Breton language

Breton (; ; ) is a Southwestern Brittonic language of the Celtic language family spoken in Brittany, modern-day France.
Breton was brought from Great Britain to Armorica (the ancient name for the coastal region that includes the Brittany peninsula) by migrating Britons during the Early Middle Ages, making it an Insular Celtic language. Breton is most closely related to Cornish, another Southwestern Brittonic language. Welsh and the extinct Cumbric, both Western Brittonic languages, are more distantly related.
Having declined from more than 1 million speakers around 1950 to about 200,000 in the first decade of the 21st century, Breton is classified as "severely endangered" by the UNESCO "Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger". However, the number of children attending bilingual classes rose 33% between 2006 and 2012 to 14,709.
History and status.
Breton is spoken in Lower Brittany (), roughly to the west of a line linking Plouha (west of Saint-Brieuc) and La Roche-Bernard (east of Vannes). It comes from a Brittonic language community that once extended from Great Britain to Armorica (present-day Brittany) and had even established a toehold in Galicia (in present-day Spain). Old Breton is attested from the 9th century. It was the language of the upper classes until the 12th century, after which it became the language of commoners in Lower Brittany. The nobility, followed by the bourgeoisie, adopted French. The written language of the Duchy of Brittany was Latin, switching to French in the 15th century. There exists a limited tradition of Breton literature. Some philosophical and scientific terms in Modern Breton come from Old Breton. The recognized stages of the Breton language are: Old Breton - c.800 to c.1100, Middle Breton - c.1100 to c.1650, Modern Breton - c.1650 to present.
The French monarchy was not concerned with the minority languages of France, spoken by the lower classes, and required the use of French for government business as part of its policy of national unity. During the French Revolution, the government introduced policies favouring French over the regional languages, which it pejoratively referred to as . The revolutionaries assumed that reactionary and monarchist forces preferred regional languages to try to keep the peasant masses underinformed. In 1794, Bertrand Barère submitted his "report on the " to the Committee of Public Safety in which he said that "federalism and superstition speak Breton".
Since the 19th century, under the Third, Fourth and now Fifth Republics, the French government has attempted to stamp out minority languages—including Breton—in state schools, in an effort to build a national culture. Teachers humiliated students for using their regional languages, and such practices prevailed until the late 1960s.
In the early 21st century, due to the political centralization of France, the influence of the media, and the increasing mobility of people, only about 200,000 people are active speakers of Breton, a dramatic decline from more than 1 million in 1950. The majority of today's speakers are more than 60 years old, and Breton is now classified as an endangered language.
At the beginning of the 20th century, half of the population of Lower Brittany knew only Breton; the other half were bilingual. By 1950, there were only 100,000 monolingual Bretons, and this rapid decline has continued, with likely no monolingual speakers left today. A statistical survey in 1997 found around 300,000 speakers in Lower Brittany, of whom about 190,000 were aged 60 or older. Few 15- to 19-year-olds spoke Breton. In 1993, parents were finally legally allowed to give their children Breton names.
Revival efforts.
In 1925, Professor Roparz Hemon founded the Breton-language review . During its 19-year run, tried to raise the language to the level of a great international language. Its publication encouraged the creation of original literature in all genres, and proposed Breton translations of internationally recognized foreign works. In 1946, replaced . Other Breton-language periodicals have been published, which established a fairly large body of literature for a minority language.
In 1977, Diwan schools were founded to teach Breton by immersion. Since their establishment, Diwan schools have provided fully immersive primary school and partially immersive secondary school instruction in Breton for thousands of students across Brittany. This has directly contributed to the growing numbers of school-age speakers of Breton.
The "Asterix" comic series has been translated into Breton. According to the comic, the Gaulish village where Asterix lives is in the Armorica peninsula, which is now Brittany. Some other popular comics have also been translated into Breton, including "The Adventures of Tintin", , "Titeuf", "Hägar the Horrible", "Peanuts" and "Yakari".
Some original media are created in Breton. The sitcom, , is in Breton. Radio Kerne, broadcasting from Finistère, has exclusively Breton programming. Some movies ("Lancelot du Lac", "Shakespeare in Love", "Marion du Faouet", "Sezneg") and TV series ("Columbo", "Perry Mason") have also been translated and broadcast in Breton. Poets, singers, linguists, and writers who have written in Breton, including Yann-Ber Kalloc'h, Roparz Hemon, Anjela Duval, Xavier de Langlais, Pêr-Jakez Helias, Youenn Gwernig, Glenmor, Vefa de Saint-Pierre and Alan Stivell are now known internationally.
Today, Breton is the only living Celtic language that is not recognized by a national government as an official or regional language.
The first Breton dictionary, the "Catholicon", was also the first French dictionary. Edited by Jehan Lagadec in 1464, it was a trilingual work containing Breton, French and Latin. Today bilingual dictionaries have been published for Breton and languages including English, Dutch, German, Spanish and Welsh. A new generation is determined to gain international recognition for Breton. The monolingual dictionary, (1995), defines Breton words in Breton. The first edition contained about 10,000 words, and the second edition of 2001 contains 20,000 words.
In the early 21st century, the ("Public Office for the Breton language") began a campaign to encourage daily use of Breton in the region by both businesses and local communes. Efforts include installing bilingual signs and posters for regional events, as well as encouraging the use of the Spilhennig to let speakers identify each other. The office also started an Internationalization and localization policy asking Google, Firefox and SPIP to develop their interfaces in Breton. In 2004, the Breton Wikipedia started, which now counts more than 65,000 articles. In March 2007, the signed a tripartite agreement with Regional Council of Brittany and Microsoft for the consideration of the Breton language in Microsoft products. In October 2014, Facebook added Breton as one of its 121 languages after three years of talks between the and Facebook.
Geographic distribution and dialects.
Breton is spoken mainly in Lower Brittany, but also in a more dispersed way in Upper Brittany (where it is spoken alongside Gallo and French), and in areas around the world that have Breton emigrants.
The four traditional dialects of Breton correspond to medieval bishoprics rather than to linguistic divisions. They are (, of the county of Léon), (, of Trégor), (, of ), and (, of Vannes). was spoken up to the beginning of the 20th century in the region of Guérande and Batz-sur-Mer. There are no clear boundaries between the dialects because they form a dialect continuum, varying only slightly from one village to the next. , however, requires a little study to be intelligible with most of the other dialects.
Official status.
Nation.
As noted, only French is an official language of France. Supporters of Breton and other minority languages continue to argue for their recognition, and for their place in education, public schools, and public life.
Constitution.
In July 2008, the legislature amended the French Constitution, adding article 75-1: (the regional languages belong to the heritage of France).
The European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages, which obliges signatory states to recognize minority and regional languages, was signed by France in 1999 but has not been ratified. On 27 October 2015, the Senate rejected a draft constitutional law ratifying the charter.
Region.
Regional and departmental authorities use Breton to a very limited extent. Some bilingual signage has also been installed, such as street name signs in Breton towns. One station of the Rennes metro system has signs in both French and Breton.
Under the French law known as Toubon, it is illegal for commercial signage to be in Breton alone. Signs must be bilingual or French only. Since commercial signage usually has limited physical space, most businesses have signs only in French.
, the Breton language agency, was set up in 1999 by the Brittany region to promote and develop the daily use of Breton. It created the campaign, to encourage enterprises, organisations and communes to promote the use of Breton, for example by installing bilingual signage or translating their websites into Breton.
Education.
In the late 20th century, the French government considered incorporating the independent Breton-language immersion schools (called ) into the state education system. This action was blocked by the French Constitutional Council based on the 1994 amendment to the Constitution that establishes French as the language of the republic. Therefore, no other language may be used as a language of instruction in state schools. The Toubon Law implemented the amendment, asserting that French is the language of public education.
The Diwan schools were founded in Brittany in 1977 to teach Breton by immersion. Since their establishment, Diwan schools have provided fully immersive primary school and partially immersive secondary school instruction in Breton for thousands of students across Brittany. This has directly contributed to the growing numbers of school-age speakers of Breton. The schools have also gained fame from to their high level of results in school exams, including those on French language and literature. Breton-language schools do not receive funding from the national government, though the Brittany Region may fund them.
Another teaching method is a bilingual approach by ("Two Languages") in the State schools, created in 1979. ("Awakening") was created in 1990 for bilingual education in the Catholic schools.
Statistics.
In 2018, 18,337 pupils (about 2.00% of all pupils in Brittany) attended , and schools, and their number has increased yearly. The goal of Jean-Yves Le Drian (president of the Regional Council) of 20,000, and of “their recognition” for “their place in education, public schools, and public life”, by 2010, was not achieved, but he describes being encouraged by their progress.
In 2007, some 4,500 to 5,000 adults followed such a Breton language course as an evening or correspondence one. The transmission of Breton in 1999 is estimated to be 3 percent.
Growth of the percentage of pupils in bilingual education.
Percentage of pupils in bilingual education per department.
Municipalities.
The 10 communes with the highest percentage of pupils in bilingual primary education, listed with their total population.
The 10 communes of historic Brittany with the highest total population, listed with their percentages of pupils in bilingual primary education.
Other forms of education.
In addition to bilingual education (including Breton-medium education) the region has introduced the Breton language in primary education, mainly in the department of Finistère. These "initiation" sessions are generally one to three hours per week, and consist of songs and games.
Schools in secondary education ( and ) offer some courses in Breton. In 2010, nearly 5,000 students in Brittany were reported to be taking this option. Additionally, the University of Rennes 2 has a Breton language department offering courses in the language along with a master's degree in Breton and Celtic Studies.
Phonology.
Vowels.
Vowels in Breton may be short or long. All unstressed vowels are short; stressed vowels can be short or long (vowel lengths are not noted in usual orthographies as they are implicit in the phonology of particular dialects, and not all dialects pronounce stressed vowels as long). An emergence of a schwa sound occurs as a result of vowel neutralization in post-tonic position, among different dialects.
All vowels can also be nasalized, which is noted by appending an 'n' letter after the base vowel, or by adding a combining tilde above the vowel (most commonly and easily done for "a" and "o" due to the Portuguese letters), or more commonly by non-ambiguously appending an letter after the base vowel (this depends on the orthographic variant).
Diphthongs are .
Grammar.
Nouns.
Breton nouns are marked for gender and number. While Breton gender is fairly typical of gender systems across western Europe (with the exception of Basque and modern English), Breton number markers demonstrate rarer behaviors.
Gender.
Breton has two genders: masculine () and feminine (), having largely lost its historic neuter () as has also occurred in the other Celtic languages as well as across the Romance languages. Certain suffixes ("-ach/-aj, -(a)dur, -er, -lec'h, -our, -ti, -va") are masculine, while others ("-enti, -er, -ez, -ezh, -ezon, -i", "-eg", "-ell", and the singulative "-enn") are feminine. The suffix "-eg" can be masculine or feminine.
There are certain non-determinant factors that influence gender assignment. Biological sex is applied for animate referents. Metals, time divisions (except for "hour", "night" and "week") and mountains tend to be masculine, while rivers, cities and countries tend to be feminine.
However, gender assignment to certain words often varies between dialects.
Number.
Number in Breton is primarily based on an opposition between singular and plural. However, the system is noted as full of complexities in how this distinction is realized.
Although modern Breton has lost its ancestral dual number marker, relics of its use are preserved in various nouns pertaining to body parts, including the words for eyes, ears, cheeks, legs, armpits, arms, hands, knees, thighs, and wings. This is seen in a prefix (formed in , or ) that is etymologically derived from the prefixation of the number two. The dual is no longer productive, and has merely been lexicalized in these cases rather than remaining a part of Breton grammar. The (etymologically) already dual words for eyes () and ears () can be pluralized "again" to form and .
Like other Brythonic languages, Breton has a singulative suffix that is used to form singulars out of collective nouns, for which the morphologically less complex form is the plural. Thus, the singulative of the collective "mice" is "mouse". However, Breton goes beyond Welsh in the complications of this system. Collectives can be pluralized to make forms which are different in meaning from the normal collective-- "fish" (singular) is pluralized to , singulativized to , referring to a single fish out of a certain group of fish", and this singulative of the plural can then be pluralized again to make , referring to single individual fish out of a school of fish.
On top of this, the formation of plurals is complicated by two different pluralizing functions. The "default" plural formation is contrasted with another formation which is said to "emphasize variety or diversity" -- thus two semantically different plurals can be formed out of : "parks" and "various different parks". Ball reports that the latter pluralizer is used only for inanimate nouns. Certain formations have been lexicalized to have meanings other than that which might be predicted solely from the morphology: "water" pluralized forms which means not "waters" but instead "rivers", while now has come to mean "running waters after a storm". Certain forms have lost the singular from their paradigm: means "news" and is not used, while has become the regular plural, "newses" (different news items).
Meanwhile, certain nouns can form doubly marked plurals with lexicalized meanings -- "child" is pluralized one time into "children" and then pluralized the second time to make "groups of children".
The diminutive suffix also has the somewhat unusual property of triggering double marking of the plural: means "little child", but the doubly pluralized means "little children"; boat has a singular diminutive and a simple plural , thus its diminutive plural is the doubly pluralized .
As seen elsewhere in many Celtic languages, the formation of the plural can be hard to predict, being determined by a mix of semantic, morphological and lexical factors.
The most common plural marker is , with its variant ; most nouns which use this marker are inanimates, however collectives of both inanimate and animate nouns always use it as well.
Most animate nouns, including trees, take a plural in . However, in some dialects, the use of this affix has become rare. Various masculine nouns including occupations as well as the word ("Englishman", plural ) take the suffix , with a range of variants including , , , and .
The rare pluralizing suffixes / and are used for a few nouns. When they are appended, they also trigger a change in the vowel of the root: triggers a vowel harmony effect whereby some or all preceding vowels are changed to ( "cousin" → "cousins"; "crow" → "crows"; "'partridge" → "partridges); the changes associated with / are less predictable.
Various nouns instead form their plural merely with ablaut: or in the stem being changed to : "wing" → "wings"; "tooth" → "teeth"; "rope" → "ropes".
Another set of nouns have lexicalized plurals that bear little if any resemblance to their singulars. These include "girl" → , "pig" → , "cow" → , and "dog" → .
In compound nouns, the head noun, which usually comes first, is pluralized.
Verbal aspect.
Like in other Celtic languages as well as English, a variety of verbal constructions are available to express grammatical aspect, for example: showing a distinction between progressive and habitual actions:
Inflected prepositions.
As in other modern Celtic languages, Breton pronouns are fused into preceding prepositions to produce a sort of inflected preposition. Below are some examples in Breton, Cornish, Welsh, Irish, Scottish Gaelic, and Manx, along with English translations.
Note that in the examples above the Goidelic languages (Irish, Scottish Gaelic, and Manx) use the preposition meaning "at" to show possession, whereas the Brittonic languages use "with". The Goidelic languages, however, do use the preposition "with" to express "belong to" (Irish , Scottish , Manx , The book belongs to me).
The Welsh examples are in literary Welsh. The order and preposition may differ slightly in colloquial Welsh (Formal , North Wales , South Wales ).
Initial consonant mutations.
Breton has four initial consonant mutations: though modern Breton lost the nasal mutation of Welsh, it also has a "hard" mutation, in which voiced stops become voiceless, and a "mixed" mutation, which is a mixture of hard and soft mutations.
Word order.
Normal word order, like the other Insular Celtic languages, is VSO (Verb Subject Object). It is however perfectly possible to put the Subject or the Object at the beginning of the sentence. This largely depends on the focus of the speaker. The following options are possible (all with a little difference in meaning):
Vocabulary.
Breton is notable as being far more prone to loaning vocabulary than its relatives further north; by a some estimates, a full 40% of its core vocabulary consists of loans from French.
Words that passed into French and into English.
The English words and have been borrowed from French, which took them from Breton. However, this is uncertain: for instance, is or ("long stone"), ("straight stone") (two words: noun + adjective) in Breton. "Dolmen" is a misconstructed word (it should be ). Some studies state that these words were borrowed from Cornish. can be directly translated from Welsh as "long stone" (which is exactly what a or is). The Cornish surnames Mennear, Minear and Manhire all derive from the Cornish ("long stone"), as does "settlement by the long stone".
The French word ("to jabber in a foreign language") is derived from Breton ("bread") and ("wine"). The French word ("large seagull") is derived from Breton , which shares the same root as English "gull" (Welsh , Cornish ).
Orthography.
The first extant Breton texts, contained in the Leyde manuscript, were written at the end of the 8th century: 50 years prior to the Strasbourg Oaths, considered to be the earliest example of French. Like many medieval orthographies, Old- and Middle Breton orthography was at first not standardised, and the spelling of a particular word varied at authors' discretion. In 1499, however, the "Catholicon", was published; as the first dictionary written for both French and Breton, it became a point of reference on how to transcribe the language. The orthography presented in the "Catholicon" was largely similar to that of French, in particular with respect to the representation of vowels, as well as the use of both the Latinate digraph —a remnant of the sound change /kʷ/ > /k/ in Latin—and Brittonic or to represent /k/ before front vowels.
As phonetic and phonological differences between the dialects began to magnify, many regions, particularly the Vannes country, began to devise their own orthographies. Many of these orthographies were more closely related to the French model, albeit with some modifications. Examples of these modifications include the replacement of Old Breton with to denote word-final /x~h/ (an evolution of Old Breton /θ/ in the Vannes dialect) and use of to denote the initial mutation of /k/ (today this mutation is written ). and thus needed another transcription.
In the 1830s Jean-François Le Gonidec created a modern phonetic system for the language.
During the early years of the 20th century, a group of writers known as elaborated and reformed Le Gonidec's system. They made it more suitable as a super-dialectal representation of the dialects of Cornouaille, Leon and Trégor (known as from , and in Breton). This KLT orthography was established in 1911. At the same time writers of the more divergent Vannetais dialect developed a phonetic system also based on that of Le Gonidec.
Following proposals made during the 1920s, the KLT and Vannetais orthographies were merged in 1941 to create an orthographic system to represent all four dialects. This ("wholly unified") orthography was significant for the inclusion of the "zh" digraph, which represents a in Vannetais and corresponds to a in the KLT dialects.
In 1955 François Falc'hun and the group Emgleo Breiz proposed a new orthography. It was designed to use a set of graphemes closer to the conventions of French. This ("University Orthography", known in Breton as ) was given official recognition by the French authorities as the "official orthography of Breton in French education." It was opposed in the region and today is used only by the magazine and the publishing house Emgléo Breiz.
In the 1970s, a new standard orthography was devised — the or . This system is based on the derivation of the words.
Today the majority of writers continue to use the "Peurunvan orthography", and it is the version taught in most Breton-language schools.
Alphabet.
Breton is written in the Latin script. "Peurunvan", the most commonly used orthography, consists of the following letters:
The circumflex, grave accent, trema and tilde appear on some letters. These diacritics are used in the following way:
Differences between and.
Both orthographies use the above alphabet, although "é" is used only in .
Differences between the two systems are particularly noticeable in word endings. In Peurunvan, final obstruents, which are devoiced in absolute final position and voiced in sandhi before voiced sounds, are represented by a grapheme that indicates a voiceless sound. In OU they are written as voiced but represented as voiceless before suffixes: (big), (bigger).
In addition, Peurunvan maintains the KLT convention, which distinguishes noun/adjective pairs by nouns written with a final voiced consonant and adjectives with a voiceless one. No distinction is made in pronunciation, e.g. ' "Breton language" vs. ' "Breton (adj)".
Some examples of words in the different orthographies:
Pronunciation of the Breton alphabet.
Notes:
Examples.
Words and phrases in Breton.
Visitors to Brittany may encounter words and phrases (especially on signs and posters) such as the following:
Language comparison.
! English !! French !! Breton !! Cornish !! Welsh !! Scottish Gaelic !! Irish


