Battle of Evesham

The Battle of Evesham (4 August 1265) was one of the two main battles of 13th century England's Second Barons' War. It marked the defeat of Simon de Montfort, Earl of Leicester, and the rebellious barons by the future King Edward I, who led the forces of his father, King Henry III. It took place on 4 August 1265, near the town of Evesham, Worcestershire.
With the Battle of Lewes, de Montfort had won control of royal government, but after the defection of several close allies and the escape from captivity of Prince Edward, he found himself on the defensive. Forced to engage the royalists at Evesham, he faced an army twice the size of his own. The battle soon turned into a massacre; de Montfort himself was killed and his body mutilated. It was described by the contemporary historian Robert of Gloucester as the "murder of Evesham, for battle it was none". Though the battle effectively restored royal authority, scattered resistance remained until the Dictum of Kenilworth was signed in 1267.
Background.
Simon de Montfort, 6th Earl of Leicester, had gained a dominant position in the government of the Kingdom of England after his victory at the Battle of Lewes a year earlier. He also held the King, Prince Edward, and the King's brother Richard of Cornwall in his custody. However, his sphere of influence began to shrink rapidly, owing to loss of key allies. In February, Robert de Ferrers, Earl of Derby was arrested and imprisoned in the Tower. An even more important collaborator, Gilbert de Clare, the Earl of Gloucester, deserted to the side of the King in May of the same year. With Gloucester's assistance, Prince Edward escaped from de Montfort's captivity.
With the Lords of the Welsh Marches now in rebellion, de Montfort solicited the aid of Llywelyn ap Gruffudd, the Prince of Wales. Llywelyn agreed to help, in return for full recognition of his title and the promise that he could keep all military gains. Whatever benefits this alliance might have brought de Montfort, the large concessions cost him popularity at home. Meanwhile, Edward laid siege to the town of Gloucester, which fell on 29 June. De Montfort's goal now became to unite with the forces of his son Simon the Younger, and engage with the royal army, but the younger Simon moved much too slowly westwards from London. Eventually de Montfort reached the baronial stronghold of Kenilworth, but Edward managed to inflict great losses on his forces, many of whom were quartered outside the castle walls. From there the prince moved south, where on 4 August, using many banners captured at Kenilworth to deceive de Montfort into thinking his reinforcements were arriving, he managed to trap the older de Montfort in a loop of the Avon, blocking off the only bridge and thereby forcing de Montfort to fight without his son's reinforcements. When de Montfort realised this, he allegedly commented: "How skilfully they are advancing. Our bodies are theirs, our souls are God's."
Battle.
Heeding a lesson learned at the Battle of Lewes, the royals took position on the high ground. Along a ridge called Green Hill, just north of Evesham, Edward set up his forces on the left, with Gloucester commanding the right. At about eight in the morning, de Montfort left the town of Evesham as a great thunderstorm began to rage. At Lewes, the baronial forces had gained confidence to win the day by a sense of divine destiny, reinforced by white crosses on their uniforms. This time the royal army had taken their lead, and wore a red cross as their distinguishing mark. According to the chronicler William Rishanger, when de Montfort saw the advance of the royal troops, he exclaimed that "They have not learned that for themselves, but were taught it by me."
The respective forces of the baronial and royal armies have been estimated to be 5,000 and 10,000 strong. De Montfort, facing such unfavourable numbers, decided to concentrate his forces on the centre of the enemy's front, hoping to drive a wedge through the line. Though the tactics were initially successful, the baronial forces soon lost the initiative, especially as the Welsh infantry provided by Llywelyn ap Gruffudd had proved unreliable, and deserted at an early point. The flanks of the royal army closed in on de Montfort's, surrounding them. With de Montfort confronted by a force twice the size of his own, on unfavourable ground, the battle rapidly turned into a massacre.
With their defeat at Lewes still fresh in memory, the royalists fought with a strong sense of bitterness and resentment. As a result, and despite attempts to surrender, most of the baronial rebels were killed on the battlefield rather than taken prisoner and ransomed, as was the common custom and practice. In what has been referred to as "an episode of noble bloodletting unprecedented since the Conquest", de Montfort's son Henry was killed first, then Simon himself lost his horse and died fighting. His body was mutilated; his head, hands, feet and testicles cut off. King Henry himself, who had been in the custody of de Montfort and dressed up in his colours, was barely rescued from the mêlée by Roger de Leybourne, a converted rebel.
Aftermath.
The royals were eager to settle scores after de Montfort's defeat. At the Parliament at Winchester in September the same year, all those who had taken part in the rebellion were disinherited. Yet even though the uprising of the younger Simon de Montfort in Lincolnshire was over by Christmas, scattered resistance remained. The main problem was the garrison encamped at the virtually impregnable Kenilworth Castle, and a siege started in the summer of 1266 seemed futile. By the end of October, the royals drew up the so-called Dictum of Kenilworth, whereby rebels were allowed to buy back their land at prices dependent on their level of involvement in the rebellion. The defenders of the castle turned down the offer at first, but by the end of the year conditions had become intolerable, and in 1267 the Dictum was agreed upon.
In regard to wide-scale confrontations, the Battle of Evesham and its aftermath proved decisive: it ended baronial opposition in the reign of Henry III. The kingdom now entered into a period of unity and progress that lasted into the early 1290s.


