Pump organ

The pump organ is a type of free-reed organ that generates sound as air flows past a vibrating piece of thin metal in a frame. The piece of metal is called a reed. Specific types of pump organ include the reed organ, harmonium, and melodeon. The idea for the free reed was imported from China through Russia after 1750, and the first Western free-reed instrument was made in 1780 in Denmark.
More portable than pipe organs, free-reed organs were widely used in smaller churches and in private homes in the 19th century, but their volume and tonal range were limited. They generally had one or sometimes two manuals, with pedal-boards being rare. The finer pump organs had a wider range of tones, and the cabinets of those intended for churches and affluent homes were often excellent pieces of furniture. Several million free-reed organs and melodeons were made in the US and Canada between the 1850s and the 1920s, some which were exported. During this time Estey Organ and Mason & Hamlin were popular manufacturers.
Alongside the furniture-sized instruments of the west, smaller designs exist. The portable, hand-pumped harmonium or samvadini is a major instrument on the Indian Subcontinent developed by Indians to meet local needs. The craftsmen created a harmonium that a single person could carry, with added microtones.
History.
During the first half of the 18th century, a free-reed mouth organ was called a sheng was brought to Russia. That instrument received attention, due to its use by Johann Wilde. The instrument's free-reed was unknown in Europe at the time, and the concept quickly spread from Russia across Europe. Christian Gottlieb Kratzenstein (1723–1795), professor of physiology at Copenhagen, was credited with the first free-reed instrument made in the Western world, after winning the annual prize in 1780 from the Imperial Academy of St. Petersburg. According to Curt Sachs, Kratzenstein suggested that the instrument be made, but that the first organ with free reeds was made by Abbé Georg Joseph Vogler in Darmstadt. The harmonium's design incorporates free reeds and derives from the earlier regal. A harmonium-like instrument was exhibited by (1756–1837) in 1810. He called it an "orgue expressif" (expressive organ), because his instrument was capable of greater expression, as well as of producing a crescendo and diminuendo. Alexandre Debain improved Grenié's instrument and gave it the name harmonium when he patented his version in 1840. There was concurrent development of similar instruments. A mechanic who had worked in the factory of Alexandre in Paris emigrated to the United States and conceived the idea of a suction bellows, instead of the ordinary bellows that forced the air outward through the reeds. Beginning in 1885, the firm of Mason & Hamlin, of Boston made their instruments with the suction bellows, and this method of construction soon superseded all others in America.
Harmoniums reached the height of their popularity in the West in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. They were especially popular in small churches and chapels where a pipe organ would be too large or expensive; in the funeral-"in-absentia" scene from Mark Twain's "The Adventures of Tom Sawyer", the protagonist narrates that the church procured a "melodeum" (a conflation, likely intended by Twain for satirical effect, of the names "melodeon" and "harmonium") for the occasion. Harmoniums generally weigh less than similar sized pianos and are not easily damaged in transport, thus they were also popular throughout the colonies of the European powers in this period not only because it was easier to ship the instrument out to where it was needed, but it was also easier to transport overland in areas where good-quality roads and railways may have been non-existent. An added attraction of the harmonium in tropical regions was that the instrument held its tune regardless of heat and humidity, unlike the piano. This "export" market was sufficiently lucrative for manufacturers to produce harmoniums with cases impregnated with chemicals to prevent woodworm and other damaging organisms found in the tropics.
At the peak of the instruments' Western popularity around 1900, a wide variety of styles of harmoniums were being produced. These ranged from simple models with plain cases and only four or five stops (if any at all), up to large instruments with ornate cases, up to a dozen stops and other mechanisms such as couplers. Expensive harmoniums were often built to resemble pipe organs, with ranks of fake pipes attached to the top of the instrument. Small numbers of harmoniums were built with two manuals (keyboards). Some were even built with pedal keyboards, which required the use of an assistant to run the bellows or, for some of the later models, an electrical pump. These larger instruments were mainly intended for home use, such as allowing organists to practise on an instrument on the scale of a pipe organ, but without the physical size or volume of such an instrument. For missionaries, chaplains in the armed forces, travelling evangelist etc., reed organs that folded up into a container the size of a very large suitcase or small trunk were made; these had a short keyboard and few stops, but they were more than adequate for keeping hymn singers more or less on pitch.
The invention of the electronic organ in the mid-1930s spelled the end of the harmonium's success in the West, although its popularity as a household instrument had already declined in the 1920s as musical tastes changed . The Hammond organ could imitate the tonal quality and range of a pipe organ whilst retaining the compact dimensions and cost-effectiveness of the harmonium as well as reducing maintenance needs and allowing a greater number of stops and other features. By this time, harmoniums had reached high levels of mechanical complexity, not only through the demand for instruments with a greater tonal range, but also due to patent laws (especially in North America). It was common for manufacturers to patent the action mechanism used on their instruments, thus requiring any new manufacturer to develop their own version; as the number of manufacturers grew, this led to some instruments having hugely complex arrays of levers, cranks, rods and shafts, which made replacement with an electronic instrument even more attractive.
The last mass-producer of harmoniums in North America was the Estey company, which ceased manufacture in the mid-1950s; a couple of Italian companies continued into the 1970s. As the existing stock of instruments aged and spare parts became hard to find, more and more were either scrapped or sold. It was not uncommon for harmoniums to be "modernised" by having electric blowers fitted, often very unsympathetically. The majority of Western harmoniums today are in the hands of enthusiasts, though the instrument still remains popular in South Asia.
Modern electronic keyboards can emulate the sound of the pump organ.
Acoustics.
The acoustical effects described below are a result of the free-reed mechanism. Therefore, they are essentially identical for the Western and Indian harmoniums and the reed organ. In 1875, Hermann von Helmholtz published his seminal book, "On the Sensations of Tone", in which he used the harmonium extensively to test different tuning systems:
"Among musical instruments, the harmonium, on account of its uniformly sustained tone, the piercing character of its quality of tone, and its tolerably distinct combinational tones, is particularly sensitive to inaccuracies of intonation. And as its vibrators also admit of a delicate and durable tuning, it appeared to me peculiarly suitable for experiments on a more perfect system of tones."
Using two manuals and two differently tuned stop sets, he was able to simultaneously compare Pythagorean to just and to equal-tempered tunings and observe the degrees of inharmonicity inherent to the different temperaments. He subdivided the octave to 28 tones, to be able to perform modulations of 12 minor and 17 major keys in just intonation without going into harsh dissonance that is present with the standard octave division in this tuning. This arrangement was difficult to play on. Additional modified or novel instruments were used for experimental and educational purposes; notably, Bosanquet's "Generalized keyboard" was constructed in 1873 for use with a 53-tone scale. In practice, that harmonium was constructed with 84 keys, for convenience of fingering. Another famous reed organ that was evaluated was built by Poole.
Lord Rayleigh also used the harmonium to devise a method for indirectly measuring frequency accurately, using approximated known equal temperament intervals and their overtone beats. The harmonium had the advantage of providing clear overtones that enabled the reliable counting of beats by two listeners, one per note. However, Rayleigh acknowledged that maintaining constant pressure in the bellows is difficult and fluctuation of the pitch occurs rather frequently as a result.
In the generation of its tones, a reed organ is similar to an accordion or concertina, but not in its installation, as an accordion is held in both hands whereas a reed organ is usually positioned on the floor in a wooden casing (which might make it mistakable for a piano at the very first glimpse). Reed organs are operated either with pressure or with suction bellows. Pressure bellows permit a wider range to modify the volume, depending on whether the pedaling of the bellows is faster or slower. In North America and the United Kingdom, a reed organ with pressure bellows is referred to as a harmonium, whereas in continental Europe, any reed organ is called a harmonium regardless of whether it has pressure or suction bellows. As reed organs with pressure bellows were more difficult to produce and therefore more expensive, North American and British reed organs and melodeons generally use suction bellows and operate on vacuum.
Reed organ frequencies depend on the blowing pressure; the fundamental frequency "decreases" with medium pressure compared to low pressure, but it "increases" again at high pressures by several hertz for the bass notes measured. American reed organ measurements showed a sinusoidal oscillation with sharp pressure transitions when the reed bends above and below its frame. The fundamental itself is nearly the mechanical resonance frequency of the reed. The overtones of the instrument are harmonics of the fundamental, rather than inharmonic, although a weak inharmonic overtone (6.27"f") was reported too. The fundamental frequency comes from a transverse mode, whereas weaker higher transverse and torsional modes were measured too. Any torsional modes are excited because of a slight asymmetry in the reed's construction. During attack, it was shown that the reed produces most strongly the fundamental, along with a second transverse or torsional mode, which are transient.
Radiation patterns and coupling effects between the sound box and the reeds on the timbre appear not to have been studied to date.
The unusual reed-vibration physics have a direct effect on harmonium playing, as the control of its dynamics in playing is restricted and subtle. The free reed of the harmonium is riveted from a metal frame and is subjected to airflow, which is pumped from the bellows through the reservoir, pushing the reed and bringing it to self-exciting oscillation and to sound production in the direction of airflow. This particular aerodynamics is nonlinear in that the maximum displacement amplitude in which the reed can vibrate is limited by fluctuations in damping forces, so that the resultant sound pressure is rather constant. Additionally, there is a threshold pumping pressure, below which the reed vibration is minimal. Within those two thresholds, there is an exponential growth and decay in time of reed amplitudes .
Repertory.
The harmonium was considered by Curt Sachs to be an important instrument for music of Romanticism (1750s-1900), which "vibrated between two poles of expression" and "required the overwhelming power and strong accents of wind instruments."
Harmonium compositions are available by European and American composers of classical music. It was also used often in the folk music of the Appalachians and South of the United States.
Harmoniums played a significant part in the new rise of Nordic folk music, especially in Finland. In the late 1970s, a harmonium could be found in most schools where the bands met, and it became natural for the bands to include a harmonium in their setup. A typical folk band then—particularly in Western Finland—consisted of violin(s), double bass and harmonium. There was a practical limitation that prevented playing harmonium and accordion in the same band: harmoniums were tuned to 438 Hz, while accordions were tuned to 442 Hz. Some key harmonium players in the new rise of Nordic folk have been Timo Alakotila and Milla Viljamaa.
In the Netherlands, the introduction of the harmonium triggered a boom in religious house music. Its organ-like sound quality allowed Reformed families to sing psalms and hymns at home. A lot of new hymns were composed expressly for voice and harmonium, notably those by Johannes de Heer.
Western classical.
The harmonium repertoire includes many pieces written originally for the church organ, which may be played on a harmonium as well, because they have a small enough range and use fewer stops. For example, Bach's Fantasia in C major for organ BWV 570 is suitable for a four-octave harmonium.
Other examples include:
Western popular music.
Harmoniums have been used in western popular music since at least the 1960s. John Lennon played a Mannborg harmonium on the Beatles' hit single "We Can Work It Out", released in December 1965, and the band used the instrument on other songs recorded during the sessions for their "Rubber Soul" album. They also used the instrument on the famous "final chord" of "A Day in the Life", and on the song "Being for the Benefit of Mr. Kite!", both released on the 1967 album "Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band". The group's hit single "Hello, Goodbye" and the track "Your Mother Should Know" were both written using a harmonium.
Many other artists soon employed the instrument in their music, including; Pink Floyd on the title song "Chapter 24" of their first album "The Piper at the Gates of Dawn" in 1967, Elton John on his 1973 album "Don't Shoot Me I'm Only the Piano Player", 1976's "Blue Moves", the 1978 album "A Single Man", and 1995's "Made in England". German singer Nico was closely associated with the harmonium, using it as her main instrument, during the late 60s and 70s, on albums such as "The Marble Index", "Desertshore" and "The End...".
Donovan employed the harmonium on his 1968 album "The Hurdy Gurdy Man" where he played it in droning accompaniment on the song "Peregrine", and where it was also played on his song "Poor Cow" by John Cameron.
Robert Fripp of King Crimson played a pedal harmonium borrowed from lyricist Peter Sinfield on the title track that progressive rock band's 1971 album "Islands".
More recently Roger Hodgson from Supertramp used his harmonium on many of the group's songs including "Two of Us" from "Crisis? What Crisis?", "Fool's Overture" from "Even in the Quietest Moments...", the title track to their 1979 album "Breakfast in America" and "Lord Is It Mine". Hodgson also used a harmonium on "The Garden" from his 2000 solo album "Open the Door". Greg Weeks and Tori Amos have both used the instrument on their recordings and live performances.
The Damned singer Dave Vanian bought a harmonium for £49 and used it to compose “Curtain Call”, the 17-minute closing track from their 1980 double LP The Black Album. In 1990, Depeche Mode used a harmonium on a version of their song "Enjoy The Silence". The Divine Comedy used a harmonium on "Neptune's Daughter" from their 1994 album "Promenade". Sara Bareilles used the harmonium on her 2012 song "Once Upon Another Time".
During the 1990s the Hindu and Sikh-based devotional music known as kirtan, a 7th-8th century Indian music, popularly emerged in the West. The harmonium is often played as the lead instrument by kirtan artists; notably Jai Uttal who was nominated for a Grammy award for new-age music in 2004, Snatam Kaur, and Krishna Das who was nominated for a Grammy award for new age music in 2012.
In the Indian subcontinent.
The harmonium arrived in India during the mid-19th century, possibly with missionaries or traders. The instrument quickly became popular there: it was portable, reliable and easy to learn.
The harmonium is popular to the present day, an important instrument in many genres of Indian and Pakistani music. For example, it is a staple of vocal North Indian classical music and Sufi Muslim Qawwali concerts. It is commonly found in Indian homes. Though derived from the designs developed in France, the harmonium was developed further in India in unique ways, such as the addition of drone stops and a scale-changing mechanism. In Kolkata, Dwarkanath Ghose of the Dwarkin company modified the imported harmony flute and developed the hand-held harmonium, which has subsequently become an integral part of the Indian music scene.
Dwijendranath Tagore is credited with having used the imported instrument in 1860 in his private theatre, but it was probably a pedal-pumped instrument that was cumbersome or possibly some variation of the reed organ. Initially it aroused curiosity, but gradually people started playing it, and Ghose took the initiative to modify it. It was in response to the Indian needs that the hand-held harmonium was introduced. All Indian musical instruments are played with the musician sitting on the floor or on a stage, behind the instrument or holding it in his hands. In that era, Indian homes did not use tables and chairs. Also, Western music being harmonically based, both a player's hands were needed to play the chords, thus assigning the bellows to the feet was the best solution; Indian music, being melodically based, only one hand was necessary to play the melody, and the other hand was free for the bellows.
The harmonium was widely accepted in Indian music, particularly Parsi and Marathi stage music, in the late 19th century. By the early 20th century, however, in the context of nationalist movements that sought to depict India as utterly separate from the West, the harmonium was portrayed as an unwanted foreigner. Technical concerns with the harmonium included its inability to produce slurs, gamaka (playing semi-tone between notes) and meend (slides between notes) which can be done in instruments like Sitar and Sarod, and the fact that, as a keyboard instrument, it is set to specific pitches. Unlike a stringed instrument, its pitches cannot be adjusted in the course of performance.
The inability to slide between notes prevents it from articulating the subtle inflections (such as andolan, gentle oscillation) so crucial to many ragas. Being set to specific pitches is a different musical concept than the Indian svara, which doesn't focus on specific pitches, but a range of pitches. The fixed pitches prevents it from articulating the subtle differences in intonational color between a given svara in two different ragas. For these reasons, it was banned from All India Radio from 1940 to 1971; a ban still stands on harmonium solos.
On the other hand, many of the harmonium's qualities suited it very well for the newly reformed classical music of the early 20th century: it is easy for amateurs to learn; it supports group singing and large voice classes; it provides a template for standardized raga grammar; it is loud enough to provide a drone in a concert hall. For these reasons, it has become the instrument of choice for accompanying most North Indian classical vocal genres, with top vocalists (e.g., Bhimsen Joshi) routinely using harmonium accompaniment in their concerts. However, it is still despised by some connoisseurs of Indian music, who prefer the sarangi as an accompanying instrument for khyal singing.
A popular usage is by followers of the Hindu and Sikh faiths, who use it to accompany their devotional songs (bhajan and kirtan) respectively . There is at least one harmonium in any gurdwara (Sikh temple) around the world. The harmonium is commonly accompanied by the tabla as well as a dholak. To Sikhs, the harmonium is known as the "vaja" or "baja". It is also referred to as a "peti" (literally, box) in some parts of North India and Maharashtra. The harmonium plays an integral part in Qawwali music. Almost all Qawwals use the harmonium as their sole musical accompaniment. It has received international exposure as the genre of Qawwali music has been popularized by renowned Pakistani musicians, including Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan. There is some discussion of Indian harmonium makers producing reproductions of Western-style reed organs for the export trade.
Vidyadhar Oke has developed a 22-microtone harmonium, which can play 22 microtones as required in Indian classical music. The fundamental tone (Shadja) and the fifth (Pancham) are fixed, but the other ten notes have two microtones each, one higher and one lower. The higher microtone is selected by pulling out a knob below the key. In this way, the 22-shruti harmonium can be tuned for any particular raga by simply pulling out knobs wherever a higher shruti is required.
 Bhishmadev Vedi is said to have been the first to contemplate improving the harmonium by augmenting it with a swarmandal (harp-like string box) attached to the top of the instrument. His disciple, Manohar Chimote, later implemented this concept, also making the instrument more responsive to key pressure, and called the instrument a samvadini—a name now widely accepted. Bhishmadev Vedi is also said to have been among the first to contemplate and design compositions specifically for the harmonium, styled along the lines of "tantakari"—performance of music on stringed instruments. These compositions tend to have a lot of cut notes and high-speed passages, creating an effect similar to that of a string being plucked.
In 1954, Late Jogesh Chandra Biswas first modified the then-existing harmoniums, so it folds down into a much thinner space for easier-maneuverability. Prior to that, if the instrument was boxed, it used to need two people to carry it, holding it from either side. This improvisation became a generic design in most harmoniums since then and coined with the term "Folding Harmoniums".
The Shruti box, a keyless harmonium used only to produce drones to support other soloists.
Types.
In the view points of maintenance and restoration, the pump organs are often categorized into several types.
Harmonium.
Harmoniums are pressure system free-reed organs.