Grand Est

Grand Est (; ; Moselle Franconian/;
Rhine Franconian: "Groß Oschte"; ; ) is an administrative region in Northeastern France. It superseded three former administrative regions, Alsace, Champagne-Ardenne and Lorraine, on 1 January 2016 under the provisional name of Alsace-Champagne-Ardenne-Lorraine (; ACAL or, less commonly, ALCA), as a result of territorial reform which had been passed by the French Parliament in 2014.
The region sits astride three water basins (Seine, Meuse and Rhine), spanning an area of , the fifth largest in France; it includes two mountain ranges (Vosges and Ardennes). It shares borders with Belgium, Luxembourg, Germany and Switzerland. As of 2017, it had a population of 5,549,586 inhabitants. It stands partly within the European Megalopolis. The prefecture and largest city, by far, is Strasbourg.
The East of France has a rich and diverse culture, being situated at a crossroads between the Latin and Germanic worlds. This history is reflected in the variety of languages spoken there (Alsatian, Champenois, and Lorraine Franconian). Most of today's Grand Est region was considered "Eastern" as early as the 8th century, when it constituted the southern part of the Francian territory of Austrasia. The city of Reims (in Champagne), where Frankish king Clovis I had been baptized in 496 AD, would later play a prominent ceremonial role in French monarchical history as the traditional site of the coronation of the kings of France. The Champagne fairs played a significant role in the economy of medieval Europe as well. Alsace and Lorraine thrived in the sphere of influence of the Holy Roman Empire for most of the Middle Ages and Renaissance, and subject to competing claims by France and German over the centuries.
The region has distinctive traditions such as the celebration of Saint Nicholas Day, Christmas markets, or traditions involving the Easter hare in Alsace and Lorraine. Alsace-Moselle are furthermore subject to local law for historical reasons. With a long industrial history and strong agriculture and tourism (arts, gastronomy, sightseeing), the East of France is one of the top economic producing regions in the country.
Toponymy.
Provisional name.
The provisional name of the region was Alsace-Champagne-Ardenne-Lorraine, formed by combining the names of the three present regions—Alsace, Champagne-Ardenne and Lorraine—in alphabetical order with hyphens. The formula for the provisional name of the region was established by the territorial reform law and applied to all but one of the provisional names for new regions. The ACAL regional council, which was elected in December 2015, was given the task of choosing a name for the region and submitting it to the Conseil d'État—France's highest authority for administrative law—by 1 July 2016 for approval. The provisional name of the region was retired on 30 September 2016, when the new name of the region, "Grand Est", took effect.
In Alsace and in Lorraine, the new region has frequently been called ALCA, for Alsace-Lorraine-Champagne-Ardennes, on the internet.
Like the name "Région Hauts-de-France" (and, until 2015, the name "Région Centre"), the name "Région Grand Est" contains no reference whatsoever to the area's history or identity, but merely describes its geographical location within metropolitan France.
Permanent name.
In a poll conducted in November 2014 by France 3 in Champagne-Ardenne, "Grand Est" (29.16%) and "Austrasie" (22.65%) were the top two names among 25 candidates and 4,701 votes. Grand Est also topped a poll the following month conducted by L'Est Républicain, receiving 42% of 3,324 votes.
The names which received a moderate amount of discussion were:
Geography.
Grand Est covers of land and is the sixth-largest of the regions of France. Grand Est borders four countries—Belgium (Wallonia region) and Luxembourg (Cantons of Esch-sur-Alzette and Remich) on the north, Germany on the east and northeast, and Switzerland on the southeast. It is the only French region to border more than two countries, or more countries than French regions. Its neighbors within France are Bourgogne-Franche-Comté on the south, Île-de-France on the west, and Hauts-de-France on the northwest.
Departments.
Grand Est contains ten departments: Ardennes, Aube, Bas-Rhin, Marne, Haute-Marne, Haut-Rhin, Meurthe-et-Moselle, Meuse, Moselle, Vosges.
Topography.
The main ranges in the region include the Vosges to the east and the Ardennes to the north.
Hydrology.
The region is bordered on the east by the Rhine, which forms about half of the border with Germany. Other major rivers which flow through the region include the Meuse, Moselle, Marne, and Saône.
Lakes in the region include lac de Gérardmer, lac de Longemer, lac de Retournemer, lac des Corbeaux, Lac de Bouzey, lac de Madine, étang du Stock and lac de Pierre-Percée.
Climate.
Grand Est climate depends on the proximity of the sea. In Champagne and Western Lorraine, the climate is oceanic (Köppen : Cfb), with cool to mild winters and warm summers. But Ardennes, Moselle and Alsace climates are borderline humid continental (Köppen : Dfb) - oceanic (Köppen : Cfb), characterized by cold winters with frequent days below the freezing point, and hot summers, with many days with temperatures up to 32 °C.
History.
Formation.
Grand Est is the result of territorial reform legislation passed in 2014 by the French Parliament to reduce the number of regions in Metropolitan France—the part of France in continental Europe—from 22 to 13. Grand Est is the merger of three regions: Alsace, Champagne-Ardenne, and Lorraine.
Opposition.
The merger has been, and still is, strongly opposed by some groups in Alsace, and a large majority of Alsatians. The territorial reform law allows new regions to choose the seat of the regional councils, but specifically made Strasbourg the seat of the Grand Est regional council—a move to appease the region's politicians.
The creation of the new region was unpopular among Alsatians. In response, the Government created the European Collectivity of Alsace merging the departments of Bas Rhin and Haut Rhin, to take effect in 2021.
Demographics.
The region has an official population of 5,549,586 (municipal population on 1 January 2017).
Government.
Regional council.
The regional council has limited administrative authority, mostly concerning the promotion of the region's economy and financing educational and cultural activities. The regional council has no legislative authority. The seat of the regional council will be Strasbourg. The regional council, elected in December 2015, is controlled by The Republicans. The elected inaugural president of the Grand Est Regional Council is Philippe Richert, who was previously the President of the Alsace Regional Council. The current president is Jean Rottner.
Economy.
The gross domestic product (GDP) of the region was 159.9 billion euros in 2018, accounting for 6.7% of French economic output. GDP per capita adjusted for purchasing power was 25,400 euros or 84% of the EU27 average in the same year. The GDP per employee was 101% of the EU average.
Transport and infrastructure.
Rail transport.
The region has five tram networks:
Airports.
The region has four airports:
Motorways.
The region has eighteen motorways:
The region has twelve cities that have ring roads:
Heritage.
Grand Est is rich with architectural monuments from the Roman Empire to the early 21st century.
Gothic architecture is particularly conspicuous, with many famous cathedrals, basilicas and churches, such as Reims Cathedral, Strasbourg Cathedral, Metz Cathedral, Troyes Cathedral, Châlons Cathedral, Toul Cathedral, the Basilica of L'Épine, the Basilica of Saint-Nicolas-de-Port, the , the Basilica of St. Urbain in Troyes, Thann Church, Niederhaslach Church, Notre-Dame-en-Vaux, St. George's Church, Sélestat and St. Peter and St. Paul's Church, Wissembourg.


Province of Fermo

The province of Fermo () is a province in the Marche region of central Italy. It was established in 2004 and became operational in 2009. Its administrative centre and provincial capital is the city of Fermo (population of 37,995 inhabitants). Other major cities include Porto Sant'Elpidio (25,118 inhabitants), Porto San Giorgio (16,201 inhabitants), Sant'Elpidio a Mare (16,838 inhabitants), and Montegranaro (13,358 inhabitants). As of 2017, the province has a population of 174,358 inhabitants and spans an area of . It contains 40 "comuni".
History.
An 1861 report by Minister Minghetti to Prince Eugene of Savoy, Lieutenant of the King, justified merging the small and fragmented provinces of southern Marche into a single large province, a move to overcome the historical border between the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies and the Papal States. The residents of Abruzzo and Cardinal Filippo de Angelis were opposed to this. Despite this, 58% of the population of Fermo voted in favour of merging some smaller provinces, and the province of Ascoli-Fermo was created and became known as Ascoli Piceno.
In 2000, supporters of forming a new province of Fermo exploited a pact between the Lega Nord and Forza Italia who had formed a number of proposals regarding establishing provincial bodies, including one that later led to the foundation of the province of Monza and Brianza. Fabrizio Cesetti was the only signatory of the act forming the province, which was delayed due to the conclusion of the Legislature XIII of Italy. Following this, Law 147/2004 was passed, and the province of Fermo was established in 2004.
Geography.
The Province of Fermo is in the Marche region of central Italy, and stretches from the Sibillini Mountains to the Adriatic Sea. Its main geographic feature is the valley of the River Tenna. This river rises in the mountains, enters the province near Servigliano, passes through Grottazzolina and Montegiorgio, and reaches the sea near Sant'Elpidio a Mare and Porto Sant'Elpidio. The River Aso forms the southern border of the province, separating it from the Province of Ascoli Piceno. It rises in the mountains and flows into the Adriatic Sea at Pedaso. To the north of the province lies the Province of Macerata. Footwear and leather goods are produced in the area, and the main agricultural products are cereals, vegetables, grapes, olives and livestock.
The town of Fermo, the capital of the province, is an attractive old town perched on a hill. It has a historic centre, a large piazza and a cathedral dating from 1227 with a Gothic facade. There are also traces of a Roman amphitheatre nearby. The neighbouring municipality of Porto San Giorgio has a castle dating from 1269, which protected the valley that leads to Fermo.


