Summer time in Europe

Summer time in Europe is the variation of standard clock time that is applied in most European countries (apart from Iceland, Belarus, Turkey, Georgia and Russia) in the period between spring and autumn, during which clocks are advanced by one hour from the time observed in the rest of the year, with a view to making the most efficient use of seasonal daylight. It corresponds to the notion and practice of daylight saving time (DST) to be found in many other parts of the world.
In all locations in Europe where summer time is observed (the EU, EFTA and associated countries), European Summer Time begins at 01:00 UTC/WET (02:00 CET, 03:00 EET) on the last Sunday in March and ends at 01:00 UTC (02:00 WEST, 03:00 CEST, 04:00 EEST) on the last Sunday in October each year; i.e. the change is made at the same absolute time across all time zones. European Union Directive 2000/84/EC makes the observance of summer time mandatory for EU member states (except overseas territories), though a proposal to repeal this directive and require that member states observe their own choice year-round is currently going through the legislative process .
Summer time lasts 30 weeks in years when the last Sunday in March is after the 28th; otherwise, it is 31 weeks.
History.
Summer Time was first introduced during the First World War. However, most countries discontinued the practice after the war. It was then restarted in various countries during the Second World War and its immediate aftermath. Again it was widely cancelled by the 1950s, but reintroduced in isolated cases until the late 1960s, when the energy crisis of the late 1960s and early 1970s began to prompt policymakers to reintroduce Summer Time across the continent. It has remained in place in most European countries since then.
Historically the countries of Europe had different practices for observing Summer Time, but this hindered coordination of transport, communications, and movements. Starting in 1981 the European Commission began issuing directives requiring member states to legislate harmonised start and end dates for Summer Time.
Since 1981 each directive has specified a transition time of 01:00 UTC and a start date of the last Sunday in March, but the end dates have differed. Successive Directives laid down two dates for the end: one on the last Sunday in September applied by the continental Member States, and the other on the fourth Sunday in October for the United Kingdom and Ireland. In 1996 the end date was changed to the fourth Sunday in October for all countries. In 1998 the end date was changed to the last Sunday in October; this happened to be the same as the previous rule for 1996 and 1997. The ninth directive, Directive 2000/84/EC, currently (2018) in force, specifies this rule.
Future.
There were proposals in 2015 and 2016 from members of the European Parliament to abolish summer time observance, but the European Commission did not at that time put forward proposals to be considered, saying it had not found conclusive evidence in favour of a change, and member states were divided. It did however note that a cost would be incurred if harmonisation between member states' summer time rules was lost. In 2017 the Finnish and Lithuanian parliaments both voted in favour of proposals calling on the EU to reconsider daylight saving, with similar criticism from Poland and Sweden. The European Commission at the time was reviewing the practice.
On 8 February 2018, the European Parliament voted to ask the European Commission to re-evaluate DST in Europe. After a web survey, in which 4.6 million European citizens participated, showed high support for not switching clocks twice annually, on 12 September 2018 the European Commission decided to propose that an end be put to seasonal clock changes (repealing Directive 2000/84/EC). In order for this to be valid, the standard European Union legislative procedure must be followed, including that the Council of the European Union and the European Parliament must both approve the proposal.
Under the proposal, member countries were expected to decide by 31 March 2019 which time they would observe year round. This was however considered a fairly tight timescale by many. The Internet Assigned Numbers Authority, which coordinates changes to the time zone database used by most computers and smartphones, notes that "With less than a year's notice there is a good chance that some computer-based clocks will operate incorrectly after the change, due to delays in propagating updates to software and data." The airline industry points out the complexity of revising all airline schedules, particularly in terms of ensuring slot availability on flights outside the EU, and recommends keeping the status quo or deferring the change until at least 2021. An informal meeting of EU transport ministers on 29 October 2018 suggested that many member states would not support the "unrealistic" timetable and that implementation could be pushed back to 2021.
Discussions have shown support for year-round "winter time" in e.g. Denmark, the Netherlands (), and Finland () while permanent summer time was supported in Portugal (), Poland (), and Cyprus (). Spanish opinion is split on the matter; the mainland largely favours shifting to UTC, while the Balearic Islands would prefer to remain on and the Canary Islands on .
On 4 March 2019, the European Parliament Transport and Tourism Committee approved the Commission's proposal by 23 votes to 11. The start date will however be postponed until 2021 at the earliest, to ensure a smooth transition, and the Commission must ensure that countries' decisions to retain winter or summer time are coordinated and do not disrupt the internal market. This decision was confirmed by the full European Parliament on 26 March; it must now be approved by the Council of Ministers. As at July 2020, this approval has not yet been obtained. Under the draft directive, member states would be able to choose whether to remain on their current summer time, in which case the last transition would be on the last Sunday of March 2021, or their current winter time, which would take permanent effect from the last Sunday of October 2021.
A consultation by the Irish government found that 80% of those surveyed would not support any measure that resulted in different time zones between Northern Ireland and the Republic. In July 2019, Ireland announced its opposition to the proposed directive and intends to lobby other EU states on the issue. A qualified majority of 55% of member states representing at least 65% of the European population is required for the Council of Ministers to implement a directive. In the UK, the House of Lords launched a new inquiry in July 2019 to consider the implications of the European changes, explore the preparations that should be made and the factors that should inform the UK's response. The United Kingdom left the EU on 31 January 2020, before any reform became effective; EU rules continued to apply during the transition period (up until 31 December 2020) but thereafter the UK could choose to make its own arrangements. If the UK were thus to continue observing summer/winter time, Northern Ireland would have a one-hour time difference for 30 or 31 weeks of the year either with the rest of Ireland or with the rest of the UK. In September 2018, the UK Government said that it "has no plans" to end daylight saving.
, the decision has not been confirmed by the Council of the European Union. The Council has asked the Commission to produce a detailed impact assessment, but the Commission considers that the onus is on the Member States to find a common position in Council. As a result, progress on the issue is effectively blocked.
Table of transition dates for European Summer Time.
European Summer Time begins (clocks go forward) at 01:00 UTC on the last Sunday in March, and ends (clocks go back) at 01:00 UTC on the last Sunday in October:
Double Summer Time.
"Double Summer Time" (two hours ahead of local winter time) has been observed on some occasions, notably in 1921, 1941–45, and 1947. See:
Countries not switching to and from summer time.
There are four countries that do not use summer time, but keep the same time all year.
Some may be thought of as using "permanent" summer time, since they use time zones allocated to regions further east than themselves. Belarus explicitly decided to stay permanently on (what it formerly called) summer time after 2011.
Spain, France, Belgium, and the Netherlands may also be thought of as observing "summer time" throughout the winter, and "double-summer time" during summer, because of their positions to the west of the central European time zone.
Local observations.
In most of Europe, the word "Summer" is added to the name of each European time zone during this period: thus, in the time zone, Central European Time becomes Central European Summer Time ().
Austria.
Austria used summer time in 1916–1918, 1920, 1940–1948 (as part of Nazi Germany between 1940–1945), and since 1980.
Austria-Hungary.
Austria-Hungary used summer time during World War I in 1916, 1917, and 1918, in line with the German Empire.
Bulgaria.
Summer time was introduced in Bulgaria in 1979 by a regulation of the Bulgarian Council of Ministers. Bulgaria observes the European Union rules for summer time.
Croatia.