Battle of Munda Point

The Battle of Munda Point was a battle, from 22 July – 5 August 1943, between primarily United States Army and Imperial Japanese Army forces during the New Georgia Campaign in the Solomon Islands in the Pacific War. The battle took place following a landing by U.S. troops on the western coast of New Georgia from Rendova, as part of an effort to capture the Japanese airfield that had been constructed at Munda Point. This advance had become bogged down and while the Allies brought forward reinforcements and supplies, the Japanese had launched a counterattack on 17–18 July. This effort was ultimately unsuccessful and afterwards U.S. forces launched a corps-level assault to reinvigorate their effort to capture the airfield. Against this drive, Japanese defenders from three infantry regiments offered stubborn resistance, but were ultimately forced to withdraw, allowing U.S. forces to capture the airfield on 5 August. The airfield later played an important role in supporting the Allied campaign on Bougainville in late 1943.
Background.
Munda Point is on the western coast of mainland New Georgia. To its northwest lies Bangaa Island and to its south is Rendova, from which it is separated by the Blanche Channel and the Munda Bar. At the time of the battle, the location's significance was derived from the airfield that the Japanese had established there. In the wake of the Guadalcanal campaign, concluded in early 1943, the Allies formulated plans to advance through the Central Solomons towards Bougainville, in conjunction with further operations in New Guinea, as part of the effort to reduce the main Japanese base around Rabaul under the guise of Operation Cartwheel. Capture of the airfield at Munda would facilitate further assaults on Vila, on Kolombangara, and Bougainville. For the Japanese, New Georgia formed a key part in their defenses along the southern approaches to Rabaul and they sought to defend the area strongly, moving reinforcements by barge along the Shortlands–Vila–Munda supply line.
Rendova was secured in short order by U.S. forces who landed there on 30 June as part of the preliminary phase of the Allied operation to secure New Georgia. On 2 July 1943, Major General John H. Hester's 43rd Infantry Division crossed the Blanche Channel from Rendova. A few days later they began a westward advance towards the Japanese-held airfield at Munda Point. Over the course of two weeks, these forces undertook a slow advance along the coast towards the airfield. Held up by the dense jungle, difficult terrain and strong Japanese defenses, the U.S. troops became disorganized and the advance stalled after reaching the Japanese main line of resistance on 15 July.
The inexperienced U.S. troops, hungry and tired, began to lose their fire discipline and forward momentum. There were also a high number of severe cases of combat stress reaction among U.S. troops during this time. Historian Samuel Eliot Morison described the situation:
In order to renew the offensive, Major General Oscar W. Griswold, commander XIV Corps, was sent to New Georgia to assess the situation. He reported back to Admiral William Halsey on Noumea that the situation was dire and requested reinforcements in the form of at least another division to break the stalemate. Griswold took over command of the troops in the field on 15 July and began preparations for a corps-level offensive. The movement of reinforcements and supplies from Guadalcanal and the Russell Islands took time, and Sasaki took advantage of the disorder on the American side, launching a counterattack on 17/18 July.
Japanese preparations for the counterattack had begun with the movement of reinforcements from the 13th Infantry Regiment from Kolombangara and Bairoko. On 14 July, six companies began their approach march, but were held up for three days by difficult terrain before reaching their assembly area. On 17 July, the Japanese troops launched an attack against the U.S. rear areas, raiding the 43rd Infantry Division's command post, kitchen areas and medical aid stations. Elements of the attacking force managed to penetrate as far as the original U.S. beachhead around Zanana, but were repulsed by artillery and counter penetration forces. Meanwhile, the Japanese 229th Infantry Regiment attacked the high ground held by the U.S. 103rd and 169th Infantry Regiments, where they came up against stiff defense. Eventually, the Japanese counterattack petered out on 18 July.
Battle.
The U.S. commander, Griswold, issued orders for an offensive aimed at capturing Munda airfield on 22 July. On 23 July, the U.S. 43rd Infantry Division was reinforced by the 37th and 25th Infantry Divisions. These divisions were commanded by Major Generals Robert S. Beightler and J. Lawton Collins. The following day, the U.S. preparations for the offensive were completed. The 37th was deployed inland with three regiments, the 145th,161st and 148th, positioned along the front from south to north. On their left, along the coast, the 43rd Infantry Division pushed two regiments forward, the 103rd and 172nd, and held the 169th back in reserve. In total, U.S. forces assigned to the effort to capture Munda numbered around 30,000 men. Seven infantry regiments were ultimately committed from three different divisions.
Meanwhile, the Japanese commander, Major General Minoru Sasaki, disposed three battalions of Colonel Genjiro Hirata's 229th Infantry Regiment, reinforced by a single company from Colonel Wakichi Hisashige's 230th Infantry Regiment, which occupied a position around Kokengola Hill. The 13th Infantry Regiment was initially withdrawn northeast of Munda, but would be committed against the U.S. right flank, with initial Japanese plans conceiving a renewed counterattack on 25 July from this flank, although this did not come to fruition as the Allies launched their effort before the Japanese could execute their own. Japanese indirect fire support consisted of a number of units, including antiaircraft and antitank units. The Japanese committed around 8,000 troops. These troops formed Sasaki's Southeastern Detachment and were drawn from the 6th and 38th Infantry Divisions, the 10th Mountain Artillery Regiment and the 15th Field Antiaircraft Regiment.
Across a frontage of around the Japanese defenders had established a series of defenses along a northwesterly axis from the beach at Ilangana. These defenses consisted of strong pillboxes and fortifications amidst thick jungle. These dominated several high features including Shimizu Hil, Horsehoe Hill, Kelley Hill and Reincke Ridge. Situated to provide mutual support, the pillboxes were well constructed with coral and coconut logs. Dug-in several feet beneath the ground, they were well camouflaged and only a small part showed above ground with firing points for machine gunners and riflemen.
The U.S. attack began on 25 July, with the 37th Division attacking towards Bibilo Hill while the 43rd Division drove towards Lambeti Plantation and the airfield. The attack was heavily supported by naval gunfire and artillery support. This included 105 mm and 155 mm field pieces, while the destroyers fired their 5-inch deck guns. Allied aircraft also carried out airstrikes along the coast. While visually spectacular, and involving thousands of rounds, the preparatory fires did not initially result in a breakthrough for U.S. forces. The defending Japanese troops were able to reoccupy their pillboxes after the barrage. The U.S. Marine M3 Stuart tanks from the 9th Defense Battalion that were supporting the infantry found the ground too steep and eventually the U.S. attack stalled. No gains were made by the 37th Infantry Division while the 43rd Infantry Division gained only a small amount of ground. The Japanese had constructed many pillboxes along the front and on 26 July, the U.S. 103rd Infantry Regiment came up against 74 of these structures in a narrow front. Again, the U.S. troops utilized indirect fire to reduce these obstacles, while infantry attacked armed with flamethrowers, and operating closely alongside Marine tanks. In many cases, the Japanese reoccupied these pillboxes in the darkness; as a result, later the U.S. troops took to ripping the roofs off these structures.
Inland, the U.S. troops advanced towards Bilbao Hill. In the center of the frontline, the US infantrymen were supported by six tanks from the 10th Defense Battalion that had recently arrived from the Russell Islands, and attacked with flamethrowers, small arms and grenades. Two Marine tanks were destroyed in this fighting, while the others were forced to withdraw, and over the course of the next couple of days heavy fighting occurred. Even when pillboxes were overrun, invariably one defender remained to fight to the death.
On the extreme right flank, though, the advancing U.S. troops made steady gains over several days. Here, the advance pushed too far forward, outstripping their supply line and neighboring units, and on 28 July the Japanese 13th Infantry Regiment found a gap in the U.S. line between the 148th and 161st Infantry Regiments, and surrounded a U.S. supply dump. In response, two battalions of the U.S. divisional reserve (169th Infantry Regiment) were committed. Four U.S. rifle companies counterattacked the 200 Japanese troops around the supply dump, restoring the situation while incurring heavy casualties. Meanwhile, the offensive in the south continued towards Shimzu Hill, about from the outer limits of the airfield continued.
A change of command of the 43rd Infantry Division took place on 29 July, with Major General John R. Hodge taking over from Hester. On 30 July, the Japanese commander, Sasaki, ordered a withdrawal closer to the airfield. Shimzu Hill was taken by U.S. forces the following day. As the fighting continued, the Japanese medical and resupply systems broke down as the Sasaki's men were reduced to around half strength. On 1 August, elements from the 103rd Infantry Regiment reached the outskirts of the airfield, while the 27th Infantry Regiment, detached from the 25th Infantry Division, was pushed into the line to reinvigorate the final drive. Japanese troops defending the ridges along the Munda Trail hastily withdrew when pressed and by 2 August only limited opposition was provided, except around Bibilo and Kokoengolo Hills.
For the Japanese, the situation grew desperate. Communications with Rabaul had been severed and casualties had heavily reduced their fighting elements with many of the senior leaders among the dead or wounded. The advancing U.S. divisions converged around the eastern edges of the airfield on 3 August, and although Sasaki ordered an evacuation that day, Japanese defenders continued to offer resistance around the hills. Throughout 4 August, Japanese pillboxes and foxholes were reduced by U.S. troops attacking with indirect fire support weapons and machine guns. After encircling the airfield, US forces captured Bibilo Hill on 4 August. Fighting alongside Marine tanks and supported by mortars and 37 mm guns, U.S. infantrymen captured the airfield late on 5 August.
Aftermath.
After losing the battle for the airfield, Japanese forces began evacuating New Georgia and a large number of troops redeployed to defend nearby Kolombangara, while others were sent to Bangaa Islet, which was about west of Munda. Initially, Sasaki believed further troops would be sent south from Rabaul to support a counterattack in New Georgia; but by the end of the month the Japanese reverted to delaying tactics to enable a withdrawal from the Central Solomons. The Allies employed the airfield to cover landings on Vella Lavella, and in its campaign as part of Operation Cartwheel to isolate the major Japanese base at Rabaul, New Britain. Casualties during the fighting around Munda amounted to 4,994 U.S. troops killed or wounded from 2 July until the capture of the airfield. Against this, the Japanese lost 4,683 killed, with an unknown wounded over the same period.
Meanwhile, several Naval Construction Battalions, including the 24th and 73rd, began repairing the airfield and expanding its capacity. By mid-August, two U.S. Marine fighter squadrons were operating from the airfield in support of operations on Vella Lavella. Throughout this period, U.S. ground forces on New Georgia undertook mopping-up operations, advancing beyond Munda. This saw the 27th and 161st Infantry Regiments advance north towards Bairoko. The 27th cleared both Mount Tirokiambo and Mount Bao, while the 161st closed in on Bairoko, which was secured by 24/25 August. Meanwhile, the 169th and 172nd Infantry Regiments secured Bangaa Islet by 21 August and Arundel Island was captured by U.S. forces in early September.
During the Bougainville campaign, commencing in late 1943, over 100 Allied aircraft operated from Munda airfield. It was, according to author Mark Stille, the "most important airfield" used to support the Allied invasion. Three U.S. Army soldiers received the Medal of Honor for their actions during the fighting around Munda Point: First Lieutenant Robert S. Scott (172nd Infantry Regiment), Private First Class Frank J. Petrarca (145th Infantry Regiment, medic), and Private Rodger W. Young (148th Infantry Regiment).


League to Raise the Political Consciousness of Japanese Troops

The was a Japanese resistance organization founded during the Second Sino-Japanese War. It was founded in 1939 by Japanese soldiers taken prisoner by the Eighth Route Army. According to Japanese historian Saburo Ienaga, this was the first antiwar activity by prisoners in the Communist areas.


Majuro

Majuro (; Marshallese: "" ) is the capital and largest city of the Marshall Islands. It is also a large coral atoll of 64 islands in the Pacific Ocean. It forms a legislative district of the Ratak (Sunrise) Chain of the Marshall Islands. The atoll has a land area of and encloses a lagoon of . As with other atolls in the Marshall Islands, Majuro consists of narrow land masses. It has a tropical trade wind climate, with an average temperature of .
Majuro has been inhabited by humans for at least 2,000 years and was first settled by the Austronesian ancestors of the modern day Marshallese people. In 1885, the Marshall Islands were annexed by the German Empire and Majuro became their first and primary trading post. The city has also been under Japanese and American administration. After the Marshall Islands broke away from the Federated States of Micronesia in 1978 to form the Republic of the Marshall Islands, Majuro became the new country's capital and meeting place of the Nitijeļā, supplanting the former capital of Jaluit.
The main population center, Delap-Uliga-Djarrit (DUD), is made up of three contiguous motus and has a population of 20,301 people . Majuro has a port, shopping district, and various hotels. Majuro has an international airport with scheduled international flights to Hawaii, Federated States of Micronesia, Kiribati, Guam, and Nauru, and flights to domestic destinations around the country. Its economy is primarily service sector dominated.
Geography.
At the western end of the atoll, about from Delap-Uliga-Djarrit (DUD) by road, is the island community of Laura, an expanding residential area with a popular beach. Laura has the highest elevation point on the atoll, estimated at less than above sea level. Djarrit is mostly residential.
Climate.
Being slightly north of the Equator, Majuro has a tropical rainforest climate but not an equatorial climate because trade winds are prevailing throughout the year though they are frequently interrupted during the summer months by the movement of the Intertropical Convergence Zone across the area. Typhoons are rare. Temperatures are relatively consistent throughout the course of the year with average temperatures around . Very rarely does the temperature fall below . Majuro sees roughly of precipitation annually.
History.
Humans have inhabited the atoll for at least 2,000 years by Austronesian peoples, including the ancestors of modern-day Marshallese residents.
Majuro Atoll was claimed by the German Empire with the rest of the Marshall Islands in 1884, and the Germans established a trading post. As with the rest of the Marshalls, Majuro was captured by the Imperial Japanese Navy in 1914 during World War I and mandated to the Empire of Japan by the League of Nations in 1920. The island then became a part of the Japanese mandated territory of the South Seas Mandate; although the Japanese had established a government in the Mandate, local affairs were mostly left in the hands of traditional local leaders until the start of World War II.
On January 30, 1944, United States Armed Forces invaded, but found that Japanese forces had evacuated their fortifications to Kwajalein and Enewetak about a year earlier. A single Japanese warrant officer had been left as a caretaker. With his capture, the islands were secured. This gave the U.S. Navy use of one of the largest anchorages in the Central Pacific. The lagoon became a large forward naval base of operations and was the largest and most active port in the world until the war moved westward when it was supplanted by Ulithi (Yap, Federated States of Micronesia).
Following World War II, Majuro came under the control of the United States as part of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands. After the Marshall Islands broke away from the Federated States of Micronesia in 1978 to form the Republic of the Marshall Islands, Majuro became the new country's capital and meeting place of the Nitijeļā, the legislature of the Marshall Islands. It supplanted Jaluit Atoll as the administrative center of the Marshall Islands, a status that it retains after the independence of the Marshall Islands in 1986 under a Compact of Free Association.
Demographics.
The major population centers are the D–U–D communities: the islets of Delap–Uliga–Djarrit (listed from south to north, on the eastern edge of the atoll). , Majuro had a population of 27,797.
Religion.
Most of the population is Christian. The majority are Protestant and follow the United Church of Christ (47%), Assembly of God (16%) and others such as Bukot Nan Jesus (5%), Full Gospel (3%), Reformed Congressional Church (3%), the Salvation Army (2%), Seventh-Day Adventist (1%), and Meram in Jesus (1%). 8% of the population are Catholic, with the Cathedral of the Assumption of the Roman Catholic Apostolic Prefecture of the Marshall Islands located in Majuro.
Islamic influence has been increasing. There is a sizable number of Ahmadi Muslims. The first mosque opened in Majuro in September 2012.
There are also LDS churches, Baptist churches, and Jehovah's Witnesses.
Economy.
Majuro's economy is driven by the service sector, which composed 86% of the GDP in 2011.
On September 15, 2007, Witon Barry, of the Tobolar Copra processing plant in the Marshall Islands' capital of Majuro, said power authorities, private companies and entrepreneurs had been experimenting with coconut oil as an alternative to diesel fuel for vehicles, power generators, and ships. Coconut trees abound in the Pacific's tropical islands. Copra from 6 to 10 coconuts makes 1 litre of oil.
Air Marshall Islands has its headquarters in Majuro.
Education.
Colleges and universities.
The College of the Marshall Islands is located in Uliga. The University of South Pacific has a presence on Majuro.
Primary and secondary schools.
Marshall Islands Public School System operates public schools.
High schools:
Primary schools:
In the 1994–1995 school year Majuro had 10 private elementary schools and six private high schools.
There is a Seventh Day Adventist High School and Elementary School in Delap, where English is taught to all students.
Health.
The 81-bed Majuro Hospital is the main hospital for Majuro, as well as many of the outer islands. The country's only other major hospital is on Ebeye Island.
Infrastructure.
Water and sewage.
The Majuro Water and Sewer Company obtains water from a catchment basin on the International Airport runway. It supplies a year or per person per day. This compares with New York City's per person per day. Water is supplied 12 hours daily. The threat of drought is commonplace.
Transport.
Air.
Marshall Islands International Airport, offering domestic and international services, is on Majuro. It is served by four passenger airlines: United Airlines, Nauru Airlines, Air Marshall Islands, and Asia Pacific Airlines.
Air Marshall Islands flies to most of the Marshalls' inhabited atolls once a week. It offers daily service between Majuro and Kwajalein, except Thursdays and Sundays.
Sea.
Majuro Lagoon is an active port. It is one of the busiest tuna transshipment ports in the world, with 306,796 tons of tuna being moved from purse seine vessels to carrier vessels in 2018.
The Marshall Islands Shipping Corporation was established by the Marshall Islands via the Marshall Islands Shipping Corporation Act 2004. It manages several government ships that move people and freight around the islands. These ships include three older ships (Langidrik, Aemman, and Ribuuk Ae), as well as two newer ships (Majuro, Kwajalein) which were donated to the Republic of the Marshall Islands by Japan in 2013. They also operate a landing craft ("Jelejeletae"). These vessels are the main link for transporting people and supplies to and from the outer islands.
Additionally, the lagoon acts as a harbor for commercial fishing vessels, cruise ships, sport fishing boats, outrigger canoes and the occasional luxury yacht.
Sport.
Majuro was initially scheduled to host the seventh edition of the Micronesian Games, in 2010. It subsequently renounced its hosting rights, citing a lack of adequate infrastructure.
Weightlifter Mattie Langtor Sasser competed for the Marshall Islands in the 2016 Summer Olympics, participating in the Women's 58 kg category on August 8.
Twin towns.
Majuro is twinned with:


28th Operations Group

The 28th Operations Group is the flying component of the United States Air Force 28th Bomb Wing, stationed at Ellsworth Air Force Base, South Dakota.
The group controls two Rockwell B-1B Lancer bomb squadrons, and provides combat-ready aircrews to project global power anytime in support of the Combatant Commander's objectives.
The group carries the lineage and history of the World War II 28th Bombardment Group, which was one of the primary units assigned to Eleventh Air Force during the Aleutian Campaign. The group helped force the withdrawal of Japanese ships that attacked Dutch Harbor in June 1942, and flew missions against Kiska until the Japanese evacuated that island in August 1943.
In the postwar era, the 28th Bombardment Group was one of the first USAAF units assigned to the Strategic Air Command on 4 August 1946, prior to the establishment of the United States Air Force. The group being activated as a redesignation of the 449th Bombardment Group due to the Air Force's policy of retaining only low-numbered groups on active duty after the war.
The group was inactivated in 1952 when the parent wing adopted the Tri-Deputate organization and assigned all of the group's squadrons directly to the wing.
Reactivated as the 28th Operations Group in 1991 when the 28th Bomb Wing adopted the USAF Objective organization plan.
Units.
The 34th and the 37th Bomb Squadrons carry the legacy of the 1942 Doolittle Raiders. The raiders were drawn from the 95th, 34th, 37th Bombardment Squadrons and the 89th Reconnaissance Squadron of the 17th Bombardment Group.
History.
World War II.
Organized in February 1940 after outbreak of World War II in Europe. Moved to Alaska one year later, where it trained for Arctic warfare and served to defend the incorporated territory after Japan bombed the neutral United States in Oahu, Hawaii on 7 December 1941.
The group helped force the withdrawal of Japanese ships that attacked Dutch Harbor in June 1942, flew missions against occupied Kiska until the Japanese evacuated that island in August 1943, bombed and strafed enemy shipping, harbor facilities, canneries, fisheries, and military installations in the Kurils, and flew photographic reconnaissance missions. Earned a Distinguished Unit Citation for attacks on the Kurils that caused Japan to divert some of her air power to that northern area, weakening Japanese opposition to Allied forces to the south, April 1944 – August 1945. Flew its last World War II bombing mission on 13 August 1945, but continued reconnaissance operations in the Kurils into September 1945.
Inactivated in October 1945, but activated a few months later in Nebraska. Received B-29 Superfortresses and personnel from inactivated 449th Air Expeditionary Group. Reassigned to Elmendorf Field, Alaska for six months of post-war arctic operations in Alaska.
Cold War.
On 3 May 1947, the group and its subordinate units relocated to Rapid City Army Air Field (later Ellsworth AFB) and awaited the activation of the new headquarters to which they would soon be assigned: the 28th Bombardment Wing.
The 28th Bomb Wing was established on 28 July 1947 under the Hobson Plan, which was designed to streamline the peacetime forces after World War II. The wing existed only on paper until 15 August 1947 when SAC organized it under the 15th Air Force. Upon its activation, the wing included the 28 Bombardment Group (Heavy), 28th Airdrome Group (now Support Group), 28th Maintenance and Supply Group (Now Logistics Group), 28th Station Medical Group, and the 612th Army Air Forces Band.
On 12 July 1948, in its first of many name changes, SAC activated the organization as the 28th Bombardment Wing, Medium. Just one week later, the wing deployed the entire 28th Bombardment Group and its 77th, 717th, and 718th Bombardment Squadrons (BS) to England for a 90-day B-29 show-of-force mission during the Soviet blockade of Berlin. The wing flew the B-29 until 1950 and maintained proficiency in heavy global bombardment.
Shortly after additional runway improvements, in July 1949, the 28 BMW began conversion from B-29s to the RB-36 Peacemaker. In April 1950 the Air Staff reassigned the base from 15th Air Force to 8th Air Force. With the change in aircraft also came a modified mission: global strategic reconnaissance with bombardment as a secondary tasking. The wing's name changed again in April 1950, this time to the 28th Strategic Reconnaissance Wing, Heavy. Meanwhile, intermediate command assignments changed from the 15th to the 8th Air Force. In May 1951 the wing flew a record setting B-36 training mission lasting 41 hours without refueling. In June 1952, SAC inactivated the old 28th BG and assigned its squadrons directly under the 28 BW as part of the Tri-Deputate Organization. Seven B-36Bs were converted to RB-36D. Several RB-36D aircraft temporarily assigned to 91st Strategic Reconnaissance Squadron for duty during Korean War.
Reactivation.
Activated on 1 September 1991 as part of the Air Force's Objective Wing reorganization. Elements periodically deploy to Diego Garcia for Air Expeditionary duty since 11 September 2001.


