Persistent thyroglossal duct

A persistent thyroglossal duct is a usually benign medical condition in which the thyroglossal duct, a structure usually only found during embryonic development, fails to atrophy. The duct persists as a midline structure forming an open connection between the back of the tongue and the thyroid gland. This opening can lead to fluid accumulation and infection, which necessitate the removal of the duct.
Signs and symptoms.
Studies done on cadavers claim persistent thyroglossal ducts can be completely asymptomatic and found in 7% of the human adult population. However, the continued presence of the duct can often lead to complications due to infections and fluid buildup. The glands in the mucosa of the duct will continue their secretions until the fluid forms a cyst or exit the duct via the opening in the foramen cecum. Local infections, such as colds, tonsillitis, or inflammation of the lymph nodes in the area can also lead to the accumulation of fluid within the duct. Even if the cyst forms as secondary to another infection and improved after antibiotics, it will often reoccur and require treatment.
Three-fourths of abnormalities within a persistent thyroglossal duct involve the formation of a cyst. If a persistent thyroglossal duct becomes fluid filled it will form a thyroglossal duct cyst, which accounts for 70% of congenital neck masses and is the most likely diagnosis if the mass is along the midline of the neck. These cysts are often diagnosed in children under the age of ten and have no particular gender prevalence. The cysts are normally asymptomatic at this age and are noticed because of the swelling that will move if the patient swallows. Over 80% of these cysts are located at or below the hyoid bone.
Very rarely, the persistent duct can become cancerous, called thyroglossal duct carcinoma. In the case of thyroglossal duct carcinoma, the cancerous cells are ectopic thyroid tissue that has been deposited along the thyroglossal duct and will present as a papillary carcinoma. However, the cells are less likely to metastasize in the cyst, than if they were present in the actual thyroid gland.
The other fourth of abnormalities presents as draining abscess. This is from an infection that will rupture through the skin to allow for adequate drainage of the infected area.
Anatomy.
The tongue develops after the thyroid primordium so the foramen cecum becomes buried at the base of the tongue. The thyroglossal duct then continues through the neck and lies anterior to the laryngeal cartilage. The duct then passes anteriorly to the developing hyoid bone; however, as the bone continues to grow it can continue to grow posteriorly, become anterior, or even grow to surround the duct. The duct is found very close to the medial line of the neck. The duct continues in front of the thyrohyoid membrane, sternothyroid muscle, and sternohyoid muscle, before terminating in the inferior segment of the neck at the thyroid.
Failures of duct removal surgeries have proven that the suprahyoid region of the duct can have many microscopic branches that connect to the base of the tongue. They exhibit variability between different cases; however, it is believed they are associated with the pharyngeal mucosa and muscles of the tongue.
Embryological origin.
During the third week of development, the thyroid gland begins to develop from the floor of the pharynx. This primordium begins as an evagination between the first and second pharyngeal grooves, relatively where the anterior two-thirds of the tongue ends. This area is known as the foramen cecum and marks the origin of the thyroglossal duct. As the developing thyroid begins to travel to its intended destination, it remains connected to the tongue via the thyroglossal duct. By the seventh week of fetal development, the thyroid reaches its final position in the neck after growing through the mesoderm and musculature of the tongue, mouth, and neck. During the eighth to tenth week, the cells of the duct normally begin growing inwards and fill the previously hollow tube, beginning from the inferior end. This inferior end of the duct will then become the pyramidal lobe of the thyroid gland. The dividing cellular cords of the tubular duct become the isthmus and lateral lobes of the gland to complete the formation of the rest of the gland.
Once the thyroglossal duct involutes, the cells will begin to degenerate and disappear. However, in the case of a persistent thyroglossal duct, the tube remains hollow and continues to connect the foramen cecum to the thyroid gland.
Histology.
The cells of the thyroglossal duct are epithelial in origin. The cell shapes can range from columnar, to squamous, to transitional epithelium. Thyroid-like masses can also be seen in close relation along the duct. Enclosed vesicles and cysts can also be seen while studying the tissue of the duct. A persistent thyroglossal duct in a rabbit showed resemblance to the layout of the alimentary canal; with its external fibrous connective tissue, muscular layers, submucosal glands, and convoluted epithelium.
Diagnosis.
Ultrasound is the often chosen to examine the duct and determine the presence and size of any cysts or abnormalities. Fine-needle aspiration cytology can also be used to confirm the diagnosis.
Treatment.
In order to prevent further cysts and infections from forming, the thyroglossal duct and all of its branches are removed from the throat and neck area. A procedure, known as the Sistrunk procedure, is considered to be the standard procedure and involves removal of portions of the hyoid bone and core tissue of the suprahyoid region. Cysts will often reoccur if the entire duct is not removed, so reoccurrence requires a wider range of tissue to be removed in a subsequent surgery.
Delaying the surgical procedure almost always leads to recurrent infections, which will continue to delay the needed treatment. The Sistrunk procedure has a reoccurrence rate of less than 5%, proving it is extremely effective at removing the majority of traces of the persistent thyroglossal duct.


Stanton Cohn

Stanton H. Cohn (August 25, 1920 – April 28, 2008) was an expert in osteoporosis and the head of the Medical Physics Division at Brookhaven National Lab.
Early life.
Cohn was born in Chicago, Illinois in 1920 to Harry and Ethel Cohn, parents of Eastern European Jewish heritage. He married Sylva May on March 20, 1949 and had five children. He served in the United States Army from June 1943 until April 1946 working as a biochemist in the 203rd General Hospital Division.<ref name="https://www.bnl.gov"></ref>
After the war, he attended University of Chicago, graduating with a B.A. and M.S. in 1946. He later attended University of California Berkeley where he received his Ph.D. in 1952 in physiology and radiobiology. His thesis was titled "The Effects of Ionizing Radiation on the Growth and Metabolism of Bone."
Career.
From 1950 to 1958, Cohn led the Internal Toxicity Branch of the Biomedical Division of the United States Naval Research Laboratory. He also conducted research on mineral metabolism in bone, biological distribution and effects of internally deposited radionuclides, and whole-body neutron activation analysis.
Cohn worked at Brookhaven National Lab beginning in 1958. He rose to become the head of the Medical Physics Division in 1970, a position that he held until his retirement in 1987. He also held a joint appointment as Professor of Medicine (Clinical Physiology) in the School of Medicine of State University of New York at Stony Brook. During his career, Dr. Cohn authored or co-authored over 300 papers.
Cohn was a pioneer in the study of non-invasive measurement of calcium and other elements in the human body. He was one of the early developers of "in vivo" neutron activation analysis for body composition in 1971. Working with H.C. Lukaski, J. Mendez, and E.R. Buskirk in 1981, Cohn developed the urinary 3-Methylhistidine method to estimate total body skeletal muscle mass. Along with J.J. Kehayias, K.J. Ellis and J.H. Weinlein he "established the first inelastic scattering facility for estimating total body carbon and oxygen in 1987."
At Brookhaven National Lab, he led a group using whole-body counting<ref name="https://books.google.com">Popular Mechanics March 1961 Page 284</ref> to identify and measure radioactive material in the body. He later was part of a team that was among the first to recognize that nuclear fallout from test sites might have local health implications. Cohn was a member of the team that returned to the Marshall Islands after the United States government performed nuclear testing, to aid the Marshallese people and to continue monitoring, in 1959, 1961, 1974 and 1977.
In subsequent years, he expanded his work to study the effects of cadmium, mercury and other harmful elements on workers in the smelting and mining industries.
He died in 2008 in Portland, Oregon.


