Antofagasta plc

Antofagasta plc is a British multinational. It is one of the most important conglomerates of Chile with equity participation in "Antofagasta Minerals", the railroad from Antofagasta to Bolivia, Twin Metals in Minnesota and other exploration joint ventures in different parts from the world.
Antofagasta is listed on the London Stock Exchange and is a constituent of the FTSE 100 Index.
History.
The Group began life as "Ferrocarril de Antofagasta a Bolivia", a business that was incorporated and listed on the London Stock Exchange in 1888 with the objective of operating a railway between Antofagasta, a port on the Pacific Coast of Northern Chile, and La Paz, the capital City of Bolivia.
In 1980, a majority the shares was acquired by the Grupo Luksic and the two businesses were subsequently integrated under the name "Antofagasta Holdings".
During the 1980s, Antofagasta Holdings diversified into other areas such as mining in Michilla, in which it invested in 1983, and mining in the Pelambres, in which it invested in 1986, in addition to telecommunications.
In 1996, Antofagasta Holdings transferred its banking activities and its industrial interests to Quiñenco S.A., another diversified Chilean company also controlled by the Luksic family. This transfer allowed Antofagasta Holdings to concentrate on the development of the Pelambres and the Tesoro mines and establish itself as a low cost copper producer. The shortened name, "Antofagasta", was adopted in 1999.
The Los Pelambres mine was first recognized by Willian Burford Braden in 1920. One of the largest copper deposits in the world, production in 2016 was forecasted at 355–365,000 tonnes of copper, 45–55,000 ounces of gold and 8.0–9.0 tonnes of molybdenum.
In 2009, Antofagasta PLC signed an agreement with the Australian company Carbon Energy to develop an underground coal gasification project in Mulpún, in Southern Chile. The project was put on hold in 2013.
In 2015 Antofagasta took control of Twin Metals, a US company involved in a copper and nickel mining project in Northern Minnesota. Under President Barack Obama, the US administration declined to renew the leases for the lands on which the mining project was planned. However, the Luksic Group and Antofagasta PLC managed to have this position reversed under the succeeding administration of President Donald Trump. The mining project commenced a long permitting process, involving significant environmental issues, being located near wilderness area with many lakes and rivers. The project's reversal of fortunes angered environmentalists and focused attention on an unusual connection between a Chilean billionaire and President Trump's family.
In February 2016 Antofagasta signed an agreement with junior explorer Evrim Resources to earn an interest in the Ball Creek property located in British Columbia. Antofagasta can earn a 70% interest in the project by spending US$31 million over a thirteen-year period. The company sold its Michilla mine, which is in Chile for $52m in 2016.
Operations.
Antofagasta is one of the major international copper producers with its activities concentrated mainly in Chile where it now operates four copper mines: Los Pelambres, Centinela (previously the Esperanza and Tesoro mines), Antucoya and Zaldivar (50% owned, 50% owned by the Canadian mining company Barrick Gold).
Ownership.
The company is still 65% owned by the Chilean Luksic family.


Maslovskoye mine

The Maslovskoye mine is a large mine in the center of Russia in the Krasnoyarsk Krai. Maslovskoye represents one of the largest nickel reserve in Russia having estimated reserves of 215 million tonnes of ore grading 0.33% nickel, 12.5 million oz of platinum, 35.5 million oz of palladium and 1.3 million oz of gold. The 215 million tonnes of ore contains 0.73 million tonnes of nickel metal.


Thomas Hepburn

Thomas Hepburn (c. 1795 – 9 December 1864), often known as Tommy Hepburn, was an English coal miner and trade union leader.
Background.
Hepburn was born in Pelton, County Durham. He began employment as a coal miner as a child, aged just 8 years old at Fatfield Colliery. Despite economic circumstance forcing his employment in childhood, as was common for working class children at the time, he was an intelligent child, able to read the Bible from an early age, remaining interested in education all his life.
Industrial Action.
He moved to Jarrow Colliery, and then Hetton Colliery before forming "The Colliers of the United Association of Durham and Northumberland" soon after 1825, which was colloquially known as "Hepburn's Union". Some of the first industrial action undertaken by this union, under Hepburn's guidance was to go on strike to seek improved conditions. In this aim the strike was largely successful, with working hours being reduced from around 18 hours a day to a 12-hour shift, and ensuring that payment for labour was always in money, ending the system of "Tommy Shops" whereby the miners had to purchase provisions from a shop either owned or preferred by the colliery owner, with wages being confiscated to pay off the shop owner before the employee could directly receive them.
Conflict.
Hepburn then quickly had to involve his union in further industrial action in 1832 to ensure that unionised workers were given employment as pit owners threatened to cease employment of them. This strike was more bitter than the previous one, and despite Hepburn's best efforts to ensure that all action was peaceful, violence broke out on a number of occasions, such as at Friar's Goose, where unionised lead miners attacked non-unionised miners from Cumberland who had been brought in to replace them. In another action a South Shields magistrate, Nicholas Fairless was beaten so badly by a striking miner that he died from his wounds. A miner, William Jobling became one of the last men in Britain to be gibbeted for this, although not guilty of the murder. Elsewhere a miner Cuthbert Skipsey was shot by a police constable during a disorder.
This strike withered and the union crumbled as the miners realised the necessity of employment and a wage to live was greater than the principle of trade union solidarity. The strike leaders were scapegoated by the authorities, and Thomas Hepburn became unable to secure employment as a miner thereafter, being banned from the coalfield.
Thereafter he attempted to sell tea at the mines to make a living, but in this venture he was largely unsuccessful.
Destitute, he was eventually re-employed at a colliery, at Felling, on the grounds that he did not get involved in trade union activity. He did not re-engage in any union activity but remained active in radical political circles. During 1838-39 he worked on behalf of the Chartists. He continued to work at Felling until retiring due to ill health in 1859.
Death.
He continued to live in the area until the last few months of his life, when he moved to live with his son-in-law in Newcastle. He died on 9 December 1864, aged 69, after a career spanning 56 years and a retirement of just five years.
Buried at Heworth Churchyard, there stands a headstone with a testimony to his trade union activity. Thomas Hepburn Community Academy in Felling is named in his honour.


Tomnadashan

Tomnadashan was a hamlet southwest of Ardtalnaig in Scotland. John Campbell, 2nd Marquess of Breadalbane tried to mine copper, gold and sulphur there in the 19th century but was unsuccessful. The copper mine is best known as the filming location for the Cave of Caerbannog scene in "Monty Python and the Holy Grail".


Roland Duer Irving

Roland Duer Irving (April 27, 1847 – May 30, 1888) was an American geologist. He was born in New York city and graduated from Columbia College School of Mines in 1869 as a mining engineer. In 1879, he received his PhD, also from Columbia.
Soon after his graduation he became assistant on the Ohio geological survey, and in 1870 was elected professor of geology, mining, and metallurgy at the University of Wisconsin. In 1879 the title of his chair was changed to that of geology and mineralogy. He became assistant state geologist of Wisconsin in 1878, and continued as such until 1879. From 1880 to 1882 he was one of the United States census experts, and in 1882 was made geologist in charge of the Lake Superior division of the United States Geological Survey. His specialty was the micro-petrography of the fragmental rocks and crystalline schists, and pre-Cambrian stratigraphy and the genesis of some of the so-called crystalline rocks. He is considered one of the pioneers of petrography in the United States.
He was the father of John Duer Irving, another noted geologist and editor of the journal "Economic Geology" from 1905 to 1918.


Port Penrhyn

Port Penrhyn () is a harbour located just east of Bangor in north Wales at the confluence of the River Cegin with the Menai Strait. It was formerly of great importance as the main port for the export of slate from the Penrhyn Quarry, the largest slate quarry in the world at the end of the nineteenth century. It was built, and later expanded, by the Pennant (later Douglas-Pennant) family of the nearby Penrhyn Castle.
"Penrhyn" is the Welsh word for 'promontory'.
The port is used by coastal vessels up to about and by fishing vessels.


List of mines in Pakistan

This list of mines in Pakistan is subsidiary to the list of mines article and lists working, defunct and future mines in the country and is organised by the primary mineral output. For practical purposes stone, marble and other quarries may be included in this list.


Apex Silver Mines

Apex Silver Mines, founded by Thomas Kaplan, from Denver, Colorado was a US-American transnational mining corporation with a tax haven address in the Cayman Islands. Following its reorganization under Chapter 11 bankruptcy in 2009, it re-emerged as Golden Minerals Corporation.
History.
Since its start in 1993, Apex Silver Mines Ltd. had become an exploration and development company and producer of silver, zinc and lead. Apex's largest asset was the San Cristóbal open-pit silver, lead and zinc mine located in Potosí Department, Bolivia. In September 2006, Sumitomo Corporation of Japan acquired a 35% share of the facility.
On January 12, 2009, Apex Silver and its wholly owned subsidiary, ASMC, filed voluntary petitions for relief under Chapter 11 of the Bankruptcy Code with the Bankruptcy Court. The Plan was approved by the Bankruptcy Court on March 4, 2009. In connection with Apex' emergence from bankruptcy as a newly formed Delaware corporation named Golden Minerals Company, Apex sold their remaining 65% interest in the San Cristóbal mine to Sumitomo. Golden Minerals continued to operate the San Cristóbal Mine on behalf of Sumitomo until June 30, 2010, for which it received $11.4 million in revenues, including reimbursement of $5.4 million in administrative costs. This was Golden Minerals primary source of revenue during this period.
Apex Mines.
Formerly, Apex owned twelve properties:
Golden Minerals.
Golden Minerals also continue to own and explore their broad portfolio of exploration properties.
Golden Minerals emerged from Apex Chapter 11 on March 24, 2009. Under the Plan, all of the assets of Apex Silver, other than a small cash reserve for the payment of liquidation expenses, were transferred to Golden Minerals Company, a Delaware corporation that is Apex Silver’s successor, who emerged from Chapter 11 on March 24, 2009. Apex Silver was being liquidated in accordance with Cayman Islands law. Golden Minerals resides in Golden, Colorado. Golden Minerals owns and controls a large number of exploration properties located primarily in the high potential mining districts in Latin America, including the feasibility stage El Quevar Project in northern Argentina.


Alamos Gold

Alamos Gold ("Alamos") is a Canadian multinational gold producer, headquartered in Toronto, Canada. Alamos operates three mines across North America, and has six further projects in development.
Alamos Gold is engaged in the mining and extraction of, and exploration for, precious metals, primarily gold. Alamos owns and operates three mines, including the Young-Davidson Mine and the Island Gold Mine in Ontario, Canada and the Mulatos Mine in Sonora, Mexico. In 2019, the Young-Davidson mine produced 188,000 ounces of gold, the Island Gold mine produced 150,400 ounces of gold, and Mulatos mine produced 142,000 ounces of gold. In addition, the former El Chanate mine in Sonora, Mexico produced 14,100 ounces of gold. Alamos' total gold production in 2019 was 494,500 ounces. Alamos also owns several development-stage projects: the Lynn Lake Gold Project in Lynn Lake, Manitoba, the Kirazlı, the Ağı Dağı, and Çamyurt Projects in the Biga district of northwestern Turkey, the Esperanza Gold Project in Morelos, Mexico, and the Quartz Mountain Property in Oregon, United States.
The company has been recognized for achieving best-in-class environmental, social and corporate governance (ESG) ratings.
Alamos is listed on the Toronto Stock Exchange and the New York Stock Exchange, both under the ticker "AGI", and is a component of the S&P/TSX Composite Index.
History.
Founding and early years.
Alamos Gold was formed in 2003 through the merger of Alamos Minerals and National Gold, resulting in the acquisition of the Mulatos deposit for US$10 million, at a time when the gold price was US$300 per ounce.
As the founding asset for the company, the Mulatos mine was built at a cost of approximately US$74 million. Construction of the open-pit mine, 220 km east of the city of Hermosillo in the Sierra Madre Occidental mountain range of Sonora state, began in the summer of 2004, and the company poured first gold in July 2005. A feasibility study at US$370 per oz. gold predicted a seven-year mine life that would take the heap-leach operation out to 2012.
In 2010, Alamos acquired the Ağı Dağı and Kirazlı advanced-stage development projects from Teck Resources and Fronteer Development Group for total consideration of US$90 million.
In 2012, Alamos CEO John McCluskey was named 2012 Ontario Entrepreneur Of The Year by Ernst & Young and received recognition for growing the company to more than 500 people and showing a commitment to excellence in environmental management, social responsibility and health and safety. That year, the company produced its one millionth ounce of gold and generated the billionth dollar of revenue from the Mulatos operation.
2013 – present.
In 2013, the company completed two acquisitions: Esperanza Resources for US$69 million, with assets in Morelos, Mexico, and Orsa Ventures, an exploration stage company with assets in Oregon, United States.
That same year, Alamos published its first annual Sustainability Report, began reporting against the Global Reporting Initiative, and was recognized for the fifth year in a row by Mexican Center for Philanthropy and the Alliance for Corporate Responsibility (CEMEFI) as a “Socially Responsible Mining Company”.
In 2015, Alamos merged with AuRico Gold in a transaction structured as a merger of equals with a transaction equity value of approximately US$1.5 billion. The agreement combined two top-quality, highly-complementary asset portfolios, including two long-life, cash flow-generating gold mines: AuRico's Young-Davidson mine in Ontario, Canada, and Alamos' Mulatos mine in Sonora, Mexico. The two mines, producing over 160,000 ounces and over 79,000 ounces of gold respectively in 2015, were designed and constructed to the highest environmental and safety standards and were operated with a strong commitment to social responsibility.
In 2015, Alamos announced the acquisition of Carlisle Goldfields Limited for US$22.1 million and its primary asset – the Lynn Lake gold project – located in Lynn Lake, Manitoba. By 2016, Alamos announced its feasibility study at Lynn Lake gold project showing proven and probable reserves of 26.8 million tonnes graded 1.89 grams per tonne, with contained gold of 1.6 million ounces. On January 7, 2016, Alamos completed the acquisition of Carlisle Goldfields Limited and its 100% ownership of the Lynn Lake Gold Project located in Lynn Lake, Manitoba.
In 2015, the El Chanate mine won the “Best Practices in Social Responsibility” Award by CEMEFI, the Mexican Center for Philanthropy, the Ethics and Values Award by the Confederation of Industrial Commerce, and reported its medical clinic served over 7,000 medical visits and provided health care and medicine to 80% of the population of Mulatos and Matarachi. The company also established a Stakeholder Advisory Committee in Turkey with the elected village heads (muhtars) of Kirazlı, Karacalar, Karaibrahimler, Alanköy, Yukarışapçı and Aşağışağçı villages. The company began its design of a fresh Altınzeybek-2 water reservoir with a water holding capacity of 3.17 million cubic meters – of which 92% of the water will be used by local communities as clean, healthy drinking and utility water.  The company’s scholarship program provided educational scholarships for 59 economically disadvantaged students, kindergarten through university, from the Talan and Etili villages.
In 2017, Alamos acquired Richmont Mines Inc. in a deal valued at US$770 million acquiring its asset, the Island Gold mine. Located in northern Ontario approximately a six-hour drive from its Young-Davidson mine, the Island Gold mine boosted Alamos to up over 500,000 ounces of annualized production. With a target to increase capacity up to 1,200 tonnes per day, Alamos expanded the mill and upgraded its mining fleet in 2018. In the third quarter of 2018, Alamos successfully commissioned the Phase I expansion at the Island Gold mine, increasing mill capacity to 1,100 tonnes per day.
In 2017, the company reported it has received the Forestry Permits required for the development of its Kirazli gold project from the Forestry General Directorate in Turkey, and on February 22, 2017, announced updated positive studies on each of its Turkish Projects, including feasibility studies on both its Kirazlı and Ağı Dağı Projects; as well, a preliminary economic assessment on its Çamyurt Project. The following year, the company announced it was granted the GSM (Business Opening and Operation) permit required for the development of its Kirazli project, by the Çanakkale Governorship in Turkey. Two years later in 2019, the company announced that it had been granted the Operating Permit from the Turkish Department of Energy and Natural Resources allowing for the start of earthworks on the Kirazl project.
In late 2018, the company successfully obtained the Cerro Pelon MIA (Environmental Impact Assessment) and Cerro Pelon CUS (Change of Land Use) permits for the high return Cerro Pelon project in Mexico and commenced full scale construction.
In 2019, Alamos announced a doubling of its dividend to $0.01 per common share quarterly, from US $0.01 semi-annually. The company also announced the Mulatos mine produced its two millionth ounce of gold. That same year, the company announced receipt of an expansion permit for the Island Gold gold, allowing for the Phase II expansion to 1,200 tonnes per day.
Alamos had become among roughly 10% of the mining companies on the S&P/TSX Composite Index to have at least 30% of its board represented by women in 2019. Additionally that year, the company announced it was the recipient of the "Best Corporate Social Responsibility Practice 2019" award from the Mexican Center for Philanthropy (Cemefi) and the Alliance for Corporate Social Responsibility in Mexico (AliaRSE) for the company's voluntary relocation program of residents from Mulatos to Matarachi in Mexico.
In August 2019, protests were held outside Alamos' Kirazli Project despite being criticized by the local villagers claiming protesters came to the region with misinformation. The protestors alleged that Alamos cut down four times the number of trees than it declared in an environmental impact report and that the use of cyanide to extract gold could contaminate the soil and waters of a nearby dam. The Turkish government rejected claims that the mine will damage the environment and denied cyanide will be used. In an interview Alamos CEO John McCluskey denied that cyanide would leak into the surrounding area and pointed out that Alamos had pre-paid for future reforestation at the site once the project is completed. McCluskey also suggested that the project had been the subject of deliberate misinformation aimed at advancing a political agenda.
Alamos reported it suspended all construction activities on its Kirazli project pending the renewal of its Turkish mining operating license which expired on October 13, 2019, citing misinformation about the project which gave rise to protests and social media inaccuracies.
In 2020, the company reported its updated Mineral Reserves and Resources as of December 31, 2019, including an increase of Mineral Reserves and Resources at the Island Gold mine of 921,000 ounces, net of mining depletion.
That same year, Alamos announced a 50% increase to the quarterly dividend to US$0.015 per common share and introduced a Dividend Reinvestment and Share Purchase Plan (“DRIP”).
Alamos announced a temporary suspension of operations at the Mulatos mine due to COVID-19 which was subsequent to announcing a temporary suspension of operations at the Island Gold mine in late March to help prevent the spread of the virus. Operations resumed by May.
In April 2020, a group of five armed robbers intercepted a shipment of gold and silver alloy bars that were being loaded onto a plane for transport at Alamos' Mulatos mine, then fled in a light aircraft. The company did not disclose the amount or the value of the bars taken, but said that the loss was covered by insurance.
In July 2020, the company made several announcements. Alamos announced the completion of  the lower mine expansion at Young-Davidson with the successful commissioning of the Northgate shaft, unlocking a 13 year mineral reserve life, large resource base, significant exploration potential, and positioning the mine to deliver solid free cash flow over the long term.
The company also announced the completion of its Phase III expansion study for the Island Gold mine, which resulted in an announcement to expand its operations at the mine with the construction of a shaft, to increase production from 1,200 to 2,000 tonnes per day, and double the mine-life to 16 years.
That same month, Alamos announced the construction of La Yaqui Grande, a decision the company said was based on results of a positive internal economic study and the project being seven kilometres from its existing Mulatos operation, and representing the company’s next low-cost, high-return project in Sonora’s Mulatos district.
In December 2020, the company acquired Trillium Mining Corporation for cash consideration of US$19.5 million, increasing its land package adjacent to, and along strike from the Island Gold deposit, by approximately 60%.
In 2021, the company reported its Mineral Reserves and Resources as of December 31, 2020, highlighting Island Gold’s Mineral Reserves and Resources increased by a million ounces, net of mining depletion, at a discovery cost of US$8 per ounce.
Also in 2021, through its Dutch subsidiaries, the company sought $1 billion compensation payment from the government of Turkey for its role in not renewing the mining licenses related to its Kirazli Project.
Operations.
Producing Mines.
Young-Davidson Mine.
The Young-Davidson mine is located near the town of Matachewan, approximately 60 kilometres west of Kirkland Lake in northern Ontario. The property consists of contiguous mineral leases and claims totaling approximately 11,698 acres and is situated on the site of two past producing mines that produced almost one million ounces of gold between 1934 and 1957. The Young-Davidson mine consists of an underground mine, currently mining at a rate of approximately 6,700 tonnes per day and increasing to 7,500 tonnes per day by the end of 2020, a conventional flotation and carbon-in-leach (“CIL”) mill and associated infrastructure. The mine has been in continuous operation since 2012.
Island Gold Mine.
The Island Gold mine is located approximately 83 kilometres northeast of Wawa, in northern Ontario. Island Gold consists of an underground mine, currently mining at a rate of approximately 1,200 tonnes per day, a conventional carbon-in-pulp (“CIP”) mill and associated infrastructure. The company acquired Island Gold through its 2017 acquisition of Richmont. The mine has been in continuous operation since 2007.
Mulatos Mine.
The Mulatos mine is located 220 kilometres east of Hermosillo in the state of Sonora in northwest Mexico. The company owns 100% of the Mulatos mine and several other prospective exploration targets throughout the district. The mine includes a number of open pit mines, two crushing facilities, a heap leaching facility, a high-grade mill, gold processing facilities and related infrastructure. The mine has been in continuous operation since 2005, producing over two million ounces in that period.


Great Table diamond

The Great Table was a large pink diamond that had been studded in the throne of the Mughal emperor Shah Jahan. It has been described in the book of the French jeweller Jean-Baptiste Tavernier in 1642, who gave it its name ("Diamanta Grande Table").
The diamond was plundered by Nader Shah during his invasion of India in 1739 and disappeared after his assassination.
In 1965, a Canadian team from the Royal Ontario Museum conducting research on the Iranian Crown Jewels concluded that the larger Daria-i-Noor and the smaller Noor-ul-Ain may well have been part of the Great Table.


Copper mining in the United States

Copper mining in the United States has been a major industry since the rise of the northern Michigan copper district in the 1840s. In 2017 the United States produced 1.27 million metric tonnes of copper, worth $8 billion, making it the world's fourth largest copper producer, after Chile, China, and Peru. Copper was produced from 23 mines in the US. Top copper producing states in 2014 were (in descending order) Arizona, Utah, New Mexico, Nevada, and Montana. Minor production also came from Idaho, and Missouri. As of 2014, the US had 45 million tonnes of known remaining reserves of copper, the fifth largest known copper reserves in the world, after Chile, Australia, Peru, and Mexico.
Copper in the US is used mainly in construction (43%) and electric equipment (19%). In 2014, the nation produced 69% of the copper it used, relying on imports from Chile, Canada, Peru, and Mexico for the remaining 31%.
Copper mining activity increased in the early 2000s because of increased price: the price increased from an average of $0.76 per pound for the year 2002, to $3.02 per pound for 2007.
A number of byproducts are recovered from American copper mining. In 2013, American copper mining produced 28,500 metric tons of molybdenum, worth about $700–$800 million, which was 47% of total US production. In 2014, copper mining produced about 15 metric tons of gold, worth $600 million, which represented 7% of US gold production. Other byproducts of the copper extraction process included silver, and minor amounts of rhenium and platinum-group metals. Sulfuric acid is recovered at copper smelters.
Ore grades.
From the start of copper mining in the Michigan copper district, ore has been divided into two classes. The rock with higher copper content was smelter ore, also called direct shipping ore, and required no treatment before going to the smelter. The rock with less copper was called milling ore, or concentrating ore, and required crushing and separation of ore minerals from the waste rock to produce copper concentrate, which was sent to the smelter.
Because metallic minerals have higher specific gravities than most gangue (waste) minerals, concentrating the milling ore was done in various gravity classifiers. The early Michigan copper mines used buddles. Later copper mining used improved gravity-classification machinery, including jigs, vanners, and Wilfley tables.
A revolutionary development in American copper mining took place when mining engineer Daniel Cowan Jackling conceived of mining the huge but low-grade copper ore body at Bingham Canyon, Utah, using steam shovels in a big open pit. Steam shovels had previously been used in the iron mines of the Mesabi Range, in Minnesota, but had not been used in copper mining. Jackling incorporated the Utah Copper Company in 1903, and in 1906 began excavating. From the start, the Bingham Canyon Mine was one of the leading copper-producing mines in the world, and returned a good profit mining ore with less than two percent copper. Mining by open-pit model using large-scale mechanization was copied by other US mines, in Ely, Nevada (1908), Santa Rita, New Mexico (1910), and Ajo, Arizona (1917). The entire output of these mines was low-grade milling ore. The open-pit mining of porphyry copper deposits was adopted worldwide.
In the 1910s and 1920s, copper mills adopted the froth flotation method, which had been developed in Australia. Whereas the old gravity methods of concentration, using jigs and Wilfley tables recovered 60 to 80 percent of the copper in the ore, froth flotation recovered 90 to 95 percent. The Bingham Canyon mill installed froth flotation in 1918.
Large-scale mining of low-grade orebodies became predominant, and the amount of direct-shipping ore mined fell drastically in the first half of the 20th century, and by 1960, the contribution of direct-shipping ore was insignificant. Improvements in low-cost mining and ore processing allowed the average ore grade of milling ore to decline.
Smelters.
There are three operating copper smelters in the United States.
The United States is a net exporter of copper ore and copper concentrate. In 2015, out of 1.25 million metric tons of recoverable copper metal extracted from mines, 320,000 tons of copper were exported in the form of ore and concentrate, to be smelted and refined elsewhere.
By state.
Alabama.
The Stone Hill mine (also known as the Woods mine) was discovered in 1874, and worked 1874 to 1879, and 1896 to 1899. Production was hampered by poor transportation. The ore is massive and disseminated sulfides in hornblende schist of Precambrian or Paleozoic age. Principal ore minerals are chalcopyrite and sphalerite, which occur with pyrrhotite, pyrite, and quartz. Two other copper prospects, the Johnston prospect and the Smith prospect, are nearby, but it is not known that any copper was produced from them.
Alaska.
Alaska is not currently a significant copper producer.
Russian explorers discovered copper on the Kasaan Peninsula of Prince of Wales Island in southeastern Alaska about 1865. Mining began in the period 1895–1900, and continued until shortly after World War I. Copper is present as chalcopyrite, occurring with magnetite, pyrite, garnet, epidote, diopside, and hornblende, in replacement deposits in greenstone. Gold and silver were recovered as byproducts.
Copper was discovered at Prince William Sound in 1897. Deposits were associated with pillow basalts alterered to greenstone. The basalts are interbedded with slate and greywacke, faulted, and intruded by granitic rocks. The principal mines were the Beatson-Bonanza mine at Latouche and the Ellamar mine, which accounted for 96% of the copper produced. Other mines were the Midas mine near Valdez, the Threeman mine, and the Fidalgo-Alaska mine at Port Fidalgo, Alaska. Mining began in 1900, and continued until 1930. Total production was 96,000 tonnes of copper.
Historically, the largest copper mining district in Alaska was the Nizina district, the principal mines of which (Erie mine, Jumbo mine, Bonanza mine, Mother Lode mine, and Green Butte mine) were at Kennecott, Alaska, four miles north of McCarthy. The copper is present as chalcocite in veins and irregular replacements in the Triassic Chitistone Limestone. Some silver was also produced as a byproduct. The mine at Kennecott gave rise to Kennecott Copper Corporation, which outlasted the mine, and is still a major mining company. The deposit was discovered in 1900, and once a railroad connection was built, the mine operated from 1911 to 1938, after which Kennecott became a ghost town. The town is now a National Historic Landmark.
The Pebble Mine is a proposed copper-gold-molybdenum mine. The deposit is a large porphyry copper-gold-molybdenum deposit, and if developed would be a major producer of those metals.
Arizona.
Arizona has been a major copper producer since the 19th century. In 2006 Arizona was the leading copper-producing state in the US, producing a record $5 billion worth of copper.
Over 60% of the newly mined copper in the U.S. comes from Arizona. When copper traded for an average of $3.30/pound, copper production generated nearly $5 billion for Arizona's economy in 2006 and $5.5 billion in 2007.
The first mineral to be mined in Arizona was, as in many other regions, gold. Silver was also prominent, in the cities of Tubac and Superior. However, Arizona would most prominently be known for its copper, which would eventually become known as one of "Arizona's Five C's" or resources.
The first copper strike by an Anglo was by Henry Clifton, in the area now known as Clifton, in 1864. No claim was staked there because of threat of Indian attack. In 1870, Robert Metcalf staked a claim there, then sold controlling interest to Henry and Charles Lesinsky. They later formed the Longfellow Copper Mining Co. in Las Cruces, New Mexico. They set up camp and called it Clifton. Clifton later became one of the largest copper mining communities of Arizona.
This new use of copper resulted in the boom of one of Arizona's greatest resources. By 1910 Arizona produced more copper than any other state in the nation. It would eventually fuel many of its political struggles as well. The Bisbee and Jerome Deportations in 1917 represent how factory workers and factory owners were pitted against each other.
At Mule Canyon, south of Tombstone, Arizona, in 1877, a soldier chasing Apache Indians found copper at Bisbee. The Copper Queen Mine and neighboring Atlanta Claim became the Warren District. With the great contribution of the Warren District, Arizona led the nation and still leads it in copper production.
The United Verde copper mine at Jerome, Arizona, was financed by eastern capitalists. However, the rich surface ore soon played out. W. A. Clark, who had obtained his fortune at Butte, purchased 99% of the stock of the United Verde Mine. Ultimately it yielded copper, silver, and gold totaling $410,000,000. W. A. Clark was the owner of the richest, individually owned copper mine in the world. After the mines closed Jerome was reborn as an artist community.
12 active copper mines in Arizona directly employ nearly 10,000 workers, not including contractors and sub-contractors. Half of Arizona's copper is mined in Morenci. An additional nine copper mines are expected to begin production in the coming years. The Resolution Copper Project, near Superior, is expected to provide 25% of the U.S. demand for copper after it begins production.
California.
Copper was first discovered in California in 1840, in Los Angeles County. The mine, at Soledad, produced a small amount of copper in 1854.
The Napoleon mine at Copperopolis in Calaveras County opened in 1860, and was so productive that it ignited a boom in other copper-mining properties from 1862 to 1866. The boom stimulated development of copper mines along the "Foothill copper belt", a 250-mile long zone of copper deposits in the Sierra Nevada foothills, running from Butte County in the northwest to Fresno County in the southeast. Production nearly ceased after 1868 when the shallow oxidized ore was exhausted, and the deeper sulfide ores were found to be poorer in gold and silver. The Foothills belt yielded 91 thousand tonnes of copper and 23 thousand tonnes of zinc.
Most California copper production came from the West Shasta district in northern California. Gold prospectors discovered the copper deposits of Shasta County in 1848, but no metal was produced until 1879, when some silver was produced from the Iron Mountain Mine. The copper was in massive sulfide deposits in the Devonian Balaklala Rhyolite. The principal mines were the Iron Mountain Mine, Mammoth Mine, and the Balaklala Mine. Copper production began in 1894, and continued off-and-on until 1976. Total production was 320 thousand tonnes of copper, 93 million pounds of zinc, 36 million troy ounces of silver, and 520,000 ounces of gold. The district also produced pyrite for sulfuric acid.
The Island Mountain mine in Trinity County operated from 1915 to 1930, and produced 4100 tonnes of copper, 140,000 ounces of silver, and 8,600 ounces of gold. The orebody is a massive sulfide deposit of pyrite, chalcopyrite, and pyrrhotite along a shear zone in the Franciscan Formation.
At the northern end of the Sierra Nevada, in Plumas County, the Walker, Engels, and Superior mines together produced more than 140 thousand tons of copper. The Engels Mine produced 117 million pounds of copper ore and was the largest copper mine in California.
The Pine Creek mine near Bishop in Inyo County produces some copper as a byproduct of tungsten mining.
Connecticut.
Connecticut is home to the first successful copper mining by Europeans in what is now the United States. A copper deposit was discovered in the present town of East Granby, Connecticut in 1705, and German metallurgists from Hanover were imported to reduce the ore to copper metal. The mine was shut down in 1725, and the property served as a prison from 1773 to 1897.
Maine.
Copper mines operated in Hancock County near Blue Hill and Sullivan, from 1877 to 1884.
The Harborside mine, near Brooksville mined copper and zinc from an open pit from 1968 to 1972.
The underground Black Hawk mine near Blue Hill produced copper, zinc, and lead from 1972 to 1977.
Maryland.
Copper mines operated in Maryland from colonial times until the 1850s, in three mining districts. The most productive was in Frederick County, in a belt of chalcopyrite ore in schist and limestone stretching from New London to Libertytown. The most productive mine was the Dolly Hyde mine. Another district contains chalcopyrite, chalcocite, and bornite, in a fault zone that runs 25 miles in slate from Sykesville to Finksburg in Carroll County. The Bare Hills district in northwest Baltimore County contained a copper-bearing vein in hornblende gneiss.
Michigan.
Native Americans mined copper from small pits on the Keweenaw Peninsula of northern Michigan as early as 3000 BC. In the American era, the first successful copper mine, the Cliff mine, began operations in 1845, and many others quickly followed. The last major copper mine in Michigan, the White Pine mine, shut down in 1995, after unsuccessfully applying for a permit to convert the underground mine to an in-situ leaching operation.
Minnesota.
Polymet Mining Corp. has proposed a large open-pit copper-nickel mine of its Northmet orebody in St. Louis County, Minnesota. The company has applied with the Minnesota Department of Natural Resources and with the US Corps of Engineers for the required permits. Present plans call for the mine to produce 72 million pounds (33 thousand tonnes) of copper annually, along with nickel, cobalt, platinum, palladium, and gold.
Franconia Minerals Corp. is exploring three copper-nickel platinum deposits in St. Louis and Lake Counties. Like the Northmet deposit, the deposits are in the Duluth Complex.
Missouri.
Missouri has produced small amounts of copper from Franklin, Madison, and other counties since 1837. A copper mine started in 1863 near Cornwall in Madison County.
Copper is recovered as a byproduct of lead mining in the Lead Belt of southeastern Missouri.
Montana.
In 2006, Montana was the fourth-largest copper-producing state in the country.
Butte, Montana was once the nation's most prolific copper-mining district. Miners first came to Butte in 1864 to mine placer gold. Hard rock silver mining began in 1874, then rich copper veins were discovered in 1882. The district quickly switched from silver to copper, and by 1887, Butte was the leading copper-producing district in the United States. The Anaconda Copper Mine was the world's most productive copper mine from 1892 through 1903, and intermittently for years thereafter. Open-pit mining began at the Berkeley Pit in 1955; the Berkeley Pit has been inactive for years, and continues to fill with acidic water. Through 1964, Butte produced 7.3 million tonnes of copper, 2.2 million tonnes of zinc, 1.7 million tonnes of manganese, 380 thousand tonnes of lead, 645 million troy ounces of silver, and 2.5 million ounces of gold. The only remaining active copper mine at Butte is the Continental pit, operated by Montana Resources LLP.
Some copper is also produced by Troy unit silver mine in the northwest corner of the state, and by two platinum mines in the Stillwater igneous complex: the Stillwater mine and the East Boulder project.
Nevada.
The first commercial copper mining district in Nevada was at Yerington in Lyon County. The Ludwig Mine opened in 1865, but the district produced only modest amounts of copper until a railroad was built to the district in 1911, and a smelter built in 1912 at nearby Thompson. The Anaconda Copper Mine produced from an open pit from 1918 to 1978. The copper ore bodies are contact metamorphic replacement deposits in limestone. Production through 1921 was 39 thousand tonnes of copper.
The largest copper producer in Nevada has been the Ely district (also called the Robinson district) in White Pine County. A Native American showed mineralization to prospectors in 1867, and the district started in a small way as a lode gold producer. A railroad link in 1906 made it economically possible to start large scale open pit mining of the large porphyry copper deposits, and the first copper was produced in 1908. Mining was halted in recent years due to low copper prices, but the open pit was reopened in 2004 by Quadra Mining Ltd. In 2007, the mine produced 121 million pounds (55 thousand tonnes) of copper, plus byproduct molybdenum.
Newmont's Phoenix mine in Lander County produced 6.2 million pounds (2800 tonnes) of copper in 2007, as a byproduct of gold mining.
New Jersey.
New Jersey was the site of one of the first attempts to mine copper in what is now the United States.
Copper ore was discovered about 1712 in what is now North Arlington, and the Schuyler Copper Mine extracted ore and shipped it in casks to the Netherlands. The success of the Schuyler mine led to more prospecting and discovery of more deposits.
In the 1750s, colonists tried to mine copper at the Pahaquarry Copper Mine in Warren County. The copper occurs as chalcocite, bornite, covellite, cuprite, and malachite, in quartzite of the Silurian High Falls Formation.
New Mexico.
The Santa Rita mine in southwest New Mexico was the first copper mine in what is now the western United States. Spaniards began mining copper there about 1800. The district still produces copper, from the large Chino Mine open pit.
Native Americans had mined turquoise associated with the copper deposits at present-day Tyrone in Grant County, New Mexico. Modern mining followed the discovery of turquoise and copper by American prospectors in 1870. The first copper was shipped from the Tyrone district in 1879.
Some copper has been produced from three deposits in sandstone of the Triassic Chinle Formation in the Nacimiento Mountains near Cuba, New Mexico. The copper is present as sulfides (most commonly chalcocite) and malachite associated with organic material; some native silver is also present.
New Mexico is currently the nation's number-three copper-producing state. Copper is produced from two large open-pit porphyry copper operations in Grant County: the Chino Mine and the Tyrone mine. Both mines are owned and operated by Freeport-McMoRan. In 2007, the two mines produced 249 million pounds (113 thousand tonnes) of copper, as well as 13 thousand ounces of gold and 209 thousand ounces of silver.
New York.
A copper mine operated at Canton, St. Lawrence County in the 19th century.
North Carolina.
Copper was discovered at the Ore Knob deposit in the northwest part of the state in the early 1850s, and mining began in 1855. The ore is massive sulfide and disseminated ore in mica schist and gneiss, and amphibole schist and gneiss. The principal ore mineral is chalcopyrite, which occurs with pyrrhotite and pyrite, The mine operated until 1883, then worked sporadically until large-scale mining began in 1957. The mine closed for good in 1962. Total production was 31,000 tonnes of copper, 9,400 ounces of gold, and 145,000 ounces of silver.
Oklahoma.
Copper was mined at Creta from 1965 to about 1975. The ore 2% to 4.5% copper as chalcocite replacement grains in an 8-inch (20 cm) thick bed of grey shale in the Permian Flowerpot Shale. The ore also carried some silver, as stromeyerite.
Copper and silver occur in a sandstone roll-front-type deposit in the Wellington sandstone of Permian age at Paoli, Garvin County, Oklahoma. About 1900, several wagon loads of ore were shipped from the deposit.
Oregon.
The leading copper-mining district in Oregon was the Homestead district in Baker County, which produced 6400 tonnes of copper, 35,000 ounces of gold, and 256,000 ounces of silver. The most important mine was the Iron Dyke.
The Waldo-Takilma district in Josephine County produced 3200 tonnes of copper. Large mines included the Waldo Mine and the Queen of Bronze Mine.
The Keating district in Baker County produced 450 tonnes of copper.
Pennsylvania.
In 1724 Pennsylvania colonial governor William Keith made the first attempt to mine copper in Pennsylvania. His mine, in York County, failed within a short time.
By 1732 the Gap mine in Lancaster County was operating, owned by shareholders including Gouverneur Morris and Thomas Penn. The mine shut down due to water problems about 1755. The mine reopened as a nickel mine about 1850, and produced some byproduct copper along with the nickel until it shut down in 1893.
Tennessee.
The Copper Basin, located in the extreme southeastern corner of Tennessee in Polk County, was the center of a major copper-mining district from 1847 until 1987. The district also produced iron, sulfur and zinc as byproducts. The copper was discovered in 1843 by a prospector, presumably panning for gold, who found nuggets of native copper. The first shipment of copper ore was taken out on muleback in made in 1847. More than 30 mining companies were incorporated between 1852 and 1855 to mine copper at Ducktown. Development was speeded by a road built in 1853 connecting the area with Cleveland, Tennessee. The first smelter was built in the Ducktown district in 1854. Mining ceased when Union troops destroyed the copper refinery and mill at Cleveland, Tennessee in 1863. Mining resumed in 1866, and continued until 1878, when the mines had exhausted the shallow high-grade copper ores.
In 1889, the Ducktown Sulphur, Copper, Gold and Iron Company bought the properties, and began producing copper and iron from the deeper high-sulfide ores, which previous companies were unable to work successfully. The ores were treated by open roasting in which the ore was piled in large stacks with alternating layers of wood, and burned. The method released large quantities of sulfur dioxide, which killed much of the vegetation in the immediate area. Open roasting was replaced by pyrite smelting in 1904, and the smelters began recovering the most of the sulfur in the form of sulfuric acid rather than releasing it to the atmosphere. Froth flotation was added in the 1920s.
The Burra Burra Mine in Ducktown is now home to a museum dedicated to the interpretation of the region's copper mining history.
Texas.
Texas has never been a major copper-mining state. Small amounts of copper were mined from Permian redbeds in Archer and Foard counties of north-central Texas in the 1860s and 1870s. Copper was produced in connection with silver mining in Culberson County in west Texas from 1885 to 1952.
Utah.
In 2006, Utah was the nation's number two producer of copper.
The Bingham Canyon Mine southwest of Salt Lake City has been one of the world's largest copper producers for more than 100 years. The mine, owned and operated by Kennecott Utah Copper (a division of Rio Tinto Group), is a large open pit in a porphyry copper deposit. (The Bingham Canyon Mine and the Chuquicamata copper mine in Chile each claim to be the largest open-pit mine in the world.) It continues to be a major source not only of copper, but also of molybdenum, gold, and silver. The value of metals produced in the year 2006 alone was $1.8 billion.
Constellation Copper's Lisbon Valley copper mine in San Juan County, southeastern Utah began mining in 2005, and produced its first copper in 2006. The copper deposit is in sandstones of the Dakota Sandstone and Burro Canyon Formation. The primary copper mineral is chalcocite, which is thought to have been deposited from solutions ascending through the Lisbon Valley Fault. Above the water table, chalcocite has been oxidized to malachite, azurite, tenorite, and cuprite. On November 30, 2007, Constellation announced that it would stop mining in 2008, because of unexpectedly low copper recovery. The company will continue to recover copper by heap-leaching already-mined ore as long as profitable.
Constellation officially declared bankruptcy and is currently insolvent, but copper mining efforts were resumed in August 2009 under new management with the help of financing from Renewal Capital, a subsidiary of PartnerRe, and has been producing approximately 35,000 pounds of copper a day since the restart. Mining occurs solely in one mid-sized open pit named the Centennial pit, and the primary ores are malachite, azurite, and chalcocite. The mine employs approximately 140 people as of February 2012.
CS Mining purchased the assets of the bankrupt Western Utah Copper Company/Copper King Mining Corporation in 2011 and has applied for the required permits to restart the mining at various sites previously held by WUCC. After receipt of the permits, mining and milling activities are expected to start in the second half of 2012 with open-pit mining and flotation mill processing near Milford. At the time the assets were acquired by CS, the measured, indicated and inferred resources were approximately 600 million pounds of copper; plus gold, silver, and magnetite.
Vermont.
A number of copper mines operated in Orange County from 1809 to 1958. At least five copper mines operated along a belt 20 miles long and oriented NNE-SSW. Until the opening of the Michigan copper district in 1844, Vermont was the leading copper-producing state. The ore was chalcopyrite with pyrite and pyrrhotite in sericite schist host rock.
The Elizabeth deposit was discovered in 1793 and started mining in 1809 as the first copper mine in the state; it was also the last copper mine to operate in the state when it closed in 1958. The Elizabeth mine is now a federal Superfund site due to acid mine drainage.
Virginia.
The Virginian mining district in Halifax and Charlotte Counties in southern Virginia produced about 750,000 pounds of copper from numerous mines. Copper-bearing quartz veins occur in greenstone schist along a narrow belt stretching four miles NNE-SSW from Keysville on the north to Virgilina on the North Carolina border. The Barnes mine is reported to have produced some copper in the early 18th century, but the major productive era for the district was the late 19th century to 1917.
The Toncrae deposit near Floyd was mined for iron (from the gossan) from about 1790–1850. Copper was mined from 1854–1855, 1905–1908, and 1938–1947. The deposit is a massive sulfide, composed mainly of pyrrhotite and magnetite. The main copper ore minerals are chalcocite and covellite.
Washington.
The Tubal Cain mine on the Olympic Peninsula operated from 1902 to 1906.
The Holden mine, in Chelan County, operated from 1938 to 1957. The townsite is now used as a Lutheran retreat center and is open to the public. The process of cleaning up the remains of the old mine is ongoing.
The Chewelah district in Stevens County produced 1.7 million troy ounces (53 tonnes) of silver and 5,000 metric tons of copper from quartz-carbonate veins. Chalcopyrite is the principal ore mineral. The deposits are hosted in shear zones in argillite of the Precambrian Belt Supergroup.
Wisconsin.
Copper was discovered one mile northeast of Mineral Point in Iowa County of southwest Wisconsin in 1837 or 1838. The deposit was mined until 1842, then intermittently through 1875, producing an estimated 680 tonnes of copper.
Copper was discovered in 1843 at what became known as the Copper Creek mine near Mount Sterling in Crawford County, southwest Wisconsin. About 5500 pounds (2.5 tonnes) of copper were produced from the deposit between 1843 and 1852. The Plum Creek copper mine, also in Crawford County, was discovered near Wauzeka in the 1850s, and mined in 1860 and 1861. Both the Copper Creek and Plum Creek deposits are in limestone.
Douglas County, in the northwest corner of the state, was heavily prospected in the 19th century for native copper deposits in Keweenawan-series rocks, similar to deposits found in Keweenawan rocks in Michigan. A number of mines were started, but none proved profitable.
The copper deposit of the Flambeau mine was discovered in 1969 1.5 miles south of Ladysmith in Rusk County, and produced from an open pit from 1993 to 1997. Total production was 160 thousand tonnes of copper, 3.3 million ounces (100 tonnes) of silver, and 330 thousand ounces (10 tonnes) of gold. Kennecott reclaimed and revegetated the site to specifications of a state-approved reclamation plan, finishing in 1999. The Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources continues long-term vegetation and groundwater monitoring of the site to assure that the reclamation was done successfully.
Wyoming.
The Encampment district in Carbon County produced 24 million pounds of copper in a brief spurt of activity from 1899 to 1908.
Copper mines were opened near Hartville in Goshen County in 1882. The mines produced until about 1899, and again during World War I.
Although no copper mines have operated in Wyoming in recent years, there are several properties with large-tonnage copper-silver porphyries (Tertiary) in the Absaroka Mountains east of Yellowstone, stratabound copper-silver-zinc massive sulfides (Triassic-Jurassic) in the Lake Alice district in the overthrust belt of Western Wyoming, several volcanogenic massive sulfide (copper, lead, zinc, silver) deposits in the Encampment district, a potentially major stratabound copper-gold paleoplacer (Proterozoic) at the Ferris-Haggarty property in the Sierra Madre, a Proterozoic copper-gold porphyry at the Copper King property in the Laramie Range, and other properties of interest (Hausel, 1997).


Kendawangan mine

The Kendawangan mine is a large mine located in Indonesia in the province of West Kalimantan. Kendawangan represents one of the largest bauxite reserve in Indonesia and one of the largest in Asia, having estimated reserves of 42 million tonnes.


Wara coal mine

The Wara Coal Mine is a coal mine located in South Kalimantan, Indonesia. The mine has coal reserves amounting to 2.06 billion tonnes of coking coal, one of the largest coal reserves in Asia and the world. The mine has an annual production capacity of 5 million tonnes of coal.


Diane Denish

Diane Daniels Denish ( ; born March 7, 1949) is an American politician, who was the 28th lieutenant governor of New Mexico. She was elected in 2002, running on the same ticket as Governor Bill Richardson, and was re-elected in 2006. Denish is the first woman to hold that post.
There was early speculation that Denish would run in the 2008 election for the New Mexico Senate seat vacated by Pete Domenici, but she ruled out running. She ran for governor in 2010 and was defeated by Republican nominee Susana Martinez on November 2, 2010.
Personal life.
Diane Denish was born March 7, 1949, in Hobbs, New Mexico. Her father, Jack Daniels, was a prominent New Mexico politician and the brother of Bill Daniels. She earned her BA from the University of New Mexico in 1971. Prior to entering politics, she owned and operated The Target Group, a small business specializing in market research and fund-raising for nonprofit organizations. Denish enjoys cooking in her leisure time.
Political career.
Denish has served as Chair of the New Mexico Democratic Party, as well as Chair of New Mexico First and Chair of the New Mexico Community Foundation.
Denish has been appointed by three New Mexico Governors to serve in numerous capacities, including as a member of the Board of Regents at New Mexico Tech University, as Chair of the New Mexico Commission on the Status of Women, and as a member of the National Advisory Board of the Small Business Administration under President Bill Clinton. In 1998, she was the Lieutenant Governor candidate on the ticket with Martin Chavez, losing the race 54%-45% to then Governor Gary Johnson.
In her capacity as lieutenant governor, Denish has supported legislation to increase microlending funds and place tighter regulations on payday lenders. She also supported legislation to establish voluntary pre-kindergarten enrollment for all New Mexico four-year-olds and legislation to combat methamphetamine manufacturers and dealers who target children.
She serves as the President of the New Mexico Senate, chair of the Children's Cabinet, chair of the Mortgage Finance Authority, chair of the Insure New Mexico! Council, chair of the Health Care for New Mexicans Council, and co-chair of the New Mexico Commission for Community Volunteerism.
2010 New Mexico gubernatorial bid.
Denish began preparing for her gubernatorial bid early and in 2007 had already amassed a war chest of over $1 million. She ran unopposed in the Democratic primary and was the Democratic nominee for Governor of New Mexico.
Denish was defeated in the general election on November 2, 2010 by Doña Ana County District Attorney Susana Martinez, who became New Mexico's first elected female governor, and as well as the first elected Hispanic woman to become governor in U.S. history.
The Denish vs. Martinez race and the simultaneous Jari Askins vs. Mary Fallin race in Oklahoma were only the third and fourth cases of woman vs. woman gubernatorial races in U.S. history.
Awards.
Denish has received the PNM Entrepreneur Advocate of the Year Award (2006), the Leadership New Mexico Distinguished Alumnus Award (2006), the Reverend Martin Luther King, Jr., Community Service Award (2005), the Albuquerque Chamber of Commerce Excellence in Education Award (2005), the WIPP Women Impacting Public Policy New Mexico Legislative Leadership Award (2004), the Hispanic Women’s Council Las Primeras Award, and the National Child Health Advocate Award (2005).
External links.


Severalmaz

JSC «Severalmaz» — Russian diamond mining company, a subsidiary of JSC "Alrosa". Holds a license for Europe's largest Lomonosov diamond mine (Arkhangelsk Oblast) with reserves of 220 million carats of rough diamonds.
Production in 2009 amounted 500,000 carats of rough diamonds.
Shareholders.
99.6% of shares belong to JSC "ALROSA", 0.38% — to minority shareholders.
2017 pink diamond find.
On September 21, 2017, "TASS" news agency reported Alrosa's most expensive gem to date, a 28.65 carat pink diamond. The largest pink diamond previously mined by Alrosa weighed 3.86 carats, one of a total of only three others that the company has mined of over two carats each during the past eight years. The gem is reported to be of jewelry quality, measuring 22.47 x 15.69 x 10.9 millimetres, with a saturated pink tone and practically no defects, according to Alrosa.
The pink diamond was mined by subsidiary Almazy Anabara, operator of the Severalmaz kimberlite pipes and placer deposits near rivers in the northwest part of Yakutia.


First BHP Offices Chimney Ruin

The First BHP Offices Chimney Ruin is the heritage-listed ruin of the original offices of BHP, now located on Willyama Common, east of the corner of Gaffney and Oxide Streets, Proprietary Square, Broken Hill, City of Broken Hill, New South Wales, Australia. The original offices were built in 1885 by Tom Phin and A. W. B. Orman. It is also known as Site of first BHP Offices, BHP Fireplaces and Chimney ruins. The property is owned by Broken Hill City Council. It was added to the New South Wales State Heritage Register on 23 April 2010.
History.
Wiljakali (Wilyagali) land.
There were some fifteen groups of Aboriginal people traditionally living in the huge area bisected by the Darling River in the western plains of NSW. The principal group around Broken Hill was the Wiljakali. Their occupation of the area is thought to have been intermittent due to the scarcity of water. The same scarcity of water made the area unattractive for European occupiers and traditional Aboriginal ways of life continued longer there than in many other parts of NSW, into the 1870s. As Aboriginal people were increasingly deprived of the full range of their traditional options, they were obliged to come into stations or missions in times of drought to avoid starvation. By the 1880s many Aboriginal people were working on stations or within the mining industry. Some people ended up living in reservations created under the Aborigines' Protection Act of 1909. The influenza epidemic of 1919 had a further significant impact upon the indigenous population, as did the twentieth century federal government policy of removing Aboriginal children from their families.
Beginnings of Broken Hill.
The term Broken Hill was first used by the early British explorer Charles Sturt in his diaries during his search for an inland sea in 1844. Western plains towns far away from the major rivers, such as Broken Hill, owe their existence to the mineral discoveries made in the decade after 1875, when spectacular deposits of gold, silver, copper and opal were found. The township of Broken Hill was developed in the "Broken Hill Paddock" which was part of Mount Gipps Station where George McCulloch, the station manager employed many men. It was in 1883 that three of his workers pegged the first mineral lease on his property: they were Charles Rasp, David James and James Poole. The Syndicate of Seven was formed, and consisted of: George McCulloch, Charles Rasp, David James, James Poole, George Urquhart and George Lind. These men pegged out the remaining six mineral leases which are now known as the Line of Lode. It was the seventh member of the Syndicate, Philip Charley, who found the first amount of silver in 1885. A township was soon surveyed and Broken Hill was initially known as a shanty town with an entire suburb named "Canvas Town" for its temporary buildings.
The first survey of Broken Hill was made by E. H. Dawson, and started on 27 August 1884. It was in the year 1885 that the town of Broken Hill began to develop. Previous to that date it was nothing but mulga scrub, with two or three tents or humpies. The first house was built on Block 14 for Mr. William Jamieson, the manager of the Broken Hill Mining Co. Then came Delamore's Hotel, which was pulled down out Lake's Camp way, carted into Broken Hill, and re-erected by A. F. Pincombe, one of the old pioneers who was well known on the Hill. In quick succession followed Sully's old store, the Silver King Hotel, and Brazill and Jones' store, then came J. R. Stewart, baker, Neilson & Co., butchers;, Langemen's billiard saloon, Vaughan's Hotel, Ledgard's, Lee's and Finn's, & Co. Argent Street began to assume a busy aspect.
The town boundaries of the "Town of Willyama" were proclaimed on 24 August 1887. The Municipal District of Broken Hill was constituted by a Proclamation dated 24 September 1888 to include "the Towns of Willyama and Alma and other lands." The Proclamation, gazetted 24 July 1907, "hereby constitute as a City the said Municipality of Broken Hill."
The Chimney.
The original syndicate of seven which held the seven mining leaseson the broken hill named their venture the Broken Hill Mining Company. Following the discovery of rich silver ores in early 1885, the syndicate appointed William Jamieson as manager in April 1885 and registered the name Broken Hill Proprietary Co. Ltd, in June 1885. The BHP chimney marks the site of the hut built by Tom Phin and W. B. Orman for the company in May 1885 to house Jamieson. It was located amongst the busy mining area at the Line of Lode, the rocky outcrop which contained the ore body and was used for a short time as the BHP works office where all mining business was conducted. Although Jamieson resigned at the end of the year, during that period at this site he undertook planning of the original development work at the mine including the erection of the first smelters. The BHP Chimney is the only remaining remnant of the hut which dates from the year that mining activities began in Broken Hill and when it began its development as a remote inland town.
No photographs have been located of the hut which housed the original BHP offices.
By 1888, wooden staff houses and a handsome stone office were erected about 500 metres to the northwest. The site was now part of the Block 14 Mine. By the 1890s, all BHP staff housing was provided at Proprietary Square.
In 1908 the BHP Chimney was already a ruin but described as "One of the most historical spots on the Hill. Beside this stack in a large tent there lived in the early days Mr. Wm. Jamieson and his assistant A. Reid, W.R. Thomas, Alf Orman, two or three axemen, cook. It was in this tent the destinies of Broken Hill were laid, it was here that all business with the mine was transacted, and here in this tent Mr. Thomas drew the plans of Block 14, British, Block 10. The Company has lately placed a railing round the old spot, in order that it may be preserved."By this time BHP had erected a wooden railing around the chimney so that it might be preserved.
BHP ceased operations at Broken Hill in 1939. In 2001, BHP became part of BHP Billiton, the world's largest resources company.
The BHP Chimney thus represents the birthplace of BHP, a company which helped shape Australia's mining and industrial landscape.
The BHP Chimney is located on Crown land reserved for Temporary Common, known locally as the Willyama Common, which is administered by Broken Hill City Council as the trust manager for the Willyama Common Trust. Consolidated Mining Lease No. 7, held by CBH Resources Pty Ltd, includes the site but there are no plans to conduct surface mining in this area.
The top section of the chimney has been rebuilt at some time since 1907 and the structure modestly covered with a tin roof on four wooden columns. Under the supervision of Broken Hill City Council's heritage advisor in 2008, the chimney was repointed and interpretation signage added to the site.
Description.
The chimney is a ruin, the only remains of a worker's cottage of which it once formed a part. It is constructed in random stone and brick.
It is surrounded by a recently constructed wire mesh fence and protected by a corrugated iron roof shelter resting on four metal poles.
There is interpretative signage in weathered metal which reads:
There is also more detailed contemporary interpretative signage (dating from 2008) with images describing the chimney and its history within Broken Hill. It reads:
The chimney was reported as being in good condition as at 7 December 2009, following the conservation works including stone repointing in 2008. The signage interpretation was added at this time.
Heritage listing.
The BHP Chimney Ruin of First Offices is of State significance as the last remaining remnant of the original offices used by the huge Australian mining company BHP. It was originally located in one of the first residences built for early miners' accommodation at Broken Hill, which was also used as the first works office for Broken Hill Proprietary Ltd (BHP) (at that time known as Broken Hill Mining Company), which today, as BHP Billiton, is amongst the world's largest mining and resource companies. As such, this chimney represents the formation of BHP, a company which has helped to shape Australia's mining, industrial and immigration policy. The fireplace itself was reputedly built in May 1885, the year that Broken Hill began mining activities and started to develop as a remote inland town.
BHP Chimney Ruin of First Offices was listed on the New South Wales State Heritage Register on 23 April 2010 having satisfied the following criteria.
The place is important in demonstrating the course, or pattern, of cultural or natural history in New South Wales.
The BHP Chimney Ruin of First Offices is of State historical significance as the only surviving remnant of the first offices of BHP, a mining company which has helped to shape Australia's mining, industrial and immigration policy. The chimney was originally part of a worker's cottage built to accommodate some of the first miners in Broken Hill but which was soon put into use as the first Broken Hill Proprietary Ltd works office (at that time Broken Hill Mining Company). The fireplace was reputedly built by Tom Phin and W.B. Orman in May 1885, thus dating from the same year that began mining activities began in Broken Hill and coinciding with its formation as a remote inland town.
The place has a strong or special association with a person, or group of persons, of importance of cultural or natural history of New South Wales's history.
The BHP Chimney Ruin of First Offices is of State significance for its historical associations with the origins of BHP, a company which has helped to shape Australia's mining, industrial and immigration policy and which conducted its first offices in the cottage which this fireplace once warmed.


Nial R. Hysell

Nial R. Hysell (10 October 1854 – 21 October 1921) was a politician from the U.S. State of Ohio who served as Speaker of the Ohio House of Representatives from 1890 to 1892.
Biography.
Nial R. Hysell was born October 10, 1854 at Pomeroy, Ohio. After a few months of school he began working in a coal mine as a boy. He studied in his leisure hours, and acquired some education. He worked as a coal miner until 1884. In 1884, Hysell was elected vice-president of the miner's organization, serving for three years. He then was president of the state trade assembly for three years. He represented Perry County in the Ohio House of Representatives from 1888 to 1892 as a Democrat, and was Speaker of the House 1890 to 1892. He then read law and was admitted to the bar in 1893. He was elected to the Ohio State Senate for the tenth district, Franklin & Pickaway counties, from 1896 to 1898 after moving to Columbus.
Personal.
Hysell married Analda R. Dining in 1875.


Korba, Chhattisgarh

Korba is a city and an industrial area in Korba District in the Indian state of Chhattisgarh.
Geography.
Korba is located at . It has an average elevation of 252 metres (826 feet). India census, Korba city had a population of 365,253. Korba City is a part of the Korba District which was formed on 25th May 1998. The forest Area Cover of Korba is 4187.375 sq km. There are 17 Police Stations in Korba and it contains 5 Blocks.
Economy.
Korba Super Thermal Power Plant of NTPC is located at Jamanipali area. It receives coal from Gevra and Kusmunda mines and source of water for the power plant is Hasdeo River. Korba Thermal Power Station is owned and operated by National Thermal Power Corporation. There are more small Power Plant near city like Hasdeo Thermal Power Station, Dr Shyama Prasad Mukharjee Thermal Power Station and Lanco Amarkantak Power Plant.
Bharat Aluminium Company has plant which is one of the Asia's largest aluminium production industries. In 2009, chimney under construction by Gannon Dunkerley & Company at the Balco smelter collapsed killing 49 workers and GDCL management have been accused of negligence in the incident.
Government and jurisdiction.
Korba is headquarter of Korba district. Korba City has been a metropolitan municipality with a mayor-council form of government.
Korba (Lok Sabha constituency) is a Lok Sabha parliamentary constituency for the city and constituency is composed of the following assembly segments: Rampur (ST) (assembly constituency no. 20), Korba (assembly constituency no. 21), Katghora (assembly constituency no. 22) and Pali-Tanakhar (ST) (assembly constituency no. 23) is part of Korba district. Currently, Jyotsna Charan Das Mahant of Indian National Congress is a member of parliament to the 17th Lok Sabha and Jai Singh Agrawal of Indian National Congress sitting Member of the Legislative Assembly from Korba (Vidhan Sabha constituency).
Transport.
Rail.
Korba railway station is connected to Champa, the nearest railway junction on the Howrah-Nagpur-Mumbai line. The stations comes under South East Central Railway Zone. It is directly connected to Bilaspur which the Divisional Headquarter by rail. The long, broad gauge was constructed between 1953 and 1956, electrified in 1987 and 1988, and extended to Gevra Road railway station in 1988 and 1989. New line surveys of Indian Railway were taken during 2012 and 2013, and included a line from Renukoot-Korba via Ambikapur Katghora and Korba-Ranchi.
Road.
Korba is well connected with Champa through NH 149B, Ambikapur and Bilaspur through NH 130.


Hatti Gold Mines

Hutti Gold Mines also spelled as Hatti is a town in Raichur district in the Indian state of Karnataka.
Location.
Hatti is situated in Raichur District, Karnataka State and is 80 km (50 miles) due west of Raichur, which is also the nearest railway station.
Hatti was a small village in 1939, with hardly 60 or 70 huts and kutcha houses. Now there is a town Panchayat, and the population of the village is about 20,000. The population of the labour colony constructed by the Company is about 20,000.
History.
This mine is probably one of the most ancient metal mines in the world, dating to the Pre-Ashokan period, the ancient miners having worked down to a depth of over 2300 feet. It is probable they had broken the rock by "fire-setting" i.e. heating it by means of fires and suddenly cooling it by pouring water onto the heated rock causing pieces to break off. As per carbon dating done by Dr. Rafter from Australia in the year 1955, the age of the two samples of timber found in old workings was estimated to be about 1980 years old.
For crushing the ore to extract the gold they used a grinding stone similar to those used now for making masalas and a few of which can even now be found in the area. The actual gold was recovered by passing the crushed ore, mixed with water, over goats' skins, the fur trapping the heavy particles of gold while allowing the lighter minerals to be washed off.
In addition to the ancient mining in mentioned above, there was further mining in the area between 1890 and 1920 when the price of gold was about Rs. 18 for 10 grams (Rs 20.97 per tola). The biggest of these ventures was at Hutti where, from 1902 to 1919, nearly 7,400 kg of gold were obtained from very rich ore, at an average yield of 19 g/metric tonne. Most of this ore came from the main mine, which reached a depth of about 1,100 m below surface. The industry closed down in 1920 due to technical difficulties and lack of funds.
In 1937, the Nizam's Government decided to prospect the area again with a view to possible re-opening of the mines (the only industry in the area apart from agriculture) so as to provide employment. The area was a backward district, which was considered at that time to be a more or less perpetual famine area. In 1940, after some satisfactory exploratory work, it was decided to install a plant to treat 100 metric tons of mine ore per day, but before the plant could be obtained, operations were suspended, and from 1942 to 1946, due to World War II, the mine was shut down except for pumping. After the end of the war, the scheme was resumed and production started in September 1948, at the rate of 130 tonnes of ore per day. By 1972 this rate had progressively increased to 600 tonnes of ore per day.
The Hatti Gold Mines Co., Ltd., Hatti, Raichur District.
The Company was originally formed in 1947 as the Hyderabad Gold mines Company Ltd., with the Hyderabad State Government holding a majority of the shares. With the re-organisation of the States in 1956, the Company was transferred to Mysore State (now known as the Karnataka State) and became Hatti Gold Mines Limited.
Process of Gold Recovery and Disposal.
Ore containing gold is broken in the underground workings by drilling and blasting. The broken ore is hoisted up to surface and sent to the Mill where it is crushed and ground to fine powder. This powder is mixed with water and is passed over tables covered with blankets which trap the free gold. This concentrate of gold is further purified by melting with fluxes to remove impurities and then cast into bars, weighing about 25000 g. Each, in which form it is known as "bullion".
The gold which is not trapped by the blankets is either very fine or is associated with other minerals, such as iron sulphide. The powdered ore containing this gold is agitated in a weak solution of sodium cyanide which dissolves the major portion of gold. The cyanide solution containing the dissolved gold is then passed over zinc, which causes the gold to be precipitated. The cyanide polluted effluent water is contaminating the local ground water. This gold precipitate is acid treated and roasted to remove impurities and then cast into bullion bars.
Method of working and production:
There are six separate reefs (Viz., Oakley's Reef, Middle Reef, Zone I Read, Village Reef, Strike Reef and Strike Reef Football) which are being actively worked in the mine at present.
The mine is developed mainly through two vertical shafts up to 22nd level at present. Cross-cuts in the country rock from these shafts are put to intersect and develop all the reefs (6 reefs) at the vertical interval of 30 to 40 litres.
Development rise are taken driven in the mineralized zone. Along the entire strike length of the reef connection the level above and below by series of rises by winzef at the interval of 60 to 70 meters forming different stoping blocks.
The blocks that are formed are black stripe and black concreted with 0.6 meters reinforced concrete, two meters above the level. The blocks are made ready for stoping.
Stoping will then mainly be done at 15 level by overhand flat black shrinkage method by breasting along the strike in slices of two to three meters.
Stoping by overhand step and filling by hydraulic stand storing is adopted for level below 15th level. This is done by breasting along the strike in two meter slices.
The main mine (mineries) which was extensively worked in previous years is water-logged and is still to be re-opened after dewatering and revlaction. As this is a major operation requiring considerable money and time, this will be undertaken time in the future between September, 1984 and 31 March 1983 the mine produced about 38,56,300 metric tonnes of ore to yield about 26,550 kg at an average recovery of 6.88 g per metric tonne. In addition about 48,800 metric tonnes of gold tailings lifted about 112 kg of gold production for the year 1982 – 83 was about 62.83 kg gold per month at an average recovery grade of 5.24 per g per metric tonne.
Demographics.
 India census, Hutti Gold Mines had a population of 14,716. Males constitute 51% of the population and females 49%. Hutti Gold Mines has an average literacy rate of 74%, higher than the national average of 59.5%: male literacy is 82%, and female literacy is 66%. In Hatti Gold Mines, 9% of the population is under six years of age.
Transport.
Hatti is well connected by road to Bangalore, Hubli, Davangere, Shimoga, Kalburgi, Vijayapura, Bagalkot, Raichur, Pune, Hyderabad and other major cities. The nearest major airport is in Hyderabad.
Long-distance bus routes.
Karnataka State Road Transport Corporation (KSRTC) runs a bus service to other cities and villages. There are also various private bus services.
Railways.
Raichur is the nearest railway station to Hatti and Raichur is served by a major rail line and is well connected by trains to all major parts of India such as Bangalore, Mumbai, Delhi, Chennai, Hyderabad, Ahmedabad, Trivandrum, Kanyakumari, Pune, Bhopal and Agra.


Joel C. Squires

Joel Cook Squires (December 11, 1819 – March 3, 1889) was a carpenter and miner who served as a member of the Wisconsin State Senate for two years from two different districts, and of the Wisconsin State Assembly for one term.
Background.
Squires was born in Vienna Township, Ohio on December 11, 1819 and attended the public schools. He came to Wisconsin in 1838 and settled in the Platteville area in 1841. He died at his home in Platteville on March 3, 1889.
Public service.
Squires was Clerk of the Grant County Board of Supervisors for 1849, 1850 and 1851; he was Clerk of the Circuit Court in 1851 and 1852. At that time a resident of Lancaster, Squires was elected from the Sixth District for the 1852 session. Squires, a Democrat, succeeded Whig John H. Rountree. At the time of election, he was 31 years of age and had been in Wisconsin for twelve years; he listed his occupation as "carpenter".
After the Senate was re-apportioned and the Sixth District was shifted from the region around Platteville and the surrounding region to the Milwaukee area, Squires was succeeded by fellow Democrat Duncan Reed in the Sixth District, but was elected to the succeeding one-year term in the new Sixteenth District. On May 1, 1853, he resigned from the Senate; fellow Democrat James Wilson Seaton of Potosi was elected to fill his seat.
He served as Register of the United States Land Office at Mineral Point, from 1853 to 1857, until he was elected the State of Wisconsin's Bank Comptroller (at that time an elected position), serving through the end of 1859. He sought re-election in 1860, but was defeated by Republican Gysbert Van Steenwyk, Sr..
In the Assembly.
In 1870, now living in Platteville and working as a miner, he was elected for a single year term from the first Grant County Assembly district (the Towns of Hazel Green, Smeltzer and Platteville), succeeding Republican Joseph Harris. He received 465 votes to 437 for
Republican William E. Carter (Harris was not a candidate). He ran for re-election in 1871, but lost to Harris by 295 votes to 567 for Harris.


Lehigh Coal and Navigation Company

The Lehigh Coal and Navigation Company (LCAN) (1988–2010) was a modern-day anthracite coal mining company headquartered in Pottsville, Schuylkill County, Pennsylvania, U.S. which acquired many of the 'Old Company' (LC&N) properties and re-launched the Lehigh Coal Companies brand in 1988. The LCAN ran strip mining operations in the Panther Creek Valley east of Lansford along U.S. Route 209; with vast properties dominating the coal areas of Tamaqua, Coaldale, and Lansford. These properties are largely the same real estate assets as were acquired in the Panther Creek Valley by the predecessors: the haphazard Lehigh Coal Mine Company (1792-1822) and the builders of the Lehigh Canal and first American blast furnaces, the Lehigh Coal & Navigation Company (Old Company, LC&N), which spearheaded the U.S. Industrial revolution. The new company was incorporated in 1988 acquiring LC&N assets after bankruptcy proceedings, taking the name of the original.
Background.
The "Lehigh Coal & Navigation Company" was a prominent coal mining and transportation infrastructure company first established in 1822 after four years of successfully delivering regular shipments of anthracite coal to the docks of Philadelphia via their pioneering Lehigh Canal. In the merger of "The Lehigh Coal Mining Company" and the "Lehigh Navigation Company", both of which operated in the Lehigh Valley area of Pennsylvania between 1818-1822, the lease on the land rights of the Lehigh Coal Mine Company was ended with a subsidiary acquisition purchase by stock swap — and these lands once owned were used to open up the whole Northeastern Pennsylvania 19th century frontier area (Tamaqua, Coaldale), Lansford, Summit Hill, Nesquehoning, and Jim Thorpe, Pennsylvania—among other company towns outside the long strip in which the LCAN 'New Company' operated.) The remaining 8,000-acre anthracite-rich tract between Jim Thorpe and Tamaqua originally owned by the Lehigh Coal Mine Company is arguably the richest vein of high quality anthracite known in the world with the possible exception of the valley floor deposits of the Wyoming Valley, but without a River above leaking into shafts, far easier to mine. Like most commercially feasible coal mines today in the USA, the ongoing mining operations use mountain top mining (strip mining) techniques.
Brand history.
Through the 19th and part of the 20th centuries, LC&N mined the tract in Summit Hill, Nesquehoning, Lansford, Coaldale and Tamaqua. In the 1960s, LC&N ceased its operations. The coal lands were acquired by the Fazio Brothers. Bethlehem Steel bought it in 1974 and ran it until 1989. In 1989, James Curran bought the property and reestablished the Lehigh Coal & Navigation Company brand. By 2008, the new LC&N's plans for expansion put them into debt as sales plummeted during the recession, and they became bankrupt.
The earlier company, called "the Old Company" had owned and operated an extensive system of coal mines in Carbon and Schuylkill Counties, two canals, the Lehigh Canal and the Delaware Division of the Pennsylvania Canal, the historic Mauch Chunk & Summit Hill Railway (MC&SH or "Summit Hill and Mauch Chunk Railroad"), the funicular railway called the Ashley Planes, and a railroad system, the Lehigh and Susquehanna Railroad (L&S). The L&S extended from the foot of River Street in Wilkes Barre and North Branch Canal docks at Wilkes Barre, Pennsylvania on the Susquehanna River to the Lehigh River Gorge past Mauch Chunk, Allentown and Easton, Pennsylvania. In the 1870s, the L&S was leased to the Central Railroad of New Jersey), which extended the route into a Scranton-NYC prestige line. It also built the Mauch Chunk Switchback Railway to move coal.
Demise of the new company.
In the mid-1960s, LC&N ceased its operations, and eventually the railroad revenues which had kept it awash in cash flow, failed with the crisis and collapse of U.S. railroads, leases held by leaseholders such as the Central Railroad of New Jersey (subsidiary: Lehigh and Susquehanna Railroad), Lehigh and New England Railroad and the Lehigh Valley Railroad (and a few others being liquidated) with most mainlines being forced into Conrail. Today the mainline pioneered by the LC&N are still the mainstay of several key transportation corridors in Northeastern Pennsylvania and operated by Norfolk-Southern, or Reading, Blue Mountain and Northern Railroads.
Like other Pennsylvania mining companies, Lehigh Coal and Navigation Company was criticized for polluting the environment, and received several legal notices and fines. The LCAN company (re-branding) was founded by James J. Curran, a Schuylkill County attorney. In 2004, the re-incarnated company was forced into bankruptcy by some of its creditors, and some of its land was at risk of being sold for back taxes. In 2006, the company's operations were suspended unless Curran stepped aside and kept out of actual operations, citing a violation of a consent decree from previous complaints — for a management team satisfactory to mining and EPA authorities, so a new management team took over. LCAN went bankrupt again in 2008 and was sold to creditors, who created Lehigh Anthracite, disestablishing the New Company.


William Husband

William Husband (13 October 1822 – 10 April 1887) was a British civil and mechanical engineer of the 19th century.
Biography.
Husband, born at Mylor, Cornwall, on 13 October 1822, was eldest son of James Husband, shipbuilder and surveyor for Lloyd's Register at Falmouth, who died in 1859. He was educated first by Edgcombe Rimell, curate of Mabe, and afterwards at Bellevue Academy, Penryn.
Haarlem Lake.
Husband declined to be either a sailor or a shipbuilder, as his father desired, and instead was in 1839 apprenticed for four years to Harvey & Co, engineers and ironfounders, of Hayle, Cornwall. His steadiness and ability soon won for him the esteem of his employers, and in 1843, when they had built the Leigh water engine for the drainage of Haarlem Lake, he was sent to the Netherlands to superintend its erection. As the machinery could not be landed for some time on account of the ice, he went to the village school at Sassenheym to learn Dutch. In six months he wrote and spoke it with fluency. On the death of the mechanical engineer in charge of the steam machinery on the drainage works in 1845, he succeeded to that post, when he planned and erected the half-weg engine. The lake when drained added of rich alluvial soil to the country, and being situated in the midst of populous provinces proved of material importance. King William expressed his satisfaction, and on 13 March 1848 Husband was elected a member of the Koninklijk Instituut van Ingenieurs. In 1849 he suffered so severely from ague, from the effects of which he never fully recovered, that he resigned his situation and returned to England.
Other works.
While in the Netherlands, in conjunction with his friends Colonel Wiebeking and Professor Munnich, he invented a plan for drying and warehousing grain at a small cost, and preserving it in good condition for years. On 2 May 1851 he submitted to Sir George Grey a plan for a powder magazine in the Mersey, on the recommendation of the Liverpool town council. At the invitation of T. E. Blackwell, C.E., he went to Clifton to assist in some works in the Bristol docks, when he planned a bridge for the Cumberland basin. In September 1852 he undertook the management of the London business of the firm of Harvey & Company; in June 1854 he returned to Hayle to take the charge of the engineering department, and in 1863 became managing partner. He resumed the management of the business in London in October 1885, where he remained until his death.
In practical knowledge of hydraulic and mining machinery Husband was surpassed by few. In June 1859 he submitted to the Admiralty a plan for a floating battery, and patented the following inventions: the balance valve for water-work purposes (this superseded the costly stand-pipe), the four-beat pump-valve, a safety plug for the prevention of boiler explosions, and a safety equilibrium cataract, used with the Cornish pumping engine for the prevention of accidents. He also effected many improvements in pneumatic ore stamps, finally perfecting and patenting those now known as Husband's oscillating cylinder stamps.
During the last two years of his life he was employed in carrying out contracts for the pumping machinery at the Severn Tunnel, and at the time of his death was planning further improvements in Cornish pumping engines.
Professional and other interests.
On 1 May 1866 he was elected a member of the Institution of Civil Engineers, and during 1881 and 1882 served as president of the Miners Association and Royal Institution of Cornwall. He actively supported the Royal Cornwall Polytechnic Society. In 1855 he planned and superintended the erection of a breakwater at Porthleven in Mount's Bay, thereby making it a safe harbour. He helped to secure a water supply for Hayle and a system of drainage. He originated and became first captain of the 8th Cornwall artillery volunteers in April 1860, a post which he held till 1865. He established science classes at Hayle in connection with South Kensington. In spectrum analysis and astronomy he took a great interest, and made many observations with a telescope. On 28 and 29 March 1887, in company with Sir John Hawkshaw and Mr. Hayter, C.E., he was employed in inspecting nine pumping engines which his firm had erected in the Severn tunnel for keeping down the water.
Marriage and death.
On 20 June 1850 he married Anne, fifth daughter of Edward Nanney, by whom he had a family of four children. He died on 10 April 1887 of an attack of gall stones at his lodgings, 26 Sion Hill, Clifton, Bristol, and was buried at St. Erth, Cornwall, 16 April. In 1890 a sum of £800. was raised to establish a Husband scholarship for the technical education of miners.


Boswedden Mine

The remains of Boswedden Mine ("Wheal Call" meaning Great Wheel) are located at the bottom of Kenidjack Valley near the town of St Just in West Penwith, Cornwall.
The wheel house originally had the largest wheel in Cornwall measuring 65 feet in diameter.