Municipalities of Finland

The municipalities (; ) represent the local level of administration in Finland and act as the fundamental, self-governing administrative units of the country. The entire country is incorporated into municipalities and legally, all municipalities are equal, although certain municipalities are called cities or towns (; ). Municipalities have the right to levy a flat percentual income tax, which is between 16 and 22 percent, and they provide two thirds of public services. Municipalities control many community services, such as schools, health care and the water supply, and local streets. They do not maintain highways, set laws or keep police forces, which are responsibilities of the central government.
Government.
Municipalities have council-manager government: they are governed by an elected council (, ), which is legally autonomous and answers only to the voters. The size of the council is proportional to the population, the extremes being 9 in Sottunga and 85 in Helsinki. A subsection of the council, the municipal executive board ("kunnanhallitus"), controls the municipal government and monitors the implementation of decisions of the council. Its decisions must be approved by the council. Unlike national cabinets, its composition is derived from the composition of the council, not along government-opposition lines. Furthermore, individual decisions are prepared in specialized municipal boards ("lautakunta") for a council meeting, which include, for example, zoning, social assistance, and education boards. Council, executive board, and municipal board memberships are elected positions of responsibility, not full-time jobs. Remuneration depends on the municipality and position, but is generally nominal or modest: a regular council member is paid 70 euro on average on a per-meeting basis (2017).
Municipal managers (, for cities, , for other municipalities) are civil servants named by the council. The city manager of Helsinki is called / "Lord Mayor" for historical reasons. There were previously no mayors in Finland, but after a change in law, Tampere was first city to elect a mayor ( / ) in 2007. The mayor is not, however, currently elected directly, but by the municipal council. The mayor acts as municipal manager and as a speaker of municipal council.
Although municipalities do not have police or legislative powers, local ordinances concerning traffic can be set, and municipal parking inspectors can give parking tickets. Municipalities are legal persons and can appear in an administrative court. Likewise, the state of Finland is a separate legal person.
Excluding judicial review of formal compliance to administrative law, municipalities are independent and not a part of a local state hierarchy. Municipalities cooperate in regions of Finland. State agencies have jurisdictions spanning one or more regions: each region is served by an "ely-keskus" ("elinkeino-, liikenne- ja ympäristökeskus") on matters of employment, the economy, transport and environment, while law and environmental enforcement is handled by the local "aluehallintovirasto", governing multi-region jurisdictions termed "alue".-G.H-
Taxation and revenue.
Residents pay a municipal tax that is a form of income tax, which is the mainstay of the income of a municipality (42% of income). Municipal tax is nominally a flat tax that is levied from a broader population (including lower income levels) than progressive state income tax, which is collected only from medium to high income earners. However, in practice even the municipal tax is progressive due to generous deductions granted to the lowest income levels. The pre-deduction base tax varies from 16% in affluent Kauniainen to 20% or more in a number of small rural municipalities. Next to the municipal tax, municipalities receive funding from the state budget (, 19% of income). This funding is means-tested to municipality wealth and serves to balance the differences in municipal tax revenue. Besides taxes, sales revenue, fees and profit of operations also form a substantial share of municipal income (21%).
Additionally, municipalities levy a property tax, amounting to 3.6% of income, which is comparatively low: the annual fee is 0.32-0.75% of net present value for permanent residences and 0.50-1.00% for leisure properties like summer cottages as well as undeveloped plots. This is always paid by the owner, never a tenant directly, unlike the council tax. Municipalities receive a share of corporate tax revenue () from companies having a place of business in the municipality (3.8% of income).
Some municipal functions receive direct funding both from the municipality and the state, e.g. AMK vocational colleges.
Tasks and services.
Finland has an extensive welfare state, and municipalities are responsible for much of the services to that end. Tasks of the municipalities are as follows:
Although municipalities are responsible for their own finances, there is much highly specific legislation and regulation that requires the services to be provided up to a standard. Thus, although municipalities have the power to voluntarily spend tax-generated income, they are required to first allocate funds to legally prescribed services.
Municipalities may provide some of these services through corporations that they own or from private companies that they regulate. For example,
Helsinki Regional Transport Authority (HSL) provides public transport services in the capital area.
Statistics.
, there are 310 municipalities in Finland, of which 107 are cities or towns ("kaupunki"). Sixteen municipalities are unilingually Swedish (all in the autonomous Åland region), while 33 are bilingual: 15 with Swedish as the majority language (all but four in Ostrobothnia) and 18 with Finnish as the majority language (all but five in Uusimaa region). Four municipalities in northern Lapland (Utsjoki, Inari, Sodankylä and Enontekiö) have one or all of the three Sami languages spoken in Finland as an official language.
Finnish municipalities can choose to be called either "kaupunki" (city or town) or "kunta" (small town or rural municipality). Although the Finnish Environment Institute classifies urban settlements with over 15,000 inhabitants as "kaupunki", municipalities can name themselves "kaupunki" with fewer inhabitants. There are inhabitants in Nurmijärvi, the largest "kunta" in Finland, and inhabitants in Kaskinen, the smallest "kaupunki", so the kunta–kaupunki categorisation mainly concerns the name of the municipality.
The areas of the municipalities vary, as the population is the primary criterion for forming a municipality. The largest municipalities in size are found in Lapland, of which the largest is Inari at (130 km square). The smallest municipalities are very small towns. Kaskinen is an independent town with a land area of only . Kauniainen, which was originally a corporation in Espoo, is only .
History.
Municipalities were originally parishes. The old word for a municipality is , 'keeper', because when the system was instituted, one municipality kept one minister. Municipalities were divided into villages, which consisted of individual properties. Borders between properties and thus municipalities were defined by oral agreements passed down from generation to generation; usually along straight lines between defined markers such as boulders. Medieval documentation survives only from legal disputes concerning borders. In the 18th century, King Gustaf III implemented the Great Partition, where common lands were redistributed into larger properties, and claimed all unclaimed land to the crown. Thus, there is no "leftover" land outside the jurisdiction of municipalities, as all land belongs to either to a private property or to the government. The secular government divided the properties to taxable units (villages and secular municipalities) according to its own convenience, which were not necessarily convergent with parishes. Furthermore, cities were chartered separately. Up to 1734, the law was different in cities than in rural municipalities.
In 1865, the modern municipalities were established as secular entities separate from the parishes. The reform was inspired by the Swedish municipal reforms of 1862. Up to 1964, cities financed their own police and registry services. Until 1977 municipalities were divided into cities (, ), market towns (, ) and rural municipalities (, ). The market town category was abolished and these were renamed as cities. The rest of the municipalities were classified as 'other municipalities'. All municipalities called maalaiskunta were eventually either merged to their parent cities or changed their names. From 1995 onwards only 'municipality' is recognized by law and any municipality is allowed to call itself a city.
Identification and heraldry.
Not all municipalities have an obvious urban center; indeed, rural municipalities are often composed of distributed rural villages. Although the church village ("kirkonkylä", abbreviated "kk") is the historical center, the largest or administrative center may be in another village. For example, Askola has a church village (Askolan kirkonkylä), but its administrative center is in Monninkylä. Often, the church village has the same name as the municipality, as with Askola. However, this is not necessarily so, e.g. Enontekiö is governed from Hetta; these villages are often erroneously labeled in maps. This is expected as the name of the municipality refers to the entire parish, not just a single center like a church village. Villages have no administrative role, although some have voluntary village associations ("kyläyhdistys") and other non-governmental public life.
Although related, urban areas in Finland ("taajama") are not local administrative units. A catalog is independently compiled each year by Statistics Finland, a state agency, and used primarily for traffic-related purposes (signage, speed limits, and highway planning). There are 745 officially recognized urban areas in Finland, 49 of which have more than 10,000 inhabitants and six more than 100,000.
Each municipality has a distinct coat of arms. They are posted on the municipal borders and shown in official documents representing the municipality. The coats of arms for many municipalities have been designed in the modern era, many of them by Gustaf von Numers. In addition, municipalities like Vantaa since 2015 and Helsinki since 2017 have a logo distinct from their coat of arms.
Capital region.
Distinctively, the capital area, or Greater Helsinki, has no special arrangements. The area consists of four entirely independent cities that form a continuous conurbation. Greater Helsinki has grown in population and area relatively quickly: the nearby municipalities, considered rural only 50 years ago, have become suburbs, and the growth is projected to continue. A state-imposed merger of Helsinki and a part of Sipoo, a rural, 40% Swedish-speaking municipality adjacent to Greater Helsinki, was recently approved by the government, counter to the opinion of the Sipoo municipal council. This area will effectively become a new (and Finnish-speaking) suburb with multiple times the inhabitants than there are in Sipoo.
Mergers and reform.
There is currently a heated political debate in Finland about reforming the municipality system. Essentially, a multitude of small municipalities is seen as detrimental to the provision of public services, having originated during Finland's agrarian years. As a result, there have been suggestions of state-imposed mergers. A committee led by the former Minister for Regional and Municipal Affairs, Hannes Manninen, suggested creating a two-tier system of municipalities with different powers, while the Association of Finnish Local and Regional Authorities () favoured a system where municipalities would be units of at least 20,000–30,000 inhabitants, cf. the current median at 4,700. The motion was inspired by a similar reform in Denmark (see Municipalities of Denmark). The former government (Vanhanen II), however, planned to not impose mergers.
Recently, many voluntary mergers have been agreed on. Ten mergers were completed in 2005, one in 2006, 14 in 2007 and one in 2008. In 2009, there were even more, many of which consolidated more than two municipalities. Several cities merged with surrounding rural municipalities in Hämeenlinna, Salo, Kouvola, Seinäjoki, Naantali, Kauhava, Lohja, Raseborg, Jyväskylä and Oulu in 2009. In total, there were 32 mergers, involving 99 municipalities, that reduced the number of municipalities by 67. The year 2009 also marked the end of the last "maalaiskunta", a municipality surrounding a city but sharing the name, in Jyväskylä. There were four mergers in 2010, six in 2011, ten in 2013, three in 2015, four in 2016, two in 2017 and one in 2020. In the period 2005–2020, the number of municipalities was voluntarily reduced from 444 to 310.
In 2012, Katainen's government published an extensive plan aiming at merging municipalities to reach a target of population 20,000 per municipality. Commuter belts have also been proposed as a target by a government committee, such that municipalities where more than 35% of workforce commutes would be subject to a merger.
The Sipilä cabinet, from 2015, has been preparing a significant reform of health and social services ("sote-uudistus"), aimed at increasing choice between municipal and private healthcare, and assigning some healthcare responsibilities into larger units than a municipality.