Intestinal atresia

Intestinal atresia is any congenital malformation of the structure of the intestine that causes bowel obstruction. The malformation can be a narrowing (stenosis), absence or malrotation of a portion of the intestine. These defects can either occur in the small or large intestine.
Symptoms and signs.
The most prominent symptom of intestinal atresia is bilious vomiting soon after birth. This is most common in jejunal atresia. Other features include abdominal distension and failure to pass meconium. The distension is more generalised the further down the bowel the atresia is located and is thus most prominent with ileal atresia. Inability to pass stool is most common with duodenal or jejunal atresia; if stool is passed, it may be small, mucus-like and grey. Occasionally, there may be jaundice, which is most common in jejunal atresia. Abdominal tenderness or an abdominal mass are not generally seen as symptoms of intestinal atresia. Rather, abdominal tenderness is a symptom of the late complication meconium peritonitis.
Before birth, excess amniotic fluid (polyhydramnios) is a possible symptom. This is more common in duodenal and oesophageal atresia.
Cause.
The most common cause of non-duodenal intestinal atresia is a vascular accident in utero that leads to decreased intestinal perfusion and ischemia of the respective segment of bowel. This leads to narrowing, or in the most severe cases, complete obliteration of the intestinal lumen.
In the case that the superior mesenteric artery, or another major intestinal artery, is occluded, large segments of bowel can be entirely underdeveloped (Type III). Classically, the affected area of bowel assumes a spiral configuration and is described to have an "apple peel" like appearance; this is accompanied by lack of a dorsal mesentery (Type IIIb).
An inherited form – familial multiple intestinal atresia – has also been described. This disorder was first reported in 1971. It is due to a mutation in the gene TTC7A on short arm of chromosome 2 (2p16). It is inherited as an autosomal recessive gene and is usually fatal in infancy. Ileal atresia can also result as a complication of meconium ileus.
A third of infants with intestinal atresia are born prematurely or with low birth weight.
Diagnosis.
Intestinal atresias are often discovered before birth; either during a routine sonogram which shows a dilated intestinal segment due to the blockage, or by the development of polyhydramnios (the buildup of too much amniotic fluid in the uterus). These abnormalities are indications that the fetus may have a bowel obstruction which a more detailed ultrasound study can confirm. Infants with stenosis instead of atresia are often not discovered until several days after birth.
Some fetuses with bowel obstruction have abnormal chromosomes. An amniocentesis is recommended because it can determine not only the sex of the baby, but whether or not there is a problem with the chromosomes.
If not diagnosed "in utero", infants with intestinal atresia are typically diagnosed at day 1 or day 2 after presenting with eating problems, vomiting, and/or failure to have a bowel movement. Diagnosis can be confirmed with an X-ray, and typically followed with an upper gastrointestinal series, lower gastrointestinal series, and ultrasound.
Classification.
By location.
Intestinal atresia may be classified by its location. Patients may have intestinal atresia in multiple locations.
Malformations may also occur along multiple portions of the intestinal tract; for instance a malformation that occurs along or spans the length of the jejunum and the ileum is termed jejunoileal atresia.
By malformation.
Intestinal atresia can also by classified by the type of malformation. The classification system by Bland-Sutton and Louw and Barnard (1955) initially divided them into three types. This was later expanded to five by Zerella and Grosfeld et al.
Type I.
In type I, there is a wall (septum) or membrane at some point in the bowel, leading to dilation of the bowel on the nearer side and a collapse of the bowel on the latter side. Bowel length is not usually affected in this type.
Type II.
In type II, there is a gap in the bowel, and either end of the remaining intestine is closed off and connected to the other by a fibrous cord that runs along the edge of the mesentery. The mesentery remains intact.
Type IIIa.
Type IIIa is similar to type II, but the mesentery is defective (there is a V-shaped gap), and the bowel length may be shortened.
Type IIIb.
In type IIIb, also known as the "apple peel" or "Christmas tree" deformity, the atresia affects the jejunum, and the intestine is often malrotated with most of the mesenteric arteries absent. The remaining ileum, which is of varying length, survives on a single mesenteric artery, which it is twisted around in a spiral form. The term apple-peel intestinal atresia is generally reserved for when it affects the jejunum, while Christmas tree intestinal atresia is used if it affects the duodenum. It may affect both, however.
Type IV.
Type IV involves a combination of all the other types and takes the appearance of a string of sausages. The length of the bowel is always shortened, but the last part of the ileum is usually not affected, as in type III. This type usually affects the nearest end of the jejunum, but the far end of the ileum may instead be affected.
Treatment.
Fetal and neonatal intestinal atresia are treated using laparotomy after birth. If the area affected is small, the surgeon may be able to remove the damaged portion and join the intestine back together. In instances where the narrowing is longer, or the area is damaged and cannot be used for period of time, a temporary stoma may be placed.
The infant is usually given intravenous fluid hydration, and a nasogastric or orogastric tube may be used to aspirate the contents of the stomach. The nutritional administration is maintained after surgery until the bowel can resume normal function.
Prognosis.
Prognosis is usually good if treated with surgery in infancy. The main factor in mortality is the availability of care and appropriate parenteral nutrition after surgery until the bowel can resume normal function.
The most common complication is pseudo-obstruction at the site of surgery due to pre-existing intestinal dysmotility. This can usually only be treated by non-surgical methods.
If the atresia is not treated, the bowel may become perforated or ischemic. This can lead to abdominal tenderness and meconium peritonitis, which can be fatal.
Epidemiology.
Intestinal atresia occurs in around 1 in 3,000 births in the United States. The most common form of intestinal atresia is duodenal atresia. It has a strong association with Down syndrome. The second-most common type is ileal atresia. 95% of congenital jejunoileal obstructions are atresias; only 5% are stenoses.
Prevalence of jejunoileal atresia is 1 to 3 in 10,000 live births. It is weakly associated with cystic fibrosis, intestinal malrotation, and gastroschisis.
The frequencies of each type from Louw and Barnard's classification are as follows:
History.
Ileal atresia was first described in 1684 by Goeller. In 1812, Johann Friedrich Meckel reviewed the topic and speculated on an explanation. In 1889, English surgeon John Bland-Sutton proposed a classification system for intestinal atresia and suggested that it occurs at areas that are obliterated as part of normal development. In 1900, Austrian physician Julius Tandler first put forward the theory that it may be caused by lack of recanalisation during development.
The vascular ischemic cause of non-duodenal atresia was confirmed by Louw and Barnard in 1955 and was repeated in later studies. It had first been proposed by N. I. Spriggs in 1912.


Diane Follingstad

Diane R. Follingstad is an American psychologist and author, currently the Women's Circle Endowment Professor of Psychology and Director of the Center for Research on Violence Against Women at the University of Kentucky She was previously a Distinguished Professor Emerita at the University of South Carolina.