Croatia was a part of Yugoslavia as summer time was introduced in 1983. Yugoslavia was the last country in Europe introducing summer time. After gaining independence in the Croatian War of Independence in 1992, Croatia followed the Central European way to change the time on the last Sunday of March and on the last Sunday of October, respectively on the last Sunday of September till 1995.
Czech Republic.
In the Kingdom of Bohemia summer time was used for three seasons during World War I, from 1916 to 1918, while part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire.
During World War II, when the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia became a de facto part of Nazi Germany, summer time was used from 1940. In 1940/1941 and 1941/1942, the summer time was kept continuously even during the winter.
Czech Republic continued to use summer time after the dissolution of Czechoslovakia in 1993.
Czechoslovakia.
Czechoslovakia used summer time from 1945 to 1949 and from 1979 to 1992. In winter 1946/1947 (from 1 December to 23 February), winter time (CET+01:00) was used.
Denmark.
Summer time has been observed in Denmark since 1980. A national association against summer time (Landsforeningen mod Sommertid) exists, which celebrated the EU commission preliminary decision in August 2018.
Faroe Islands.
The Faroe Islands has observed summer time since 1981. The islands have never been part of the EU, so the decision to observe summer time was its own.
Greenland.
Part of the Kingdom of Denmark, Greenland observes Summer Time simultaneously with Europe. Summer Time thus begins at 00:00 East Greenland Time on Sunday, and 22:00 West Greenland Time on Saturday, and ends at 01:00 EGST on Sunday and 23:00 WGST on Saturday. It was introduced in 1980 when Greenland was legally a part of Denmark without local rule. The most other EU Overseas countries and territories do not observe summer time. Exceptions, based on company decisions, are the northeastern coast around Danmarkshavn (UTC year-round) for Thule Air Base (which follows Atlantic Time and observes in accordance with US and Canadian rules).
Estonia.
In Estonia summer time was not used in 1990–1996 and 2000–2001. It was used under Soviet rule in 1981–1989.
Finland.
In Finland, summer time has been used on a regular basis since 1981.
A citizens' initiative to abolish daylight saving time was signed by 70,000 Finnish citizens. It was presented to the Finnish parliament in June 2017.
France and Monaco.
France and Monaco follow Central European Time and Central European Summer Time. They apply EU rules regarding the start and end times and dates for summer time.
From 1923 until the Second World War, France and Monaco observed summer time from the last Saturday in March until the first Saturday in October. During the Second World War France also observed summer time. However, after the war the practice was abandoned (since the country changed time zones instituting "de facto" permanent summer time). In 1976, summer time was reimplemented because of the oil crisis.
Since is France's "natural" time zone (extreme points correspond to UTC-0:20 to UTC+0:38), its use of in winter could be seen as a form of daylight saving time, while its use of Central European Summer Time () in summer can be seen as a form of "double summer time".
Germany.
Summer time was first introduced during World War I by the German Empire from 1916 to 1918. After the end of the war and the proclamation of the Weimar Republic in November 1918, summer time ceased to be observed. Summer time was reintroduced in 1940, during World War II, to try to save energy for the war economy. After the defeat of Germany, summer time was retained by the occupation powers. In 1945, Berlin and the Soviet Occupation Zone even observed Central European Midsummer Time ("Mitteleuropäische Hochsommerzeit", "MEHSZ"; GMT+03:00): in 1947, all of Germany switched to midsummer time from 11 May to 29 June. After the Federal Republic (West Germany) and the German Democratic Republic (East Germany) were established in 1949, summer time again ceased to be observed in 1950.
In 1978, West Germany decided to reintroduce summer time, following the example set by several neighbouring states in the aftermath of the 1973 oil crisis. However, it only came into effect in 1980, after West and East Germany reached an agreement to observe summer time simultaneously from the last Sunday in March (02:00 CET) to the last Sunday in September (03:00 CEST). Thus both German states observed the same time until the German reunification in 1990, after which the reunified Germany retained the laws and thus also the Time Act ("Zeitgesetz") of West Germany.
After 1980, West and East Germany; since 1991 reunified Germany: Central European Summer Time.
Büsingen am Hochrhein, a small exclave of Germany entirely surrounded by Swiss territory, did not implement summer time in 1980 but observed the same time as Switzerland; thus there was a one-hour time difference between this village and the rest of Germany. For the tz database, the zone Europe/Busingen was created in its 2013a release, because since the Unix time epoch in 1970, Büsingen am Hochrhein has shared clocks with Zurich, but not with Germany every year.
Germany follows the EU rules regarding the start and end times and dates for summer time.
Greece.
Summer time was first introduced in Greece in 1932, from July 6 to September 1, but the idea was then quickly abandoned.
In the early 1970s and in the aftermath of the 1973 energy crisis that led many European states to implement summer time in order to save energy, Greece reintroduced summer time in 1975 for the period March–September.
Since 1997 Greece follows the EU rules regarding the start and end times and dates for summer time.
Hungary.
Summer time was first introduced in Hungary in 1916, and it was observed until 1919. After that, summer time was in use between 1941–1949 and 1954–1957. Summer time has been in use again since 1980 and follows EU rules.
Iceland.
Iceland uses but has not used summer time since April 1968. From 1908 to 1968 Iceland used GMT−01:00. Summer time was used in 1917–1919, 1921 and 1939–1967.
The European Union Directive 2000/84/EC is valid also in the European Economic Area, but Iceland has a special exception from it.
Ireland.
In the Republic of Ireland, Irish Standard Time (IST) (UTC+01, Western European Summer Time) is observed during Summer (March to October). IST is sometimes mistaken for "Irish Summer Time", though this is incorrect. Winter Time (UTC+00, WET is observed in the rest of the year.
(Northern Ireland, as part of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, observes UK time. , this is the same as the rest of Ireland).
Italy, San Marino, and Vatican City.
Summer time is known as "ora legale" (literally "legal hour", referencing the fact that it is mandated by law) in Italy, and it has been adopted and abolished several times: it was observed from 1916 to 1920 and between 1944 and 1948. A law was approved in 1965 that took effect the following year, and made the application of summer time mandatory in the whole country. Since 1996, it has been coordinated with the European Union. San Marino and Vatican City State share land borders solely with Italy and observe the same time as in Italy.
Netherlands.
In 1940 the German occupants forced the Netherlands to observe CEST, Germany's Daylight Saving Time, effectively advancing its time by one hour and 40 minutes. This time stayed in effect year round until 1942, when the normal clock followed the German DST switches.
The use of DST was abandoned directly after the war, and not observed again until 1977, when summer time was observed again, which it currently still is.
Norway.
In Norway, summer time was observed in 1916, 1940–45, and 1959–65. The arrangement was controversial, and in 1965 the Norwegian parliament (Stortinget) voted to discontinue the practice. Their neighbour, Sweden, did not use it.
However, in 1980 summer time was reintroduced (together with Sweden and Denmark), and since at least 2002 Norway has followed the European Union in this matter.
Poland.
In Poland, "the summer time" was observed in the following years:
In the years 1979–1995 the last day of summer time was the last Sunday of September. In 1996 it was changed to the last Sunday of October, to synchronise with other countries of the EU.
Portugal.
Most of Portugal operates Western European Time and Western European Summer Time.
Summer time (locally known by "Hora de Verão") was introduced in 1916. In the years 1922, 1923, 1925, 1930, 1933 and from 1966 to 1976 summer time was not applied.
For many years, the official time in Madeira was one hour behind that in Lisbon, and the Azores were two hours behind. Today in Madeira, the official time is the same as that of Lisbon and, in the Azores, it is one hour behind Lisbon. The start and end dates for summer time in Portugal follow the pattern in the rest of the EU.
Romania.
Summer time in Romania (locally known by "Ora de Vară") was originally introduced in 1932 (between 22 May and 2 October). Between 1933 and 1940 summer time started on the first Sunday in April and ended on the first Sunday in October. Summer time was abandoned in 1941 and reintroduced in 1979. Until 1996, with few exceptions, summer time in Romania follows European Union rules.
Russia.
A decree of the Russian Provisional Government introduced summer time () in Russia on 1 July 1917, and clocks moved one hour forward. A decree of the Soviet government led to the abandonment of this system six months later: clocks moved one hour back again on 28 December.
From 1930, Decree time had the effect of imposing year-round time-zone advances in the Soviet Union.
A decision of the Council of Ministers of the USSR reintroduced summer time in the USSR (Moscow Summer Time, for example) on 1 April 1981, and its practice continued into post-Soviet times until 2011. The changeover dates in Russia were the same as for other European countries, but clocks were moved forward or back at 02:00 local time in all zones. Thus in Moscow (local time = in winter, in summer), summer time commenced at 02:00 UTC on the day before the last Sunday in March, and ended at 03:00 UTC on the day before the last Sunday in October. (Note that "day before the last Sunday" is not the same as "the last Saturday" in a month where the last day is a Saturday.)
On 8 February 2011, Russian President Dmitry Medvedev announced cancellation of biannual clock changes in Russia in favor of a permanent switch to summer time. An hour was added in March 2011 for the last time, and clocks did not move back again. At the same time some of Russia's time zones were consolidated. After this reform many Russian cities had a "standard time" two hours more than would be suggested by their "astronomical time" (because the original standard time was already ahead of astronomical time in many areas).
During his 2012 election campaign, Vladimir Putin proposed re-introducing summer time, as some workers had complained about not seeing any daylight during the winter, since the sun had not risen when they went to work. According to a report in the "International Herald Tribune", Russian citizens remembered the winter of 2011-12 as the "darkest winter on record" as a result of the time change. However, Putin later said it would be up to then Prime Minister Medvedev's cabinet to decide how to proceed with a seasonal time shift, and it decided to stay with the 2011 policy.
On 26 October 2014, Russia permanently returned to "winter" time.
Slovakia.
Slovakia used summer time (locally known as "Letný čas") in 1916, 1917, and 1918 (as part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire), then again in the early 1940s (as the Slovak Republic (1939–1945), a client-state of Nazi Germany).
In 1979, Slovakia, as part of Czechoslovakia, established that summer time begins annually in the first weekend of April (moved to the last weekend in March in 1981) and ends in the last weekend of September.
After the dissolution of Czechoslovakia in 1993, independent Slovakia continued to use summer time. From 1996, Slovakia has prolonged summer time by about one month so it lasts until the last weekend in October, in accordance with European Union rules.
Slovenia.
Summer time in Slovenia (locally known as "Poletni čas") was introduced on 16 November 1982 to be practised from 1983 on. At that time, Slovenia was one of the Yugoslav republics. The same law was valid until 1996 when the end of summer time was changed from the first Sunday in October to the last Sunday in October. In 2006, the European Union standard was adopted and is still used today.
Spain.
Spain including the Canary Islands has summer time, applying EU rules regarding the start and end times and dates.
In 1918, Spain observed summer time for the first time, and then introduced and abolished several times. It was abolished autumn 1949, and then reintroduced 1974 and has been used since. Spain used GMT+00:00 before 1940 and GMT+01:00 from 1940 as standard time. The Canary Islands used GMT-01:00 before 1946 and GMT+00:00 since 1946 as standard time.
Since is Spain's "natural" time zone (extreme points, except Canary Islands, correspond to UTC-0:37 to UTC+0:17), its use of in winter could be seen as a form of daylight saving time, while its use of Central European Summer Time () in summer can be seen as a form of "double summer time".
Sweden.
In Sweden summer time was originally introduced on 15 May 1916. It proved unpopular, and on 30 September in the same year, Sweden returned to year-round standard time. This continued for more than half a century.
On 6 April 1980, Sweden again introduced summer time, and since then summer time has been observed every summer in Sweden. Except for the introduction year 1980, summer time has always started on the last Sunday in March. It ended on the last Sunday in September during the years 1980–1995, and has ended on the last Sunday in October since 1996, following a unification of start/end dates of summer time within the EU as well as in several European countries then outside the EU.
The transit authority Västtrafik changes its clocks at 04:00, so that the last tram that leaves around 03:30 actually goes 02:30 on the last weekend of October for those who have changed their clocks at the legal time. The public transport company SL changes their clocks at the legal time, and runs extra departures during the October transition hour.
Switzerland and Liechtenstein.
The second last country in Europe (only before Yugoslavia ) to adopt summer time, in 1981, was Switzerland, even though summer time had been rejected by 52.1% of voters in a federal referendum in 1978.
Since 1996, Swiss summer time has followed EU regulations. It had formerly been in use in 1941 and 1942. Liechtenstein observes the same time as Switzerland. The German village of Büsingen am Hochrhein, a small exclave entirely surrounded by Swiss territory, also observes the same time as in Switzerland. It did not implement summer time in 1980 and observed the same time as Switzerland, so that in 1980, there was a time difference of one hour during the implementation of summer time in Germany between Büsingen am Hochrhein and the rest of West Germany.
Turkey.
Summer time was introduced in Turkey in 1947, but suspended from 1965 to 1972. Since 1974, Turkey follows European Summer Time.
In 2008, the Turkish Ministry of Energy proposed that Turkey should abolish summer time while at the same time switching to , originally from 2009 onwards, but when this appeared infeasible, to start in 2011, the plan has not been heard of since.
For the year 2011, Turkey switched to European Summer Time at 3:00 am (03:00) on Monday 28 March, one day later than the rest of Europe, to avoid disrupting the national university entrance examinations held on 27 March.
Once again, for the year 2014, Turkey switched to European Summer Time at 3:00 am (03:00) on Monday 31 March, one day later than the rest of Europe, to avoid disrupting the local elections held on 30 March.
In 2015, Turkey delayed the switch from European Summer Time by 2 weeks, to 4:00 am (04:00) on Sunday 8 November, two weeks later than the rest of Europe, due to the calling of a snap general election on Sunday, 1 November.
In 2016, Turkey scrapped winter time, by permanently staying in daylight saving time zone passed Thursday 8 September.
Ukraine.
Summer time was introduced in Ukraine in the early 1980s; from 1981 till 1989 this was Moscow Summer Time; since 1992 Eastern European Summer Time has been used.
On 20 September 2011 the Verkhovna Rada (Ukrainian parliament) voted not to return from Eastern European Summer Time to Eastern European Time. This change would have had the effect of moving Ukraine into the Further-eastern European Time zone along with Belarus and western Russia (which do not observe summer time). However, on 18 October 2011 the Parliament canceled these plans and the country returned to Eastern European Time as scheduled. 295 MPs voted in favour out of 349 registered MPs.
On 3 March 2021 the Verkhovna Rada voted on bill №4201 «Draft Law on time observation in Ukraine» which, if accepted in the second reading in March 2021, will abandon transitioning to summer time and establish year-round standard time () on whole territory of Ukraine. Bill received 277 out of 226 required votes from 370 present MPs during the first reading. On March 19 bill was rejected in second reading with 212 out of 226 required votes and was sent to additional second reading instead.
Crimea and regions of eastern Ukraine under the control of pro-Russian separatists observe Further-eastern European Time.
United Kingdom.
In the United Kingdom, local time during this period is known as
British Summer Time (BST) (, WEST) while local time during the rest of the year is normally referred to as Greenwich Mean Time (GMT), (, WET).
Legislation: Summer Time Act 1916; Summer Time Act 1922; Time (Ireland) Act, 1916; Summer Time Act, 1925; Emergency Powers (Defence) Act, 1939; The Summer Time Order 1964; The Summer Time Order 1967; Summer Time Act 1972; The Summer Time Order 1997; The Summer Time Order 2002.
The UK was, until 23:00 GMT on 31 January 2020, a member state of the European Union. Since 1996, all clocks in the European Union have changed to summer or winter time on the same dates and at the same moment, at 01:00 UTC+00:00 (Thus summer time ends at 01:59:59 ).
Guernsey, Jersey, and the Isle of Man observe the same time as the UK. Gibraltar uses the same time as Spain.
, it appears that the UK government intends to continue to operate winter and summer time on these dates, irrespective of any EU decision on the matter. This may have the effect that Northern Ireland will have a different time zone from the Republic of Ireland.


French submarine Y

The French submarine "Y" was a single-hull experimental submarine designed by Louis-Émile Bertin for the French Navy. She was launched in July 1905 but was never commissioned and remained in experimental status. A planned refit, which included adding an electric motor for underwater propulsion in 1907 was cancelled. "Y" was disarmed and stricken on 1 March 1909.
Design.
"Y" was long, with a beam of and a draught of . The submarine had a surfaced displacement of and a submerged displacement of . The submarine was powered by a diesel engine for both surface and submerged running. She had a maximum speed of on the surface and while submerged. She had a complement of 15 men.
Her armament comprised two bow torpedo tubes, two Drzewiecki drop collar torpedo launchers and one external cradle aft .
Construction and career.
"Y" was laid down in the Arsenal de Toulon, launched on 24 July 1905 and completed in 1906. "Y" was a single-hull diesel design by Louis-Émile Bertin. "Y" received the pennant number Q 37 and cost F924,300.
"Y" was used for trials and experiments and never commissioned into the French "Marine Nationale". In 1907, a reconstruction was proposed to install an electric motor and batteries for submerged running, but eventually the idea was abandoned. "Y" was disarmed and stricken in May 1909.


Richter-tuned harmonica

The Richter-tuned harmonica, or 10-hole harmonica (in Asia) or blues harp (in America), is the most widely known type of harmonica. It is a variety of diatonic harmonica, with ten holes which offer the player 19 notes (10 holes times a draw and a blow for each hole minus one repeated note) in a three-octave range.
The standard diatonic harmonica is designed to allow a player to play chords and melody in a single key. Because they are only designed to be played in a single key at a time, diatonic harmonicas are available in all keys. Harps labeled G through B start (on hole 1 blow) below middle C, while Harps labeled D through F start above middle C (C4). Here is the layout for a standard diatonic harmonica, labeled C, starting on middle C (C4).
Although there are three octaves between 1 and 10 "blow", there is only one full major scale available on the harmonica, between holes 4 and 7. The lower holes are designed around the tonic (C major) and dominant (G major) chords, allowing a player to play these chords underneath a melody by blocking or unblocking the lower holes with the tongue. The most important notes (the tonic triad C–E–G) are given the blow, and the secondary notes (B–D–F–A), the draw.
Overview /Valved diatonics.
The valved diatonic is one of the most common ways of playing chromatic scales on diatonic harmonicas. While chromatic is available, valved diatonic is also common, and there are reasons to use a valved diatonic rather than chromatics. It does not have a slide assembly (so that it has less air leakage), and it has a wider tonal range and dynamic. As well, it has a smaller size and is much more suitable to use with microphone, and it is still cheaper than chromatic, even for a premade one like Hohner's "Auto Valve" or Suzuki's "Promaster MR-350v".
Valved diatonics are made by fitting windsavers on draw holes 1–6 and blow holes 7–10; this way, all reeds can be bent down a semitone at least, although most players can easily bend down a whole tone. Alternatively, one can simply buy a factory-made valved diatonic such as the Suzuki "Promaster Valved".
The disadvantage of the valved diatonic is that it does not require one to develop proper embouchure in order to bend the notes accurately. Also, many of the notes reached by bending are nearer just intonation, and the slightly lower equal tempered pitches preferred by western classical music are unattainable. This limits the number of chromatic notes available when playing classical repertoire when compared with that of jazz or blues. Another thing worth noting is that, due to the valved bends being one-reed bends, the sound is less full than traditional bends, and may seem dull, making it less dynamic. One way to address this is by having an additional reed that activates when one bends a note; this is the philosophy of Hohner's "XB-40" and Suzuki's "SUB30 Ultrabend".
Development/Playing in different keys.
Aside from bending, Richter-tuned harmonicas are modal.
Playing the harmonica in the key to which it is tuned is known as "straight harp" or "first position" playing. For example, playing music in the key of C on a C-tuned harmonica.
More common (especially in blues and rock) is "crossharp" or "second position" playing which involves playing in the key which is a perfect fourth below the key of the harmonica (for example, on a C tuned harmonica, a second position blues would be in G—resulting in the instrument playing in mixolydian mode). This is because the notes of the G pentatonic scale (a commonly used scale in blues and rock) are more easily accessible on a C-tuned harmonica. The lower notes of harps in the lower keys (G through C) are easier to bend, but take more wind. Since much of crossharp is played on the inhalation, every opportunity for exhalation must be capitalized upon—by heavily exhaling on every exhaled note and during every pause. Crossharp lends itself to seventh and ninth chords (particularly G7 and G9) as well as blue notes (particularly on D chords, where the harmonica is tuned to play D minor while the other instruments play D major).
Another method is to play in the key one whole tone above that of the harmonica. On a C-tuned harmonica, this would mean playing in the key of D. This is known as "slant harp" or "third position" playing, and results in the harmonica playing in dorian mode. This is much less intuitive as it requires the ability to bend notes completely accurately, and there are fewer useful chords available than in first or second-position playing. The technique offers many notes that are not achievable in the other positions without overblows, such as the blue note on the third degree, which may or may not be favorable depending on the circumstance. The bends available at the lower end of the instrument also make playing melodies in a D major scale relatively easy for those who have any semblance of proficiency at the bending technique, though most of the notes (all but the second and fourth, E and G) in the scale are on the draw, requiring great skill and strategy in exhaling, even more so than in crossharp.
Continuing along the circle of fifths, fourth position, fifth position, sixth position and zeroth positions can be played, with the scales played in those positions indicated as follows:
Note that using blue notes, any of the seven positions can be used over music in its corresponding major scale if only the notes in the corresponding pentatonic scale are played.
Specially tuned instruments.
Some players prefer specially tuned variants of the diatonic harmonica. Several manufacturers, for instance Lee Oskar Harmonicas, make a variety of harmonicas to help players used to a "cross-harp" style to play in other styles. Cross-harp players usually base their play around a mixolydian scale starting on 2 draw and ending a 6 blow (with a bend needed to get the second tone of the scale; a full scale can be played from 6 blow to 9 blow). Lee Oskar specially tunes harmonicas to allow players to play a natural minor or major scale from 2 draw to 6 blow, or a harmonic minor scale from 4 blow to 7 blow. Below are some sample layouts (the key labels describe the scale from 2 draw to 6 blow, whereas traditional harmonicas are labelled according to the scale between 4 and 8 blow).
It is also possible for harp players to tune the harmonica themselves. By making small scratches in a reed, the note played can be changed. It is possible to either get a higher or a lower note. Some harp players make extensive use of these modifications. One of the most famous examples is the harp solo on "On the Road Again" by Canned Heat, on which the harmonicist, Alan "Blind Owl" Wilson, gets the minor third crossharp on the sixth drawn reed, which is normally the major second crossharp. There are books, toolkits and guides to tuning and harp customization available on the Internet; anyone interested in trying their hand at tuning should be prepared to sacrifice a few harmonicas during the learning process.
12-hole and 14-hole diatonic.
Hohner had made a few non-standard harmonicas. All of them have more than 10 holes and are labeled "grosse richter". For 12 holes, Hohner makes the "M364 Marine Band", as well as the "M36460 Marine Band Soloist". The "Marine Band Soloist" is solo tuned, with 3 full diatonic octaves with all notes of the major scale of the key of C. Since it can bend notes in the same way as a regular diatonic harmonica in the middle octave, some players use this for blues (and even jazz) instead of the more well-known solo-tuned harmonica, the chromatic harmonica, since the bent notes sound very different from true semi-tones. (For layout, see below at Chromatic harmonica, key out) In this configuration, blues players usually play in the third position, the D-minor blue scale.
In addition to the M364 models with 12 holes, there is also the Hohner "Marine Band M365" 14-hole harmonica. The general dimensions of the 12- and 14- hole Hohner harmonicas are a bit bigger than regular diatonic harmonicas. The M36401 and M36501 harmonicas (in the key of C) are pitched one octave lower than the standard 10-hole C diatonic. Thus, hole-4 blow is the same pitch as hole-1 on a regular diatonic harmonica in the key of C. The "Marine Band M36408" and M36508 (in G) are similar to a usual G diatonic, having the higher end expanded.
Holes 1 through 4 and 6 are draw-bendable, and holes 8 through 14 are blow-bendable. Note the extra holes 11–14 which in theory extend the bending capabilities a lot (from A down to E in hole-14, for example), although in practice these are quite limited.
There is also the "Steve Baker Special" (M3658) manufactured by Hohner, a special tuned 14-hole diatonic. Below, the layout of the "Steve Baker Special" in the key of C:
They come in five keys:
This harmonica offers many interesting possibilities, especially for blues harmonica, like extended tongue-block octave playing, the possibility to play exactly the same second-position riffs in two octaves, etc.
Extra-reed harmonicas.
Two harmonica models have been released with altered designs that allow for increased bending abilities, and in effect, chromatic playing on a diatonic harmonica. They are often referred to as "extra-reed" harmonicas, because they carry more than the usual 20 reeds of a diatonic harp.
The Hohner XB-40, invented by Rick Epping, features an entirely new body design, though in practice, it is still a Richter-tuned (diatonic) harmonica. Here the blow reeds and the draw reeds are sealed off one from another with valves, effectively creating two separate cells in the comb for each hole in the mouthpiece: one for blow and another for draw. A second reed is then placed in this cell at a zero-offset (no gapping) so that it does not sound under normal playing. However, it is placed on the opposite side of the reed-plate from the speaking reed and tuned so that it responds when the player “bends” the note downwards in pitch. This allows for every note on the XB-40 to be bent downwards a whole-tone or more, whereas on standard diatonics only certain notes (the higher-pitched in the cell) will bend at all.
Blues harp player.
Sonny Boy Williamson I created basics of blues harp play style. He was killed during a robbery. After that Rice Miller, better known as Sonny Boy Williamson II, is one of the most important harmonicists of this era. Using a full blues band, he became one of the most popular acts in the South due to his daily broadcasts on the 'King Biscuit Hour', originating live from Helena, Arkansas. He also helped make popular the cross-harp technique, opening the possibilities of harp playing to new heights. This technique has now become one of the most important blues harmonica methods. Sonny Boy Williamson II used hand effects to give a very talkative feel to his harp playing. A number of his compositions have also become standards in the blues world. Williamson had a powerful sound and extended his influence on the young British white blues rockers in the 1960s, recording with Eric Clapton and The Yardbirds and appearing on live British television.
But Williamson was not the only innovator of his time. A young harmonicist by the name of Marion "Little Walter" Jacobs would completely revolutionize the instrument. He had new idea of playing the harmonica near a microphone. Big Walter Horton, Carey Bell, Sonny Terry(1911 - 1986), Junior Wells (1934 - 1998), James Cotton, Sugar Blue, Snooky Pryor, and Little Sonny were blues harp players also. Blues guitarist Jimmy Reed (1925 - 1976) sometimes played blues harp.


69230 Hermes

69230 Hermes is a sub-kilometer sized asteroid and binary system on an eccentric orbit, classified as a potentially hazardous asteroid and near-Earth object of the Apollo group, that passed Earth at approximately twice the distance of the Moon on 30 October 1937. The asteroid was named after Hermes from Greek mythology. It is noted for having been the last remaining named lost asteroid, rediscovered in 2003. The S-type asteroid has a rotation period of 13.9 hours. Its synchronous companion was discovered in 2003. The primary and secondary are similar in size; they measure approximately and in diameter, respectively.
Discovery.
"Hermes" was discovered by German astronomer Karl Reinmuth in images taken at Heidelberg Observatory on 28 October 1937. Only four days of observations could be made before it became too faint to be seen in the telescopes of the day. This was not enough to calculate an orbit, and "Hermes" became a lost asteroid. It thus did not receive a number, but Reinmuth nevertheless named it after the Greek god Hermes. It was the third unnumbered but named asteroid, having only the provisional designation . The two others long lost were (1862) Apollo, discovered in 1932 and numbered 1973, and (2101) Adonis, discovered in 1936 and numbered 1977.
On 15 October 2003, Brian A. Skiff of the LONEOS project made an asteroid observation that, when the orbit was calculated backwards in time (by Timothy B. Spahr, Steven Chesley and Paul Chodas), turned out to be a rediscovery of Hermes. It has been assigned sequential number 69230. Additional precovery observations were published by the Minor Planet Center, the earliest being found by an amateur astronomer on images taken serendipitously by the MPG/ESO 2.2-m La Silla telescope on 16 September 2000.
Naming.
This minor planet was named after the Greek god Hermes, who is the messenger of the gods and son of Zeus and Maia "(also see and )". Recovered and numbered in late 2003, "Hermes" was originally named by the Astronomical Calculation Institute as early as 1937. The official naming citation was published by the Minor Planet Center on 9 November 2003 ().
Orbit and classification.
"Hermes" is an Apollo asteroid, a subgroup of near-Earth asteroids that cross the orbit of Earth. It orbits the Sun at a distance of 0.6–2.7 AU once every 2 years and 2 months (778 days; semi-major axis of 1.66 AU). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.62 and an inclination of 6° with respect to the ecliptic. Due to its eccentricity, "Hermes" is also a Mars- and Venus-crosser. Frequent close approaches to both Earth and Venus make it unusually challenging to forecast its orbit more than a century in advance, though there is no impact risk within that timeframe.
Close approaches.
The asteroid has an Earth minimum orbital intersection distance of which translates into 1.6 LD. On 30 October 1937, "Hermes" passed from Earth, and on 26 April 1942, from Earth. In retrospect it turned out that Hermes came even closer to the Earth in 1942 than in 1937, within 1.7 lunar distances; the second pass was unobserved at the height of the Second World War. For decades, "Hermes" was known to have made the closest known approach of an asteroid to the Earth. Not until 1989 was a closer approach (by 4581 Asclepius) observed. At closest approach, "Hermes" was moving 5° per hour across the sky and reached 8th magnitude.
Physical characteristics.
Spectral type.
"Hermes" is a stony S-type asteroid, as reported by Andy Rivkin and Richard Binzel. It has been characterized as a Sq-subtype using the SpeX instrument at NASA Infrared Telescope Facility. Sq-types transition to the Q-type asteroid.
Lightcurves.
Three rotational lightcurves of "Hermes" were obtained from photometric observations in October 2003. Lightcurve analysis gave a well-defined rotation period between 13.892 and 13.894 hours with a brightness variation between and 0.06 and 0.08 magnitude, which indicates that the body has a nearly spherical shape ().
Binary system.
Radar observations led by Jean-Luc Margot at Arecibo Observatory and Goldstone in October and November 2003 showed Hermes to be a binary asteroid. The primary and secondary components have nearly identical radii of and , respectively, and their orbital separation is only 1,200 metres, much smaller than the Hill radius of 35 km.
The two components are in double synchronous rotation (similar to the trans-Neptunian system Pluto and Charon). Hermes is one of only four systems of that kind known in the near-Earth object population. The other three are , , and .
In popular culture.
In the 1978 novel "The Hermes Fall" by John Baxter, the asteroid endangers the Earth in 1980.


Portland Documentary and Experimental Film Festival

The Portland Documentary and eXperimental Film Festival, or PDX Fest, is a five-day event that showcases non-narrative film and video from Portland, Oregon, United States and around the world. The film festival was started in 2001 by filmmaker Matt McCormick and has since been credited with helping turn Portland into a hotbed of experimental film and new media production.
The Portland Documentary and eXperimental Film Festival is also home of the Peripheral Produce Invitational which every year crowns the world champion of experimental film.


Frames per second


Time-resolved spectroscopy

In physics and physical chemistry, time-resolved spectroscopy is the study of dynamic processes in materials or chemical compounds by means of spectroscopic techniques. Most often, processes are studied after the illumination of a material occurs, but in principle, the technique can be applied to any process that leads to a change in properties of a material. With the help of pulsed lasers, it is possible to study processes that occur on time scales as short as 10−16 seconds.
Transient-absorption spectroscopy.
Transient-absorption spectroscopy (TAS), also known as flash photolysis, is an extension of absorption spectroscopy. Ultrafast transient absorption spectroscopy, an example of non-linear spectroscopy, measures changes in the absorbance/transmittance in the sample. Here, the absorbance at a particular wavelength or range of wavelengths of a sample is measured as a function of time after excitation by a flash of light. In a typical experiment, both the light for excitation ('pump') and the light for measuring the absorbance ('probe') are generated by a pulsed laser. If the process under study is slow, then the time resolution can be obtained with a continuous (i.e., not pulsed) probe beam and repeated conventional spectrophotometric techniques.
Time-resolved absorption spectroscopy relies on our ability to resolve two physical actions in real time. The shorter the detection time, the better the resolution. This leads to the idea that femtosecond laser based spectroscopy offers better resolution than nano-second laser based spectroscopy.
In a typical experimental set up, a pump pulse excites the sample and later, a delayed probe pulse strikes the sample. In order to maintain the maximum spectral distribution, two pulses are derived from the same source. The impact of the probe pulse on the sample is recorded and analyzed with wavelength/ time to study the dynamics of the excited state.
Absorbance (after pump)-Absorbance (before pump)= Δ Absorbance
Δ Absorbance records any change in the absorption spectrum as a function of time and wavelength. As a matter of fact, it reflects ground state bleaching (-ΔA), further excitation of the excited electrons to higher excited states(+ΔA), stimulated emission(-ΔA) or product absorption(+ΔA). Bleaching of ground state refers to depletion of the ground state carriers to excited states. Stimulated emission follows the fluorescence spectrum of the molecule and is Stokes shifted relative to and often still overlaps with the bleach signal. This is a lasing effect (coherent emission) of the excited dye molecules under the strong probe light. This emission signal cannot be distinguished from the absorption signal and often gives false negative Δ absorbance peaks in the final spectra that can be decoupled via approximations. Product absorption refers to any absorption changes caused due to formation of intermediate reaction products. TA measurements can also be used to predict non emissive states and dark states unlike time resolved photoluminescence.
Transient absorption can be measured as a function of wavelength or time.
The TA curve along wavelength provides information regarding evolution/decay of various intermediate species involved in chemical reaction at different wavelengths.
The transient absorption decay curve against time contains information regarding the number of decay processes involved at a given wavelength, how fast or slow the decay processes are. It can provide evidences with respect to inter-system crossing, intermediate unstable electronic states, trap states, surface states etc.
Conditions.
TA measurements are highly sensitive to laser repetition rate, pulse duration, emission wavelength, polarization, intensity, sample chemistry, solvents, concentration and temperature. The excitation density (no. of photons per unit area per second) must be kept low otherwise sample annihilation, saturation and orientational saturation may come into play.
Application.
Transient absorption spectroscopy helps study the mechanistic and kinetic details of chemical processes occurring on the time scales of few picoseconds to femto-seconds. These chemical events are initiated by an ultrafast laser pulse and are further probed by a probe pulse.
With the help of TA measurements, one can look into non-radiative relaxation of higher electronic states (~femtoseconds), vibrational relaxations (~picoseconds) and radiative relaxation of excited singlet state (occurs typically on nanoseconds time scale).
Transient absorption spectroscopy can be used to trace the intermediate states in a photo-chemical reaction; energy, charge or electron transfer process; conformational changes, thermal relaxation, fluorescence or phosphorescence processes, optical gain spectroscopy of semiconductor laser materials. etc. With the availability of UV-Vis-NIR ultrafast lasers, one can selectively excite a portion of any large molecule to desired excited states to study the specific molecular dynamics.
Transient absorption spectroscopy has become an important tool for characterizing various electronic states and energy transfer processes in nanoparticles, to locate trap states and further helps in characterizing the efficient passivation strategies.
Other multiple-pulse techniques.
Transient spectroscopy as discussed above is a technique that involves two pulses. There are many more techniques that employ two or more pulses, such as:
The interpretation of experimental data from these techniques is usually much more complicated than in transient-absorption spectroscopy.
Nuclear magnetic resonance and electron spin resonance are often implemented with multiple-pulse techniques, though with radio waves and micro waves instead of visible light.
Time-resolved infrared spectroscopy.
Time-resolved infrared (TRIR) spectroscopy also employs a two-pulse, "pump-probe" methodology. The pump pulse is typically in the UV region and is often generated by a high-powered , whereas the probe beam is in the infrared region. This technique currently operates down to the picosecond time regime and surpasses transient absorption and emission spectroscopy by providing "structural" information on the excited-state kinetics of both dark and emissive states.
Time-resolved fluorescence spectroscopy.
Time-resolved fluorescence spectroscopy is an extension of fluorescence spectroscopy. Here, the fluorescence of a sample is monitored as a function of time after excitation by a flash of light. The time resolution can be obtained in a number of ways, depending on the required sensitivity and time resolution:
This technique uses convolution integral to calculate a lifetime from a fluorescence decay.
Time-resolved photoemission spectroscopy and 2PPE.
Time-resolved photoemission spectroscopy and two-photon photoelectron spectroscopy (2PPE) are important extensions to photoemission spectroscopy. These methods employ a pump-probe setup. In most cases the pump and probe are both generated by a pulsed laser and in the UV region. The pump excites the atom or molecule of interest, and the probe ionizes it. The electrons or positive ions resulting from this event are then detected. As the time delay between the pump and the probe are changed, the change in the energy (and sometimes emission direction) of the photo-products is observed. In some cases multiple photons of a lower energy are used as the ionizing probe.


Serializing tokens

In computer science, serializing tokens are a concept in concurrency control arising from the ongoing development of DragonFly BSD. According to Matthew Dillon, they are most akin to SPLs, except a token works across multiple CPUs while SPLs only work within a single CPU's domain.
Serializing tokens allow programmers to write multiprocessor-safe code without themselves or the lower level subsystems needing to be aware of every single entity that may also be holding the same token.
Comparison with mutual exclusion (mutex).
Tokens and mutual exclusion (mutex) mechanisms are locks. Unlike mutexes, tokens do not exclude other threads from accessing the resource while they are blocked or asleep. A thread sharing resources with other threads can be stopped and started for a variety of reasons:
The following table summarizes the properties of tokens and mutexes.
Issues such as deadlock and priority inversion can be very difficult to avoid, and require coordination at many levels of the kernel. Because locking with tokens does not deadlock and acquired tokens need not be atomic when later operations block, it allow much simpler code than mutexes.
Example.
The following pseudocode and explanations illustrate how serializing tokens work.
Prior art in the Darwin kernel.
Mac OS X's Darwin kernel uses a similar technique (called a funnel) to serialize access to the BSD portion of the kernel.


Ditonic scale

A ditonic scale is a musical scale or mode with two notes per octave. This is in contrast to a heptatonic (seven-note) scale such as the major scale and minor scale, or a dodecatonic (chromatic 12-note ) scale, both common in modern Western music. Ethnomusicologist Bruno Nettl noted that ditonic scales were common in many parts of the world but often limited to specific music types, such as children's songs, with the exception of some tribal societies.
Distribution.
Russia.
The Cheremis (Mari people) of Russia employ ditonic scales in children's songs, generally with the two notes a minor third apart. Nettl theorised that these ditonic songs may be a remnant of a more archaic form of music.
Peru.
The Shipibo people of Amazonian Peru used ditonic scales in approximately 2.5% of their music. The ditonic was found "almost exclusively in the complex ostinato songs."
Vietnam.
The "ca dao" folk poetry of Vietnam is sometimes sung in ditonic scales.
North America.
Several ditonic scales were noted about the Modoc and Klamath tribes of the North American West Coast, and are also found in the Great Plains in the rituals of the 1800s Ghost Dance religion. The scale was also used in the music of the Shawnee.
India.
The ditonic scale type is recognised in Indian music, and termed the "Dvisvara" ("two tone"), but ditonic scales are not recognised as raga scales.
Nigeria.
The ditonic is among the scale types employed in traditional Nigerian music.
Maori.
In a study carried out in 1969, Mervyn McLean noted that among the Maori tribes he surveyed, ditonic scales comprised 17% of the scales used.


Sixth chord

The term sixth chord refers to two different kinds of chord, the first in classical music and the second in modern popular music.
The original meaning of the term is a "chord in first inversion", in other words with its third in the bass and its root a sixth above it. This is how the term is still used in classical music today, and in this sense it is called also a chord of the sixth. A first-inversion C major chord is shown below.
 \override Score.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f
 \relative c' {
 \time 4/4
 <e g c>1
</score>
In modern popular music, a sixth chord is any triad with an added sixth above the root as a chord factor. This was traditionally (and in classical music is still today) called an "added sixth chord" or "triad with added sixth" since Jean-Philippe Rameau ("sixte ajoutée") in the 18th century. It is not common to designate chord inversions in popular music, so there is no need for a term designating the first inversion of a chord, and so the term "sixth chord" in popular music is a short way of saying "added sixth chord". When not otherwise specified, it usually means a major triad with an added major sixth interval (a major sixth chord), such as the chord below.
 \override Score.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f
 \relative c' {
 \time 4/4
 <c e g a>1
</score>
However, a minor triad is also used, together with the same interval, resulting in a minor sixth chord (also known as minor major sixth).
History.
In early music, what is today called a "sixth chord" or "first inversion" in classical music was considered an autonomous harmonic entity with the root named by the bass, while it was later simply considered an inversion of a chord with the bass being the third (not the root) and the root being the sixth (not the bass). In jazz, this form is referred to as a "major sixth" chord.
Alternatively, rather than as a six three chord, the note may be analyzed as a suspension or appoggiatura, "first resolved and later... retained as a part of the chord, no resolution taking place."
 \override Score.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f
 \new Staff «
 \new Voice \relative c" {
 \time 4/4
 \voiceOne a2( g)
 \new Voice \relative c' {
 \time 4/4
 \voiceTwo <c e>1 <c e g a>
»
</score>
The dominant chord's fifth may be substituted by the chord's sixth, analyzed as its thirteenth:
 \override Score.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f
 \relative c' {
 \time 4/4
 <f g b e~>1 <e g c e>
</score>
In popular music.
What in popular music is called a "sixth chord" was traditionally called an "added sixth chord". As the name suggests, this is a triad with an added sixth interval. It is generally built on the subdominant note (), though it can be built on any note. Typically, the triad is a major triad and the additional sixth interval is major (major sixth chord). For example, a major sixth chord built on C (denoted by C6, or CM6) consists of the notes C, E, G, and the added major sixth A.
 \override Score.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f
 \relative c' {
 \time 4/4
 <c e g a>1
</score>
These are the same notes as those of an A minor seventh chord – whether such a chord should be regarded as an added sixth chord or a seventh depends on its context and harmonic function. To explain the analyses as added sixth chords, against common practice period theory, provides the example of the final tonic chord of some popular music being traditionally analyzable as a "submediant six-five chord" (added sixth chords by popular terminology), or a first inversion seventh chord (possibly the dominant of the mediant V/iii). According to the interval strengths of the added sixth chord, the root of the strongest interval of the chord in first inversion (CEGA), the perfect fifth (C–G), is the root (C).
In jazz, the minor sixth chord (sometimes: "minor major sixth", or "minor/major sixth") is frequently used. It is unlike the "major sixth" chord, which is often substituted for a major triad; the minor sixth plays a number of different harmonic roles. The chord consists of a minor triad with a tone added a major sixth above the root. Thus in C, it contains the notes C, E, G, and A.
 \override Score.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f
 \relative c' {
 \time 4/4
 <c es g a>1
</score>
This chord might be notated Cm6, CmM6, Cmin/maj6, Cmin(maj6), etc. Note that Cm6 has the same notes as F9 with the root omitted, i.e. the notes F (omitted), A, E, C, and G.
These notes form a tetrad with several enharmonic equivalents: C–E–G–A might be written as Cm6, F9, F9 (no root), Am75, B79, or Balt. Many jazz chord charts use these chord notations indiscriminately, particularly in the choice of minor sixth versus dominant ninth chords. Thus, in some cases when a Cm6 is indicated, the F9 is in fact a better harmonic choice, i.e. closer to the composer's harmonic intent; or vice versa. Analysis of the movement of the root, in the presence of dominant-functioning harmonies, will generally indicate which enharmonic chord is the appropriate notation choice. In some cases, the harmony is ambiguous. The notes are those of the half-diminished seventh chord: for example, C–E–G–B is both the C half-diminished seventh (i.e. Cm75) and Em6.
Instances of the sixth chord crop up in popular music towards the end of the 19th century, for example in Johann Strauss II’s "The Blue Danube" waltz.
The sixth chord was a common feature of the harmony of jazz and popular music during the entire twentieth century. One of the attractions of the chord is its tonal ambiguity. The harmony contains within it aspects that are both major and minor. Kurt Weill’s song "Mack the Knife" from the "Threepenny Opera" (1928) uses the chord from the start, resulting in “a sort of bitonality: A minor in the melody, C major in the harmony.”
The trombone riff that opens Glenn Miller’s "Tuxedo Junction" (1940) is a well-known example from the Swing era. Later popular songs that feature sixth chords include: The Beatles' "She Loves You" (1963) and "The Fool on the Hill" (1967), The Young Rascals' "Groovin'" (1967), Queen's "Bohemian Rhapsody" (1975), Steely Dan's "Bad Sneakers" (1975) and Styx's "Babe" (1979).
In classical music.
An unusual use of this chord at the start of a work occurs in Beethoven’s Piano Sonata in E major, Op 31 No. 3 (1802):
According to Denis Matthews, “the most striking moment in the sonata is its opening, where an ambiguous added-sixth chord on the subdominant resolves itself through a series of halting steps, rhythmically and harmonically, towards the tonic.”
Debussy frequently used the sixth chord, for example in his piano prelude "General Lavine-Eccentric" (1913), whose idiom alludes to the popular idioms of cakewalk and ragtime of the early 1900s. The following passage “is in F major; its seeming pentatonicism (C–D–F–G–A) is found to be the outline of the tonic added sixth chord, plus the G as passing tone…”
The timeless, meditative closing bars of Gustav Mahler’s song “Abschied” from "Das Lied von der Erde" (1909) fully exploit the expressive power and ambiguity of the sixth chord. “The final sonority, the famous added-sixth chord, is particularly ingenious... because it fuses the two principal keys of "Das Lied" (A minor and C major).”
Alban Berg’s Violin Concerto (1935) ends with a “tonic triad of B flat, with added sixth [that] follows a harmonic progression found frequently in 1930s dance-band arrangements.” However, Richard Taruskin points out that Berg's "chord thus created, B flat, D, F, G had an important poetic resonance", as it echoes the ending of Mahler's "Abschied." Stravinsky’s "Symphony in Three Movements" (1945) “incorporates elements of American popular music, most famously the final chord, a Hollywood added-sixth chord of ever there was one.” (Stravinsky himself later criticized his choice of the final D sixth chord as ‘commercial.’ ) Messiaen’s “Louange à l’immortalité de Jésus”, the final movement of his "Quartet for the End of Time" (1941) opens with a meditative theme “played entirely over a 6-4 chord with added sixth”
Special kinds of sixth chords.
The "Neapolitan sixth" is the first inversion of a major triad built on the flattened supertonic (second degree of the scale) – a Neapolitan sixth in C major, therefore, consists of the notes F, A, and D.
 \relative c' {
 \time 4/4
 <f aes des>1 <g b> <e g c>
</score>
There are a number of "augmented sixth" chords. Each of them has a major third and augmented sixth above the bass. When these are the only three notes present, the chord is an "Italian sixth"; when an augmented fourth is added above the bass, the chord is a "French sixth"; while adding a perfect fifth above the bass of an Italian sixth makes it a "German sixth" (the etymology of all these names is unclear). All usually have the (sixth degree of the scale, A in C major, for example) as the bass note – in this case, they tend to resolve to the dominant.
 \override Score.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f
 \new PianoStaff «
 \new Staff «
 \relative c' {
 \clef treble \key c \major \time 4/4
 \textLengthOn
 »
 \new Staff «
 \relative c' {
 \clef bass \key c \major \time 4/4
 <aes c>1 \bar "||"
 <aes c> \bar "||"
 <aes c> \bar "||"
 »
</score>
Sixth factor.
The sixth factor of a chord is six scale degrees above the root. Conventionally, the sixth is third in importance to the root, fifth, and third, being an added tone. It is generally not allowed as the root since that inversion resembles a seventh chord on the sixth rather than an added tone on the original note. In jazz chords and theory, the sixth is required due to it being an added tone.
The quality of the sixth may be determined by the scale or may be indicated. For example, in a major scale, a diatonic sixth added to the tonic chord will be major (C–E–G–A) while in minor it will be minor (C–E–G–A).
The sixth is octave equivalent to the thirteenth. If one could cut out the notes in between the fifth and the thirteenth and then drop the thirteenth down an octave to a sixth, one would have an added sixth chord (C–E–G–B–D′–F′–A′ minus B–D′–F′ = C–E–G–A).


