Roger Feneley

Roger Feneley FRCS (19 October 1933 – 6 June 2018) was an English urologist who pioneered the development of new types of catheter.
Feneley published over 100 peer-reviewed articles in medical journals, including four after the age of 80.


Douglas Cines

Douglas B. Cines is an American physician.
Biography.
Cines graduated from New York University with a bachelor's degree in 1968 and four years later got his Medical degree from New York University School of Medicine. In 1975 he got an internship in the internal medicine field from the University of North Carolina and three years later became a fellow at the University of Pennsylvania in hematology and oncology. He became an assistant professor of Medicine there by 1979 and from that year till 1987 worked as such. In 1987 he was promoted to an associate professor of medicine and six years later became an associate professor in pathology. By 1993 he became a director of both hematology and coagulation labs in the same place and by 1999 became a co-vice chair there following by becoming a vice-chairman by 2004 for the Department of Pathology, a position which he still holds.


Paul Guttmann

Paul Guttmann (9 September 1834 in Ratibor () – 24 May 1893 in Berlin) was a German pathologist.
He studied medicine in Berlin, Würzburg and Vienna, earning his doctorate in 1858. From 1859 he worked in Berlin, where he later became an assistant to Wilhelm Griesinger (1817-1868). In 1879 he replaced Heinrich Curschmann (1846-1910) as director of the Moabit Hospital, where one of his students was pediatrician Hugo Neumann (1858-1912). From 1885 to 1893 he was an editor of the "Journal für praktische Aerzt".
He is remembered for work with neurologist Albert Eulenburg (1840-1917) involving research of the sympathetic nervous system. With Eulenburg he published "Die Pathologie des Sympathicus auf physiologischer Grundlage", a work that was considered at the time to be the best written book on the pathology of the sympathetic system from a physiological basis. As a result of this publication, the two physicians were awarded the 1877 Astley Cooper Prize. However, this honor was later overturned due to a technicality that the book had two authors.
Guttmann also made contributions in his research of tuberculosis and malaria. With Paul Ehrlich (1854-1915), he discovered that the histological stain, methylene blue had effectiveness against malaria.


Chief veterinary officer

Chief veterinary officer (CVO) is the head of a veterinary authority (typically a national government service comprising veterinarians, other professionals and paraprofessionals). He or she has the responsibility and competence for ensuring or supervising the implementation in his nation of animal health and welfare measures, international veterinary certification and other standards and recommendations. The World Organization for Animal Health (OIE) recognizes the notion of chief veterinary officers. The Council of the European Union also realizes the importance of the chief veterinary officers, and founded a preparatory body called Working Party of Chief Veterinary Officers. Typical responsibilities of a chief veterinary officer are to organize and operate a country's animal health and animal protection service and veterinary public health service, covering food chain safety, control of zoonoses, environmental contamination and role of animals in the society.


Quality and Outcomes Framework

The Quality and Outcomes Framework (QOF) is a system for the performance management and payment of general practitioners (GPs) in the National Health Service (NHS) in England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland. It was introduced as part of the new general medical services (GMS) contract in April 2004, replacing various other fee arrangements.
Aims and mechanisms.
The QOF was part of a revised contract for GPs. It was intended to improve the quality of general practice and was part of an effort to solve a shortage of GPs. The QOF rewards GPs for implementing "good practice" in their surgeries. Participation in the QOF is voluntary for each partnership, but for most GPs, under the present contract, the QOF is almost the only area where they can make a difference to their income. Almost all participated. Most practices got, and still get, a significant proportion of their income through the QOF.
In the 2004 contract the practice could accumulate up to 1050 'QOF points', depending on level of achievement for each of the 146 indicators. The criteria are grouped into 4 domains: clinical, organisational, patient experience and additional services. The criteria are designed around best practice and have a number of points allocated for achievement. At the end of the financial year the total number of points achieved by a surgery is collated by the QMAS or other system which then converts the points total into a payment amount for the surgery. The formula includes the number of patients and in particular the numbers diagnosed with certain common chronic illnesses; the clinical element awards points for achieving specified clinical "indicators".
A typical clinical indicator would be the proportion of patients with coronary heart disease who had cholesterol measured in the financial year, or the number of patients with depression who have answered a standard questionnaire on severity. Organisational indicators include such things as the availability of practice leaflets and practice staff education.
In the organisational domain the value of points was proportional to the number of patients registered with the practice. In the clinical domain the value of points was further modified by the prevalence of that condition in the practice – this was measured as the square root of the ratio of the national prevalence. For a typical practice the payment was £77.50 per point in 2004/5 and £124.60 in subsequent years.
The QOF system is supervised and audited by NHS primary care trusts in England and the analogous bodies elsewhere in the UK (Health Boards in Scotland, Regional Boards in Northern Ireland and Local Health Boards in Wales), which make the related payments.
Changes to the framework.
The GMS contract was revised in April 2006 and, in particular, the QOF was adjusted. The clinical domain was extended from 11 to 18 areas and 138 points were reassigned. The total number of points was reduced to 1000 and the 50 points that were previously attainable through "access points" are now folded into an "access" Directed Enhanced Service (DES). The clinical areas now include coronary heart disease, heart failure, stroke and transient ischaemic attacks, hypertension, diabetes mellitus, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, epilepsy, hypothyroidism, cancer, palliative care, mental health and asthma.
Added in 2006 were dementia, depression, chronic kidney disease, atrial fibrillation, obesity, learning disabilities and smoking.
QOF version 10 was introduced in July/August 2007, with mainly minor changes to the system, removing, adding or changing codes in the clinical areas to bring them in line with current guidance or to fix typing errors.
Further changes to the QOF for 2008 included the addition of new indicators for COPD and smoking cessation. Points have been removed from the access and patient experience domains.
Further changes have occurred on an annual basis although no changes took place for the 2010-11 year for all practices to deal with Swine Flu.
New indicators are developed and approved by a committee of the National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence. Approved indicators are presented as a "menu" which is passed to the contract negotiators. In the past year only a minority of the indicators in the menu have actually been put into the framework.
QMAS was replaced by the Calculating Quality Reporting Service (CQRS) in 2013.
Exception reporting.
The level of achievement recorded depends on the GP treating the patients with the relevant problem(s). But not all patients are treatable or willing to be treated. In order for the GPs not to lose points on account of circumstances that are outside their control they can exclude those patients from counting towards their achievement by "exception reporting" them. Exception reporting is allowed for:
Practices in Scotland have been found to use exception reporting appropriately in that patients who were older or who had dementia were more likely to have been "exception reported". However, younger or more socio-economically deprived patients were more likely to be recorded as having refused to attend for review or not replying to letters asking for attendance at primary care clinics. It has therefore been highlighted that primary care practices should identify and monitor these individuals (i.e. the youngest and most deprived with cardiovascular disease) so that all patients fully benefit from the implementation of the new GMS contract and receive appropriate clinical care to prevent further disability and mortality.
Advantages and disadvantages.
Assessments of its success are mixed. The new GP contract as a whole cost £1.76 billion more than the Government had expected, mainly because GPs had been expected to achieve 75% of the available points in the first year and actually achieved 90%.
Tim Burr, head of the National Audit Office, said in 2008: "There is no doubt that a new contract was needed and there are now 4,000 more GPs than five years ago. But in return for higher pay, we have yet to see real increases in productivity."
However, substantial improvements have been noted, particularly in the maintenance of disease registries and screening of risk factors for older patients with cardiovascular disease in the community.
Ben Bradshaw, the Health Minister said: "The GP contract… has stemmed the haemorrhaging of GPs from the NHS and improved the quality of care for the public. Longer consultations, quicker appointments and being able to book ahead are improvements valued by patients."
Laurence Buckman, chairman of the BMA’s GP committee, said "The early evidence is that the contract is leading to improvements in clinical care".
A 2016 study published in the Lancet assessed the effect of QOF on mortality. It found that the QOF had no effect on mortality.
Data collection.
NHS Digital collects and publishes an annual report using QOF data. As this information is linked to funding GP Practices take a good deal of trouble over it and it enables direct comparisons between practices across England. Data about disease registers and achievement indicators have been collected at the end of March annually since 2004. There are no patient based links, as information about each indicator is collected separately, but it is possible to combine information from different practices to generate area data.
Local alternatives.
In June 2014, NHS England approved a local alternative to the framework for practices in Somerset. Under the Somerset Practice Quality Scheme agreement practices that choose to take part only have to formally report against five of the indicators in the 2014-15 QOF. Clinical commissioning groups in Thanet and in York also asked permission to develop a local alternative but were refused.
In January 2017, the clinical commissioning groups in Leeds agreed to suspend 80% of the QOF targets for the rest of 2016/17. A similar strategy has already been adopted by NHS Wales.


Reach Every Reader

Reach Every Reader is a five-year initiative supported by a $30 million grant from Chan Zuckerberg Initiative co-founders Priscilla Chan and Facebook CEO Mark Zuckerberg. Reach Every Reader was launched by faculty at the Harvard Graduate School of Education and Massachusetts Institute of Technology's Integrated Learning Initiative, and involves collaborators at the Florida Center for Reading Research and Florida State University College of Communication and Information, and the Charlotte-Mecklenburg School District in North Carolina.
The collaboration consists of five projects:
Reach Every Reader will develop a web-based screening tool for reading difficulties that diagnoses underlying causes. The diagnostic screening tool will identify kindergarteners who are at high risk for reading difficulty. The goal is to make this type of screening available to all children.
The collaboration will also examine which interventions work for which students in order to work toward the development of personalized interventions.
Researchers will work with schools to deliver their interventions to kindergarten students in summer programs and eventually implement them in the school curriculum.
Concern has been expressed that the project involves "crisis talk" that creates pressure for children, and that parents may be concerned about the tracking of their children's personal information.