Clinton Foundation

The Clinton Foundation (founded in 1997 as the William J. Clinton Presidential Foundation, and renamed in 2013 as the Bill, Hillary & Chelsea Clinton Foundation) is a nonprofit organization under section 501(c)(3) of the U.S. tax code. It was established by former President of the United States Bill Clinton with the stated mission to "strengthen the capacity of people in the United States and throughout the world to meet the challenges of global interdependence." Its offices are located in New York City and Little Rock, Arkansas.
Through 2016, the foundation had raised an estimated $2 billion from U.S. corporations, foreign governments and corporations, political donors, and various other groups and individuals. The acceptance of funds from wealthy donors has been a source of controversy. The foundation "has won accolades from philanthropy experts and has drawn bipartisan support". Charitable grants are not a major focus of the Clinton Foundation, which instead uses most of its money to carry out its own humanitarian programs.
This foundation is a public organization to which anyone may donate and is distinct from the Clinton Family Foundation, a private organization for personal Clinton family philanthropy.
According to the Clinton Foundation's website, neither Bill Clinton nor his daughter, Chelsea Clinton (both are members of the governing board), draws any salary or receives any income from the Foundation. When Hillary Clinton was a board member, she reportedly also received no income from the Foundation.
Beginning in 2015, the Foundation was accused of wrongdoing, including a bribery and pay-to-play scheme, but multiple investigations through 2019 found no evidence of malfeasance. "The New York Times" reported in September 2020 that a federal prosecutor appointed by attorney general Bill Barr to investigate the origins of the 2016 FBI Crossfire Hurricane investigation had also sought documents and interviews regarding how the FBI handled an investigation into the Clinton Foundation.
History.
The origins of the foundation go back to 1997, when then-president Bill Clinton was focused mostly on fundraising for the future Clinton Presidential Center in Little Rock, Arkansas. He founded the William J. Clinton Foundation in 2001 following the completion of his presidency. Longtime Clinton advisor Bruce Lindsey became the CEO in 2004. Later, Lindsey moved from being CEO to being chair, largely for health reasons. Other Clinton hands who played an important early role included Doug Band and Ira Magaziner. Additional Clinton associates who have had senior positions at the foundation include John Podesta and Laura Graham.
The foundation's success is spurred by Bill Clinton's worldwide fame and his ability to bring together corporate executives, celebrities, and government officials. Similarly, the foundation areas of involvement have often corresponded to whatever Bill suddenly felt an interest in.
Preceding Barack Obama's 2009 nomination of Hillary Clinton as United States Secretary of State, Bill Clinton agreed to accept a number of conditions and restrictions regarding his ongoing activities and fundraising efforts for the Clinton Presidential Center and the Clinton Global Initiative. Accordingly, a list of donors was released in December 2008.
By 2011, Chelsea Clinton was taking a dominant role in the foundation and had a seat on its board. To raise money for the Foundation, she gave paid speeches, such as her $65,000 2014 address at the University of Missouri in Kansas City for the opening of the Starr Women's Hall of Fame.
In 2013, Hillary Clinton joined the foundation following her tenure as Secretary of State. She planned to focus her work on issues regarding women and children, as well as economic development. Accordingly, at that point, it was renamed the "Bill, Hillary & Chelsea Clinton Foundation". Extra attention was paid to the foundation due to the 2016 United States presidential election.
In July 2013, Eric Braverman was named CEO of the foundation. He is a friend and former colleague of Chelsea Clinton from McKinsey & Company. At the same time, Chelsea Clinton was named vice chair of the foundation's board. The foundation was also in the midst of a move to two floors of the Time-Life Building in Midtown Manhattan.
Chelsea Clinton moved the organization to an outside review, conducted by the firm of Simpson Thacher & Bartlett. Its conclusions were made public in mid-2013. The main focus was to determine how the foundation could achieve firm financial footing that was not dependent upon the former president's fundraising abilities, how it could operate more like a permanent entity rather than a start-up organization, and thus how it could survive and prosper beyond Bill Clinton's lifetime. Dennis Cheng, a former Hillary Clinton campaign official and State Department deputy chief, was named to oversee a $250 million endowment drive. The review also found the management and structure of the foundation needed improvements, including an increase in the size of its board of directors that would have a more direct involvement in planning and budget activities. Additionally, the review said that all employees needed to understand the foundation's conflict of interest policies and that expense reports needed a more formal review process.
In January 2015, Braverman announced his resignation. "Politico" attributed the move to being "partly from a power struggle inside the foundation between and among the coterie of Clinton loyalists who have surrounded the former president for decades and who helped start and run the foundation." He was succeeded at first in an acting capacity by former deputy assistant secretary, Maura Pally.
On February 18, 2015, "The Washington Post" reported that, "the foundation has won accolades from philanthropy experts and has drawn bipartisan support, with members of the George W. Bush administration often participating in its programs." In March 2015, former Secretary of Health and Human Services in the Clinton administration, Donna Shalala, was selected to run the Clinton Foundation. She left in April 2017.
In August 2016 The Boston Globe's editorial board suggested that the Clinton Foundation cease accepting donations. "The Globe"'s editorial board offered praise for the foundation's work but added that "as long as either of the Clintons are in public office, or actively seeking it, they should not operate a charity, too" because it represents a conflict of interest and a political distraction.
In 2016, Reuters reported that the Clinton Foundation suspected that it had been the target of a cyber security breach. As a consequence of the suspected cyber security breach, Clinton Foundation officials retained a security firm, FireEye, to evaluate its data systems. The cyber security breach has been described as sharing similarities with cyberattacks that targeted other institutions, such as the Democratic National Committee.
In October 2016, "The Wall Street Journal" reported that four FBI field offices—in New York, Los Angeles, Washington, and Little Rock—had been collecting information about the Clinton Foundation to determine whether "there was evidence of financial crimes or influence-peddling". In a reported separate investigation, the Washington field office was investigating Terry McAuliffe before he became a board member of the Clinton Foundation. CNN reported in January 2018 that the FBI is investigating allegations of corruption at the Clinton Foundation in Arkansas. Sources said that federal prosecutors are checking to see if foundation donors were improperly promised policy favors or special access to Hillary Clinton during her tenure as secretary of state in return for donations and whether tax-exempt funds were misused by the foundation's leadership.
"The Washington Post" reported in January 2020 that an additional Justice Department investigation into the matter, initiated after Donald Trump took office in 2017, was winding down after finding nothing worth pursuing.
Board of directors.
As of January 2018, the board members are:
Programs and initiatives.
Clinton Health Access Initiative (CHAI).
As of January 1, 2010, the Clinton HIV/AIDS Initiative, an initiative of the Clinton Foundation, became a separate nonprofit organization called the Clinton Health Access Initiative (CHAI). Organizations such as the Clinton Foundation continue to supply anti-malarial drugs to Africa and other affected areas; according to director Inder Singh, in 2011 more than 12 million individuals will be supplied with subsidized anti-malarial drugs.
In May 2007, CHAI and UNITAID announced agreements that help middle-income and low-income countries save money on second-line drugs. The partnership also reduced the price of a once-daily first-line treatment to less than $1 per day.
CHAI was spun off into a separate organization in 2010; Ira Magaziner became its CEO (he had been a key figure in the Clinton health care plan of 1993). Chelsea Clinton joined its board in 2011, as did Tachi Yamada, former President of the Global Health Program at the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation.
Clinton Global Initiative (CGI) and CGI U.
The Clinton Global Initiative (CGI) was founded in 2005 by Bill Clinton. Doug Band, counselor to Bill, was heavily involved in the formation. Clinton has credited Band with being the originator of CGI and has noted that "Doug had the idea to do this." Band left his paid position at CGI in 2010, preferring to emphasize his Teneo business and family pursuits, but remains on the CGI advisory board. The overlap between CGI and Teneo, of which Bill was a paid advisor, drew criticism. According to his attorneys during 2007 plea negotiations on sex offense charges, financier Jeffrey Epstein also formed "part of the original group that conceived the Clinton Global Initiative," though his name was not mentioned in any of the organization's founding documents.
In 2007, Bill started CGI U, which expanded the model of CGI to students, universities, and national youth organizations. CGI U has been held at Tulane University, the University of Texas at Austin, the University of Miami, the University of California, San Diego, The George Washington University, Washington University in St. Louis, Arizona State University, and University of California, Berkeley. Panelists and speakers have included Jon Stewart, Madeleine Albright, Vandana Shiva, Bill and Chelsea Clinton, Stephen Colbert, Jack Dorsey, Greg Stanton, U.S. Rep. Gabby Giffords, Shane Battier, Salman Khan (founder of Khan Academy), and U.S. Rep. John Lewis.
In September 2016, it was announced that the Initiative would be winding down to be discontinued and that 74 employees would be let go at the end of the year. In January 2017, it was announced that another 22 employees would be let go by April 15, 2017, and that CGI University would be continued.
Clinton Global Citizen Awards.
The Clinton Global Citizen Awards are a set of awards which have been given by the Clinton Global Initiative every year since 2007. The awards are given to individuals who, in the opinion of the Clinton Foundation, are "outstanding individuals who exemplify global citizenship through their vision and leadership". Past recipients of the award include Mexican businessman and philanthropist Carlos Slim, Irish billionaire Denis O'Brien, Moroccan entrepreneur Mohammad Abbad Andaloussi, Rwandan President Paul Kagame, Afghan women's rights activist Suraya Pakzad, Dominican Republic President Leonel Fernández, and Pakistani labor rights activist Syeda Ghulam Fatima.
Clinton Climate Initiative (CCI).
In August 2006, Bill Clinton started a program to fight climate change, the Clinton Foundation's Climate Initiative (CCI)
. The CCI directly runs various programs to prevent deforestation and to rehabilitate forests and other landscapes worldwide, develop clean energy, and help island nations threatened by rising ocean levels.
On August 1, 2006, the Foundation entered into a partnership with the Large Cities Climate Leadership Group, agreeing to provide resources to allow the participating cities to enter into an energy-saving product purchasing consortium and to provide technical and communications support.
In May 2007, CCI announced its first project which will help some large cities cut greenhouse gas emissions by facilitating retrofitting of existing buildings. Five large banks committed $1 billion each to help cities and building owners make energy-saving improvements aimed at lowering energy use and energy costs. At the 2007 Clinton Global Initiative, Bill Clinton announced the 1Sky campaign to accelerate bold federal policy on global warming. The 1Sky campaign supports at least an 80% reduction in climate pollution levels by 2050.
On May 19, 2009, CCI announced the global Climate Positive Development Program where it will work with the U.S. Green Building Council to promote "climate positive" city growth.
Norway and Germany are among the countries co-financing projects with the CCI in numerous developing and third-world countries.
Clinton Development Initiative (CDI).
The Clinton Development Initiative, originally the Clinton Hunter Development Initiative, was formed in 2006 as a partnership with Scottish philanthropist Sir Tom Hunter's Hunter Foundation to target the root causes of poverty in Africa and promote sustainable economic growth.
The Alliance for a Healthier Generation.
The Alliance for a Healthier Generation is a partnership between the Clinton Foundation and the American Heart Association that was working to end the childhood obesity epidemic in the United States by 2010.
The Robert Wood Johnson Foundation, which provided an initial $8 million to start the Healthy Schools Program, awarded a $20 million grant to expand the program to over 8,000 schools in states with the highest obesity rates.
At the industry level, the Alliance struck agreements with major food and beverage manufacturers to provide kids with nutritional options, and established nutrition guidelines for school vending machines, stores and cafeterias to promote healthy eating. Some of the companies involved in these efforts are Coca-Cola, Cadbury plc, Campbell Soup Company, Groupe Danone, Kraft Foods, Mars and PepsiCo.
Clinton Giustra Sustainable Growth Initiative.
Established in 2007 with Canadian mining executive Frank Giustra — founder of the petroleum company Pacific Rubiales (renamed Pacific Exploration & Production in 2015) — CGSGI describes itself as "pioneering an innovative approach to poverty alleviation." Giustra's involvement with the Clinton Foundation has been criticized by the "International Business Times", "The Washington Post", and the "American Media Institute" because it was accompanied by a sudden reversal in Hillary Clinton's position while Secretary of State concerning the United States–Colombia Free Trade Agreement, an agreement which she had previously opposed "as bad for labor rights."
Clinton Health Matters Initiative (CHMI).
In November 2012, Bill Clinton announced the launch of the Clinton Health Matters Initiative (CHMI). CHMI is a national initiative, building on the Clinton Foundation's work on global health and childhood obesity, that works to improve the health and well-being of people across the United States by activating individuals, communities, and organizations to make meaningful contributions to the health of others. CHMI holds an annual Health Matters conference every January in the Coachella Valley.
Disaster relief.
The Foundation has funded extensive disaster relief programs following the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and Hurricane Katrina in 2005. Shortly after Hurricane Katrina hit, President George W. Bush asked former Presidents George H. W. Bush and Bill Clinton to raise funds to help rebuild the Gulf Coast region. The two Presidents, having worked together to assist victims of the Indian Ocean tsunami, established the Bush-Clinton Katrina Fund to identify and meet the unmet needs in the region, foster economic opportunity, and to improve the quality of life of those affected. In the first month after the hurricane, the Fund collected over 42,000 online donations alone; approximately $128.4 million has been received to date from all 50 states and $30.9 million from foreign countries.
Both the foundation and the Clintons personally have been involved in Haiti before and after the 2010 Haiti earthquake. Bill Clinton was named the head of the Interim Haiti Recovery Commission (IHRC) in 2010 after serving as UN special envoy to Haiti in the immediate aftermath of the disaster. The Clinton Foundation itself raised $30m and played an important part in the creation of the Caracol Industrial Park. The IHRC mandate was removed by the Haitian legislature in 2011.
No Ceilings project.
In 2013, Hillary Clinton established a partnership between the foundation and the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation to gather and study data on the progress of women and girls around the world since the United Nations Fourth World Conference On Women in Beijing in 1995. This is called "No Ceilings: The Full Participation Project." The project released a report in March 2015.
Financials.
The Clinton Foundation relies on donation from various groups or individuals, donors such as Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation donated over $25 million over the years Throughout the years, donations have been varying from one year to the other according to their financial reports
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Charity review sources.
In March 2015, the charity watchdog group Charity Navigator added the Clinton Foundation to a watch list (a designation meant to warn donors that questions have been raised about an entity's practices), after several news organizations raised questions over donations from corporations and foreign governments. It removed the foundation from its watch list in late December of that year. In September 2016, it gave it its highest possible rating, four out of four stars, after its customary review of the Foundation's financial records and tax statements. A different charity monitor, CharityWatch, said that 88% of the foundation's money goes toward its charitable mission and gave the foundation an A rating for 2016. In 2015, based on revenue of $223 million and an expense ratio of 12% the foundation spent in excess of $26 million to complete its mission.
Private philanthropy.
The Clinton Foundation is a public organization to which anyone may donate. Due to their similar names, the public foundation has sometimes been confused with the Clinton Family Foundation, which is reserved for the Clintons' private philanthropy. The two foundations have sometimes been conflated by news sources. The significantly smaller Clinton Family Foundation is a traditional private foundation that serves as the vehicle for their personal charitable giving. Headquartered in Chappaqua, New York, it received nearly all of the approximately $14 million the Clintons gave to charity from 2007–13.
Controversies.
Transparency.
Around 2007, the Clinton Foundation was criticized for a lack of transparency. Although U.S. law did not require charities, including presidential foundations, to disclose the identities of their contributors, critics said that the names of donors should be disclosed because Hillary Clinton was running to be the Democratic nominee for President of the United States. Commentator Matthew Yglesias opined in a "Los Angeles Times" op-ed that the Clintons should make public the names of foundation donors to avoid any appearance
of impropriety.
A lengthy donors list was then released by the Foundation in December 2008, which included several politically sensitive donors, such as the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and Blackwater Worldwide. The Foundation stated that the disclosures would ensure that "not even the appearance of a conflict of interest" would exist once Hillary Clinton was Secretary of State.
The foundation has been criticized for receiving donations from Middle-Eastern countries which are seen to oppress women (stoning for adultery, not being able to drive, requiring a male guardian, etc.). These countries include Saudi Arabia ($10–25 million), UAE, and Qatar. The foundation accepted these donations even though Hillary Clinton's 2016 Presidential campaign platform guaranteed to break down barriers that held women back.
In November 2016, Reuters reported that "The Clinton Foundation has confirmed it accepted a $1 million gift from Qatar while Hillary Clinton was U.S. Secretary of State without informing the State Department, even though she had promised to let the agency review new or significantly increased support from foreign governments." Washington Post columnist Jennifer Rubin opined that the Qatari gift "raised ethical questions" because of the nation's support for Hamas.
The ethics agreement between the State Department and the Clinton Foundation that had been put into force at the beginning of Hillary Clinton's tenure as Secretary of State in 2009 came under scrutiny from the news media during February 2015 as polls showed her the likely 2016 Democratic nominee for president. "The Wall Street Journal" reported that the Clinton Foundation had resumed accepting donations from foreign governments once Secretary Clinton's tenure had ended. Contributions from foreign donors, which are prohibited by law from contributing to political candidates in the U.S., constitute a major portion of the foundation's income. An investigation by "The Washington Post" of 2014 donations showed that there was "substantial overlap between the Clinton political machinery and the foundation". The investigation revealed that almost half of the major donors who had backed Ready for Hillary, a group which supported her 2016 presidency bid, had given at least $10,000 to the foundation, either personally or through foundations or companies they run. The Clinton Foundation's chief communications officer Craig Minassian explained that it is a "false choice to suggest that people who may be interested in supporting political causes wouldn’t also support philanthropic work."
A subsequent "The Washington Post" inquiry into donations by foreign governments to the Clinton Foundation during the Secretary's tenure found, in addition to six cases where such governments continued making donations at the same level they had before Clinton became Secretary as envisioned under the agreement, one instance of a new donation, $500,000 from Algeria for earthquake relief in Haiti, that was outside the bounds of the continuation provision and should have received a special ethics review, but did not. Foundation officials said that if the former Secretary decided to run for president in 2016, they would again consider what steps to take in reference to foreign donations. But in general, they stressed that, "As with other global charities, we rely on the support of individuals, organizations, corporations and governments who have the shared goal of addressing critical global challenges in a meaningful way. When anyone contributes to the Clinton Foundation, it goes towards foundation programs that help save lives." State Department spokesperson Jen Psaki attested that the foundation's commitment to the ethics agreement in question "has been over and above the letter of the law". In August 2016, after Clinton's securing the Democratic nomination, the Clinton Foundation announced that it will stop accepting foreign donations if she were elected.
In March 2015, Reuters reported that the Clinton Health Access Initiative had failed to publish all of its donors, and to let the State Department review all of its donations from foreign governments after it was spun off from the Clinton Foundation in 2010. In April 2015, "The New York Times" reported that when Hillary Clinton was Secretary of State, the State Department had approved transactions that allowed Russian state-owned corporation Rosatom to take a majority stake in Uranium One, whose chairman had donated to the Clinton Foundation. The State Department "was one of nine government agencies, not to mention independent federal and state nuclear regulators, that had to sign off on the deal." FactCheck.org decided there is "no evidence" that the donations influenced Clinton's official actions or that she was involved in the State Department's decision to approve the deal, and PolitiFact concluded that any "suggestion of a quid pro quo is unsubstantiated".
2015 State Department subpoena.
In February 2016, "The Washington Post" reported that the United States Department of State issued a subpoena to the foundation in the fall of 2015. According to the report, the subpoena focused on "documents about the charity's projects that may have required approval from federal government during Hillary Clinton's term as secretary of state" and "also asked for records related to Huma Abedin, longtime Clinton aide who for six months in 2012 was employed simultaneously by the State Department, the foundation, Clinton's personal office, and a private consulting firm with ties to the Clintons."
Australian government donations.
Donations totalling tens of millions of dollars from successive Australian and New Zealand governments to the Clinton Foundation were the subject of criticism from a number of groups including the Taxpayers union of New Zealand for a perceived lack of accountability and perceived conflicts of interest, some of the donations were made directly and some through AUSAID.
In 2006, the then foreign minister Alexander Downer and former President Clinton jointly signed a Memorandum of Understanding in February 2006 that gave more than million to the Clinton Foundation across four years for a project to provide screening and drug treatment to AIDS patients in Asia. The donation was later made through an affiliate of the charity known as the Clinton Health Access Initiative (CHAI). The Australian government ceased funding CHAI in 2016. In 2017 the Specialist Health Service (SHS) in a report commissioned by DFAT noted "Previously, there appears to have been an over-reliance on the Clinton Health Access Initiative (CHAI) for facilitating market access".
In 2011, a pledge of million was made by Australian Julia Gillard government to the Global Partnership for Education which in 2014 joined the Clinton Global Initiative. Julia Gillard was made a member of the board of Global Partnership for Education in 2014 after losing the Australian federal election
According to DFAT, Australia contributed million to the Global partnership for education between 2007 and 2014 including million in replenishment between 2018 and 2020
A Department of foreign affairs and trade (DFAT) spokesperson responded to questions by News.com "...all funding is used “solely for agreed development projects” and Clinton charities have “a proven track record” in helping developing countries.


