transcription error, or because the battle was inserted later when its importance had become apparent. The widely accepted precise date is taken from notices for the death of Byrhtnoth in three abbey calendars; those of Ely, Winchester and Ramsey. The date in the Ely calendar is 10 August, whereas Winchester and Ramsey give 11 August. However, Byrhtnoth's close connections with Ely imply that 10 August is more likely to be the accurate date.
Topography.
It is clear from the "Anglo-Saxon Chronicles" that Maldon in Essex is the site of the battle, because of its proximity to Ipswich and because Byrhtnoth was an Ealdorman of Essex. More precise details come from "The Battle of Maldon" narrative, which describes how the Vikings established themselves on an island, separated from the mainland by a tidal inlet which could be crossed by a "bridge" or "ford" at low tide. The poem describes how the Vikings and Saxons negotiated by calling across the water while waiting for the tide to go out. Northey Island seems to fit this description. An investigation in 1973 suggested that the channel between Northey Island and the mainland would have been about 120 yards (110 metres) rather than 240 yards (220 metres) today. The causeway which crosses the channel today may not have existed in its present form in the 10th century, but there was certainly some form of crossing present. Other sites have been suggested, one being Osea Island which can be reached by a causeway, but is too far from the mainland to shout across. A bridge a mile inland from Maldon, now called Heybridge, has also been suggested, but the river is not tidal at that point.
Manuscript sources.
In the Cotton library, the "Battle of Maldon" text had been in Otho A xii. The Elphinstone transcription is in the Bodleian Library, where it is pp. 7–12 of MS Rawlinson B. 203.


Coffeyville Army Air Field

Coffeyville Army Airfield was a World War II training base of the United States Army Air Forces Central Flying Training Command (CFTC). It was later used by Third Air Force. Today, it is the city-owned Coffeyville Municipal Airport, Kansas.
History.
Early in 1942, the War Department decided to build a basic training field outside the town of Coffeyville, Kansas, one of eleven Army Air Forces bases the state would have before the end of World War II.
The base was eagerly sought after by the town's community leaders. Many businessmen donated time and part of their expenses to get the base approved. Their efforts started in late 1941, with several visits by key city officials in Washington to talk with different agencies of the War Department. By Thanksgiving 1941, the Chamber of Commerce and the Airport Committee, received a commitment from the War Department for a site engineer to consider Coffeyville.
The decision was made to build the base on May 8, 1942. The site was located seven miles north-east of Coffeyville, on a 1,456-acre tract of land which had been purchased by the United States government. Construction, which was accomplished by contract under the supervision of the U. S. District Engineers, Tulsa, Oklahoma, commenced on 1 June 1942. It had really started before when the county began to improve the road network around the new base to handle the increased truck traffic hauling construction material to the site. The weather didn't cooperate, as the latter part of 1942 was very wet, slowing construction; however, most of the construction was accomplished over the next eight months.
When finished, the "Army Air Forces Basic Flying School. Coffeyville Kansas" had four runways, each 150 feet wide. The shortest was 5,872 feet. Most of the buildings were Theater of Operations construction while some were of the Mobilization type. The Mobilization type buildings included the station hospital, theater, chapel, and Link training buildings. There were three hangars with a parking apron a mile long and 450 feet wide were constructed. 'Where before there had been only open farm land, this new city now contained 212 buildings, a water storage and distribution system, sewage system and treatment plant, electric transmission lines, a railway spur, and all the other things one could expect to find in a town of 5,000 people. Its effect upon the city of Coffeyville was dramatic.
The base was the first of its type to be established in Kansas and would graduate the state's first class of cadets. In addition to the main base and airfield, there were four auxiliary fields also constructed for emergency and training use in the area along with the use of Coffeyville Municipal Airport
It was normal for a new base, built under extreme time pressure, to have start up problems. Coffeyville was no exception. There was no running water, and no roads. Coffeyville AAF wasn't ready for personnel. The base housing facilities were not ready. Some men were living under a baseball stadium at Forest Park, a recreation area in the city of Coffeyville. Meals were also served there for a time before the base mess hall opened.
The sewage system was not completed, and the water wasn't fit to drink because the pipes had not been cleaned. All drinking and cooking water had to be hauled from the city of Coffeyville in a street sprinkler. The electricity had been turned on and off intermittently during September, and came back on in the mess hall around 6 PM just as the troop train was backing into the siding. Due to a problem with the natural gas service, the first meal served at the base was barbecued wieners, instead of the originally planned roast beef. Dinner was about half finished when a cloudburst started. From then until January, 1943, the place was a sea of mud.
Many jobs needed to be finished before the cadets arrived. At the time, there was no water tower, so for fire protection, a fire truck was rented from the city of Coffeyville, and crewed by a driver and firefighter hired from the city. The post refrigeration units were not complete, meats and other perishables were stored in the Coffeyville Ice and Cold Storage company until facilities at the field were ready. Runways were not completed, nor were any of the maintenance buildings or shops in the sub-depot area. Most of the major construction would not be completed until January 1943.
Additionally, much remained to be built, i.e., taxiways, fencing, a crash station, a cadet operations building, some streets, and a civilian mess hall, etc. The fourth runway was started in July, later in August, the rebuilding of the original runways with concrete began.
Assigned units.
The new base was placed under the jurisdiction of the 32d Flying Training Wing (Basic), Perrin Army Airfield, Texas. During July 1942 detachments of the following units were organized at Coffeyville:
Early in September following detachments of two other units, the 1038th Guard Squadron and the 857th Signal Service Company, Aviation, were organized. These were followed before the end of the year by medical and veterinary detachments and by the 23d Airways Communications Squadron
The first large number of base support personnel, about 600 men, came to the field by train, arriving on September 18 Coming for the most part from Enid Army Airfield, Oklaholma. The bulk of the original military personnel arrived at Coffeyville during October and November 1942. They included troops of the 366th Base Headquarters and Air Base Squadron, the 317th Army Air Forces Band, and the 820th, 821st, 822d, and 823d School Squadrons. From a total of 63 officers and 190 enlisted men on 1 October 1942 the permanent party strength increased to 283 officers and 2,369 enlisted men by 1 February 1943.
Basic Flying School.
The mission originally assigned to Coffeyville was the basic, or second-stage, training of aviation cadets. Hence the designation, Army Air Forces Basic Flying School, when it was activated on 17 June 1942.
As of 1 January 1943 it was re-designated the Coffeyville Army Air Field, although the mission was unchanged. From 6 August 1943 until 31 May 1944 the flying training unit at the field was known as Army Air Forces Pilot School (Basic). The training of cadets at Coffeyville actually began on 14 November 1942 with Class 43-C with 137 members from primary flying schools at Hatbox Field, Muskogee, Oklahoma. 116 graduated at the end of the course on 13 January 1943. Meanwhile, the second class, 43-D, with 156 cadets had begun training on December 1942. It completed the course, with 129 individuals graduating on 15 February 1943.
This was about six months from the start of construction, and as was typical with most of the training bases, training began while the field was being completed. Training started on November 14. While in basic flying school the student pilot learned to fly a more advanced aircraft than he soloed in primary flight training. At the time, Basic was a ten-week course consisting of 70 hours flying, 94 hours in ground school, and 47 hours in military training. At the end of the basic training, the student moved on to advanced flight training at another base
The trainer used at Coffeyville AAF was the Consolidated-Vultee BT-13 Valiant. Coffeyville received its first BT-13s on November 8, just eight days before the start of flight training. Since construction of the maintenance hangars was still in progress, maintenance was done outside on the parking ramp. To make matters more interesting, the sub-depot supply warehouses weren't finished, so parts were kept, and the sub depot operated in the City of Coffeyville at the Ford dealership. At first, maintenance personnel had to make their own desks, tables, and work benches. Important maintenance equipment and aircraft parts were not available, so occasionally aircraft were cannibalized to keep the remainder flying. Maintenance went on day and night. Like flight training, maintenance procedures and organization were consistently reviewed and improved. Eventually, a base mechanics school was established. This along with the other improvements, led to about 96 percent of all aircraft being available for training by June 1943.
Early, only broad course objectives, requirements, and directives were received from higher headquarters. As time went by, these directives became more specific. As a result, the flight training program at Coffeyville continually changed. Additionally, training was hindered by lack of equipment, facilities, and trained personnel. Instrument training provides a good example of the continual evolution of training at Coffeyville At first, all instructors gave their students the appropriate instrument training. Later, this phase of training was delegated to a few instructors who specialized in this phase of the cadets training. During the winter of 1943 and 1944, all instructors took additional training and became qualified to teach instrument flying. So, the centralized training for instruments was stopped. Many felt this was a positive move, because the student could stay with the same instructor throughout his training at Coffeyville Later as directives became more specific, some instructors would complain about the lack of flexibility. Students were now required to spend a specific amount of time on specified maneuvers. To help with instrument training fifteen Link Trainers were put into operation in mid-December 1942 with Class 43-C. The course of instruction was 15 hours. One problem with the Link instructors was, they were trained at twelve different fields and so taught the course twelve different ways. Additionally, supplies were hard to get, and the training buildings were not suited for the task. A new building was built specifically for Link Training. By March 1944, there were thirty-four link trainers.
For a time, there were six training squadrons at the field, eventually this settled down to three, they were the 822nd, 823rd, and the 825th. Sometimes it was necessary to schedule Sunday flying when inclement weather prevented flying during the week. Normal flying periods were one hour, except cross-country flights. Usually cross-country flights took place between Coffeyville and Claremore, Oklahoma, and Neosho, Joplin, and Nevada, Missouri. Others were flown between Coffeyville, Chanute, and Fort Scott, Kansas.
Flight training consisted of several subjects that included, takeoffs and landings, aerobatics, cross-country navigation, and night flying. Ground school involved navigation, meteorology, radio communications, and aircraft recognition. Normally ground school was given between flying lessons. Sometimes it was done in the very early AM or after the evening meal.
Typically the day would start with Reveille at 6:15 AM, followed by breakfast at 6:30. Flying would begin at 7:45 AM. If a student was not scheduled to fly he would be in ground school, drill, or involved in required athletics. By March 1943, the field had three control towers with three radio frequencies to help control student flights.
Life was not all work for the cadets. The first USO dance for enlisted men was held on March 4, 1943. The first formal social function for the cadets was a dance at Memorial Hall in Coffeyville. Also, a cadet club was opened in Coffeyville on West Eighth Street. A wives club was formed and involved itself in many projects, the most important being welfare and Red Cross activities. This included helping the wives settle among strange surroundings, visiting cadets in the hospital, and decorating the cadet recreational buildings. The club met weekly and published a small mimeographed paper. The city of Coffeyville allowed the cadets to use the high school swimming pool, and reserved it for their use during part of the day. In addition, there were USO shows from time to time, and dances attended by invited guests from Coffeyville and surrounding communities. The bowling alley was opened in May 1943 and had six lanes. The field had its own radio show that was arranged and written by the special service staff. Sometimes it broadcast from Coffeyville on radio station KGGF. Golf was also available at reduced rates at Coffeyville's Hillcrest Country Club. The post had a gymnasium and several athletic fields for softball, football, and volleyball. No base was complete without its obstacle course and Coffeyville was no exception.
The last basic flight training class, 44-G, held their graduation dance in Coffeyville's Memorial Auditorium on May 20, 1944. At this point in the war, there was no longer the need for the vast numbers of new pilots being produced by the many training fields, so Coffeyille received notice to close down. From beginning to end, approximately 4,840 cadets and aviation students began the basic flying course, in 16 separate classes, at Coffeyville. In-completions, however, because of physical and flying deficiencies, serious accidents, and resignations were fairly numerous. As a result, only 3,881 successfully completed the course.
Third Air Force.
On 1 June 1944 Coffeyville Army Airfield was transferred to Third Air Force as pilot training was wound down.
The field's new mission was to train photo reconnaissance pilots. When it took over the field Third Air Force organized there the Coffeyville Replacement Training Unit (Photo Reconnaissance) which was assigned to Headquarters Reconnaissance Training Wing (Provisional).
Three months later the unit was redesignated the Coffeyville Combat Crew Training Station (Photo Reconnaissance),
with some emphasis being placed upon the preparation of photo-reconnaissance pilots for overseas movement. In mid-September it was assigned to the III Tactical Air Command.
The first group of photo reconnaissance pilots reported to Coffeyville for training on 12 June 1944. Other groups followed in rapid succession. Operating at first on a 10-weeks' schedule, the students divided their time, roughly in the ratio of one to four, between ground school studies and flying training. In the beginning there
were F-10 Mitchells being used. This was the photo-recon version of the B-25 medium bomber. However, during the latter part of the period the aircraft used generally for this part of the work was the F-5 Lightning, an unarmed photo recon version of the P-38. Commencing in January 1945 the students were required to complete four weeks of special instrument training before taking up their photo reconnaissance work.
Because of limited facilities during the summer of 1945, some classes which had completed the instrument training course at Coffeyville were shipped to Will Rogers Army Airfield, Oklahoma, for the photo-reconnaissance work. During the latter part of July, however, the instrument training program was transferred from Coffeyville to Will Rogers AAF, while the photo reconnaissance section at Will Rogers was transferred to Coffeyville.
During the 12-months' period ending on 4 June 1945 over 460 photo reconnaissance pilots completed all their training requirements at Coffeyville, and were shipped to staging areas for processing and assignment to overseas shipments. In addition, more than 200 pilots received their instrument flying training at Coffeyville, and were shipped to Will Rogers AAF for training as photo reconnaissance pilots. There was no diminution in this indicated
rate of training during the few remaining weeks of World War II.
Inactivation.
Finally on Tuesday morning, October 2, 1945, a telegram arrived from the War Department that said, "You are authorized to announce the temporary inactivation of Coffeyville Army Air Field, Coffeyville, Kansas on or about 1 October". All training stopped. The only exception was the completion of training for several Chinese students.
Early in the post-war period Coffeyville Army Air Field was earmarked for eventual inactivation. In a temporary inactive status it was transferred to the Tactical Air Command on 21 March 1946. As soon thereafter as the necessary arrangements could be effected the Tactical Air Command transferred it to the Army's District Engineer, Seventh Service Command at Omaha, Nebraska who assumed jurisdiction over the field on 26 August 1946, pending disposition.
Some buildings were sold and moved into town as temporary housing, one even found use as a bar. Excess supplies were hauled off to other bases, with the excess aviation gas going down the road to the nearby Independence Army Airfield, at Independence, Kansas. Finally on July 21, 1947 the War Assets Administration made a formal presentation of the deed to the City of Coffeyville.
Current status.
Today, Coffeyville's airfield remains in use and is the center of a growing industrial park. Most of the World War II buildings were sold off, torn down, although unlike some former World War II training fields, several original buildings remain in use, including the sub-depot and the three original squadron hangars. Many of the original streets remain.
Two of the three runways are in-use today by Coffeyville Municipal Airport. The terminal building was constructed on the wartime parking apron, although much of the parking apron consists of deteriorating concrete pads in one form or another. The NW/SE runway and the eastern N/S runways are abandoned, with sections of concrete removed.
The airfield can be reached by driving on U.S. Route 169 north from Coffeyville.