Brachyhypopomus bennetti

Brachyhypopomus bennetti is a species of electric knifefish. The species was discovered in the Central Amazon.


Kapunda (ship)

Kapunda was a British emigrant ship which sank on 20 January 1887 after colliding with the barque "Ada Melmoure" in the Atlantic Ocean off the coast of Brazil. She was an iron-hulled ship of 1,095 tons, owned by Frinder, Anderson, and Company
"Kapunda" was in the Atlantic Ocean off Brazil heading from London to Fremantle, Western Australia, with a crew of 40, carrying 279 emigrants and general cargo, when at 3:20 a.m. on 20 January 1887 she collided with the 549-ton "Ada Melmoure", which was bound from Coquimbo, Chile, to the United Kingdom with a cargo of manganese ore. "Ada Melmoure" hit "Kapunda" near the bow, and "Kapunda" sank so quickly that no lifeboats could be launched. Nine people managed to climb aboard "Ada Melmoure", six others found a small boat in the water and boarded it, and "Ada Melmoure" lowered a boat that picked up one crew member. These 16 were the only survivors; the other 303 aboard "Kapunda", including Captain John Masson, lost their lives in the disaster.
On 25 January 1887, 14 of "Kapunda"′s survivors transferred from "Ada Melmoure" to the French barque "Ulysses", which took them to Bahia, Brazil. The other two survivors stayed with "Ada Melmoure", landing at Maceió after "Ada Melmoure" also sank.


Bublitz Case Company

The Bublitz Case Company was a manufacturer of musical instrument cases in Elkhorn, Wisconsin. Assets of the Bublitz Case Company were bought by G. Leblanc Corporation, a manufacturer of musical instruments in Kenosha, Wisconsin.
The Bublitz Case Company manufactured over a hundred models of cases for clarinets, oboes, bassoons, flutes, piccolos, trumpets, cornets, saxophones, trombones, French horns, baritones, tubas and a case for television test instrumentation. In 1948 the company produced eighteen thousand cases. During the nineteen fifties and sixties Bublitz manufactured over twenty-five thousand cases annually.
Early beginnings.
William Frank "Bill" Bublitz (4 May 1900 - 3 July 1962), Elkhorn, Wisconsin, son of a nearby farmer began making violins in 1912 when he was only twelve years old. July 9, 1921 the violin maker filed for a patent on his newly invented “Cramping Form for Violin Bouts" and received a patent on May 9, 1922. "A general line of musical instruments was announced by William F. Bublitz, who opened this week (February 17, 1923) in Elkhorn, Wis." “The Wisconsin inventor initially specialized in making violins especially adapted for juveniles. These violins were about three-quarters the regular size which were particularly suited for a boy or girl who found it difficult to handle adult violins. Mr. Bublitz inherited his love for music from his grandfather, Carl Bublitz. The latter was a violinist in Leipzig, Germany. The younger Bublitz was skilled as a violinist, but modestly said that his knowledge was acquired to enable him to better perfect the instruments that he makes." Although the business was originally located in Elkhorn, later it moved to Burlington until a fire destroyed the business.
Founding.
William Frank “Bill” Bublitz then founded the case company after making violins as a young skilled wood carver and teaching students to play the violins in nearby Burlington, Wisconsin. A few of his violins still exists today. After his business burned down, Bill began work in the case department of the Frank Holton Company. Later he managed the Elkhorn Case Company until he began his own case manufacturing business. Two men and three women were employed in Bill's factory when he closed the business to enter military service during World War II. After his discharge from the Army in 1945, Bill resumed his manufacturing business. In 1947, Bill's brother, Robert Earnest “Bob” Bublitz (24 November 1916 - 30 November 1973) who prior to the war, managed the plating department at the Frank Holton Company, joined Bill. The Bublitz Case Company was initially located in the rear of a garage behind Bill's mother, Tina's home at 209 West Page Street.
Expansion.
As the business grew, the factory was expanded three time over adjacent lots behind Bill's and his brother Bob's homes. The business usually employed between fifteen and twenty-five employees. The cases were sold all over the United States and in Europe. The primary customers were musical instrument manufacturers like Leblanc (musical instrument manufacturer), W.T. Armstrong Company, Getzen, Allied, Gemeinhardt and Buffet. Additionally, the cases were sold to large wholesalers and jobbers as well as a TV test instrument manufacturer.
Personnel.
Bill was the general manager and in-charge of the wood shop, lining and packing department. Bob managed the covering and hardware installation departments. Both Bill and Bob worked alongside their employees in every phase of the work. Bill made most of the specialized machinery and molds for manufacturing the cases. He also designed and constructed the forms from which trombone, French-horn, baritone, trumpet and cornet cases were molded from layers of basswood veneer.
Design and materials.
Basswood was used for the side frames and the tops and bottoms were made from either luan mahogany, birch or molded basswood. The cases were usually covered with a black leatherette and the insides were lined with a blue or red plush. The collegiate models of clarinets, trumpets, cornets and saxophones cases were sewn with a leather binding and metal corner protectors were riveted in place for durability. French-horn, trombone, tube and baritone cases had a steel banding installed on the top to make the case rugged and prevent sheet music from falling out of the case. Quality craftsmanship was always a concern with Bill &/or Bob who personally inspecting every case that left the factory. The factory was one of the first factories in Southeastern Wisconsin to be completely air conditioned.
Leadership changes.
Following Bill's death in 1962, Robert Bublitz became the general manager and was joined by another brother, Gustave Julius William “Gus” Bublitz (22 June 1906 - 5 July 1976) who worked in Holton's trombone department. Bob and Gus purchased the shares in the company inherited by Mrs. William Bublitz. In the incorporation, Gus became the president, Robert Joseph Bublitz, the vice president and Robert Ernest Bublitz the General Manager, Secretary & Treasurer.
Changes in ownership.
During the Summer of 1966, due to working capital & inventory shortages brought on by the purchase of Mrs. Bublitz interest, the business was sold to one of its primary historical long term customers, LeBlanc. Two year later the business was moved to the second floor of the Holton Company for better work flow. Bob continued as the general manager of the company until he resigned in 1972. Later the name of the business unit was changed to the Leblanc's Case Division. In 2005 the manufacturing equipment was crated and shipped to China. During the Fall 2008 the Holton factory was closed and the manufacturing equipment was moved to Eastlake, Ohio, home town of The H. N. White Company, manufacturers of the King line of musical instruments. By 2010, many of the companies that made up the musical instrument manufacturing industry including C.G. Conn and Selmer have merged into one musical instrument manufacturing conglomerate, Steinway Musical Instruments, Inc. (NYSE: LVB until taken private in 2013).
Elkhart, Indiana once the capital for musical instrument manufacturing, has gone from over sixty companies in the 1960s to just three companies in 2010. The musical instrument industry has changed drastically because of consolidation, outsourcing of manufacturing offshore to take advantage of lower labor cost, inexpensive imports and reduced school budgets for music.
External links.
National Music Museum, The University of South Dakota, 414 East Clark Street, Vermillion, SD 57069


Water key

A water key is a valve or tap used to allow the drainage of accumulated fluid from wind instruments. It is otherwise known as a water valve or, less euphemistically, a spit valve. In valved instruments like trumpets, they are found always on the main tuning slide, and sometimes on valve slides. On the trombone, it is on the lower side of the bend in the hand slide. Baritone saxophones have a water key at the bottom of the loop at the top of the instrument.
Water valves are often erroneously referred to as "spit valves", as the myth persists that some or much of the liquid consists of spit. Rather, it consists of condensed moisture from the breath of the player. The amount of water accumulated is directly in proportion to the size of the instrument, and the amount of metal exposed to the air, which in turn enables the process of condensation due to warm, moist air from the lungs meeting metal cooled by room-temperature air.
History.
Historical instruments, like natural trumpets or natural horns, did not have water keys. The player would rotate the instrument in order to expel the fluid either through the bell or through the mouthpipe. On older valved instruments (as well as on some modern instruments), it may be necessary to pull out one or more valve slides in order to completely empty the instrument. Turning the instrument upside down and actuating the valves may also release fluid stuck in the valve slides into the main tubing of the instrument, where it can then be emptied by turning the instrument or by using a water key on the main tubing.
Some trumpet designs, notably Bach Stradivarius trumpets in B♭, lack a water key on the third valve slide. Instead, they have a "dump slide", a small slide inserted into the third slide. When the dump slide is pulled out, any fluid in the third valve slide will come out.
Designs.
Water keys are made in various designs. All have the same purpose, to empty the condensation liquid from an instrument without having to rotate the instrument or pull out the slides.
The traditional design features a simple lever key as found on woodwinds, but with a cork rather than a pad in the cup.
A spring holds the cork against a raised hollow cylinder mounted on the slide or loop during play. To drain, the player presses the non-cup end of the key towards the instrument to open the valve.
Another design is called an Amado water key after its inventor. It consists of a short hollow cylinder mounted transversely on the slide. The cylinder has a button on one side that operates an enclosed stopper valve held shut with a spring, and a hole on the bottom side to drain the water. The player presses the button and blows into the horn to drain the water. The Amado design has the advantage that it presents less of a deviation from a smooth inner slide wall compared to the larger-volume drain port in the traditional design. Nevertheless, most modern horns are still fitted with the traditional design of water key.
The Saturn key, invented by Denis Wedgwood and sold by Wedgewood Brass, aimed to improve on the Amado key by offering an easier evacuation when open. The valve takes the shape of a ball with a ring around the waist, like the planet Saturn, hence the name. The mechanism contains a small steel ball, held in the ring, which blocks the hole. By pushing the ring in any direction, the player moves the ball out of the way and the fluid can be ejected. The ring is spring-loaded and returns the ball to its seating when released.


Superstar Limo

Superstar Limo was a dark ride opened in 2001 in Disney California Adventure at the Disneyland Resort in Anaheim, California. The ride was poorly received, and was closed in less than a year.
History.
The original concept for the attraction was to make riders into celebrities attempting to evade paparazzi on a wild high-speed ride through Hollywood. Reportedly, video clips of Michael Eisner (in his official role at the time as Disney chairman and chief executive officer) would have book-ended the ride. At the start, he would greet riders as they arrived at Los Angeles International Airport, remind them they had not yet signed their big contract with Disney, and promise he would be waiting at Grauman's Chinese Theatre with the contract after they escaped the paparazzi. At the end, he would appear again to politely explain the riders had been caught by paparazzi cameras and therefore the contract was void. Riders would then exit into the attached gift shop, where tabloid newspapers featuring their photographs (as taken during the chase) would be available for purchase.
The unexpected death of Princess Diana in a car crash in Paris on August 31, 1997 forced Walt Disney Imagineering to radically redesign the ride. Since paparazzi had been following Diana at the time of her crash, a ride built around the tendency of paparazzi to chase celebrities at high speed "was rendered incredibly tasteless." Eisner was replaced with a fictional Hollywood agent, and the ride was dramatically slowed down. Visual gags intended to be absorbed at high speed no longer made sense, so the ride was packed with celebrity figures to compensate for the change in pacing.
Superstar Limo was situated in the Hollywood Pictures Backlot area and was one of the original attractions featured on the park's opening day on February 8, 2001. The ride included figures of celebrities which were stylized and caricatured. Though most of them had moving arms and heads, none of Disney's human-like Audio-Animatronics technologies were used in the attraction.
The attraction closed in January 2002, due to negative reception from guests, making it the park's first attraction to permanently close. It has since been replaced by an attraction based on Disney·Pixar's "Monsters, Inc." entitled Monsters, Inc. Mike & Sulley to the Rescue!, which opened on January 23, 2006. The "Monsters, Inc." ride uses the same track layout as Superstar Limo, with taxicabs taking the place of the original limos.
In the 2019 documentary series "The Imagineering Story", Bruce Vaughn, Chief Creative Executive (2007–2016) of Walt Disney Imagineering, described the creation of Superstar Limo:
Synopsis.
The attraction's purple "stretch limo" ride vehicles took riders through a cartoony rendition of Hollywood. Riders were introduced to animated figures modeled in the likeness of celebrities. The celebrities in the attraction were Joan Rivers (appearing only in puppet-form on TV screens in the attraction's queue), Regis Philbin, Melanie Griffith, Antonio Banderas, Cindy Crawford, Tim Allen, Jackie Chan, Drew Carey, Cher, and Whoopi Goldberg. A stereotypical Hollywood talent agent named Swifty La Rue appeared infrequently on small in-seat video screens, reminding the riders not to be late to their movie premiere.
The story of the attraction placed the guest (rider) as Hollywood's newest celebrity, starting out at Los Angeles International Airport and then boarding a limousine taking them through a variety of stereotypical locations and situations on the way to the premiere of their new movie at Grauman's Chinese Theatre. Locations included the greater Los Angeles and Hollywood areas including Rodeo Drive, the Sunset Strip, Bel Air, Malibu, the interior of a soundstage, Grauman's Chinese Theatre, and a billboard that displayed an image captured of the guests. The ride ends with the talent agent declaring to the riders that their movie was a success and they are a superstar.
Criticism.
Superstar Limo was criticized as lacking and poor in concept. Theme park reporter Brady MacDonald summed up the attraction as "a prime example of offensive theme park design."
An early review of California Adventure by Anne Chalfant in "The Boston Globe" cited Superstar Limo as an example of the park's budget-cutting beginnings: "Kids will also like Superstar Limo, in the Hollywood Pictures Backlot area. Here you play the star, riding in your purple limo past a few audio-animatronic Hollywood celebrities. Adults will notice, however, that other painted plywood characters and sets are about on a par with college theater constructions." Similarly, James Sterngold of "The New York Times" called it "probably the shlockiest attraction in the new park."
An article by David Rorden in the "Longview Daily News" giving a mostly favorable review of the then-new theme park singled out Superstar Limo as a mistake, calling attention to the self-promotion in featuring stars like Drew Carey, who appeared on a sitcom aired on the Disney-owned network ABC: "I think they should change the name of this ride from Superstar Limo to 'It's a Shill World.' The space would be better devoted to something more entertaining, such as an Audioanimatronic dentist doing root canals on all Imagineers who came up with the idea for Superstar Limo."


Differential pulse voltammetry

Differential pulse voltammetry (DPV) (also differential pulse polarography, DPP) is a voltammetry method used to make electrochemical measurements and a derivative of linear sweep voltammetry or staircase voltammetry, with a series of regular voltage pulses superimposed on the potential linear sweep or stairsteps. The current is measured immediately before each potential change, and the current difference is plotted as a function of potential. By sampling the current just before the potential is changed, the effect of the charging current can be decreased.
By contrast, in normal pulse voltammetry the current resulting from a series of ever larger potential pulses is compared with the current at a constant 'baseline' voltage. Another type of pulse voltammetry is squarewave voltammetry, which can be considered a special type of differential pulse voltammetry in which equal time is spent at the potential of the ramped baseline and potential of the superimposed pulse.
Electrochemical cell.
The system of this measurement is usually the same as that of standard voltammetry. The potential between the working electrode and the reference electrode is changed as a pulse from an initial potential to an interlevel potential and remains at the interlevel potential for about 5 to 100 milliseconds; then it changes to the final potential, which is different from the initial potential. The pulse is repeated, changing the final potential, and a constant difference is kept between the initial and the interlevel potential. The value of the current between the working electrode and auxiliary electrode before and after the pulse are sampled and their differences are plotted versus potential.
Uses.
These measurements can be used to study the redox properties of extremely small amounts of chemicals because of the following two features: 1) in these measurements, the effect of the charging current can be minimized, so high sensitivity is achieved and 2) only faradaic current is extracted, so electrode reactions can be analyzed more precisely.
Characteristics.
Differential pulse voltammetry has these characteristics: 1) reversible reactions have symmetric peaks, and irreversible reactions have asymmetric peaks, 2) the peak potential is equal to E1/2r-ΔE in reversible reactions, and the peak current is proportional to the concentration, 3) The detection limit is about 10−8 M.


Isopotential map

Isopotential maps are a measure of electrostatic potential in space. The spatial derivatives of an electrostatic field indicate the contours of the electrostatic field, so isopotential maps show where another charged molecule might interact, using equipotential lines (isopotentials).


Fujica X-mount

The Fujica X-mount was a lens mount created by Fujifilm in the late 1970s for the new Fujica SLR lineup: AX-1, AX-3, AX-5, STX-1, STX-1N, STX-2. It replaced the M42 screw mount used on their earlier SLRs.
The mount is a bayonet type, with a 65° clockwise lock, and a flange focal distance of 43.5 mm.
With the advent of autofocus, the Fujica series of 35 mm SLR cameras was discontinued in 1985, rendering this mount obsolete. Fuji would return to the SLR market in 2000 with a series of digital SLR cameras starting with the FinePix S1 Pro, but these were based on Nikon designs and used the autofocus version of the Nikon F-mount.
Fujifilm introduced a line of twenty X-Fujinon lenses with this mount (as well as some Fujinar lenses):
Fujifilm X-Fujinon lenses.
The following lists Fujifilm X-Fujinon lenses with this mount (not including Fujinar lenses with this mount).
Not on that list is the EBC X-Fujinon Z 70-140mm 1:4-4.5 DM Zoom lens
The "no-DM" lens cannot be used for program and shutter priority exposure modes of AX-3, AX-5 SLR ; aperture priority and manual mode will work.
Accessories.
There were some accessories that complied with Fujica X-mount:


Terrain roller coaster

Terrain roller coasters are roller coasters which take advantage of the usually-natural undulations of the land upon which they are built. Such rides may often weave through forests, and some may even dive down cliffs. Because they tend to stay close to the ground, they require fewer supports and thus are usually cheaper than the same coaster on flat ground.


No.8 rifle

The Rifle, Number 8 (commonly referred to as the "Number 8 Rifle" or the "Number 8 Cadet Rifle") is a bolt-action .22 calibre version of the Lee–Enfield rifle designed for British Army target shooting. They are simple single-shot, hand-fed cadet rifles and were originally designed to be used by military marksmen firing in civilian competitions. The Number 8 is no longer used by the British cadet services as a basic target rifle, replaced by the L144 and air rifles. Some examples are in civilian ownership worldwide, especially following the disposal by the New Zealand cadet forces of their Number 8 and Number 9 rifles at auction.
Sight types.
Typically fired at a range of , the rearsight can be adjusted to allow fire at . A harmonisation setting is also provided for firing at specially designed targets. The No 8 can also be fitted with two types of sight. The more common leaf sight, allowing adjustment for elevation only, is simpler to use and more robust, but the standard of accuracy that can be achieved with this sight is lower than can be achieved with the Parker Hale PH5D sight, which allows for windage adjustment as well as elevation, in 1/4 minute-of-angle clicks. It is also more delicate than the leaf-sight and not generally found in cadet service. The Parker-Hale 8/53 sight adaptor unit can also be fitted to the leaf rearsight, providing windage adjustment without the removal of the issued sighting system. It screws on through the sight aperture and therefore introduces a large elevation difference, rendering the range markings on the sight useless.
Replacement.
In 2014 the replacement contract for the rifle was put out to tender. In 2016 it was announced that a modified version of the Savage Arms FVT had been chosen for this role, entering service as the "L144 A1 Cadet Small Bore Target Rifle (CSBTR)".


USS Hobson (DD-464)

USS "Hobson" (DD-464/DMS-26), a , was the only ship of the United States Navy to be named for Richmond Pearson Hobson, who was awarded the Medal of Honor for actions during the Spanish–American War. He would later in his career attain the rank of rear admiral and go on to serve as a congressman from the state of Alabama.
"Hobson", constructed at a cost of $5 million, was launched at the Charleston Navy Yard on 8 September 1941; sponsored by Mrs. Grizelda Hobson, widow of Rear Admiral Hobson. As the new destroyer slid down the ways, she was cheered on by spectators and whistle blasts from other vessels on the Cooper River. "Hobson" was commissioned on 22 January 1942, Commander R. N. McFarlane in command.
In 1952, "Hobson" collided with the aircraft carrier and sank with the loss of 176 crew. The ships had been undertaking amphibious exercises in the Atlantic, with "Wasp" practicing night flying, when "Hobson" attempted to turn in front of the carrier and collided with "Wasp". "Hobson" was broken in two and quickly sunk, causing the greatest loss of life on a US Navy ship since World War II.
Service prior to D-day.
"Hobson" was pennant of Destroyer Division 20 (DesDiv 20), composed of , and that along with Destroyer Division 19 made up Destroyer Squadron 10 (DesRon 10), with its pennant on ; Destroyer Flotilla Four, with its flag on ; Destroyers, Atlantic Fleet. Following extensive shakedown and training operations in Casco Bay, Maine, the new destroyer under command of Lt. Cdr. Kenneth Loveland and her sister ships of Desdiv 20 joined veteran aircraft carrier at Norfolk, Virginia, and sailed on 1 July 1942 to escort her to Africa. Carrying a vital cargo of 72 P-40 aircraft, "Ranger" arrived safely via Trinidad, unloaded the planes and returned with Desdiv 20 on 5 August 1942. "Hobson" then conducted training exercises off Newport, Rhode Island, and Norfolk until 3 October 1942, when she departed Norfolk for Bermuda on escort duty.
Operation Torch, the Invasion of North Africa.
As the Allies prepared to land in North Africa, "Hobson", the three other destroyers of DesDiv 20 and "Ellyson" as destroyer flag under Capt. J.L. Holloway, joined Task Group 34.2 Airgroup under Rear Admiral Ernest D. McWhorter, composed of "Ranger", Sangamon-class escort carrier , light cruiser , two submarines and a fleet oiler. The group was part of Task Force 34, Western Naval Task Force- Morocco, under Rear Admiral Henry Kent Hewitt, flag on the cruiser . The Allies organized three amphibious task forces to seize the key ports and airports of Vichy French-controlled Morocco and Algeria simultaneously, targeting Casablanca, Oran and Algiers. Successful completion of these operations was to be followed by an advance eastwards into Tunisia.
The Western Task Force (aimed at Casablanca) was composed of American army forces under the command of Major General George S. Patton and Rear Admiral Hewitt heading the naval operations. The army units consisted of the U.S. 2nd Armored Division and the U.S. 3rd and 9th Infantry Divisions—35,000 troops in a convoy of over 100 ships. They were transported directly from the United States in the first of a new series of UG convoys providing logistic support for the North African campaign. "Hobson" and the other four destroyers' main job was to screen and protect "Ranger" while the carrier's mobile air power supported the army's assault at Casablanca. Departing from Bermuda on 25 October 1942, "Hobson"s group arrived off Fedhala on 8 November 1942. As the Operation Torch landings proceeded, the air group provided indispensable air support, launching 496 combat sorties in the three-day operation. "Ranger"s planes hit shore batteries, the immobile Vichy French battleship , and later helped turn back the attack by French ships on the transport area in the Naval Battle of Casablanca. As "Ranger"s planes were attacking "Jean Bart" on D-Day Plus 2 (10 November), the French submarine "Tonant" fired four torpedoes at the carrier which passed harmlessly astern. At 1010, "Ellyson" spotted a periscope and dropped a full barrage of depth charges on sight at shallow setting. As "Ranger" turned to port, "Hobson" dropped another full pattern at deep setting. Capt. Holloway later wrote, "I am convinced that this fortunate sight contact by "Ellyson" saved "Ranger" from torpedo attack at closer range." Casablanca capitulated to the American forces on 11 November 1942 and "Ranger" departed the Moroccan coast 12 November, returning to Norfolk on the 23d. "Hobson" screened "Ranger" until she sailed for Norfolk, leaving the Allies fully in command of the assault area.
Atlantic Convoy Duty.
Upon her return to Norfolk on 27 November 1942, the destroyer took part in exercises in Casco Bay, later steaming with a convoy to the Panama Canal Zone in December. "Hobson" and DesDiv 20 again joined "Ranger" in early 1943 and the anti-submarine group sailed on 8 January 1943 to patrol the western Atlantic. Groups such as "Ranger"s did much to protect Allied shipping in the Atlantic from U-boats, and contributed to the eventual victory in Europe. Typical of "Hobson"s versatile performance was her rescue off Bermuda of 45 survivors from the British merchantman on 2 March 1943. The freighter had been torpedoed and sunk four days earlier by the German submarine and the no. 3 lifeboat with 35 crew and passengers, under a red sail and towing a liferaft holding 10 more crewmen, had sailed 93 nautical miles southwest of the sinking, when it was spotted by "Ranger"s aircraft at 0745 hours. "Hobson" thereafter broke from the destroyer screen to investigate. The destroyer picked up the survivors at 1003 and the lifeboat and raft were sunk by gunfire from the ship. The "St Margaret" survivors were landed at Bermuda on Friday 5 March, where the crew were put on board an HM ship on 15 March and were landed at Portsmouth, England, seven days later.
In April 1943, "Hobson" and "Ranger" arrived at Naval Station Argentia, Newfoundland, and began operations out of that base. The ships provided air cover for convoys and anti-submarine patrol, and in July 1943 had the honor of convoying , carrying Prime Minister Winston Churchill to the Quebec Conference. The veteran destroyer arrived in Boston 27 July 1943 to prepare for new duties.
Operation Leader, Bodø, Norway.
"Hobson" sailed with "Ranger" and other ships 5 August 1943 to join the British Home Fleet at Scapa Flow. Arriving 19 August, she operated under Royal Navy orders in northern waters, helping to provide cover for vital supply convoys to Russia. While at Scapa Flow, she was inspected by US Secretary of the Navy Frank Knox and Admiral Harold Rainsford Stark on 21 September. "Hobson" and DesDiv 20 along with "Ranger" and the heavy cruisers and formed a task force under the command of Rear Admiral Olaf M. Hustvedt that executed Operation Leader, a daring raid of combined British and American naval forces on 2–4 October 1943, when "Ranger"s air wing of dive bombers, torpedo bombers and fighters staged a devastating attack on German shipping at Bodø, Norway. Following this operation, the destroyer continued to operate with Home Fleet. She screened the aircraft carrier during flight operations in November and after two convoy voyages to Iceland, "Hobson" and Desdiv 20 returned to Boston and U.S. operational control 3 December 1943.
Hunter-killer anti-submarine duty.
During the first two months of 1944, "Hobson" trained in Chesapeake Bay and operated with carriers between the East Coast and Bermuda. She joined escort carrier , flagship of Anti-Submarine Task Group 21.11, and the group's four other destroyers or destroyer escorts at Norfolk for temporary duty, departing 26 February 1944. These Hunter-killer Groups (HUK's) played a major part in driving German U-boats from the sea lanes, and this cruise was no exception. After patrolling for over two weeks, the destroyers spotted an oil slick, made sonar contact, and commenced depth charge attacks on the afternoon of 13 March 1944. The was severely damaged and was forced to surface, after which gunfire from "Hobson", , a torpedo bomber from Composite Squadron Ninety-Five (VC 95) based on "Bogue", the Canadian frigate HMCS "Prince Rupert" and an RAF Flying Fortress (No. 220 Squadron) sank her. After further anti-submarine sweeps as far east as the Azores, "Hobson" detached from the HUK on 25 March 1944, and returned to Boston 2 April 1944.
D-Day, Utah Beach.
For some time the Allies had been building up tremendous strength in England for the eventual invasion of France. "Hobson" and the other three destroyers of DesDiv 20, "Corry", "Forrest" and "Fitch", sailed from Norfolk on 21 April 1944 to join the vast armada of Operation Neptune that would transport and protect the soldiers and their mechanized equipment during Operation Overlord. "Hobson" spent a month on patrol off Northern Ireland, arriving at Plymouth on 21 May for final invasion preparations. Assigned to Rear Admiral Don P. Moon's Utah Beach Assault Group "U", flag on the , "Hobson" and her three sister-ships of DesDiv 20 were elements of Bombardment Group 125.8 that comprised the battleship , the heavy cruisers , , British cruiser , monitor , ten American destroyers, four British destroyers and a Dutch gunboat.
The destroyers arrived off "Point Mike", the outermost area of Utah with the other ships of the bombardment group at 0140 on 6 June. All vessels entering into Utah had to remain in their assigned asymmetrical and exact mine-swept channels that had been drawn up and cleared to provide the maximum safety from the mine peril and to permit access to all the carefully designated positions of the bombardment ships. Minesweepers cleared the area where transport craft would assemble and discharge; and provided adequate channels for all the amphibious boats between "Transport Area" and the landing beaches. The order of ships was the British destroyers , , and the Dutch gunboat . The American destroyers , , "
"Hobson" and "Forrest" followed as screen for "Bayfield" and three other Allied transports carrying General Raymond O. Barton's 4th Infantry Division troops as far as the transport area. The destroyers then closed in on their action stations. Fire Support Unit 3, "Hobson", "Corry" and "Fitch", led the first waves of landing boats down the boat lane, breaking off in time to be in their stations at 0540.
The German shore batteries, having discovered the Allied invaders, began firing on the armada at 0530. At 0536, the group commander made the signal "Commence counter battery bombardment.", 14 minutes ahead of schedule. "Hobson" and the other ships began counter-firing as spent 5" and 8" shell casings littered their decks. Only the heavy ships had planes to spot for them. The destroyers were close enough to see their targets which consisted mostly of "strong points" just back of the beaches. "Hobson", at station 1, was assigned firing on targets 70 and 72. At 0629, "Hobson" observed shell splashes near and at 0633, "Corry" appeared to be hit amidships. As smoke from the intense shore firing drifted offshore and temporarily concealed "Corry", "Hobson" shifted her fire at 0638 to target 86 which appeared to have been firing on "Corry". This battery temporarily ceased firing as soon as taken under fire by "Hobson". At 0644, the destroyer shifted her fire back to targets 70 and 72 since the leading boat wave was close to shore and neutralization of German firing from those areas was vital. At 0656, the smoke was extremely heavy on the beach, making it difficult to see the targets, and "Hobson", per her prior firing orders, estimated that the first troops were going ashore and shifted fire to target 74, which was in an excellent position to deliver deadly enfilade and strafing fire on the Allied landing troops. At 0700, the smoke cover was clearing from "Corry" and the men on "Hobson" could see she was "in definite trouble with her back broken between the stacks" as targets 13A and 86 fired on the stricken destroyer. "Corry", the worst naval loss of the D-Day landings, was hit by the Crisbecq Battery, whose three 210-millimeter (8.25-inch) guns had a range of .