Eva Waddell Mader Macdonald

Eva Waddell Mader Macdonald (7 October 1902–27 April 1997) was a Canadian medical professional at the Women's College Hospital. She began as a medical professor in hygiene before becoming the Director of Laboratories at WCH from 1945 to 1952. Outside of medicine, Macdonald was the chancellor of the University of Toronto from 1974 to 1977.
Early life and education.
In 1902, Macdonald was born in Halifax, Nova Scotia. In 1927, she graduated from Dalhousie University and went to the University of Toronto with a health scholarship. She received a Diploma in Public Health from the University of Toronto's Faculty of Medicine in 1929.
Career.
In 1927, Macdonald began her medical career as an intern at Nova Scotia Sanatorium. After a brief stint at Nova Scotia Sanatorium, Macdonald began working at the Women's College Hospital in 1929. At the Women's College Hospital, Macdonald was a medical professor in hygiene for the University of Toronto until 1933. During her career, she held multiple positions for the Women's College Hospital, including Hospital Bacteriologist (1939–1945), Director of Laboratories (1945 to 1952), and Director of Hospital Health (1953–1968). During her time at Women's College Hospital, Macdonald co-developed, with Marion Hilliard, a simplified Pap test in partnership with W. L. Robinson of the Banting Institute. Alternatively, Macdonald began working as a private practitioner in 1952 and continued until 1962.
In 1963, Macdonald created an initiative called Operation Recall to convince former women doctors to return to their careers. Outside of her health career, Macdonald replaced Pauline McGibbon as the chancellor of the University of Toronto in 1974. Macdonald held the position of chancellor until 1977 and retired in 1978.
Awards and honours.
In 1974, Macdonald was named alumna of the year of Dalhousie University Faculty of Medicine. In 1975, Macdonald was awarded an honorary Doctor of Humane Letters by Mount Saint Vincent University.
Personal life.
Macdonald was married with two children.
Death.
Macdonald died on 24 April 1997.


William E. Klunk

William E. Klunk is an American psychiatrist and neurologist currently the Distinguished Professor of Psychiatry and Neurology and Levidow-Pittsburgh Foundation Chair in Alzheimer's Disease and Dementia Disorders at University of Pittsburgh.
He is one of the leading pioneers for in vivo amyloid imaging, which helps detect and quantify pathological protein aggregations in the brain of Alzheimer's patients.


Biernat of Lublin

Biernat of Lublin (Polish: "Biernat z Lublina", Latin "Bernardus Lublinius", ca. 1465 – after 1529) was a Polish poet, fabulist, translator and physician. He was one of the first Polish-language writers known by name, and the most interesting of the earliest ones. He expressed plebeian, Renaissance and religiously liberal opinions.
Life.
Biernat wrote the first book printed in the Polish language: printed in 1513, in Kraków at Poland's first printing establishment, operated by Florian Ungler—a prayer-book, "Raj duszny" ("Hortulus Animae", Eden of the Soul).
Biernat also penned the first secular work in Polish literature: a collection of verse fables, plebeian and anticlerical in nature: "Żywot Ezopa Fryga" (The Life of Aesop the Phrygian), 1522.


Addiction module

Addiction modules are toxin-antitoxin systems. Each consists of a pair of genes that specify two components: a stable toxin and an unstable antitoxin that interferes with the lethal action of the toxin. Found first in E. coli on low copy number plasmids, addiction modules are responsible for a process called the postsegregational killing effect. When bacteria lose these plasmid(s) (or other extrachromosomal elements), the cured cells are selectively killed because the unstable antitoxin is degraded faster than the more stable toxin. The term "addiction" is used because the cell depends on the de novo synthesis of the antitoxin for cell survival. Thus, addiction modules are implicated in maintaining the stability of extrachromosomal elements.
Proteic Addiction Modules.
Proteic addiction modules use proteins as toxins and antitoxins, as opposed to RNA or other methods. The known proteic addiction modules all have similar shared characteristics, including placement of the antitoxin gene relative to the toxin gene, method of toxin neutralization by the antitoxin, and autoregulation of the addiction module by the antitoxin or toxin:antitoxin complex.
Transcriptional control of antitoxin:toxin ratios.
In protein-based addiction modules, the genes encoding the toxin and antitoxin lie adjacent to each other and are continuously expressed under one operon. To ensure survival of the host when the addiction module is present, more antitoxin must be produced than toxin (to counter the shorter lifespan of the antitoxin molecules). Safe ratios of the toxin and antitoxin are maintained at least in part by both this overexpression and by having the antitoxin-encoding gene encoded upstream from the toxin gene, so that the antitoxin is available to immediately neutralize the toxin. This upstream placement of the antitoxin gene is found in all proteic addiction modules.
In addition, the transcription of the whole addiction module is often negatively autoregulated (i.e. the presence of its products decreases its transcriptional rate) by the formation of toxin:antitoxin complexes.
Characteristics of antitoxin molecules.
The antitoxin is generally less stable than the toxin due to its degradation by proteases already present in the cell. For example, in the ccdAB proteic addiction module, the "Lon" protease degrades the antitoxin, but also serves many unrelated proteolytic roles, such as degrading oxidated mitochondrial products. This may indicate that the development of these addiction molecules "co-opted" existing cell utilities.
The antitoxin in proteic addiction modules functions by binding directly to the toxin and preventing its mode of action. Once the antitoxin has bound to the toxin, the toxin prevents the proteases normally responsible for degrading antitoxin to do so, maintaining the neutralization of that individual toxin molecule.
Antisense RNA addiction modules.
Antisense RNA-type addiction modules use a regulatory strand of RNA which is at least partially "antisense" (having complementary base pair encoding) to bind to toxin RNA, and thus prevent toxin translation. This antisense RNA molecule plays the role of antitoxin, similar to the proteic equivalent described above, and is similarly degraded at a faster rate than the toxin mRNA it inhibits. In addition, the transcription of the antitoxin RNA is heavily upregulated by a strong promoter which ensures excess antitoxin in cells which have a functioning addiction module.