Italian Expeditionary Corps in Russia

During World War II, the Italian Expeditionary Corps in Russia ("Corpo di Spedizione Italiano in Russia", or CSIR) was a corps-sized expeditionary unit of the "Regio Esercito" (Italian Army) that fought on the Eastern Front. In July 1942 the CSIR entered the newly formed Italian Army in Russia as XXXV Army Corps.
Formation.
The CSIR was formed in an attempt to provide a somewhat mobile unit to fight on a front where mobility was key. Two of the divisions were truck-moveable and one was a (fast) division, drawn from the reserve Army of the Po but this was more on paper than in reality. The CSIR was created by Italian dictator Benito Mussolini to show solidarity with Nazi Germany after German dictator Adolf Hitler launched Operation Barbarossa and attacked the Soviet Union. Mussolini created the CSIR, despite the lack of enthusiasm shown by Hitler, on 10 July 1941 and between July and August 1941, the units of the CSIR arrived in southern Russia. The CSIR included an Aviation Command () with a limited number of fighters, bombers and transport aircraft. This command was part of the "Regia Aeronautica" (Italian Royal Air Force) and was also known as the Expeditionary Air Corps in Russia ().
The CSIR was initially subordinated to the German 11th Army (General Eugen Ritter von Schobert). On 14 August 1941, the CSIR was transferred to the control of German Panzer Group 1 (General Ewald von Kleist). On 25 October 1941, Panzer Group 1 was renamed the 1st Panzer Army. The CSIR remained under von Kleist's command until 3 June 1942 when it was subordinated to the German 17th Army (General Richard Ruoff).
Composition.
The CSIR was composed of three divisions: 3rd Fast Division "Principe Amedeo Duca d'Aosta", 9th Auto-transportable Infantry Division "Pasubio", and 52nd Auto-transportable Infantry Division "Torino". Torino and Pasubio were semi-motorised divisions, with an assortment of commercial vehicles, with company logos intact, pressed into service. The Prince Amedeo Duke of Aosta Division was a combination of traditional saber wielding horse cavalry and motorized units, with much of the division's artillery horse-drawn. The highly-mobile riflemen () in this unit made use of motorcycles or bicycles.
The initial strength of the CSIR stood at about 3,000 officers and 59,000 men, 5,500 motor vehicles, 220 artillery pieces, 92 anti-tank guns, 83 aeroplanes and 4,600 horses and mules. The units of the CSIR were primarily lightly armed infantry, horse cavalry and mobile riflemen. The Torino and Pasubio divisions were each composed of two infantry regiments and a regiment of artillery. The Prince Amedeo Duke of Aosta Fast Division was composed of four regiments, the Regiment "Savoia Cavalleria" (3rd), Regiment "Lancieri di Novara" (5th), the 3rd Fast Artillery Regiment and the 3rd Bersaglieri Regiment. The units of the CSIR were a mixed bag and were transported by truck, horse, car, motorcycle, bicycle or as was the case all too often, on foot. While the Amedeo Duke of Aosta Division did include 60 obsolete tankettes and light tanks (Fiat L3 or Fiat L6/40), mostly in its one tank battalion, as well as anti-tank guns (Cannone da 47/32 M35), there was nothing in the Italian arsenal able to counter the numerous and technically superior Soviet tanks like the T-34/76 or KV I.
The Aviation Command of the CSIR had less than 100 Macchi C.200 "Saetta" (Lightning) fighters, Caproni Ca.311 light reconnaissance-bombers and Savoia-Marchetti SM.81 "Pipistrello" (Bat) tri-motor transports. The CSIR included the Special Intendancy East () which provided medical, commissariat, administration, artillery, chemical, horse and veterinary, transport, automotive, staging, mail and telegraphic services.
Commanders.
The CSIR's original commander was General Francesco Zingales. He fell ill in Vienna during the early stages of transport to Russia and on 14 July 1941, was replaced by General Giovanni Messe. Messe was never satisfied with the equipment and support available to the CSIR and pointed out the lack of adequate winter equipment.
Operations.
The CSIR was sent to the southern sector of the German advance in the Ukraine in July 1941. In August, as part of the German 11th Army, the CSIR made its first contact with the Red Army. The CSIR pursued retreating Soviet troops between the Bug River and Dniestr River. While the 11th Army conducted the Siege of Odessa, the CSIR was attached to Panzer Group 1. In its early encounters the CSIR was successful, taking a number of towns and cities and creating a favourable impression on its German allies. Its most notable early victory came at the Battle of Petrikowka in September 1941, where the Italians encircled some sizeable Red Army units, inflicting unknown casualties on them and capturing over 10,000 prisoners of war as well as significant numbers of weapons and horses. This cost 291 Italian casualties, 87 killed, 190 wounded and 14 missing. On October 20, the CSIR and the German XLIXth Mountain Corps captured the big industrial city of Stalino (now Donetsk) after determined resistance from the Soviet defenders. Units from the Pasubio Motorized Division captured the neighboring city of Gorlovka on November 2. While the CSIR did not participate in the siege of Odessa, Italian troops assisted in the occupation of the Odessa area after the city fell on 16 October 1941.
With the onset of winter, the CSIR units began consolidating their occupation zone and preparing defensive works. In the last week of December, the 3rd Mobile Division was counter-attacked by Soviet forces and managed to repel the attacks long enough for the 1st Panzer Army to reinforce the sector and defeat the Soviet attack. The "Christmas Battle" was hailed as a great victory in Italy, though the division likely would have fallen without German support. It subsequently weathered the 1941–1942 winter quite well in its relatively quiet occupation zone.
Italian Army in the Soviet Union.
In July 1942, the CSIR was incorporated into the far larger Italian Army in Russia (ARMIR, ) when Mussolini decided to expand the Italian presence in the Soviet Union. The three divisions of the CSIR all became part of the ARMIR XXXV Army Corps.