Michael A. Pikos

Michael A. Pikos is an American implant oral and maxillofacial surgeon known as the CEO/Founder of Coastal Jaw Surgery and Pikos Institute.
Background and education.
Pikos was born in Campbell, Ohio. He holds a BS degree in Biology from the Ohio State University and a DDS degree from the Ohio State University College of Dentistry, Columbus, Ohio.
He did his Residency in Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery at University of Pittsburgh, Montefiore Hospital, Pittsburgh, PA. He also completed an Internship at Miami Valley Hospital, Dayton, Ohio.
Career.
Pikos has been in the field of implant surgery for years. In 1983, he founded Coastal Jaw Surgery. He also founded Pikos Institute in Trinity, Florida and Pinnacle Study Club of Tampa Bay.
Pikos lectures and speaks on various aspects of implantology throughout not only the US, but the world as well. He is on the Editorial Board of the "Implant Dentistry Journal", and the "Journal of Implant and Advanced Clinical Dentistry". He is the author of "Bone Augmentation in Implant Dentistry: A Step-by-Step Guide to Predictable Alveolar Ridge and Sinus Grafting". He has written several published articles on implant oral and maxillofacial surgery.
Professorship.
Pikos is an Adjunct Associate Professor at the Department of Periodontology and Prosthodontics, University of Alabama at Birmingham. He is a Courtesy Clinician Associate Professor at the Department of Periodontology and Prosthodontics, University of Florida College of Dentistry.
He is also an Adjunct Professor, Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery at:
Diplomacy.
Pikos is the Scientific Advisor on Implants for the Kois Center. He is a Diplomate of:


Paraveterinary workers in Sweden

Veterinary nurses (as well as veterinary radiographers, administrative personnel, and laboratory assistants) have been represented in Sweden since 1997 by "Riksföreningen Anställda Inom Djursjukvården" (RAID—The Swedish National Association of Veterinary Employees). Education consists of a two-year 80 credit post-secondary program at the Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU). RAID has also devised a distance learning course for experienced nurses and organizes continuing education for para-professionals in the equine and small-animal sectors.


Endogenous viral element

An endogenous viral element (EVE) is a DNA sequence derived from a virus, and present within the germline of a non-viral organism. EVEs may be entire viral genomes (proviruses), or fragments of viral genomes. They arise when a viral DNA sequence becomes integrated into the genome of a germ cell that goes on to produce a viable organism. The newly established EVE can be inherited from one generation to the next as an allele in the host species, and may even reach fixation.
Endogenous retroviruses and other EVEs that occur as proviruses can potentially remain capable of producing infectious virus in their endogenous state. Replication of such 'active' endogenous viruses can lead to the proliferation of viral insertions in the germline. For most non-retroviral viruses, germline integration appears to be a rare, anomalous event, and the resulting EVEs are often only fragments of the parent virus genome. Such fragments are usually not capable of producing infectious virus, but may express protein or RNA and even cell surface receptors.
Diversity and distribution.
EVEs have been identified in animals, plants and fungi. In vertebrates EVEs derived from retroviruses (endogenous retroviruses) are relatively common. Because retroviruses integrate into the nuclear genome of the host cell as an inherent part of their replication cycle, they are predisposed to enter the host germline. In addition, EVEs related to parvoviruses, filoviruses, bornaviruses and circoviruses have been identified in vertebrate genomes. In plant genomes, EVEs derived from pararetroviruses are relatively common. EVEs derived from other, non-retrotranscribing virus families, such as "Geminiviridae", have also been identified in plants. Moreover, EVEs related to giant viruses (aka GEVEs) of phylum "Nucleocytoviricota" (NCLDV) similar to "Aureococcus anophagefferens virus" (AaV) have been found in 2019/2020.
Identification.
EVEs are traditionally identified by similarity to known viruses. In 2021, it has been demonstrated that the k-mer composition of endogenous RNA virus resemble that of their exogenous counterparts. As a result, it is now possible to identify novel groups of endogenous RNA viruses whose exogenous relatives have become extinct.
Use in paleovirology.
EVEs are a rare source of retrospective information about ancient viruses. Many are derived from germline integration events that occurred millions of years ago, and can be viewed as viral fossils. Such ancient EVEs are an important component of paleovirological studies that address the long-term evolution of viruses.
Identification of orthologous EVE insertions enables the calibration of long-term evolutionary timelines for viruses, based on the estimated time since divergence of the ortholog-containing host species groups. This approach has provided minimum ages ranging from 30-93 million years for the "Parvoviridae", "Filoviridae", "Bornaviridae" and "Circoviridae" families of viruses, and 12 million years for the Lentivirus genus of the "Retroviridae" family. EVEs also facilitate the use of molecular clock-based approaches to obtain calibrations of viral evolution in deep time.
Co-option and exaptation by host species.
EVEs can sometimes provide a selective advantage to the individuals in which they are inserted. For example, some protect against infection with related viruses. In some mammal groups, including higher primates, retroviral envelope proteins have been exapted to produce a protein that is expressed in the placental syncytiotrophoblast, and is involved in fusion of the cytotrophoblast cells to form the syncytial layer of the placenta. In humans this protein is called syncytin, and is encoded by an endogenous retrovirus called (ERVWE1) on chromosome seven. Remarkably, the capture of syncytin or syncytin-like genes has occurred independently, from different groups of endogenous retroviruses, in diverse mammalian lineages. Distinct, syncytin-like genes have been identified in primates, rodents, lagomorphs, carnivores, and ungulates, with integration dates ranging from 10 to 85 million years ago.


Anna Del Amico

Dr. Anna Del Amico is a fictional medical doctor from the television series "ER". She was portrayed by Maria Bello.
Life and time at County.
Del Amico first appeared in the show in 1997, guest starring in the last 3 episodes of the third season. Having previously completed a pediatrics residency, she comes to County General as an emergency medicine intern wishing to double-board in both emergency medicine and pediatrics. As a series regular in the fourth season, her experience as a pediatrician initially causes friction with Doug Ross, who is a pediatric emergency medicine fellow. She becomes a doctor consultant in the clinic run by Carol Hathaway. She helps Carter detox his cousin Chase. She has had to do this with her ex-boyfriend Max and knows what he is going through. During her brief stint at County General, Anna also became good friends with Carol Hathaway and Elizabeth Corday.
Del Amico starts to become close to Carter through the season and admits there has been some chemistry between the two of them, but she never exactly exchanges the same strong feelings Carter has for her. Anna was very insulted when she discovers Carter's family fortune that he kept secret. Del Amico felt betrayed and fooled after giving him a glimpse of her poor struggling lifestyle. She never felt secure in such a wealthy setting and was always happy with her 'getting by day to day' persona. The two hold the same passion for medicine and eventually share a kiss. Carter and Anna's relationship is strained when Anna's ex Dr. Max Rocher comes to Chicago to see her. Anna isn't too confident in trusting Max after his rough drug addiction and is frustrated whenever she has to deal with Carter and Max in the same room. Her character is not seen again after the end of season 4.
Season Five.
She was mentioned again in the fifth season and her disappearance was explained to Lucy Knight by Dr. Carter who received her locker after her departure. She was said to have moved to Philadelphia to work in a pediatric ER and that it was better for her because it was where she was from, where she grew up, where her family was, and that she had a boyfriend there.


Gastrocolic ligament

The gastrocolic ligament is a portion of the greater omentum that stretches from the greater curvature of the stomach to the transverse colon. It forms part of the anterior wall of the lesser sac.
Dividing the gastrocolic ligament provides access to the anterior pancreas and the posterior wall of the stomach. This is commonly done for Whipple procedures, distal pancreatectomy, some forms of the Roux-en-Y gastric bypass, and exploratory laparotomy.


Somerville Hastings

Somerville Hastings, FRCS (4 March 1878 – 7 July 1967) was a British surgeon and Labour Party politician.
Early life and career.
The son of the Reverend H G Hastings, he was born in Warminster, Wiltshire. He was educated at Wycliffe College (Gloucestershire), University College (receiving the gold and silver medals for botany) and the Middlesex Hospital, London. He qualified as MRCS LRCP in 1902, FRCS in 1904 and MB (London) in 1908.
On 19 October 1911 Hastings married Bessie Tuke (1882–1958), the daughter of the architect William Tuke. They had two children.
Working life.
Hastings was Member of Parliament (MP) for Reading, in Berkshire, from 1923 to 1924, and from 1929 to 1931. He returned to the House of Commons at the 1945 general election as MP for Barking, holding the seat until his retirement at the 1959 general election.
Thora Silverthorne worked for Hastings as a nanny and went on to be secretary of the Socialist Medical Association.
Hastings was founder President of the Socialist Medical Association (SMA) 1930–51. He served in the Royal Army Medical Corps during the First World War, followed by work as an aural surgeon at the Middlesex Hospital. He was a Member of the London County Council for fourteen years. Edith Summerskill felt that the "idea of a National Health Service germinated in the hospitable atmosphere" of Hastings’ home. He successfully proposed a resolution at the 1934 Labour Party Conference that the party should be committed to the establishment of a State Health Service. He was a member of the Party's Medical Services sub-committee which produced the report "A State Health Service" which was accepted as the basis for the Party's policy.
Death.
Somerville Hastings died at the Royal Berkshire Hospital, Reading, on 7 July 1967, aged 89.
Publications.
Hastings was the author of:


Aram Chobanian

Aram V. Chobanian (born August 10, 1929) served as president "ad interim" of Boston University from 2003 until June 9, 2005, when, in recognition of Chobanian's work, the Board of Trustees voted to remove “ad interim” from his title and designate him the ninth president of Boston University. He had succeeded John Silber, who had reassumed the presidency on an interim basis after Jon Westling resigned to return to teaching. In September 2005, Chobanian was succeeded by Robert A. Brown as president of Boston University. Dr. Chobanian is the first recipient of the Lifetime Achievement Award in Hypertension of the American Heart Association.
A cardiologist, Chobanian holds a B.A. from Brown University and an M.D. from Harvard Medical School. Before accepting the interim position in 2003, he was the Dean of the Boston University School of Medicine.
Relationship with Armenia.
An Armenian-American, Dr. Chobanian is a member at the board of directors of the Fund for Armenian Relief. He has been involved in several programs to improve health care in Armenia. These have included the training of Armenian physicians, nurses, and other health professionals in emergency medicine, trauma care, and health care management; development of medical residency and post-graduate educational programs in Armenia; establishment of a successful medical student elective program for US medical students to spend one to two months in Armenian hospitals and clinics; and the provision of much-needed medical equipment, supplies, and medications to Armenia.
Dr. Chobanian has been elected a Foreign Member of the National Academy of Sciences of Armenia. He is the recipient of the Gold Medal from the Yerevan State Medical University. Catholicos Aram I recently bestowed the St. Mesrob-Mashtots Medal on Dr. Chobanian.