Harvey Karten

Harvey Karten, M.D. is professor emeritus of neuroscience at the University of California, San Diego School of Medicine.
Karten is a member of the National Academy of Sciences, and was a founding faculty member of the UCSD School of Medicine. Karten is known for evolutionary analyses of non-mammalian brains; his current work includes the development of a cell-based database of brain regions, neurons, connections, and chemical properties.


GoHealth

GoHealth is a marketplace for Medicare plans including Medicare Advantage, MediGap and Medicare Part D, which are programs administered through private health insurance companies. It also operates an online health insurance marketplace offering individual health insurance and short-term health insurance.
In 2012, GoHealth became a government-approved exchange after a deal was signed into place by the Obama administration and the Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services (CMS). This would allow GoHealth to enroll people in the same plans and offer the same tax-subsidies found on HealthCare.gov. CMS signed the deal with a few private health insurance marketplaces including GoHealth in an effort to provide affordable premiums from the increase in enrollment.
In 2013, GoHealth acted as the first of the private health insurance marketplaces to enroll Americans in subsidy-eligible ObamaCare plans, following the technical challenges from HealthCare.gov's launch. Soon after a fix for broker functionality was implemented on HealthCare.gov, the company utilized their call centers to help Americans enroll in both on-exchange and off-exchange plans while on the phone. While customers had the ability to start the enrollment process using GoHealth's website, speaking with a representative allowed for the company to confirm a person's eligibility for subsidies and complete enrollment. The regulatory approval to enroll people in these plans only applied to residents from the 36 states that used the federal insurance exchange in lieu of a state exchange.
In 2016, after growth from the Affordable Care Act slowed and following the departure of the former President Barack Obama from office, GoHealth turned its focus to Medicare.
GoHealth is headquartered in Chicago, Illinois, with locations in Charlotte, North Carolina, Lindon, Utah, and Bratislava, Slovakia.
History.
GoHealth, originally named Norvax, Inc., was founded in 2001 by Clint Jones and Brandon Cruz. The business initially started by creating websites and lead management software for insurance brokers.
In 2008, then-company Norvax offered online comparison health insurance shopping.
In 2009, Norvax, Inc. was renamed to GoHealth.
In 2012, GoHealth received a $50 million investment from Norwest Equity Partners.
In 2013, GoHealth was appointed by the federal government to enroll eligible residents from 36 states in subsidized health exchange-based plans, made available under the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, otherwise known as Obamacare.
In 2013, GoHealth purchased 90,000 sq. ft. in Merchandise Mart, expanding its Chicago locations to four.
In 2015, ADP partnered with the company to help employees, who did not have employer health insurance coverage, enroll in subsidized health plans.
In 2016, GoHealth opened a location in Charlotte, North Carolina.
In 2018, GoHealth opened a location in Lindon, Utah.
In 2019, Centerbridge Partners made a majority stake investment in GoHealth, with a valuation of approximately $1.5B (considered a unicorn status). The purchase became the largest of any Chicago-based technology company within the previous five years, and topped IBM's purchase of $1.3 billion for Cleversafe and SAP's purchase of $974 million for Fieldglass. Norwest Equity Partners retained a stake in GoHealth, while co-founders, Jones and Cruz, continued to hold substantial equity stake.
GoHealth announced a plan to file for IPO in June 2020.
Acquisitions.
In 2015, GoHealth acquired software development company Creatix, based in Bratislava, Slovakia.


Paul von Bruns

Paul von Bruns was a German surgeon. He was born in Tübingen, and was the son of surgeon Victor von Bruns. His father-in-law was Protestant theologian Karl Heinrich Weizsäcker.
Bruns was born July 2, 1846. In 1882, Bruns became director of the surgical clinic at Tübingen, as well as a full professor at the University. He was the author of works on numerous medical subjects — laryngotomy for removal of growths in the larynx, acute osteomyelitis, gunshot wounds, limb operations and the treatment of goiters, to name a few.
In 1885, he founded "Beiträge zur klinischen Chirurgie" (Contributions to Clinical Surgery), and was its editor until his death. With Ernst von Bergmann (1836-1907) and Jan Mikulicz-Radecki (1850-1905), he published the four-volume "Handbuch der Chirurgie" (Handbook of Surgery). He died – June 2, 1916 in Tübingen.


American Association of Physician Specialists

The American Association of Physician Specialists, Inc. (AAPS) is a 501(c)(6) not-for-profit organization founded in 1950, with headquarters in Tampa, Florida. The AAPS was first organized to provide specialty certification for physicians who had obtained advanced training in various areas of medical specialty. AAPS was the first organization of its kind to accept both M.D. and D.O. physicians as full members.
Mission.
AAPS' mission is to promote the art and science of medicine for the betterment of the public health, to advance the interests of physicians and their patients, to promote public health, to lobby for legislation favorable to physicians and patients, and to advance new and evolving areas of medical specialization through academic discourse. It also publishes the "American Journal of Clinical Medicine" (AJCM).
Academies.
The AAPS oversees the following 20 medical academies:


David Craigie

David Craigie FRSE (6 June 1793 – 17 May 1866) was a Scottish physician, known as a medical author.
Life.
Craigie was born in Leith, Edinburgh's harbour town, on 6 June 1793, and took his MD degree in the University of Edinburgh in 1816. In 1832 he became a Fellow of the Edinburgh College of Physicians. In the same year his address is listed as 39 Nicolson Street in the south side of Edinburgh.
He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh in 1833 his proposer being Thomas Shortt.
Craigie was physician to the Edinburgh Infirmary from 1833 to 1846, and was the founder, owner and editor of the "Edinburgh Medical and Surgical Journal" 1832 to 1855. He was President of the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh from 1861 to 1863.
After a period of failing health he died on 17 May 1866. He is buried in Newington Cemetery in the south of the city.
Works.
In 1828 Craigie published "Elements of General and Pathological Anatomy", of which a second edition appeared in 1848. He wrote "Elements of Anatomy, General, Special, and Comparative", and in 1836 "Elements of the Practice of Physic". He was also the author of "Morbid Anatomy".
He assisted with John Thomson's "Life" of William Cullen, and published 30 papers on medical subjects.


Nevus maternus


Institute for Healthcare Advancement

The Institute for Healthcare Advancement (IHA) is a not-for-profit, private operating foundation providing health care and improving health literacy at the national level. It is located in La Habra, California.
Local services.
The La Habra Family Resource Center is located on the Las Lomas Elementary School grounds. It is a complete, family-centered support system, working with community resources that can address the health, emotional, social, and academic needs of children and their families.
Health literacy publications.
It published easy-to-read 'What to Do For Health' books, used by the states of California and South Dakota, health plans, Head Starts, health departments, and more; these books help reduce emergency room visits and costs.
Health Education Literacy Program (H.E.L.P.) Curriculum is an ESL (English as a Second Language) curriculum. As learners begin to master reading, writing, and speaking in English, they are also learning healthcare skills to become effective child caregivers. This project was funded through an English literacy and civics education grant from the Louisiana State Department of Education.
It has developed easy to use bilingual versions of advance health care directives in English, Spanish, Chinese, and Vietnamese; a Khmer version is being developed. It has been approved for use in California and may be downloaded for free.
Health Literacy Conference.
It sponsors an annual national Health Literacy Conference for healthcare professionals and educators to teach them about health literacy, the latest research, and how to improve their patient education. It presents three awards for outstanding achievements in health literacy in the categories of Research, Innovative Programs, and Published Materials.


Rudolph J. Castellani Jr.

Rudy J. Castellani Jr is professor of pathology at the University of Maryland in Baltimore, Maryland where he also serves as Director of Neuropathology.


Charles Burns (doctor)

Sir Charles Ritchie Burns (27 May 1898 – 8 February 1985) was a New Zealand doctor and medical administrator. He was born in Blenheim, New Zealand, on 27 May 1898, and was educated at Marlborough High School, Nelson College and the University of Otago.
In the 1948 New Year Honours, Burns was appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire. He was promoted to Knight Commander of the same order in the 1958 Queen's Birthday Honours, for services to medicine.


Gravie

Gravie is a health insurance marketplace headquartered in Minneapolis, Minnesota. Gravie provides individually-tailored recommendations to individuals who are in the process of purchasing health insurance.
Gravie offers health plans both on the federal and state health exchanges and off-exchange in the private, individual market, and is an alternative to group health coverage for businesses.
History.
Abir Sen, CEO, launched Gravie on November 15, 2013 with co-founders Jill Prevost and Marek Ciolko and $2.6 million in initial investor funding from FirstMark Capital. On March 17, 2014, the company announced $10.5 million in additional investor funding led by Aberdare Ventures. FirstMark Capital also participated in the second round of funding.
After a further round of funding in 2015, in 2016 the firm laid off 21 employees.
In 2016 Securian Financial Group invested in Gravie and began selling its life insurance products through Gravie's website.


Ellern Mede

Ellern Mede is a specialist private provider of eating disorder services in England. It runs two hospitals in North London and one in Rotherham. The hospital in Warwick Road, Barnet opened in 2017. The service takes referrals from Child and Adolescent Mental Health Services for children with anorexia.
Building.
The company is named after Ellern Mede, a large detached house at 31 Totteridge Common in the London Borough of Barnet, N20. It was built between 1876 and 1877 by the architect Richard Norman Shaw for businessman William Austin.
The design is described by Nikolaus Pevsner as "one of Shaw's asymmetrical Old English L-plan compositions...big, bold half-timbered gable over the entrance, and broad tile-hung flank with half-hipped gable, all anchored by tall chimneys".
History.
In recent years "Ellern Mede" has been a nursing home, and the Ellern Mede Centre for Eating Disorders was founded in the building in 2000, before moving to Mill Hill in May 2011.