Since target 74 was then inactive, "Hobson" began alternately taking targets 13A and 86 under fire while keeping watch on target 74. At 0721, it was clear that "Corry" was sinking and "Hobson" began to close range on her while continuing her firing on the two targets. At that time, the group commander ordered to stand by the "Corry" since "Hobson"s mission of covering the landing beach flank was vital. By then the German shore batteries at 13A and 86 had ceased firing, and "Hobson" lowered her two boats to assist "Fitch" in picking up the "Corry"s survivors. "Hobson" then resumed her station and continued firing on target 74 and a nearby roadblock and strong point. At 0854, according to schedule, relieved "Hobson" at her station, and "Hobson" was ordered to assume "Corry"s fire support mission at station 3. "Hobson" continued firing on German shore positions while simultaneously rescuing survivors from the water until returning to Plymouth, England, later that afternoon. The destroyer was not long out of the fray, however, returning on 8 June 1944 to screen the assault area. She also jammed glider bomb radio frequencies on 9–11 June and provided channel convoy protection.
Bombardment of Cherbourg.
After the Allies' successful establishment of a bridgehead at Normandy, the German strategy was to bottle them up there, deny the Allies access to the nearest major port at Cherbourg and break their supply line. By mid-June U.S. infantry had sealed off the Cotentin Peninsula, but their advance had stalled and the Germans began to demolish the port's facilities. With the Allies sorely in need of Cherbourg to continue advancing through France, they renewed their efforts to capture the city, and by June 20 three infantry divisions under General "Lightning Joe" Collins had advanced within a mile of German lines defending Cherbourg. Two days later, the general assault began and on June 25, a large naval task force began a concentrated bombardment of the town to help neutralize the threat of German coastal artillery and to provide support to the assaulting infantry.
Task Force 129 was divided into two divisions. Battle Group 1 under Admiral Morton Deyo's command, was assigned to bombard Cherbourg, the inner harbor forts, and the area west towards the Atlantic. Group 1 consisted of , , , and five destroyers: (flag), , , , , and .
Rear Admiral Carleton F. Bryant's smaller Battle Group 2 was assigned "Target 2", the Battery Hamburg, which was located near Fermanville, inland from Cape Levi, east of Cherbourg. "Nevada" in Group 1 was to use its main battery to silence what was described as "the most powerful German strongpoint on the Cotentin Peninsula". Battle Group 2 would then complete the destruction, and pass westward to join Deyo's group. Bryant's Group 2 consisted of , , and five destroyers. These were (flag), , , "Hobson" (pennant), and . During the bombardment. Group 2 was in place by 0950 and "Hobson" and the other destroyers fired at the large batteries, screened the battleships "Texas" and "Arkansas"; and when the battleships were dangerously straddled, "Hobson" and "Plunkett" made covering smoke which allowed all to retire. At 1500, Deyo ordered cease fire and began withdrawing from the bombardment area. Group 2 headed back to Portsmouth, England at 1501.
After the action, Allied reports agreed that the most effective aspect of the bombardment was the fire that was provided by the small ships. Under the direction of army spotters, these ships were able to engage point targets up to 2,000 yards (1,800 m) inland, which proved invaluable in providing close support to the assaulting Allied infantry. In contrast, while the force's heavy guns disabled 22 of 24 assigned navy targets, they were unable to destroy any of them and, consequently, infantry assaults were required to ensure that the guns could not be reactivated. By 29 June, Allied troops occupied Cherbourg and its crucial port. Collins wrote to Deyo, stating that during the "naval bombardment of the coastal batteries and the covering strong points around Cherbourg ... results were excellent, and did much to engage the enemy's fire while our troops stormed into Cherbourg from the rear." After an inspection of the port defenses, an army liaison officer reported that the guns that had been targeted could not be reactivated, and those that could have been turned landward were still pointed out to sea when the city had fallen.
Invasion of Southern France and Mediterranean Convoy Duty.
Following the surrender of Cherbourg, "Hobson" and most of Task Force 129 that had not sustained battle damage, were ordered to Belfast, Northern Ireland to join the attack transports that had assembled there following service in the Normandy Invasion and to await the move to the Mediterranean. "Hobson" and the other ships arrived at Belfast on 30 June and there, Task Group 120.6 under Admiral Deyo on "Tuscaloosa" was formed consisting of the transports and most of Task Force 129. They sailed on 4 July and arrived at Mers-el-Kébir, Algeria, 11 July 1944, and for a month after, performed convoy duties to and from Taranto, Italy.
The landing areas for Operation Dragoon the invasion of Southern France and the last major amphibious operation of the European theater, were designated "Alpha", "Delta" and "Camel" from west to east, covering three sets of beaches along the Provence Coast between Hyeres and Cannes. The Western Naval Task Force was formed under the command of Vice Admiral Hewitt to carry the U.S. 6th Army Group, also known as the Southern Group or Dragoon Force onto the shore. Joining Rear Admiral Bertram J. Rodgers' Delta Assault Force, Task Group 85.12 was the gunfire support group for the central invasion force under Rear Admiral Bryant on "Texas". It consisted of the American battleships "Texas" and "Nevada"; light cruiser and French light cruisers "Georges Leygues", and "Montcalm"; the surviving eight destroyers of DesRon 10 (Destroyer Unit 85.12.4), "Ellyson", "Rodman", "Emmons", "Forrest", "Fitch", "Hambleton", "Macomb", and "Hobson"; French destroyers "La Fantasque", "Le Terrible", "Le Malin", and four gun support craft, which sailed from Taranto at 1400 on 11 August 1944. "H-hour" was set for 0800 on 15 August. Early on 15 August 1944, "Hobson" acted as spotter for "Nevada" and her preliminary bombardment from the Baie de Bougnon. As troops stormed ashore at Delta Beach (Le Muy, Saint-Tropez), "Hobson" provided direct fire support with her own batteries. By 0815, the bombardment had destroyed enemy defenses and Major General William W. Eagles’ famed "Thunderbirds" of the 45th Infantry Division landed without opposition. "Hobson" remained in the assault area until the next evening, arriving at Palermo on 17 August 1944 to take up Mediterranean convoy duty.
As the Allied offensive in Europe gained momentum, "Hobson" steamed as a convoy escort between Algeria, Italy, and France protecting vital supplies and troops. In the early morning darkness of 2 October 1944, "Hobson" was standing out from Marseilles, France, during a violent gale, when her spotters observed distress calls from well inside an unswept area of the German- mined harbor. It was soon established that a liberty ship, the "S.S. Johns Hopkins", moving to an anchorage after returning from Oran, Algeria, with 600 troops embarked, had struck a mine while navigating in the gale. Ordered to assist the stricken "Hopkins", "Hobson" skillfully and carefully navigated through the perilous, mined area in gale-force wind and sea, and made repeated attempts to land alongside the liberty ship to offload her troops, although each time "Hobson" was forced to back off as the ships pounded heavily in the extreme weather. Through Lt. Cdr. Loveland's skillful ship-handling and that of his deck crew, the damage to "Hobson" was superficial. "Hobson" remained close aboard the stricken cargo ship until daylight when safe water was finally reached, the ships having crossed thirteen and one-half miles of unswept water. "Hobson" remained on scene over the next twenty-four hours, and until "S.S. Johns Hopkins" was successfully returned to port by a Navy fleet tugboat with no loss of life or injury to her personnel or troops.
Service as a destroyer- minesweeper.
In October 1944, with the Atlantic and Mediterranean theaters secured, all eight surviving destroyers of DesRon 10 returned to various east coast navy yards where over a period of approximately six weeks, they had their No. 4 5-inch guns replaced with gear for sweeping acoustic mines. On 15 November they were reclassified as destroyer-minesweepers (DMS 19–26). "Hobson" sailed for the United States on 25 October and arrived at Charleston via Bermuda on 10 November 1944. There she entered the Naval Shipyard and was converted to destroyer-minesweeper and commissioned DMS-26 on 15 November 1944, Lt. Cmdr. Joseph I. Manning, commanding. Throughout the month of December, she underwent trials and shakedown training off Charleston and Norfolk. In January 1945, the eight newly-converted destroyer-minesweepers made their way from their conversion shipyards to the Pacific as the core of the 12-ship Mine Squadron (MinRon) 20, with flag on the "Ellyson".
"Hobson" and several others in the squadron sailed on 4 January 1945 via the Panama Canal, with stops at San Diego for training and inspection, and then stood out from San Francisco for Hawaii, arriving at Pearl Harbor on 11 February 1945. "Hobson" was part of Mine Division (MinDiv) 58, along with "Forrest" (pennant), "Fitch" and "Macomb". At Hawaii, she underwent further mine warfare training before sailing on 24 February 1945 with eight of the twelve ships of MinRon 20 as Task Unit 18.2.3 for Ulithi via Eniwetok and a role in the history of the last and greatest of the Pacific amphibious operations, Operation Iceberg, the assault on Okinawa.
Okinawa, Kamikaze attacks.
On 9 March 1945, "Hobson" arrived at Ulithi, the main staging area for the Okinawa Invasion 1,180 mi. away from the objective, where she and eight other members of her squadron engaged in exercises and calibration of their sweeping equipment until the remaining three sweepers arrived on the 12th. On the last day at sea "Fitch" wrecked her propeller on a reef and had to return to Pearl Harbor. The aircraft carriers departed for Okinawa on 14 March, and the eleven remaining sweeps of MinRon 20 left on the 19th. Given the nature of their task, the minesweepers had to be the first surface vessels at the target area and unlike the carriers, they headed directly to Okinawa, making the voyage in four days. While the four day journey was uneventful, the two threats the minesweepers faced were Japanese air attacks and the deteriorating weather. "Hobson" arrived at Okinawa well in advance of the assault troops to sweep the offshore areas, where she was often attacked by Japanese planes. In the early hours of L-Day, she and "Emmons" were on radar picket duty with "Hobson" as fire support ship. As the amphibious assault began on 1 April 1945, "Hobson" also took up patrol duties and provided night illumination during the first critical days of the campaign. As desperate enemy suicide attacks were repulsed with heavy losses, "Hobson" was called upon on 13 April 1945 to take up a radar picket station where had been sunk in a heavy kamikaze attack the previous night.