Aleutian World War II National Historic Area

The Aleutian World War II National Historic Area is a U.S. National Historic Site on Amaknak Island in the Aleutian Island Chain of Alaska. It offers visitors a glimpse of both natural and cultural history, and traces the historic footprints of the U.S. Army Base, Fort Schwatka, located at the Ulakta Head on Mount Ballyhoo. The fort, 800 miles west of Anchorage, the nearest large urban center, was one of four coastal defense posts built to protect Dutch Harbor (crucial back door to the United States) during World War II; Fort Schwatka is also the highest coastal battery ever constructed in the United States. The other Army coastal defense facilities were Fort Mears, Fort Learnard, and Fort Brumback. Engineers designed the concrete observation posts and command stations to withstand earthquakes and 100 mph winds. Although today, many of the bunkers and wooden structures of Fort Schwatka have collapsed, the gun mounts and lookouts are among the most intact in the country.
In 1996, the United States Congress designated this a National Historic Area as a way of educating future generations both about the history of the Aleut people, and the role the Aleutian Islands played in the defense of the United States in World War II. It is owned and operated by the Ounalashka Corporation but as an affiliated area of the National Park Service receives funding and technical assistance for development and preservation.
History and culture of the Aleut people.
The Unangan or Aleut people (as they came to be called) were once quite plentiful in their native corner of Alaska. But within 45 years after Russian contact, their number plummeted to a mere few thousand—the population had become decimated by warfare, epidemics, starvation and the exploitation of Russian fur traders. The Russian monarchy attempted to enforce fair treatment, but it was not until the arrival of the Russian Orthodox Church in the 1800s (decade) that the Aleuts' rights were argued in Russian courts.
The Russian Orthodox Church did much to alleviate the ills of colonization. Churches became the most prominent village structure and the focus of community life. Aleuts served as lay readers. They formed choirs, practicing the Orthodox liturgy in their own Aleut tongue. The Church became a sanctuary, its icons representing a spiritual dimension transcending the often harsh realities of life. The Russian Orthodox faith remains a dominant force in modern Aleut culture. The present day Church of the Holy Ascension of Christ, built in 1895, is a National Historic Landmark. In 1996, the World Monuments Watch—a highly selective listing that includes India's Taj Mahal—designated the church's 250 religious icons one of the world's 100 most endangered sites.
After the purchase of Alaska by the United States in 1867, the Aleut found themselves classified as "Indians" and made wards of the government. Some Aleut worked fox and sheep farms for wages, others became construction workers or longshoremen, but almost all still looked to the sea for sustenance. The Aleuts' hardships lasted for over two centuries, culminating finally in the forced evacuation from their homeland during World War II. This was when the unique geography of the Aleutian Islands—the link between east and west—again played a pivotal role in the area's history.
World War II.
At the outbreak of World War II, the Imperial Japanese Naval Base of Paramushiro lay only 650 miles southwest of Attu Island, the westernmost island in the Aleutian chain. Both the Attuans and the Aleutian Islanders in general were wary of their proximity to this Japanese installation. "Some day they (will) come to Attu," predicted Attuan Michael Hodikoff. On June 7, 1942, Japanese forces invaded the United States by attacking and occupying this small island along with Kiska as part of the Aleutian Islands Campaign, initially a diversion for the Battle of Midway. This changed forever not only the lives of the 42 Attuan villagers taken as prisoners-of-war, but the Aleut people as a whole.
In response to this Japanese aggression, U.S. authorities evacuated 881 Aleuts from nine villages. They were herded from their homes onto cramped transport ships, most allowed only a single suitcase. Heartbroken, Atka villagers watched as U.S. servicemen set their homes and church afire so they would not fall into Japanese hands.
The Aleuts were transported to Southeast Alaska and crowded into "duration villages." Conditions were harsh as there was no plumbing, electricity or winter clothes. Camp food was poor and the water was tainted. Medical care was inadequate, and pneumonia and tuberculosis were rampant.
In mid-1942 through mid-1943 Dutch Harbor was a submarine base, allowing short-ranged S-boats to patrol in Japanese home waters. By mid-1943 many more long-range submarines (such as the "Gato"-class) were built. These were based elsewhere, and the S-boats were withdrawn for use as training submarines.


Battle of Badung Strait

The Battle of Badung Strait was a naval battle of the Pacific campaign of World War II, fought on the night of 19/20 February 1942 in Badung Strait (not to be confused with the West Java city of Bandung) between the American-British-Dutch-Australian Command (ABDA) and the Imperial Japanese Navy. In the engagement, the four Japanese destroyers defeated an Allied force that outnumbered and outgunned them, sinking the Dutch destroyer and escorting two transports to safety. The battle demonstrated the Japanese Navy's considerable superiority over the Allies in night fighting which lasted until the Battle of Cape St. George.
Background.
A battalion of the 48th Infantry Division of the Imperial Japanese Army landed on Bali on 18 February 1942. Dutch Admiral Karel Doorman's naval forces were scattered around Indonesia, but the invasion of Bali could not be ignored – it would give the Japanese an airbase within range of the ABDA naval base at Surabaya – so he sent in all available ships. The short notice gave no time to concentrate his ships; accordingly, several Allied forces were to attack the Japanese.
Battle.
The first Allied vessels to engage were the submarines and . Both attacked the Japanese convoy on 18 February, but did no damage and were driven off by depth charges from Japanese destroyers. Later that day, 20 planes of the United States Army Air Forces attacked the convoy but succeeded only in damaging the transport "Sagami Maru".
The Japanese were aware that their invasion convoy was likely to be attacked again, so they retreated north as soon as possible. The cruiser and the destroyers , and were well away and took no part in the action. The last ships to leave were the two modes of transport, each escorted by two destroyers. "Sasago Maru" was escorted by and ; the heavily damaged "Sagami Maru" was escorted by and .
The first Allied group—consisting of the cruisers and and the destroyers , , and —sighted the Japanese in Badung Strait at about 22:00 and opened fire at 22:25 on 19 February. No damage was done in this exchange of fire, and the two Dutch cruisers continued through the strait to the northeast, to give the destroyers a free hand to engage with torpedoes. Then "Piet Hein", "Pope" and "John D. Ford" came into range. At 22:40, a Long Lance torpedo from "Asashio" hit "Piet Hein", sinking the Dutch destroyer immediately. "Asashio" and "Oshio" then exchanged gunfire with "Pope" and "John D. Ford", forcing the two American destroyers to retire to the southeast instead of following the cruisers to the northeast.
In the darkness, "Asashio" and "Oshio" mistook each other for enemy ships and fired on each other for several minutes, without any damage.
About three hours later, the second group of ABDA ships—the cruiser and the destroyers , , , and —reached Badung Strait. At 01:36, "Stewart", "Pillsbury" and "Parrott" launched torpedoes but did no damage. Then "Oshio" and "Asashio" sortied again and there was another exchange of gunfire. "Tromp" was hit by eleven shells from "Asashio", severely damaging her and hit both Japanese destroyers, killing four men on "Asashio" and seven on "Oshio". "Tromp" later had to return to Australia for repairs.
"Arashio" and "Michishio" had been ordered by Admiral Kubo to turn back, and at about 02:20 they joined the battle. "Michishio" was hit by shells from "Pillsbury", "John D. Edwards" and "Tromp", killing 13 of her crew and wounding 83. She lost speed and had to be towed after the battle. During these exchanges, "Stewart" was also damaged topside and one shell hit opened seams below the waterline aft and flooded the steering engine room. Both groups of ships turned away, and the engagement was over.
Aftermath.
The third ABDA group—seven torpedo boats—arrived in Badung Strait at about 06:00 but did not encounter any Japanese ships. The battle was a significant victory for the Japanese. Lieutenant Commander Gorō Yoshii of "Asashio" and Commander Kiyoshi Kikkawa of "Oshio" had shown great bravery and skill. They had driven off a much larger Allied force, sunk the destroyer "Piet Hein", damaged the destroyer "Stewart" and severely damaged the cruiser "Tromp". Meanwhile, the Japanese had sustained little damage themselves, and had protected their transport ships.
Bali's garrison of 600 Indonesian militia offered no resistance to the Japanese, and its airfield was captured intact. The Japanese continued their conquest of the Dutch East Indies with the capture of Timor from 20–23 February. The ABDA forces engaged at Badung Strait were decisively defeated in the Battle of the Java Sea on 1 March 1942, in which the Dutch cruisers "Java" and "De Ruyter" were sunk and Admiral Doorman was killed. "Tromp" evaded this fate, for she was withdrawn to Australia to repair damage suffered at Badung Strait. The US destroyer "Stewart" was sufficiently damaged that she had to be placed in dry-dock for repairs in Soerabaia, where she was scuttled to avoid capture by the rapidly advancing Japanese. She was raised, repaired and put into Japanese service a year later as the patrol vessel "P-102".