HRH Princess Chulabhorn College of Medical Science

The HRH Princess Chulabhorn College of Medical Science () () is a higher educational institute located in Bangkok, Thailand focusing on health science and public health. It is a part of the Chulabhorn Royal Academy (CRA), named after Princess Chulabhorn Walailak.
History.
On 19 January 2016, a royal decree established the CRA as an advanced research and higher educational institute, and the HRH Princess Chulabhorn College of Medical Science to be a college within the academy specialising in medicine, nursing, and health sciences. PCCMS admits about 30 students per year in a 6-year Doctor of Medicine course affiliated with Mahidol University, and runs in conjunction with the Faculty of Medicine Ramathibodi Hospital, Mahidol University.
Starting from academic year 2020, PCCMS expands the coverage to Veterinary Medicine offering Doctor of Veterinary Medicine which is the joint program with Mahidol University. Also PCCMS initiates the 7-year Medical joint program with UCL.
Organization.
The college consists of faculties as follow:


John Edmunds (epidemiologist)

William John Edmunds is a British epidemiologist, and a professor in the Faculty of Epidemiology and Population Health at the London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine.
Education.
Edmunds studied at Imperial College London where he was awarded a PhD in 1994 for research investigating the epidemiology of hepatitis B.
Career and research.
Edmunds specialises in the design of control programmes against infectious diseases, including chlamydia, the 2009 swine flu pandemic, the HPV vaccine, and the Western African Ebola virus epidemic. In 2009, he established the annual online Flusurvey project to track the extent and evolution of UK seasonal influenza.
Edmunds is a member of the New and Emerging Respiratory Virus Threats Advisory Group (NERVTAG), and one of more than 50 attendees of the Scientific Advisory Group for Emergencies (SAGE) advising the UK government on the COVID-19 pandemic.
In a March 2020 interview early in the UK COVID-19 epidemic, Edmunds said that the outbreak "could be very serious ... much more serious than we've had for many years". He has also emphasised both the difficulties in maintaining social distancing over extended time periods, and the key role of herd immunity, saying "The only way to stop this epidemic is indeed to achieve herd immunity". During the loosening of UK lockdown measures in early June 2020, Edmunds said he believed a delay in implementing measures in March "cost a lot of lives", but noted that the data available then was "really quite poor", making decisions difficult. This position on delay led to direct clashes with politician Matt Hancock, the serving Secretary of State for Health and Social Care.
Recognition.
Edmunds was appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) in the 2016 New Year Honours, "for services to infectious disease control particularly the Ebola crisis response in West Africa". He was elected a Fellow of the Academy of Medical Sciences (FMedSci) in 2018.


Steve Rodehutskors

Steve Rodehutskors (November 27, 1963 – October 25, 2007) was a Canadian football offensive lineman who played seven seasons in the Canadian Football League (CFL) with the Winnipeg Blue Bombers, BC Lions and Toronto Argonauts. He was drafted by the Blue Bombers in the third round of the 1987 CFL Draft. He played CIS football at the University of Calgary. Rodehutskors was also a member of the Saskatchewan Roughriders
College career.
Rodehutskors played CIS football for the Calgary Dinos, winning the 21st Vanier Cup in 1985. He played football with the Strathmore Spartans before his time with the Dinos. Steve also play high school basketball with the Spartans.
Professional career.
Rodehutskors was selected by the Winnipeg Blue Bombers of the CFL with the 22nd pick in the 1987 CFL Draft. He played for the Blue Bombers from 1987 to 1991, winning the 76th Grey Cup in 1988 and the 78th Grey Cup in 1990. He signed with the CFL's BC Lions in 1992 and played for them from 1992 to 1993. Rodehutskors was traded to the Toronto Argonauts early in the 1993 season for a first round pick in the 1994 CFL Draft. He was released by the Argonauts before the start of the 1994 season. He signed with the Saskatchewan Roughriders of the CFL during the 1994 off-season and was released by the team prior to the 1994 season.
Personal life.
Rodehutskors worked briefly as a stockbroker after his football career before becoming a veterinarian. He died of cancer on October 25, 2007.


Dominique Anel

Dominique Anel ( – ), French surgeon, was born at Toulouse. After studying at Montpellier and Paris, he served as surgeon-major in the French army in Alsace; then after two years at Vienna he went to Italy and served in the Austrian army. In 1710 he was teaching surgery in Rouen, whence he went to Genoa, and in 1716 he was practising in Paris.
Anel was celebrated for his successful surgical treatment of "fistula lacrymalis", and while at Genoa invented for use in connection with the operation the fine-pointed syringe known by his name.


HHV Latency Associated Transcript

HHV Latency Associated Transcript (HHV LAT) is a length of RNA which accumulates in cells hosting long-term, or "latent", Human Herpes Virus (HHV) infections. The LAT RNA is produced by genetic transcription from a certain region of the viral DNA. LAT regulates the viral genome and interferes with the normal activities of the infected host cell.
Herpes virus may establish lifelong infection during which a "reservoir" virus population survives in host nerve cells for long periods of time. Such long-term Herpes infection requires a mode of cellular infection known as "latent" infection. During the latent infection, the metabolism of the host cell is disrupted. While the infected cell would ordinarily undergo an organized death or be removed by the immune system, the consequences of LAT production interfere with these normal processes.
Latency is distinguished from "lytic" infection; in lytic infection many Herpes virus particles are produced and then burst or "lyse" the host cell. Lytic infection is sometimes known as "productive" infection. Latent cells harbor the virus for long time periods, then occasionally convert to productive infection which may lead to a "recurrence" of symptomatic Herpes symptoms.
During latency, most of the Herpes DNA is inactive, with the exception of LAT, which accumulates within infected cells. The region of HHV DNA which encodes LAT is known as LAT-DNA. After splicing, LAT is a 2.0-kilobase transcript (or intron) produced from the 8.3-kb LAT-DNA. The DNA region containing LAT-DNA is known as the "Latency Associated Transcript Region".
The LAT mainly performs two functions: it suppresses apoptosis so that latently infected host cells stay alive for the reservoir, and suppresses the expression of lytic genes during latent infection.
Lytic gene regulation.
HHV Infected Cell Polypeptide 0 (ICP0) gene is expressed very early during lytic infection, and for this reason is called an "immediate-early" Herpes gene. In 1991, Farrell and colleagues reported that the 2.0-kb LAT intron terminates at the 5′ end with a 750-base antisense RNA complement for the ICP0 gene.
In 2005, Qing-Yin Wang and colleagues from Harvard Medical School concluded, using assays comparing LAT-negative vs. LAT-positive virus strains, that expression of LAT in neurons represses the expression of several lytic gene products, including ICP4 and Thymidine Kinase. LAT expression results in changes to Histones, thus converting portions of viral DNA into a non-productive form known
as heterochromatin.
Simian varicella virus (SVV) is a "Varicellovirus" (a Genus of Subfamily "Alphaherpesvirinae") which expresses an HHV LAT homolog known as SVV LAT, and an HHV ICP0 analog known as SVV-ORF61 (Open Reading Frame). SVV LAT is encoded such that it contains an antisense copy of SVV-ORF61 and that expression of SVV LAT during latency downregulates expression of ORF61 and other immediate-early SVV gene products.
Chromatin insulator.
LAT DNA contains an activation boundary between activated LAT-DNA and the inactive lytic viral DNA called a "chromatin insulator". CCCTC-binding factor ("CTCF") is a zinc finger protein which occurs naturally in some human cells. CTCF is localized to the nucleus of cells. CTCF has been shown to naturally regulate the expression of human linear dsDNA by binding with target DNA sequences or "motifs". CTCF binding to DNA may result in formation of transcription-ready euchromatin through the "Histone H3"-acetylating activity which results due to CTCF binding. Acetylation of Histone promotes transcription of DNA to RNA, and then to protein products.
A March 2006 University of Florida College of Medicine study showed that expression of the Herpes virus genome may be regulated in part by the binding of CTCF to "CTCF-binding motifs". The researchers used sequence analysis and quantitative genomics assays on HHV DNA. In the U. Florida study, the LAT region was found to contain a CTCF-binding region within a 1.5k-bp (base pair) region, and found to contain a "chromatin insulator-like element". A May 2007 study conducted at the Wistar Institute localized the LAT CTCF-binding motif to an 800-bp sequence of the LAT intron, and demonstrated that the region insulated activated LAT chromatin from repressed chromatin that would otherwise produce the lytic protein HHV Infected Cell Polypeptide 0 (ICP0).
Interference of cellular pathways.
It was alleged that a portion of HSV-1 LAT consists of an interfering micro RNA (miRNA), termed  mir-LAT. This miRNA is shown to downregulate Transforming Growth Factor-β1 (TGF-β1) and SMAD3. These effects block apoptosis, or normal programmed cell death. However, although HSV does downregulate apotopsis, the particular miRNA has come to been seen as an experimental artifact, and the paper was consequently retracted.
Other research showed that the products from the first 4,658 nucleotides of LAT inhibited caspase-8 and caspase-9 cellular death factors. Further research has shown that HHV-8 LAT produces RNA which interfere not with expression of TGF-β1 and SMAD3, but reducing the expression of Thrombospondin-1 protein (THBS-1). In turn, down-regulation of THBS-1 reduces production of TGF-β1 and SMAD3, suppressing apoptosis.
Protein products.
The exon parts of LAT-DNA produce two protein products with repeats that are 17 amino acids long, termed HHV latency-related proteins or LR-ORF1 and LR-ORF2. Little is known about these two proteins ( and in HHV-1; and in BHV-1), although the loss of ORF2 in bovine herpesvirus-1 (BHV-1) does appear to interfere with the establishment of latency. ORF2 has been shown to possess DNA-binding properties. It appears responsible for the inhibition of apotopsis.


Yvo Gaukes

Yvo Gaukes (Latin: Yvonis; also Yves, Ivo) (c. 1660–1738) was a prominent physician who practised at Emden and can be counted among the iatromathematicians of his time. In his best-known theoretical publication, "Dissertatio de medicina ad certitudinem mathematicam evehenda" (1712) he developed a medical theory on the grounds of Cartesianism, proposing sizes and shapes for the main components of the Four Humors based on these largely philosophical considerations. Gaukes also popularized "Species Lignorum", a variant of the numerous Guaiacum wood extracts that had been used to treat syphilis since the late 16th century.
Most of Gaukes' works in clinical medicine, which were largely published in Groningen and Amsterdam, are limited to case reports.