South-East Region, Ireland

The Ireland South East Region (coded IE052) is a NUTS Level III statistical region of Ireland. The region comprises the counties of Waterford, Carlow, Kilkenny and Wexford. Waterford City is the regional capital. The South-East region spans 7,198 km2, 10.2% of the total area of the state and according to the 2016 census had a population of 422,062.
History and geography.
Ireland South East has a diverse mix of history – key towns and cities such as Waterford and Wexford have Viking origins, while Kilkenny city grew around a Norman merchant town. In terms of landscape and geography, Ireland South East is home to Europe's longest beaches, a number of mountain ranges (such as the Comeraghs, the Blackstairs and the Galtees) and rivers (such as the Nore, the Suir and the Barrow). It also Ireland's sunniest region and is affectionately known as the "Sunny South East".
Ireland South East is home to over 16,000 students, as the region includes Waterford Institute of Technology and Institute of Technology, Carlow. It is also home to global company brand names such as Glanbia; Bausch and Lomb; Red Hat; Zurich; Burnside Engineering; and Cartoon Saloon.
The region consistently scores highly on all quality of life metrics. It is known for the diversity and quantity of its festivals such as the Wexford Opera Festival, the Borris House Festival of Literature and Ideas, the Kilkenny Arts Festival and the Spraoi festival.
The region's economy is also strengthened by its good quality transport and economic infrastructure – including 2 international ports (Rosslare Europort); Waterford airport; a modern motorway network; and close proximity to Dublin.
Economy.
The Ireland South East region has grown steadily over the past decade and has strong economic clusters in Engineering, Life Sciences, Financial Services, ICT, Agri-Food and the Creative sectors. Eurostat data shows the region as being the 6th fastest growing region in the EU in terms of job creation (2012–2017) and the 7th fastest growing region in terms of Gross Value Added (GVA) per person.
Ireland South East represents a place of opportunity for business, careers, investment, and tourism. A qualitative analysis of the company and infrastructural activity in the region also shows continuing positivity, with new job announcements, new investments, and major infrastructural projects underway. The region continues to score well on affordability and quality of life metrics making it an attractive place for talent and investment.
Regional GDP in 2017 was given as €15,513m, with income per person standing at 90.5% of the State average. The 2019 unemployment rate for the region stood at 8.1%.
Tourism in the region is aided by its rich natural, historic and archaeological sites, which attract over 1 million people annually.
Demography.
According to the 2016 census, the region had a population of 422,062 which constitutes 8.86% of the national population. Its population density was 58.6 persons per km2. The population of the regional capital, Waterford, was 53,504.
The main urban centres within the region each exceed 17,000 in terms of population with an evenly distributed network of second and third-tier towns. This is also supplemented by a strong rural settlement initiative.
Major settlements.
A list of the ten largest settlements in the South-East region. County capitals are included and are shown in bold.
Current Regional Authority.
A number of local authority changes were made by the Irish government in June 2014, however these were not reflected in the NUTS 3 statistical units until June 2018, when appropriate updates were made following the implementation of Commission Regulation (EU) 2016/2066. North Tipperary County Council and South Tipperary County Council were unified into a single local authority for the county in 2014, however Tipperary remained divided between two NUTS 3 regions for statistical purposes. In June 2018 Tipperary was transferred in its entirety to the Mid-West Region.
Additionally, Waterford City Council was merged with Waterford County Council in 2014, however this too was not reflected at NUTS 3 level until 2018. Therefore the number of local authorities in the South-East Region has been reduced from 6 to 4. Prior to the change, South Tipperary comprised 23.8% of the South-East's land area and 19.1% of its population, making it the region's second largest county by area, and second smallest county by population.
The local authorities in the South-East Region are as follows:
Since the 2014 reforms, NUTS Level III regions have had no administrative role. The elected representatives of these councils instead convene at the Southern Regional Assembly for planning and local government purposes.


Schleswig-Holstein

Schleswig-Holstein () is the northernmost of the 16 states of Germany, comprising most of the historical duchy of Holstein and the southern part of the former Duchy of Schleswig. Its capital city is Kiel; other notable cities are Lübeck and Flensburg.
The region is called in Danish and pronounced . In more dated English, it is also known as "Sleswick-Holsatia". The Low German name is "", and the North Frisian name is "Slaswik-Holstiinj." Historically, the name can also refer to a larger region, containing both present-day Schleswig-Holstein and the former South Jutland County (Northern Schleswig; now part of the Region of Southern Denmark) in Denmark.
History.
The term "Holstein" derives from Old Saxon "Holseta Land," ("Holz" and "Holt" mean wood in modern Standardised German and in literary English, respectively). Originally, it referred to the central of the three Saxon tribes north of the River Elbe: "Tedmarsgoi" (Dithmarschen), Holstein and "Sturmarii" (Stormarn). The area of the tribe of the Holsts was between the Stör River and Hamburg, and after Christianization, their main church was in Schenefeld. Saxon Holstein became a part of the Holy Roman Empire after Charlemagne's Saxon campaigns in the late eighth century. Since 811, the northern frontier of Holstein (and thus the Empire) was marked by the River Eider.
The term Schleswig comes from the city of Schleswig. The name derives from the Schlei inlet in the east and "vik" meaning inlet in Old Norse or settlement in Old Saxon, and cognate with the "-wick" or "-wich" element in place-names in Britain.
The Duchy of Schleswig or Southern Jutland was originally an integral part of Denmark, but was in medieval times established as a fief under the Kingdom of Denmark, with the same relation to the Danish Crown as for example Brandenburg or Bavaria vis-à-vis the Holy Roman Emperor. Around 1100, the Duke of Saxony gave Holstein, as it was his own country, to Count Adolf I of Schauenburg.
Duchies in the Danish realm.
Schleswig and Holstein have at different times belonged in part or completely to either Denmark or Germany, or have been virtually independent of both nations. The exception is that Schleswig had never been part of Germany until the Second Schleswig War in 1864. For many centuries, the King of Denmark was both a Danish Duke of Schleswig and a German Duke of Holstein. Essentially, Schleswig was either integrated into Denmark or was a Danish fief, and Holstein was a German fief and once a sovereign state long ago. Both were for several centuries ruled by the kings of Denmark. In 1721, all of Schleswig was united as a single duchy under the king of Denmark, and the great powers of Europe confirmed in an international treaty that all future kings of Denmark should automatically become dukes of Schleswig, and consequently Schleswig would always follow the same order of succession as the one chosen in the Kingdom of Denmark. In the church, following the reformation, German was used in the southern part of Schleswig and Danish in the northern part. This would later prove decisive for shaping national sentiments in the population, as well as after 1814 when mandatory school education was introduced. The administration of both duchies was conducted in German, despite the fact that they were governed from Copenhagen (from 1523 by the "German Chancellery" which was in 1806 renamed "Schleswig-Holstein Chancellery").
Schleswig-Holstein Question.
The German national awakening that followed the Napoleonic Wars gave rise to a strong popular movement in Holstein and Southern Schleswig for unification with a new Prussian-dominated Germany. This development was paralleled by an equally strong Danish national awakening in Denmark and Northern Schleswig. This movement called for the complete reintegration of Schleswig into the Kingdom of Denmark and demanded an end to discrimination against Danes in Schleswig. The ensuing conflict is sometimes called the Schleswig-Holstein Question. In 1848, King Frederick VII of Denmark declared that he would grant Denmark a liberal constitution and the immediate goal for the Danish national movement was to ensure that this constitution would give rights to all Danes, i.e. not only to those in the Kingdom of Denmark, but also to Danes (and Germans) living in Schleswig. Furthermore, they demanded protection for the Danish language in Schleswig (the dominant language in almost a quarter of Schleswig had changed from Danish to German since the beginning of the 19th century).
A liberal constitution for Holstein was not seriously considered in Copenhagen, since it was well known that the political élite of Holstein were more conservative than Copenhagen's. Representatives of German-minded Schleswig-Holsteiners demanded that Schleswig and Holstein be unified and allowed its own constitution and that Schleswig join Holstein as a member of the German Confederation. These demands were rejected by the Danish government in 1848, and the Germans of Holstein and southern Schleswig rebelled. This began the First Schleswig War (1848–51), which ended in a Danish victory at Idstedt.
In 1863, conflict broke out again when Frederick VII died without legitimate issue. According to the order of succession of Denmark and Schleswig, the crowns of both Denmark and Schleswig would pass to Duke Christian of Duchy of Glücksburg, who became Christian IX. The transmission of the duchy of Holstein to the head of the (German-oriented) branch of the Danish royal family, the House of Augustenborg, was more controversial. The separation of the two duchies was challenged by the Augustenborg heir, who claimed, as in 1848, to be rightful heir of both Schleswig and Holstein. The promulgation of a common constitution for Denmark and Schleswig in November 1863 prompted Otto von Bismarck to intervene and Prussia and Austria declared war on Denmark. This was the Second War of Schleswig, which ended in Danish defeat. British attempts to mediate in the London Conference of 1864 failed, and Denmark lost Schleswig (Northern and Southern Schleswig), Holstein, and Lauenburg to Prussia and Austria.
Province of Prussia.
Contrary to the hopes of German Schleswig-Holsteiners, the area did not gain its independence, but was annexed as a province of Prussia in 1867. Also following the Austro-Prussian War in 1866, section five of the Peace of Prague stipulated that the people of Northern Schleswig would be consulted in a referendum on whether to remain under Prussian rule or return to Danish rule. This condition, however, was never fulfilled by Prussia. During the decades of Prussian rule within the German Empire, authorities attempted a Germanisation policy in the northern part of Schleswig, which remained predominantly Danish. The period also meant increased industrialisation of Schleswig-Holstein and the use of Kiel and Flensburg as important Imperial German Navy locations. The northernmost part and west coast of the province saw a wave of emigration to America, while some Danes of North Schleswig emigrated to Denmark.
Plebiscite in 1920.
Following the defeat of Germany in World War I, the Allied powers arranged a plebiscite in northern and central Schleswig. The plebiscite was conducted under the auspices of an international commission which designated two voting zones to cover the northern and south-central parts of Schleswig. Steps were taken to also create a third zone covering a southern area, but zone III was cancelled again and never voted, as the Danish government asked the commission not to expand the plebiscite to this area.
In zone I covering Northern Schleswig (10 February 1920), 75% voted for reunification with Denmark and 25% voted for Germany. In zone II covering central Schleswig (14 March 1920), the results were reversed; 80% voted for Germany and just 20% for Denmark. Only minor areas on the island of Föhr showed a Danish majority, and the rest of the Danish vote was primarily in the town of Flensburg.
On 15 June 1920, Northern Schleswig officially returned to Danish rule. The Danish/German border was the only one of the borders imposed on Germany by the Treaty of Versailles after World War I which was never challenged by Adolf Hitler.
In 1937, the Nazis passed the so-called Greater Hamburg Act ("Groß-Hamburg-Gesetz"), where the nearby Free and Hanseatic City of Hamburg was expanded, to encompass towns that had formerly belonged to the Prussian province of Schleswig-Holstein. To compensate Prussia for these losses (and partly because Hitler had a personal dislike for Lübeck), the 711-year-long independence of the Hansestadt Lübeck came to an end, and almost all its territory was incorporated into Schleswig-Holstein.
State of Federal Germany.
After World War II, the Prussian province Schleswig-Holstein came under British occupation. On 23 August 1946, the military government abolished the province and reconstituted it as a separate "Land".
Due to the forced migrations of Germans between 1944 and 1950, Schleswig-Holstein took in almost a million refugees after the war, increasing its population by 33%. A pro-Danish political movement arose in Schleswig, with transfer of the area to Denmark as an ultimate goal. This was supported neither by the British occupation administration nor the Danish government. In 1955, the German and Danish governments issued the Bonn-Copenhagen Declarations confirming the rights of the ethnic minorities on both sides of the border. Conditions between the nationalities have since been stable and generally respectful.
Geography.
Schleswig-Holstein lies on the base of Jutland Peninsula between the North Sea and the Baltic Sea. Strictly speaking, "Schleswig" refers to the German Southern Schleswig ( or "Landesteil Schleswig", ), whereas Northern Schleswig is in Denmark (South Jutland County, Region of Southern Denmark). The state of Schleswig-Holstein further consists of Holstein, as well as Lauenburg and the formerly independent city of Lübeck.
Schleswig-Holstein borders Denmark (Southern Denmark) to the north, the North Sea to the west, the Baltic Sea to the east, and the German states of Lower Saxony, Hamburg, and Mecklenburg-Vorpommern to the south.
In the western part of the state, the lowlands have virtually no hills. The North Frisian Islands, as well as almost all of Schleswig-Holstein's North Sea coast, form the Schleswig-Holstein Wadden Sea National Park ("Nationalpark Schleswig-Holsteinisches Wattenmeer") which is the largest national park in Central Europe. Germany's only high-sea island, Heligoland, is situated in the North Sea.
The Baltic Sea coast in the east of Schleswig-Holstein is marked by bays, fjords, and cliff lines. Rolling hills (the highest elevation is the Bungsberg at ) and many lakes are found, especially in the eastern part of Holstein called the Holstein Switzerland and the former Duchy of Lauenburg ("Herzogtum Lauenburg"). Fehmarn is the only island off the eastern coast. The longest river besides the Elbe is the Eider.
Schleswig-Holstein has the lowest quota of forest covered area, it is only 11.0% (national average 32.0%), which even lower as in cities like Hamburg or Bremen.
Typical landscape (from West to East):
Administration.
Schleswig-Holstein is divided into 11 "Kreise" (districts):
Furthermore, the four separate urban districts are:
Demographics.
Schleswig-Holstein has an aging population. Since 1972 there has been a decrease in the natural rate of population change. In 2016 the total fertility rate reached 1.61, highest value in 40 years (the average value being 1.4). In 2016 there were 25,420 births and 33,879 deaths, resulting in a natural decrease of -8,459.
Religion.
The region has been strongly Protestant since the time of the Protestant Reformation. It is proportionally the most Protestant of the sixteen modern states. In 2018, members of the Evangelical Church in Germany make up 44.6% of the population, while members of the Catholic Church comprise 6.1%. 49.3% of the population is not religious or adherent of other religions.
Foreigners.
Largest groups of foreign residents by 31 December 2018
Culture.
Schleswig-Holstein combines Danish, Frisian and German aspects of culture. The castles and manors in the countryside are the best example for this tradition; some dishes like Rødgrød (, literal English "red grits" or "red groats") are also shared, as well as surnames such as Hansen.
The most important festivals are the Kiel Week, Schleswig-Holstein Musik Festival, an annual classic music festival all over the state, and the Lübeck Nordic Film Days, an annual film festival for movies from Scandinavian countries, held in Lübeck.
The annual Wacken Open Air festival is considered to be the largest heavy metal rock festival in the world.
The state's most important museum of cultural history is in Gottorf Castle in Schleswig.
The Wagnerian tenor Klaus Florian Vogt is from Schleswig - Holstein.
Symbols.
The coat of arms shows the symbols of the two duchies united in Schleswig-Holstein, i.e., the two lions for Schleswig and the leaf of a nettle for Holstein. Supposedly, Otto von Bismarck decreed that the two lions were to face the nettle because of the discomfort to their bottoms which would have resulted if the lions faced away from it.
The motto of Schleswig-Holstein is "Up ewich ungedeelt" (Middle Low German: "Forever undivided", modern High German: "Auf ewig ungeteilt"). It goes back to the Vertrag von Ripen or Handfeste von Ripen (Danish: Ribe Håndfæstning) or Treaty of Ribe in 1460. Ripen (Ribe) is a historical small town at the North Sea coast in Northern Schleswig. See History of Schleswig-Holstein.
The anthem from 1844 is called "Wanke nicht, mein Vaterland" ("Don't falter, my fatherland"), but it is usually referred to with its first line "Schleswig-Holstein meerumschlungen" (i.e., "Schleswig-Holstein embraced by the seas") or "Schleswig-Holstein-Lied" (Schleswig-Holstein song).
The old city of Lübeck is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Food and drink.
Distinctive point of the cuisine is combination of sweetness with a taste contrast like sour or salty. These combinations are also described as "broken sweetness" is especially present in dishes which are sweet-sour.
Typical dishes are:
Languages.
The official language of Schleswig-Holstein is German. In addition, Low German, Danish and North Frisian are recognized minority languages.
Historically, Low German (in Holstein and Southern Schleswig), Danish (in Schleswig), and North Frisian (in Western Schleswig) were widely spoken in Schleswig-Holstein. During the language change in the 19th century some Danish and North Frisian dialects in Southern Schleswig were replaced by Standard German.
Low German is still used in many parts of the state. Missingsch, a Low German dialect with heavy High German (Standard German) influence, is commonly spoken informally throughout the state, while a mixed language Petuh (mixture of High German and Danish) is used in and around Flensburg. Danish is used by the Danish minority in Southern Schleswig, and North Frisian is spoken by the North Frisians of the North Sea Coast and the Northern Frisian Islands in Southern Schleswig. The North Frisian dialect called Heligolandic ("Halunder") is spoken on the island of Heligoland.
As is the case throughout Germany, High German, introduced in the 16th century, has come to steadily replace local dialects for official purposes, and is today the predominant language of media, law and legislature. It is spoken by virtually all inhabitants in formal situations. Since the end of World War II and widespread adoption of TV, radio and other mass media, it has gradually come to supplant local dialects in urban areas as well.
Economy.
The Gross domestic product (GDP) of the state was 62.7 billion euros in 2018, accounting for 1.9% of German economic output. GDP per capita adjusted for purchasing power was 30,400 euros or 101% of the EU27 average in the same year. The GDP per employee was 95% of the EU average. The GDP per capita was the lowest of all states in West Germany. In 2017, Schleswig-Holstein had an export surplus for the first time since 1989: export 22.6 billion euros/ import 20.8 billion euros.
Energy.
Schleswig-Holstein is a leader in the country's growing renewable energy industry. In 2014, Schleswig-Holstein became the first German state to cover 100% of its electric power demand with renewable energy sources (chiefly wind 70%, solar 3.8%, and biomass 8.3%).. There are three nuclear power plants (17.7%): Krümmel, Brunsbüttel and Brockdorf. The last one is still in operation, where also using MOX fuel with plutonium.
The largest German oil field Mittelplate is located in the North Sea off the Dithmarsch coast and connected with refinery in Hemmingstedt and chemical plants in Brunsbüttel via pipeline. It produce ca. 1.4 million tonnes oil annually.
Tourism.
Located between the North Sea and the Baltic Sea, Schleswig-Holstein is also a popular tourist destination in Germany. Its islands, beaches and cities attract millions of tourists every year. It has the second highest tourism intensity per local among the German states, after Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, but in absolute value it is rank 6th and only 1/3 of top destination Bavaria. According to a ruling by the Federal Administrative Court, everyone has the right to free access to the beach. Nevertheless, most of the seaside resorts kept cashing in (2-3€ /day/person).
Agriculture.
63% of land Schleswig-Holstein (990 403 ha) using in agriculture (national average 47%).
Cultivated crops:
There are some special cultivation regions:
Animal husbandry.
The dairy and cattle farming in connection with fodder cultivation is mainly concentrated on the marshland and the bordering Geest areas. In 2020, around 1 million cattle including 360,000 dairy cows were counted in Schleswig-Holstein, rank 4th of German states. Livestock is continuously declining.
Schleswig-Holstein is home of the most productive diary cattle Holstein, producing avearge 8 125 litres/year of milk. Now it dominates in global dairy industry.
Pig breeding is mainly found in the Schleswig-Holstein Uplands. In principle, Schleswig-Holstein is one of the regions with relatively few pigs (a total of around 1.6 million; in comparison Lower Saxony: over 8 million). Poultry and sheep are also of little importance in animal husbandry.
Schleswig-Holstein had Europe's largest snake farm in Uetersen with over 600 venomous reptiles, but it closed in 2019.
Fishing and Aquaculture.
Total production from fishing in North and Baltic Seas was 40 780 tonnes in 2019, ca. 1/3 German production
In the Baltic Sea total production amounted to 10377 tonnes (2019), of which 5432 tonnes of sprat, 2568 tonnes of flatfish and 1190 tonnes of cod.
In theNorth Sea the numbers were 19487 tonnes of mussels, 3560 tonnes of north sea shrimp, 1166 tonnes of herring and 7062 other fishes.
The one important aquaculture product is mussels, 16864 tonnes.
Inland fishing and aquaculture is not significant with 221 and 250 tonnes in 2019 respectively.
Companies.
The largest company headquarters in Schleswig-Holstein with annual sales over 1 billion euros are:
The unemployment rate stood at 6.1% in April 2021.
Industries.
Schleswig-Holstein belong to less developed state in Germany. Some branches are declining since many years and new high technology was not set up.
Branches:
Transport.
Kiel Canal.
The most important transport way in Schleswig-Holstein is Kiel Canal, which connect Brunsbüttel on North Sea with Kiel on Baltic Sea. Total cargo of ships reach peaks in 2007 and 2012, after that it continuous decline with 73.8 million tonnes in 2020.
Ports.
The state has a total of 46 public ports and landing stages, four of which fulfill international transit functions: Kiel, Lübeck / Travemünde and Puttgarden on the Baltic Sea, Brunsbüttel on the North Sea. Kiel and Lübeck are also important for freight traffic to Scandinavia and Eastern Europe. Lübeck-Travemünde and Kiel are also important ferry and cruise ports. Puttgarden is the German port of the Vogelfluglinie to Denmark. Brunsbüttel is an important port for bulk goods and also serves as the basis for the offshore wind energy industry.
Air.
There is no any international or large regional airports, only small air fields. Area is serviced by Hamburg Airport
Leukemia Cluster Elbmarsch and Radioactive Contamination.
Leukemia cluster Elbmarsch is an accumulation (cancer cluster) of leukemia in children in the area of Geesthacht (Duchy of Lauenburg, Schleswig-Holstein), which occurs from 1990. According to EU authorities, this is the world's highest recorded leukemia rate in a small area in children and at the same time the best recorded and documented cluster worldwide.
In Geesthacht situated nuclear power plant Krümmel and nuclear research center Helmholtz-Zentrum Geeshacht (rebranded as Hereon) with 2 research reactors.
On September 12, 1986, an alarmingly high level of radioactivity was suddenly measured at several measuring points at the Krümmel nuclear power plant. The operators of the nuclear power plant ruled out an incident within the power plant. The cause of the increased values must therefore have been outside the nuclear power plant. Several eyewitnesses reported a fire (yellow-bluish pillar of fire without smoke) that they saw on the premises of the neighboring Geeshacht Helmholtz research center. After the alleged accident, eyewitnesses claim to have seen workers in contamination protection clothing on the affected site, which would indicate a worryingly high level of radiation. There were reports in the local press.
The fire brigade's logs from September 1986, which could contain more detailed information about a fire incident, were destroyed by a fire in their archives in September 1991 according to the local fire brigade (see final report of the Schleswig-Holstein Leukemia Commission).
PAC-beads are approximately spherical particles of nuclear fuel. PAC beads were e.g. B. used in the spherical fuel elements of the THTR-300 nuclear power plant in Hamm-Uentrop. The diameters of such spheres are between a few hundredths of a millimeter and one millimeter. Various groups involved in researching the cause, as well as individuals, such as the Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War (IPPNW), have found globules in the Elbmarsch area in the ground and on thatched roofs. The finds occurred in different concentrations around the Krümmel nuclear power plant. The suspected fire in 1986 is considered to be the source of this contamination, because they are not use in conventional nuclear plant like Krümmel, but could be used in research facility.
Laboratory tests carried out by Wladislaw Mironow at the Sakharov University in Minsk showed that the PAC-beads were definitely not attributable to the Chernobyl accident or the fallout of nuclear weapons tests.
The six resigned members of investigation commission with former chairman Otmar Wassermann identified in 2004 as the cause of the accumulation of "secret nuclear special experiments on the Research Center premises" that had occurred since 1989. The Munich nuclear medicine doctor Edmund Lengfelder, one of the resigned scientists, insisted in 2004 to the Süddeutsche Zeitung: “The commission found millimeter-sized ceramic spheres containing nuclear fuel in the vicinity of Geeshacht Helmholtz research center and NPP Krümmel. They could have been used to make miniaturized atomic bombs. The spheres were apparently released in a fire in 1986 and scattered in the landscape." Lengfelder assumes secret experiments in which a millimeter-sized bead of plutonium-239 is compressed so highly by means of a laser pulse at the focal point of a ceramic ellipsoid that it becomes a chain reaction and a release of energy corresponding to an explosion of around 500 to 1000 kilograms of TNT explosives. A mixture of fission and activation products, transuranic elements (plutonium and americium) and other nuclear fuels (enriched uranium and thorium derivatives) should indicate this.
Other independent investigations into the Lower Elbe were carried out in mid-2010. Significantly increased, albeit radiologically insignificant amounts of transuranic elements, including plutonium, were found in the mud of the Elbe.
Education.
Compulsory education starts for children who are six years old on 30 June. All children attend a "Grundschule", which is Germany's equivalent to primary school, for the first 4 years and then move on to a secondary school. In Schleswig-Holstein there are "Gemeinschaftsschulen", which is a new type of comprehensive school. The regional schools, which go by the German name "Regionalschule" have been done away with as of 1 January 2014. The option of a Gymnasium is still available.
In a comparison of the federal states, Schleswig-Holstein has the highest student-to-teacher ratio in Germany at around 16.5:1 (national average: 15.2:1). In addition, Schleswig-Holstein is 14th from 16 federal state in terms of expenditure per pupil at public schools with around 5750 euros (national average: 6500 euros).
There are three universities in Kiel (classical, budget 167.1 M€), Lübeck (medicine, budget 80.8 M€) and Flensburg (pedagogical, 37.4 M€).. It is really poor financing in comparison to universities with the same size in South Germany, for example University of Tübingen has budget (2019) 642.2 M€. Also, there are four public Universities of Applied Sciences in Flensburg, Heide, Kiel, and Lübeck. There is the Conservatory in Lübeck and the Muthesius Academy of Fine Arts in Kiel. There are also three private institutions of higher learning.
Politics.
Schleswig-Holstein has its own parliament and government which are located in the state capital Kiel. The Minister-President of Schleswig-Holstein is elected by the Landtag of Schleswig-Holstein.
Recent elections.
The most recent Schleswig-Holstein state elections were held on 7 May 2017. The governing parties consisting of the Social Democrats, the Green Party, and the South Schleswig Voters' Association lost their majority.


Nord-Vest (development region)

Nord-Vest () is a development region in Romania, created in 1998. As other development regions, it does not have any administrative powers, its main function being to co-ordinate regional development projects and manage funds from the European Union.
Counties.
The Nord-Vest region is made up of the following counties:
Economy.
The economy of Nord-Vest is mainly agricultural (46% of its population having agriculture as their main occupation), even though there is some heavy and light industry in the major regional industrial centres of Cluj-Napoca, Oradea, Baia Mare, Bistrița, Satu Mare and Zalău.
There are also several mining centres in Maramureș county and in the Apuseni Mountains. Many of these mining areas have been partly shut down, resulting in significant local unemployment, even though unemployment in the Nord-Vest region is at approximately 4%, below the Romanian national average of 5.5%. Many mining areas have been classified by the government as defavourised zones, with incentives given to investors who plan to create jobs in these areas and diversify the economy.
The region's GDP per capita is slightly below the Romanian average (approximately 90% of the Romanian average), despite the fact that the major cities – Cluj-Napoca and Oradea – are some of the most prosperous in Romania.
Infrastructure.
The region is crossed by five European roads – E60, E81, E79, E671 and E58. Additionally, the A3 freeway is currently in construction and will cross Cluj, Sălaj and Bihor counties in the region. Nord-Vest also it has an extensive railway infrastructure connecting most of the important towns.
The region has four airports – Cluj-Napoca, Oradea, Satu Mare and Baia Mare. Currently, Cluj-Napoca, Oradea and Satu Mare airports have international flights while Baia Mare airport is temporarily closed.
Demographics.
Romania's Nord-Vest development region has a total population of 2,600,132 (2011 Census). The region is one of the most ethnically-diverse in Romania, with 25% of the population coming from a minority group. After Romanians, who make up 75% of the population, the largest minority group are Hungarians, who comprise slightly less than 20% of the population. Hungarians are mainly concentrated in urban centres, especially those near the Hungarian border, such as Oradea and Satu Mare. The third largest minority are Romani people, who make up 3.5%, slightly above the national average. Romani people are spread relatively evenly throughout the region, even though the highest proportions are in Bihor county, where approximately 5% of the population is Romani.
Romanian is the most widely spoken language, spoken as a first language by 76.6% of the inhabitants of the region. The other important languages are Hungarian, spoken by 19.9% of the population, Romani and Ukrainian. Religion is mainly based on ethnic groups, with the largest religion being Romanian Orthodoxy, observed by 68.38% of the population, mostly ethnic Romanians. Other important religions are the Reformed Church (12.70%), Roman Catholicism (6.86%) and Greek Catholicism (4.20%).
Age and fertility.
The Nord-Vest region has the following age structure, according to the 2011 census:
Citizenship.
99.9% of the population of Nord-Vest region has Romanian citizenship. There are 2,343 residents, or 0.09% of the population, of foreign citizenship, including:
2,687 people, or 0.10% of the population, has dual citizenship.


Walloon Space Cluster

The Walloon Space Cluster or Wallonie Espace is the official Walloon cluster (industries, universities, laboratories) working on space research and development in Wallonia and in Brussels, Belgium. It is based at the Liège Science Park and the University of Liège's Liège Space Center, with 36 member organisations in Belgium's French-speaking community.


Province of Caltanissetta

The Province of Caltanissetta (; or ; officially "Libero consorzio comunale di Caltanissetta") is a province in the southern part of Sicily, Italy. Following the suppression of the Sicilian provinces, it was replaced in 2015 by the Free municipal consortium of Caltanissetta. It contains 22 "comuni", which are listed at Comuni of the Province of Caltanissetta. Its coat of arms is a red crest and two green leaf stems on top with a laurel leaf on the right and a crown in the middle. The River Salso is the main river of the province; it is long and originates in the province of Palermo, and it flows into the Mediterranean in this province at the end of the Gulf of Gela.
Bordering provinces and metropolitan cities.
In counterclockwise order:
Geography.
The province extends to the central part of Sicily in the northwestern direction where the capital is located. The commune of Resuttano is found in an enclave of the province of Palermo near Caltanissetta between Monte Stretto and Portella del Vento. Another example in the same province is that of the two small localities of Cannetti and Corfidato, two hamlets ("Frazioni"")" of the "comune" of Enna, away, within the territory of the "comune" of Caltanissetta. The land extends to the Gela Plain and into the Gulf of Gela, where the main river of the province, the Salso, meets the Mediterranean.
Population.
The total population of the province is 271.758 people. Here below are listed the "communes" with more than 10,000 inhabitants:


Viljandi County

Viljandi County () or Viljandimaa; (), is one of 15 counties of Estonia. It is located in southern Estonia bordering Pärnu, Järva, Jõgeva, Tartu and Valga counties.
History.
Viljandimaa, under the German name of "Kreis Fellin", was an important centre of commerce and power in the Middle Ages. Today, there are numerous castle ruins there dating from that time.
Soomaa National Park is a national park located partially within Viljandi County, Estonia. Soomaa ("land of bogs") protects 390 km², and is a Ramsar site of protected wetlands. The park was created in 1993.
County government.
The County government () is led by Governor (), who is appointed by the Government of Estonia for a term of five years. Currently the Governor position is held by Kalle Küttis.
Municipalities.
The county is subdivided into municipalities. There is one urban municipality ( – towns) and three rural municipalities ( – parishes) in Viljandi County.


Middelfart Municipality

Middelfart Municipality is a municipality (Danish, "kommune") in Region of Southern Denmark on the west coast of the island of Funen in southern Denmark. The municipality covers an area of 297 km². It has a total population of 37,274 (2008). Its mayor is Steen Dahlstrøm, a member of the Social Democrats ("Socialdemokraterne") political party. The main town and the site of its municipal council is the town of Middelfart.
The "Snævringen" ("The Narrowing"), is the strait that separates the island of Funen from the Jutland mainland in this area, where the two lie very close to each other, often less than 1.5 km apart. "Snævringen" is an extension of the Kattegat, and begins near the cities of Fredericia and Middelfart. To the south of the municipality is Fænø Strait ("Fænø Sund"), which separates Funen from the municipality's island of Fænø.
On 1 January 2007 Middelfart municipality was, as the result of "Kommunalreformen" ("The Municipal Reform" of 2007), merged with Ejby and Nørre Aaby municipalities to form an enlarged Middelfart municipality.
The municipality is part of Triangle Region and of the East Jutland metropolitan area, which had a total population of 1.378 million in 2016.
Economy.
Companies headquartered in the municipality include United Shipping & Trading Company.
Politics.
Middelfart's municipal council consists of 25 members, elected every four years. The municipal council has seven political committees.
Municipal council.
Below are the municipal councils elected since the Municipal Reform of 2007.


Sabinov District

Sabinov District ("okres Sabinov") is a district in the Prešov Region of eastern Slovakia. It lies on the highlands of Šarišská vrchovina. The district had been established in 1923 and from 1996 exists in its present borders. Food, pharmaceutical and clothing industry and located foremost in its towns and Šarišské Michaľany. In the district are three recreational centers, mainly used during winter and skiing season. Overall, the district suffers from the high unemployment rate. In Sabinov district are 43 municipalities, in two of them are towns.


Province of Padua

The Province of Padua ("Provincia di Padova") is a province in the Veneto region of Italy. Its capital is the city of Padua.
Geography.
It has an area of 2,142 km², and a total population of 936,492 (2016) making it the most populated province of Veneto. There are 102 "comuni" in the province.
The territory is usually divided in the capital city, Padua, and its hinterland, formed by the nearby municipalities; the "Alta Pianura" (higher plain), north of the city; the "Bassa Pianura" (lower plain), south of the city, including the "Saccisica" in the south-east; and the "Colli Euganei" (Euganei hills) south-west of the city. The Euganei hills are the only heights of the entire province, the other parts being totally plain.
History.
The borders of the province are almost the same of the Medieval commune of Padua, with just some adjustment in the north-east. The territory was administered within these boundaries since the time of the Republic of Venice, but the modern province comes directly from the administrative divisions of Kingdom of Lombardy-Venetia. The Diocese of Padua covers the most part of the province, out of a main part of "Alta Pianura"; instead it includes areas from the surrounding provinces.
Main sights.
Padua is home to some masterpieces from Medieval and Renaissance art and architecture, while the towns of Cittadella and Montagnana are known for the well preserved Medieval city walls. There are numerous villas in the countryside, a few of them from Palladio, the main ones being Villa Contarini (in Piazzola sul Brenta) and Villa Barbarigo (in Valsanzibio). The Euganei hills offer a relaxing naturalistic site, often covered in woods, while at their eastern slopes there are many ancient spa sites: the "Terme Euganee", as Abano Terme, Montegrotto Terme, Galzignano Terme, Battaglia Terme. There is a small part of the Venetian Lagoon lying inside the province, the "Valle Millecampi" ("one-thousand-fields valley"); and also the river landscapes of the countryside include naturalistic routes, even for cycling or horse-riding. Travelling by boat is possible as well.
Climate.
The most part of the province has a temperate sub-continental climate for the Köppen climate classification "Cfa"); only part of the Colli Euganei have a milder climate, because their southern slopes are above the thermal inversion line by winter, and exposed to the Sun all the year: which allows them to cultivate small olive trees.
The winter is usually moderately cold in the province, avoiding both warm and cold extremes; frost is very common at plain (below the thermal inversion line) with about 60–70 frost days a year, and temperatures usually do not get lower than −8/−12 °C in the plains during the year; but the all-times record for Padua is −19.2 °C by January 1985. The lower plain is slightly colder than the higher plain; snowfalls are highly variable from year to year, and one could see winters with almost no snow as years with frequent snowfalls (Padua has a century average of almost 20 cm/8in during a year). Fog is a common phenomenon, even lasting all the day long, above all in the lower plain.
Summers are moderately hot and wet, warmer and less rainy in the lower plain, while the higher plain is often hit by thunderstorms; Padua has a record of +39.8 °C by August 2003, and usually gets above +36 °C in a year.
Spring and autumn are changeable seasons, which may experience wintry or sultry weather, heavy rainfalls or pleasant sunny days. The period between April and June is usually the wettest one in a year.
Extreme events may sometime hit the province. Flooding is a well-known phenomenon since ancient time, so that all the rivers and channels which cross the plain are embanked, and many channels were dug to avoid frequent flooding. The worst recent events were on 4 November 1966 and on 2 November 2010.
Snowstorms, with some inch of fresh snow and strong "Bora" gusts, may happen during a normal winter, but rarely can be considered like a "blizzard", and usually they do not last more than 1–2 days and with no more than 6-10in (15–25 cm) of snow. Anyway, a really exceptional event happened during the winter of 1608: a snowfall that lasted for 40 consecutive days, from late January to early March, with the snow depth at ground reaching at least 6–7 ft (about 2m) as witnessed by Galileo; a similar event never repeated.
Rarely, between May and September, tornadoes may hit the area as well. The most famous were the one of 17 August 1756, bringing heavy damages to Padua; and the one of 11 September 1970, starting from Colli Euganei and passing through Paduan metropolitan area to end over Venice, an F2 (intensifying up to F4 going onto Venice) on the Fujita scale. Hailstorms are possible as well by summer, the worst recent event having been on 28 August 2003.
Economy.
The province has a thriving economy, in the metropolitan area and the "Alta Pianura", due to the presence of numerous enterprises of every kind, mainly industrial ones, but also from tertiary and primary economical sectors; these areas are also densely populated. The "Bassa Pianura" is instead a mainly rural area, thus being poorer and less populated. Tourism is developed above all in the spa towns, while both in Padua and in the other parts of the province it may be considered under-developed, aside from the arrival of large numbers of pilgrims in Padua.
Transportation.
Two motorways cross the territory, one being the A4, the other being the A13; Padua has also a highway ring surrounding the city and connecting it to its hinterland. The main railways make almost the same paths of the motorways, going to Venice, Milan or Bologna; but there are minor railways going north (Castelfranco Veneto), north-west (Bassano del Grappa and Trento), south-west (Mantua) and south-east (Chioggia). The main roads follow all those paths.
Sport.
Several sports are practiced in the province of Padua. The most popular is football: every village as well as every city parish has its own little team, out of the most important ones playing in the Italian professional or amateur championships; and futsal is widespread too. Rugby union and volleyball are popular sports too; there are several teams also for basketball and field hockey; water polo, American football and baseball are played too. Among individual sports, cycling, athletics, swimming, rowing, tennis, fencing, golf and horse-back riding are often practiced, as well as martial arts.
Major club teams of the province include:
Main municipalities.
The main "comuni" by population are ():


Province of Ferrara

The province of Ferrara (; ) is a province in the region of Emilia-Romagna, Italy. Its provincial capital is the city Ferrara. As of 2016, it has a population of 354,238 inhabitants over an area of . It contains 23 "comuni", listed at list of communes of the Province of Ferrara. Its president is Barbara Paron.
History.
The province of Ferrara is believed to have been first settled in by the Romans at the site "Forum Alieni", although remains of the coastal port of Spina have been unearthed near Comacchio by archaeologists. Ferrara was first mentioned when it was conquered by Germanic tribe the Lombards in 753 CE, and the Byzantine Empire lost its rule over the city. It was gifted to the Holy See by the Franks in either 754 or 756 CE, and was led by the Bishops of Ravenna. Benedictine and Cistercian monasteries started reclaiming Podeltan lands in the 9th century.
In 1055, the partially independent town of Fererra was given imperial powers, but was led by Matilda of Tuscany from 1101 and Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor from 1158. Members of the House of Este took control of the city during the 13th century, and formed a university in Ferrara in 1391. Walls were built around the perimeter of Ferrara in the 15th and 16th centuries. It joined the Papal States in 1598. Its citadel was occupied by the Austrians in 1831 after the Italian United Provinces was formed, and the Austrians occupied the city in 1847. On 21 June 1859 the Austrians left the city of Ferrara and it was able to join the Kingdom of Italy.
In 1921, Italo Balbo joined the newly created National Fascist Party and soon became a secretary of the Ferrara fascist organization. He began to organize Fascist gangs and formed his own group. They broke strikes for local landowners and attacked communists and socialists in the region. His success in Ferrara set in motion the rapid rise of Fascism in northern Italy and played an important role in the transformation of Fascism into a major political movement.
Geography.
The province of Ferarra is one of nine provinces in the region of Emilia-Romagna in the northeast of Italy. It is the most northerly province in the region to abut onto the Adriatic Sea. The Province of Rovigo in the Veneto region lies immediately to the north and the Province of Mantua in Lombardy to the northwest. To the west lies the Province of Modena and the Province of Bologna, and the Province of Ravenna lies to the south. The provincial capital is the city of Ferrara, which is situated on a branch of the Po River about northeast of Bologna.