Canadian Expeditionary Force artillery from Prince Edward Island

A number of militia artillery batteries were raised in Prince Edward Island from 1875. When the First World War broke out, three battery-sized units were raised and deployed from the Island as part of the Canadian Expeditionary Force.
Garrison Artillery in Prince Edward Island.
From 1763, with the close of the Seven Years' War, the British government began stationing its 'regular army troops', and foreign troops in service, on the Island. The first artillery units on the Island of Saint John were manned by a mix of Royal Regiment of (Garrison) Artillery British regulars, Island volunteers and the colonial militia until 1871. In 1871, as British troops departed Canada, an initial permanent active militia element of Canadian Artillery emerged, on 20 October 1871, with the formation of two batteries of garrison artillery in Kingston and Quebec City.
In 1875, having joined The Dominion, with most of the Island colonial units deactivated, and as the 'Canadian' militia reorganized; new PEI 'active militia' units were authorized. In Military District No.12 (PEI), two batteries of artillery were stood-up, the Charlottetown Battery of Garrison Artillery (OC Major J.B. Pollard) and the Georgetown Battery of Garrison Artillery (OC Captain C. Owen). Recognizing significant success in recruiting in the capital city, a second battery was authorized in Charlottetown, necessitating the first of may re-designations: No.1 Charlottetown Battery of Garrison Artillery (General Order No. 17 – 25 June 1875) and No.2 Charlottetown Battery of Garrison Artillery (OC Major Morris).
As reported by the 'District' Inspector of Artillery (Maritime Provinces) and by Lieutenant Colonel J.H. Gray, on the state of the militia in PEI, they acknowledged an existing fourth Island battery, the Summerside Battery of Garrison Artillery (authorized MGO G.O. 21 No.1 – 13 August 1875). The previously 'independent' city and county batteries were 'gathered together' in March 1882, when the 'Prince Edward Island Provisional Brigade of Garrison Artillery' was authorized. Initially composed with an establishment of three Batteries, No.1 and No.2 in Charlottetown and No.3 in Georgetown, the PEI Brigade soon added No.4 Battery in Souris (24 Jan 1884), and No.5 Battery in Montague (17 October 1884). The 'PEI Garrison Brigade' ended its early history of re-designations, in June 1912, when it was designated the 'Prince Edward Island Heavy Brigade, Canadian Garrison Artillery', composed of the 3rd Heavy Battery CGA and 4th Heavy Battery CGA, in Charlottetown. While the Georgetown, Souris and Montague 'Garrison Artillery Batteries' came together as the 37th (Souris) Battery, Canadian Field Artillery.
With the coming of the First World War, applying the lessons of South Africa, the 'Canadian Permanent Force' field gunners moved in adopting the British model of designating their batteries as either 'Horse Artillery' or 'Field Artillery'. The newly designated 'Royal Canadian Horse Artillery' equipped with the light Ordnance QF 13-pounder (quick-firing) field gun, assumed the 'all mounted, highly mobile' task. Many Non-Permanent Active Militia gunner units became designated as 'Canadian Field Artillery' taking-up the 'less mobile, limber riding' task, equipped with the heavier Ordnance QF 18-pounder, and others remained standing as a 'heavy gun - garrison battery' designated as 'Canadian Garrison Artillery' (not being allocated guns). As 'Canadian Garrison Artillery' was rearranged and divided into - Movable, Coast Defence, and Heavy or Siege Batteries / Companies, following arrangements in Britain, the Heavy or Siege Batteries were to become equipped with new howitzers. Designed and engineered to fire large calibre high explosive shells in high trajectory, (down) plunging fire, the howitzers designated for Siege Batteries were to be six-inch, eight-inch or 9.2-inch calibre.
No. 2 Canadian (Overseas) Siege Artillery Battery, CEF.
What was to become a PEI recruited Canadian Garrison Artillery Siege Battery, mobilized at Charlottetown, had an initially approved manning of 5 officers and 161 other ranks. 'Created' by Order-in-Council PC 2831, in November 1914, and authorized by Militia Headquarters (Ottawa), on 20 April 1915, No. 2 Heavy Battery Depot (Charlottetown), as it was first designated, was charged with recruiting replacements for No. 2 Heavy Battery (Halifax). "Most of the officers, and many of the men, who joined the battery, had served in the PEI Heavy Brigade ...", "... with a few from New Brunswick and Nova Scotia, Great Britain and the United States." The unit was first quartered in the Agricultural Building, in Charlottetown, being instructed in the workings of the 4.9-inch gun, and until late fall was then stationed in tents on the Armoury grounds, on Brighton Road, first commanded by Major A.G. Peake, who was to take it to England.
"By 1 September there were enough volunteers to begin training at Brighton Camp, 200 strong; the Battery was a cross-section of the Island's population ...", though just before leaving for overseas a draft of regulars from the Royal Garrison Artillery were attached to the unit. On 25 September 1915, it was authorized to recruit a battery ammunition party and base (support) details, which brought the strength of the unit to 218 all ranks, and on 29 September, the battery was re-designated as No. 2 Overseas Battery, Canadian Siege Artillery. After a grand farewell in Charlottetown, on 26 November, the battery moved out of Charlottetown, on the "SS Northumberland" to Pictou, NS and Halifax. It soon embarked on the "SS Lapland" sailing on 28 November, it arrived at Plymouth Sound, on 5 December, then with an increased strength of 6 officers and 273 other ranks.
It proceeded immediately to Raffey Camp, at Horsham Siege Artillery School, in West Sussex, and was in training there, for four months, until 12 April 1916, when it moved to a second RGA School and Ranges in Lydd, Kent, for firing and ranging practices. Still under training, and not yet assigned to a Canadian formation, to conform to the system of numbering British heavy RGA batteries, the battery was re-designated as No. 98 (Canadian) Siege Battery, Canadian Siege Brigade, from 29 February 1916.
Prior to proceeding to France, Major W.B. Prowse was selected and appointed Officer Commanding, later Major S.T. Layton and then Major H.R.N. Corbett, as the Officers Commanding, succeeding him. On 18 May, it moved to Stockcross, in Berkshire, where it sourced four of the newly produced BL 6-inch 26 cwt howitzer. On 31 May, the battery crossed the Channel from Southampton on board the S.S. "KING EDWARD", disembarking at Le Havre. Landing in France on 1 June 1916, it was the first unit of Canadian (garrison) siege artillery to cross the Channel.
The battery moved forward, and as part of the 2nd Brigade, CGA, quickly coming into service, organized with a Right and Left Section, at Sailly-au-Bois, firing its first rounds on 16 June 1916. Operating outside of the Canadian Corps, reflecting the nature in the employment of for much of the Dominion garrison artillery, first at Verdun, as successive BEF Corps' were engaged or moved, the battery remained actively engaged: from 5 June to 4 July 1916, it was detailed to VII Corps(UK) Heavy Artillery; from 4 July to 3 September 1916, during the battles of Albert and Bazentin Ridge, it was detailed to XV Corps (UK) Heavy Artillery; as from 4 September to 11 December 1916, it was detailed to a third Corps (UK) Heavy Artillery Group.
"Before the Somme Offensive ended in the fall of 1916, (where it had been continuously engaged), the battery would lose five killed and ten wounded, and before the War was over it would bury over 30 men". The 2nd Siege Battery, then designated the 98th Canadian, served continuously behind the UK 4th Army's front, serving in the BEF, from their entry into operations until December 1916, when ordered to dig their guns out of the mud and move northward.
In January 1917, the battery becoming part of the Canadian Corps Heavy Artillery, it was renamed No. 2 Canadian Siege Battery, Canadian Garrison Artillery, on 29 January 1917. The battery was engaged in the Battle of Vimy Ridge as part of Counter-Battery (Fire) Group No.3, 2nd Canadian Heavy Artillery Group, before soon being moved to 57th Heavy Artillery Group. At Vimy Ridge, the Canadian Corps Heavy Artillery consisted of eighteen heavy, twenty-six medium, nine 60-pounder, and two BL 6-inch Mk VII naval gun batteries, formed into eight siege and three counter-battery fire groups. Following the action on Vimy Ridge, the battery was again significantly engaged in the Canadian Corps action in the taking of Hill 70, just east of Loos and north of Lens, again as part of a reconstituted 2nd Canadian Heavy Group, in August 1917.
Having been detailed to the Canadian Corps Heavy Artillery, at Angres on 12 December 1916, it remained with the Canadian Corps until a move from 11 October 1917. Reassigned to the BEF, firing at Levin, from 12 to 20 October 1917, it was detailed to V Corps (UK) Heavy Artillery; and then a Ypres, from 21 October to 19 November 1917, it was detailed to first the 48th and then the 68th Group Canadian Corps Heavy Artillery; and again with the BEF, from 20 November to 10 December 1917, it was detailed to VIII Corps (UK) Heavy Artillery, having remained in Ypres.
Ever flexible, it rejoined the Canadian Corps on 16 December 1917, first engaged at Artois, the battery continued with the Canadian Heavy Artillery until the termination of the war, initially assigned to the 1st Canadian Heavy Artillery Group and, then on 22 December, it joined 2nd Canadian Heavy Brigade. In January 1918, two additional howitzers were received, bringing the battery's establishment to six BL 6-inch howitzers. Not directly engaged, positioned on the north flank of the battle, in responding to the 1918 German spring offensive in West Flanders, the battery was in action in the Hundred Days Offensive starting in August, moving frequently, through the Hindenburg Line, and advancing north during the Battle of Cambrai (1918) into October. No. 2 Canadian (Overseas) Siege Battery, 2nd Heavy Brigade, was in readiness ten miles west of Mons, in Thuin, when the Armistice was declared, with a strength of 7 officers and 189 other ranks.
It moved into Germany, ready for engagement, during the initial stage of the Occupation of the Rhineland, crossing the German frontier on 9 December. On 12 December, it went into position on the west bank of the Rhine at Cologne protecting the crossing of the 1st Canadian Division, over the new south bridge on 13 December 1918, under command of Major L.C. Ord. The battery left the continent from France on 30 March 1919, via Le Havre and into the UK at Weymouth.
It remained based at Witley Camp, until it sailed from Southampton on board the "RMS Mauretania (1906)" on 3 May 1919. It arrived at Halifax, NS, on 9 May and was demobilized at Charlottetown (and Kingston, ON) in May 1919, now under Major J.P. Hooper MC, as Officer Commanding. As all CEF active service units were administered on paper, as No.2 Heavy Battery Depot, it was disbanded on 1 November 1920. No. 2 Canadian (Overseas) Siege Artillery Battery, CEF is perpetuated by The Prince Edward Island Regiment (RCAC).
The Officer Commanding: Major W.B. Prowse, DSO
Waldron (Waldrum) Brewer Prowse was born on 14 June 1873 at Brackley Point Road, in Lot 33, on Prince Edward Island. He lived with his family in Charlottetown Royalty, as a youth, an accomplished athlete, he later worked in his brothers' company, Prowse Brothers Ltd, as a merchant, until going overseas.
Listed as Captain in the then 4th PEI Regiment (Heavy Brigade), while training in England and immediately prior to crossing to France, with No. 2 Siege Battery, on promotion, he was appointed its Officer Commanding. Detailed to the Somme, commanding his unit in action, for an extended period of engaged and continuous action, without relief, his service was recognized in the award of the Distinguished Service Order.
Giving up command, on 15 December 1917, Major Prowse returned to England, attended the ten-week 'Battalion Commanders Course' at the 'Senior Officers' School' at Aldershot and returned to France, being promoted to Lieutenant-Colonel. On 25 February 1918, he was appointed Officer Commanding 1st Brigade, Canadian Garrison Artillery, responsible for coordinating the actions of now four siege batteries, a command he retained until demobilization on 23 February 1919.
While in command, three times additionally Mentioned in Dispatches, the war cost Lt-Colonel Prowse his health, for not since returning to PEI, was he entirely well. In addition to business interests with his brother, he became successful in fox farming, and was an early automobile dealer in Charlottetown. At 63, on 15 January 1937, he passed away in Charlottetown, PEI.
No. 8 Canadian (Overseas) Siege Artillery Battery, CEF.
On 1 March 1916, instructions were issued from Militia Headquarters at Ottawa authorizing the organization of a "Depot" Battery, Siege Artillery, to be mobilized in Charlottetown, PEI. With an establishment of six officers, one warrant officer and 152 other ranks, quartering in the Connolly Building, on Queen Street, it was to recruit 'drafts' of reinforcement for PEI's No. 2 Overseas Battery Siege Artillery, which was then overseas. The unit was re-designated No. 5 Overseas Battery (Canadian) Siege Artillery, by authority of Militia HQ Ottawa, dated 12 April 1916, and on 15 July 1916, and it was placed on active service, now first commanded by Major A.G. Peake, who had returned from England.
It moved out of Charlottetown at full strength on 25 September 1916, embarked on board S.S. "SOUTHLAND" (SS Vaderland (1900)), and sailed from Halifax on 27 September. It arrived at Liverpool in England on 6 October 1916, and disembarked the next day, with a strength of 6 officers, 132 other ranks. On 15 October 1916, the War Office ordered a change of name to (No. 272) – 272nd (Canadian) Siege Battery, Royal Garrison Artillery when assigned to a Royal Artillery formation, as it continued in its training. On 29 January 1917, while at Lydd, in the renumbering of Canadian units, its final designation, No.8 Canadian Siege Battery, Canadian Garrison Artillery was authorized.
In England the Battery received its initial training at Witley Camp, and then followed a path through Ewshot Camp: Artillery School in Hampshire, in Aldershot at the RGA Siege Artillery School, at Lydd Training Camp: RGA Siege Artillery School and Ranges, and finally at Woolwich Common: RA Barracks. In February 1917, the unit was changed from a four to a six BL 8-inch howitzer Mk VI – VIII battery. Leaving from Woolwich Common, for Folkestone, on 31 March 1917, it crossed to Boulogne the following day. It first went into action near Festubert, in NE France, on 15 April with XI Corps (UK) Heavy Artillery, RGA, first seeing action during the Battle of Arras (1917) and subsequently engaged supporting designated BEF Corps' in the Second Battle of Flanders.