Alvin Setzepfandt

Alvin Otto Henry Setzepfandt (February 7, 1924 – January 7, 2013) was an American veterinarian and politician.
Born in Eagle Grove, Iowa, Setzepfandt graduated from Will Rogers High School in Tulsa, Oklahoma. During World War II, he served in the United States Veterinary Corps. In 1945, he received his degree in veterinary medicine from Iowa State University. He practiced in Bird Island, Minnesota. He served on the Bird Island City Council 1951 to 1953 and as mayor from 1954 to 1970. From 1971 to 1974, Setzepfandt served as Renville County, Minnesota commissioner. From 1975 to 1977, Setzepfandt served in the Minnesota House of Representatives and then in the Minnesota State Senate from 1977 to 1982. He was a Democrat. He died in Olivia, Minnesota.


Chinese Yachting Association

The Chinese Yachting Association is the national governing body for the sport of sailing in China, recognised by the International Sailing Federation.
Notable sailors.
See
Olympic sailing.
See
Offshore sailing.
See
Yacht Clubs.
See


Pityriasis lichenoides et varioliformis acuta

Pityriasis lichenoides et varioliformis acuta (PLEVA) is a disease of the immune system. It is the more severe version of pityriasis lichenoides chronica. The disease is characterized by rashes and small lesions on the skin. The disease is more common in males and usually occurs in young adulthood, although it has been seen in every age group and every race. It is possible for the disease to go into remission for short periods of time or forever.
Causes.
There is no known cause of this disease; There is some evidence associating it with Parvovirus B19.
Diagnosis.
It is commonly misdiagnosed as chickenpox or rosacea. PLEVA is also often misidentified as a form of staph. The most accurate way to diagnose it is by biopsy. This disease has not been known to be life-threatening. However, there may be mutations of the disease that can cause ulcers on the exterior.
Treatment.
It is not contagious and currently there is no cure for the disease, although the lesions can be treated with phototherapy as well as antibiotics, including erythromycin, azithromycin and tetracycline.Treatment often involves multiple therapies that address the immune system and bacterial, viral, or dermatological causes.
Eponym.
PLEVA is also known as Mucha–Habermann disease. It is named for Rudolf Habermann (1884–1941), a German dermatologist, and Viktor Mucha, an Austrian dermatologist.


International Society on Hypertension in Blacks

The International Society on Hypertension in Blacks (abbreviated ISHIB) is a non-profit medical society based in Atlanta, United States which is dedicated to improving the health of racial and ethnic minority groups worldwide. It was founded in 1986 by the physicians Dallas Hall, Neil B. Shulman, and Elijah Saunders, in response to concern about high rates of hypertension among African Americans. By 2006, the society had broadened its scope to focus not just on reducing rates of hypertension among African Americans, but also on improving the health of all minority populations around the world. The society's official peer-reviewed journal is "Ethnicity & Disease", which it has published since 1991.


Heinrich Curschmann

Heinrich Curschmann (June 28, 1846 – May 6, 1910) was a German internist who was a native of Giessen.
From 1863 to 1868 he studied medicine at the University of Giessen, and afterwards worked as an assistant physician at the Rochusspital in Mainz. In 1875, he received his habilitation for internal medicine at the University of Berlin, and from 1879 to 1888 served as director at the state hospital in Hamburg. From 1888 to 1910 he was a professor of internal medicine at the University of Leipzig, serving as academic rector in 1906/07.
Curschmann is remembered for the 1894 publication of ""Klinische Abbildungen" (Clinical Illustrations), a collection of photos involving changes to the outer human form caused by internal disease. "Klinische Abbildungen" is considered to be a major pioneer work in medical photography. His treatise "Der Unterleibstyphus and Das Fleckenfieber"", was later translated into English and published as "Typhoid fever and typhus fever" (1901).
Curschmann's name is lent to a number of eponymous medical terms, including "Curschmann's disease", also known as hyaloserositis of the liver; "Curschmann's cannula", a medical instrument; and "Curschmann's spirals", described as coiled mucinous fibrils sometimes found in the sputum in bronchial asthma.


Infraglenoid tubercle

The infraglenoid tubercle is the part of the scapula from which the long head of the triceps brachii muscle originates. The infraglenoid tubercle is a tubercle located on the lateral part of the scapula, inferior to (below) the glenoid cavity. The name infraglenoid tubercle refers to its location below the glenoid cavity.
Function.
The infraglenoid tubercle is the origin of the long head of the triceps brachii muscle. It helps to stabilise the muscle origin.


Ludwig Cancer Research

Ludwig Cancer Research is an international community of scientists focused on cancer research, with the goals of preventing and controlling cancer. It encompasses the Ludwig Institute for Cancer Research, an international non-profit organization founded in 1971 by philanthropist Daniel K. Ludwig. The Institute is headquartered in New York City with a European office located in Zurich. In addition, six Ludwig Centers were established at leading US cancer research institutions. Together, the Institute and Centers are known as Ludwig Cancer Research.
Since its founding in 1971, Ludwig Cancer Research has committed more than (US) $2.5 billion to cancer research. Ludwig Cancer Research focuses on both basic research and translational research, with specific emphasis on cell biology, genomics, immunology, neuroscience, prevention, cell signaling, stem cells, therapeutics, and tumor biology, as well as clinical trials and the design and development of small molecules with drug-like properties. Its researchers also focus on particular types of malignancy, including brain cancer, breast cancer, colon cancer, and melanoma.
Founder and history.
Daniel K. Ludwig was a shipping magnate and real estate investor. Born in South Haven, Michigan in 1897, he parleyed a $5,000 loan from his father into a global business empire based on a fleet of supertankers. In the 1960s and 1970s, Ludwig was among the richest men in the world, with a self-made empire of some 200 companies globally.
He founded the Ludwig Institute for Cancer Research as an independent organization in 1971, the same year that the “War on Cancer,” declared by his friend President Richard Nixon, led to the establishment of the US National Cancer Institute. Ludwig believed that tackling the problem of cancer required the best minds operating in the most favorable conditions with the best resources to accomplish the task. This principle continues to guide Ludwig Cancer Research.
Daniel K. Ludwig endowed the Institute with all of the foreign assets from his business holdings. Upon his death in 1992, that endowment had grown to more than $700 million, and it stands at more than $1.3 billion today.
After Ludwig’s death, his US-based assets were also put into a trust to support additional cancer research efforts. These funds led to the establishment of Ludwig Centers at six research institutions in 2006. The Ludwig Institute for Cancer Research and Ludwig Centers have been known collectively as Ludwig Cancer Research since 2012. In total, Ludwig Cancer Research has committed more than (US) $2.5 billion to cancer research worldwide since 1971.
Mission and goals.
The primary objectives of Ludwig Cancer Research are to prevent and control cancer through basic and translational research.
Research.
Immunotherapy.
Lloyd Old, the organization’s former director and scientific chairman, participated in the discovery of Tumor Necrosis Factor (TNF) and the tumor suppressor p53. He contributed to the immunosurveillance hypothesis, from which modern cancer immunotherapy can be derived.
Thierry Boon, former director of the organization’s Brussels branch, made foundational contributions to the field of cancer immunotherapy. The prevailing model of carcinogenesis in the late 1970s held that spontaneously arising tumors were unlikely to elicit immune responses. Boon and his team, who believed otherwise, were the first to isolate genes that code for a family of tumor antigens and show that T cells could recognize and target cancer cells bearing such antigens. This theory is being tested in a number of current clinical trials.
Ludwig researchers in Melbourne discovered and cloned the granulocyte-monocyte colony stimulating factor (GM-CSF) through a collaboration with Australian immunologist Donald Metcalf. The factor is essential to the maturation of key white blood cells, and has been used extensively over the past few decades to help rebuild the immune system of patients undergoing chemotherapy. It is also being tested as a therapeutic agent in combination with several experimental immunotherapies for cancer. The Oncology Drug Advisory Committee of the US FDA recently recommended approval for T-VEC, a viral therapy for melanoma manufactured by Amgen that incorporates the gene for GM-CSF to support anti-cancer immune responses.
Ludwig researchers in Sao Paulo played a role in establishing that human papillomavirus (HPV) infection causes cervical cancer. They ran the largest epidemiological studies of HPV infection and reported that chronic, though not transient, infection by the virus dramatically increases the risk of cervical cancer, laying the groundwork for the clinical development of an HPV vaccine.
Current and former Ludwig researchers contributed to an emerging class of cancer immunotherapies known as checkpoint inhibitors. They explored the underlying immunology of the response and played a role in evaluating the first such drug in clinical trials for the treatment of advanced melanoma. This led the development of new criteria for evaluating responses of cancer patients to immunotherapy in clinical trials.
Cell signaling.
Contributions to the field of cell signaling include the identification of signaling pathways and subsequent development of therapies. An example is the PI3K family of proteins, which play a key role in cell signaling that fuels cancer. This research led to the first Ludwig spin-off, a biotech named Piramed Ltd., which sought to develop cancer therapies based on this discovery. The company was purchased by the pharmaceutical company Roche. Drugs based on these discoveries are today being tested to treat several types of cancer, including breast and lung cancer.
Genomics.
Contributions in the field of genomics include the work of Ludwig researchers at Johns Hopkins to sequence the full complement of genes expressed in many cancers, including head and neck, colon, and breast cancers, as well as glioblastoma multiforme (GBM). Ludwig researchers in San Diego significantly advanced studies of the epigenome, leading such efforts as the NIH’s Roadmap Epigenomics Project.
Leadership.
The Ludwig Cancer Research board of directors helps oversee both the Ludwig Institute for Cancer Research and the Ludwig Fund. Although each of these entities has its own board, the boards comprise the same individuals. The current chairman of the board is John L. Notter, an international financier and developer affiliated with a variety of companies, including Westlake Properties, Inc.
The executive staff manages the organization's worldwide efforts. Edward A. McDermott, Jr has been with the organization since 1988 and its CEO since 2010.
It was announced in December 2016 that Chi Van Dang will take over the role of Scientific Director in July 2017. He will be responsible for coordinating the organization’s global research efforts and activities.
Notable faculty.
Notable awards received by past and present employees affiliated with Ludwig include:
National Medal of Science (US):
Fellows of the National Academy of Sciences (US):
Academy of Medical Sciences (UK):
Locations.
Branches and laboratories
Ludwig Centers


Closing capacity

The closing capacity (CC) is the volume in the lungs at which its smallest airways, the respiratory bronchioles, collapse. It is defined mathematically as the sum of the closing volume and the residual volume. The alveoli lack supporting cartilage and so depend on other factors to keep them open. The closing capacity is less than the Functional Residual Capacity, the amount of gas that normally remains in the lungs during respiration This means that there is normally enough air within the lungs to keep these airways open throughout both inhalation and exhalation. As the lungs age, there is a gradual increase in the closing capacity (i.e. The small airways begin to collapse at a higher volume/before expiration is complete). This also occurs with certain disease processes, such as asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and pulmonary edema. Any process that increases the CC by increasing the closing volume (CV) can increase an individual's risk of hypoxemia, as the small airways may collapse during exhalation, leading to air trapping and atelectasis.
A mnemonic for factors increasing closing capacity is ACLS-S:  Age, Chronic bronchitis, LV failure, Smoking, Surgery. Alternatively, CLOSE: Cigarettes, LV failure, Old age, Surgery, Emphysema (& asthma). Often supine positioning will decrease functional residual capacity (FRC) but has no effect on closing capacity.