Boston Society for Medical Improvement

The Boston Society for Medical Improvement was an elite society of Boston physicians, established in 1828 for "the cultivation of confidence and good feeling between members of the profession; the eliciting and imparting of information upon the different branches of medical science; and the establishment of a Museum and Library of Pathological Anatomy". It held regular meetings until at least 1917.
Founding and organization.
The Society was established February 19, 1828 by John P. Spooner.
By-laws were established at a founding meeting of eleven members,
and the first regular meeting was held on March 10.
Within a year the Society had grown to 25 members.
Meetings were held on the second and fourth Mondays of each month,
originally in Spooner's home.
Usually a member's reading of a paper was
followed by discussion of recent cases of either special interest or on which the attending physician wished the opinion of his colleagues.
There were frequent presentations of remarkable tissues and organs obtained during post-mortems, or unusual specimens found in nature, those of particular interest being added to the "Cabinet" of the Society.
The Society's original officers were a committee of four and a secretary, who made up the "Prudential Committee", as well as a librarian and a cabinet keeper.
These offices were filled once a year by vote at the first meeting in January.
Members were admitted twice a year, in April and October, with only practicing physicians from Boston being eligible.
History.
During its first year the Society's Anatomical Cabinet was established, and several members collaborated to combine the "New England Journal of Medicine and Surgery" and the "Boston Medical Intelligencer" into the "Boston Medical and Surgical Journal"
(now the "New England Journal of Medicine").
The Society's expenses in the first year were $7.50.
In 1830, after resolving to publish their transactions and to have a standing committee, the Society moved to a room on Washington Street, rented for an annual fee of $25.
In 1833 "The Medical Magazine" published a piece praising the Society and encouraging the formation of similar organizations.
The Society limited its membership to Boston's medical elite.
In 1835 a number ineligible physicians (mostly younger, less established members of the profession) formed a competing organization, the Boston Society for Medical Observation.
By 1838, when the Society was incorporated, membership had grown to 35,
with approximately 25 attending any given meeting.
Around 1840 the Society relocated once again, to Tremont Row.
Until 1840 the Society often held anniversary celebrations (frequently including the presentation of an original poem by member Oliver Wendell Holmes) but after that date they became increasingly rare.
Sometime during the summer of 1842 J.B.S. Jackson "asked the opinion of the Society as to the contagion of puerperal fever and the probability of physicians communicating it from one patient to another" following the death of a physician who had treated an infected woman, and the subsequent infection of the patients he had treated in the interim.
This piqued the interest of Holmes, who, after a period of research, presented his essay, "The Contagiousness of Puerperal Fever", to the Society on February 13, 1843; it was later published at the Society's request in the April issue of the "New England Quarterly Journal of Medicine and Surgery".
On November 10, 1849, Henry Jacob Bigelow presented Phineas Gage to the Society, between the cases of a stalagmite "remarkable for its singular resemblance to a petrified penis" and a child cured of a swollen ankle by a Dr. Strong.
By 1853, the number of members had grown to 60.
The Society's medical collections were donated to the Warren Anatomical Museum around 1870, while its library was absorbed into the Boston Medical Library in 1875.
Membership had grown again by 1876, reaching 79 regular members.
In 1878 the Society moved to a building on Boylston Street, the former home of Samuel Gridley Howe, after it was purchased by the Boston Medical Library Association.
By 1880, however, the Society, total membership 99, had begun to go into a period of slight decline.
The office of President was instituted as part of an attempt to stem this decline; the first president was James H. White.
On November 19, 1890, the Society held a special meeting in honor of Henry J. Bigelow, who had recently died.
The Boston Society for Medical Observation was merged into the Society for Medical Improvement in 1894.
In 1901, James Gregory Mumford published "The Story of the Boston Society for Medical Improvement" in the March issue of the "Boston Medical and Surgical Journal".
In 1905 the members of the Society tendered a proposal to the Boston Medical Library to disband: the proposal was rejected, however, both by the library and by vote at the next meeting.
By this time the Society had reduced its meetings to an annual occurrence, and it was generally viewed as "undesirable" to have them more often, due to the fact that the Medical Library and the Suffolk District Medical Society had begun to hold joint sessions.<ref name="BML152/1"></ref>
The last record of the Society comes from 1917.
Collection.
The Society had an expansive Anatomical Cabinet, begun in 1828, the year of its founding.
It included a number of specimens from the War of 1812, which had been acquired by the Society from Dr. S.D. Townsend and Charles H. Stedman of the Chelsea Naval Hospital.
It also included a number of Chinese paintings of medical cases donated by Robert William Hooper.
By 1840, the cabinet was estimated to contain around 600 specimens.
Beginning in 1831 the Cabinet was curated by J.B.S. Jackson
(also curator of the Warren Anatomical Museum from 1847 on).
The two were merged around 1870, and Jackson continued his work until his death in 1879.
The curator was tasked with keeping a catalog and a case history of each specimen in the cabinet.
Jackson published two descriptions of the collection in 1847: "A Descriptive Catalogue of the Anatomical Museum of the Boston Society for Medical Improvement", and later that year "A Descriptive Catalogue of the Monstrosities in the Cabinet of the Boston Society of Medical Improvement", which focused solely on the anatomical oddities from the cabinet.
Both books were abridged versions of the complete catalog.
In the first volume, the specimens of the cabinet were divided into fifteen sections: healthy bones, diseased bones, soft parts about the bones, heart and blood vessels, organs of sense, vocal and respiratory organs, alimentary canal, organs accessory to the alimentary canal, urinary organs, female organs of generation, male organs of generation, utero-gestation, monstrosities, and parasites.
Locations.
When it was first formed, the Society held its meetings at the houses of its members.
It then set up a regular establishment over a chemist's shop on Washington Street.
Some years later, it relocated again to Tremont Row, over another chemist's shop, before moving to Temple Place.
When its library was moved to the Boston Medical Library on Boylston Street, the Society relocated there. By 1901 it had moved to Fenway.


Association of Physicians of Pakistani Descent of North America

The Association of Physicians of Pakistani Descent of North America (APPNA) is an American nonprofit organization headquartered in Westmont, Illinois, United States.
It is the third largest medical association in the United States after American Medical Association and the American Association of Physicians of Indian Origin.
Mission.
It is dedicated to supporting scientific development and education in Medicine, and delivering better health care, regardless of race, creed or gender. It was founded in 1976 under the name "Association of Pakistani Physicians of North America", and was formally incorporated in 1977. APPNA is one of the largest ethnic medical societies in North America, representing more than 17,000 physicians and health care professionals of Pakistani descent in the United States and Canada.


Christopher D. M. Fletcher

Christopher D. M. Fletcher (born March 13, 1958) is a British pathologist who has written more than 500 peer reviewed articles and was a chairman of the World Health Organization's Working Group on the Pathology and Genetics of Tumours of Soft Tissue and Bone. He graduated from London's St. Thomas's Hospital Medical School and got his M.D. degree from the University of London in 1991. Later on, he became a postdoc at the Royal College of Pathologists, from which he also graduated in 1988. He was trained at St Thomas' Hospital and was President of the Association of Directors of Anatomic and Surgical Pathology from 2003 to 2006. Currently he is a Professor of Pathology at Harvard Medical School, president of both the Arthur Purdy Stout Society and the International Society of Bone & Soft Tissue Pathology and is also a surgical pathologist at the Brigham and Women's Hospital. He also works for the Dana-Farber Cancer Institute in Boston, Massachusetts as chief of onco-pathology.
Professor Fletcher is the recipient of a number of awards:


NHS National Workforce Projects

NHS National Workforce Projects was part of the English National Health Service (NHS). It provided support to all NHS organisations in planning their workforce to ensure they had the right staff in the right jobs to provide care to patients.
The NHS National Workforce Projects team was formed in 2005 to create and make available a range of workforce planning tools, guidance and resources to the NHS. The organisation also led on supporting the NHS prepare for the European Working Time Directive where the maximum working hours that junior doctors work will reduce from 58 to 48 hours a week in August 2009.
Following a review of hosted bodies in the NHS in 2007, it was decided that the organisation was surplus to the requirements of the health service save for the Working Time Directive element, which was itself transferred out of the NHS and into Skills for Health.


Karol Marcinkowski

Karol Marcinkowski (23 June 1800 in Posen, Kingdom of Prussia, today Poznań in Poland–6 November 1846) was a Polish physician, social activist in the Greater Poland region (also called the Grand Duchy of Posen), supporter of the basic education ("Praca organiczna") programmes, organizer of the Scientific Help Society (Towarzystwo Pomocy Naukowej) and the Poznań Bazar (Bazar Poznański) - the Polish mall in Poznań that included a hotel, meeting rooms, crafts and shops.


Louis Appia

Louis Paul Amédée Appia (13 October 1818 – 1 May 1898) was a Swiss surgeon with special merit in the area of military medicine. In 1863 he became a member of the Geneva "Committee of Five", which was the precursor to the International Committee of the Red Cross. Six years later he met Clara Barton, an encounter which had significant influence on Clara Barton's subsequent endeavours to found a Red Cross society in the United States and her campaign for an accession of the US to the Geneva Convention of 1864.
Education and career as a field surgeon.
Appie was born in Frankfurt and baptised Louis Paul Amadeus Appia. Appia's parents, Paul Joseph Appia and Caroline Develey, originally came from Piedmont. His father, who had been a University student in Geneva, nevertheless became an evangelical pastor in 1811 in Hanau near Frankfurt am Main. Louis was the third of six children. He went to Gymnasium (high school) in Frankfurt and at eighteen gained the "Hochschulreife" diploma in Geneva. In 1838 he began to study medicine in Heidelberg and concluded his medical doctorate in 1843, after which he returned to Frankfurt.
In 1848, he assisted the wounded in Paris and Frankfurt during the February revolution in France and the March revolution in the German states. Afterwards, his specialty and focus became the improvement of the application of medicine to the war-wounded. After the death of his father in 1849, he traveled with his mother to Geneva and began to practice as a surgeon. In connection with his work on military medicine, he developed an instrument to immobilize a broken arm or leg during the transport of a wounded individual. He also wrote a treatise about surgical treatment for the war-wounded. In 1853, he married Anne Caroline Lassere and during their marriage had two sons (Paul and Adolphe) and two daughters (Helene and Marie). His son Adolphe Appia became an architect and was a pioneer of modern stage design.
In 1859 his brother George, who was a pastor in Pinerolo, sent him several letters regarding the situation for the wounded and victims of the Austro-Sardinian War. In July, Appia traveled to Italy and ended up working in field hospitals in Turin, Milan, Brescia and Desenzano del Garda. He distributed copies of his treatise to the Italian and French doctors, organized the collection of necessary materials, and sent letters to his friends in Geneva requesting the donation of funds to assist the wounded. At the Saint Phillippe Hospital in Milan his invention for transporting patients with broken bones was successfully tested on a wounded lieutenant.
At the beginning of August, he returned to Geneva. Here he completed his treatise with the assistance of his friend Dr. Théodore Maunoir and published it as a book with the title "The Ambulance Surgeon; or, Practical Observations on Gunshot Wounds" ("Der Feldchirurg oder einige praktische Studien über Schußverletzungen"). He was also awarded the "Medal of the Saints Maurice and Lazarus", the second-highest decoration of the Kingdom of Italy, for his medical work during the Austro-Sardinian War. In November 1860, he gained the Geneva citizenship right and became a member of the Geneva Medical Society a year later.
Activity with the ICRC.
In 1863, Appia was requested to join the "Committee of Five" in order to examine the ideas of Henry Dunant and work towards their possible implementation. He therefore became one of the five founding members of the "International Committee for Relief to Wounded Soldiers" that in 1876 was renamed the "International Committee of the Red Cross" (ICRC). In October 1863, Appia suggested that all volunteers should wear white armbands on the battlefield to designate their status. General Henri Dufour later expanded this recommendation by placing a red cross on the band. A red cross on a white background, the inverse of the Swiss flag, became the symbol of the Committee. During the Second war of Schleswig (Danish-Prussian war) at the Battle of Dybbøl (Battle at the Düppeler Schanzen), Appia and the Dutch Captain Charles Van de Velde became the first delegates in history to wear these armbands as neutral observers of an ongoing battle and the attendant provision of care. Two years later, in June 1866, he became reengaged in the Italian unification struggle after a request by his brother. Together with two other volunteers, the two treated wounded in Storo, a small town in Italy.
In 1867, Appia took over the position of Secretary when Henry Dunant dropped out of the International Committee. Because of the broad role of President Gustave Moynier, this position had neither significant power nor was it a substantial burden. During this period, the Committee met about three to four times a month in his house. In August 1869, he met Clara Barton, who was in Switzerland for a long medical rest. Impressed by her activities during the American Civil War, he asked her why the United States had refused to sign the Geneva Convention. For Barton, who had not heard of the ideas of Henry Dunant, this conversation became crucial in prompting her efforts after her return towards the founding of the American Red Cross and the US accession to the Geneva Convention.
During the Franco-Prussian War (1870–1871), Appia was again active as a deployed delegate. Also, in October 1872, he gave on the site assistance in Egypt to help in the creation of the first non-European Red Cross society. He also supported Clara Barton's idea to expand the mission of the Red Cross societies to deal with the victim of natural disasters and epidemics. In the following years, he continued his studies on battle injuries and remained an active member of the ICRC until his death.


American Physician Scientists Association

The American Physician Scientists Association (APSA) is dedicated to career development and community building among physician-scientists in training.
Organization and purpose.
The American Physician Scientists Association (APSA) is a national organization dedicated to addressing the needs of future physician-scientists with respect to their training and career development. APSA strives to be the student physician-scientists' leading voice for improving educational opportunities, advancing patient-oriented research, and advocating for the future of translational medicine. In this regard, it carries out local and national initiatives, provides student leadership opportunities, facilitates communication between physician-scientist trainees, and hosts a joint annual meeting for its members. It also collaborates with leading research and health organizations, including the National Institutes of Health.
History.
The American Physician Scientists Association was initially conceived in 2003-2004 and formally incorporated in 2005 by a group of MD-PhD students. Since then, the organization been rapidly expanding, and is currently officially represented at almost 100 institutions across the U.S. Its growing membership has helped make it the largest organization specifically representing physician-scientist trainees.
Leadership.
The American Physician Scientists Association is led by the Executive Council. Executive Council members are voted in by Institutional Representatives. These are physician-scientist trainees and APSA members who serve as liaisons between students at local institutions and the APSA leadership. Institutional Representatives help the Executive Council better grasp the needs of trainees at their local institutions.
The Executive Council is overseen by the Board of Directors, which serves as an advisory board to the rest of the organization, and consists of active physician-scientists and former APSA Executive Council members. In addition to the Board of Directors and Executive Council, there are five standing committees who lead most of APSA's projects. Members of the APSA have the opportunity to serve on any of the organization's five standing committees, each of which has a unique role within the organization to help it achieve its mission. Currently, the standing committees operate in the areas of organizational finances, membership recruitment, organizational policy, public relations, and Annual Meeting planning. APSA also works with numerous partner organizations and supporters.
Meetings.
The APSA has held its Annual Meeting since April 2005 in conjunction with the American Society for Clinical Investigation and the Association of American Physicians in Chicago, Illinois. The meeting serves as an opportunity for mentoring and networking across the entire spectrum of the physician-scientist career pathway, including career development sessions and panels. A number of prominent speakers have been featured at these meetings including current NIH Director Francis Collins, Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine winner and current National Cancer Institute Director Harold Varmus. Several dozen competitive travel grants are typically available for APSA members who wish to present their research at the meeting. The Annual Meeting is also when the Executive Council of APSA meets to conduct a yearly review, propose future initiatives, and vote for positions on next year's Executive Council.
Starting in 2006, the APSA began hosting regional meetings and currently hosts four in the fall of each year in cities across the United States. The primary focus of these regional meetings is on building a regional community of physician-scientist trainees and focusing on outreach to current and future trainees who are unable to attend the Annual Meeting.


Salty Baby


Psychodermatology

Psychodermatology is the treatment of skin disorders using psychological and psychiatric techniques by addressing the interaction between mind and skin. Though historically there has not been strong scientific support for its practice, there is increasing evidence that behavioral treatments may be effective in the management of chronic skin disorders.
The practice of psychodermatology is based on the complex interplay between neurological, immunological, cutaneous and endocrine systems, known alternatively as the NICE network, NICS, and by other similar acronyms. The interaction between nervous system, skin, and immunity has been explained by release of mediators from network. In the course of several inflammatory skin diseases and psychiatric conditions, the neuroendocrine-immune-cutaneous network is destabilized.
Concept.
The disorders that proponents classify as psychodermatologic fall into three general categories: psychophysiologic disorders, primary psychiatric disorders and secondary psychiatric disorders. Proponents frequently claim treatment for: psoriasis, eczema, hives, genital and oral herpes, acne, warts, skin allergies, pain, burning sensations, and hair loss. Psychodermatological treatment techniques include psychotherapy, meditation, relaxation, hypnosis, acupuncture, yoga, tai chi, and anti-anxiety drugs.
Psychophysiologic disorders are conditions that are precipitated by or worsened by experiencing stressful emotions. These conditions are not always related to stress and in many cases respond to medication but stress can be a contributing factor in some cases.
Controversy.
In a 2013 paper published in the "Clinics in Dermatology", the official journal of the International Academy of Cosmetic Dermatology, the facts and controversies of this topic were examined with the conclusion:
Harriet Hall notes that the specialty may not be needed at all because medicine already takes a holistic approach to treating a patient. A 2007 review of the literature generated from 1951 to 2004 finds that most dermatologists and psychologists recommend a synthesis of treatment rather than seeing another specialist.
External links.
Association for Psychoneurocutaneous Medicine of North America (APMNA)


Forssman antigen

The Forssman antigen is a glycolipid heterophil protein and a type of heterogenetic antigen found in certain animals like dogs, horses, cats, turtles and sheep, and enteric organisms such as pneumococci. In sheep, it is found on erythrocytes but not on tissue and organs, unlike hamsters and guinea pigs whose organ cells do carry the antigen. The Forssman antigen is distinct from the Paul-Bunnell antigen, antibodies to which are diagnostic of glandular fever (infectious mononucleosis). Both antigens are present on the red blood cells of horse and sheep but guinea pig kidney cells have only the Forssman antigen. A serum positive for glandular fever therefore agglutinates horse or sheep red blood cells after absorption with guinea pig kidney.
Namesake.
It is named for John Frederick Forssman (1868 – 1947), a pioneer Swedish Pathologist, who described it in 1930.


Hunterdon Developmental Center

Hunterdon Developmental Center (HDC) is a developmental center located on 102 acres in Union Township, Hunterdon County, near Clinton, NJ. It opened in 1969 and provides a broad spectrum of behavioral, medical and habilitation services to women and men with intellectual and developmental disabilities. HDC also operates a Work Activity Center (WAC). As of March 2017, HDC had a census of 480 residents.
The center is for adults with neurodevelopmental disorders complicated by cognitive dysfunction. It is a 650-bed residential facility. Established diagnoses include Down syndrome, Fragile X syndrome, Trisomy 8 mosaic syndrome, Trisomy 13 syndrome, Williams syndrome, Angelman syndrome, Smith–Magenis syndrome, PKU, Tuberous sclerosis, Neurofibromatosis, Sturge–Weber syndrome, Congenital rubella syndrome, the syndrome of hypoxic/ischemic perinatal brain injury, lead encephalopathy, hydrocephalus, prosencephaly, schizencephaly, and other diagnoses.


Tulane University School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine

The Tulane School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine is part of Tulane University, located in New Orleans, in the U.S. state of Louisiana.
History.
The study of public health in Louisiana began in the early 19th century, when New Orleans suffered from endemic malaria and almost yearly epidemics of cholera and yellow fever. Attempts to control tropical diseases led to the establishment of the Medical College of Louisiana in 1834, founded by a group of young practicing physicians. The founders issued a prospectus that emphasized the lack of knowledge of these diseases and the necessity to study them in the environment in which they occurred. In 1881, formal instruction in hygiene was offered for the first time.
Samuel Zemurray provided financial support for the founding of the country's first School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine at Tulane in 1912. Known as "Sam the Banana Man," Zemurray backed the institution in part given his own business interests in the banana industry in Honduras, which were at the time greatly affected by diseases like yellow fever. His banana schemes also prompted him to organize and support a military coup at around the same time against Honduran President Miguel R. Dávila in order to restore Manuel Bonilla to power, since Bonilla offered favorable tax breaks and railway concessions for Zemurray's business interests. As part of his work in Honduras, Zemurray contracted with United Fruit Company, which was also one of the first financial backers of the School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine.
The school's launch in 1912 was significant, and as it was part of the movement to establish similar institutions around the world. It was hailed by academicians nationally and internationally as the first such school in the United States, where tropical diseases had had devastating effects, particularly in the South. The first Doctor of Public Health degree was conferred in 1914.
Later, in 1919, the School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine merged back into the College of Medicine. The departments of tropical medicine and preventive medicine then merged to establish the department of tropical medicine and public health. Tulane joined the Council on Education of Public Health in 1947. With public health and tropical medicine rapidly expanding, an administrative division of graduate public health was created in 1958, and was re-designated as the Division of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine in 1961. In 1967, the Hygiene and Tropical Medicine interests reverted to being its own entity of Tulane University and became today's iteration of the School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine.
Reputation.
The mission of Tulane School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine is to advance global public health and decrease health disparities through excellence in education, research, and collaborative partnerships
The students, faculty, and staff represent more than 70 cultures from around the world.
Students enroll from more than 40 different countries, and the school remains in the top tier of accredited schools of public health across the country. U.S. News & World Report's 2015 edition ranked the School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine 12th among public health programs. In 2008, the school conferred the first bachelor of science in public health degrees to the first undergraduate class of Tulane public health graduates. Tulane University School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine celebrated its 100th anniversary in 2012.
The school also has a joint degree program with Tulane's School of Medicine, offering the MD/MPH degree. It is the oldest such program in the country, as well as the largest.
Location.
Tulane's School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine is located at 1440 Canal St, New Orleans, Louisiana in the Central Business District neighborhood. Its building is one of the tallest buildings in New Orleans, and is colloquially known as the Tidewater building. The area of the CBD that the School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine is in is currently being referred to as the Bioscience District, and was previously referred to as the Medical District. The BioDistrict is the site of $1.09 billion in new construction for the University Medical Center project replaced Charity Hospital. An additional ~$1.0bn was spent in the neighborhood on the new Southeast Louisiana Veterans Health Care System VA Hospital. The BioDistrict also includes the new 66,000 square foot BioInnovation Center and the 155,000 square foot Louisiana Cancer Research Center. The Tidewater building is most easily accessible by road, street car, and Tulane University Shuttles. The Tidewater Building is short walk from Vieux Carré.


Wattle (dermatology)


David Stark Murray

Dr David Stark Murray (14 July 1900 – 16 September 1977), son of Robert Murray MP was a consultant pathologist, author, and President of the Socialist Medical Association 1951–70. He was active in campaigning for the establishment of the British National Health Service.
He was born at 244 Main Street, Barrhead, Scotland, and qualified in 1925 from Glasgow University. He came to London in 1927 as pathologist to the Lambeth Hospital under the Board of Guardians. He lived at 33 Murray Road, Northwood, London. Then followed appointments as Consulting Pathologist to the Royal Hospital Richmond and other hospitals in the area, Group Pathologist in the Emergency Medical Service (1939) at Kingston, Surrey and from 1948, under the NHS, Group Pathologist, Kingston Hospital until his retirement in 1965. He established laboratories at Richmond and Kingston and the central sterile supplies department at Kingston Hospital. He was Chairman of the Blood Transfusion Service of the South West Metropolitan Region of the NHS. He was president of the Surrey Branch of the British Medical Association.
In October 1962 he went to the University of Chicago to talk to students about the fight for socialized medicine.
For many years he edited the "Socialist Doctor", "Medicine Today and Tomorrow", and "Socialism and Health". He wrote innumerable articles on the health service under his own name and under pseudonyms, specially that of Irwin Brown.


Adoptive immunity

Adoptive immunity acts in a host after their immunological components are withdrawn, their immunological activity is modified extracorporeally, and then reinfused into the same host. This process in its former part is analogous to adoption: a child is once adopted out from their home, grown up, and then returned to their home of birth. Transferred immunological components include immune cells such as T lymphocytes or tumour-infiltrating lymphocytes, NK cells, macrophages, or B cells.
There seems to be some variation in usage of this term.
The term is used almost synonymously for "passive immunity" in some situations, however, passive immunity acts among xenogeneic hosts; for example, in snake venom immunotherapy, antivenom IgG is obtained from sensitized horse and inoculated to humans.
Immunological terms with an adjective "adoptive".
The following terms might indicate procedures involving similar immunological transfer processes.


Vivek Goel

Vivek Goel is a physician and public health researcher. He was also a university administrator, serving as a special advisor to the president and provost of the University of Toronto, and as a professor for the Dalla Lana School of Public Health. In November 2020, Goel was named as the seventh president of University of Waterloo, and is expected to assume the position on 1 July 2021.
Goel began his career as an assistant professor with the University of Toronto's Department of Preventive Medicine and Biostatistics, and was later named the chair of the Department of Health Administration. From 1999 to 2001, he served as the Vice-Provost of the Faculty of Medicine, before becoming the Vice-President and Provost of the university from 2004 to 2008. Goel left the University of Toronto, in 2008, to serve as the first president for Public Health Ontario. Goel returned to the university in 2015 to serve as its Vice-President of Research and Innovation, and Strategic Initiatives, holding the office until 2020. In June 2020, Goel stepped down from his position at the University of Toronto in order to support the Canadian government's COVID-19 Immunity Task Force and the CanCOVID Research Network.
On 2 December 2020, Dr. Goel was appointed as a Member of the Order of Canada "[f]or his contributions as an academic and administrator who is committed to the advancement of public health services, evidence-based health care and research innovation."


Amebocyte

An amebocyte or amoebocyte () is a mobile cell (moving like an amoeba) in the body of invertebrates including echinoderms, molluscs, tunicates, sponges and some chelicerates. They move by pseudopodia. Similarly to some of the white blood cells of vertebrates, in many species amebocytes are found in the blood or body fluid and play a role in the defense of the organism against pathogens. Depending on the species, an amebocyte may also digest and distribute food, dispose of wastes, form skeletal fibers, fight infections, and change into other cell types.
Limulus amebocyte lysate, an aqueous extract of amebocytes from the Atlantic horseshoe crab ("Limulus polyphemus"), is commonly used in a test to detect bacterial endotoxins.
In sponges, amebocytes, also known as archaeocytes, are cells found in the mesohyl that can transform into any of the animal's more specialized cell types.
In tunicates they are blood cells and use pseudopodia to attack pathogens that enter the blood, transport nutrients, get rid of waste products, and grow/repair the tunica.
In older literature, the term "amebocyte" is sometimes used as a synonym of "phagocyte".


Daniel Arnoldi

Dr. Daniel Arnoldi (March 7, 1774 - July 19, 1849) was a Quebec doctor with German parents.
He was elected the first president of the College of Physicians and Surgeons of Lower Canada (1847-1849) and the second president of the German Society of Montreal (1840-1849).


Skin maceration

Maceration is defined as the softening and breaking down of skin resulting from prolonged exposure to moisture. It was first described by Jean-Martin Charcot in 1877. Maceration is caused by excessive amounts of fluid remaining in contact with the skin or the surface of a wound for extended periods.
Maceration often occurs when one applies a bandage to everything from a paper cut on the finger to much larger wounds that require professional treatment. This occurs because the skin under the bandage becomes wet due to perspiration, urine or other bodily fluids. The excess moisture is sometimes called hyperhydration.
One may also notice maceration after wearing non-breathable plastic or latex rubber gloves, which trap moisture against the skin.
Wrinkles are the first sign that the skin is over-hydrated. In addition, macerated skin becomes extremely soft and takes on a whitish appearance. However, this white skin should not be confused with the pale, whitish appearance of the new epithelial tissue in a healing wound.
Although most maceration clears up quickly once the skin is exposed to fresh air and allowed to dry, sometimes skin that experiences long periods of maceration is vulnerable to fungal and bacterial infection. As opportunistic organisms affect the area, it may become itchy or develop a foul odour.


Endospore

An endospore is a dormant, tough, and non-reproductive structure produced by some bacteria in the phylum Firmicutes. The name "endospore" is suggestive of a spore or seed-like form ("endo" means within), but it is not a true spore (i.e., not an offspring). It is a stripped-down, dormant form to which the bacterium can reduce itself. Endospore formation is usually triggered by a lack of nutrients, and usually occurs in gram-positive bacteria. In endospore formation, the bacterium divides within its cell wall, and one side then engulfs the other. Endospores enable bacteria to lie dormant for extended periods, even centuries. There are many reports of spores remaining viable over 10,000 years, and revival of spores millions of years old has been claimed. There is one report of viable spores of "Bacillus marismortui" in salt crystals approximately 250 million years old. When the environment becomes more favorable, the endospore can reactivate itself to the vegetative state. Most types of bacteria cannot change to the endospore form. Examples of bacterial species that can form endospores include "Bacillus cereus", "Bacillus anthracis", "Bacillus thuringiensis", "Clostridium botulinum", and "Clostridium tetani".
The endospore consists of the bacterium's DNA, ribosomes and large amounts of dipicolinic acid. Dipicolinic acid is a spore-specific chemical that appears to help in the ability for endospores to maintain dormancy. This chemical accounts for up to 10% of the spore's dry weight.
Endospores can survive without nutrients. They are resistant to ultraviolet radiation, desiccation, high temperature, extreme freezing and chemical disinfectants. Thermo-resistant endospores were first hypothesized by Ferdinand Cohn after studying "Bacillus subtilis" growth on cheese after boiling the cheese. His notion of spores being the reproductive mechanism for the growth was a large blow to the previous suggestions of spontaneous generation. Astrophysicist Steinn Sigurdsson said "There are viable bacterial spores that have been found that are 40 million years old on Earth – and we know they're very hardened to radiation." Common antibacterial agents that work by destroying vegetative cell walls do not affect endospores. Endospores are commonly found in soil and water, where they may survive for long periods of time. A variety of different microorganisms form "spores" or "cysts", but the endospores of low G+C gram-positive bacteria are by far the most resistant to harsh conditions.
Some classes of bacteria can turn into exospores, also known as microbial cysts, instead of endospores. Exospores and endospores are two kinds of "hibernating" or dormant stages seen in some classes of microorganisms.
Life cycle of bacteria.
The bacterial life cycle does not necessarily include sporulation. Adverse environmental conditions usually trigger sporulation, so as to help the survival of the bacterium. Endospores exhibit no signs of life and can thus be described as cryptobiotic. Endospores retain viability indefinitely and they can germinate into vegetative cells under the appropriate conditions. Endospores have survived thousands of years until environmental stimuli trigger germination. They have been characterized as the most durable cells produced in nature.
Structure.
Bacteria produce a single endospore internally. The spore is sometimes surrounded by a thin covering known as the exosporium, which overlies the "spore coat". The spore coat, which acts like a sieve that excludes large toxic molecules like lysozyme, is resistant to many toxic molecules and may also contain enzymes that are involved in germination. In "Bacillus subtilus" endospores, the spore coat is estimated to contain more than 70 coat proteins, which are organized into an inner and an outer coat layer. The X-ray diffraction pattern of purified "B. subtilis" endospores indicates the presence of a component with a regular periodic structure, which Kadota and Iijima speculated might be formed from a keratin-like protein. However, after further studies this group concluded that the structure of the spore coat protein was different from keratin. When the "B. subtilis" genome was sequenced, no ortholog of human keratin was detected. The "cortex" lies beneath the spore coat and consists of peptidoglycan. The "core wall" lies beneath the cortex and surrounds the protoplast or "core" of the endospore. The core contains the spore chromosomal DNA which is encased in chromatin-like proteins known as SASPs (small acid-soluble spore proteins), that protect the spore DNA from UV radiation and heat. The core also contains normal cell structures, such as ribosomes and other enzymes, but is not metabolically active.
Up to 20% of the dry weight of the endospore consists of calcium dipicolinate within the core, which is thought to stabilize the DNA. Dipicolinic acid could be responsible for the heat resistance of the spore, and calcium may aid in resistance to heat and oxidizing agents. However, mutants resistant to heat but lacking dipicolinic acid have been isolated, suggesting other mechanisms contributing to heat resistance are also at work. Small acid-soluble proteins (SASPs) are found in endospores. These proteins tightly bind and condense the DNA, and are in part responsible for resistance to UV light and DNA-damaging chemicals.
Visualising endospores under light microscopy can be difficult due to the impermeability of the endospore wall to dyes and stains. While the rest of a bacterial cell may stain, the endospore is left colourless. To combat this, a special stain technique called a Moeller stain is used. That allows the endospore to show up as red, while the rest of the cell stains blue. Another staining technique for endospores is the Schaeffer-Fulton stain, which stains endospores green and bacterial bodies red. The arrangement of spore layers is as follows:
Location.
The position of the endospore differs among bacterial species and is useful in identification. The main types within the cell are terminal, subterminal, and centrally placed endospores. Terminal endospores are seen at the poles of cells, whereas central endospores are more or less in the middle. Subterminal endospores are those between these two extremes, usually seen far enough towards the poles but close enough to the center so as not to be considered either terminal or central. Lateral endospores are seen occasionally.
Examples of bacteria having terminal endospores include "Clostridium tetani", the pathogen that causes the disease tetanus. Bacteria having a centrally placed endospore include "Bacillus cereus". Sometimes the endospore can be so large the cell can be distended around the endospore. This is typical of "Clostridium tetani".
Formation and destruction.
Under conditions of starvation, especially the lack of carbon and nitrogen sources, a single endospore forms within some of the bacteria through a process called sporulation.
When a bacterium detects environmental conditions are becoming unfavourable it may start the process of endosporulation, which takes about eight hours. The DNA is replicated and a membrane wall known as a "spore septum" begins to form between it and the rest of the cell. The plasma membrane of the cell surrounds this wall and pinches off to leave a double membrane around the DNA, and the developing structure is now known as a forespore. Calcium dipicolinate, the calcium salt of dipicolinic acid, is incorporated into the forespore during this time. The dipicolinic acid helps stabilize the proteins and DNA in the endospore. Next the peptidoglycan cortex forms between the two layers and the bacterium adds a spore coat to the outside of the forespore. In the final stages of endospore formation the newly forming endospore is dehydrated and allowed to mature before being released from the mother cell. The cortex is what makes the endospore so resistant to temperature. The cortex contains an inner membrane known as the core. The inner membrane that surrounds this core leads to the endospore's resistance against UV light and harsh chemicals that would normally destroy microbes. Sporulation is now complete, and the mature endospore will be released when the surrounding vegetative cell is degraded.
Endospores are resistant to most agents that would normally kill the vegetative cells they formed from. Unlike persister cells, endospores are the result of a morphological differentiation process triggered by nutrient limitation (starvation) in the environment; endosporulation is initiated by quorum sensing within the "starving" population. Most disinfectants such as household cleaning products, alcohols, quaternary ammonium compounds and detergents have little effect on endospores. However, sterilant alkylating agents such as ethylene oxide (ETO), and 10% bleach are effective against endospores. To kill most anthrax spores, standard household bleach (with 10% sodium hypochlorite) must be in contact with the spores for at least several minutes; a very small proportion of spores can survive longer than 10 minutes in such a solution. Higher concentrations of bleach are not more effective, and can cause some types of bacteria to aggregate and thus survive.
While significantly resistant to heat and radiation, endospores can be destroyed by burning or by autoclaving at a temperature exceeding the boiling point of water, 100 °C. Endospores are able to survive at 100 °C for hours, although the larger the number of hours the fewer that will survive. An indirect way to destroy them is to place them in an environment that reactivates them to their vegetative state. They will germinate within a day or two with the right environmental conditions, and then the vegetative cells, not as hardy as endospores, can be straightforwardly destroyed. This indirect method is called tyndallization. It was the usual method for a while in the late 19th century before the introduction of inexpensive autoclaves. Prolonged exposure to ionising radiation, such as x-rays and gamma rays, will also kill most endospores.
The endospores of certain types of (typically non-pathogenic) bacteria, such as "Geobacillus stearothermophilus", are used as probes to verify that an autoclaved item has been rendered truly sterile: a small capsule containing the spores is put into the autoclave with the items; after the cycle the content of the capsule is cultured to check if anything will grow from it. If nothing will grow, then the spores were destroyed and the sterilization was successful.
In hospitals, endospores on delicate invasive instruments such as endoscopes are killed by low-temperature, and non-corrosive, ethylene oxide sterilizers. Ethylene oxide is the only low-temperature sterilant to stop outbreaks on these instruments. In contrast, "high level disinfection" does not kill endospores but is used for instruments such as a colonoscope that do not enter sterile bodily cavities. This latter method uses only warm water, enzymes, and detergents.
Bacterial endospores are resistant to antibiotics, most disinfectants, and physical agents such as radiation, boiling, and drying. The impermeability of the spore coat is thought to be responsible for the endospore's resistance to chemicals. The heat resistance of endospores is due to a variety of factors:
Reactivation.
Reactivation of the endospore occurs when conditions are more favourable and involves "activation", "germination", and "outgrowth". Even if an endospore is located in plentiful nutrients, it may fail to germinate unless activation has taken place. This may be triggered by heating the endospore. Germination involves the dormant endospore starting metabolic activity and thus breaking hibernation. It is commonly characterised by rupture or absorption of the spore coat, swelling of the endospore, an increase in metabolic activity, and loss of resistance to environmental stress.
Outgrowth follows germination and involves the core of the endospore manufacturing new chemical components and exiting the old spore coat to develop into a fully functional vegetative bacterial cell, which can divide to produce more cells.
Endospores possess five times more sulfur than vegetative cells. This excess sulfur is concentrated in spore coats as an amino acid, cysteine. It is believed that the macromolecule accountable for maintaining the dormant state has a protein coat rich in cystine, stabilized by S-S linkages. A reduction in these linkages has the potential to change the tertiary structure, causing the protein to unfold. This conformational change in the protein is thought to be responsible for exposing active enzymatic sites necessary for endospore germination.
Endospores can stay dormant for a very long time. For instance, endospores were found in the tombs of the Egyptian pharaohs. When placed in appropriate medium, under appropriate conditions, they were able to be reactivated. In 1995, Raul Cano of California Polytechnic State University found bacterial spores in the gut of a fossilized bee trapped in amber from a tree in the Dominican Republic. The bee fossilized in amber was dated to being about 25 million years old. The spores germinated when the amber was cracked open and the material from the gut of the bee was extracted and placed in nutrient medium. After the spores were analyzed by microscopy, it was determined that the cells were very similar to "Bacillus sphaericus" which is found in bees in the Dominican Republic today.
Importance.
As a simplified model for cellular differentiation, the molecular details of endospore formation have been extensively studied, specifically in the model organism "Bacillus subtilis". These studies have contributed much to our understanding of the regulation of gene expression, transcription factors, and the sigma factor subunits of RNA polymerase.
Endospores of the bacterium "Bacillus anthracis" were used in the 2001 anthrax attacks. The powder found in contaminated postal letters consisted of anthrax endospores. This intentional distribution led to 22 known cases of anthrax (11 inhalation and 11 cutaneous). The case fatality rate among those patients with inhalation anthrax was 45% (5/11). The six other individuals with inhalation anthrax and all the individuals with cutaneous anthrax recovered. Had it not been for antibiotic therapy, many more might have been stricken.
According to WHO veterinary documents, "B. anthracis" sporulates when it sees oxygen instead of the carbon dioxide present in mammal blood; this signals to the bacteria that it has reached the end of the animal, and an inactive dispersable morphology is useful.
Sporulation requires the presence of free oxygen. In the natural situation, this means the vegetative cycles occur within the low oxygen environment of the infected host and, within the host, the organism is exclusively in the vegetative form. once outside the host, sporulation commences upon exposure to the air and the spore forms are essentially the exclusive phase in the environment.
Biotechnology.
"Bacillus subtilis" spores are useful for the expression of recombinant proteins and in particular for the surface display of peptides and proteins as a tool for fundamental and applied research in the fields of microbiology, biotechnology and vaccination.
Endospore-forming bacteria.
Examples of endospore-forming bacteria include the genera:


Glyn Lewis

Glyn Lewis is a British professor of psychiatric epidemiology and the current head of the Division of Psychiatry at University College London
Education.
Glyn Lewis was born in Wales. He studied at University College, Oxford, where he played saxophone with "The Oxcentrics", a Dixieland jazz band. Lewis trained as a psychiatrist at the Maudsley Hospital in London and as an epidemiologist at the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine. He received his PhD from the Institute of Psychiatry at Kings College London.
Research.
Lewis worked at the University of Bristol and the Cardiff University prior to his current post at UCL. He has published extensively on psychiatric epidemiology, including investigating the causes of psychiatric disorders. His research is in the area of the aetiology of schizophrenia and depression and the treatment of depression and other mental disorders. He has published widely in leading journals such as "The Lancet", including research on the risk of psychosis due to the use of cannabis and the mental health of Afghan and Iraq veterans. He has conducted several randomized controlled trials, including the PREVENT study, a trial comparing antidepressants with mindfulness-based cognitive therapy, ANTLER Antidepressants to prevent relapse in depression, and PANDA, a trial investigating the effectiveness of antidepressants in mild depression.


John Berton Carnett

John Berton Carnett (1890–1988) was an American surgeon remembered for Carnett's sign. He was Professor of Surgery at the University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine, and was Director of American Base Hospital No. 20 in Chatel-Guyon, France during the First World War.
First World War.
Carnett organized the University of Pennsylvania's Base Hospital No. 20. He helped secure finances for the equipment and recruited the medical staff. In April 1917, he became director of the Hospital, when the United States entered the War. After arriving in France in June, he and a few other personnel were detached from the Base Hospital to form Surgical Operating Team No. 62. Carnett and the other members of his team received a letter of commendation for their work from Gen. Pershing.


G. Walter Dittmar

G. Walter Dittmar (1872–1949) was an American dentist.
He was born in a log cabin in Derinda, Illinois, and was educated at Logan School, Philomath College, and Northwestern University Dental School.
He practiced dentistry in Apple River, Illinois, then went to Chicago to work with a well–known dentist, Dr. Galilee. He began his own successful practice and was in the Who's Who of Chicago in 1920.
He married Agnes Dooling in Galena, Illinois in 1904. He had three children, Charlotte, Katherine, and George Walter, Jr.
He began his career on the faculty of the University of Illinois at Chicago College of Dentistry in 1898. A professor and head of prosthetic dentistry, materia medica, and therapeutics, he published 43 dental research articles in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
A popular teacher because of his genial personality, Dittmar was considered the "father" of the Department of Prosthetic Dentistry (now the Department of Restorative Dentistry) at the UIC College of Dentistry.
Dittmar achieved a national reputation as a writer, teacher, speaker, and executive. He made the UIC College of Dentistry a national force when he became the first president of the Illinois State Dental Society, and later became the president of the American Dental Association, organized American dentistry's highest post.


Warren Henry Cole

Warren Henry Cole (24 July 1898 – 25 May 1990) was an American surgeon, a pioneer in the field of adjunctive treatments for surgical cancer patients. With Evarts Ambrose Graham he co-developed in 1924 the process of visualizing the gall bladder with X-rays by using contrast media, a process used in the diagnosis of gall bladder disease, in 1924.
Born in Clay Center, Kansas in 1898 Cole received his M.D. from Washington University School of Medicine, and served on the faculty for several years. Cole left Washington University in 1936 to serve as a professor at University of Illinois Chicago a position he held for 30 years. He served as president of the American Cancer Society from 1959–1960.


British Association of Dermatologists

The British Association of Dermatologists is a charity established in 1920 whose charitable objects are the practice, teaching, training, and research of dermatology. It produces the "British Journal of Dermatology", a monthly peer-reviewed medical journal and organises annual conferences.


Dorotea Bucca

Dorotea Bucca (1360–1436) (also Dorotea Bocchi) was an Italian physician. Little is known of her life, except that she held a chair of medicine and philosophy at the University of Bologna for over forty years from 1390. Her father had previously held the same chair.
The attitude to educating women in medical fields in Italy appears to have been more liberal than in England prior to the 19th century. Anna Morandi Manzolini was a Professor of Anatomy at the University of Bologna in 1760, and other Italian women whose contributions in medicine have been recorded include Trotula of Salerno (11th century), Abella, Jacobina Félicie, Alessandra Giliani, Rebecca de Guarna, Margarita, Mercuriade (14th century), Constance Calenda, Calrice di Durisio (15th century), Constanza, Maria Incarnata and Thomasia de Mattio.


Ivan Mitev

Professor Ivan Mitev Ivanov () (4 October 1924 – 15 April 2006) was a Bulgarian pediatrician and cardio rheumatologist who discovered the sixth heart tone, called the tone of Mitev.


Joachim Friedrich Henckel

Joachim Friedrich Henckel (4 March 1712 in Preussisch Holland – 1 July 1779) was a Prussian surgeon at Charité hospital in Berlin.
His publications include "Medical and Surgical Observations" (1744).
In 1769, Henckel conducted the first caesarean section to incise the linea alba on a living woman. The child survived, though the mother later died, probably due to peritonitis. The surgery drew so much attention that King Frederick II named Henckel professor of surgery and a Court Counselor. From 1773 to 1779, Henckel served as director of the Charité.


Incisive foramen

In the human mouth, the incisive foramen, also called anterior palatine foramen, or nasopalatine foramen is a funnel-shaped opening in the bone of the oral hard palate immediately behind the incisor teeth where blood vessels and nerves pass. The incisive foramen is continuous with the incisive canal, this foramen or group of foramina is located behind the central incisor teeth in the incisive fossa of the maxilla.
The incisive foramen receives the nasopalatine nerves from the floor of the nasal cavity along with the sphenopalatine artery supplying the mucous membrane covering the hard palate of the mouth.
In many other species, the incisive foramina allow for passage of ducts to the vomeronasal organ.


David Hull (paediatrician)

Sir David Hull (4 August 1932 – 13 March 2021) was a British paediatrician. Hull was most notable for research and for a paper he published in 1963 in the Journal of Physiology with Michael Dawkins, about research into brown fat, an adipose-like tissue found in hibernating animals and in the human Infant and for later contributions considered outstanding in research conducted on Lipid metabolism and Thermoregulation.
Early life and education.
Hull was born in Blackburn, Lancashire, the second son of William Hull and Nellie Hayes. He has a brother, Derek Hull (born 8 August 1931), almost exactly one year older. He attended Poulton-le-Fylde grammar school, before graduating from Liverpool University. He then spent two years in the Royal Army Medical Corps, most of which time was spent at the British Military Hospital in Berlin.
Career.
On his return, he underwent further medical training in London, and then obtained a post as Nuffield Research Fellow at the Institute for Medical Research in Oxford., and then as lecturer in Paediatrics, at the University of Oxford from 1963, after which he was appointed in 1966 as Consultant Paediatrician, at the Great Ormond Street Hospital for Sick Children. In 1972 he became Foundation Professor of Child Health at the University of Nottingham, where he worked until 1996.
He served as President of the Neonatal Society from 1987 until 1991, as President of the British Paediatric Association from 1991 to 1994, and as an adviser on paediatrics to the Government Chief Scientist. He received the Royal College of Paediatrics and Child Health's James Spence Medal in 1996, "due to his contributions to a host of organisations and working parties concerned with the health of children". He was made a Knight Bachelor in the 1993 New Year Honours, for his work in the field of childcare.
In 2005 he was a character witness in the General Medical Council hearing into the conduct of Sir Roy Meadow.
He died on 13 March 2021 at the age of 88 from complications of dementia.


Saman Gunatilake

Saman Gunatilake, FRCP, FCCP is a Sri Lankan physician, academic and neurologist.
He was a Professor of Medicine with a personal chair and head of the Department of Medicine, University of Kelaniya, working with Professor Janaka de Silva till he was appointed Professor of Medicine at the University of Sri Jayawardanapura succeeding Professor Devaka Fernando. He was a former President of the Ceylon College of Physicians
Educated at Royal College Colombo, he studied medicine gaining his MBBS. He subsequently trained with J.B. Peiris obtaining an MD from the University of Colombo and Board Certification as a Neurologist from the Post graduate Institute of Medicine. He later worked in the UK specialising in Stroke Medicine and obtaining MRCP. He is a Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians as well as a fellow of the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh and Ceylon College of Physicians.


Mark Blumberg

Mark S. Blumberg is an American professor, neuroscientist, researcher, and author who specializes in the fields of developmental psychobiology and behavioral neuroscience. He is currently an F. Wendell Miller Professor and department chair in the Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences at the University of Iowa. In addition to writing academic research articles, Blumberg has served as the editor-in-chief of "Behavioral Neuroscience" and authored several books, including "Freaks of Nature: What Anomalies Tell Us About Development and Evolution". His research also appeared on a 2020 episode of the Netflix series, "Babies".
Education.
During his undergraduate years, Blumberg studied physics and philosophy at Brandeis University, where he graduated in 1983. While at Brandeis, he studied under Frank E. Manuel. He earned his master's degree and his PhD at the University of Chicago, finishing his doctoral studies in biopsychology in 1988. He had a focus on developmental psychobiology at Indiana University for his postdoctoral training, which concluded in 1992.
Career.
After completing his postdoctoral training at Indiana University, Blumberg joined the faculty in the Department of Psychology at the University of Iowa. His research there has focused on behavioral, psychological, and neural development. In 1997, Blumberg was honored with an APA Distinguished Scientific Early Career Award for his research on behavioral and physiological development. In 2002, his first book, "Body Heat: Temperature and Life on Earth", was published by Harvard University Press. The book discusses thermoregulation in humans and other animals and how it affects behavior and development. Three years later in 2005, he published his second book, "Basic Instinct: The Genesis of Behavior", through Thunder’s Mouth Press. The book delves into the origins of so-called innate behaviors, reframing them as emerging from complex biological and environmental cascades rather than as products of hardwiring or genetic instruction. This theme is a central tenet of Developmental Systems Theory, of which Blumberg is a proponent.
In 2008, Blumberg was named the editor-in-chief of "Behavioral Neuroscience", a peer-reviewed scientific journal covering its eponymous topic and published by the American Psychological Association. The following year, he published his third book, "Freaks of Nature: What Anomalies Tell Us About Development and Evolution", through Oxford University Press. The book discusses elements of behavioral plasticity and the developing animal's ability to adapt to the body it has, rather than the body it was "supposed" to have. This theme again contrasts with the idea that certain behaviors are "preprogrammed." In the book, Blumberg uses examples from conjoined twins who coordinate their behavior and goats and dogs born without forelimbs who learn to walk on their hind legs. Also in 2009, Blumberg was a co-editor of the "Oxford Handbook of Developmental Behavioral Neuroscience". During this time, he also served as the president of the International Society for Developmental Psychobiology and was named the F. Wendell Miller Professor of Psychology at the University of Iowa.
In 2014, he received a National Institutes of Health MERIT Award for his research on sleep and its role in neural development. Blumberg had been researching muscle twitches during sleep and their role in the development of connections between muscles, brain, and spinal cord since the 1990s. The studies show that muscle twitches during sleep provide information to the brains of newborn animals about the structure of muscles and limbs, effectively teaching the brain how to move the body. Blumberg's research on the subject was highlighted in an episode of the 2020 Netflix series, "Babies". In 2017, Blumberg was named the department chair of the University of Iowa's Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, a position he continues to hold as of 2020.


Gustav von Bergmann

Gustav von Bergmann (24 December 1878 – 16 September 1955) was a German internist born in Würzburg. He was the son of renowned surgeon Ernst von Bergmann (1836-1907).
Education.
In 1903 he received his doctorate at Strasbourg, and afterwards worked at the second medical hospital in Berlin under Friedrich Kraus. In 1916 he became a full professor of internal medicine in Marburg, and later a professor at Frankfurt am Main (from 1920), the Berlin Charité (from 1927) and Munich (from 1946).
Career.
He was a proponent of "functional pathology", and is considered to be one of the founders of psychosomatic medicine. His research involved investigations into gastro-intestinal ulcers, hypertension and studies of the autonomic nervous system. From 1994 to 2010, the Gustav-von-Bergmann-Medaille was the highest honor awarded by the German Society of Internal Medicine.
With Albrecht Bethe and Gustav Georg Embden, he was co-publisher of the multi-volume "Handbuch der normalen und pathologischen Physiologie". With Rudolf Stähelin, he published the second edition of "Handbuch der inneren Medizin". Other noted works of his include:
He attended to physiologist Emil von Behring during the night prior to Behring's death of a pulmonary inflammation on March 31, 1917.


Swedish Army Veterinary Corps

Swedish Army Veterinary Corps () was an administrative corps for veterinarians of the Swedish Army from 1887 to 1969. Its task was, in peace as well as in war, to provide army units etcetera with especially trained staff for veterinary positions in the army.
History.
1887–1925.
The Swedish Army Veterinary Corps was established in 1887 and constituted all veterinarians of the Swedish Army, previously summarized under the common name of the "Veterinärstaten". The corps was under the command of the "Överfältläkaren" ("Chief Field Surgeon") and consisted of a field veterinarian (with the rank of major), 14 regimental veterinarians (with the rank of the captain), 26 battalion veterinarians (with the rank of lieutenant) and 8 veterinarian scholarship recipients (with the rank of "underlöjtnant" after the officers). The corps had their own military reserve. Positions in the corps were applied to at the National Swedish Medical Services Board ("Sjukvårdsstyrelsen"), which together with the National Swedish Board of Health delivered proposals to the King in Council. Scholarship was jointly ordered by the National Swedish Medical Board and the National Swedish Board of Health.
In 1923, the staff of the Swedish Army Veterinary Corps was made up of active duty personnel, half-pay officers ("reservstat") and military reserve. Active duty personnel occurred both out of and in troop units. Out of troop units: at the National Swedish Board of Health: 1 "Överfältveterinär" ("Inspector of Army Veterinary Service") and 1 senior clerical officer (regimental veterinarian); at staffs and more: 6 field veterinarians, 1 at each Army Division Staff, 1 regimental veterinarian at Boden Garrison, 1 battalion veterinarians each at the Gotland military commander, Karlsborg Garrison and the Swedish Army Riding and Horse-Driving School at Strömsholm Palace. In troop units: 9 regimental veterinarians and 24 battalion veterinarians. Half-pay officers constituted 1 field veterinarians, 4 regimental veterinarians and 2 battalion veterinarians. These were obliged for military service in war and when conscripts were called in for the defence of the kingdom, as well as in peace for a maximum of 50 days during each 2-year period of service after the age of 48 and for no more than 100 days of each 3-year period up to the age of 48. The reserve staff constituted veterinarians who, with the right to a supplementary pension, resigned from active service or applied to depart from such active service, were admitted to the reserve and veterinarians who received their first employment.
Veterinarians in the military reserve were obliged to service as veterinarian as half-pay officers and, in addition, were required to complete rehearsal training, partly after recruitment, and subsequently every three years until the age of 40 years. Military veterinary posts belonged to the following service classes: "överfältveterinär" (lieutenant colonel), field veterinaran (major), regimental veterinaran (captain), battalion veterinarian (older, captain (conditionally), younger, lieutenant). "Överfältveterinär" could obtain colonels rank, and field veterinaran on active service lieutenant colonel and regimental veterinaran on active service major, respectively after 25 and 20 years of well-documented service. The eldest battalion veterinarian on active service could be assigned the captain's rank. The staff in the Swedish Army Veterinary Corps, as well as the half-pay officers held corresponding employment positions. The staff of the Swedish Army Veterinary Corps were under the supervision of the Medical Board of the Royal Swedish Army Materiel Administration regarding its military-veterinary service and by the National Swedish Medical Board regarding its medical activities.
1925–1937.
According to the Defence Act of 1925, the corps would consist of 1 "överfältveterinär", 4 field veterinarians (division veterinarians), 6 regimental veterinarians and 15 battalion veterinarians. Of the regimental veterinarians, 1 was employed by the commandant in Boden and 1 in each of the Norrland Dragoon Regiment, Svea Artillery Regiment, Göta Artillery Regiment and Wendes Artillery Regiment and the Royal Swedish Army Materiel Administration. Of the battalion veterinarians, 1 was employed at the Swedish Army Riding and Horse-Driving School, 1 at each of the Life Regiment Dragoons, Life Regiment Hussars, Scanian Cavalry Regiment ("Skånska kavalleriregementet"), all field artillery regiments, Svea Engineer Corps and Göta Engineer Corps, the Field Telegraph Corps and all service troop corps. The relevant division veterinary held the regimental veterinary services at the Life Regiment Dragoons, Life Regiment Hussars, Scanian Cavalry Regiment and Norrland Artillery Regiment.
1937–1969.
At the beginning of 1937, all 26 postings on active service, namely 1 "överfältveterinär", 4 field veterinarians, 6 regimental veterinarians and 15 battalion veterinarians, were filled by ordinary holders. As of 1 July 1937, the Swedish Army Veterinary Corps' part of the Defence Act of 1936 came into force. According to this, the active service staff would constitute 1 "överfältveterinär", 4 field veterinarians, 8 regimental veterinarians and 11 battalion veterinarians.
Previously, the military veterinary service in Sweden had been placed under the Army's Healthcare Board ("Arméns sjukvårdsstyrelse") with the Surgeon-Field General as highest commander, but from 1937 the military veterinary service had been separated from the army's healthcare service as the Field Veterinary Office ("Fältveterinärbyrån"), previously included in the Healthcare Board, was partly transferred to the newly established Veterinary Inspectorate ("Veterinärinspektionen") with the Inspector of Army Veterinary Service ("Överfältveterinären") as chief, and partly to the same newly established Horse and Veterinary Office ("Häst- och veterinärbyrån") in the Commissariat Department ("Intendenturdepartementet"). The Inspector of Army Veterinary Service thus became the head of the Swedish Army Veterinary Corps instead of the former Surgeon-Field General. The Veterinary Inspectorate (later the Army Inspectorate's Veterinary Department) handle and settled questions regarding veterinary staff, education, and horse health care, etc., that is, all military veterinary issues. Appropriations related to equipment and horses, remount, horse selection, etc., were handled by the Horse and Veterinary Equipment Office ("Häst- och veterinärmaterielbyrån") of the Commissariat Service Department ("Intendenturavdelningen") (formerly the Commissariat Department, "Intendenturdepartementet") with the Inspector of Army Veterinary Service as director.
In early 1954, the active staff consisted of 1 Inspector of Army Veterinary Service, 7 field veterinarians, 7 regimental veterinarians and 9 battalion veterinarians. The corps ceased in 1969 (SFS 1969:409) by merging the Swedish Army Veterinary Corps, the Swedish Army Medical Corps ("Fältläkarkåren") and the Swedish Naval Medical Officers’ Corps into the Medical Corps of the Swedish Armed Forces.
Inspector of Army Veterinary Service.
The head of the Swedish Army Veterinary Corps was called "Överfältläkare" ("Chief Field Surgeon") (1887-1914), then "Generalfältläkare" ("Surgeon-Field General") (23 December 1914-1937), and then "Överfältveterinär" ("Inspector of Army Veterinary Service" or "Chief of Veterinary Corps"). He was also head of the Veterinary Inspectorate ("Veterinärinspektionen").