It remained with the BEF, in this sector and subsequently moved seeing action at Vielle Chapelle, then Fleurbaix and LePreol, and Armentieres, from June, until October 1917, suffering the noted loss of one gun on 20 August. The then designated 272nd Canadian Siege Battery, was in support of XI Corps (UK) from when it arrived in France until October 1917 and did not see action with the Canadian Corps at Vimy Ridge or Hill 70 but while with the BEF did see fifty counter-battery German bombardments. In one bombardment the Battery Commander, Major A.G. Peake was wounded on 16 June 1917, and Captain J.S. Bagnall assumed temporary command of the Battery. Captain R.A. Ring took over the Battery in July 1917, confirmed in the appointment on 25 August 1917, with the rank of Major.
Moving north into Flanders, having been designated to the Canadian Corps, it joined the 3rd Brigade Heavy Artillery, for the second stage and third stages of the Second Battle of Passchendaele, at Ypres, on 1 November 1917. On 18 January 1918, it moved into the Vimy-Lens front, and when the Canadian Corps moved back, for re-training, in May 1918, the battery remained in action under XVII (UK) Corps Heavy Artillery.
After a short period of rest at the end of June, it rejoined the Canadian Corps, taking over gun positions east of Arras, on 16 July 1918. It moved to the Amiens front, with the 3rd Canadian Division, coming engaged in the Battle of Amiens (1918), commencing on 8 August 1918, operating now with an establishment of 8 officers and 215 other ranks. It moved forward during the Hundred Days Offensive, taking up successive positions at Rosieres and Cagnicourt (Arras Front), supporting the Battle of Canal du Nord, and continued north for engagements during the Capture of Cambria, into October 1918. No.8 Canadian (Overseas) Siege Battery, 3rd Brigade Canadian Garrison Artillery and was at Hérin near Valenciennes, France, on 11 November when the Armistice was declared. The march from west of Mons into Germany took twenty-five days, leading Canadians crossed into Germany on 4 December, BEF and CEF command deciding the Rhine would be crossed on 13 December.
The Canadian Garrison Corps Heavy Artillery was assigned the task of supporting two CEF Divisions into Germany, and the 8th Siege Battery crossed into Germany for the initial stages of the Occupation of the Rhineland, on 9 December, taking up a position on the left bank of the Rhine near the Hohenzollern Bridge, at Cologne. It was moved several times in Germany until the end of January 1919, beginning its trip home from Mehlen in Hesse. The Battery returned to England on 28 January 1919, and was based at the CEF run Witley Camp, in Surrey, where it was deactivated on 2 April 1919.
It returned to Canada on board the "RMS Mauretania (1906)" sailing from Southampton on 3 May, arriving at Halifax, NS, on the 9th. It was demobilized at Charlottetown, PEI (and Halifax), with Major R.A. Ring continuing in command until demobilization. In a paper exercise, as for all CEF active service units, it was disbanded on 1 November 1920.Accessed 13.10.2015</ref> No. 8 Canadian (Overseas) Siege Artillery Battery, CEF is perpetuated by The Prince Edward Island Regiment (RCAC).
The Officer Commanding: Major A.G. Peake
Arthur George Peake was born in Charlottetown on 25 August 1871, and after his schooling he worked in the family owned Peake Brothers and Company, until going overseas during World War 1. With twenty-six years of Charlottetown militia service, in the Canadian Garrison Artillery, at the age of 44, he volunteered for service with the newly stood-up No. 2 Heavy Battery Depot. Mobilizing in Charlottetown, later designated as No.2 Siege Battery, he was its first Officer Commanding, taking it to England.
Seeing the unit through all its training, in May 1916, just prior to crossing to France, he was required to give up command. Returning to Charlottetown, following-up the second Charlottetown organized "Depot" Battery, it being re-designated No. 5 Overseas Battery (Canadian) Siege Artillery, he was appointed its first Officer Commanding.
Again, leading his battery through training in England, on 1 April 1917, crossing to Boulogne, he first saw action in France, on 15 April. Engaged by German counter-battery fire, at Armentieres, on 16 June 1917, he was wounded, the first casualty in the Battery. After three months on active service, he gave up command, his wound requiring him to be evacuated.
Returning to Charlottetown, and when discharged, he engaged successfully in farming and fox ranching, until forced to retire through illness. Stricken with paralysis in 1938, he was confined to bed, for five years, following a stroke. In failing health, he passed away, at age 71, on 11 August 1943.
11th Canadian Field Artillery (Howitzer) Brigade Ammunition Column, CEF.
From the start of the War, as they were established, CEF Divisions had assigned a 'Divisional Artillery' of three Field Artillery Brigades and one (Field) Howitzer Brigade, each Brigade having four batteries and a 'Brigade Ammunition Column'. Mobilized for the CEF 3rd Canadian Divisional Artillery, 11th Field Artillery (Howitzer) Brigade, with its Headquarters Battery (Guelph, ON), its 29th (Guelph, ON), 35th (Montreal, QC), 36th (Sydney, NS), and 43rd (Guelph, ON) Batteries, sailed to Plymouth, from Saint John, New Brunswick, on 26 February 1916.
For assignment to 11th Field Artillery (Howitzer) Brigade, the 11th (Howitzer) Brigade Ammunition Column, as its organic unit, was organized, in December 1915. Under the command of Captain Daniel Albert MacKinnon (of Highfield, PEI), being mobilized in Halifax, NS, it drew 250 more applicants above its authorized establishment, with over 70 Islanders being accepted. Mainly recruited from PEI, through January and February 1916, after rapid training as howitzer gunners and artillerymen, having been quartered a South Barracks in Halifax, it was manned to an established strength of 3 officers and 107 other ranks. Despite being listed in the published Nominal Roll as having sailed from Halifax on the "S.S. MISSANABIE (1914)" on 26 February 1916, the Official 11th Brigade War Diary entry on this date states that its Ammunition Column did not arrive to board this ship as its soldiers were being quarantined for measles. The 11th Brigade Ammunition Column sailed two weeks later on the S.S. "METAGAMA" (1914, sister ship to the MISSANABIE, both owned by Canadian Pacific Ocean Services Limited) on 17 March, arriving in England on 25 March.
After its delayed arrival at Plymouth on 25 March, the 11th BAC establishment was to include dedicated General Service (GS) ammunition wagons (with limber), one wagon per howitzer, and one GS wagon for stores, with at least 132 horses (both riding and draft, using six per wagon). The Column's 'operational' task was to have available (carry) a constant supply, and bring forward (on-call), forty-eight rounds per howitzer, to a Firing Battery's entrenched position, or to supply it to the Battery's own ammunition wagon lines. Working mostly at night, moving forward, the BAC ammunition wagons were interchangeable with a Firing Batteries own ammunition wagons (one per gun), so full wagons could be easily 'dropped-off', being unhooked and taken away for reloading, a howitzer battery looking to 'always have' available 108 rounds.
The BAC picked up its 'own' resupply at a Refilling Point, as set up by their supporting Division Ammunition Column (DAC), the DAC holding an additional 44 rounds per howitzer. The BAC was divided into two sections, commanded by Lieutenants, each to supply two batteries, of the supported Brigade, and included a Battery Sergeant-Major, a Battery Quartermaster Sergeant, a Farrier-Sergeant, Shoeing Smiths (of which 1 would be a Corporal), 2 Saddlers (maintaining driver equipment), 2 Wheel-Wrights, a Trumpeter, 4 Sergeants, 5 Corporals, 5 Bombardiers, 3 Gunners acting as Batmen, Signallers, Drivers, and Gunners.
As mobilized a Divisional Ammunition Column was organized around three 'Field Artillery' Sections, and a fourth 'Howitzer' Section, they bringing forward scaled levels of field artillery, howitzer, and small arms ammunition, for the Brigade Columns. Originally organized in December 1915, the 3rd Canadian Divisional Artillery Column arrived in England in March 1916, with only its three 'Field Artillery' Sections, they having been recruited in Kingston, Toronto and Winnipeg. As established for four Sections, it was to soon gain its 'Howitzer' Section, this shortly after their arrival in England.
On 13 May 1916, originating from BEF GHQ, orders were issued for the reorganization of Royal and Imperial Divisional Artillery establishments, for reasons of operational effectiveness, to be restructured having four generic 'mixed' Artillery Brigades, to a standardized: universal establishment, each Divisional Artillery Brigade was to be allocated three Field Artillery Batteries and one Howitzer Battery. The new organized Divisional Brigades neatly matched the emerging tactic of the creeping barrage, for one 18-pounder Field Battery would be superimposed over the other two firing batteries (waiting for targets of opportunity), while the 4.5-inch Howitzer Battery spread its fire ahead of the rest. This 'operational decision' additionally saw the abolition of the four integral 'Brigade Ammunition Columns' and their being broken up or absorbed into their supporting 'Divisional Ammunition Column'. Consequently, while still in England, on 25 May 1916, the 11th (Howitzer) Brigade Ammunition Column was 'officially' absorbed into the 3rd Canadian Divisional Ammunition Column (DAC).
The future of the Islands' 11th BAC was earlier foretold, as their OC Captain (later Major, DSO) MacKinnon, after arrival in England, was almost immediately transferred to the 3rd Divisional Artillery 9th Brigade CFA, and on promotion he assumed command of 36th (Sydney) Howitzer Battery. Standing in England, leaving for France, having reorganized, the 11th BAC personnel were placed on active service on 15 July 1916, as a CEF unit. Having to absorb three Field BACs and a Howitzer BAC, the 3rd DAC would take on additional authorized ammunition wagons, horses and personnel, needing howitzer battery support capability, and excess to establishment personnel would be moved as artilleryman to any of the sixteen gun batteries, of the Division. This 'internal' reassignment of BAC artilleryman was consistent with past practices, as since 1906, it was an established routine to consider 'ammunition column' personnel, as a manning reserve and a source of timely replacements for 'casualties' in their brigade's batteries.
In the 'new' Divisional Artillery 'universal establishment Artillery Brigade' structure, the Divisional Ammunition Columns were also reorganized, adapting to a new supporting model, devised around a dedicated 'A' Echelon, and a supporting 'B' Echelon. The 'A' Echelon was to comprise four 'new' Sections, one for each of the Division's four 'mixed' Artillery Brigades. Each 'A' Section, with the same task of bringing forward 'first-line' artillery ammunition to the batteries of an affiliated Artillery Brigade, as previously did a BAC.
Now reorganized, under command of Lt-Col W.G. Hurdman, the 3rd DAC landed in Le Havre, France, on 15 July 1916, seeing the four 'A' Sections serving continuously, in France and Flanders, up to the Armistice, and until 12/13 February 1919 at Renaix, in East Flanders. Billeted in Barlin, France, during the Canadian Corps April 1917 action at Vimy Ridge, it calmly documents "Sections busy hauling ammunition and Engineer material (day and night) to Gun positions". Reorganized once while in France, it ended the War with three 'A' Sections, as its 'old' No. 3 (Winnipeg) Section's personnel, wagons and horses had been transferred to the newly arrived 4th Cdn Divisional Artillery, on 25 June 1917.
For two and a half years, after five months training in Halifax and England, the Islanders in 3rd DAC, went about their primary task: hauling, packing or supplying to their guns, and in stables or on watering parade. With their horses and mules, they 'hauled' ammunition to their firing batteries, or they 'hauled' material for their Canadian Engineers. When the roads were impassable, they 'packed' ammunition forward on their mules; or when available to assist, with their wagons, to the rear, they 'supplied' ammunition to flanking or supporting divisions. When not drawing or supplying ammunition to affiliated battery wagon lines, the Islanders had to go forward and 'collect' empty cartridge cases, or 'salvage' ammunition left at vacated battery positions and on occasion found at abandoned enemy artillery positions. Of the 100 Islanders who saw active service with the 3rd DAC, or as transferred to a 3rd Divisional Artillery Battery, 10 were killed and 30 were wounded.
Just after the armistice, in December 1918, the 3rd DAC reported an effective and attached strength of 22 officers and 626 other ranks. It returned to England on 19 February 1919, barracked first at Witley Camp, until broken up at Bramshott Camp, near Aldershot, in Hampshire, in March 1919. A first detachment of 3 officers and 122 other ranks returned to Canada on the "SS Olympic (1911)" out of Southampton on 18 March. A second detachment of 8 officers and 379 other ranks departed on the "RMS Cedric" sailing from Liverpool on 19 March. Subsequent to demobilization in Canada in March 1919, the 11th Field Artillery (Howitzer) Brigade Ammunition Column was disbanded on 1 November 1920.
The Officer Commanding: Captain D.A. MacKinnon (later Major, DSO)
Daniel Albert MacKinnon was born 12 November 1876, in Highfield, PEI. Orphaned early in life, taking up harness racing at 14, a lifelong devotion, at 21 he was PEI's first registered pharmacist. In 1901, he joined the Island militia as a Gunner, and by 1905, promoted to Captain, a very successful and accomplished officer, he was appointed to No. 2 (Charlottetown) Battery, Canadian Garrison Artillery. Before called to active service, with the 11th Brigade Ammunition Column in 1915, he commanded, a strong Island detachment manning, the (Fort) Ives Point Battery, it equipped with two 6-inch BL and two 12-pounder QF guns, on McNabs Island, it part of the Halifax (Harbour) Coastal Artillery Defences.
After commanding its standup, organization, training and arrival in England, he left the 11th Brigade Ammunition Column, in May 1916. On promotion, assigned to command 36th (NS) Howitzer Battery, he was awarded the Distinguished Service Order for service at the Somme. Being additionally 'Mentioned in Despatches' for his actions on Vimy Ridge in April 1917, for his batteries action on March 28, 1918, he earned the Croix de Guerre, when engaged with 10th Brigade, CFA, again on Vimy Ridge, in the French action in the defence of Arras. He was with his battery at Jemappes, in southwestern Belgium, outside Mons, at the Armistice.
Returning to Canada, on demobilization, he remained active with the Charlottetown militia and the PEI Heavy Brigade, Canadian Garrison Artillery. His interests and business activities taking more of his attention, reengaged with his stable in harness racing, the MacKinnon Drug Company, taking to fox farming and breeding, and in 1921, already a columnist, purchasing the 'Charlottetown' Guardian Publishing Company, he transferred to the militia reserve list, in 1923. Purchasing the Charlottetown Driving Park, in 1930, in 1932, he retired from the Island militia.
In 1962, at the age of 85, concluding a passion with horses, acknowledged as the father of harness racing in Eastern Canada, he disposed of his last stock. Two years later, on December 22, 1964, at the age of 87, he passed away, in Charlottetown, after a short illness.


Peshawar Valley Field Force

The Peshawar Valley Field Force was a British field force of around 12,000 men, a mix of both British regiments and South Asian regiments, under the command of Sir Samuel J. Browne during the Second Anglo-Afghan War (1878-1880). The force fought at the Battle of Ali Masjid which was the first battle of the war.
At the start of the Second Anglo-Afghan War the Force was made up of the following:
Sir Samuel J. Browne (Overall Command of the Peshawar Valley Field Force)


Battle of Cropredy Bridge

The Battle of Cropredy Bridge was fought on 29 June 1644 near Banbury, Oxfordshire during the First English Civil War. In the engagement, Sir William Waller and the Parliamentarian army failed to capture King Charles.
Background.
In the early part of 1644, the Royalists suffered several setbacks. Two field armies were defeated at Nantwich and Cheriton, and a Scottish Covenanter army invaded the north of England, driving the Royalists to York, where they were besieged.
King Charles held a council of war in Oxford, his wartime capital, between 25 April and 5 May. It was agreed that while the King remained on the defensive in Oxford, protected by several outlying fortified towns, his nephew Prince Rupert of the Rhine (the foremost Royalist field commander) would proceed to retrieve the situation in the north.
Campaign.
After Rupert departed, the King's council changed this policy. To find reinforcements for the West Country where Rupert's brother Prince Maurice was besieging Lyme Regis, they ordered the fortress of Reading, in Berkshire, to be abandoned. This released 2,500 foot soldiers for service elsewhere, but it also allowed the Parliamentarian armies of the Earl of Essex and Sir William Waller to concentrate against Oxford. On 19 May, they began advancing toward Oxford from Reading. On 25 May, the Royalists abandoned Abingdon in the face of Essex's advance. Essex occupied the town and then crossed the Thames to capture bridges over the River Cherwell north of Oxford, while Waller passed south of Oxford to capture a crossing over the Thames to the west at Newbridge.
Charles was in imminent danger of being surrounded and besieged in Oxford. As the city was short of provisions, he would soon be forced to surrender. On 3 June, Charles made a feint towards Abingdon to induce Waller to draw back, and then marched westward at night towards Worcester with a force mainly composed of cavalry. With Essex and Waller in pursuit, he was still in danger, but on 7 June, the two Parliamentarian generals (who disliked each other) conferred at Stow on the Wold, and agreed that Essex would march westward to relieve the siege of Lyme Regis, while Waller shadowed the King.
This allowed the King to make another feint, which convinced Waller he was about to march northward, and then move back south by carrying his foot soldiers down the Avon in commandeered boats, so as to return to Oxford and collect reinforcements. Waller, having failed to intercept the King, went to Gloucester for provisions. On 24 June, he marched from Gloucester to Stow on the Wold, where he received intelligence that the King was marching eastward from Oxford into the Parliamentarian-held eastern counties, and soon received orders from the Parliamentarian Committee of Both Kingdoms to pursue him. By 27 June, Waller had reached Hanwell Castle on high ground to the west of the Cherwell, the King being just away in Edgecote. On 28 June, the King moved to Banbury. He was resolved to offer battle, but Waller held the advantageous position.
Battle.
On Saturday, 29 June, Charles's army began marching north along the east side of the River Cherwell. Waller's forces proceeded to shadow the King's movements on the other side of the river, the two armies little more than a mile apart and in sight of each other, but neither prepared to cross under the fire of enemy guns.
As they approached Cropredy, Charles ordered a small detachment of dragoons to seize the bridge over the Cherwell. At this point, he received a warning that 300 additional horsemen were approaching from the north to join Waller's army, and he ordered his army to hasten its march to cut off this detachment. The Royalist army became strung out. The vanguard and main body had crossed a stream at Hay's Bridge (near the present-day village of Chipping Warden), leaving a rearguard of only two cavalry brigades under the Earl of Cleveland and the twenty-year-old Earl of Northampton, with some infantry, south of Hay's Bridge.
Waller, seeing his opportunity, sent Lieutenant General John Middleton across Cropredy Bridge with two regiments of horse (those of Sir Arthur Haselrig and Colonel Jonas Vandruske) and nine companies of foot to isolate the Royalist rearguard, while he himself led 1,000 men across Slat Mill Ford, a mile to the south of the bridge, to catch the Royalist rear in a pincer movement.
The Royalist dragoons holding Cropredy Bridge were soon overpowered. As Middleton's force streamed towards Hay's Bridge, they became strung out and vulnerable. At Hay's Bridge, Middleton's cavalry was checked by Royalist musketeers who had overturned a carriage to block the bridge, while the Earl of Cleveland charged the Parliamentarian foot and artillery behind them. Meanwhile, Northampton's brigade charged downhill against Waller's men, and forced them back across the Slat Mill Ford.
The King was alerted that his rearguard was engaged, and ordered his army to turn about. He also sent his own lifeguard of horse under Lord Bernard Stewart back across Hay's Bridge to aid Cleveland. With their help, Cleveland made a second charge which forced Middleton back across Cropredy Bridge, abandoning eleven guns. Waller's major general of ordnance, Sir James Wemyss, was also captured.
The bridge itself was held by two Parliamentarian regiments of foot, Colonel Ralph Weldon's Kentish Regiment and the Tower Hamlets Trained Bands regiment. The Royalists tried to recapture the bridge but were repulsed. Waller's remaining artillery continued to fire from their vantage point on Bourton Hill, forcing the Cavaliers to fall back from the river.
Aftermath.
By evening, the two armies still faced each other across the River Cherwell. Charles took opportunity in the lull to dispatch his secretary of war, Sir Edward Walker, to parley with Waller with a message of grace and pardon, but the Parliamentarian replied that he had no power to treat.
At length, after receiving further intelligence of additional Parliamentarians nearby, and as the king's train was low in food and supplies, the Royalists slipped away under the cover of night, taking the guns captured from Waller with them. While the Royalists had suffered few casualties, Waller had lost 700 men, many having deserted immediately after the battle.
Waller's army shortly became demoralised, and immobilised by desertions and mutinies by men unwilling to serve far from their homes, chiefly those drawn from London. Charles could afford to ignore Waller and march into the West Country after Essex, forcing Essex's army to surrender at Lostwithiel.
Music.
The song Red and Gold by Ralph McTell (written for Fairport Convention, whose annual music festival is held on the outskirts of Cropredy) relates the story of the battle as told by a non combatant. Versions of the song by various artists exist.