David Waltner-Toews

David Waltner-Toews (born 1948) is a Canadian epidemiologist, essayist, poet, fiction writer, veterinarian, and a specialist in the epidemiology of food and waterborne diseases, zoonoses and ecosystem health. He is best known for his work on animal and human infectious diseases in relation to complexity.
Profile.
A University Professor Emeritus in the Department of Population Medicine at the University of Guelph, he is the founding president of Veterinarians without Borders/ Vétérinaires sans Frontières - Canada, founding president of the Network for Ecosystem Sustainability and Health., and one of the founding members of the Community of Practice for Ecosystem Approaches to Health – Canada.
Besides about 100 peer-reviewed scholarly papers and a textbook ("Ecosystem Sustainability and Health: a practical approach", Cambridge, 2004), he has published half a dozen books of poetry, a collection of poems and recipes, an award-winning collection of short stories ("One Foot in Heaven"), a murder mystery ("Fear of Landing") and a book about the natural history of diseases people get from animals ("The Chickens Fight Back: Pandemic Panics and Deadly Diseases that Jump from Animals to Humans"). In 2011 he collaborated with artist Diane Maclean on her exhibition "Bird" at Killhope North of England Lead Mining Museum, contributing a new poem, "The Love Song of the Javanese Singing Cock"
Work.
Waltner-Toews is best known for his initiatives to integrate human, animal, and ecosystem health in research, practice and teaching. This work, bridging natural sciences, humanities, and social sciences, has drawn considerably on the ideas of post-normal science, as developed by Silvio Funtowicz and Jerome Ravetz. He has been instrumental in the development of ecohealth teaching and training manuals for North America and Europe as well as Asia .


Jonathan Grigg

Jonathan Grigg is a British professor of paediatric respiratory and environmental medicine at Queen Mary University of London. He is a former Research lead of the British Paediatric Respiratory Society and was a Vice Chair of the Royal College of Physicians' working party on air pollution and authored the report "Every breath we take, the lifelong impact of air pollution".
He was Secretary of the Paediatric Assembly of the European Respiratory Society until 2017.
Grigg has had various British media appearances including having been a participant in the Radio 4 program "Costing the Earth", and an interview with Sky News regarding the RCP report.
Jonathan Grigg is a founding member of Doctors against Diesel, a group advocating the rapid phase out of the current fleet of diesel cars, vans, and taxis.


Root effect

The Root effect is a physiological phenomenon that occurs in fish hemoglobin, named after its discoverer R. W. Root. It is the phenomenon where an increased proton or carbon dioxide concentration (lower pH) lowers hemoglobin's affinity and carrying capacity for oxygen. The Root effect is to be distinguished from the Bohr effect where only the affinity to oxygen is reduced. Hemoglobins showing the Root effect show a loss of cooperativity at low pH. This results in the Hb-O2 dissociation curve being shifted downward and not just to the right. At low pH, hemoglobins showing the Root effect don't become fully oxygenated even at oxygen tensions up to 20kPa. This effect allows hemoglobin in fish with swim bladders to unload oxygen into the swim bladder against a high oxygen gradient. The effect is also noted in the choroid rete, the network of blood vessels which carries oxygen to the retina. In the absence of the Root effect, retia will result in the diffusion of some oxygen directly from the arterial blood to the venous blood, making such systems less effective for the concentration of oxygen. It has also been hypothesized that the loss of affinity is used to provide more oxygen to red muscle during acidotic stress.


Microstomia

Microstomia is a small mouth ("micro-" a combining form meaning small + "-stomia" a combining form meaning mouth = (abnormally) "small mouth" in Greek.)
Congenital.
It is a feature of many craniofacial syndromes, including Freeman–Sheldon syndrome and Sheldon-Hall syndromes (or distal arthrogryposis multiplex congenita). It may present with whistling-face feature, as well, as in Freeman-Sheldon syndrome. In this syndrome, it impairs alimentation and may require repeated oral surgeries (called commissurotomy) to improve function.
Acquired.
Microstomia can occur as a result of scarring due to many conditions. It is seen as complication of facial burns.
It can also be a feature of systemic scleroderma.


Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya

The Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya (commonly known as the UM Medical School, FoM UM, UM Medicine or Malaya Medicine) is one of the thirteen faculties of the University of Malaya (UM). It was officially established in September 1962 after the establishment of the university's Kuala Lumpur campus; it was the first medical school established in Malaysia.
The faculty is well-known for its medical education and research, especially in the discovery of the Nipah virus (1998–1999 Malaysia Nipah virus outbreak).
The faculty is widely regarded as the top medical school in Malaysia, being placed at No. 145 in the world in the subject of Medicine in the QS World University Subject Rankings 2021; this makes it the highest ranked medical school in Malaysia and the third highest in Southeast Asia.
History.
The Faculty of Medicine was first established in Singapore as the Straits Settlements and the Federated Malay States Government Medical School in 1905, which trained physicians from present day Singapore and Malaysia. It was located within a former women's mental asylum at Sepoy Lines. The start of this medical school was significant in two ways. It trained local people to bring Western medicine to the population, and it was supported by merchants who took advantage of the tax exemptions to give generously to public causes. One notable donor was Tan Jiak Kim, a prominent Straits-born Chinese merchant. Another, Tan Chay Hoon, donated a building to the school in memory of his father, Tan Teck Guan. The Tan Teck Guan Building was built in 1911.
In 1921, the school was renamed the King Edward VII College of Medicine (KECM), after a donation from the Edward VII Memorial Fund. It was founded by Lim Boon Keng. In 1926, the College of Medicine Building was built to house the college in addition to the Tan Teck Guan Building. The dental school was founded shortly after.
During World War II, the college operated during the Japanese occupation of Singapore, but some people were killed. The first casualty was a fourth-year medical student based at Tan Tock Seng Hospital who was fatally wounded during the Battle of Singapore. While his friends were burying him, they were spotted by Japanese soldiers and eleven were killed on the spot. The dead are commemorated by the SGH War Memorial.
In 1949, the KECM merged with Raffles College to form the Singapore campus of UM. The medical school became the Faculty of Medicine of UM, and students in Malaysia wishing to study medicine would have to go to the campus in Singapore. In 1962, UM split into UM (Kuala Lumpur) and the University of Singapore, with the medical school in Singapore coming under the University of Singapore, while the UM in Kuala Lumpur established the present faculty. The founder Dean of the Faculty was Tan Sri Emeritus Prof Dr. Thamboo John Danaraj. On 5 May 2005, T.J. Danaraj Medical Library was named in memory of the Dean.
Silent Mentor.
In affiliation with Taiwan's Tzu Chi University, the Faculty launched the first Silent Mentor program outside of Taiwan in 2012 . The program serves as the platform for the public to pledge and donate their bodies for medical education and research. The donors are addressed as "Silent Mentors" as they teach and educate medical students and professionals despite not speaking any words. After the week-long training workshop, the bodies of the "Silent Mentors" will be returned to the family members to be cremated. The program is largely different from the traditional cadaveric teaching in medical schools around the globe as most cadavers are unidentified bodies, however in this "Silent Mentor" program, the students are exposed to the life stories of each of the "Silent Mentors" and this is done with the aim to allow students learn Medicine in a humanistic approach.
Admissions and programmes.
The faculty provides several undergraduate and postgraduate degrees in the field of medical and health sciences. These include:
Departments.
The faculty is made up of the following departments:
Research centres.
The Faculty includes the following research centres:


Pediatric surgery

Pediatric surgery is a subspecialty of surgery involving the surgery of fetuses, infants, children, adolescents, and young adults.
History.
Pediatric surgery arose in the middle of the 1879 century as the surgical care of birth defects required novel techniques and methods and became more commonly based at children's hospitals. One of the sites of this innovation was Children's Hospital of Philadelphia. Beginning in the 1940s under the surgical leadership of C. Everett Koop, newer techniques for endotracheal anesthesia of infants allowed surgical repair of previously untreatable birth defects. By the late 1970s, the infant death rate from several major congenital malformation syndromes had been reduced to near zero.
Specialties.
Subspecialties of pediatric surgery itself include: neonatal surgery and fetal surgery.
Other areas of surgery also have pediatric specialties of their own that require further training during the residencies and in a fellowship: pediatric cardiothoracic (surgery on the child's heart and/or lungs, including heart and/or lung transplantation), pediatric nephrological surgery (surgery on the child's kidneys and ureters, including renal, or kidney, transplantation), pediatric neurosurgery (surgery on the child's brain, central nervous system, spinal cord, and peripheral nerves), pediatric urological surgery (surgery on the child's urinary bladder and other structures below the kidney necessary for ejaculation), pediatric emergency surgery, surgery involving fetuses or embryos (overlapping with obstetric/gynecological surgery, neonatology, and maternal-fetal medicine), surgery involving adolescents or young adults, pediatric hepatological (liver) and gastrointestinal (stomach and intestines) surgery (including liver and intestinal transplantation in children), pediatric orthopedic surgery (muscle and bone surgery in children), pediatric plastic and reconstructive surgery (such as for burns, or for congenital defects like cleft palate not involving the major organs), and pediatric oncological (childhood cancer) surgery.
Conditions.
Common pediatric diseases that may require pediatric surgery include: