Minolta SR-mount

The Minolta SR-mount was the bayonet mounting system used in all 35 mm SLR cameras made by Minolta with interchangeable manual focusing lenses. Several iterations of the mounting were produced over the decades, and as a result, the mount itself was sometimes referred to by the name of the corresponding lens generation (f.e. "MC", "MD" or "X-600") instead.
All lenses for these mounts are interchangeable between older and newer Minolta manual focus 35 mm film SLR bodies. There are exceptions, such as, the lenses before 1961 feature a slightly different aperture leverage, and thus the automatic diaphragm may not work correctly on post-1961 cameras, and later MC/MD tabs may hit a screw of the front cover on earlier cameras. Four design enhancements, all forwardly inclusive and backwardly compatible, are:
SR - The SR camera models from 1958 to 1967 features the initial design implementation of the SR bayonet, beginning with the Minolta SR-2. These are mechanical cameras without TTL metering or automatic exposure. The 1962 Minolta SR-7 was the first 35 mm SLR with a built-in CdS meter, providing the same metering capabilities as the external clip-on meter available for the 1960 Minolta SR-3 and later models of the Minolta SR-1.
MC - The SR-T 101 launched in 1966 has a lens coupling for full aperture through-the-lens (TTL) metering. A coupling lug protruding from the aperture ring operates the follower needle in the viewfinder, allowing the lens aperture to be set according to the meter reading. The camera has two CdS cells attached to the top of the prism that reads in a center-weighted fashion the brightness off the focusing screen. The later X-1 and XE models, also using the MC lenses, has an aperture-priority automatic exposure mode.
MD - In 1977, the XD series introduced an additional tab on the lens which reported the smallest available aperture (f/16, f/22, or f/32) to the camera to accomplish shutter priority automatic exposure in S mode on the Minolta XD-7 (XD-11 in the U.S.A.), and later in the P (programmed automatic exposure) mode on the X-700. The proper use of this feature meant that the lenses had to be set to their smallest aperture. In 1981, MD lenses included a minimum aperture lock that prevented the aperture ring from accidentally being moved.
X-600 - On the 1983 Minolta X-600 camera, intended for the Japanese market, there is also a focus assist and confirmation feature. The Minolta X-600 sensors need the lens's maximum aperture so that the camera body can use its appropriate sensors for judging focus accuracy. There is a tab inside the lens that identifies either
The lens tab operates a switch inside the body of the X-600. There is no MD Auto Exposure feature on the X-600.
The SR-bayonet mount was replaced by the Minolta A-mount, which was introduced in 1985.
Adapters.
A variety of glass-less adapters allow SR mount lenses to be used on modern 4/3, Leica M-mount, Micro 4/3, Sony E-mount, Fujifilm FX-mount and Samsung NX-mount digital cameras, albeit without any aperture control from the camera body. Instead the lens is stopped down as the aperture ring is turned (allowing depth of field preview), rather than when the shutter button is pressed.
There are also adapters for Minolta/Sony A-mount cameras, but they either do not maintain infinity focus or contain glass-elements, working as 1.2-2× tele-converter, changing the optical properties of the system and often deteriorating the image-quality.


SliderDock

SliderDock is a freeware application launcher for the Windows OS. Unlike other similar docking programs, SliderDock uses a wheel-like interface to organize icons. When the user scrolls with the mouse wheel, the icons rotate towards a fixed point so the user can access a specific icon. Once an application is launched, SliderDock hides itself in the background so as to take up less space on the desktop. SliderDock was created with space in mind, and attempts to use the least amount of RAM it can when it's not currently on-screen. Like many other docks, it can also be customized with skins and icons from other docks.


LR-300

The Z-M LR-300 is an American rifle designed by gunsmith Allan Zitta and manufactured by Z-M Weapons. The model name LR-300 stands for "Light Rifle" and 300 is for 300 meters, which is regarded by the manufacturer as the effective range of the rifle with a standard FMJ bullet. The design is based on the AR-15, M16 and C7 rifles, but has a unique semi-direct gas impingement system and a folding stock option.
History.
The design was originally a stockless short-barreled pistol version of an AR-15 receiver that Allan Zitta used in target shooting competitions. It later went into commercial production as the "Master Blaster" in 1996. Zitta later developed it into a full rifle with a folding stock, and conversion kits have also been offered for AR-15 rifles.
In 2008, the LR-300 was offered under the name Para Tactical Target Rifle (TTR) as a result of a joint collaboration between Para USA and ZM Weapons.
Description.
The direct gas impingement system used in the LR-300 is intended to solve the fouling problems of the traditional AR-15 direct gas impingement gas system. The forward mounted return spring also allows for fitting a folding stock, and the factory stock option folds to the left side. The rifle is also available with a fixed stock. Since its introduction, the exterior design has evolved and changed a couple of times.
LR-300MLs have flat top receivers with Picatinny rails, allowing them to be used with multiple types of sighting systems. The trigger, forward assist, magazine release and bolt hold release are identical to those of the AR-15. The barrel has a 1:9 inch (230 mm) twist ratio, is chrome lined, and the muzzle is fitted with a Phantom flash suppressor.
Stock.
Contrary to the original AR-15 rifle design, the LR-300 has the capability to use a fully folding and adjustable skeletal stock. Most AR-15 rifle variants have a thick, cylindrical recoil buffer tube, more properly called the receiver extension, that protrudes approximately straight back from the rear of the receiver, and the firearm cannot operate without it. This normally precludes the use of anything but fixed or telescoping stocks. The LR-300 however uses a forward mounted return spring which removes the need for a receiver extension.
Gas system.
The LR-300 uses a modified version of the AR-15's standard direct impingement gas operating system dubbed "delayed impingement gas system". The gas key is extended beyond its normal length (manufacturer calls it an "operating rod"), extending into the handguard. The gas key contains the return spring which is fixed between the front of the receiver and the collar at the front of the gas key. Gas port is under the back side of the gas block, gasses go up than forward to the front side of the gas block than up and back to the gas tube. The gas tube is about half of the length of standard AR-15 tube. Gas tube is always inside of the gas key (minimal overlap is about 1 inch). This leaves the area near the bolt much cleaner. Almost all gasses exit the gun through the holes on the right side of bolt carrier, and minimal leaks from the gas key to the handguard area does not hinder the guns function.
Upper.
To accommodate the unique forward buffer and gas impingement system, the proprietary upper is taller and thicker than a standard AR upper. The handguard rail has a removable top cover to access the recoil spring system for disassembly. The charging handle is proprietary, and has a beefier design to fit the op-rod.


Chord organ

Chord organ is a kind of home organ that has a single short keyboard and a set of chord buttons, enabling the musician to play a melody or lead with one hand and accompanying chords with the other, like the accordion with a set of chord buttons which was originated from a patent by Cyrill Demian in 1829, etc. (See Accordion#History )
Initially, the chord organ was invented as a kind of electronic home organ by Laurens Hammond in 1950. This was followed by the reed chord organ () and Optigan (). The sound of the reed chord organ is somewhat similar to the harmonium or the accordion.
History.
The Chord Organ was first introduced by the Hammond Organ Company in 1950. It was invented primarily by John M. Hanert, who was Hammond's primary musical engineer at the time. He had previously developed the Novachord and Solovox, two instruments which used vacuum-tube circuitry rather than tone or phonic wheels to generate the tones as in a Hammond Organ.
The Chord Organ, as the name implies, used a left-hand panel with buttons to play harmony; however, instead of a Stradella-type chord and bass arrangement, a completely new design was implemented. 96 separate chord buttons provided Major, Minor, 7th, Diminished, Augmented, Major 6th, Minor 7th and 9th chords for all twelve musical keys. Two bass pedals, played by the left foot, sounded the "root" and "fifth" of each chord, and rhythm was added by means of a bar struck by either the palm or the thumb of the left hand.
The Chord Organ incorporated elements of both the Novachord and the Solovox in that the right-hand 37-note keyboard could play both chords and single notes. An "Organ" section provided String and Flute sounds which were polyphonic, while a "Solo" division permitted the organist to play single-note melodies superimposed over the polyphonic "Organ" division. The Solo division operated essentially identically to the Solovox - one group of controls determined the register or pitch in which the Solo division would sound while another group of controls allowed the player to filter the sound in various ways ("timbre" controls).
There were five different versions of the basic Chord Organ, which was called the "S" series. The original model "S" used octal tubes and one 12" speaker while the "S-1" used miniature tubes and one 12" speaker. For the "S-4," two 10" speakers were substituted for the single 12" speaker and the wood cabinet was re-designed. The "S-6," the most popular model, added the ability to add Percussion to the Solo division, thereby allowing the instrument to imitate instruments such as Banjo, Hawaiian Guitar, etc. The "S-100," the last revision of the "S" series, added built-in Stereo Reverberation, substituted an Expression Pedal for the expression lever used on previous models, and featured a re-styled cabinet design as well as a separate ON/OFF Power Switch (on previous models, power was turned on by swinging the expression lever down similar to the Solovox).
An additional Chord Organ was manufactured for a brief time in the mid-'60s (the 2000 series), which had a simplified chord panel (Major, Minor, 7th and Diminished chords only) and traditional organ-type voices for the right-hand keyboard. This model also used solid-state circuitry.
In addition to Hammond, Wurlitzer, Farfisa and Estey Organ made electronic chord organs.
In 1958, Magnus Organ Corporation introduced its "electric" chord organs, similar to electrically blown small home reed organs.Since then, chord organs were generally designed as instruments for beginners, and separated from the mainstream of home electronic organs. In addition to Magnus, Emenee, Bontempi and Belcanto made electric chord organs.
Chord organ musicians.
Chord organs have seen a recent revival amongst minimalist and ambient musicians.


Electronics

 Electronics comprises the physics, engineering, technology and applications that deal with the emission, flow and control of electrons in vacuum and matter. It uses active devices to control electron flow by amplification and rectification, which distinguishes it from classical electrical engineering which uses passive effects such as resistance, capacitance and inductance to control current flow.
Electronics has had a major effect on the development of modern society.
The identification of the electron in 1897, along with the subsequent invention of the vacuum tube which could amplify and rectify small electrical signals, inaugurated the field of electronics and the electron age. This distinction started around 1906 with the invention by Lee De Forest of the triode, which made electrical amplification of weak radio signals and audio signals possible with a non-mechanical device. Until 1950, this field was called "radio technology" because its principal application was the design and theory of radio transmitters, receivers, and vacuum tubes.
The term "solid-state electronics" emerged after the first working transistor was invented by William Shockley, Walter Houser Brattain and John Bardeen at Bell Labs in 1947. The MOSFET ( transistor) was later invented by Mohamed Atalla and Dawon Kahng at Bell Labs in 1959. The MOSFET was the first truly compact transistor that could be miniaturised and mass-produced for a wide range of uses, revolutionizing the electronics industry, and playing a central role in the microelectronics revolution and Digital Revolution. The MOSFET has since become the basic element in most modern electronic equipment, and is the most widely used electronic device in the world.
Electronics is widely used in information processing, telecommunication, and signal processing. The ability of electronic devices to act as switches makes digital information-processing possible. Interconnection technologies such as circuit boards, electronics packaging technology, and other varied forms of communication infrastructure complete circuit functionality and transform the mixed electronic components into a regular working system, called an electronic system; examples are computers or control systems. An electronic system may be a component of another engineered system or a standalone device. most electronic devices use semiconductor components to perform electron control. Commonly, electronic devices contain circuitry consisting of active semiconductors supplemented with passive elements; such a circuit is described as an electronic circuit. Electronics deals with electrical circuits that involve active electrical components such as vacuum tubes, transistors, diodes, integrated circuits, optoelectronics, and sensors, associated passive electrical components, and interconnection technologies. The nonlinear behaviour of active components and their ability to control electron flows makes amplification of weak signals possible.
The study of semiconductor devices and related technology is considered a branch of solid-state electronics.
Branches of electronics.
Electronics has branches as follows:
Electronic devices and components.
An electronic component is any physical entity in an electronic system used to affect the electrons or their associated fields in a manner consistent with the intended function of the electronic system. Components are generally intended to be connected together, usually by being soldered to a printed circuit board (PCB), to create an electronic circuit with a particular function (for example an amplifier, radio receiver, or oscillator). Components may be packaged singly, or in more complex groups as integrated circuits. Some common electronic components are capacitors, inductors, resistors, diodes, transistors, etc. Components are often categorized as active (e.g. transistors and thyristors) or passive (e.g. resistors, diodes, inductors and capacitors).
History of electronic components.
Vacuum tubes (Thermionic valves) were among the earliest electronic components. They were almost solely responsible for the electronics revolution of the first half of the twentieth century. They allowed for vastly more complicated systems and gave us radio, television, phonographs, radar, long-distance telephony and much more. They played a leading role in the field of microwave and high power transmission as well as television receivers until the middle of the 1980s. Since that time, solid-state devices have all but completely taken over. Vacuum tubes are still used in some specialist applications such as high power RF amplifiers, cathode ray tubes, specialist audio equipment, guitar amplifiers and some microwave devices.
The first working point-contact transistor was invented by John Bardeen and Walter Houser Brattain at Bell Labs in 1947. In April 1955, the IBM 608 was the first IBM product to use transistor circuits without any vacuum tubes and is believed to be the first all-transistorized calculator to be manufactured for the commercial market. The 608 contained more than 3,000 germanium transistors. Thomas J. Watson Jr. ordered all future IBM products to use transistors in their design. From that time on transistors were almost exclusively used for computer logic and peripherals. However, early junction transistors were relatively bulky devices that were difficult to manufacture on a mass-production basis, which limited them to a number of specialised applications.
The MOSFET (MOS transistor) was invented by Mohamed Atalla and Dawon Kahng at Bell Labs in 1959. The MOSFET was the first truly compact transistor that could be miniaturised and mass-produced for a wide range of uses. Its advantages include high scalability, affordability, low power consumption, and high density. It revolutionized the electronics industry, becoming the most widely used electronic device in the world. The MOSFET is the basic element in most modern electronic equipment, and has been central to the electronics revolution, the microelectronics revolution, and the Digital Revolution. The MOSFET has thus been credited as the birth of modern electronics, and possibly the most important invention in electronics.
Types of circuits.
Circuits and components can be divided into two groups: analog and digital. A particular device may consist of circuitry that has one or the other or a mix of the two types. An important electronic technique in both analog and digital electronics involves the use of feedback. Among many other things this allows very linear amplifiers to be made with high gain, and digital circuits such as registers, computers and oscillators.
Analog circuits.
Most analog electronic appliances, such as radio receivers, are constructed from combinations of a few types of basic circuits. Analog circuits use a continuous range of voltage or current as opposed to discrete levels as in digital circuits.
The number of different analog circuits so far devised is huge, especially because a 'circuit' can be defined as anything from a single component, to systems containing thousands of components.
Analog circuits are sometimes called linear circuits although many non-linear effects are used in analog circuits such as mixers, modulators, etc. Good examples of analog circuits include vacuum tube and transistor amplifiers, operational amplifiers and oscillators.
One rarely finds modern circuits that are entirely analog. These days analog circuitry may use digital or even microprocessor techniques to improve performance. This type of circuit is usually called "mixed signal" rather than analog or digital.
Sometimes it may be difficult to differentiate between analog and digital circuits as they have elements of both linear and non-linear operation. An example is the comparator which takes in a continuous range of voltage but only outputs one of two levels as in a digital circuit. Similarly, an overdriven transistor amplifier can take on the characteristics of a controlled switch having essentially two levels of output. In fact, many digital circuits are actually implemented as variations of analog circuits similar to this example – after all, all aspects of the real physical world are essentially analog, so digital effects are only realized by constraining analog behavior.
Digital circuits.
Digital circuits are electric circuits based on a number of discrete voltage levels. Digital circuits are the most common physical representation of Boolean algebra, and are the basis of all digital computers. To most engineers, the terms "digital circuit", "digital system" and "logic" are interchangeable in the context of digital circuits.
Most digital circuits use a binary system with two voltage levels labeled "0" and "1". Often logic "0" will be a lower voltage and referred to as "Low" while logic "1" is referred to as "High". However, some systems use the reverse definition ("0" is "High") or are current based. Quite often the logic designer may reverse these definitions from one circuit to the next as he sees fit to facilitate his design. The definition of the levels as "0" or "1" is arbitrary.
Ternary (with three states) logic has been studied, and some prototype computers made.
Computers, electronic clocks, and programmable logic controllers (used to control industrial processes) are constructed of digital circuits. Digital signal processors are another example.
Building blocks:
Highly integrated devices:
Heat dissipation and thermal management.
Heat generated by electronic circuitry must be dissipated to prevent immediate failure and improve long term reliability. Heat dissipation is mostly achieved by passive conduction/convection. Means to achieve greater dissipation include heat sinks and fans for air cooling, and other forms of computer cooling such as water cooling. These techniques use convection, conduction, and radiation of heat energy.
Noise.
Electronic noise is defined as unwanted disturbances superposed on a useful signal that tend to obscure its information content. Noise is not the same as signal distortion caused by a circuit. Noise is associated with all electronic circuits. Noise may be electromagnetically or thermally generated, which can be decreased by lowering the operating temperature of the circuit. Other types of noise, such as shot noise cannot be removed as they are due to limitations in physical properties.
Electronics theory.
Mathematical methods are integral to the study of electronics. To become proficient in electronics it is also necessary to become proficient in the mathematics of circuit analysis.
Circuit analysis is the study of methods of solving generally linear systems for unknown variables such as the voltage at a certain node or the current through a certain branch of a network. A common analytical tool for this is the SPICE circuit simulator.
Also important to electronics is the study and understanding of electromagnetic field theory.
Electronics lab.
Due to the complex nature of electronics theory, laboratory experimentation is an important part of the development of electronic devices. These experiments are used to test or verify the engineer's design and detect errors. Historically, electronics labs have consisted of electronics devices and equipment located in a physical space, although in more recent years the trend has been towards electronics lab simulation software, such as CircuitLogix, Multisim, and PSpice.
Computer-aided Design (CAD).
Today's electronics engineers have the ability to design circuits using premanufactured building blocks such as power supplies, semiconductors (i.e. semiconductor devices, such as transistors), and integrated circuits. Electronic design automation software programs include schematic capture programs and printed circuit board design programs. Popular names in the EDA software world are NI Multisim, Cadence (ORCAD), EAGLE PCB and Schematic, Mentor (PADS PCB and LOGIC Schematic), Altium (Protel), LabCentre Electronics (Proteus), gEDA, KiCad and many others.
Packaging methods.
Many different methods of connecting components have been used over the years. For instance, early electronics often used point to point wiring with components attached to wooden breadboards to construct circuits. Cordwood construction and wire wrap were other methods used. Most modern day electronics now use printed circuit boards made of materials such as FR4, or the cheaper (and less hard-wearing) Synthetic Resin Bonded Paper (SRBP, also known as Paxoline/Paxolin (trade marks) and FR2) – characterised by its brown colour. Health and environmental concerns associated with electronics assembly have gained increased attention in recent years, especially for products destined to the European .
Electronic systems design.
Electronic systems design deals with the multi-disciplinary design issues of complex electronic devices and systems, such as mobile phones and computers. The subject covers a broad spectrum, from the design and development of an electronic system (new product development) to assuring its proper function, service life and disposal. Electronic systems design is therefore the process of defining and developing complex electronic devices to satisfy specified requirements of the user.
Mounting Options.
Electrical components are generally mounted in the following ways:
Electronics industry.
The electronics industry consists of various sectors. The central driving force behind the entire electronics industry is the semiconductor industry sector, which has annual sales of over as of 2018. The largest industry sector is e-commerce, which generated over in 2017. The most widely manufactured electronic device is the metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET), with an estimated 13sextillion MOSFETs having been manufactured between 1960 and 2018. In the 1960s, U.S. manufacturers were unable to compete with Japanese companies such as Sony and Hitachi who could produce high-quality goods at lower prices. By the 1980s, however, U.S. manufacturers became the world leaders in semiconductor development and assembly.


Sidebar (computing)

The sidebar is a graphical control element that displays various forms of information to the right or left side of an application window or operating system desktop. Examples of the sidebar can be seen in the Opera web browser, Apache OpenOffice, LibreOffice, SoftMaker Presentations and File Explorer; in each case, the app exposes various functionalities via the sidebar.
Overview.
Sidebars have originated in desktop apps, which are designed for rectangular screens with longer horizontal sides. Like toolbars and status bars, sidebars host both information and GUI widgets with which the user issues commands to the app. Unlike toolbars and status bars, sidebars have larger surface areas because of horizontally longer layout of desktop apps. Sidebars may use accordions to organize widgets and accommodate a larger layout than the visible surface area.
Widgets.
In a number of Widget engines, one is able to install applets which can reside on a sidebar. Notable examples include:
Drawers.
Early versions of Mac OS X's Aqua UI supported a sidebar concept called drawers, which pop outside the application window frame rather than expand from the inside like most application sidebars, are used. Despite criticism, third-party applications like Transmit, OmniWeb, Shiira and BBEdit quickly adopted drawers. The standard email client, Mail, used drawers for listing mailboxes prior to 10.4 ("Tiger"), when they were replaced by a traditional sidebar. A number of other Apple-created applications and third-party applications have replaced drawers with a sidebar, or re-designed the interface to make a sidebar/drawer unnecessary. Apple's Human Interface Guidelines now recommend against their use. Formerly drawer-heavy apps, like iCal and Adium, now contain no drawers at all, and instead display an optional sidebar within the main window.
The Android mobile operating system also uses the term "drawers" to refer to a type of sidebar menu widget, usually accessible by swiping from the left edge of the screen.


Haunted attraction (simulated)

A haunted attraction is a form of live entertainment that simulates the experience of visiting haunted locations or storylines typical of horror fiction. They usually feature fearsome sets and characters, especially demons, ghosts, monsters, possessed people, witches/wizards, serial killers, and/or slashers. Humorous characters may also be included.
Haunted attractions may be set up at many kinds of locations. Built attractions or existing structures in which attractions may be operated include temporarily constructed simulations of haunted houses; actual abandoned or dilapidated houses; abandoned asylums; defunct prisons; defunct or active amusement parks; defunct or active ships; defunct factories; defunct or active barns; and shopping malls. Outdoor places hosting such attractions include corn mazes or cornfields; hedge mazes; farms (often including "haunted" hayrides); wooded areas or forests; and parks.
Haunted attractions (also known as "haunts" or "mazes" within the industry) use many effects, such as intense lighting (strobe lights, black lights, etc.), animatronics, CGI, scent dispensers, fog machines, spinning tunnels, air blasters, spooky old antiques, gory images, and intense scenes of horror, terror, torment, murder, mischief, or comedy. Visitors often encounter various actors dressed up in elaborate and often scary costumes, masks, and prosthetics. These actors may perform skits or lurk and come out unexpectedly to frighten, shock, disturb, or amuse the customer.
The typical haunted attraction starts operating during the week of late September or early October to the last week in October or first week of November. In particular, they are especially active during the triduum of Allhallowtide. Additionally, there is a subculture of permanent haunted attractions that are open year-round and of a few that are open during special occasions, such as haunt conventions or Spring Break (also called Scream Break). Some attractions are run by charities as fundraisers, while many are for-profit.
In Japan, there is a tradition of making "obakeyashiki" (ghost houses) in the summertime as fear is believed to ward off the heat by "giving you the chills". These typically feature frightening creatures from Japanese folklore, ghosts, demons, sinister crucifixes and other things that are brought to life thanks to decorations, sound effects and animatronics. Often, the "obakeyashiki" will have a story that is told to visitors before they receive a mission that they must accomplish while in the house.
History.
One of the first recorded purpose-built haunted attractions was the Orton and Spooner Ghost House, which opened in 1915 in Liphook, England. This attraction actually most closely resembles a carnival fun house, powered by steam. The House still exists, in the Hollycombe Steam Collection.
The background for the creation of the Orton and Spooner Ghost House might be seen in 18th- and 19th-century London and Paris, when literature, performances by magicians, spiritualists and psychics, as well as theatrical shows and attractions introduced the public to gruesome entertainment. In 1802, Marie Tussaud scandalized British audiences with an exhibition of wax sculptures of decapitated victims of the French Revolution, including King Louis XVI, Marie Antoinette, Robespierre and Jean-Paul Marat. Her exhibits exist today as the Chamber of Horrors in Madam Tussauds in London. In France, from 1897, the Grand Guignol theatre was scaring audiences with graphically staged horror entertainment. The Phantasmagoria show existed even earlier, but a well-known version in 1797 Paris was the Fantasmagorie, which made use of magic lantern projections and crude special effects.
Halloween-themed haunted houses in America seemed to begin emerging during the Great Depression, about the same time as trick-or-treat. During the 1930s, '40s and '50s, it was common for magicians to incorporate supernatural themes into their stage performances, evolving into the tradition of the traveling "ghost show" or "spook show" incorporating comedy, displays of "mentalism" and theatrical special effects. During the 1950s these specialized shows were often performed as pre-show entertainment before screenings of popular horror movies.
The Haunted Mansion opened in Disneyland August 9, 1969. The attraction became a near-instant success. A single-day record of 82,516 guests was established soon after it opened. In 1973, Knott's Berry Farm began hosting its own Halloween night attraction, Knott's Scary Farm, which soon became the gold standard of Halloween events. Evangelical Christians became early adopters of alternative Halloween attractions. Jerry Falwell and Liberty University introduced one of the first "hell houses" in 1972.
During the late 1950s, California was a focus for Halloween haunts. In 1957, the San Mateo Haunted House opened, sponsored by the Children's Health Home Junior Auxiliary. The San Bernardino Assistance League Haunted House opened in 1958. In 1962 and 1963 home haunts began appearing across the country, including Oregon, California, Connecticut, Illinois and several other states. On October 17, 1964, the San Manteo Haunted House opened as a walk-through haunted house. The Children's Museum Haunted House in Indianapolis, open every year since 1964, was Indiana's first haunted house and is currently the longest running in the nation.
Haunted houses quickly spread across the country via charity fundraisers conducted by The United States Junior Chamber ("the Jaycees") and others. The Jaycees encouraged its membership to construct haunted houses in abandoned buildings or fields as charity fundraising events, and the organization became known for these houses throughout America. In the late 1960s to early 1970s, haunted attractions were developed in larger American cities like Louisville, Kentucky and Cincinnati, Ohio with the creation of Jaycees haunted houses. These haunted houses are run by local chapters of the Jaycees. There are still many local chapter Jaycees haunted houses in towns such as Lombard, Illinois; Foxborough, Massachusetts; Raleigh, North Carolina; and Columbia, South Carolina. The former Huntington Jaycees Haunted House, now known as the Haunted Hotel-13th Floor, was operated by volunteers in October 1963. The first verifiable Jaycees haunted attraction as recognized by the Jaycees national office was The WSAI Haunted House in Cincinnati, Ohio operated by the Sycamore-Deer Park Jaycees in 1970. In 1974, The Haunted Schoolhouse, located in Akron, Ohio, opened to the public and is still in operation to this day.
The March of Dimes copyrighted a "Mini haunted house for the March of Dimes" in 1976 and began fundraising through their local chapters by conducting haunted houses soon after. Although they apparently quit supporting this type of event nationally sometime in the 1980s, some MoD haunted houses have persisted until today. This includes the Spooky Acres Haunted House in Norfolk, Virginia. Others open during this period include one in Indio, California in 1976, one in Salt Lake City, Utah in 1989, and one in Honolulu, Hawaii in 1997. MoD Haunted Houses continuing much beyond the late 1980s would be considered outliers.
The beginning of the end for the charity haunts can be traced to a singular event: the Haunted Castle at Six Flags Great Adventure caught fire on the evening of May 11, 1984, in Jackson Township, New Jersey. Eight teenagers lost their lives in the fire. There were criminal charges filed, civil lawsuits, numerous investigations, and the inevitable result that fire safety laws, building codes, and inspections were tightened up considerably nationwide. The net effect was to make charity attractions less economically viable than they were before. Better construction materials were required, and fire safety equipment was required, making a temporary venue too expensive for many charities to afford. As a result, the larger, better funded for-profit operators moved in as the charities moved out. The fire caused wide-ranging changes for all amusement buildings. Previously, operators were able to avoid fire codes because such attractions were used temporarily. The Haunted Castle fire pointed to an unattractive reality that forced tighter regulation.
Professional haunted houses began to show up in the United States about the same time as the non-profits. However, subsequent to the tragic fire outlined above, many existing haunted attractions were shut down, as politicians and regulators enacted stronger safety codes. Volunteer (non-profit) organizations struggled to compete against the new for-profit competition under the tougher rules. Many were forced out of business either from the added competition or the inability to fund safety requirements. "The Jaycees got pushed out because their haunted houses were fairly basic." Currently, in the United States alone, there are over 4,000 October seasonal haunted houses in the Us every year and 300 theme parks that operate horror-themed events. Over 3,000 haunts are charity-run fund raisers.
In order to increase off-season attendance, theme parks entered the business seriously in the late 1980s and early 1990s. Six Flags launched Fright Fest in 1986-1989 and Universal Studios began Halloween Horror Nights in 1991. Although Knotts Berry Farm launched their Knott's Scary Farm in 1973, given America's obsession with Halloween as a cultural event surging in the 1990s, Knotts saw their attraction take off. Theme parks have played a major role in globalizing the holiday. Universal Studios Singapore and Universal Studios Japan both participate, while Disney now mounts Mickey's Not-So-Scary Halloween events at its parks in Paris, Hong Kong and Tokyo, as well as in the United States. The theme park haunts are by far the largest, both in scale and attendance.
Types of haunted attractions.
There are many types of haunted attractions including Scream Parks The following categories are generalizations; many "haunts" contain attributes from more than one type.
Haunted house/mansion/castle.
A haunted house, haunted mansion, or haunted castle is a type of haunted attraction that usually takes place indoors. Visitors may experience intense animatronics, bloody and frightening set pieces, rustic antiques, scary music and sounds, dynamic lighting, fog, costumed actors with elaborate makeup or masks, and other special effects used to create scenes of terror. Knoebels Amusement Resort in Elysburg, Pennsylvania has a "Haunted House" dark ride. The Haunted Mansion is very popular with patrons at many Disney locations around the world. Miracle Strip Amusement Park in Panama City Beach, Florida had a "Haunted Castle" ride until the amusement park itself closed down in 2004. Its prop elements became part of "The Terrortorium" in Oxford, Alabama for annual Halloween events. Many of Sally Corporation's Scooby-Doo's Haunted Mansion rides were replaced by Boo Blasters on Boo Hill. Haunted houses or mansions for an annual Halloween season can be located in hospitals, grocery stores, shopping malls, warehouses, semi-trailers, factories, boats or ships, dilapidated homes, etc. Haunted house or haunted mansion events can range from a few minutes to many hours in length, with some permitting visitors to go at their own pace and others requiring group tours led by guides. A number of the largest seasonal attractions feature multiple haunted houses on the same site. For example, In 2015, Pure Terror Screampark in Monroe, New York was awarded the Guinness World Record for World's Longest Walk Through Horror Attraction.
In terms of appearance, the prototypical haunted house in America can probably trace its roots to a 1925 painting by Edward Hopper, entitled "House by the Railroad".
Haunted trail/forest.
A haunted trail or haunted forest is a type of attraction that takes place outside in the woods, at a park, at a theme park or other outside venue. Most haunted trails are close to a mile long and may include small buildings or huts that include various scenes visitors are forced to enter or walk past. The majority of haunted trails have lit paths or roped-off areas, if there aren't any paths in the woods that have already been made. Haunted trails include various rooms/scenes such as hillbilly huts, a haunted cornfield, a clown maze, an alien invasion, or movie-themed rooms.
Haunted trails may use tour guides, or they may allow visitors to walk alone. Unlike haunted houses, weather determines if the attraction will be open or not during the month of October. Tour times may vary greatly depending on the customer's pace and the length of the trail.
Haunted hayride.
A haunted hayride is a haunted attraction and a form of agri-entertainment that takes place during a hayride on a farm, park or large piece of land. Patrons climb on a wagon filled with hay or haybales and are driven into the darkness as the tractor driver navigates through brush, cornfields, narrow paths, fields and barns. Throughout the trip, customers may come in contact with out-of-control farm equipment, fast-moving vehicles (hearses, hot rods), actors dressed up as monsters and traditional characters like the Headless Horseman from Washington Irving's "The Legend of Sleepy Hollow".
The typical haunted hayride lasts from 10 to 45 minutes. Some use sound systems attached to the wagon or tractor. During the daytime, some haunted hayrides may have live shows, face painting, fun characters and may even sell pumpkins or other vegetables grown on the farm.
One of the more noted companies in this sector is Ten Thirty One Productions, which has hay rides in Los Angeles and New York. The haunted hayride was arguably started and popularized by the original Spooky World, which opened in Berlin, Massachusetts in 1991.
Haunted ship.
A haunted ship is a haunted attraction that takes place on a ship, battleship, destroyer, or any other type of ship. Patrons board these attractions via a gangway and walk through the ship that is usually lit with effects lighting, plays sound effects, and has thematic rooms meant to create a terrifying environment. Most of these types of attractions are found on the west coast or east coast, and are not as prevalent as typical haunted theme parks, hayrides, and haunted trails or forests.
Some of the more popular haunted ships in the United States are the USS Nightmare in Newport, Kentucky; Queen Mary's Dark Harbor in Long Beach, California; and Ghost Ship Harbor in Quincy, Massachusetts.
Haunted theme park (screampark).
A haunted theme park is an amusement park whose buildings and paths have been converted into haunted houses, haunted trails or hayrides during the fall season (September, October and early November). Many haunted theme parks include themed outdoor scare zones that feature costumed monsters who roam around scaring customers. It's not unusual to come in contact with actors known as sliders who wear special kneepads. When the actor slides on the ground, the kneepads make a scraping noise before the actor is inches away from the customer.
Additionally, a large percentage of haunted theme parks feature live shows, concession areas, rides and other typical amusement park attractions. Not all haunted theme parks take place inside an actual amusement park. There are quite a few events that include multiple attractions in one place and may be located on a farm, park, parking lot or anywhere suitable for a large-scale event, but strictly speaking, these are not considered theme parks.
The first haunted theme park was Knott's Scary Farm, which opened at Knott's Berry Farm in Buena Park, California, on October 31, 1973. Haunted theme parks are among the most popular haunted attractions since they offer multiple attractions for a single admission price, and are often of a high level of production value.
Dark maze and chain maze.
A dark maze (or pitch black maze) is a haunted attraction that consists of dark or pitch black rooms that have twists, turns and/or dead ends. Some may feature actors, air cannons, loud sounds, sprays of water, moving walls or floors, hanging props, flashing lights and more. A dark maze can be a standalone attraction or an extension of a haunted house, haunted trail or hayride. Some dark mazes can transition into a chain maze, which is similar to a dark maze but uses metal bars or chain-link fencing for its walls. Most chain mazes will utilize strobe lights and heavy fog to blind and disorient customers while they try to find the exit. A chain maze can also serve as a standalone attraction. The amount of time spent inside a dark maze or chain maze may depend on the construction of the maze as well as one's skill at navigating mazes.
Hell house.
Hell houses are haunted attractions typically run by Christian churches or parachurch groups. These depict sin, the torments of the damned in Hell, and usually conclude with a depiction of heaven. They are most typically operated in the days preceding the triduum of Allhallowtide.
A hell house, like a conventional haunted-house attraction, is a space set aside for actors to frighten patrons with gruesome exhibits and scenes, presented as a series of short vignettes with a narrated guide. Unlike haunted houses, hell houses focus on occasions and effects of sin or the fate of unrepentant sinners in the afterlife.
The exhibits at a hell house often have a controversial tone focusing on issues of concern to Christians in the United States. Hell houses frequently feature exhibits depicting sin and its consequences. Common examples include abortion, suicide, use of alcoholic beverages and recreational drugs, adultery, occultism, and Satanic ritual abuse. Hell houses typically emphasize the belief that anyone who does not repent of their sin and accept Christ as their personal savior is condemned to Hell.
One of the first hell houses is Scaremare (still presented each October) in Lynchburg, Virginia; it was created by Jerry Falwell in the late 1970s. Similar events began in several regions during that period. Hell houses have faced criticism for advertising themselves as traditional haunted houses. Most involve biblical lessons and some ask customers to pray to Jesus Christ before exiting, regardless of their beliefs. Some hell houses are much more graphic than traditional haunted attractions and not appropriate for all audiences.
Dark ride.
A dark ride or ghost train (United Kingdom and Australia) is an indoor amusement ride where riders in guided vehicles travel through specially lit scenes that typically contain animatronics, sound, music, and special effects.
A dark ride need not be dark; it is enclosed, so all illumination is artificial, and many such rides use special lighting to achieve theatrical effects. Selective use of darkness helps hide the ride mechanisms and increase the visual drama of the experience. Disney's It's a Small World is an example of a brightly lit dark ride. The Twilight Zone Tower of Terror is another popular dark ride to patrons at Walt Disney World's Hollywood Studios (Sunset Boulevard), Disneyland Resort's California Adventure (Hollywood Land), Tokyo DisneySea (American Waterfront), and Walt Disney Studios Park (Production Courtyard).
Revenge of the Mummy roller coaster is the most popular dark ride at Universal Studios Florida (New York City), Universal Studios Hollywood (Lower Lot), and Universal Studios Singapore (Ancient Egypt). Another classic example of a haunted dark ride is the Phantom Theater Omnimover located at Kings Island in Mason, Ohio.
Cornfield maze.
A cornfield maze is an attraction that uses cornstalks to form paths for people to walk through. Patrons can expect to experience turns, twists, straight paths and dead ends. The cornfield maze might be designed to resemble a popular character, public figure, event or holiday. Most cornfield mazes are open during the day and are appropriate for all ages.
The largest corn maze in the world was located in Dixon, California, and is 45 acres in area . Although this corn maze holds distinction as the world's largest corn maze, Adventure Acres corn maze in Bellbrook, Ohio, consists of 62 acres of corn maze with 8.5 miles of trails. In 2003, a world record for the longest maze path, as recognised by Guinness World Records, was set on 10 July 2003 at 8.838 miles (14.223 kilometres) in the Lobster Maize Maze, designed by Adrian Fisher, at Stewarts Gardenlands, Christchurch, Dorset, England.
A haunted cornfield maze is identical to a cornfield maze except that it may include actors, props, special effects, scary music and more. The maze is created by using cornstalks and forming paths for people to walk through. Patrons can expect to experience turns, twists, straight paths and dead ends. The cornfield maze might be designed to resemble a popular character, public figure, event or holiday. The majority of haunted cornfield mazes are open after dark.
Home/yard haunt.
A home haunt is a stripped-down version of a haunted attraction. A home haunt usually takes place inside a person's home or on their lawn. One can expect to see homemade props or animatronics, detailed rooms, special effects and costumed characters. The vast majority of home haunts are nonprofit or ask for donations; the money may go towards a charity or cause. Home haunts are usually open for a couple of hours on Halloween or a few weekends in October. Haunts like this do not require state issued emergency lighting, fire alarms, and fire escapes if the haunt is under a specific length.
A yard haunt is a house that is elaborately decorated to celebrate Halloween. Yards may feature fake tombstones, skulls, large inflatable characters, plastic light-up figures (a.k.a. blowmolds), strobe lights, fog machines, cobwebs, spooky music, animatronics and decor that can easily be purchased at a local Halloween store. Some home owners even create their own homemade props to set their display apart from other houses, while others synchronize their display to music using computer programs such as Light-O-Rama, Animated Lighting and other programs. Some displays utilize an FM transmitter so people can park their car, locate a low-frequency radio station and watch the show without it disturbing the neighbors. An example of this type attraction is The House at Haunted Hill in Woodland Hills, California.
Ghost run.
A ghost run is a haunted event that takes place in a person's car. When a customer purchases a ticket for a ghost run, he or she is given various clues as to where different haunted attractions are. This haunted scavenger hunt usually includes a few local haunted attractions and other free items. At the end of the ghost run's season, the winner with the best mileage locating the haunts is revealed and he or she is given a prize.
Midnight spook/ghost shows.
Between the 1930s-1960s movie theaters would have live shows that featured magicians performing magic tricks, séances, special effects and scary skits. This was at a time when people were unaware of how these seemingly incredible tricks were done and it was a relatively new form of entertainment before the spread of the haunted attraction. Many of these spook shows doubled with horror movies and played at smaller movie theaters during the Halloween season or different parts of the year. Eventually these shows would incorporate bloody special effects and sometimes be referred to as Midnight Horror Shows. These shows were daring for their time, but would phase out by the end of the 1960s. A modern interpretation of the classic spook show was the Hauntings Ghost Show in Gatlinburg, Tennessee. This attraction was themed as a Victorian Seance, which took place in a small theater setting. During the show, the audience would encounter automated gags instead of live performers. The attraction was in operation from the early 1980s until September 2015.
Extreme haunted houses.
As the haunted attraction industry has evolved, it has trended toward ever more elaborate settings, more sophisticated technology, more elaborate backstories and so-called "extreme" haunted houses. Most operators, from the mega-haunts down to local charity events have felt the competitive pressure to improve their events. Higher quality scenery and props and ever more elaborate concepts and writing have become the norm. As well, the experiences have expanded in terms of sheer size, either by making the mazes longer, or by providing more than one attraction on the same site.
Some operators have tried to distinguish themselves by adding more extreme experiences. The most common upgrades beyond those cited above include blackout houses, interactive houses, and the inclusion of virtual reality and/or laser tag elements. The blackout houses are what they sound like: pitch black mazes which the guests must feel their way through. This may involve crawling, and sometimes, contact by the actors. This is usually not allowed in less extreme houses, and may require the guest to sign a waiver prior to entering. The interactive houses may involve the guests being closed into an "escape room", where they have a time limit to try to figure out how to escape, and physical clues scattered around the space. Naturally, there are scares also hidden in the space, and often guest escape efforts have consequences for wrong guesses. The VR and laser tag houses add an element of the first-person shooter video game experience to the guest's journey through the house.
The most extreme houses may feature full contact with the guests and include a chance that the guest may be subjected to mild torture, including simulated drowning, simulated assault, and light electric shock. Guests are often given a safe word for anyone who might not be able to complete the experience. Tennessee's McKamey Manor requires both an application process and a waiver. Unlike most of its rivals, there was no safe word until 2017. The tour, which is free, can take up to four hours to complete. In that time, guests have been tied and gagged, forced into coffins and freezers, and had their heads pushed into cages full of snakes. People have even been known to leave with scratches and bruises on their bodies. Another example is Blackout, which has versions in Los Angeles, Chicago, Miami, and New York, and has been rated on several lists as the most extreme haunted house in the world. Additional extreme haunts include Heretic and Hvrting in Los Angeles, Miasma in Chicago, Shock Theater in New York, and Faceless Ventures in the UK.
The Naked and Scared Challenge was an adults-only experience at Shocktoberfest, a 27-acre fear park located in Sinking Spring, Pennsylvania. Visitors at least 18 years old were invited to disrobe before entering. After choosing the "nude" or "prude" (underwear-only) option, guests were asked to sign waivers prior to a clothes-free fright. The nude option was cancelled prior to opening, due to pressure from local authorities. There have been a few such houses around the country, but they have apparently not caught on. This event began during the 2013 season, and was still running as of 2017, as the "Almost Naked and Scared Challenge".
A haunted experience is a relatively new type of haunted attraction that combines the concept of a haunted house with something like a scavenger hunt. These begin in one place and end in another, usually the haunted house itself. An example of a haunted experience is Nyctophobia on Long Island, New York; in 2010, ticket buyers were given a location that was not the physical haunted house, but a pick-up spot where they got into a van blindfolded and were driven to the real location. Other experiences such as Blackout have the participants sign liability waivers and feature scenes where the performers can physically touch the guests and perform actions that resemble various acts such as waterboarding.
Business environment.
Haunted attractions can be categorized as follows: mega-haunt, professional haunt, charity haunt and home haunt. The mega-haunts would include the large theme park operators such as Universal Studios Halloween Horror Nights, Six Flags Fright Fest, and Walt Disney's Haunted Mansion. These largest operators are not members of any of the haunt trade groups, and are ignored by them in terms of reviews and awards. This mega-group also avoids publishing attendance or revenue figures.
The professional American haunt industry is a multibillion-dollar business with nearly 2,000 haunts open each year and over 12,000,000 customers attending those attractions. Throughout the year, there are many conventions held all over the United States. These include Midwest Haunters Convention (Ohio), National Haunters Convention (Pennsylvania), Haunted Attraction National Trade-show and Conference (HAuNTcon; moves to a new city each year), Indy Haunt Fest (Indiana), West Coast Haunters Convention (Oregon), Canandian Haunters Convention (Canada), Halloween & Attractions Show (Missouri), and many others. These annual conventions feature props, seminars, workshops, parties, and haunt tours. The biggest show of the year is the Transworld Halloween and Haunted Attraction show in St Louis, Missouri, each March drawing over 8000 buyers with over 100,000 square feet of vendors.
The haunt industry's first association, the International Association of Haunted Attractions (IAHA), started in 1998. The second was the Haunted House Association in 2008. In late 2010, both associations agreed to merge and form the Haunted Attraction Association. Other related groups are the Haunt Reviewers Association (HRA), Home Haunters Association, and the Halloween and Haunt Vendors Association (HHVA) and Haunted Attraction Association.
Many haunted attractions across the United States now feature high-quality animatronics and effects. It is not uncommon to come across towering monsters, movie-quality CGI, dynamic lighting, props that interact with customers, scent dispensers, intricate set pieces and figures, pneumatic props, or props that spray water or air.
Attractions are covered by industry trade magazines including "Hauntworld Magazine", "Haunted Attraction Magazine", and "Fangoria". The industry has also been featured by television networks, and attractions are ranked by a variety of special-interest web sites.
, one source estimated there were more than 2500 haunted attractions worldwide, most in the United States. It is estimated to be an 8.4 billion dollar industry in America alone in 2016, according to the National Retail Federation. This is up from estimated Halloween spending in the United States in 2011 at $6.8 billion, which itself was up from $3.3 billion in 2005. This growth shows few signs of slowing "In the past two decades, haunted houses have become a booming national industry that generates hundreds of millions of dollars and includes family-friendly theme parks, huge high-tech productions and evangelical Christian hell houses."
Legal and safety environment.
Safety requirements generally include fire suppression systems, clearly marked exits, warning signs, and panic systems. Warning signs usually warn customers about heavy fog, intense strobes, loud sounds and music, crawling, and stress that people who are pregnant, disabled, or have a heart condition should not enter. Most attractions must be inspected by local authorities to confirm that they comply with building and fire codes.
COVID-19 pandemic.
The COVID-19 pandemic had major impacts on theme parks generally, leading to the cancellation of the many haunted attractions. Nevertheless many home and yard haunts have continued to operate, since they can largely avoid the crowd problems that affect large-scale attractions.
International perspective.
While many cultures have Halloween and Halloween-like traditions, many of which have been absorbed by Americans, physical locations where simulated haunted attractions are created seem to have been a uniquely American invention. The American Haunted attraction has recently begun to be exported elsewhere, from the early 2000s, with theme parks playing a major role in globalizing the holiday as they often have an international presence. The clearest examples are Universal Studios, which has exported its Halloween Horror Nights to its parks in Singapore (2011) and Japan (2012), and Six Flags, which has begun celebrating its Fright Fest at its locations in Mexico and Canada. Disney now mounts Mickey's Not-So-Scary Halloween events at its parks in Paris, Hong Kong and Tokyo, as well as the United States. Overseas operators of themed attractions have also followed the American trend. Examples include: Fright Nights at Thorpe Park Surrey, England, Scarefest at Alton Towers Staffordshire, England and Fright Nights at Warner Bros Movie World in Queensland, Australia.


Advanced multi-mission operations system

The advanced multi-mission operations system (AMMOS) is a common set of services and tools created by the Interplanetary Network Directorate, a division of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, for use in JPL's operation of spacecraft. These tools include a means by which mission planning and analysis can be undertaken, as well as developing pre-planned command sequences for the spacecraft. AMMOS also provides a means by which downlinked data can be displayed and manipulated, including key mission telemetry such as readings of temperature, pressure, power, and other critical indicators. This common toolset allows space missions to minimize the cost of developing operations infrastructure, which is very important in light of recent restricted spending by space agencies.


Wind organ

A wind organ is a musical instrument designed to be 'played' by the wind. Designs of wind organs vary depending on the artist constructing the organ. Some are made of hollow receptacles that sound as the wind blows across their mouths while others are constructed from taut metal wires that 'sing' when the wind blows against them, similar to the way wire fences vibrate in the wind.


Frank A. Palmer and Louise B. Crary (shipwreck)

Frank A. Palmer" and "Louise B. Crary are a historic dual shipwreck site in the Stellwagen Bank National Marine Sanctuary, off Gloucester, Massachusetts.
Nathaniel T. Palmer and the New England Shipbuilding Company built "Frank A. Palmer" in 1897. "Louise B. Crary" was launched in 1900. Both were wooden-hulled coal-carrying schooners. At 274 feet (83.5 meters) in length, "Frank A. Palmer" may be the largest four-masted schooner ever built. "Louise B. Crary" was 267 feet (81.4 meters) long and had five masts.
In 1899, "Frank A. Palmer" grounded near Tathem's life-saving station in New Jersey, but was refloated on July 23.
The ships were each carrying 3,000 tons of coal from Newport News, Virginia, to Boston, Massachusetts, when they collided on 17 December 1902 during a gale and sank together off Gloucester. Eleven of the 21 sailors aboard the two ships lost their lives. The wrecks were located in 2002 in the Stellwagen Bank National Marine Sanctuary. The shipwreck was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 2006.


Davis-Ferris Organ

The Davis-Ferris Organ, built in 1847, is the oldest three-manual pipe organ that has escaped significant alteration in the United States. It is located in the Round Lake Auditorium in the village of Round Lake, New York. Originally located in the Calvary Church in Manhattan, it was moved to its present location in 1888, where it was used in Chautauqua-like summer programs into the 1920s. It is now owned and maintained by the village. It was designated a National Historic Landmark in 2016.
Description.
The Davis-Ferris Organ is a basically free-standing instrument, mounted in a wooden case with Gothic features. The case may have been designed by James Renwick Jr., the architect who designed the Calvary Church where it was first installed. The case measures roughly , and is more of a protective enclosure than a structural supporting element of the instrument. It houses all of the working components of the instrument, including its three manuals, foot pedal board, air management system, and a network of wooden and metal pipes. Air movement is provided by an electric blower probably installed in the early 20th century, when the auditorium was electrified; before this time, the organ bellows were powered by a water-powered arrangement. The basic mechanical controls (stops, manuals, and the mechanisms they activate, are all basically original. Substantive changes to the instrument beyond the change in power source include the shortening of the longest pipes, needed to accommodate its new location, and it was likely revoiced after installation at Round Lake. Beginning in the 1970s, the instrument has been the subject of a long-running series of repairs to its condition, occasioned in part by a forty-year period of neglect.
The organ was built in 1847 by Richard M. Ferris for the Renwick-designed Calvary Church in Manhattan. Ferris was then briefly in partnership with William H. Davis, another organ builder, hence the name of the instrument. It remained in use at the church for about forty years, when the church vestry decided that the instrument was no longer compatible with its ecclesiastical practices. Around the same time in the 1880s, the Round Lake Methodist camp meeting was in decline as a religious venue, and had been expanding its summer offerings to include more secular Chautauqua-like summer presentations and programming. In 1888, possibly stimulated by the acquisition of the organ or prompted by its availability, the Round Lake trustees began offering musical programs as well. The organ continued to a play a role in these until the association went into decline in the 1920s.
Interest in the instrument was revived in the 1960s, after which the village has embarked on a continuing series of repairs, rehabilitation, and improvements of the instrument and the hall.


Gertrude Mwangala

Dr. Gertrude Mwangala Akapelwa is a former Zambian IBM systems engineer former African Development Bank ICT Infrastructure and Operations Division Manager and academic, who serves as the Vice Chancellor of Victoria Falls University of Technology (VFU), an institution she helped establish in 2002.
Background and education.
She was born in Zambia circa 1948. She was admitted to the University of Zambia in 1969, graduating in 1973 with a Bachelor of Science in Mathematics and Education. Her Master of Public Administration degree, specializing in Public Policy and Management, was obtained from Harvard University's Kennedy School of Government, in 1997. She is also completing her thesis for a Doctor of Education degree, obtained through research, to be awarded by the University of Liverpool in 2018. Her doctoral specialization is Higher Education and Higher Education Administration.
Career.
Gertrude Mwangala Akapelwa started out in 1973, working for the Zambian subsidiary of International Business Machines (IBM), as a Systems Engineer. She served there for eight and one half years until December 1981. In January 1982, she was hired as the Information Technology Infrastructure and Systems Manager at the African Development Bank, working in that capacity for just short of 24 years until June 2005, based both in Abidjan, Ivory Coast and Tunis, Tunisia. In June 2002, she founded the Victoria Falls University of Technology (VFU), based in Livingstone, Zambia and became its Vice Chancellor from 2010. As of November 2017, she is the incumbent.
Other considerations.
She serves on several boards of public and private companies including as a non-executive director of Zambia Railways Limited. She is the owner and Chief Executive Officer (CEO) of La Residence Executive Guest House, located in Livingstone, Zambia. She previously served as the Chairperson of the Zambia Information & Communications Technology Authority (ZICTA) and a non-executive director of Zambia National Commercial Bank. She also served on the Technical Committee of the Lands Information Management System for the Zambian Government.
She has received numerous awards over the course of her career, including (a) the John Mwanakatwe Distinguished Award awarded by the Zambia Society for Public Administrators (b) the recognition and honour for being the pioneer female Computer Scientist in Zambia, by the Zambia Association of University Women (ZAUW) (c) the IBM Systems Engineering Professional Excellence Award and (d) She also received awards for Africa's Most Influential Women in Business as the Overall, Regional and Country winner in 2013, 2014 and 2015.


Clonewheel organ

A clonewheel organ is an electronic musical instrument that emulates (or "clones") the sound of the electromechanical tonewheel-based organs formerly manufactured by Hammond from the 1930s to the 1970s. Clonewheel organs generate sounds using solid-state circuitry or computer chips, rather than with heavy mechanical tonewheels, making clonewheel organs much lighter-weight and smaller than vintage Hammonds, and easier to transport to live performances and recording sessions.
The phrase "clonewheel" is a play on words in reference to how the original Hammond produces sound through "tonewheels". The first generation of clonewheel organs used synthesizer voices, which were not able to accurately reproduce the Hammond sound. In the 1990s and 2000s, clonewheel organs began using digitally-sampled real Hammond sounds or digital signal processing emulation techniques, which were much better able to capture the nuances of the vintage Hammond sound.
Clonewheel organs can be either electronic keyboard-based instruments such as the Korg CX-3 or the Roland VK-7; or keyboardless emulation devices, which include MIDI-compatible tone modules, such as the E-MU B-3 module and software-based "virtual synths" (such as the B4 by Native Instruments [discontinued]). To use keyboardless emulation devices, they need to be connected to a MIDI keyboard controller.
History.
Original electromechanical Hammond.
The Hammond organ is an electromechanical organ that was designed and built by Laurens Hammond in 1934. While the Hammond organ was originally sold to churches as a lower-cost alternative to the pipe organ, it came to be used for jazz, blues, and then to a greater extent in rock music (in the 1960s and 1970s) and gospel music.
The original Hammond organ imitated the function of a pipe organ's ranks of pipes in multiple registers by using additive synthesis of waveforms from harmonic series to generate its sounds. The Hammond organ's individual waveforms were made by mechanical tonewheels which rotated beneath electromagnetic pickups. The component waveforms can be mixed in varying ratios by using "drawbars" mounted above the two keyboards. Hammond organs also have a harmonic percussion effect, in which the 2nd and 3rd harmonic tones can be added to the attack envelope of a note.
Hammond organs have a distinctive percussive "key click", which is the attack transient that occurs when all nine key contacts close, causing an audible pop or click. Originally, key click was considered to be a design defect and Hammond worked to eliminate or at least reduce it by using equalization filters. However, some performers liked the percussive effect, and it has become part of the classic sound that modern imitators of the Hammond organ have tried to reproduce.
The classic way of enhancing the sound of a Hammond organ is to use a rotating speaker known as a Leslie speaker or cabinet.
First "clones".
Transporting the heavy Hammond organ, bass pedalboard (a B-3 organ, bench and pedalboard weighs 425 pounds/193 kg) and Leslie speaker cabinets to performance venues makes it cumbersome for artists to tour with a vintage electromechanical organ. As well, the Hammond, as with all vintage electromechanical instruments, faces the risk of technical problems with the tonewheels or electric motor, which may be difficult to resolve in a touring situation. As such, there was a strong demand amongst musicians for a way of recreating the Hammond sound in a more portable, reliable fashion.
Some early emulation devices from the 1970s were criticized for their unrealistic imitation of the Hammond sound, particularly in the way the upper harmonics were voiced, and in the simulation of the rotary Leslie speaker effect. Refinements to Hammond emulations eventually led to the development of relatively light electronic keyboard instruments such as the Korg CX-3 (1980), and the Roland VK-1 (1980), which produced fairly realistic re-creations of the Hammond tone. While these instruments were widely used to replace the bulky Hammonds for band tours and club dates, jazz and blues keyboardists still tended to use vintage Hammonds for recordings, because the first clonewheel organs could not reproduce the tonal nuances of the old wooden Hammonds.
1990s and 2000s.
By the 1990s and 2000s digital signal processing and sampling technologies allowed for better imitation of the original Hammond sound, and a variety of electronic organs, emulator devices, and synthesizers provided an accurate reproduction of the Hammond tone, such as the Kurzweil K2600 and Clavia Nord Electro keyboard. Hammond Suzuki USA currently markets numerous home, church, and professional models that digitally reproduce the sound of vintage Hammond tonewheel organs. Some sophisticated emulation devices have algorithms that recreate many of the nuances of vintage Hammonds, such as the "crosstalk" or "leakage" between tonewheels, the sound of dirty key contacts, key click, a growling tube amplifier, and digital simulations of the rotating Leslie speaker cabinet.
Currently, there are numerous B-3 "clones" on the market, which range from full-size, dual keyboard behemoths with real Leslie cabinets from Hammond Suzuki (which can cost over $10,000 US), to inexpensive Casio WK series home keyboards that have a digitally-recreated "tonewheel organ" function (which are available for less than $400 US). In between are numerous keyboard-based models from Hammond, Korg, Roland, Clavia (Nord Series), rack-mounted modules, and software-based "virtual synths" (such as the B4 by Native Instruments) which provide simulations of the B-3 sound. There is even a model by the Pari.E company which uses a modern version of the classic Hammond tonewheels, not a digital simulation.
The use of Hammond clones and the merits of using clones versus the vintage electromechanical Hammond is the subject of lively debate amongst musicians. The argument that digital simulations cannot recreate the complex interplay of variables that create the "Hammond sound" (tonewheel leakage, Leslie speaker rotation, etc.) is supported by a review of clones in " Keyboard Magazine." The article, entitled "Clonewheel Heaven", reviewed electronic simulations of the traditional Hammond sound, and claimed that some aspects of the vintage electromechanical Hammonds' sound are not accurately reproduced by clones and emulation devices. Nevertheless, the increasing use of clonewheel organs on recordings by jazz and blues organ solo players is testimony to their sound and tone quality; it is also worth noting the wide variety of tonal variations that exist even among genuine vintage tonewheel Hammond organs. Owing to any number of causes — not least of which are the age of its components and the amount of use a tonewheel organ has had — variations in volume levels between tonewheels, varying levels of key click, and other tonal differences are more common than not.
Despite the widespread availability of relatively lower-cost, reliable digital "clones" and emulation devices, and the near-universal use of "clones" for band tours and club gigs, many jazz, blues and gospel keyboardists still have a strong interest in using vintage Hammond organs for studio recordings. Even if a clone is able to accurately reproduce the vintage electromechanical Hammond sound — several companies such as Clavia and Hammond Suzuki are making this claim — performers still have an affection for the look, feel, characteristics and heritage embodied in the much heavier, old wooden vintage instruments.
Format.
Clonewheel organs are available in several formats. The first is an integrated keyboard, in which the keyboard and the circuitry that provides the tonewheel emulation is in the same chassis. A second approach is a sound module, a tabletop device which only provides the organ sounds; it must be connected to a MIDI controller keyboard to be used. The tabletop units vary in sophistication. The least sophisticated units provide a selection of commonly-used tonewheel sounds. More sophisticated units may have drawbars and a number of knobs and buttons for controlling the sound. The third format is as a virtual instrument, which requires a computer and monitor. The virtual instrument may depict the same types of controls that a real tonewheel organ would have on the monitor. The musician then uses a computer mouse or other input to change the settings.
Instruments.
Pre-clonewheel organs.
"etc.".


Componium

The componium is a mechanical musical instrument constructed in 1821 by Diederich Nikolaus Winkel (Lippstatt, Germany, 1777 - Amsterdam, Netherlands, 1826) that composes novel music. It is an automatic organ consisting of two barrels that revolve simultaneously. The barrels take turns performing two measures of randomly chosen music while the other, silent, slides horizontally to select the next variation. A roulette-like flywheel chooses whether or not the next variation is selected. The instrument plays an 80 measure piece, with eight variations for every two measures.
The componium's compositional power is thus limited to new combinations of the music provided in its barrels.
This instrument is believed to have copied some features of Johann Nepomuk Mälzels panharmonicon, but added the aleatoric composition feature.
The componium, in a rather bad shape now, is in the collection of the Brussels Museum of Instruments.


Paul-Louis Arslanian

Paul-Louis Arslanian is a French public servant, former head of the French "Bureau d'enquêtes et d'analyses pour la sécurité de l'aviation civile" (1995-2009). Arslanian is Officier of the Légion d'honneur, graduates from "École polytechnique" (promotion 1965) and "École nationale de l'aviation civile" (promotion 1970).
Biography.
Arslanian began his career as civil aviation engineer at the Directorate General for Civil Aviation followed by the "Inspection générale de l'aviation civile et de la météorologie (IGACEM)". He became head of the "Bureau d'enquêtes et d'analyses pour la sécurité de l'aviation civile" in 1995. He was replaced by Jean-Paul Troadec in 2009.


Cymbal stand

A cymbal stand is a stand designed primarily to support a suspended cymbal in a drum kit or percussion section.
There are many forms, including:
The hi-hat stand is a stand for supporting and operating a pair of clash cymbals; The term "cymbal stand" in English does not normally include this specialised stand.
As well as cymbals, cymbal stands are used to support many other small percussion instruments, and accessories such as practice pads.
History.
Although very ancient examples of single cymbals have been found, all ancient references to cymbals and related instruments have them played in pairs similar to modern clash cymbals.
The first modern use of a single cymbal was the orchestral use of a suspended cymbal, using one of a pair suspended by its strap. As suspended cymbals became more common, stands were devised to support them from below. However, even towards the middle of the twentieth century, there was no provision for tilting the cymbal. Cymbals were supported in the same horizontal position as a cymbal suspended by its strap, by brackets affixed to drums, particularly to bass drums, and increasingly on stands. Such horizontal mounting required neither upper felt nor wingnut.
Increasing drum kit sizes and increasingly elaborate drum kit parts led to development of versatile modern stands, that allow cymbals to be secured and positioned in almost any position and at almost any angle.
Straight stands.
The simplest free-standing cymbal stands consist of a metal tripod with two or three concentric tubes allowing height adjustment, and a "button" at the top to allow angle adjustment. Above the button, a "mounting bolt" goes through the cymbal.
Below the cymbal, the mounting bolt passes through first a "dome washer" and then a "bottom felt", which support the cymbal. The bolt then passes through the cymbal. The part of the mounting bolt that passes through the cymbal is separated from the cymbal by a sleeve, most commonly of plastic, which protects the metal cymbal from contact with the metal bolt. Omission of this sleeve by beginners is common, and leads to keyhole damage to the cymbal mounting hole, and often also to cracking around the hole.
Instead of a metal dome washer and separate plastic sleeve, some stands use a plastic bottom washer, either domed or flat, combined with the sleeve as a single piece.
Above the cymbal is a "top felt", above which may be a flat washer but this is sometimes omitted to allow looser mounting of the cymbal, and last a wingnut or cymbal nut.
When threaded mounting bolts and wingnuts were first introduced, the standard mounting bolt thread was 1/4" BSW, similar to a light camera case screw, but 6M and 8M metric threads are also now common. At first simple metal wingnuts were used, but specialised cymbal nuts were soon introduced.
Modern cymbal nuts come in two main varieties, the older being a metal wingnut with an extended metal thread, the more recent being a plastic wingnut in which the thread extension also serves as the mounting bolt sleeve. These plastic wingnuts are most commonly added as an aftermarket accessory, but are not compatible with a combined lower washer and sleeve.
There are many commercially available variations on this basic pattern, involving for example springs for looser suspension, hemispherical rubber washers for tighter suspension, or quick-release mechanisms in place of the nut. Some drummers replace the dome washer with a wooden washer or even a spherical or hemispherical wooden bead, with or without a bottom felt, to increase the sustain of the cymbal. The top felt may even be omitted for heavier cymbals mounted close to horizontal, also to increase sustain.
Straight stands were popular before the advent of boom stands, and remain popular where space is limited or for supporting heavier cymbals. A five-piece kit sold complete with hardware will typically come with one straight and one boom stand.
Boom stands.
A boom stand adds a second angle adjustment to the straight stand, allowing more flexibility in positioning of the cymbal.
Counterweighted boom stands.
Addition of a counterweight to the boom allows use of longer booms and/or heavier cymbals.
Zero-offset boom stands.
Zero-offset boom stands use a slightly more complex mechanism that allows the boom to telescope into the stand body when positioned vertically. Such stands can function as either a straight or boom stand, but cannot be fitted with a counterweight.
Multiple boom stands.
Some stands are designed to support more than one cymbal by use of multiple booms. Such stands often use the same 20mm tube standardised by Pearl for tom-tom mounts and common on drum racks.
Alternative cymbal mounting techniques.
Other common ways of supporting a cymbal include:
See also.
General:
For more details and photographs of other cymbal mounting methods:


Bow (music)

In music, a bow is a tensioned stick which has hair (usually horse-tail hair) coated in rosin (to facilitate friction) affixed to it. It is moved across some part of a musical instrument to cause vibration, which the instrument emits as sound. The vast majority of bows are used with string instruments, such as the violin, although some bows are used with musical saws and other bowed idiophones.
Materials and manufacture.
A bow consists of a specially shaped stick with other material forming a ribbon stretched between its ends, which is used to stroke the string and create sound. Different musical cultures have adopted various designs for the bow. For instance, in some bows a single cord is stretched between the ends of the stick. In the Western tradition of bow making—bows for the instruments of the violin and viol families—a hank of horsehair is normally employed.
The manufacture of bows is considered a demanding craft, and well-made bows command high prices. Part of the bow maker's skill is the ability to choose high quality material for the stick. Historically, Western bows have been made of pernambuco wood from Brazil. However, pernambuco is now an endangered species whose export is regulated by international treaty, so makers are currently adopting other materials: woods such as Ipê (Tabebuia) and synthetic materials, such as carbon fiber epoxy composite and fiberglass. Carbon fiber bows have become very popular, and some of the better carbon fiber bows are now comparable to fine pernambuco sticks.
For the frog, which holds and adjusts the near end of the horsehair, ebony is most often used, but other materials, often decorative, were used as well, such as ivory and tortoiseshell. Materials such as mother of pearl or abalone shell are often used on the slide that covers the mortise, as well as in round decorative "eyes" inlaid on the side surfaces. Sometimes "Parisian eyes" are used, with the circle of shell surrounded by a metal ring. The metal parts of the frog, or mountings, may be used by the maker to mark various grades of bow, ordinary bows being mounted with nickel silver, better bows with silver, and the finest being gold-mounted. (Not all makers adhere uniformly to this practice.) Near the frog is the "grip", which is made of a wire, silk, or "whalebone" wrap and a thumb cushion made of leather or snakeskin. The tip plate of the bow may be made of bone, ivory, mammoth ivory, or metal, such as silver.
A bow maker or "" typically uses between 150 and 200 hairs from the tail of a horse for a violin bow. Bows for other members of the violin family typically have a wider ribbon, using more hairs. There is a widely held belief among string players, neither proven nor disproven scientifically, that white hair produces a "smoother" sound and black hair (used mainly for double bass bows) is coarser and thus produces a "rougher" sound. Lower quality (inexpensive) bows often use nylon or synthetic hair, and some use bleached horse hair to give the appearance of higher quality. Rosin, or colophony, a hard, sticky substance made from resin (sometimes mixed with wax), is regularly applied to the bow hair to increase friction.
In making a wooden bow, the greater part of the woodworking is done on a straight stick. According to James McKean, "the bow maker graduates the stick in precise gradations so that it is evenly flexible throughout". These gradations were originally calculated by François Tourte, discussed below. To shape the curve or "camber" of the bow stick, the maker carefully heats the stick in an alcohol flame, a few inches at a time, bending the heated stick gradually—using a metal or wooden template to get the model's exact curve and shape.
The art of making wooden bows has changed little since the 19th century. Most modern composite sticks roughly resemble the Tourte design. Various inventors have explored new ways of bow-making. The Incredibow, for example, has a straight stick cambered only by the fixed tension of the synthetic hair.
Types.
Slightly different bows, varying in weight and length, are used for the violin, viola, cello, and double bass.
These are generally variations on the same basic design. However, bassists use two distinct forms of the double bass bow. The "French" overhand bow is constructed like the bow used with other bowed orchestral instruments, and the bassist holds the stick from opposite the frog. The "German" underhand bow is broader and longer than the French bow, with a larger frog curved to fit the palm of the hand. The bassist holds the German stick with the hand loosely encompassing the frog. The German bow is the older of the two designs, having superseded the earlier arched bow. The French bow became popular with its adoption in the 19th century by virtuoso Giovanni Bottesini. Both are found in the orchestra, though typically an individual bass player prefers to perform using one or the other type of bow.
Bowing.
The characteristic long, sustained, and singing sound produced by the violin, viola, violoncello, and double bass is due to the drawing of the bow against their strings. This sustaining of musical sound with a bow is comparable to a singer using breath to sustain sounds and sing long, smooth, or "legato" melodies.
In modern practice, the bow is almost always held in the right hand while the left is used for fingering. When the player pulls the bow across the strings (such that the frog moves away from the instrument), it is called a "down-bow"; pushing the bow so the frog moves toward the instrument is an "up-bow" (the directions "down" and "up" are literally descriptive for violins and violas and are employed in analogous fashion for the cello and double bass). Two consecutive notes played in the same bow direction are referred to as a hooked bow; a down-bow following a whole down-bow is called a retake.
Generally, the player uses down-bow for strong musical beats and up-bow for weak beats. However, this is reversed in the viola da gamba—players of violin family instruments look like they are "pulling" on the strong beats, where gamba players look like they are "stabbing" on the strong beats. The difference may result from the different ways player hold the bow in these instrument families: violin/viola/cello players hold the wood part of the bow closer to the palm, whereas gamba players use the opposite orientation, with the horsehair closer. The orientation appropriate to each instrument family permits the stronger wrist muscles (flexors) to reinforce the strong beat.
String players control their tone quality by touching the bow to the strings at varying distances from the bridge, emphasizing the higher harmonics by playing sul ponticello ("on the bridge"), or reducing them, and so emphasizing the fundamental frequency, by playing sul tasto ("on the fingerboard").
Occasionally, composers ask the player to use the bow by touching the strings with the wood rather than the hair; this is known by the Italian phrase "col legno" ("with the wood"). "Coll'arco" ("with the bow") is the indication to use the bow hair to create the sound in the normal way.
History.
Origin.
The question of when and where the bow was invented is of interest because the technique of using it to produce sound on a stringed instrument has led to many important historical and regional developments in music, as well as the variety of instruments used.
Pictorial and sculptural evidence from early Egyptian, Indian, Hellenic, and Anatolian civilizations indicate that plucked stringed instruments existed long before the technique of bowing developed. In spite of the ancient origins of the bow and arrow, it would appear that bowed string instruments only developed during a comparatively recent period.
Eric Halfpenny, writing in the 1988 "Encyclopædia Britannica", says, "bowing can be traced as far back as the Islamic civilization of the 10th century ... it seems likely that the principle of bowing originated among the nomadic horse riding cultures of Central Asia, whence it spread quickly through Islam and the East, so that by 1000 it had almost simultaneously reached China, Java, North Africa, the Near East and Balkans, and Europe." Halfpenny notes that in many Eurasian languages the word for "bridge" etymologically means "horse," and that the Chinese regarded their own bowed instruments "(huqin)" as having originated with the "barbarians" of Central Asia.
The Central Asian theory is endorsed by Werner Bachmann, writing in "The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians". Bachmann notes evidence from a 10th-century Central Asian wall painting for bowed instruments in what is now the city of Kurbanshaid in Tajikistan. (see Persian Rubab)
Circumstantial evidence also supports the Central Asian theory. All the elements that were necessary for the invention of the bow were probably present among the Central Asian horse riding peoples at the same time:
(From this information it can be imagined the invention of the bow originates from a Mongol warrior, having just used rosin on his equipment, idly stroking his harp or lyre with a rosin-dusted finger, producing a brief continuous sound, thus inspiring them to restring their bow with horsehair, leading to the earliest example of the bow)
However the bow was invented, it spread quickly and widely. The Central Asian horse peoples occupied a territory that included the Silk Road, along which merchants and travelers transported goods and innovations rapidly for thousands of miles (including, via India, by sea to Java). This would account for the near-simultaneous appearance of the musical bow in the many locations cited by Halfpenny.
Arabic "rabāb".
The Arabic rabāb is a type of a bowed string instrument so named no later than the 8th century and spread via Islamic trading routes over much of North Africa, the Middle East, parts of Europe, and the Far East. It is the earliest known bowed instrument, and the ancestor of all European bowed instruments, including the rebec, lyra and violin.
Modern Western bow.
The kind of bow in use today was brought into its modern form largely by the bow maker François Tourte in 19th-century France. Pernambuco wood, which was imported into France to make textile dye, was found by the early French bow masters to have just the right combination of strength, resiliency, weight, and beauty. According to James McKean, Tourte's bows, "like the instruments of Stradivari, are still considered to be without equal."
Historical bows.
The early 18th-century bow referred to as the Corelli-Tartini model is also referred to as the Italian 'sonata' bow. This basic Baroque bow supplanted by 1725 an earlier French dance bow that was short with a little point. The French dance bow was held with the thumb under the hair and played with short, quick strokes for rhythmic dance music. The Italian sonata bow was longer, from 24 to 28 inches (61–71 cm.), with a straight or slightly convex stick. The head is described as a pike's head, and the frog is either fixed (the clip-in bow) or has a screw mechanism. The screw is an early improvement, indicative of further changes to come. As compared to a modern Tourte-style bow, the Corelli-Tartini model is shorter and lighter, especially at the tip, the balance point is lower down on the stick, the hair more yielding, and the ribbon of hair narrower—about 6 mm wide.
In the early bow (the Baroque bow), the natural bow stroke is a non-legato norm, producing what Leopold Mozart called a "small softness" at the beginning and end of each stroke.
A lighter, clearer sound is produced, and quick notes are cleanly articulated without the hair leaving the string.
A truly great example of such a bow, described by David Boyden, is part of the Ansley Salz Collection at the University of California at Berkeley. It was made around 1700, and is attributed to Stradivari.
Towards the middle of the century (18th century), there was a move into the Transitional period, the separation of hair from stick became greater, particularly at the head. This greater separation is necessary because the stick becomes longer and straighter, approaching a concave shape.
Up until the advent of the bow by Tourte, there was absolutely no standardization of bow features during this Transitional period, and every bow was different in weight, length and balance.
In particular, the heads varied enormously by any given maker.
Another transitional type of bow may be called the Cramer bow, after the violinist Wilhelm Cramer (1746–99) who lived the early part of his life in Mannheim (Germany) and, after 1772, in London. This bow and models comparable to it in Paris, generally prevailed between the gradual demise of the Corelli-Tartini model and the birth of the Tourte—that is, roughly 1750 until 1785.
In the view of top experts, the Cramer bow represents a decisive step towards the modern bow.
The Cramer bow and others like it were gradually rendered obsolete by the advent of François Tourte's standardized bow. The hair (on the Cramer bow) is wider than the Corelli model but still narrower than a Tourte, the screw mechanism becomes standard, and more sticks are made from pernambuco, rather than the earlier snakewood, ironwood, and china wood, which were often fluted for a portion of the length of the stick.
Fine makers of these Transitional models were Duchaîne, La Fleur, Meauchand, Tourte "père", and Edward Dodd.
The underlying reasons for the change from the old Corelli-Tartini model to the Cramer and, finally, to the Tourte were naturally related to musical demands on the part of composers and violinists.
Undoubtedly the emphasis on cantabile, especially the long drawn out and evenly sustained phrase, required a generally longer bow and also a somewhat wider ribbon of hair. These new bows were ideal to fill the new, very large concert halls with sound and worked great with the late classical and the new romantic repertoire.
Today, with the rise of the historically informed performance movement, string players have developed a revived interest in the lighter, pre-Tourte bow, as more suitable for playing stringed instruments made in pre-19th-century style.
Stradivarius bows.
A Stradivari bow, The King Charles IV Violin Bow attributed to the Stradivari Workshop, is currently in the collection of the National Music Museum Object number: 04882, at the University of South Dakota in Vermillion, South Dakota. The Rawlins Gallery violin bow, NMM 4882, is attributed to the workshop of Antonio Stradivari, Cremona, 1700.
This bow is one of two bows (the other in a private collection in London) attributed to the workshop of Antonio Stradivari.
Other types of bow.
The Chinese yazheng and "yaqin", and Korean ajaeng zithers are generally played by "bowing" with a rosined stick, which creates friction against the strings without any horsehair. The hurdy-gurdy's strings are similarly set into vibration by means of a "rosin wheel," a wooden wheel that contacts the strings as it is rotated by means of a crank handle, creating a "bowed" tone.
Maintenance.
Careful owners always loosen the hair on a bow before putting it away. James McKean recommends that the owner "loosen the hair completely, then bring it back just a single turn of the button." The goal is to "keep the hair even but allow the bow to relax." Over-tightening the bow, however, can also be damaging to the stick and cause it to break.
Since hairs may break in service, bows must be periodically rehaired, an operation usually performed by professional bow makers rather than by the instrument owner.
Bows sometimes lose their correct camber (see above), and are recambered using the same heating method as is used in the original manufacture.
Lastly, the grip or winding of the bow must occasionally be replaced to maintain a good grip and protect the wood.
These repairs are usually left to professionals, as the head of the bow is extremely fragile, and a poor rehair, or a broken ivory plate on the tip, can lead to ruining the bow.
Nomenclature.
In vernacular speech, the bow is occasionally called a "fiddlestick". Bows for particular instruments are often designated as such: "violin bow", "cello bow", and so on.
References.
Sources
Notes