504th Bombardment Group

The 504th Bombardment Group (504th BG) was a World War II United States Army Air Forces combat organization.
The unit served primarily in the Pacific Ocean theater of World War II as part of Twentieth Air Force. The 504th Bomb Group's aircraft engaged in B-29 Superfortress bombardment operations against Japan. Its aircraft were identified by a "E" inside a Circle painted on the tail.
The 504th Bombardment Group flew the last combat mission by the United States Army Air Forces of World War II, its last combat mission being on 15 August 1945. It was inactivated on 15 June 1946.
History.
The unit was established in early 1944 at Dalhart Army Air Field, Texas, being formed as a Boeing B-29 Superfortress very heavy bombardment group. The unit was initially formed with four bomb squadrons (393d, 398th, 421st, and 507th Bombardment Squadrons), being a mixture of both newly constituted and reassigned units. The 398th was formerly a III Bomber Command North American B-25 Mitchell medium bomber Operational Training Unit in the southeastern United States, being formed in 1942. It later became a Martin B-26 Marauder Replacement Training Unit until being inactivated in October 1943.
Due to a shortage of B-29s, the group was initially equipped with II Bomber Command Boeing B-17 Flying Fortresses previously used for training heavy bomber replacement personnel. The unit was then reassigned for advanced training and received B-29s at Fairmont Army Air Field, Nebraska during the late spring and summer of 1944.
In May, B-29 groups were reorganized to have three, rather than four squadrons, and the 507th Squadron was inactivated, with its personnel being consolidated into other group squadrons (the 507th would be reactivated a month later as part of the 333d Bombardment Group). In November, the 393d Bombardment Squadron was reassigned to the 509th Composite Group at Wendover Field, Utah, leaving the 504th to be a two squadron group. The 393d became the 509th's only operational B-29 squadron. The 393d would eventually become the only military unit in history to engage in nuclear warfare, dropping Atomic Bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Japan, in August 1945.
As a two squadron group, the 504th was deployed to Pacific Theater of Operations in late 1944, being assigned to the XXI Bomber Command 313th Bombardment Wing in the Northern Mariana Islands; being stationed at North Field, Tinian. The group began combat operations from Tinian in January 1945 with attacks on Japanese airfields and other installations on Maug and Iwo Jima and in the Truk Islands. Flew its first mission against the Japanese home islands early in February 1945 when the group bombed the industrial area of Kobe. Continued to attack strategic targets in Japan, operating in daylight and at high altitude to bomb such objectives as aircraft factories, chemical plants, harbors, and arsenals. Switched to night incendiary raids attacking major Japanese cities in the spring of 1945, causing massive destruction of urbanized areas.
Received a Distinguished Unit Citation (DUC) for striking the industrial center at Yokohama late in May 1945. Began incendiary raids in March 1945, flying at night and at low altitude to strike area targets in Japan. Started mining operations against enemy shipping late in Mar, receiving a second DUC for mining Korean shipping lanes, the Shimonoseki Strait, and harbors of the Inland Sea, July–August 1945. In April and May 1945 the group hit airfields from which the Japanese launched kamikaze planes against the invasion force during the assault on Okinawa. During mid June 1945 the 680th Bomb Squadron was attached to the 504th bomb group to bring the group up to full strength with 3 squadrons. The group continued strategic bombing raids and incendiary attacks until the Japanese Capitulation in August 1945.
After V-J Day, the 504th dropped supplies to Allied prisoners, participated in show-of-force missions, and flew over Japan to evaluate bombardment damage. In the fall of 1945, the group largely demobilized as part of the "Sunset Project", with some aircraft being sent reclamation on Tinian; others being returned to the United States for storage at aircraft depots in the southwest. By Christmas, the group fleet was reduced to 30 or less planes Many of the remaining veterans signed for "any conditions of travel" to get home, arriving three weeks later in Oakland, California, where troop trains scattered them for points of discharge close to their homes.
The unit was largely a paper organization when it was reassigned to Clark Field in the Philippines in March 1946, and assigned to Thirteenth Air Force. At Clark its remaining aircraft and personnel were consolidated into other units, and it was inactivated in June.


Battle of Mairy

The Battle of Mairy started on the evening of 7 September, and ended on the morning of 8 September 1944. The centre of the battle was around the French village of Mairy-Mainville, although other fighting, some of it significant, took place in and around other French towns in the vicinity, including Avril, Mont Bonvilliers, Landres, and Mercy. The battle took place in the European Theatre of Operations during World War II, and was fought between the German Panzer Brigade 106 and the US 90th Infantry Division. The battle was a victory for the United States, and the attack of Panzer Brigade 106 resulted in the near destruction of this armoured formation, effectively removing its power, and severely reducing the capabilities of the four Panzer Brigades, of which 106 was one, for the up-coming Lorraine counter-offensive.


Battle of Zeeland

The Battle of Zeeland occurred on the Western Front during the early stages of the German assault on France and the Low Countries during World War II. Several Dutch and French units attempted to hold off the German onslaught by making a determined defense of the Dutch province of Zeeland. The battle lasted eight days and was a defeat for the French and Dutch forces defending the province.
Defenses and troops in the province.
The province of Zeeland had received little attention from the Dutch government prior to the German invasion of the Low Countries in May 1940. On 10 May, the Germans launched their attack.
In an attempt to raise morale amongst the Allies and to stem the tide of the German onslaught, several Dutch battalions—most notably the 14th Border Infantry Battalion—rapidly constructed defensive lines in Zeeland. The first—the Bathline (named after the nearby medieval fortress of Bath)—was little more than a tank barrier, slightly reinforced with 12 concrete casements. The second—and more defensible line—was the Zanddijkline, approximately west of the Bathline. This position was actually two lines, (a frontline and a stopline). It was defended by just two infantry battalions, the 3rd Battalion of the 38th Infantry Regiment and the 1st Battalion of the 40th Infantry Regiment, supported by limited and obsolete AA guns, a number of mortars and some light field artillery.
10 May.
On the first day, neither sides' troops engaged each other. The Germans were awaiting reinforcements from other sectors of their occupied territory, the Dutch were improving their defenses and waiting for the arrival of a contingent of French troops. The only action that occurred was the repeated strafing of the Dutch positions by German planes.
11 May.
Early on the morning of 11 May, the first companies of the French detachment began to arrive. The French force consisted of five infantry regiments, (loosely compiled into the 68th Infantry Division), and three Reconnaissance Groups (the 59th, 60th, and 68th).
In the early afternoon, two French mail-boats ("Rouen" and "Cote d'Argent")—escorted by the French ships ("Cyclone" and "Sirocco") and the British destroyers and —arrived at Vlissingen. They were attacked by German bombers, but the aircraft were quickly driven away by AA guns. Another convoy arrived, and German aircraft attacked again, but were once more driven off although they did shoot down one French fighter.
Throughout the day, British Hurricanes had been seen over the province. They engaged the "Luftwaffe" many times, shooting down three German planes, losing six of their own in the process. German planes dropped a series of bombs on the junction of the Bathline and the Kreekrakdam. Both the road and the railroad were seriously damaged. Two of the army barracks were destroyed, and the local waterworks and telephone lines were temporarily disabled. Dutch soldiers soon repaired the damage.
During the day, the Dutch army in the south, which was in retreat after their defenses at the Peel-Raamline had been broken, reestablished their positions in the area of Bergen op Zoom.
12 May.
The port of Vlissingen was again targeted by the Germans in the early morning. As before, the bombers operated in so-called "Ketten", (a formation of three aircraft). Witnesses spoke of at least twenty bombers in many waves, so it was likely that at least two squadrons operated over Vlissingen during this raid, possibly three. The Allied ships in the port immediately opened fire on the German aircraft, as did Dutch and French AA guns. French aircraft began to get into the air. Four ships were sunk by direct hits. Much of the harbor and infrastructure was hit by bombs. Cranes, offloading systems, storage buildings and the office of the local ferry line were destroyed or damaged. The railroad station was hit several times. Most houses in the harbor quarter did not have any windows left intact and torn-off roof tiles were all over the place. Other houses and a church well away from the harbor were destroyed or badly damaged. Five civilians were killed during the raid.
The Dutch troops at the Bathline witnessed an ever-growing flood of retreating Dutch soldiers that had once been the defending forces in the eastern part of North Brabant. The French supreme command had meanwhile realised that the operational plan for the 7th Army could not be executed as envisaged. The German advance through North Brabant prevented the French from forming a firm and well prepared screen around Antwerp, on Dutch soil. Moreover, the Belgian first defense line along the Albert Canal had also given in under the pressure of two tank divisions and overwhelming air assaults. The Belgian army would soon retreat to the Dyle-line.
13 May.
In the southwest, the Germans had almost reached Zeeland. In the Bathline, which was the closest to North Brabant, the fourth day introduced the men to the rumbling sound of the ground war. The sound of German heavy artillery that would eventually reach Moerdijk caused the men of the Bathline to realize that their future opponents were closing in on their position. Frequent patrols were carried out; there was rising tension in the lines. A squad of railroad troops was given orders to destroy the track that crossed the Bathline. These were the same men that had worked to repair this same stretch of line after German bombs had damaged it a few days before.
German fighters attacked the Dutch airbase at Vlissingen, but an even bigger threat revealed itself. In the course of the day, panic broke out amongst the men when a rumor spread that German troops had reached the island and were heading for Vlissingen. People suddenly saw light signals from houses and secret marks were read from laundry that was waving on drying-lines. It wasn't until the evening that these rumors lost their effect.
The "Luftwaffe" was less active on the 13th over Zeeland. This was mostly due to the fact that many squadrons were assigned to the fierce battle that was raging around the island of Dordrecht. The bombers that had been active over Zeeland, were now raiding Dutch artillery and infantry positions in the south-front of "Fortress Holland". Direct support was also given to the tanks of the 9th Tank Division that were engaged on Dordrecht island.
During this time, the morale of the troops—particularly the Dutch—had begun to drop. More and more Dutch troops were retreating from the east, and Queen Wilhelmina had fled to Britain (although she did it unwillingly).
14 May.
At Bergen op Zoom, units of the 12th were surrounded by two companies of a SS battalion. The French retreated from Woensdrecht, sealing the fate of their comrades at Bergen op Zoom. They left many tanks and supplies behind.
A Dutch force of about 200 men had taken control of the forest south of Bergen op Zoom, however they were forced to retreat when the French troops in the surrounding area were ordered to fall back. The French launched a counter-attack at Huijbergen. They had armoured cars and Hotchkiss H35 light tanks available, but lost five Panhard 178 armoured cars and 200 men as prisoners. The Germans pushed on, taking hundreds more French and Dutch prisoners.
The occupants of the casement did not join the almost general retreat of the infantry. They stayed in their concrete and steel posts and it was due to their efforts that the Bathline did not fall immediately. When German patrols probed the line, they were met by fierce machine gun fire from the Dutch strongholds and this was enough to deny the SS men any further access to the line. During the evening, the German artillery fire gradually decreased in intensity and it eventually stopped. With the exception of a few sections in the central sector and the casement-crews, the Bathline had been deserted.
The Dutch army laid down their arms at 19:00, except for the armed forces on Zeeland. The formal capitulation agreement was signed the next day.
15 May.
In the late evening of the 14th, the Germans prepared a battle-plan for an assault against the remaining occupied sections of the Bathline. They planned to first send in a negotiator. A message was dictated in which the Germans demanded immediate and unconditional surrender of the line, or else the Germans would unleash an unprecedented assault. The threat was more of an attempt to trick the defenders, since the Germans did not have the resources for such a massive assault. The Dutch had withdrawn from the line during the night.
Early in the morning the men of the SS Deutschland Regiment cautiously approached the Bathline; when they found the trenches and fox-holes empty, they hurried through. A few Dutch defenders—who had not become aware of the retreat—were taken prisoner.
The Zanddijkline was the main defense line of the capital islands of Zeeland. Three casements at the sluice-complex in the south, and two casements on each side of the railroad bed were the only concrete positions. The balance of the line was formed by earth and timber reinforced constructions and trenches. Some minefields had been laid at certain strategic locations along the approaches.
The Germans soon began their assault on the Zanddijkline. As they approached, they came under Dutch machine gun fire. This resulted in many men diving down a slope and landing in the minefields that had been prepared just days before. Numerous detonations killed about 16 SS men. Pioneers were called forward and under cover of German machine guns they cleared the area of mines. After this hold-up, the signal to reassume the assault was given. Some four German batteries started pounding the Dutch line, especially around both sides of the Tholseindsedijk.
The Germans once again attacked the line, this time with air support. The Dutch naval artillery continued shelling their perimeter, forcing the Germans to keep their noses to the ground until the artillery gradually decreased its fire. It was enough time for the Dutch to evacuate their troops in the northern sector and cross the bridge over the Postbrug canal.
The only sector of the Zanddijkline that was not evacuated right away was the southern part. Here, the remaining battalion was spared the attention of the "Luftwaffe". However, within a few hours they were forced to retreat as well.
Tholen.
Tholen, a natural island, formerly part of the North Brabant territory, was separated from the mainland by the Eendracht, a shallow and muddy natural waterway. The "de facto" capital on the island was a small town, also named Tholen, which had the only connection with the North Brabant mainland. The entire occupation of the island—which needed a little more than two companies—was concentrated along the Eendracht.
During the day, a German patrol approached, but was quickly driven off by Dutch machine-gun fire. As a result, a German negotiator came out and demanded the surrender of the island; the Dutch commander refused. Soon afterward, German field artillery and mortars opened fire on the defenders. Other than a direct hit on a gas storage tank, little damage was inflicted by the German guns. The German infantry began to advance. The Dutch let them approach until they were close to a road-barrier; then mortars and machine guns opened fire, devastating the attackers. The Germans suffered heavy casualties, some men jumped into near-by pools of water to escape the shooting. The Germans were forced to retreat. Their reports spoke of 20 men KIA. The Dutch defenders suffered two losses.
After realizing that they could not hold their positions much longer, the Dutch retreated further onto the island during the night.
16 May.
The SS units had halted at the canal through Zuid-Beveland after they had crossed the two defense-lines on the 15th. During the night, soldiers on rafts were able to cross the canal. The two French battalions that defended the canal—no more than 1,250 men—were forced to defend a front of . The canal had a width of , and as such, it formed a considerable obstacle for any attacker. Since all the bridges had been destroyed, an assault crossing had to be executed by making use of rafts or boats. The "Luftwaffe" continued its morale-sapping presence, forcing considerable numbers of French soldiers to flee their positions along the canal. The French defenders had requested fire-missions against the sectors where the Germans deployed. The French feared the lack of precision of their own artillery, many company commanders ordered their units a few hundred meters back from their positions along the canal.
Soon afterward, the entire French occupation of the canal defensive area in the northern sector gave way, resulting in a desperate dash for safety. At one location close to the Postbrug, a squad of French colonial soldiers held out, but a storm-troop was quickly organized and this position was soon abandoned. Meanwhile, the Germans had managed to repair the northernmost river crossing. Some light armored cars and motorcycles were able to cross at this point and these units chased after the fleeing French. These motorized units reached the Sloedam early in the evening, but avoided contact.
The majority of Dutch units around Goes had managed to cross the Sloedam or had taken the ferry to Noord-Beveland before the evening, many French units had been cut off. The "Luftwaffe" had driven off all Allied planes in the region, giving them free rein over the retreating defenders.
Tholen.
In the morning, the Germans again sent a negotiator to try to convince the Dutch to surrender. And again the Dutch rejected the offer. Two hours later, German artillery opened fire on the Dutch positions. During the barrage, a Dutch battalion commander contacted the TC in Middelburg and asked for instructions. Henrik Van der Stad—the Dutch commander—complimented him on the resistance his forces had shown the previous day and stated that the troops were to be allowed to evacuate the island and reinforce the island of Schouwen-Duiveland.
Later that day, Schouwen-Duiveland was assaulted by the Germans. The Dutch commander, as soon as his troops were attacked, gave orders to retreat, leaving the entire coastline open to the Germans.
17 May.
The Sloedam was a strategic point on Walcheren island. Some mud flats on both sides of the 'dam' made it possible for light infantry to cross the Sloe, but it was a tricky business, some parts were very swampy and one could easily sink and drown.
The French had considered sending more troops to Walcheren, but they did not. The defense of the Sloedam was considered to be the last bit of useful resistance. Should that position fall, a general retreat of the French troops would become inevitable. Since the objective of safeguarding Antwerp and the Scheld canal had not been achieved, the battles that continued at Zuid-Beveland and Walcheren had only one objective; to cover the north flank of the French forces north of Antwerp.
Early that morning, the Germans opened fire with their medium and heavy howitzers, which were all positioned near Lewedorp. The French artillery and the joint Allied navy units replied with a heavy barrage on the first German troops. The assault stalled immediately and for the first time in the Zeeland campaign the Germans faltered and withdrew, leaving a considerable number of dead and wounded behind. The Dutch offered their assistance, but the French Commander declined the offer. The Germans then launched a massive assault onto the French defenses, by the end of the day Walcheren lay open to the SS.
The Germans then turned their attention on Vlissingen. They began to advance toward the city, they did not meet any resistance until they were at the outskirts. Many Dutch and French troops began to evacuate; however, the French commander—General Deslaurens—gathered the remaining troops and set up defensive positions. They were soon pushed back, and Deslaurens was killed. He would be the only general to die on Dutch soil in May 1940. During the night, the last pockets of resistance were cleared by the Germans. Here and there Dutch and French troops put up a brief fight, but before morning all resistance had faded away. The remaining troops on Walcheren—mostly Dutch—had surrendered.
Bombing of Middelburg.
On 17 May, the Germans launched a massive raid on Middelburg, which would only to be surpassed for severity by the Rotterdam Blitz. Nearly 600 buildings were destroyed by the bombing and resulting fire. 800 people were made homeless.
The Dutch press—one of the first official sources that had been "Nazified"—reported the devastation of Middelburg later that month and in early June. The massive fires in the town would continue to grow until the evening of 18 May, when about 500 fire-fighters and volunteers, managed to control the fires and prevent further destruction. The last of the fires were not extinguished until some 40 days after the raid.
Surrender.
By late afternoon on 17 May, it was clear that the Germans had conquered the whole of Zeeland apart from Zeelandic Flanders. The battle around the Sloedam was still raging, but Dutch units in western Walcheren were inquiring at the Dutch staff office whether or not capitulation was feasible. When many local commanders failed to reach the staff, which was indeed hard to do, especially due to the ongoing bombardment of Middelburg, local capitulation initiatives soon developed.
Van der Stad was repeatedly queried by his officers and the mayor of Middelburg about when the capitulation of Walcheren would be offered to the Germans. He made it perfectly clear that this could never be the case as long as French troops were still fighting the Germans.
Late in the evening, a radio transmission was broadcast stating that Dutch forces in Walcheren and Zuid-Beveland would surrender. Half an hour later, Lieutenant-Colonel Karel himself went to the road east of Middelburg along which German troops were heading southward. He was transported to a hotel near Vlissingen, close to the sluices, where he officially informed "SS-Standartenführer" Steiner—commander of the SS Regiment—of the capitulation of the Dutch forces on Walcheren and Zuid-Beveland.
Noord-Beveland was officially not part of the armistice, but on the morning of the 18th a German officer was sent over under a flag of truce, he brought the news of the Dutch surrender elsewhere. Upon this news the Dutch forces—isolated from all the rest—surrendered as well.
Aftermath.
The Dutch Navy.
The majority of the Dutch naval forces had been evacuated by the 14th. The few ships that remained were either captured, or sailed to Britain. The ships that reached Britain would later go on to defend the Dutch East Indies after that colony was invaded by the Japanese.
Casualties.
The Dutch lost 38 men, five of whom were officers. Their French allies fared the worst, with 229 killed in action. Their German opponents suffered 97 dead. British losses over Zeeland are unknown.


SS President Hoover

SS "President Hoover" was an ocean liner built for the Dollar Steamship Lines. She was completed in 1930 and provided a trans-Pacific service between the US and the Far East. In 1937 she ran aground on an island off Formosa (now known as Taiwan) during a typhoon and was declared a total loss. She had a sister ship, , that was completed in 1931, was made a troopship in 1941 and was lost after striking a mine while attempting to enter the harbor at Espiritu Santo in 1942.
Building.
Dollar Lines ordered both the "President Hoover" and "President Coolidge" on 26 October 1929. The Newport News Shipbuilding and Drydock Company of Newport News, Virginia, USA built the two ships, completing the "Hoover" in 1930 and "Coolidge" in 1931. They were the largest merchant ships built in the USA up to that time. First Lady Lou Henry Hoover launched and christened "President Hoover" on December 9, 1930.
Each ship had turbo-electric transmission, with a pair of steam turbo generators generating current that powered propulsion motors on the twin propeller shafts. Westinghouse built the turbo generators and propulsion motors for "President Coolidge" but General Electric built the turbo generators and propulsion motors for "President Hoover". 12 oil-fired Babcock & Wilcox high-pressure boilers supplied the steam for "President Hoover"s turbo-generators. The electric propulsion motors produced 26,500 shp at 133 RPM.
"President Hoover"s accommodation was air conditioned and there was a 'phone in every cabin. There were swimming pools on deck, gymnasiums, a dance floor and Otis elevators. Décor was in contemporary Art Deco style and the First Class lounge was decorated with murals by the artist Frank Bergman of New York.
Robert Dollar had bought his first ship in 1895, founded Dollar Lines in 1903 and was now 87 years old. On August 6, 1931, three days before "President Hoover" was launched, he toured her and declared "This ship is a wonder". Dollar lived until May 1932, just a few months after "President Hoover" and "President Coolidge" made their maiden voyages.
Trans-Pacific service.
"President Hoover" and "President Coolidge" ran between San Francisco and Manila "via" Japan and China. The United States Postal Service subsidised them to carry mail, which helped Dollar to run the two ships at a profit.
However, the Japanese invasion of Manchuria in 1931–32, the Japanese attack on the Great Wall in 1933 and the Japanese invasion of China starting in July 1937 all deterred US travel to the Far East, and Dollar Lines became increasingly unprofitable.
Bombed in the Yangtze River.
After the Battle of Shanghai had broken out in August 1937, "President Hoover" was diverted from Hong Kong to evacuate US nationals from Shanghai. On 30 August the liner was moored in the Yangtze River, awaiting clearance to enter the Wusong River to reach the Port of Shanghai when, despite a -long US flag draped on her top deck abaft the bridge to identify her to aircraft as a neutral US ship, the Republic of China Air Force mistook her for the Japanese troopship "Asama Maru" and bombed her.
One bomb hit "President Hoover"s top deck, killing a crewman from the mess hall. Fragments from another bomb penetrated the main saloon, wounding six crew and two passengers. One of "President Hoover"s radio officers transmitted a distress call stating that Chinese aircraft were attacking her. Both an IJN destroyer and a Royal Navy cruiser came in response, but in the event only medical help was needed. Despite her casualties "President Hoover" sustained only minor damage, but she aborted the rescue mission to Shanghai and returned to San Francisco for repairs.
Chiang Kai-shek, leader of China's National Military Commission, had known Robert Dollar and was reportedly furious that his aircraft had attacked his late friend's ship. He threatened to have the officer responsible executed until he found that it was his chief air force advisor Claire Lee Chennault. Chiang's wife Soong Mei-ling had hired Chennault only two months previously, and the Generalissimo relented and instead paid the Texan a $10,000 bonus soon afterwards.
Aground on Kasho-to.
After repairs "President Hoover" returned to service, departing from San Francisco on 22 November 1937 for Kobe and Manila. She was barely more than half-full, with only 503 passengers. During the voyage the Dollar Lines management signaled "President Hoover"s Master, George W Yardley, "You must be in Manila, absolutely urgent that you arrive not later than 6 a.m. 12th December, make all possible speed".
"President Hoover"s course from Kobe to Manila avoided Hong Kong, Shanghai and the Taiwan Strait in order to keep clear of the Sino-Japanese War zone. Instead "President Hoover" took an unfamiliar course down the east coast of Taiwan, which since 1895 had been . The Japanese colonial authorities had turned off the lighthouses in Taiwan so "Hoover" navigated by dead reckoning. A strong monsoon blowing from the northeast made it difficult to calculate her course accurately, and a heavy mist made visibility extremely poor.
At about 0100 hrs on 11 December (local date) "President Hoover" struck a reef about from the shore of Zhongliao Bay on the north coast of Kasho-to (綠島), a volcanic island about off Taitung City in south-eastern Taiwan. Her bottom was torn open as far aft as her engine room and she came to rest with a slight list to port. At about 0200 hrs "President Hoover" fired distress flares and her radio officer sent an SOS signal. The Hamburg America Line cargo ship D/S "Preußen" received the SOS and arrived around dawn, but the heavy sea and shallow water prevented her from approaching close enough to help.
Captain Yardley tried at first to refloat the ship by having the crew jettison cargo and bunker oil overboard. Thick black fuel oil spread over the sea and onto the beach, either deliberately discharged or through the reef damaging the ship's bunkers. But as the monsoon continued to blow from the northeast, and lightening "President Hoover" only helped the wind and strong waves to drive her further onto the reef until she was only from shore.
A junior member of the Purser's department, Eugene Lukes, recalled:
" ... the general alarms went off, and we were getting all the passengers out, getting everybody up on deck. It was blowing, the seas were starting to smack against the side of the ship, it was pitch black. And pretty soon we could see little bobbing lights along the shoreline, little oil lanterns so we obviously stirred up the natives. As it got lighter we could see that we had ripped out the bottom almost clear back to the engine room. There was a lot of oil, and it oiled the sea and the beach. There was no backing off, so we had to get the passengers ashore. We lowered the lifeboats with people in them."
Some of the villagers of Zhongliao fled to the mountains because at the sight of "President Hoover" close to shore, and the sound and sight of her distress flares, they feared that the Sino-Japanese fighting had reached their island. With the dawn, villagers realised what had really happened, and put to sea in motor fishing boats to help.
Abandoning the ship.
"President Hoover"s crew prepared to evacuate passengers. In order to keep boats on course between the ship and the shore in the monsoon wind, they put a wire cable ashore and tautened it with a winch aboard ship. In each boat two crewmen wearing strong gloves, one each in the bow and the stern, would slide their hands along the cable to guide boats from ship to shore. Some passengers alleged that "President Hoover"s crew were inexperienced, and that when trying to get the wire cable ashore to prepare for the evacuation they capsized two of the lifeboats in shallow water.
At low tide around 1300 hrs Yardley ordered the evacuation of the passengers. "President Hoover"s crew lowered her lifeboats, villagers approached with their boats and both ferried passengers ashore. It took about 15 minutes for a boat to make each trip along the cable from ship to shore. Because of the black oil on the water, some of the women passengers were reluctant to step from the lifeboats to wade ashore, so crewmen carried them. At about 1500 hrs the flagship of the Japanese 4th Fleet, the arrived with an unidentified to observe and protect "President Hoover". It took 36 hours from the line being secured to the last passenger being brought ashore.
No lives were lost, but some passengers suffered hypothermia in the December wind and cold and were treated by the ship's doctor. From where they landed the survivors had to walk about to Zhongliao village. There as many as possible were accommodated in the village school, with the remainder being distributed to villagers' houses.
According to "Time", while the passengers were being taken ashore a small number of the crewmen aboard "President Hoover" plundered the ship's liquor supply.
"According to Dr. Claude Conrad, a missionary official of Washington, D. C.: "A majority of the ship's crew came into camp more or less incapacitated and abusive from the effects of free indulgence in the ship's liquor stores. Out of control of officers partially in the same condition, many of the crew men continued most of the night terrorizing passengers and natives." However, when the liquored seamen began hunting for women passengers sleeping in scattered houses ashore, some officers and other passengers formed a vigilante group to protect them. There was no actual molestation. There would have been no disturbance at all ashore, said some of the passengers, if the Hoover's officers had been permitted by Japanese police to land with their guns."
Other witnesses reported that some of the passengers also got drunk.
Repatriation from Kasho-to.
The US Navy had sent two s to help: from Manila and from Olongapo Naval Station. However, in the heavy sea they made only and did not arrive until 1245 hrs the next day, 12 December. A Japanese officer from "Ashigara" boarded "Alden" and cleared the two US warships to enter Japanese territorial waters. "Alden" sent a party of two officers and 15 enlisted men aboard "President Hoover" to secure her specie vault, whose contents included registered mail and other valuables, and both destroyers sent landing parties ashore to restore order among the survivors.
On 12 December at about 1500 hrs a Japanese cargo ship, "Toriyama Maru", arrived to deliver food and other necessities to the survivors. On 13 December American Mail Line's "President McKinley" arrived offshore.
On the morning of 14 December news reached "Alden" and "Barker" that two days earlier Japanese aircraft had sunk the US gunboat USS "Panay" in the Yangtze River near Nanjing. "Alden" and "Barker" discreetly prepared racks of ammunition for their 4"/50 caliber guns, but the IJN ships continued to stand by and assist. "President McKinley" moved closer inshore and embarked about 400 of "President Hoover"s passengers and about 230 of her crew. Japanese Navy flat-bottomed boats brought them from the shore out to meet "President McKinley"s boats and a motor launch, which then ferried them out to the liner. "President McKinley" then left for Manila, leaving behind "President Hoover"s officers, steerage passengers and the last 100 of her crew on Kasho-to.
On 15 December Dollar Lines' "President Pierce" arrived and rescued "President Hoover"s steerage passengers, officers and remainder of her crew. USS "Alden" remained guarding the wreck until 23 December, when the Japanese authorities took over.
Aftermath.
Many failed attempts were made to rescue the ship. In February 1938 "President McKinley" returned, bringing Chinese laborers and Dollar Lines personnel who carried out some salvage and recovery work. Dollar Lines surveyed the ship and concluded that she would be a constructive total loss. Dollar Lines stripped what it could from the wreck and then sold her for $500,000 to the Kitagawa Ship Salvage Company,
It took the Japanese salvagers the next three years to break up the wreck. By then Dollar Steamship Lines as a company had ceased to exist. In June 1938 "President Hoover"s sister ship "President Coolidge" was arrested for an unpaid debt of $35,000, and in August 1938 the United States Maritime Commission intervened by reorganising the company as American President Lines.
Members of the US public gave money to the American Red Cross for a lighthouse to be built near Zhongliao village on Kasho-to (now called Green Island). Lyudao Lighthouse was designed by Japanese engineers, built by local islanders in 1938 and is high.


Operation Birke

Operation Birke (Operation Birch) was a German operation late in World War II in Finnish Lapland to protect access to nickel.
Background.
Finnish attempts to find an acceptable exit from the Continuation War in spring 1944 alarmed the Germans, who had sizable stores in Northern Finland. In April 1944, the Germans started a feverish effort to recon and construct defensive positions against possible advances from the south.
Plan.
The name Birke was assigned for the operation on 9 April 1944. Its primary task was to provide protection to the then vital nickel mining operations at Petsamo (now Pechenga, Russia). Orders for the operation were prepared meticulously in extreme detail. It consisted of several phases, the first of which, triggered by the code phrase ""Birke anschlagen" (mark the birch for felling), would consist of evacuation of military stores and preparation for later phases. The second phase, keyed to the code phrase "Birke fällen" (fell the birch), would consist of the actual military withdrawal to the first fortified position using a scorched earth policy. The final planned phase, keyed to the code phrase "Birke zerkleinern"" (crush the birch), would send German units towards strong positions around Rovaniemi while fighting a delaying action.
Operation.
The first phase of the operation was started on 3 September 1944 after Finns had informed the Germans of their intentions. Though the plan had called for two weeks time for evacuations before the second phase Germans pressed ahead and started the second phase of the operation already on 4 September. 20th Mountain Army managed to evacuate sizeable amount of the war material and get the withdrawal towards Norway well underway under the Operation Birke.
Results.
Since existing German stocks of nickel were deemed sufficient and new deposits had been located in Austria the importance of holding Petsamo region or Finnish Lapland decreased considerably. At the same time the logistical and military difficulties of defending Northern Finland were realized. These factors made it possible for the Germans, on 4 October 1944, to gain Hitler's approval for moving from Operation Birke to Operation Nordlicht (Operation Northern Light) and abandon Northern Finland and fortify to Lyngen, Norway.


