Josue Ortega

Josue Ortega is a lecturer in economics at Queen's University Belfast. He is the author of a controversial article that suggests that the emergence of online dating has caused an increase in the number of interracial marriages in the US. Ortega's findings have been covered by international media, including "Forbes", "the Times", "New Scientist", "Business Insider" and the "MIT Technology Review". Ortega has been interviewed by "Thinking Allowed" at BBC Radio 4.
Ortega obtained his PhD at the University of Glasgow under the supervision of Professor Hervé Moulin. He received the Catherine Richards prize by the UK Institute for Mathematics and its Applications in 2016. He sits in the editorial board of Palgrave Communications and has published his research in the Journal of Mathematical Economics, the Proceedings of the ACM Conference on Economics and Computation, Economics Letters and .


Petri Kuljuntausta

Petri Kuljuntausta is a Finnish composer, musician, sound artist and author of three books on electronic music and sound art. Since the 1990s he has belonged to a new generation of composers in Finland interested in experimental and electronic music.
Career.
Kuljuntausta has composed digital music for experimental films, video art, visual art and dance projects, and made media and sound installations in museums, galleries and concert halls. His works has been performed in many European countries, Australia, Mexico and the USA, and he has made recordings for various labels in Australia, Colombia, England, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, India, Sweden and the USA. In 2004 Star's End and Inner Space radio shows selected Kuljuntausta's "Momentum" as one of the most significant CD releases of the year. In 2005 he won an award, The Finnish State Prize for Art, from the Finnish government as a distinguished national artist. NPS, the Nederlandse Programma Stichting (Dutch broadcasting foundation), and Yleisradio (Finnish Broadcasting Company) has produced extensive artistic profiles on Kuljuntausta.
Kuljuntausta is famous for music composed of sounds both natural and extraordinary. In close collaboration with natural scientists, he has composed underwater installations from underwater materials and made music out of whale calls and the sounds of the Northern Lights. In many ways Kuljuntausta's art is based on good knowledge of tradition. Environmental sounds, live electronic music, improvisation and collaborations with Media Artists has influenced him as a composer.
One of his many challenging composition projects is "Northern Lights Live", which is based on soundscapes of the Northern Lights and audio feedback. The work was commissioned by the ISEA2004 (Inter-Society for the Electronic Arts) festival, 12th Symposium on Electronic Arts. "Northern Lights Live" is a vivid collaboration in the field between art and science, recycling original nature recordings of the phenomena as well as processed aurora borealis sounds. A forty-five-minute-long continuous audio-visual dialogue between nature's own soundscapes and their digitally altered, urban noise-art substitutes were created on stage.<ref name="http://www.aureobel.com">http://www.aureobel.com</ref> In collaboration with zoomusicologist Dario Martinelli, Kuljuntausta released in 2008 a CD entitled "Zoosphere. A Musical Encryptation of Animal Sounds", which is entirely based on animal sounds, like the sounds of birds, whales, wolves, shrimps. Kuljuntausta has also composed extensive body of works in the style of Minimalist music. Since mid-1990s he has developed new composition technique based on Phasing. Repetitive music could be heard especially in his film and video soundtracks.
In collaboration with visual artist and experimental film director Sami van Ingen Kuljuntausta has created media installations where the energy of light waves reveal audible sounds ("Wave Motion"), and the sound waves in water reveal moving light figures with the help of laser beams ("Waves & Patterns"). Soundscapes and environmental sounds are often present in his works. Another distinctive character in his music is the use of feedback noise. Kuljuntausta has developed his own electronic system to generate and control feedback sounds live.
The most extreme musical environment for Kuljuntausta's music is Saturn's moon Titan. When Cassini-Huygens spacecraft (Titan-IVB/Centaur) started its journey in 1997 from Kennedy Space Center, United States, his composition Charm of Sound was inside the Huygens probe of Cassini-Huygens spacecraft, stored on the CD-rom. When Huygens probe reached its destination on Friday January 14, 2005, Kuljuntausta's Charm of Sound landed on the ground of Titan after travelling seven years and four billion kilometres through Space.
Kuljuntausta has collaborated with composers and artists Morton Subotnick, Atau Tanaka, Richard Lerman, David Rothenberg, Robert Jürjendal, Markus Reuter, Pat Mastelotto, Chris Mann, Jim Nollman, Dario Martinelli, Al Margolis (If, Bwana), Helmut Lemke, Ocean-North, Juhani Liimatainen, Juhani Nuorvala, Hepa Halme, Jukka Orma, Markku Veijonsuo, Markus Fagerudd, Rihmasto, John Richardson, and VJ group Random Doctors, and he has produced and coordinated many album projects since late-1990s. In 2011 Kuljuntausta composed soundtrack for the film Five Fragments of the Extinct Empathy (directed by Anna Nykyri), the film was selected as the Best Short Documentary 2012 at the Hot Docs Canadian International Documentary Festival, Toronto. Two years earlier, in 2009, Kuljuntausta composed soundtrack for the film Water Cities (directed by Jaana Puhakka) which won the first prize at III. Istanbul International Architecture and Urban Films Festival in Istanbul, Turkey. He has also composed music for the films "Texas Scramble", "The Blow", "Days", and "Navigator", all directed by Sami van Ingen.
Kuljuntausta is the author of an 800-page history of Finnish electronic music, "On/Off. Eetteriäänistä sähkömusiikkiin" ("On/Off. From Ether Sounds To Electronic Music") (Kiasma and Like Publishing). With the book was released a CD compilation (compiled, restored and produced by Kuljuntausta), which contains the first Finnish electronic compositions from the years 1958-1963 first time on the CD.<ref name="http://www.like.fi">http://www.like.fi</ref>
In 2006, Kuljuntausta published his second book, "Äänen eXtreme" ("eXtreme Sound") (Like Publishing), on his own approach to music and sound. Together with the book was released a DVD, which was simply entitled as "Petri Kuljuntausta" (also known as "1994-2005", referring to the composition period of the disc), which contains almost nine hours of electronic music and sound works (42 works) composed and performed by Kuljuntausta. His third book, "First Wave" (Like Publishing), on Finnish electronic music was published in English in 2008.
Kuljuntausta is the founder of Charm of Sound association (Äänen Lumo), established in 1995 to support electronic music, experimental music and sound art, and the Finnish Society for Acoustic Ecology which was founded in 1999. Kuljuntausta was the founder and main editor of "..." ezine (electronic magazine, 1997–2001) and he also founded Charmlist emailing-list in 2001, both focused on distributing information on the activities on electronic music and sound art.
Radio programme.
During 1997-2005, Kuljuntausta produced a radio programme on electroacoustic music and sound art entitled Charmed Sounds (Lumottuja ääniä) for Yleisradio, Finnish Broadcasting Company. In 2000 Kuljuntausta worked at City University London, Department of Music / Composition (Electroacoustic), as a Visiting Scholar. During the visit he composed soundscape music from the sounds of London City. One of these works, "Vroom!!", was released on Hearing Place (Sound Art Exploring Place from Around the World), a CD published by Australian label Move Records.
Web sites.
In 2005, Kuljuntausta produced internet (media) albums of Atau Tanaka, Richard Lerman, If, Bwana (Al Margolis) and Petri Kuljuntausta for Aureobel internet publishing company. Since its start the label has worked as a distribution channel for experimental music and sound art. In 2008, Kuljuntausta worked as an artistic director of the Nightingala festival and invited composers and performers to create music from nightingale song. In 2009, Science Centre Heureka commissioned Kuljuntausta to compose 20th anniversary music for the Science Centre. The original opening music of Heureka was composed by Einojuhani Rautavaara in 1989. In 2012 Aalto university commissioned a work from Kuljuntausta for the university's opening ceremony. Kuljuntausta lecturers regularly on Sonic Art, Electronic Music, and Soundscape Art at the University of Art and Design Helsinki and Theatre Academy (Finland).
Discography.
Production.
Kuljuntausta has also produced and/or mastered (audio post-production) music and sound art works for CD releases at least from the following artists: Gordon Monahan, Francisco López, Jorge Haro, Disinformation, Charlie Morrow, Jimi Tenor, Incite/, Erkki Kurenniemi, Jukka Ruohomäki, Timo Hietala, Juhani Liimatainen, Jarmo Sermilä, Patrick Kosk, Hepa Halme, Nemesis, Juhani Nuorvala, Chris Mann, Urban Shepherds, Dario Martinelli, John Richardson, Jukka Ylitalo, Teemu Ontero, Inéz, Pekka Sirén, Jukka Mikkola, Tom Ahola, Agnieszka Waligórska, Vesa Lahti, Teemu Mäki, Kalev Tiits, Koray Tahiroglu, Shinji Kanki, Reijo Jyrkiäinen, Bengt Johansson, Henrik Otto Donner, Erkki Salmenhaara, Ilkka Kuusisto, Seppo Mustonen, Usko Meriläinen, Pehr Henrik Nordgren, Martti Vuorenjuuri, Veikko Eskolin, RANK Ensemble, Horst Quartet, Grey Park, Täydellisyys, Koelse, Umpio, Kheta Hotem, Tripolar, Gaia B, Alice Evermoore & Eavesdropper, Sami Klemola, Helena Gough, Jean-Marc Savic, Sinebag, Gintas K, Siri Austeen, Pekka Sassi, Olle Essvik, Goodiepal, Marja-Leena Sillanpää, Child of Klang, Åsa Maria Bengtsson, Ida Lundén, Lise-Lotte Norelius, Mikko Maasalo, Juhani Räisänen, Pink Twins, Juha Valkeapää, Pauli Apollo Ahopelto, Pessi Parviainen, Jakob Nordgren, Juan Kasari, Aleksi Keränen, Taito Kantomaa, Janne Jankeri, Jussi Österman, Jukka Rintamäki, Sebastian Lindberg, Sami Pennanen, Sound Meccano & Evgeniy Droomoff, Gas Of Latvia, Andres Lõo, Taavi Tulev, Lauri Dag-Tüür, Arturas Bumsteinas, Antanas Jasenka, Kaspars Groshevs, John Grzinich, Taavi Kerikmäe, Kiwa, Darius Čiuta, Raul Keller, Antireality & Bernurits, Astma, Lina Lapelyté, Martins Rokis, Raimundas Eimontas, Pekka ja Susiluoto, USO, Lau Nau, Tsembla.


Subharmonic (record label)

Subharmonic was an independent record label based in New York City. It primarily issued music with strong ambient and dub music influence. Its sub-label was Strata Records, which issued all its albums in an opaque black container. The label was founded in 1993 by music producers Bill Laswell, John Matarazzo and Robert Soares. A falling out with Matarazzo occurred during the mid-nineties, effectively ending the label's activities.


Quantum-optical spectroscopy

Quantum-optical spectroscopy is a quantum-optical generalization of laser spectroscopy where matter is excited and probed with a sequence of laser pulses.
Classically, such pulses are defined by their spectral and temporal shape as well as phase and amplitude of the electromagnetic field. Besides these properties of light, the phase-amplitude aspects have intrinsic quantum fluctuations that are of central interest in quantum optics. In ordinary laser spectroscopy, one utilizes only the classical aspects of laser pulses propagating through matter such as atoms or semiconductors. In quantum-optical spectroscopy, one additionally utilizes the quantum-optical fluctuations of light to enhance the spectroscopic capabilities by directly shaping and/or detecting the quantum fluctuations of light. Quantum-optical spectroscopy has applications in controlling and characterizing quantum dynamics of many-body states because one can directly access a large set of many-body states, which is not possible in classical spectroscopy .
Quantum-optical state injection.
A generic electromagnetic field can always be expressed in terms of a mode expansion where individual components form a complete set of modes. Such modes can be constructed with different methods and they can, e.g., be energy eigenstate, generic spatial modes, or temporal modes. Once these light mode are chosen, their effect on the quantized electromagnetic field can be described by Boson creation and annihilation operators
formula_1
and
formula_2
for photons, respectively. The quantum fluctuations of the light field can be uniquely defined by the photon correlations
formula_3
that contain the pure formula_4-particle correlations as defined with the cluster-expansion approach. Using the same second-quantization formalism for the matter being studied, typical electronic excitations in matter can be described by Fermion operators for electronic excitations and holes, i.e.~electronic vacancies left behind to the many-body ground state. The corresponding electron–hole excitations can be described by operators formula_5 and formula_6 that create and annihilate an electron–hole pair, respectively.
In several relevant cases, the light–matter interaction can be described using the dipole
interaction
formula_7
where the summation is implicitly taken over all possibilities to create an electron–hole pair (the formula_5 part) via a photon absorption (the formula_2 part); the Hamiltonian also contains the Hermitian conjugate (abbreviated as h.c.) of the terms that are explicitly written. The coupling strength between light and matter is defined by formula_10.
When the electron–hole pairs are excited resonantly with a single-mode light formula_2, the photon correlations are directly injected into the many-body correlations. More specifically, the fundamental form of the light–matter interaction inevitably leads to a correlation-transfer relation
formula_12
between photons and electron–hole excitations. Strictly speaking, this relation is valid before the onset of scattering induced by the Coulomb and phonon interactions in the solid. Therefore, it is desirable to use laser pulses that are faster than the dominant scattering processes. This regime is relatively easy to realize in present-day laser spectroscopy because lasers can already output femtosecond, or even attosecond, pulses with a high precision in controllability.
Realization.
Physically, the correlation-transfer relation means that one can "directly" inject desired
many-body states simply by adjusting the quantum fluctuations of the light pulse, as long as the light pulse is short enough. This opens a new possibility for studying properties of distinct many-body states, once the quantum-optical spectroscopy is realized through controlling the quantum fluctuations of light sources. For example, a coherent-state laser is described entirely by its single-particle expectation value formula_13. Therefore, such excitation directly injects property formula_14 that is polarization related to electron–hole transitions. To directly excite bound electron–hole pairs, i.e., excitons, described by a two-particle correlation formula_15, or a biexciton transition formula_16, one needs to have a source with formula_17 or formula_18 photon correlations, respectively.
To realize quantum-optical spectroscopy, high-intensity light sources with freely adjustable quantum statistics are needed which are currently not available. However, one can apply projective methods to access the quantum–optical response of matter from a set of classical measurements. Especially, the method presented in Ref. is robust in projecting quantum-optical responses of genuine many-body systems. This work has shown that one can indeed reveal and access many–body properties that remain hidden in classical spectroscopy. Therefore, the quantum-optical spectroscopy is ideally suited for characterizing and controlling complicated many-body states in several different systems, ranging from molecules to semiconductors.
Relation to semiconductor quantum optics.
Quantum-optical spectroscopy is an important approach in general semiconductor quantum optics. The capability to discriminate and control many-body states is certainly interesting in extended semiconductors such as quantum wells because a typical classical excitation indiscriminately detects contributions from multiple many-body configurations; With quantum-optical spectroscopy one can access and control a desired many-body state within an extended semiconductor. At the same time, the ideas of quantum-optical spectroscopy can also be useful when studying simpler systems such as quantum dots.
Quantum dots are a semiconductor equivalent to simple atomic systems where most of the first quantum-optical demonstrations have been measured. Since quantum dots are man-made, one can possibly customize them to produce new quantum-optical components for information technology. For example, in quantum-information science, one is often interested to have light sources that can output photons on demand or entangled photon pairs at specific frequencies. Such sources have already been demonstrated with quantum dots by controlling their photon emission with various schemes. In the same way, quantum-dot lasers may exhibit unusual changes in the conditional probability to emit a photon when already one photon is emitted; this effect can be measured in the so-called "g"2 correlation. One interesting possibility for quantum-optical spectroscopy is to pump quantum dots with quantum light to control their light emission more precisely.
Quantum-dot microcavity investigations have progressed rapidly ever since the experimental demonstration of vacuum Rabi splitting between a single dot and a cavity resonance. This regime can be understood on the basis of the Jaynes–Cummings model while the semiconductor aspects provide many new physical effects due to the electronic coupling with the lattice vibrations.
Nevertheless, the quantum Rabi splitting—stemming directly from the quantized light levels—remained elusive because many experiments were monitoring only the intensity of photoluminescence. Following the ideology of quantum-optical spectroscopy, Ref. predicted that quantum-Rabi splitting could be resolved in photon-correlation measurement even when it becomes smeared out in photoluminescence spectrum. This was experimentally demonstrated by measuring the so-called "g"2 correlations that quantify how regularly the photons are emitted by the quantum dot inside a microcavity.


English as a Second Language (Community)

"English as a Second Language" is the twenty-fourth and penultimate episode of the first season of the American comedy television series "Community". It aired in the United States on NBC on May 13, 2010. In the episode, a revelation from Señor Chang threatens the study group's Spanish credit, and Troy discovers his skill at plumbing. It received generally positive reviews.
Plot.
Señor Chang (Ken Jeong) privately reveals to Jeff (Joel McHale) that he, like Jeff, faked his credentials, and does not have a teaching degree. The conversation is inadvertently recorded by Annie (Alison Brie), who records all classes for taking notes. When Dean Pelton (Jim Rash) finds out, Chang is replaced by Dr. Escodera (Marlene Forte), who is stricter and will make the Spanish class take a harder final exam. The class worries they will not be able to pass the new exam. Meanwhile, Troy (Donald Glover) discovers he has a natural talent for fixing plumbing. A persistent maintenance worker (Jerry Minor) urges him to use his talent to become a plumber, but Troy turns down the offer in favor of his education.
As everyone faces the fact that they will have to retake Spanish, Jeff realizes that Annie was the one who turned in Chang, as she wanted to keep the group together by keeping them in a shared class. The rest of the study group shuns her as they try to cram for the exam. Abed (Danny Pudi) tries to encourage Troy to pursue plumbing, but Troy, misunderstanding, gets angry that Abed does not want him around.
As the exam is about to start, Shirley (Yvette Nicole Brown) gets a text from Annie, who explains she's trying to make things better with Chang. Worried about how Chang will react, the study group runs to his office, where Chang explains that getting fired was good for him and that Annie is helping him plan a new future. After taking the exam, Troy and Abed reconcile, and the group agrees to take anthropology next year.
In the end tag, the study group finds out they all passed the Spanish finals. It is then implied that Pierce (Chevy Chase) had slept with Dr. Escodera to ensure that the Spanish finals would be easy enough for everyone to pass.
Production.
The episode was written by Tim Hobert, his fifth writing credit for the show, and was directed by Gail Mancuso in her first credit for the show.
Cultural references.
The subplot where Troy discovers his skills as a plumber is inspired by the film "Good Will Hunting", with Abed's encouragement paralleling Ben Affleck's role in the film. However, the details are somewhat reversed in that Troy is being called to a trade instead of to further education. When chiding Annie for her actions, Jeff tells the group to picture her as Paul Giamatti and comments that the friends in Sisterhood of the Traveling Pants didn't do such things. After their exam, Abed likens Troy's understanding of the test to his grasp of "The Wire".
Reception.
In its original broadcast, the episode was watched by approximately 4.49 million Americans and achieved a 2.0/7 in the 18-49 demographic.
The episode received generally positive reviews, with many critics noting the challenges of following up the previous episode. Emily VanDerWerff of "The A.V. Club" gave the episode an A-, commenting that after "Modern Warfare," "pretty much anything Community did would seem like a disappointment" but that the episode mostly avoids that issue by "taking a hard left into the series master plot." She also noted that the episode "nicely dealt with the show's central conflicts without being too heavy-handed" and thought it "feels quite a bit like a season finale." Jonah Krakow of IGN gave the episode 7.5 out of 10, denoting a "good" episode. He wrote that it "felt like just another sitcom" and "really wasn't that bad, just weaker than usual," especially compared to the last few episodes. He also praised guest actors Dino Stamatopoulos and Jerry Minor for their roles. Alan Sepinwall of Uproxx called it "a more character-driven – but still very funny – episode," noting the "nice character duet for Annie and Jeff." Like VanDerWerff, he also noted the episode felt like a season finale, asking, "[W]hat exactly do Dan Harmon and company have up their sleeves for the actual finale?"


Violin plot

A violin plot is a method of plotting numeric data. It is similar to a box plot, with the addition of a rotated kernel density plot on each side.
Violin plots are similar to box plots, except that they also show the probability density of the data at different values, usually smoothed by a kernel density estimator. Typically a violin plot will include all the data that is in a box plot: a marker for the median of the data; a box or marker indicating the interquartile range; and possibly all sample points, if the number of samples is not too high.
Recently it was shown that the violin plot called Mirrored Density plot (MD plot) outperforms conventional violin plots in terms of the identification of interesting structures in data in the programming languages of R and Python. Violin plots are available as extensions to a number of software packages such as DataVisualization on CRAN and the md-plot package on PyPI.
A violin plot is more informative than a plain box plot. While a box plot only shows summary statistics such as mean/median and interquartile ranges, the violin plot shows the full distribution of the data. The difference is particularly useful when the data distribution is multimodal (more than one peak). In this case a violin plot shows the presence of different peaks, their position and relative amplitude.
Like box plots, violin plots are used to represent comparison of a variable distribution (or sample distribution) across different "categories" (for example, temperature distribution compared between day and night, or distribution of car prices compared across different car makers).
A violin plot can have multiple layers. For instance, the outer shape represents all possible results. The next layer inside might represent the values that occur 95% of the time. The next layer (if it exists) inside might represent the values that occur 50% of the time.
Although more informative than box plots, they are less popular. Because of their unpopularity, their meaning can be harder to grasp for many readers not familiar with the violin plot representation. In this case, a more accessible alternative can be plotting a series of stacked histograms or kernel density distributions.
Violin plots are available as extensions to a number of software packages, including the R packages vioplot, wvioplot, caroline, UsingR, lattice and ggplot2, the Stata add-on command vioplot, and the Python libraries matplotlib, Plotly, ROOT and Seaborn, a graph type in Origin, IGOR Pro,
Julia statistical plotting package StatsPlots.jl and DistributionChart in Mathematica.


Connie M. Borror

Connie M. Borror (September 16, 1966 – April 10, 2016) was an American statistician and industrial engineer interested in quality control and forensic toxicology. She was named the winner of the Shewhart Medal of the American Society for Quality shortly before her death, for "outstanding technical leadership in the field of modern quality control, especially through the development to its theory, principles, and techniques", and became the first woman to win the medal.
Education and career.
Borror was born in Granite City, Illinois.
She studied mathematics at Southern Illinois University Edwardsville, earning a bachelor's degree there in 1988 and a master's degree in 1992. She earned her Ph.D. in industrial engineering from Arizona State University in 1998, and returned to Arizona State as a faculty member in 2005. She was the editor of "Quality Engineering" from 2011 to 2013, and chaired the Section on Quality and Productivity of the American Statistical Association for 2008.
Books.
Borror was the author of
She was also the editor of "The Certified Quality Engineer Handbook" (3rd ed., American Society for Quality, 2009).
Awards and honors.
Borror became a Fellow of the American Statistical Association in 2011, and was also a fellow of the American Society for Quality. In 2015, Arizona State named her an ASU Foundation Professor. She won the Shewhart Medal in 2016.


Test of Adolescent and Adult Language

The Test of Adolescent and Adult Language: Third Edition (TOAL-3) is a standardized, norm-referenced assessment of receptive, written and expressive language. The TOAL-3 was published in 1994. The test used to help identify individuals who may have a language disorder, and to help determine in what area(s) the dysfunction lies. Though the test is commonly administered by a Speech and Language Pathologist (SLP), it can also be administered by anyone who has some training or practice administering language or psychology type tests, and has familiarized him/herself with the test and scoring procedures.
Components.
The TOAL-3 is composed of eight sub-tests examining expressive, receptive, and written capabilities in semantic (vocabulary) and syntactic (grammar) areas. It includes written portions of the sub-tests.
Validity.
The Examiner's Manual included in the testing materials provides detailed accounting of content, construct, and criterion validity for each sub-test, and the possible composites of those sub-tests. Test-retest reliability, inter-scorer, and internal reliability have been established using various measures. Results regarding this language assessment are consistent. However, when measuring language there can be many variables and much is left to examiner inference. Further assessment based on TOAL-3 results should not be undertaken unless one is a professional in a language area.
There has since been another revision, and the current version is the TOAL-4.


Alternative hypothesis

In statistical hypothesis testing, the alternative hypothesis is a position that states something is happening, a new theory is preferred instead of an old one (null hypothesis). It is usually consistent with the research hypothesis because it is constructed from literature review, previous studies, etc. However, the research hypothesis is sometimes consistent with the null hypothesis.
In statistics, alternative hypothesis is often denoted as Ha or H1. Hypotheses are formulated to compare in a statistical hypothesis test.
In the domain of inferential statistics two rival hypotheses can be compared by explanatory power and predictive power.
Example.
An example is where water quality in a stream has been observed over many years, and a test is made of the null hypothesis that "there is no change in quality between the first and second halves of the data", against the alternative hypothesis that "the quality is poorer in the second half of the record".
History.
The concept of an alternative hypothesis in testing was devised by Jerzy Neyman and Egon Pearson, and it is used in the Neyman–Pearson lemma. It forms a major component in modern statistical hypothesis testing. However it was not part of Ronald Fisher's formulation of statistical hypothesis testing, and he opposed its use. In Fisher's approach to testing, the central idea is to assess whether the observed dataset could have resulted from chance if the null hypothesis were assumed to hold, notionally without preconceptions about what other models might hold. Modern statistical hypothesis testing accommodates this type of test since the alternative hypothesis can be just the negation of the null hypothesis.
Types.
In the case of a scalar parameter, there are four principal types of alternative hypothesis:


Color triangle

A color triangle is an arrangement of colors within a triangle, based on the additive combination of three primary colors at its corners.
An additive color space defined by three primary colors has a chromaticity gamut that is a color triangle, when the amounts of the primaries are constrained to be nonnegative.
Before the theory of additive color was proposed by Thomas Young and further developed by James Clerk Maxwell and Hermann von Helmholtz, triangles were also used to organize colors, for example around a system of red, yellow, and blue primary colors.
After the development of the CIE system, color triangles were used as chromaticity diagrams, including briefly with the trilinear coordinates representing the chromaticity values. Since the sum of the three chromaticity values has a fixed value, it suffices to depict only two of the three values, using Cartesian co-ordinates. In the modern "x,y" diagram, the large triangle bounded by the imaginary primaries X, Y, and Z has corners (1,0), (0,1), and (0,0), respectively; color triangles with real primaries are often shown within this space.
Maxwell's disc.
Maxwell was intrigued by James David Forbes's use of color tops. By rapidly spinning the top, Forbes created the illusion of a single color that was a mixture of the primaries:
Maxwell took this a step further by using a circular scale around the rim with which to measure the ratios of the primaries, choosing vermilion (V), emerald (EG), and ultramarine (U).
Initially, he compared the color he observed on the spinning top with a paper of different color, in order to find a match. Later, he mounted a pair of papers, snow white (SW) and ivory black (Bk), in an inner circle, thereby creating shades of gray. By adjusting the ratio of primaries, he matched the observed gray of the inner wheel, for example:
formula_1
To determine the chromaticity of an arbitrary color, he replaced one of the primaries with a sample of the test color and adjusted the ratios until he found a match. For pale chrome (PC) he found formula_2. Next, he rearranged the equation to express the test color (PC, in this example) in terms of the primaries.
This would be the precursor to the color matching functions of the CIE 1931 color space, whose chromaticity diagram is shown above.


IOzone

IOzone is a file system benchmark utility. Originally made by William Norcott, further enhanced by Don Capps and others..
Source code is available from iozone.org. It does mmap() file I/O and uses POSIX Threads.
It won the 2007 Infoworld Bossie Awards for Best file I/O tool.
The Windows version of IOzone uses Cygwin. Builds are available for AIX, BSDI, HP-UX, IRIX, FreeBSD, Linux, OpenBSD, NetBSD, OSFV3, OSFV4, OSFV5, SCO OpenServer, Solaris, Mac OS X, Windows (95/98/Me/NT/2K/XP).
It is available as a test profile in the Phoronix Test Suite.


Argentine units of measurement

A number of different units of measurement were used in Argentina as its national system was derived from Spanish Castillian. The metric system was legally optional since 1863 and has been compulsory since 1887.
Pre-metric units.
A number of different units were used before 1887.
Length.
A number of different units were used to measure length. These units varied from one province or city to another. In the province of Buenos Aires, one vara (yard) was 0.8666 m. Some other units used in the province of Buenos Aires are given below:
1 línea (line) = vara
1 pulgada (inch) = vara
1 palma (palm) = vara
1 pié (foot) = vara
1 braza (fathom) = 2 vara
1 cuadra = 150 vara
1 legua (league) = 6000 vara.
Railway measures.
There were some other units used on the railways. One legua was equal to 600 varas (0.3231 mile). One milla was equal to 1.85 km (1.149 miles)
Mass.
Different units were used to measure mass. These units were vary from one province or city to another and, in the province of Buenos Aires, one libra (pound) was equal to 459.4 g while one "Libra de Farmacia" (apothecary pound) was equal to libra or 344.5 g. Some other units in the province of Buenos Aires are provided below:
1 lb (Argentine Confederation libra) = 1.0127142432 lb (US pound 1893) = 1.01271544757245 lb (Avoirdupois) = 0.45936 kg
1 grano (grain) = libra
1 adarme (dram) = libra
1 onza (ounce) = libra
1 arroba = 25 libra
1 quintal (hundredweight) = 100 libra
1 tonelada (ton) = 2000 libra.
The marco used for gold and silver was equal to 3544.4 grains.
Capacity.
Dry and liquid units were used for capacity. These units varied from one province or city to another.
Dry.
1 fanega = 137.1977 l
1 Cuartilla = Fanega
1 Tonelada = 7 Fanega
1 Lastre = 12 Fanega.
Liquid.
Units included:
1 Frasco (gallon) = 2.375 l
1 Octava (pint) = Frasco
1 Cuarta (quart) = Frasco
1 Baril (barrel) = 32 Frasco
1 Cuerta = 48 Frasco
1 Pipa = 192 Frasco.
Units after metric adoption.
Although theoretically the metric system was compulsory, a survey in 1920 revealed the widespread use of both traditional Spanish units and US customary units (particularly in trade with the USA).


743 Eugenisis

743 Eugenisis is a minor planet orbiting the Sun that was discovered by German astronomer Franz Kaiser in 1913.
Photometric observations of this asteroid collected during 2004 show a rotation period of 10.23 ± 0.01 hours with a brightness variation of 0.20 ± 0.02 magnitude.


Alpha-particle spectroscopy

Alpha spectrometry (also known as alpha(-particle) spectroscopy) is the quantitative study of the energy of alpha particles emitted by a radioactive nuclide that is an alpha emitter.
As emitted alpha particles are mono-energetic (i.e. not emitted with a spectrum of energies, such as beta decay) with energies often distinct to the decay they can be used to identify which radionuclide they originated from.
[For methods of gamma rays and beta particles, please see gamma spectroscopy and liquid scintillation counting respectively.]
Experimental methods.
Counting using a source in a metal disk.
It is common to place a drop of the test solution on a metal disk which is then dried out to give a uniform coating on the disk. This is then used as the test sample. If the thickness of the layer formed on the disk is too thick then the lines of the spectrum are broadened to lower energies. This is because some of the energy of the alpha particles is lost during their movement through the layer of active material.
Liquid scintillation.
An alternative method is to use internal liquid scintillation counting, where the sample is mixed with a scintillation cocktail. When the light emissions are then counted, some machines will record the amount of light energy per radioactive decay event. Due to the imperfections of the liquid scintillation method (such as a failure for all the photons to be detected, cloudy or coloured samples can be difficult to count) and the fact that random quenching can reduce the number of photons generated per radioactive decay, it is possible to get a broadening of the alpha spectra obtained through liquid scintillation. It is likely that these liquid scintillation spectra will be subject to a Gaussian broadening, rather than the distortion exhibited when the layer of an active material on a disk is too thick.
Alpha spectra.
From left to right the peaks are due to 209Po, 239Pu, 210Po and 241Am. The fact that isotopes such as 239Pu and 241Am have more than one alpha line indicates that the (daughter) nucleus can be in different discrete energy levels.
Calibration:
MCA does not work on energy, it works on voltage. To relate the energy to voltage one must calibrate the detection system. Here different alpha emitting sources of known energy were placed under the detector and the full energy peak is recorded.
Measurement of thickness of thin foils:
Energies of alpha particles from radioactive sources are measured before and after passing through the thin films. By measuring difference and using SRIM we can measure the thickness of thin foils.
Kinematics of alpha decay.
The decay energy, Q (also called the "Q-value of the reaction"), corresponds to a disappearance of mass.
For the alpha decay nuclear reaction: <chem>^{A}_{Z}P -> ^{(A-4)}_{(Z-2)}D + \alpha
</chem>, (where P is the parent nuclide and D the daughter).
formula_1, or to put in the more commonly used units: "Q" (MeV) = -931.5 Δ"M" (Da), (where Δ"M = ΣMproducts - ΣMreactants").
When the daughter nuclide and alpha particle formed are in their ground states (common for alpha decay), the total decay energy is divided between the two in kinetic energy (T):
formula_2
The size of T is dependent on the ratio of masses of the products and due to the conservation of momentum (the parent's momentum = 0 at the moment of decay) this can be calculated:
formula_3
formula_4 and formula_5, formula_6
formula_7
formula_8
 formula_9
The alpha particle, or 4He nucleus, is an especially strongly bound particle. This combined with the fact that the binding energy per nucleon has a maximum value near A=56 and systematically decreases for heavier nuclei, creates the situation that nuclei with A>150 have positive Qα-values for the emission of alpha particles.
For example, one of the heaviest naturally occurring isotopes, <chem>^238U -> ^234Th + ^4He
</chem> (ignoring charges):
Note that the decay energy will be divided between the alpha-particle and the heavy recoiling daughter so that the kinetic energy of the alpha particle (Tα) will be slightly less:
Tα = (234.043 601/238.050 788 2)4.2699 = 4.198 MeV, (note this is for the 238gU to 238gTh reaction, which in this case has the branching ratio of 79%). The kinetic energy of the recoiling 234Th daughter nucleus is TD = (mα/mP)Qα = (4.002 603 254 13/238.050 788 2)4.2699 = 0.0718 MeV or 71.8 keV, which whilst much smaller is still substantially bigger than that of chemical bonds (<10 eV) meaning the daughter nuclide will break away from whatever chemical environment the parent had been in.
The recoil energy is also the reason that alpha spectrometers, whilst run under reduced pressure, are not operated at too low a pressure so that the air helps stop the recoiling daughter from moving completely out of the original alpha-source and cause serious contamination problems if the daughters are themselves radioactive.
The Qα‐values generally increase with increasing atomic number but the variation in the mass surface due to shell effects can overwhelm the systematic increase. The sharp peaks near A=214 are due to the effects of the N=126 shell.


768 Struveana

768 Struveana is a minor planet orbiting the Sun. The asteroid was named jointly in honor of Baltic German astronomers Friedrich Georg Wilhelm von Struve, Otto Wilhelm von Struve and Karl Hermann Struve.


Walter Gordy

Walter Gordy, (April 20, 1909 – October 6, 1985) was an American physicist best known for his experimental work in microwave spectroscopy. His laboratory at Duke University became a center for research in this field, and he authored one of the definitive books on the field.
Career.
Gordy began college at Clarke Memorial Junior College in 1929. He enrolled in Mississippi College in 1930 and completed his bachelor's degree in 1932. He then began graduate work at the University of North Carolina where he received a M.A. in 1933 and a Ph.D. in 1935. Gordy's doctoral research in infrared spectroscopy was carried out under Earle K. Plyler.
From 1935 to 1941 Gordy taught at Mary Hardin-Baylor College where he was an associate professor of physics and mathematics. During this time he pursued his research interests, spectroscopic studies of hydrogen bonding, through summer research work at the University of North Carolina and The Ohio State University. In 1941, Gordy was awarded a National Research Fellowship for this work. He used the fellowship to move to the California Institute of Technology and work with Linus Pauling. The advent of World War II cut this fellowship short. In 1942 Gordy joined the MIT Radiation Laboratory where he worked on the development of microwave radar. Gordy's work with microwave technology during this time led him to focus his subsequent spectroscopic research efforts on microwave spectroscopy. He joined the physics department at Duke University in 1946 and established a research group centered on microwave and millimeter-wave spectroscopy. He achieved the university's highest rank, James B. Duke Professor, in 1958 and continued at Duke until his retirement in 1979.


Thunderstrike (Kevin Masterson)

Kevin Masterson is a fictional character appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. The character was first introduced as a supporting character in "Thor" and appeared again in the spin-off series "Thunderstrike", as the son of Eric Masterson, the featured character of both series. Kevin Masterson was later re-introduced in the Marvel Comics 2 series "A-Next", as the superhero Thunderstrike, a theme which would be revisited in the Heroic Age of Marvel Comics in the eponymous limited series.
Publication history.
Kevin Masterson was created by Tom DeFalco and Ron Frenz, first appearing in "Thor" vol. 1 #392 in June 1988 as the son of the original hero known as Thunderstrike, Eric Masterson. He would continue to appear in a supporting role in "Thor" and spin-off series "Thunderstrike".
The character would be re-imagined in "What If" vol. 2 #105, appearing for the first time as a new version of Thunderstrike. An origin for Kevin Masterson as Thunderstrike would appear in the follow-up MC2 series "A-Next" #1, where he would continue to be featured, as part of the ensemble cast of characters. He would also appear in the MC2 series "Last Hero Standing" and sequel "Last Planet Standing"; as well as, the follow-up series "Avengers Next."
The use of Kevin Masterson as a legacy version of Thunderstrike was a theme revisited during the Heroic Age. It was announced that the character would return in a new five-issue miniseries by co-creators Tom DeFalco and Ron Frenz in November 2010. Promotionals leading into the event began in August depicting the mace stating "One will rise..." and "The World Still Needs Heroes." The first issues received generally positive reviews, lauding the premise, characterization and plotting. By series end the book was praised for plotting, dialogue, and characterization, with the contemporization of a classic character into timeless.
Thunderstrike appeared in "Fear Itself: The Home Front".
He is currently a member of the Asgardians of the Galaxy.
Fictional character biography.
MC2.
Kevin Masterson is granted the mace of his deceased father by Edwin Jarvis, the Avengers' butler, per his father's will. The mace is stolen from Kevin and even comes into the possession of Loki, who had created a spell to tap the dormant power within the mace. Kevin leaps into the midst of the spell, absorbing the mace and the magic it contains. He becomes his own version of Thunderstrike and a founding member of a new version of the Avengers.
As the series continues, Thunderstrike's biggest challenge comes when the Avengers travel to a dark parallel dimension, where he encounters a dark version of his father. The alternate Eric Masterson recognized Thunderstrike as Kevin, who learns that in this reality, he, not Eric, has died. The alternate Eric and Kevin bonded, and once the Avengers defeat the dark dimension's ruler, Kevin stays behind to be with his "father".
Kevin returns to his home reality, and rejoins the Avengers to aid in the battle with Seth. When Galactus destroys Asgard, Thunderstrike seemingly loses his powers in "Last Planet Standing". He is kidnapped by Ulik and Sylene, daughter of Loki, as part of a plan to restore Asgard; but Kevin Masterson struggles against his captors. Ultimately he is responsible for turning the tables on the villains. Thena, daughter of Thor, who had also taken part in the battle against her cousin, is able to restore Kevin's power, allowing him to become Thunderstrike once again.
"Thunderstrike" (limited series).
An embittered adolescent Kevin Masterson is featured in the "Thunderstrike" limited series. The character previously featured as an idealistic child is shown to have anger, behavioral problems, and disillusioned outlook on "spandex-covered glory hounds."
He is given his father's enchanted mace by Captain Steve Rogers; which to their mutual disappointment triggers no change in the character (although he does receive an open invitation to the Avengers Academy, in which he is later seen arriving on their New Campus in California.).
While on his way home, Kevin tries to save a mother and child from a rampaging Rhino and is transformed into a superhero. Kevin briefly battles the Rhino, and shortly after Kevin is defeated, he realizes that he is in his father's body. Mangog, a foe of Thor, resurfaces and threatens New York City. The young hero teams with Thor, to battle the monster. Kevin accepts his new identity as Thunderstrike, along with a new image, and continues his adventures under the mentorship of Brunnhilde the Valkyrie.
During the "Fear Itself" storyline, Thunderstrike ends up teleported onto a station in the middle of the Pacific Ocean with Amadeus Cho, X-23, Spider-Girl, and Power Man. They end up fighting a bunch of samurai Shark Men.
Kevin briefly appeared as part of the new class of students when the Avengers Academy moves to the former headquarters of the West Coast Avengers.
Powers and abilities.
MC2.
Kevin has the ability to change from his normal form into the superhuman Thunderstrike. As Thunderstrike, he has the powers contained within the mace of the same name. Thunderstrike is superhumanly strong and durable. He can generate explosive bursts of sonic force (his "thunderbolts") from his hands, and direct them as blasts of force, or focus the energy into his fists to deliver super-strong punches. Thunderstrike can direct his blasts downwards to launch himself into the air and, while he cannot fly, can propel himself to great distances. He even learned how to modulate the frequency of his sonic energies to shatter objects just by touching them, without harming nearby people.
"Thunderstrike" (limited series).
Kevin's demonstrated powers in the limited series are the same as his father's, including the reversion to his normal state if he is separated from Thunderstrike for over sixty seconds. He did not use the ability to fire energy blasts from the mace in the limited series. Thanks to tutoring by the valkyrie Brunnehilde, he is also capable of changing his appearance as Thunderstrike, finally choosing a form which is a modified version of his normal self.


Deviance (statistics)

In statistics, deviance is a goodness-of-fit statistic for a statistical model; it is often used for statistical hypothesis testing. It is a generalization of the idea of using the sum of squares of residuals (RSS) in ordinary least squares to cases where model-fitting is achieved by maximum likelihood. It plays an important role in exponential dispersion models and generalized linear models.
Definition.
The unit deviance formula_1 is a bivariate function that satisfies the following conditions:
The total deviance formula_4 of a model with predictions formula_5 of the observation formula_6 is the sum of its unit deviances: formula_7.
The (total) deviance for a model "M"0 with estimates formula_8, based on a dataset "y", may be constructed by its likelihood as:
Here formula_10 denotes the fitted values of the parameters in the model "M"0, while formula_11 denotes the fitted parameters for the "saturated model": both sets of fitted values are implicitly functions of the observations "y". Here, the saturated model is a model with a parameter for every observation so that the data are fitted exactly. This expression is simply 2 times the log-likelihood ratio of the full model compared to the reduced model. The deviance is used to compare two models – in particular in the case of generalized linear models (GLM) where it has a similar role to residual variance from ANOVA in linear models (RSS).
Suppose in the framework of the GLM, we have two nested models, "M1" and "M2". In particular, suppose that "M1" contains the parameters in "M2", and "k" additional parameters. Then, under the null hypothesis that "M2" is the true model, the difference between the deviances for the two models follows, based on Wilks' theorem, an approximate chi-squared distribution with "k"-degrees of freedom. This can be used for hypothesis testing on the deviance.
Some usage of the term "deviance" can be confusing. According to Collett:
Examples.
The unit deviance for the Poisson distribution is formula_14, the unit deviance for the Normal distribution is given by formula_15.


Tetratonic scale

A tetratonic scale is a musical scale or mode with four notes per octave. This is in contrast to a heptatonic (seven-note) scale such as the major scale and minor scale, or a dodecatonic (chromatic 12-note ) scale, both common in modern Western music. Tetratonic scales are not common in modern art music, and are generally associated with prehistoric music.
Distribution.
Native American music.
Tetratonic scales were common among the Plains Indians, though less common than the pentatonic scale. Amongst the Arapaho, Blackfoot, Crow, Omaha, Kiowa, Pawnee, and Sioux, as well as some Plateau tribes, especially the Flathead, the tetratonic and pentatonic scales used are anhemitonic (that is, they do not include semitones). Tetratonic scales have also been noted among the music of the Creek Indians, and in the Great Basin region among the Washo, Ute, Paiute, and Shoshone. In the Southwest, the Navajo people also largely used the pentatonic and tetratonic, occasionally also tritonic scales.
Inuit.
Tetratonic music was known among the Inuit, including the Greenlandic peoples.
Maori.
A 1969 study by ethnomusicologist Mervyn McLean noted that tetratonic scales were the second-most common type among the Maori tribes surveyed, accounting for 31% of scales used. The most common were tritonic (3-note) scales at 47%, while the third-most was ditonic (two-note) scales at 17%.
Oceania.
Tetratonic music was noted as common in Polynesia and Melanesia. On Guadalcanal in particular, anhemitonic pentatonic and tetratonic scales are the predominant types, although the minor second does nevertheless occasionally appear as a melodic interval. The most often used melodic intervals, however, are the major second, minor third, perfect fourth, perfect fifth, and octave.
Africa.
The main instrument in the Lobi area of Ghana is the xylophone, some of which are tuned to a tetratonic scale. In eastern Uganda, the Gwere use for their six-string harp (called "tongoli") a tetratonic scale in which all the intervals are nearly equal, which to Western ears sounds like a chain of minor thirds.
In South Africa, the San use a tetratonic scale approaching 5 equal temperament, but lacking the second step.
India.
Tetratonic, as well as tritonic scales, were commonly used by the tribal peoples of India, such as the Juang and Bhuyan of Orissa state.
Russia.
The music of the Volga-Finnic Cheremis (Mari people) of central Russia was primarily pentatonic, but used tetratonic scales 20% of the time.
Western Europe.
The second-earliest scales of Scandinavian, German, English, and Scottish folk music are believed to have been pentatonic, themselves developed from an earlier tetratonic scale. Tetratonic scales, along with pentatonic scales, account for 54% of songs in the traditional "joik" repertoire of the European Arctic Sami people, where the singing range extends to a tenth or eleventh.
The predominant style of traditional music from the Peloponnese region of Greece is a mixture of Christian, Albanian, and Vlach. It employs tetratonic, pentachordal, and pentatonic scales, around the notes of which microtonal ornamentation ("stolidia"/"psevtikes") occurs.
Art music.
A rare example of an art-music composition based entirely on a tetratonic scale is the early minimalist work "Reed Phase" (1966), by Steve Reich, which is based entirely on a single five-note cell, or "basic unit", repeated continually throughout the entire work. Because the note A occurs twice in this pattern, there are only four pitches in all.


Link prefetching

Link prefetching allows web browsers to pre-load resources. This speeds up both the loading and rendering of web pages. Prefetching was first introduced in HTML5.
Prefetching is accomplished through hints in web pages. These hints are used by the browser to prefetch links. Resources which can be prefetched include: JavaScript, CSS, image, audio, video, and web fonts. DNS names and TCP connections can also be hinted for prefetching.
Prefetching in HTML5.
There are two W3C standards covering prefetching for HTML5:
HTML5 methods for prefetch hints:
Issues and criticisms.
An issue inherent to indiscriminate link prefetching involves the misuse of "safe" HTTP methods. The HTTP GET and HEAD requests are said to be "safe", i.e., a user agent that issues one of these requests should expect that the request results in no change on the recipient server. However, it is common for website operators to use these requests outside of this constraint. Plain hyperlinks (which almost universally result in GET requests) are often used to implement logout functionality and account verification, e.g., when a user completes an account creation form, and an automated service sends a verification e-mail to the user's given e-mail address.
Similarly, it is entirely possible for a hosting service to provide a Web front end to manage files, including links that delete one or more files. Users who visit pages containing these types of links, (whilst using a browser which employs an indiscriminate link prefetcher), might find that they have been logged out or that their files have been deleted.
Additionally, there are a number of criticisms regarding the privacy and resource usage implications of link prefetching:
In the case of mobile devices or for users with a limited bandwidth allowance, prefetching may result in an unnecessary costly drain on limited bandwidth.
It is possible for implementations to prefetch links even when they are not specified as prefetch links.
In the case of prerendering, Google warns that improper use may result in the aforementioned increased bandwidth usage, slower loading of other links, and slightly stale content.


Nahang-class submarine

The Nahang () is an Iranian-made class of midget submarine designed for shallow water operations. Only one prototype of this class is known to be completed, although its characteristics have remained unclear.
History.
Iran had shown interest in midget submarines in the 1980s. According to the "Conway's All The World's Fighting Ships", Iran assembled a midget in Bandar Abbas that was completed in 1987 in an unsuccessful attempt. Iran reportedly purchased a second midget of another design from North Korea, delivered in 1988. It is alleged that by 1993, nine midget submarines –able to displace 76 tons surfaced and 90 tons submerged, with a top speed between and – were imported from North Korea.
Existence of "Nahang" was first known in April 2006. On 6 March 2006, Iranian state television announced that "Nahang 1" has been commissioned into the Southern Fleet. Later that year in late August, she participated in the third phase of Zarbat-e Zolfaghar wargame.
Two other submarines in the class were allegedly planned, but building further units is considered unlikely.
In April 2017, Bellingcat reported that for the first time in years, satellite imagery suggests "Nahang" had been deployed for a mission.
Description.
There is not much confidently known about characteristics of the class. According to "Jane's Fighting Ships", the class displaces when at the surface and while submerged. Alternate estimates for surfaced and submerged displacement are and respectively while the number given goes as high as .
"Jane's" mentions the approximate dimensions as for length, with a beam of and a draft of . and are top speeds reported for the submarine. "Nahang" is reportedly unarmed and not fitted with torpedoes, however there are contradicting reports suggesting it has a pair of 533mm torpedo tubes in drop collars and can carry and lay four MDM-6 or EM-52 naval mines. "Nahang" may be utilized as a mothership for swimmer delivery vehicles and a platform for special operations.
The submarine has no sonar on the report of "Jane's", but another account suggests that she is equipped with active/passive sonar on her bow. The machinery installed for propulsion is unknown. Other apparatus reportedly installed include a mast with electronic warfare support capabilities (similar to Russian-made 'Stop Light' type) and surface search and navigation radar.


Function (music)

In music, function (also referred to as harmonic function) is a term used to denote the relationship of a chord or a scale degree to a tonal centre. Two main theories of tonal functions exist today:
Both theories find part of their inspiration in the theories of Jean-Philippe Rameau, starting with his "Traité d'harmonie" of 1722. Even if the concept of harmonic function was not so named before 1893, it could be shown to exist, explicitly or implicitly, in many theories of harmony before that date. Early usages of the term in music (not necessarily in the sense implied here, or only vaguely so) include those by Fétis ("Traité complet de la théorie et de la pratique de l'harmonie", 1844), Durutte ("Esthétique musicale", 1855), Loquin ("Notions élémentaires d'harmonie moderne", 1862), etc.
The idea of function has been extended further and is sometimes used to translate Antique concepts, such as "dynamis" in Ancient Greece, or "qualitas" in medieval Latin.
Origins of the concept.
The concept of harmonic function originates in theories about just intonation. It was realized that three perfect major triads, distant from each other by a perfect fifth, produced the seven degrees of the major scale in one of the possible forms of just intonation: for instance, the triads F–A–C, C–E–G and G–B–D (subdominant, tonic, and dominant respectively) produce the seven notes of the major scale. These three triads were soon considered the most important chords of the major tonality, with the tonic in the center, the dominant above and the subdominant under.
This symmetric construction may have been one of the reasons why the fourth degree of the scale, and the chord built on it, were named "subdominant", i.e. the "dominant under [the tonic]". It also is one of the origins of the dualist theories which described not only the scale in just intonation as a symmetric construction, but also the minor tonality as an inversion of the major one. Dualist theories are documented from the 16th century onwards.
German functional theory.
The term 'functional harmony' derives from Hugo Riemann and, more particularly, from his "Harmony Simplified". Riemann's direct inspiration was Moritz Hauptmann's dialectic description of tonality. Riemann described three abstract functions: the tonic, the dominant (its upper fifth), and the subdominant (its lower fifth). He also considered the minor scale to be the inversion of the major scale, so that the dominant was the fifth above the tonic in major, but below the tonic in minor; the subdominant, similarly, was the fifth below the tonic (or the fourth above) in major, and the reverse in minor.
Despite the complexity of his theory, Riemann's ideas had huge impact, especially where German influence was strong. A good example in this regard are the textbooks by Hermann Grabner. More recent German theorists have abandoned the most complex aspect of Riemann's theory, the dualist conception of major and minor, and consider that the dominant is the fifth degree above the tonic, the subdominant the fourth degree, both in minor and in major.
In Diether de la Motte's version of the theory, the three tonal functions are denoted by the letters T, D and S, for Tonic, Dominant and Subdominant respectively; the letters are uppercase for functions in major (T, D, S), lowercase for functions in minor (t, d, s). Each of these functions can in principle be fulfilled by three chords: not only the main chord corresponding to the function, but also the chords a third lower or a third higher, as indicated by additional letters. An additional letter P or p indicates that the function is fulfilled by the relative (German "Parallel") of its main triad: for instance Tp for the minor relative of the major tonic (e.g., a minor for C major), tP for the major relative of the minor tonic (e.g. E major for c minor), etc. The other triad a third apart from the main one may be denoted by an additional G or g for "Gegenparallelklang" or "Gegenklang" ("counterrelative"), for instance tG for the major counterrelative of the minor tonic (e.g. A major for c minor).
The relation between triads a third apart resides in the fact that they differ from each other by one note only, the two other notes being common notes. In addition, within the diatonic scale, triads a third apart necessarily are of opposite mode. In the simplified theory where the functions in major and minor are on the same degrees of the scale, the possible functions of triads on degrees I to VII of the scale could be summarized as in the table below (degrees II in minor and VII in major, diminished fifths in the diatonic scale, are considered as chords without fundamental). Chords on III and VI may exert the same function as those a third above or a third below, but one of these two is less frequent than the other, as indicated by parentheses in the table.
In each case, the mode of the chord is denoted by the final letter: for instance, Sp for II in major indicates that II is the minor relative (p) of the major subdominant (S). The major VIth degree in minor is the only one where both functions, Sp (relative of the minor subdominant) and tG (counterparallel of the minor tonic), are equally plausible. Other signs (not discussed here) are used to denote altered chords, chords without fundamental, applied dominants, etc. Degree VII in harmonic sequence (e.g. I–IV–VII–III–VI–II–V–I) may at times be denoted by its roman numeral; in major, the sequence would then be denoted by T–S–VII–Dp–Tp–Sp–D–T.
As summarized by d'Indy (1903), who shared the conception of Riemann:
Viennese theory of the degrees.
The Viennese theory on the other hand, the "Theory of the degrees" ("Stufentheorie"), represented by Simon Sechter, Heinrich Schenker and Arnold Schoenberg among others, considers that each degree has its own function and refers to the tonal center through the cycle of fifths; it stresses harmonic progressions above chord quality. In music theory as it is commonly taught in the US, there are six or seven different functions, depending on whether degree VII is considered to possess an independent function.
Comparison of the terminologies.
The table below compares the English and German terminologies for the major scale. In English, the names of the scale degrees are also the names of their function, and they remain the same in major and in minor.
Note that ii, iii, and vi are lowercase: this indicates that they are minor chords; vii° indicates that this chord is a diminished triad.
Reviewing usage of harmonic theory in American publications, William Caplin writes:
Caplin further explains that there are two main types of pre-dominant harmonies, "those built above the fourth degree of the scale () in the bass voice and those derived from the dominant of the dominant (V/V)" (p. 10). The first type includes IV, II6 or II6, but also other positions of these, such as IV6 or II. The second type groups harmonies which feature the raised-fourth scale degree () functioning as the leading tone of the dominant: VII7/V, V6V, or the three varieties of augmented sixth chords.


College English Test

The College English Test (), better known as CET, is a national English as a foreign language test in the People's Republic of China. It examines the English proficiency of undergraduate and postgraduate students in China. It is meant to ensure that Chinese undergraduates and postgraduates reach the required English levels specified in the National College English Teaching Syllabuses (NCETS). This test has existed in China for 26 years and now 18 million people take it annually. It includes two levels: CET4 (非专业四级) and CET6 (非专业六级).
Another kind of national English as a foreign language test is Test for English Majors (), better known as TEM. It includes two levels — TEM4 (英语专业四级) and TEM8 (英语专业八级).
College English Test.
Generally, College English Test allows all non-English-major university students to attend.
Before 2005 reform.
Before the 2005 reform, the maximum score was 100 points. A test score higher than 85 is graded as "Excellent", and a test score higher than 60 but below 85 is graded as "Pass" in the certificate. This test was held nationally twice a year in summer and winter. The CET consisted of the non-English-specialized "Band 4" (CET4), in which certificate-holders have reached the English level of non-English major undergraduate students, and "Band 6" (CET6), in which the certificate-holders have reached the English level of non-English major postgraduates. The test included listening, reading and writing sections. The spoken test was optional.
2005 reform.
The CET was reformed in 2005. Several changes were made, including:
The CET-4 is mandatory for university students in China who are not English majors. It is also a prerequisite for a bachelor's degree. Many employers in China prefer applicants with CET-4 or even CET-6 certification.
Passing the CET is important for Chinese college students. Graduates may only be able to get a degree or a good job if they can pass the CET with a high score.
While the CET tests reading, writing and listening, it does have a separate test for speaking. The speaking test is held twice a year and only students with a CET Band-4 score higher than 550 or a CET Band-6 higher than 485 are eligible for the test.
Test for English Majors.
A similar but more rigorous test, the Test for English Majors (TEM), is mandatory for English majors, and it is generally only for English majors. For these students, passing the TEM-4 is a graduation requirement. The test should be taken by the end of the second academic or sophomore year. TEM-8 ("Band 8") is the highest level for English major students; it should be taken during the end of the last academic or senior year.
If an English-major student fails to pass the TEM-4 during his or her sophomore year, they may attempt to pass the TEM-8 during their senior year. Those failing the TEM-8 are only allowed one re-test (during the following year after they have graduated from college). A second failure results in disqualification lifelong.
Both TEM4 and TEM8 are only two qualifications for any students lifelong.
Social consequences.
Some Chinese researchers point out the positive social consequences of the CET as it has promoted the role of English teaching and learning at the tertiary level in China over its 20-year history. At the same time, other researchers challenge the CET by pointing out that the test does not assess communicative competence as the teaching syllabus requires. Before the recent reform of the CET, the large proportion of multiple choice questions made this test an efficient one, but possible sacrifices in accurately measuring English language ability remained a concern. Since the CET certificates had been one of the graduation requirements of undergraduates in the majority of Chinese universities for almost 20 years, test-oriented teaching was another severe problem. However, there have been changes made in the CET test content, format, and scoring systems are evidence of the endeavors to bring about positive washback of the test on English teaching and learning in China. It is the expectation of the CET committee that the test can reflect and catch up with the needs of rapid economic reform and the new open-door policy.
Exam score distributions.
Answering all questions incorrectly will result in 330, the lowest score a test taker can get in CET4. By contrast, receiving a score higher than 600 is usually regarded as "perfect" and that means the test taker has not only answered most multiple choice questions correctly but received a positive feedback on their performance in the writing section.


Bertha C. Boschulte

Bertha C. Boschulte (March 8, 1906 – August 18, 2004) was a Virgin Islands educator, women's rights activist, statistician and politician. During her tenure as a teacher, she actively worked to attain women's suffrage in the Virgin Islands. After obtaining her Master's Degree in Public Health, she worked as the director of the Statistical Service from 1952 and was then appointed as director of the Division of Vital Records and Statistical Services. From 1955 to 1957, she was the General Services director of the Department of Health. Boschulte ran for a Senate seat and was elected in 1964, serving one term. She worked on the Commission on the Status of Women from 1969 and in 1970 was elected chair of the Virgin Islands Board of Education. In 1976, the new Junior High School in Bovoni Estate was named the Bertha C. Boschulte Middle School, in her honor.
Early life.
Bertha Christina Boschulte was born on March 8, 1906 on Saint Thomas in the Danish Virgin Islands to Jessie Alexandrina (née Millen) and Rupert R. Boschulte. She attended school in the local school system at James Monroe Elementary School and Charlotte Amalie Junior-Senior High School. After teaching for a year in 1924, she then moved to Virginia and attended the Hampton Institute, graduating in 1929 with distinction, gaining a Bachelor of Science in English and mathematics.
Career.
After her graduation, Boschulte returned to the Virgin Islands and began teaching at the Charlotte Amalie High School. During her time at Hampton, she had become aware of women's issues and was particularly interested in the suffrage movement. When she returned to St. Thomas, Boschulte joined with other women, including Ella Gifft, Eulalie Stevens, and Edith L. Williams to try to gain the vote for women in the Virgin Islands. She was the secretary of the St. Thomas Teacher's Association in 1935, when women teachers attempted to register and were rejected. The Teacher's Association filed suit and Judge Albert Levitt, ruled in their favor, ordering the Election Board to allow qualified women to register to vote.
In 1938, Boschulte was appointed acting principal of the school and in 1940 officially became the principal. She returned to the mainland to attend Teachers College, Columbia University and graduated with master's degree in educational administration in 1945. She attained a license to teach in New York and taught at P.S. 81 in 1946. While she was in the states, Boschulte attended the International Assembly of Women held in New York. The conference, sponsored by Eleanor Roosevelt had representatives from 53 countries and was convened to get the women's perspective on post-war social organization. Resolutions made at the gathering supported the creation of the United Nations and endorsed legal and political equality for women.
Returning to St. Thomas in 1947, Boschulte worked with other teachers in the Teacher Association to organize the Teacher's Institute and Evening School. The goal of the Association was to increase the standard of professionalism in teaching and they offered classes for teachers to upgrade their training. Boschulte was one of the instructors for both initiatives. In 1949, she was offered a post as a statistician in the Health Department. Deciding to forgo a PhD in education at Columbia, she accepted the offer, which included attending a training program at the University of Michigan School of Public Health, and resigned as principal of the high school.
In 1950, Boschulte moved to Ann Arbor, Michigan and began her studies, which included field trips to local health departments to evaluate their operations. Joining Delta Omega, she graduated in 1951 with a master's degree in public health. Returning to St. Thomas, she was appointed as director of the Statistical Service for the Health Department in 1952. When the Division of Vital Records and Statistical Services was founded, she became the first director, and then from 1955 to 1957, she was the General Services director of the Department of Health. She resigned from the Health Department in 1963, though she continued to work for the department on a contractual basis.
In 1964, Boschulte was elected as a Senator in the Legislature of the Virgin Islands. In 1965, the local chapter of the Federation of Business and Professional Women named her "Woman of the Year". She ran for a second legislative term in 1966, but lost her race by 30 votes. In 1969, she was appointed to serve on the Commission on the Status of Women and the following year was elected to the board of the territorial Department of Education, and served as its chair. In 1976, a new junior high school was approved to be built in Bovoni bearing her name. The Bertha C. Boschulte Middle School was dedicated on March 1, 1981.
Death and legacy.
Boschulte died on August 18, 2004 on St. Thomas. She is remembered for her dedication to the development of the educational system in the Virgin Islands.


Melbourne Underground Film Festival

The Melbourne Underground Film Festival (MUFF) was formed out of disagreements over the content and running of the Melbourne International Film Festival (MIFF). When director Richard Wolstencroft's film "Pearls Before Swine" was not accepted by the Melbourne International Film Festival, Wolstencroft claimed it was because his film was too confrontational for the tastes of MIFF. As a response to the film's rejection by MIFF, Wolstencroft founded MUFF in 2000 as an alternative independent film festival, featuring mostly genre, controversial, transgressive and avant garde material. MUFF has been known for controversy with a screening of Bruce LaBruce's "LA Zombie" gaining worldwide attention including coverage in the "New York Times". Over the years, the festival has been outspoken on the poor state of the Australia film industry and the need to make more local genre films, and has championed many issues of freedom of speech and outsider politics and ideas. The festival has also discovered (first world festival to show the work of) Australian directors like James Wan, Greg McLean, Scott Ryan, Spierig brothers, Stuart Simpson, Patrick Hughes, Andrew Traucki, Dave de Vries, David Nerlich, Neil McGregor, Mark Savage and many others. International Guests of MUFF have included Bruce LaBruce, Lloyd Kaufman, William Lustig, Ron Jeremy, American film director Chris Folino, Michael Tierney, Peter Christopherson, Jim Van Bebber, Bret Easton Ellis, Gene Gregorits, Terry McMahon and Geretta Geretta.


Enid Charles

Enid Charles (29 December 1894 – 26 March 1972) was a British socialist, feminist and statistician who was a pioneer in the fields of demography and population statistics.
She was born Dorothy Enid Charles in Denbigh, Wales. She obtained a bachelor's degree in mathematics, economics and statistics at Newnham College, Cambridge University, where she became friends with Dorothy (Dodo) Crowther, sister of James Crowther. She gained a Ph.D. in physiology from the University of Cape Town, South Africa.
Charles met the conscientious objector Lancelot Hogben while at Cambridge; they married in 1918. Out of a dozen or so socialist and feminist couples in Britain in the early 20th century, Charles was the only wife to keep her name. The couple who had two sons and two daughters, separated in 1953 and divorced in 1957.
Charles worked on fertility rates and nuptiality for the Dominion Bureau of Statistics in Canada. In 1934, Charles projected drastic decline in population of the United Kingdom should the fertility rates continue to fall. These results led her to speak out against the then commonly accepted principle of eugenics. She subsequently worked as a Regional Adviser in Epidemiology and Health Statistics and as a Population Statistics Consultant for the World Health Organization in Singapore and New Delhi.
She died in Torquay, England, in 1972, aged 77.


Neolin (instrument)

The neolin is a modern custom variant of the violin which incorporates a fretted fingerboard, cutaway body, and tremolo mechanism based on the electric guitar. The instrument was developed by luthier Bodo Vosshenrich, of Villemur sur Tarn, France.


7224 Vesnina


3458 Boduognat


GCE Advanced Level in Sri Lanka

The Sri Lankan Advanced Level (A-level), is a General Certificate of Education (GCE) qualification exam in Sri Lanka, similar to the British Advanced Level, conducted annually by the Department of Examinations of the Ministry of Education. It is usually taken by students during the optional final two years of collegiate level (grade 12 and 13 (usual age 18-19) or external (non-school) candidates, after they have completed GCE Ordinary Level exams. The majority of candidates enter the exams via their respective schools, while candidates who have finished school education can also apply as private applicants. The qualification also serves as an entrance requirement for Sri Lankan state universities. The exams are held in three mediums: Sinhala, Tamil and English.
Fields of Study.
The candidates are expected to study for 2 years at collegiate level before taking the examination. The examination diversifies over 5 major fields of study,
In each stream, candidates are expected to face 3 subjects related to the specific stream. Additionally, there would be a General English test and a Common General test. Although the result of the General English test is not taken into account for the University Entrance selection criteria, candidates are expected to obtain a pass mark for the Common General test.
Exam procedure.
The exams are conducted each year in August, in selected national schools across the country. Invigilators and supervisors are appointed by the Department of Examinations and they are typically qualified teachers of the local school system. Candidates are allowed to sit for the exam 3 times to qualify for a state university, i.e. the candidates have to meet the minimum requirements for university admission within 3 attempts in order gain university admission. The test assessments are carried out by marking panels usually consisting of qualified and experienced school teachers in service, who are guided by supervisors (usually university lecturers). It takes about 4–5 months for the final results of the island wide examination to be released and candidates have to wait further for around one year to enter a local university, depending on the university and the course/field of study.
Physical Science stream.
Physical Science stream is also known as Maths stream. Physical science stream has four main subjects: Combined Mathematics, Physics, Chemistry, and Information and Communication Technology (ICT). Under the recent syllabus, candidates can choose between either Chemistry or ICT, though Combined Mathematics and Physics are mandatory.
Combined Mathematics is a combination of Pure Mathematics and Applied Mathematics. Previously, the candidates had to follow these two subjects separately; by introducing Combined Mathematics syllabi, the two separate subjects were appended and redrafted.
The curriculum also consists of practical experiments that students are expected to participate in school laboratories.
Biological Science stream.
Biological Science stream consists of four subjects: Biology, Chemistry, Physics and Agricultural science.
candidates do have option of selecting physics or Agricultural science , while biology and chemistry are mandatory .
Commerce stream.
Commerce Stream has three main subjects. They are Accounting, Business Studies and Economics. Candidates do have the option of selecting either Business Studies or Business Statistics and Economics or Information Technology (IT)
Technology stream.
Technology stream was introduced in 2013. the stream contains three subject categories ; A , B and C. candidates can select Engineering Technology or Bio-system Technology from category A with Science for Technology as category B subject , and Information communication technology, or any other subject from the category C subject group. Science for Technology (Category B) is a compulsory subject for both Engineering and Bio-system candidates.
Since the stream is relatively new, number of schools that have the facilities to teach the stream is limited or null in some areas for those who want to study those subjects.
Criticism.
It has been noted that in recent years the exam has become extremely competitive and even traumatic for most high school students in Sri Lanka. For the academic year of 2013, out of 55,241 candidates who applied for university admission, only 43.8% were able to gain access to the state universities through the University Grants Commission (UGC), despite satisfying minimum requirements for admission. According to a 2010 study by Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health, symptoms of anxiety and depression were common more among students in GCE Advanced Level classes compared to other grades. Students in grade 13 had the second highest depression and anxiety scores, with examination related issues being the most commonly cited problem. Out of the 445 students that were assessed, 22.9% of students in grade 12 and 28.6% in grade 13 reportedly had severe depression, while 28.6% in grade 12 and 32.1% in grade 13 had severe anxiety. Due to the intimidating nature of the exam, family pressure, and social stigma resulting from exam results, most students tend to get severely depressed if they fail to achieve desired results. Some cases of suicide have been linked to the exam.


Multi mode interferometer

A multi-mode interferometer (MMI), also known as a multimode interference coupler, is a micro-scale structure in which light waves can travel, such that the optical power is split or combined in a predictable way. In an MMI, light is confined and guided, and thus the MMI is essentially a broad optical waveguide. For example, an ideal 1x2 MMI would be a 50-50 splitter, such that light enters along one path and exits along two paths, with half the power in each exit path. These entrance and exit paths are narrow waveguides, and the MMI itself is in the shape of a broad rectangular box. An ideal 50-50 splitter is nearly impossible in practice, due to the complex behavior of light. Optical loss will always occur as light travels through an MMI, which means that the total output power of a real MMI is less than the total input power. Additionally, the light propagates through the rectangular box in multiple modes, while also experiencing reflection and interference. This leads to mathematical models and equations that are too complex to solve by hand, and thus MMIs are typically designed through computer simulations.
MMIs are usually described by their coupling ratio, in which the output power of one port is compared to the total output power (summing over all output ports.) An ideal 1x2 MMI would have a 50% coupling ratio for each output port. For a real 1x2 MMI, values such as 48% and 52% may occur, due to imperfections in fabrication and manufacturing.


Decimal inch


Lot in Sodom

Lot in Sodom is a 1933 short silent experimental film, based on the Biblical tale of the city of Sodom and Gomorrah. It was directed by James Sibley Watson and Melville Webber.
The movie uses experimental techniques, avant-garde imagery and strong allusions to sexuality, especially homosexuality.
Louis Siegel was the sound composer, according to the film's opening credits.
Storyline.
The story is much closer to the tale than other films like "Sodom and Gomorrah".
Sodom is a place of sin. An angel appears there and he is welcomed by Lot. The people of Sodom want to have sex with him. Lot refuses; then the angel tells him to escape the city with his wife and daughter. Sodom is then destroyed by flames; Lot's wife is turned to a pillar of salt for having looked back.
All intertitles are quotes from the Bible.


329 Svea

Svea (minor planet designation: 329 Svea) is an asteroid from the asteroid belt and the namesake of the small Svea family, approximately in diameter. The C-type asteroid and is probably composed of carbonaceous material.
It was discovered by Max Wolf on 21 March 1892 in Heidelberg.
The light curve of 329 Svea shows a periodicity of , during which time the brightness of the object varies by in magnitude.


5275 Zdislava


Electret microphone

An electret microphone is a type of electrostatic capacitor-based microphone, which eliminates the need for a polarizing power supply by using a permanently charged material.
An "electret" is a stable dielectric material with a permanently embedded static electric dipole moment (which, due to the high resistance and chemical stability of the material, will not decay for hundreds of years). The name comes from "electr"ostatic and magn"et"; drawing analogy to the formation of a magnet by alignment of magnetic domains in a piece of iron. Electrets are commonly made by first melting a suitable dielectric material such as a plastic or wax that contains polar molecules, and then allowing it to re-solidify in a powerful electrostatic field. The polar molecules of the dielectric align themselves to the direction of the electrostatic field, producing a permanent electrostatic "bias". Modern electret microphones use PTFE plastic, either in film or solute form, to form the electret.
History.
Electret materials have been known since the 1920s and were proposed as condenser microphone elements several times, but they were considered impractical until the foil electret type was invented at Bell Laboratories in 1961 by James West and Gerhard Sessler, using a thin metallized Teflon foil.
This became the most common type, used in many applications from high-quality recording and lavalier use to built-in microphones in small sound recording devices and telephones.
Types.
There are three major types of electret microphones, differing in the way the electret material is used:
Unlike other condenser microphones, electret types require no polarizing voltage, but they normally contain an integrated preamplifier, which does require a small amount of power (often incorrectly called polarizing power or bias). This preamp is frequently phantom powered in sound reinforcement and studio applications. Other types simply include a 1.5 V battery in the microphone housing, which is often left permanently connected as the current drain is usually very small.


3670 Northcott


City of Indianapolis v. Edmond

City of Indianapolis v. Edmond, 531 U.S. 32 (2000), was a case in which the Supreme Court of the United States limited the power of law enforcement to conduct suspicionless searches, specifically, using drug-sniffing dogs at roadblocks. Previous Supreme Court decisions had given the police power to create roadblocks for the purposes of border security, and removing drunk drivers from the road. This decision stated that the power was limited to situations in which the search was "designed to serve special needs, beyond the normal need for law enforcement."
The Court drew a line on check point programs that followed "Police v. Sitz", "whose primary purpose" is "to detect evidence of ordinary criminal wrongdoing". The Court refused to "credit the 'general interest in crime control' as justification for a regime of suspicionless stops."
The opinion was delivered by Justice O'Connor, joined by Justices Stevens, Kennedy, Souter, Ginsburg, and Breyer.
Chief Justice Rehnquist delivered a dissenting opinion, in which Justice Thomas joined, and Justice Scalia joined as to part I.
Justice Thomas also filed a separate dissent.


Homestead Records

Homestead Records was a Long Island, New York-based sublabel of music distributor Dutch East India Trading that operated from 1983 to 1996. The label was known for not paying its artists and not spending any money on promotion.
History.
The label was created by Barry Tenenbaum. Tenenbaum started a mail-order business, called Lord Sitar Records, from his bedroom when he was a teenager, importing records by the Beatles and other artists from England that he could sell for a profit in the States. Tenenbaum had established an extensive distribution network, called Dutch East India Trading, so when the Copyright Act of 1976 curtailed his ability to import artists who already had U.S. labels, he began licensing records for release and he created the Homestead Records imprint for this purpose. Sam Berger, who worked for Dutch East, became the new label's first manager.
Sam Berger left Homestead in 1984 and was replaced by Gerard Cosloy, the creator of the underground art fanzine "Conflict". Cosloy would be the sole employee of the label until 1987 when Craig Marks was hired to assist him in running the label. Cosloy and Marks both resigned in 1990. Ken Katkin was the manager from 1990 to 1992, and Steven Joerg from 1992 to 1996. The label closed in 1996 with its last release being Ivo Perelman's "Cama de Terra".