Asia Corps

The Asia Corps (German: "Asien-Korps" or "Levantekorps") was a detachment of the German Army, sent to assist the Ottoman Army during World War I.
Pasha I.
The first German troops despatched to assist the Ottoman Army in 1914 and 1915 were Pioneers, who assisted in the construction of roads in Sinai. In December 1914, a Tropical Medical expedition was sent to work with Ottoman sanitary units in Palestine to combat epidemics of typhoid, typhus, dysentery and cholera.
Once Serbia had been conquered, it became possible to send large quantities of equipment and munitions to the Ottoman Armies via the Danube River and Balkan railways. A detachment of specialist troops and officers, the Asia Korps, was assembled to increase the Ottoman Army's effectiveness in the use of equipment they hitherto lacked. In March 1916, the "Pasha I Expedition" set out for Palestine. The various units of the expedition included:
Fortress Railway Construction Company No. 11 and Railway Operating Companies Nos. 44 and 48 were also deployed to assist the Ottoman railway authorities on the lines of communication.
In April, the 300th Flying Detachment ("Pasha") was stationed in Beersheba with 14 Rumpler C.I aircraft. The other troops of the expedition joined them there in April. The Flying Detachment was subsequently stationed in El Arish and Bir El 'Abd. After Turkish defeats in the First Suez Offensive and Battle of Romani, they subsequently fell back to Beersheba and Ramallah.
Pasha II.
On 11 March 1917, after the Fall of Baghdad to the British Army, the Ottoman Army assembled an Army Group codenamed "Yildirim" to recover Baghdad. The German Army increased the strength of the detachments with the Ottoman troops by despatching a second expedition, "Pasha II" under Major General Werner von Frankenberg zu Proschlitz, in August. Following Ottoman defeats in the Battle of Beersheba and Third Battle of Gaza in late October, the Yildirim Army Group was diverted to prevent further collapse in Palestine. After the capture of Jerusalem by the British in December, further reinforcements were despatched, including substantial fighting ground formations.
The German troops forming "Pasha II", and subsequent reinforcements were under the administrative control of the 201st Infantry Brigade commanded by Major General Werner von Frankenberg zu Proschlitz, and included:
German staff officers with signal and other personnel formed a Corps headquarters within the Ottoman Eighth Army in Palestine, which was also termed the "Asia Corps", although it is also referred to in Turkish histories as the "Left Wing Group", commanded by Colonel Gustav von Oppen.
Austro-Hungarian troops in the Middle East.
Austria-Hungary also sent detachments of specialists and supporting arms to Ottoman Empire. The first units were sent to Gallipoli:
Between the summer of 1916 and the end of the war, the following artillery units were serving on the Palestine front:
Major Adolf Wilhelm Marno von Eichenhorst commanded this artillery group until 1917, after which it was commanded by Captain Wladislaw Ritter von Truszkowski. The overall commander of Austro-Hungarian troops in the Ottoman Empire was Feldmarschall-Leutnant Joseph Ritter von Pomiankowski. It was planned in 1917 and 1918 to send an "Orient-Korps" to the Ottomans, but this was abandoned.
Final actions.
In the Battle of Megiddo, the Ottoman forces west of the Jordan River were engulfed by the Allied offensive. The surviving German and Austrian detachments fought their way northward towards Damascus amid the routed Turkish armies.


Cape Field at Fort Glenn

Cape Field at Fort Glenn was a military site significant for its role in World War II. It consists of Fort Glenn, an airfield of the United States Army Air Corps later renamed Cape Air Force Base, and the adjacent Naval Air Facility Otter Point, both located on Umnak Island in the Aleutian Islands of southwestern Alaska. The site was listed on the National Register of Historic Places and declared a National Historic Landmark in 1987.
History.
Origins.
Because of the perceived vulnerability of Alaska immediately following the Pearl Harbor Attack, additional Army Air Corps units were authorized by General Henry H. Arnold for Alaska and plans were made to send modern aircraft to the Territory to replace the obsolete aircraft assigned. However the Alaskan Air Force had few airfields to accommodate the additional aircraft and units being assigned.
Along with new airfields on the mainland and Southwest Alaska, new air bases were planned for the air defense of the Aleutians to Dutch Harbor. Construction of the new bases on Umnak and Cold Bay began in January 1942 in secret, with construction reportedly disguised as a cannery. The first United States Army engineers landed at what would become Fort Glenn Army Air Base on 17 January and construction began by the end of the month. A Naval airfield, Otter Point Naval Air Facility was adjacent to the Army Airbase. The 807th Engineering Battalion (Aviation) was brought in from Yukat to perform the construction along with a detachment of the Navy Seabee 8th Construction Battalion.
Plans called for three hard-surfaced runways (four were eventually built), however time was of the essence in the construction of the base, as the air defense of Dutch Harbor was dependent on them. Instead of a hard surface, engineers chose to use a new material, Pierced Steel Planking (PSP), which could be laid down quickly over a compressed gravel subsurface to provide the airfield with an all-weather capability. There were 80,000 pieces of matting which needed to be barged to the island. Construction crews worked in three shifts, 24 hours a day laying down the runways and constructing a rudimentary support station, water and sewer lines, an electrical grid, communications, fuel and munitions storage sites and all the other necessities to convert a remote island site into an operational airfield capable of supporting heavy bombers. A 5,000' PSP runway was completed on 5 April although a C-53 was first plane to land on the field was on 31 March. The main runway was officially opened on 23 May. Fort Glenn's first runway was then the U.S. Army's most westerly airfield in the Aleutian Islands."
The first operational unit, the 11th Fighter Squadron, moved into Fort Glenn with P-40 Warhawk fighters on 26 May from Elmendorf Field. Additional construction continued throughout 1942 with four 5'000 x 175 foot runways were completed (06/24, 07/35), two of which (03/21, 04/22) were situated only 10 degrees apart. All runways had four layers of asphalt laid down over the PSP. Two additional emergency landing fields were built, one on the north coast of the island (North Shore) , 9.4 miles north; the other 7.7 miles to the west-southwest of the base near the Tullk Volcano (Pacifier) .
Morrison-Knudsen Construction Company built hundreds of Quonset hut structures on the base, replacing the temporary tents which exposed the construction crews to the sudden storms which swept the island frequently. Housing & messing facilities for 119 officers & 359 men were constructed as well as recreational and service buildings. Storage facilities consisted of 6,975 square feet for general stores & a 150-cubic-foot freezer. Buildings for aircraft included a kodiak-type hangar, 160' x 90', a squadron warehouse, and a terminal for air transport service. Administration offices were housed in 5 buildings with a total floor space of 3,850 square feet. Radio facilities included a transmitting station, a direction-finder station, and a radar station, all with separate power houses & with housing & messing provisions for personnel. The hospital, located in one small building, contained 8 beds. The maintenance force of the station was installed in 7 buildings. Electric power was provided by 3 diesel-electric generators.
Aleutian Islands Campaign.
On 3 June 1942 the Imperial Japanese Navy launched two aircraft carrier raids on the United States Army barracks and the US Navy base at Dutch Harbor on nearby Amaknak Island. The attack was a surprise, however the base been on alert for an attack for many days, although there was no specific warning of the attack before the Japanese planes arrived over Dutch Harbor. The attack signaled the beginning of the Aleutian Islands Campaign. In response, the P-40s of the 11th Fighter Squadron from Fort Glenn AAB along with Naval land-based fighters attacked the Japanese aircraft. Eleventh Air Force also dispatched aircraft from Elmendorf Field. In the ensuring battle, the United States Navy lost four PBYs, and Eleventh AF lost one B-17, two B-26s and one LB-30 (B-24A) bombers and two P-40 fighters. The Japanese lost two A6M "Zero" fighters, and possibly a third due to ground anti-aircraft fire. One A6M "Zero", three D3A "Val" dive bombers and one E8N "Dave"reconnaissance seaplane were shot down in aerial combat.
Eleventh Air Force also dispatched B-26 Marauder medium bombers of the 77th Bombardment Squadron. They arrived about noon to locate the Japanese aircraft carriers and counterattack, however they landed at Fort Glenn about 1:30pm due to fog and low visibility. The Marauders were carrying airborne torpedoes, rather than contact bombs which they were designed to carry. In addition to the Dutch Harbor attack, Japanese forces landed on Kiska Island on 6 June; Attu Island on 7 June, seizing both.
The Japanese attacks on Dutch Harbor, however inflicted only minor damage on the base, which were quickly repaired. The mission of Fort Glenn Army Air Base was changed to serve as the initial forward base to launch bombing attacks against the Japanese forces in the Aleutians. Known Air Force units deployed to Fort Glenn were:
By the close of 1942, Fort Glenn AAB had 10,579 personnel assigned, but its role as an advance air base had been supplanted by new air bases on Adak and Amchitka Islands in early 1943 farther to the west. By the end of the year, the base had become a backwater; its mission had become the provision of housing and rations for transient personnel and the servicing of transient aircraft.
Closure.
After the war ended, Fort Glenn remained open as a refueling stop for transient aircraft in the Aleutians along with Military Air Transport Service flights using the Great Circle Route from Japan to the United States. The main runway, however was extended to 8,300' to accommodate large, long range aircraft. By 1946, the base was manned only by skeleton staff due to the rapid demobilization of the Air Force.
The last Air Force personnel were withdrawn by 30 September 1947, and the base was put on inactive status and was effectively abandoned. It was decommissioned in 1950 and the site was excessed between 1952-55 to the Bureau of Land Management. The land was later transferred to a variety of owners, including Alaska Native corporations and the State of Alaska. Today hundreds of buildings, runways, and World War II artillery emplacements remain in various states of deterioration.
Today Fort Glenn AAF is a virtual ghost town—except for a family of cattle ranchers who have renovated several World War II buildings and who call the base home. The expanse and undisturbed quality of the resource make Fort Glenn AAF an outstanding conceptual model for landscape preservation. In 1991, National Park Service historians visited the site to review the World War II-related construction, infrastructure, landscape, and objects.
It was determined that any environmental cleanup should be designed to remove loose cables, transformers, hazardous material, toxic waste, and ordnance. Nontoxic World War II-related objects such as empty barrels could be left in place; full barrels would be, of course, another issue. All other buildings, structures, and infrastructure—no matter how "unsightly"—would be left intact and preserved: in this case preservation can simply mean avoidance and the acceptance that the buildings and structures have a definite place within the landscape.
On Saturday July 12, 2008, nearby Mount Okmok, erupted, sending ash 50,000 feet in the air and forcing the evacuation of the residents of the ranch. The eruption obliterated all remains of the South Pacifier Emergency landing strip, although some evidence of remains still are visible in aerial imagery.