USS Torsk

USS "Torsk", hull number SS-423, is a built for the United States Navy during World War II. Armed with ten torpedo tubes, the "Tench"-class submarines were incremental developments of the highly-successful s that formed the backbone of the US Navy's submarine force during the war. "Torsk" was laid down at the Portsmouth Navy Yard in June 1944, was launched in September that year, and commissioned in December.
In 1945, "Torsk" made two war patrols off Japan, sinking one cargo vessel and two coastal defense frigates. The latter of these, torpedoed on 14 August 1945, was the last enemy ship sunk by the United States Navy in World War II. Throughout the 1950s and 1960s, she operated primarily as a training vessel; she also went on deployments to the Mediterranean Sea and helped to train elements of the Atlantic Fleet in anti-submarine tactics. Decommissioned in 1964, she served for another seven years as a training vessel for the Naval Reserve. She was stricken from the Naval Vessel Register in December 1971 and turned over to the state of Maryland for use as a museum ship. She is now part of the historic fleet of Historic Ships in Baltimore.
Design.
The "Tench"-class submarines were incremental improvements of the preceding and es of fleet submarines that proved to be highly successful during operations against Japan in the Pacific War. The "Tench"es, the culmination of early wartime experiences, were the last submarine class to be built by the United States Navy during the war.
"Torsk" was long, with a beam of and a maximum draft of . She displaced surfaced and submerged. The "Tench"-class submarines were powered by four Fairbanks-Morse Model 38D8-⅛ 10-cylinder opposed piston diesel engines driving electrical generators. These were rated at for a maximum speed of on the surface. During underwater operations, she was powered by two 126-cell "Sargo" batteries that drove two low-speed direct-drive General Electric electric motors. Her electric motors provided and a top speed of submerged. While surfaced, she had a cruising radius of at a speed of . Her submerged endurance was limited by the life of her batteries, which at a speed of , would be depleted after 48 hours. She could carry enough provisions for her crew of ten officers and 71 enlisted men for 75 days of operations.
The submarine was armed with ten torpedo tubes, six of which were in the bow, with the other four located in her stern. These were supplied with a total of 28 torpedoes. She was also fitted with a /25 caliber deck gun and a Bofors 40 mm and Oerlikon 20 mm cannon.
Service history.
1944–1945.
The keel for "Torsk" was laid down at the Portsmouth Navy Yard on 7 June 1944, and the completed hull was launched on 6 September. Work was completed by the end of the year, and she was commissioned on 16 December. Beginning on 31 December, she began training exercises that lasted until 11 February 1945; five days later she sailed to Port Everglades, Florida, where she conducted anti-submarine experiments. The vessel remained there only briefly, and on 20 February, she got underway for the Pacific Ocean, passing through the Panama Canal and arriving in Hawaii on 23 March. There, she conducted further training and underwent repairs in preparation for her first war patrol.
"Torsk" cruised to Guam and then proceeded to Kii Suido in the Japanese home islands, arriving there on 11 May. While there, she patrolled for American air crews that had to bail out from damaged aircraft during their raids on Japan, but no aircraft went down in the area that day. Late on 11 May, she moved to the northeastern coast of Honshu, arriving two days later. Over the course of 14 and 15 May, she attempted to contact the submarine wolfpack operating in the area, and she finally rendezvoused with the submarines and the next day. She joined their patrols on the east coast of the island, but found no Japanese vessels in the area.
"Torsk" encountered a Japanese coastal minelayer on 2 June between Honshu and Hokkaido. She launched a spread of six torpedoes, but the minelayer evaded them, prompting "Torsk" to dive to evade the expected counter-attack that did not occur. Two days later, she located a freighter off Kobe Saki; she fired four torpedoes but again missed her target. "Torsk" departed the area on 5 June, bound for Midway Atoll, arriving there on 11 June; from there, she continued on to Pearl Harbor. After arriving on 16 June, she underwent a refit and began her second patrol on 17 July. She again sailed to Guam, where she stayed on 1 and 2 August, before continuing on to the Sea of Japan.
On 10 August, "Torsk" passed through the minefields in the Tsushima Strait, and the next day, she found and took aboard seven Japanese sailors from the merchant ship "Koue Maru" that had been sunk four days earlier. Later on the 11th, the submarine entered her patrol area. While patrolling off Dogo Island the next morning, she located a small freighter and sank her with a submerged torpedo attack. Off Ando Saki on 13 August, "Torsk" found several small fishing boats and another small freighter; she sank the latter and later that day, attempted to sink another cargo vessel in Wakasa Wan but her torpedoes missed.
On 14 August, she encountered a medium-sized cargo ship accompanied by a "Kaibōkan" type escort vessel steaming off （）. When the two ships approached Kasumi Ko at 10:35, "Torsk" launched a new, experimental Mark 28 torpedo, an acoustic homing torpedo, at the "Kaibōkan". The torpedo struck the ship and blew a hole in the stern, bending it up at a 30-degree angle and causing it to rapidly sink. "Torsk" then attempted to torpedo the freighter as it entered the harbor, but the torpedoes missed, possibly because they struck uncharted coral reefs.
At around 12:00, a second "Kaibōkan" arrived in the area to hunt for "Torsk"; the latter fired a second Mark 28 torpedo and then dove deep to evade any depth charge attacks. After reaching a depth of , she launched a Mark 27 torpedo, a passive acoustic torpedo. Shortly thereafter, the hydrophone operator detected a large explosion; this was the Mark 28 striking the "Kaibōkan", and a minute later the Mark 27 struck the vessel as well. This proved to be the last Japanese warship to be sunk in World War II, as the Japanese government announced it would surrender the next day. Additional patrol vessels arrived in the area, and their presence, coupled with that of patrol aircraft, compelled "Torsk" to remain submerged for more than seven hours. She then surfaced and proceeded toward the Noto Peninsula. After receiving word of Japan's surrender on 15 August, "Torsk" continued patrolling the Sea of Japan, conducting surveillance of Japanese installations and destroying any naval mines she encountered. On 1 September, she departed the area for the Marianas Islands, passing through the Tsushima Strait two days later, and arriving in Guam on 9 September, concluding her second patrol.
1946–1971.
On 10 September, "Torsk" sailed from the Marianas, bound for Pearl Harbor. From there, she proceeded to the Panama Canal, sailed into the Atlantic and ultimately arrived in New London, Connecticut in mid-October. This was her home port for the next seven years, during which time she served primarily as a training ship. She was also involved with various tests and training exercises. The submarine was also used for Navy Reserve training cruises. She was assigned to Submarine Squadron 2 in June 1949 and in mid-1950 she was sent on a deployment to the Mediterranean Sea. She returned to New London later in the year for fleet maneuvers. In 1951, her training operations took her to the Caribbean Sea.
The vessel underwent the Fleet Snorkel conversion in early 1952, after which she went on another Mediterranean deployment in the middle of the year. She arrived back in New London on 27 November, after which she resumed her training duties. These activities took the boat as far north as Halifax, Nova Scotia and as far south as Havana, Cuba. "Torsk" was transferred to Submarine Squadron 6, based at Norfolk, Virginia. From there, she served as a training submarine for anti-submarine aircraft and surface ships to practice detecting and targeting. "Torsk" frequently cruised in the Caribbean throughout this period. She made a visit to the Great Lakes by way of the Saint Lawrence Seaway in June 1959, visiting numerous ports in Lake Ontario and Lake Michigan. She arrived back in Norfolk in mid-August.
"Torsk" resumed her Mediterranean deployments in the 1960s, which included a joint training exercise, "New Broom X", with fleet units of British Commonwealth navies. She also continued to help train anti-submarine forces of the Atlantic Fleet. She participated in the blockade of Cuba during the Cuban Missile Crisis in October 1962. The vessel was decommissioned on 4 March 1964, after nearly twenty years of service. She was taken to the Boston Navy Yard and modified to be used as a Navy Reserve training vessel, stationed in the Washington Navy Yard. She operated there until 1971, and on 15 December she was stricken from the Naval Vessel Register.
Museum ship.
The Navy turned "Torsk" over to the state of Maryland on 26 September 1972 so she could be preserved as a museum ship; she was moored in the Inner Harbor of Baltimore, Maryland, where she remains today as part of the Historic Ships in Baltimore. "Torsk" was designated a National Historic Landmark on 14 January 1986. "Torsk" and its companions are major contributing elements in the Baltimore National Heritage Area.


73rd Air Division

The 73d Air Division is an inactive United States Air Force unit. Its last assignment was with Air Defense Command at Tyndall Air Force Base, Florida, where it was inactivated on 1 April 1966.
History.
World War II.
The 73d Bombardment Wing was activated as part of Second Air Force on 17 February 1943. Its original mission was to process personnel assigned to Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress and Consolidated B-24 Liberator Replacement Training Units (RTU) based in the midwest. It was inactivated on 15 October 1943 with the drawdown of heavy bomber training.
The wing was reactivated and redesignated as the 73d Bombardment Wing (Very Heavy) on 20 November 1943 at Smoky Hill Army Air Field, Kansas. The new Boeing B-29 Superfortress wing was assigned four newly organized groups (the 497th, 498th, 499th and 500th Bombardment Groups), which were training in New Mexico and Arizona with B-17s and B-24s, due to a lack of B-29 aircraft. In April 1944, the groups were brought to several airfields in Kansas (Great Bend Army Air Field, Smoky Hill Army Air Field and Walker Army Air Field) where they were equipped with new B-29s manufactured by Boeing at their Wichita, Kansas plant.
By August the wing's groups had completed their training and their aircraft were readied for deployment. Originally assigned to Twentieth Air Force's XX Bomber Command in India, the wing was instead assigned to the new XXI Bomber Command in the Pacific Theater. The 73d Wing deployed to newly constructed airfields on Saipan in the Northern Mariana Islands. The 73d Bomb Wing was the first B-29 wing to be assigned to the Marianas, and the first B-29 of the 497th Bomb Group arrived at Isely Field, Saipan on 12 October 1944. The 498th arrived shortly after, with the 499th and 500th Bomb Groups arriving in early November. By 22 November, over 100 B-29s were on Saipan. The XXI Bomber Command was assigned the task of destroying the aircraft industry of Japan in a series of high-altitude, daylight precision attacks
In late October and early November 1944, a series of tactical raids were carried out as training exercises for the crews. From Saipan, the groups of the 73d Bomb Wing flew several bombing missions against Truk to gain combat experience. Aware that there was now a new threat, Japanese aircraft based on Iwo Jima staged a low-level raid on Isely Field on 2 November, damaging several B-29s on the ground. Retaliatory strikes were ordered on Iwo Jima on 5 and 11 November.
In November 1944, the groups of the 73rd began bombing Japan, with only moderate success. Poor weather, the lack of precision radar bombing equipment, and tremendous winds encountered at high altitudes over Japan made accuracy difficult. The initial raids against Japan had taken place at high altitudes in order to stay above anti-aircraft fire and the effective altitude of defending fighters. Tactics were changed and high-altitude, daylight attacks be phased out and replaced by low-altitude, high-intensity incendiary raids at nighttime. The aircraft would attack individually, which meant that no assembly over the base at the start of the mission or along the way would be needed.
Consequently, it turned to devastating low altitude incendiary attacks. The Division continued attacking urban areas until the end of the war in August 1945, its subordinate units conducted raids against strategic objectives, bombing aircraft factories, chemical plants, oil refineries, and other targets in Japan. The wing flew its last combat missions on 14 August when hostilities ended. Afterwards, the wing's B 29s carried relief supplies to Allied prisoner of war camps in Japan and Manchuria.
The 73d and its subordinate units demobilized rapidly after V-J Day, and the wing's four bomb groups were all returned to the United States, with their B-29s either being flown to Clark Field for scrapping, or to storage facilities in Texas or Arizona. The 73d Bomb Wing was reassigned to the United States in December 1945, where it was assigned first to Continental Air Force's Fourth Air Force, then to Strategic Air Command (SAC) on 21 March 1946. However demobilization was in full swing and few SAC units were actually equipped and manned. The 73d wing was inactivated on 31 March.
Air Force Reserve.
In 1947, the 73d Bomb Wing was reactivated with the 338th and 351st Bombardment Groups being assigned to it, both reserve B-29 Superfortress organizations. A third group, the 381st Bombardment Group was added in 1948. However SAC was having enough difficulties keeping its front-line active duty B-29 bomb units in the air to maintain even minimal pilot proficiency in the late 1940s. The wing and its bomb groups were all inactivated in 1949.
Air Defense Command.
The organization was reactivated as part of Air Defense Command (ADC) in 1957 as the 73d Air Division. As part of ADC, it evaluated, upgraded, and determined the proficiency of the Air Defense Command fighter-interceptor and missile squadrons, 1 July 1957 – 1 April 1966. The division developed and tested Air Defense Command tactics, equipment, aircraft, guided missiles, and related equipment and armaments. It also maintained active contact with Army, Navy, and other Air Force commands to assure coordinated military effort in the use of rocket and missile ranges, defense plans, air sea land rescue, and airspace and airways directly concerned with the operations of the Air Defense Command Weapons Center.
The 73d Air Division was inactivated on 1 April 1966.
Lineage.
Components.
Groups.
Operational Groups
Support Groups