"Hobson"s executive officer, Lt. Robert M. Vogel gave this account: On 16 April 1945 at 0500 and 75 miles northwest of Okinawa, fifteen enemy planes spotted "Hobson", and two accompanying gunboats and made passes at the ships; however, the attackers were driven off by anti-aircraft fire. At 0853, one of the planes made a suicide run on "Pringle" but was shot down by gunners on both "Hobson" and "Pringle". Another dived on "Pringle" at 0920, slamming into the destroyer's bridge, and plowing through the superstructure deck, abaft the base of number one stack. A single 1,000-pound bomb, or two 500-pounders, penetrated the main and superstructure decks and exploded with a violent eruption, buckling the keel and splitting the vessel in two at the forward fire room. "Pringle" sank in six minutes.
Two minutes later, a single-engine aircraft began a suicide run on "Hobson" from the starboard side. Five-inch shells from the destroyer disintegrated the plane just short of the ship, but its 250-pound bomb penetrated the deck house. The explosion of the delayed action bomb started fires in the gunnery workshop, machine shop and electrical shop and blasted a hole in the deck over the forward engine room, wrecking steam and power lines. Four of her crew were killed and six wounded.
Two more suicide planes attacked "Hobson" but her gunners shot them into the sea. The two gunboats shot down another. The remaining Japanese planes continued to make passes for an hour before they withdrew. Meanwhile, the "Hobson"s crew extinguished the fires in fifteen minutes, rigged emergency power lines in four minutes and the ship continued to maneuver. Thirty-five minutes after the attack ended, "Hobson" had picked up 136 of the "Pringle"s 258 survivors, clinging to rafts and wreckage. The two gunboats rescued the others. During the attack, "Hobson"s gunners shot down four Japanese suicide planes in 67 minutes. That same morning, about 40 minutes before "Pringle" was sunk, the destroyer and several other ships on radar picket duty, had also been hit by kamikazes about fifty miles away.
After the attack, "Hobson" anchored at Kerama Retto, returning to Ulithi on 29 April 1945 and Pearl Harbor on 16 May 1945. "Hobson" then sailed via San Diego and the Panama Canal Zone to Norfolk Naval Shipyard, where she arrived on 15 June 1945 for repairs.
Post war and sinking.
The unconditional surrender of Imperial Japan came with "Hobson" still undergoing repairs. With repairs completed and after shakedown training, she spent February 1946 on mine-sweeping operations out of Yorktown, Virginia. The remainder of the year was spent in training and readiness exercises in the Caribbean and off Norfolk. Until 1950, the ship continued to operate off the East Coast and in Caribbean waters on amphibious and mine warfare operations. In late 1948, she visited Argentia and Halifax, Nova Scotia on mine-sweeping exercises with Canadian ships. With the outbreak of the Korean War in June 1950, "Hobson"s schedule of training intensified. She took part in amphibious exercises off North Carolina and Puerto Rico during 1950–51, and participated in carrier operations as a plane guard and screening ship.
During one such operation on the night of 26 April 1952 at 2220, "Hobson" was steaming in formation with the aircraft carrier and destroyer about southeast of St. John's, Newfoundland at during night flight operations en route to Gibraltar. "Hobson" was moving at 24 knots and following the carrier 3,000 yards off her starboard quarter with "Rodman" following "Wasp" off her port quarter. "Hobson"s commanding officer, Lt. Comdr. William J. Tierney, had been in command of the ship for 5 weeks. He anticipated that "Wasp", preparing to recover her aircraft at 2300, would change course to 250–260 degrees to bring the carrier into the wind, necessary for the aircraft landings. The destroyer's executive officer, Lt. William A. Hoefer, was on the bridge with the conn and control of the ship when Tierney outlined a course to maneuver "Hobson" ahead of "Wasp" and then come up on the massive carrier's port quarter as the destroyer's new station. "Rodman" would move to the starboard quarter as her new station. Hoefer, who had been on "Hobson" for 16 months, was immediately concerned when he saw Tierney's plan and turned the conn over to Lt. Donald Cummings, so that he could voice his opposition and belief that Tierney's maneuver would put the two ships on a collision course. Since "Wasp" had to turn to port to recover aircraft, the trailing destroyer had two options, slow down and let "Wasp" turn, the conventional method, or cross in front of the carrier. A heated argument ensued that Hoefer lost and he strode off the bridge to the outside wing to cool off.
Meanwhile, "Wasp"s commanding officer, Capt. Burnham C. McCaffree, was on his bridge, where Lt. Robert Herbst had the conn and ordered right standard rudder and flank speed to bring the carrier into the wind. McCaffree observed the red aircraft warning lights of the two destroyers and believed that they were also beginning the evolution. Tierney, now in control of "Hobson" ordered right standard rudder and a course of 130 degrees. The wind shifted and McCaffree ordered a necessary course change from 250 to 260 degrees to head into the wind. At that time "Wasp"s surface radar failed, while on "Hobson", the port pelorus was fogged, thus preventing an accurate bearing on "Wasp". McCaffree notified the destroyers of his course change, but it is unclear whether anyone on "Hobson"s bridge heard the communication. Tierney, without disclosing his intention, was going to put the "Hobson" into a Williamson turn that would bring the ship back to the point she had been. Tierney suddenly ordered full left rudder and within 30 seconds ordered full right rudder. Hoefer rushed back onto "Hobson"s bridge when he realized what Tierney was doing and yelled "Prepare for collision!, Prepare for collision!" At that moment, Tierney ordered left full rudder, intending to race ahead of "Wasp" which was bearing down on the destroyer. Aboard "Wasp", Lt. Herbst told Capt. McCaffree, "We're in trouble" as McCaffree ordered "all back emergency."
At first it looked as though "Hobson" might escape the massive carrier as her bow and number-one stack passed from starboard to port, but then there was a horrendous, grinding crash as "Wasp" struck "Hobson" amidships. The force of the collision rolled the destroyer-minesweeper over onto her port side, breaking her in two. The aft section of "Hobson" trailed alongside of the carrier while the forward half was temporarily lodged in the "Wasp"s bow. The aft part of the ship sank first but 40 of the survivors came from that section as men were literally shot out of a scuttle hatch they had managed to open, propelled by the force of water and expelling air. Aboard the carrier, life rafts were being dropped over and lines lowered. One set of double rafts fell on top of a cluster of five men who were never seen again. One lucky man, a chief petty officer in the bow, managed to grab a pipe protruding from "Wasp", just as "Hobson"s bow began her descent under the waves and leaped onto "Wasp" without getting wet. Survival for the rest of "Hobson"s crew in the thick, glutinous fuel oil was incredible, yet it happened for some. "Rodman" and "Wasp" pulled aboard 61 oil-coated survivors, but the destroyer and 176 of her crew were lost in less than five minutes, including Tierney, who dove from the bridge into the sea moments before the carrier plowed into "Hobson" – and brought about the tragic end of the destroyer-minesweeper's valiant career. The sinking of "Hobson" was the worst non-combat accident for the U.S. Navy since the disappearance of the collier with 306 crew and passengers en route from Barbados to Baltimore, Maryland, in March 1918, during World War I.
Aftermath and findings.
A court of inquiry performed an investigation into the sinking of "Hobson" in an effort to determine the cause of the tragedy. The opinion of the court of inquiry was "that the sole cause of the collision was the unexplained left turn made by the "Hobson" about 2224. In making this left turn the Commanding Officer committed a grave error in judgement." Since the commanding officer did not survive the collision, the reason for this error could not be determined. No one else was considered to be at fault and the crew of "Wasp" was absolved of any responsibility for the collision. The commanding officer of "Hobson" had six months of prior command experience on a High-speed transport (APD), but had been in command of "Hobson" for only five weeks. Seven days of that were underway and only 3 1/2 days were with the task group. The cost of repairs to "Wasp" was said to be $1 million ($ today).
As a direct result of the sinking of "Hobson", upon recommendation of the court of inquiry, the Allied Navy Signal Book was changed. A special signal was to be put into use for carriers during aircraft operations. The court of inquiry also stated in its findings that, in the future, proposed schedules for aircraft launching and recovery should be provided to the vessels performing plane guard duties.
The court of inquiry also noted that "Wasp", "Rodman", and "Hobson" were all running without normal marine navigation lights, just red aircraft warning lights on top of their masts.
USS Hobson Memorial, Charleston, SC.
In 1954, the "USS Hobson Memorial Society" erected an obelisk memorial of Salisbury Pink granite, quarried from Salisbury, North Carolina, at the city where "Hobson" had been built 14 years earlier, Charleston, South Carolina. The memorial is dedicated to the 176 men of the "Hobson" who perished in the collision with "Wasp". Surrounding the obelisk are stones from each of the 38 states where the men came from. Their names are inscribed and can also be seen in the 1954 dedication program for the memorial.
Honors and awards.
"Hobson" received six battle stars for World War II service, five in the European theater and one in the Asiatic Pacific theater, and shared in the Presidential Unit Citation awarded to the ships in the "Bogue" antisubmarine task group in the Atlantic, for the period 26 February to 25 March 1944.
"Hobson"s engagements were:
"Hobson"s captain, Lt. Cdr. Loveland, was awarded the Legion of Merit with Combat "V" for his exceptionally meritorious conduct for depth-charging and subsequently sinking the "U-575" on 13 March 1944 after it surfaced. For his gallantry in action at the Normandy D-Day amphibious assault on Utah Beach and later at the bombardment of German defenses at Cherbourg, Loveland was awarded the Silver Star. He was awarded the Navy and Marine Corps Medal for heroism and meritorious performance of duty in the face of great danger during the "Hobson"s attempted rescue and successful towing operation of the mined SS "Johns Hopkins" off Marseilles, France, on 2 October 1944. For his extraordinary heroism during the attack at Okinawa, "Hobson"s commanding officer, Lt. Cdr. Manning, was awarded the Navy Cross. Also for the Okinawa action, "Hobson"s executive officer, Lt. Vogel, was awarded the Bronze Star and her engineer officer, Lt. (j.g.) Martin J. Cavanaugh, Jr., and Chief Machinist's Mate, Howard B. Farris, were awarded the Silver Star.


Winchester Model 69

The Winchester Model 69 is a bolt-action .22 caliber repeating rifle first produced in 1935 by the Winchester Repeating Arms Company. It was marketed as Winchester's mid-priced bolt-action rimfire sporting rifle, positioned above inexpensive single-shot rifles such as the Model 68 and beneath the prestigious Model 52. An uncommon Model 69 variant, the Model 697, was offered with a telescopic sight and no provisions for iron sights. Production ended in 1963.
Origins and design.
During the early 1930s, Winchester management was disappointed with the slow sales of the Model 56 and Model 57. Potential buyers considered the Model 56 and 57's barrels too short and the rifles' prices too high. The Model 69 was conceived as a lower-priced replacement with a longer barrel. The rifle was designed in 1934 by Winchester employee Frank F. Burton, production was announced with the release of Winchester's new price list on 1 January 1935, and the first completed rifles were shipped in March of the same year.
The striker of the Model 69 was cocked by the closing motion of the bolt, and the safety was actuated by grasping the cocking piece at the rear of the bolt, drawing it back, and rotating it, an arrangement similar to the Mosin–Nagant. The Model 69 used the same standard 5-round box magazine as the Models 52, 56, 57 and 75, allowing optional 10-round magazines and single-shot adapters to be shared. The magazine was released by depressing a spring-loaded button on the left-hand side of the stock, which was made of plain uncheckered walnut and had a pronounced pistol grip. The rifle was a takedown design; the barreled action was easily removed by turning a screw under the stock using a penny. A removable sheetmetal hood for the front sight was available. Rear sight choices included a barrel-mounted buckhorn sight that was drift-adjustable for windage and a more sophisticated receiver-mounted peep sight. A composition buttplate was used on all models.
In August 1935, the bolt was redesigned to incorporate a rebounding firing pin in compliance with Canadian import regulations. In October 1937, the stock was enlarged so the takedown screw would fit flush with the bottom, the forearm was changed to a semi-beavertail shape, and the pistol grip was made more pronounced.
Winchester-branded telescopic sights were first offered in 1937. Options were a 2¾-power scope with crosshairs or a vertical aiming post and a 5-power scope with crosshairs. Open sights were retained; the scopes were boxed separately and attached to integral bases on the barrel by the rifle's buyer.
Model 69A introduced.
In November 1937, several substantial design changes were made. The bolt was redesigned to cock on opening, the safety was changed to a sliding lever on the right-hand side of the receiver, the prominent rear cocking piece was eliminated, and the barrel was given a constant-diameter round contour rather than the previous slightly tapered contour, increasing the weight of the rifle slightly. The trigger mechanism also incorporated an internal screw adjustment, allowing the owner to adjust the trigger pull weight to some degree. The improved rifle was designated as the Model 69A.
The Model 69 was originally marketed primarily for hunting and informal plinking rather than formal target shooting. However, December 1940 saw the introduction of "Target" and "Match" versions of the Model 69, intended to fill out Winchester's target-rifle lineup beneath the top-of-the-line Model 52 and the mid-priced Model 75. Both new Model 69 variants had a slightly larger stock than the standard rifle and were chambered in .22 Long Rifle only. The Target model was advertised with a Winchester #80A aperture sight and a post front sight, while the Match model had a Lyman #57E peep sight, a hooded front sight, and a wide leather sling; the sling width was changed to 1¼ in (32 mm) in 1947.
The generally unpopular factory telescopic sight options were dropped in 1941.
Model 697.
In January 1937, Winchester introduced the Model 697, a Model 69 variant with the same telescopic sight options as the standard model but without any provisions for open sights. The new model was first shipped in June 1937 and was soon updated to the improved Model 69A standard. The Model 697 was unpopular due to dissatisfaction with the factory scope mounts and was permanently discontinued in 1941. The uncommon Model 697 commands several times the value of a standard Model 69 amongst modern-day collectors.
Later changes.
A few minor changes were made to the Model 69A after World War II. The bolt handle was changed from a straight to a slightly swept-back shape, a grooved trigger was introduced, and the receiver became available with grooves for aftermarket scope mounts. Late in the production run, chromed bolts, trigger guards, and magazine guard plates were introduced.
Production ended in 1963 after approximately 355,363 examples of all types were sold. Model 69s were never produced with serial numbers, which were not required on American firearms prior to the Gun Control Act of 1968. The Model 69 was retired without a direct replacement; all other mid-priced .22 bolt-action repeaters had already been dropped from the Winchester lineup, leaving the Model 52 standing alone in the catalog until the introduction of the Model 131 in 1967.


Henry S. Dennison

Henry Sturgis Dennison (March 4, 1877 - February 29, 1952) was an American progressive business man, president and owner of Dennison Manufacturing Co. Paper Box Factory, economic analyst, and organizational theorist. He was president of the Taylor Society from 1919 to 1921, and recipient of the Henry Laurence Gantt Medal in 1932.
Biography.
Youth, education and career.
Born in Boston, Massachusetts, Dennison was the son of Henry Beals Dennison and Emma Stanley Dennison. His grandfather Andrew Dennison was founding president of Dennison Manufacturing Co. Paper Box Factory in 1844, and his father had followed in his footsteps. After regular education Dennison graduating from Harvard College in 1899.
After his graduation Dennison entered the family business in 1899, where he was promoted to work manager in 1906. From 1917 to 1942 he was president of the company, realizing a steady growth of the company.
Other activities, honours and death.
Besides his work at the Dennison Manufacturing Co., Dennison was active member in several organizations, lectured at Harvard Business School, and authored several books and articles.
Dennison participated in the Taylor Society, where he was president from 1919 to 1921 as successor of John E. Otterson. In 1921 he was succeeded by Henry P. Kendall. Dennison also served as director of the American Management Association, and as president of the Boston Chamber of Commerce, the National Resources Planning Board, and the Business Research Council. He was also industrial advisor to the administrations of Woodrow Wilson and Franklin D. Roosevelt.
in 1932 Dennison was awarded the Henry Laurence Gantt Medal by the American Management Association and the ASME, and the Taylor Key Award by the Society for Advancement of Management in 1940.
Dennison died in 1952 in Framingham, Massachusetts.
Work.
Dennison had a specific interest in the theories of scientific management and as president of Dennison Manufacturing Company initiated several reforms in line with those insights. These included "an unemployment fund, a reduction in working hours, non-managerial profit-sharing and the establishment of health and personnel services. "


Electrostatic deflection

Electrostatic deflection refers to a way for modifying the path of a beam of charged particles by the use of an electric field applied transverse to the path of the particles. The technique is called electro"static" because the strength and direction of the applied field changes slowly relative to the time it takes for the particles to transit the field, and thus can be considered not to change (be static) for any particular particle.
Explanation.
The Lorentz force acts on any charged particle in an electrostatic deflection. Electrostatic deflection uses a special, simplified case of this general effect by limiting the field to an electric field. An electric field applies a force on a particle that is proportional to the strength of the field and to the charge on the particle. The direction of the applied force is the same as the direction of the electric field. For electrostatic deflection, the applied electric field is arranged so that it lies in the plane perpendicular to the initial direction of the stream. The particles are accelerated by this force in proportion to the charge of the particles. The path the particles follow depends on their sideways acceleration and their velocity when they enter the deflecting field. Therefore, it is important for good control of the direction that the particles in the stream have a uniform charge-to-mass ratio and that they move at a uniform speed.
Uses.
The most common use for this technique is controlling the path of a stream of electrons in a vacuum. One application is in small cathode ray tubes for oscilloscopes. In these tubes the electric field is created by two sets of paired electrodes, mounted at right angles, that the electron stream flows between. This arrangement allows independent deflection of the beam in two dimensions (usually perceived as up/down (vertical) and right/left (horizontal)). The electrodes are commonly called "deflection plates". Traditionally, the electrons pass through the vertical deflection plates first, yielding slightly higher sensitivity because of the longer travel time from the vertical deflection plates to the phosphor screen as compared to the horizontal deflection plates. In very high speed oscilloscopes, the deflection plates were often complex structures, combining a series of sub-plates with an electrical delay line. By matching the propagation speed of the electrical signal with the transit speed of the electrons, maximum bandwidth (frequency response) was achieved.
The technique works well whenever a sufficiently uniform stream can be created, as discussed above. Therefore, it has been used in controlling macroscopic particle streams, for instance in fluorescence-activated cell sorting, as well. Another application was in one type of inkjet printer.
Electrostatic deflection is very useful for small deflection angles but is well known to be inferior to magnetic deflection for deflecting a charged particle beam into large angles - say over 10 degrees. The reason is that deflection aberrations become large as the deflection angle increases. This reduces the ability to finely focus the beam. Also in electrostatic deflection it has long been the practice to inject the beam midway between the charged deflection plates so as to avoid the fringe fields as much as possible. However it was found by computation methods that deflection aberrations would be significantly reduced if the beam were injected offset toward the attracting plate. That way the beam tends to follow equipotentials and the deflection force is normal to the beam direction. Thus offset, all the electrons in the beam are deflected into the same angle. There is an induced astigmatism that is correctable. This deflection idea has been tested and verified. Deflection angles of 50 degrees are reportedly possible without measurable deflection aberration. Optimal injection offset is approximately 1/3 of the plate gap toward the deflecting plate. The useful beam diameter is also approximately 1/3 of the gap.


Micro Solutions Backpack

Introduced in the early 1990s, the Micro Solutions Backpack was a device allowing users to attach a peripheral drive, namely hard drives, CD-ROM drives, and DVD±RW drives, to their system. When the original model was released, USB ports did not yet exist, so the drive plugged into a system's printer port. Backpacks could be daisy-chained and still allow for printer usage. Some models also offered audio capability via expansion. Later models introduced faster connectivity to the host system by means of a proprietary PC Card, and later USB.


USS Moonstone (PYc-9)

USS "Moonstone" (PYc-9) was a coastal patrol yacht in the service of the United States Navy. She was built in 1929 as "Nancy Baker" by Germaniawerft in Kiel, Germany, later renamed "Mona", and subsequently acquired by the Navy as the "Lone Star" on 10 February 1941. Renamed "Moonstone" and designated PYc-9, she was converted for U.S. Navy service in Jacksonville, Florida, and commissioned on 10 April 1941. She was named for the gemstone moonstone.
On 2 May 1941, "Moonstone" sailed for patrol duty with the Panamanian Sea Frontier. She later moved to Ecuador on 2 January 1943 to aid in training the Ecuadorian Navy. In March 1943 she sailed to Charleston, South Carolina, to prepare for permanent transfer to Ecuador. On her return at Balboa, Panama, in July 1943, cracks were discovered in the cylinder blocks of her engine, and she was sent north for repairs. On 16 October 1943, off the mouth of Delaware′s Indian River she collided with the destroyer and sank immediately. All but one of "Moonstones"′s complement survived. She was struck from the Naval Register on 26 October 1943.
Her wreck lies 35 miles (56 km) southeast of Cape May, New Jersey, in of water.
References.
"This article includes text from the public domain" Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships"."