Wilmington Boat Works

Wilmington Boat Works, Inc. or WILBO was a shipbuilding company in Wilmington, California. To support the World War 2 demand for ships Victory Shipbuilding built: Tugboats, crash rescue boats and sub chasers. Wilmington Boat Works opened in 1920 building Fishing boat and yachts, by Hugh Angelman, Willard Buchanan and Tom Smith. After the Korean War the shipyard closed in 1958. The shipyard was located at 400 Yacht Street, Wilmington, the site of the current USC boatyard.
Tugboats.
Wilmington Boat Works built tugboats for the US Army in 1943 and 1944. The small tugs had a length of , a depth of , a beam of , a , and a . They were wooden-hulled and diesel-powered. After the war they were sold for commercial use. The tugs were numbered TP 126 to TP 131, TP for "Tug/Passenger".
Submarine chaser.
Wilmington Boat Works Company built two submarine chasers for the United States Navy that were of the design with a displacement of 94 tons, a length of , a beam of , a draft of , and a top speed of . They had a crew of 28. Power was provided by two General Motors, Electro-Motive Division, 16-184A diesel engines, and two propellers. They were armed with one Bofors 40 mm gun, two Browning M2 .50 cal. machine gun, two depth charge projector "Y guns", and two depth charge tracks. Some of the submarine chasers were lent to Allies of the United States as part of the Lend-Lease program.
The submarine chasers were converted to "PGM-1"-class motor gunboats six months after completion in 1943.
Crah boats.
For the US Army built 85 foot Crash boats
"Agile"-class minesweeper.
Wilmington Boat Works in 1954 built s for the United States Navy with a displacement of 853 tons full, a length of , a beam of , a draft of . They were powered by four Packard ID1700 diesel engines, with and two controllable pitch propellers. The ships had a top speed of . The ship crew was 7 officers and 70 enlisted men. They were armed with one Bofors 40 mm gun and two .50 cal (12.7 mm) twin machine gun. Notable ships include and .


Creeping attack

The creeping attack was an anti submarine measure developed during the Battle of the Atlantic in World War II.
It was first used by 36 Escort Group of the Royal Navy after being developed by the Group's commanding officer, Captain "Johnnie" Walker.
The problem addressed by Walker in the tactics then in use was that ASDIC, the means to search for and find a submerged submarine, searched forward, while the main weapon to attack it, the depth charge, was released or projected from the stern.
This led to a loss of contact in final run up to target, giving the U-boat a chance to move at the last minute and evade damage. The more skilled or experienced U-boat commanders became adept at predicting the points at which the escort sped up to attack, and when they lost ASDIC contact, and were able to move aside while the charges sank to their depth.
The creeping attack used two ships; one to remain stationary and keep in contact, and guide a second ship onto the target. The second approached slowly, in order not to warn the U-boat of its approach, and released its depth charges on a signal from the first. The method required practice to get right, and was expensive of time and resources, but was devastatingly effective. 36 EG, and Walker's next group, 2nd Support Group, were the most successful U-boat killers of the war.
The advent of more sophisticated ASDIC systems, that held contact close in, and forward-throwing weapons, such as Hedgehog and Squid, also overcame the problems that made the creeping attack necessary, but it remained in use throughout the campaign.


Operation Cobra (Timor)

Operation Cobra was a military operation by Australia's Services Reconnaissance Department during World War II in Timor in 1944. A team of five soldiers were inserted on to Japanese occupied Timor
It consisted of Captain Cashman, radio operator E.J. Liversidge, and three native Timorese, Sergeant Paulo da Silva, Sergeant Cosme Soares and Sergeant Sancho da Silva. They did not know the prior Operation Lagarto had been captured and compromised and the troops were captured.
The naval component of the campaign was known as Operation Bulldozer.
Liversidge died on 20 November 1944. Cashman survived.


Severity Order

The Severity Order or Reichenau Order was the name given to an order promulgated within the German Sixth Army on the Eastern Front during World War II by "Generalfeldmarschall" Walther von Reichenau on 10 October 1941.
Text of the order.
The order said, in part:
Implications of the order.
The order paved the way for mass murder of Jews.
All Jews were henceforth to be treated as partisans, and commanders were directed that they be either summarily shot or handed over to the "Einsatzgruppen" execution squads of the SS-Totenkopfverbände as the situation dictated.
Other dispositions complain about feeding civilians and POWs, which is described as an "equally misunderstood humanitarian act"; indeed, the taking of partisans and women as POWs is criticised.
Finally, the civilian population is to be disarmed and buildings which have been set on fire by Destruction battalions are to be saved only when useful to the army.
History of the order.
Upon enactment.
Upon hearing of the Severity Order, Reichenau's superior Field Marshal Gerd von Rundstedt expressed "complete agreement" with it, and sent out a circular to all of the Army generals under his command urging them to send out their own versions of the Severity Order, which would impress upon the troops the need to exterminate Jews. According to Wilhelm Adam when Reichenau died, and command of the Sixth Army was taken over by General Friedrich Paulus, both the Severity Order and Hitler's Commissar Order were rescinded in his command sector.
After the war.
During the Nuremberg trials, Rundstedt denied any knowledge of that order before his capture by the Allies, although he acknowledged that Reichenau's orders "may have reached my army group and probably got into the office".


Midland Army Airfield

Midland Army Airfield is a former World War II military airfield, located 8.4 miles west-southwest of Midland, Texas. It operated as a Bombardier training school for the United States Army Air Forces from 1942 until 1945.
History.
Origins.
Midland Army Air Field was a World War II United States Army Air Forces bombardier-training base on U.S. Highway 80 halfway between Midland and Odessa in Midland County.
It was originally named Sloan Field for Samuel Addison Sloan, who leased 240 acres of pastureland from Clarence Scharbauer, a rancher in October 1927 to establish a privately owned landing field and flying school. Sloan was killed in a plane crash on 1 January 1929, and the operation was continued by his brother and sister. Sloan Field was designated an Army Airways Station in May 1930. In 1939 Harvey Sloan sold the Field to the City of Midland for $14,500.
Prominent businessmen in Midland could foresee the possibility of a military base in West Texas. In 1940, after Hitler struck Poland, they started promoting the airport for use as a training base to the military establishment in Washington. Work was done by the WPA with more runway and taxiway improvements, as well as airfield lighting. A visit by Brigadier General G.C. Brant, Commander of the Gulf Coast Air Corps Training Center at Randolph Field was made and he reported that the situation at Midland was very favorable. It was on Friday, 13 June 1941, that it was announced that Midland would get the air school. On 1 July 1941, the municipal airport was leased to the United States government for a dollar a year, and construction began on 17 July.
Immediate search for ranch land to be used as target ranges was instigated and plans for "an advanced twin-engine flying and bombardment school" had begun. Ground was broken on 15 July 1941 with the leasing of 1,030 acres of land for the duration of the war plus six months. Twenty-three bomb ranges were mapped out - located within a 50-mile radius of the base.
One of the first structures to go up was the 500,000 gallon water tank which is still in use. Buildings for Headquarters, officer, enlisted and cadet barracks, a station hospital, classrooms, mess hall and flight line were all being erected by civilian employees. By the time the first enlisted man arrived in October 1941, he found that 105 buildings were partially completed with the remaining 99 waiting to be started. In November 1941, officers and enlisted men started arriving for duty.
It was announced that training of cadets would begin in January 1942. With the bombing of Pearl Harbor on 7 December 1941, the need for bombardiers was evident, soon after an announcement was made by Lieutenant Colonel Isaiah Davies, Commanding Officer of Midland Army Air Field (MAAF), that the school would be used exclusively to train bombardiers.
Operations.
On 26 September 1942, the base was formally re-designated Midland Army Air Field, and the school was named the Army Air Forces Bombardier School, one of a dozen bombardier-training schools. It was one of the "West Texas Bombardier Quadrangle" schools of the Army Air Forces Training Command. The other bases in the quad were Childress Army Airfield, San Angelo Army Airfield and Big Spring Army Airfield. The sole purpose of the Bombardier College was to train young men to use the bombsight invented by Carl Norden.
The first group of cadets, Class 42–6, arrived for training from Ellington, Texas, on 6 February 1942. Midland reached a peak base population of more than 4,000 and graduated a total of 6,627 bombardier officers before all training ceased on 1 January 1946.
Cadets remained at Midland exactly twelve weeks for combined ground and flight training, rigorous physical activity and rigid military discipline during a sixteen-hour day, with only part of Sunday off. They learned to hit targets with remarkable accuracy, dropping at least 200 practice bombs each from the AT-11 airplane—and learned to handle the complex Norden sight with considerable skill. The first class consisted of 103 cadets and graduated on 30 April 1942. Students from the Netherlands, East Indies, France, Brazil and China were trained at MAF.
In August 1943 the AAF Central Bombardier Instructor School was transferred from Carlsbad Army Airfield, New Mexico, to Midland. The base pioneered the use of the highly secret Norden bombsight and at one time operated twenty-three bombing ranges across West Texas. Personnel from Midland AAF were instrumental in developing photographic and sonic methods of scoring bomb hits and analyzing bombing proficiency.
Closure.
The air field was deactivated as a military installation on 15 June 1946, and returned to the city of Midland on 1 July 1947. Since that date, it has been improved and modernized and has become an increasingly busy commercial air terminal and transportation-distribution center.