Magician (Marvel Comics)

The Magician is the name of three fictional characters appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics.
Publication history.
The first version (Lee Guardineer) first appeared in "Tales to Astonish" #56 (June 1964), and was created by Stan Lee and Dick Ayers. The last name Guardineer is a reference to the Golden Age comics creator Fred Guardineer who created Zatara, Tor, and Merlin the Magnificent who were all magician crimefighters.
Fictional character biography.
Lee Guardineer.
Lee Guardineer is a stage magician who used his stage acts to rob rich party guests. His activities attracted the attention of Giant-Man's ants who reported this. The Magician then robbed a yacht party run by the rich socialite Sterling Stuyvesant and kidnapped the Wasp to make Giant-Man jealous. In response, Giant-Man set up a phony yacht party which lured the Magician to a trap. Once that trap was sprung, Giant-Man captured the Magician and saved the Wasp. The Magician was fished out of the water by the police and later taken to prison.
While Hank Pym was out of town, the Magician escaped from prison and set up a clothing store with Wasp-inspired clothing. When the Wasp arrived, the Magician attacks in order to capture the Wasp. However, the Wasp soon makes short work of the Magician using quick thinking and the store's many toys to take down the Magician who is promptly arrested by the police.
Sometime later, Lee was released from prison and moved to Tampa with a dancer named Chasity to start a new family where he had a son.
Son of Lee Guardineer.
Lee Guardineer had an unnamed son who took up the Magician mantle as part of the "All-New, All-Different Marvel" event. Upon taking his father's mantle, Magician joined the Power Broker's Hench App (a mobile app that enabled people to solicit the service of supervillains). His first job has him hired by publicist Marlena Howard to pretend to have a grudge against Darla Deering for not hiring him for the opening act of the woman's show. The Magician interrupted Deering in the middle of her break-up fight against Ant-Man and confronted the two heroes with genetically-modified rabbits and pigeons. After explaining his origin to Ant-Man, the Magician intentionally lost to Miss Thing. The fight between the Magician and Ant-Man and Darla was staged and filmed because it would make a successful pilot episode for Darla's newest reality show.
Powers and abilities.
The Lee Guardineer version of Magician is a skilled stage magician, trickster, and illusionist where his tricks rely on his technology. Besides being a master pickpocket, he is an expert animal trainer and can hypnotize anyone at will. The Magician has a motorized cane with a hatch on top that can act as a vacuum and be used as a divining rod to seek out his enemies.
Other versions.
Ultimate Marvel.
The Ultimate Marvel version of Magician is Elliot Boggs. His powers first emerged uncontrollably, apparently killing both of his parents. After being subdued by S.H.I.E.L.D., custody of him is given over to Professor Charles Xavier in the hopes Elliot can control his powers. When Elliot awakes, he quickly urges Cyclops to let him join the X-Men. Shorthanded, Cyclops allows Elliot to help the X-Men take on the Brotherhood of Mutant Supremacy attacking the 'Academy of Tomorrow. During the battle, Elliot manages to easily defeat the Blob. Afterwards, he adopts the Magician code name, which is suggested by television reporters. Several of the X-Men observe that the reporters got there amazingly fast, as well as the fact that the Brotherhood had no reason for the initial attack in the first place. After Elliot's interview, the X-Men are on good terms with the press for the first time since Magneto returned after an presumed death.
Later during an attack by the Friends of Humanity on a hospital that gave treatments to mutants (despite there being no mutant patients at the time and in broad daylight), Elliot once again fights alongside the X-Men. It turns out the group's leader is actually a mutant incapacitating the rest of the X-Men leaving only Elliot standing. The young mutant single-handedly defeats the mutant leader. Before the X-Men returned to the mansion, Nick Fury paid Xavier a visit, requesting that Elliot join the Ultimates. However, Xavier refuses to which Fury says Elliot's parents have agreed to their son joining the Ultimates. Xavier is shocked to hear about the boy's parents, as Xavier was told that Elliot had killed his parents. When Fury is unable to recall saying or doing this and only heard of Elliot when he started appearing with the X-Men, Charles realizes something is very wrong.
Charles and Nick believe that Elliot has been messing with their minds, creating the illusion of Nick bringing him to Charles. Fury states that even if Elliot had made everyone forget, there would still be a record on file at S.H.I.E.L.D. The two await Elliott's arrival to confront him. When the jet lands, Charles asks Elliot to "come clean". Xavier confronts him with the truth that his parents are not dead and that Fury never took him to the mansion. When everyone begins attacking him, Elliot tries to make everyone all stop and forget why they are attacking him but this tactic fails to work completely thanks to Charles' interference. Elliot decides he's through playing games and that he could have made the X-Men popular but now he has to kill everyone. However, Elliot is unaware of Jean Grey's presence much to Elliot's surprise.
A battle ensues, in which Magician once again summons the Brotherhood of Mutant Supremacy out of thin air. Magician binds the X-Men in metal and Jean fights the entire Brotherhood alone. Jean speaks psychically to Wolverine and obtains permission to burn away the metal binding him. Wolverine acquiesces and attacks Magician with little or no skin left. As the battle progresses, Wolverine slowly heals, slicing Magician's throat and finally jamming claws through him, apparently making Magician (and all traces of his work) disappear. A conversation between Magician and Kitty Pryde later revealed that Magician simply wants to be left alone and wanted some closure to his story. It is revealed Kitty doesn't see or hear the Magician in any way. Magician states that he will now go somewhere that "there aren't any people, like Antarctica or something."


Metrication in Peru

Peru adopted the metric system in 1862. Before, the Spanish system of measures was used.
History.
In 1862 the Peruvian government decreed the metric system to be official in Peru. However, several years later the old measurements were still used. In 1869 a new law made the metric system compulsory.
In 1875 Peru adhered to the International Bureau of Weights and Measures in Sèvres, France.
The most current law regarding the measuring system is Law 23560, of 1982.


Degree Rankine


Cucconi test

In statistics, the Cucconi test is a nonparametric test for jointly comparing central tendency and variability (detecting location and scale changes) in two samples. Many rank tests have been proposed for the two-sample location-scale problem. Nearly all of them are Lepage-type tests, that is a combination of a location test and a scale test. The Cucconi test was first proposed by Odoardo Cucconi in 1968.
The Cucconi test is not as familiar as other location-scale tests but it is of interest for several reasons. First, from a historical point of view, it was proposed some years before the Lepage test, the standard rank test for the two-sample location-scale problem. Secondly, as opposed to other location-scale tests, the Cucconi test is not a combination of location and scale tests. Thirdly, it compares favorably with Lepage type tests in terms of power and type-one error probability and very importantly it is easier to be computed because it requires only the ranks of one sample in the combined sample, whereas the other tests also require scores of various types as well as to permutationally estimate mean and variance of test statistics because their analytic formulae are not available.
The Cucconi test is based on the following statistic:
where formula_2 is based on the standardized sum of squared ranks of the first sample elements in the pooled sample, and formula_3 is based on the standardized sum of squared contrary-ranks of the first sample elements in the pooled sample. formula_4 is the correlation coefficient between formula_2 and formula_3. The test statistic rejects for large values, a table of critical values is available. The p-value can be easily computed via permutations.
The interest on this test has recently increased spanning applications in many different fields like hydrology, applied psychology and industrial quality control.


Pellucidar

Pellucidar is a fictional Hollow Earth invented by American writer Edgar Rice Burroughs for a series of action adventure stories. In a crossover event between Burroughs's series, there is a Tarzan story in which he travels into Pellucidar.
The stories initially involve the adventures of mining heir David Innes and his inventor friend Abner Perry after they use an "iron mole" to burrow 500 miles into the Earth's crust. Later protagonists include indigenous caveman Tanar and additional visitors from the surface world, notably Tarzan, Jason Gridley, and Frederich Wilhelm Eric von Mendeldorf und von Horst.
Geography.
In Burroughs' concept, the Earth is a hollow shell with Pellucidar as the internal surface of its shell. Pellucidar is accessible to the surface world via a polar tunnel, allowing passage between both the inner and outer worlds through which a rigid airship visits in the fourth book of the series. Although the inner surface of the Earth has a smaller total area than the outer, Pellucidar actually has a greater land area, as its continents mirror the surface world's oceans and its oceans mirror the surface world's continents.
The peculiarities of Pellucidar's geography are caused by the concave curvature of its surface. There is no horizon; the further distant an object is, the higher it appears to be, until it is finally lost in a void of atmospheric haze.
Pellucidar is lit by a miniature sun suspended at the center of the hollow sphere, so it is perpetually overhead and gives a sensation of eternal noon wherever one is in Pellucidar. The sole exception is a region directly under a tiny geostationary moon of the internal sun. As a result, this region is under a perpetual eclipse and is known as the "Land of Awful Shadow". The moon has its own plant life and (presumably) animal life, and either has its own atmosphere or is simply supended within Pellucidar's. The miniature sun does not change in brightness and never sets. As a result, with no night or seasonal progression, the natives have little concept of time. The events of the series suggest that time is elastic, passing at different rates in different areas of Pellucidar and varying even in single locations. Also, several characters living in Pellucidar who are originally from the outer world appear to age slowly and exhibit considerable longevity. This is known through their interactions with visitors from the outer world, where time remains fixed.
Culture.
Pellucidar is populated by primitive civilizations and prehistoric creatures, including dinosaurs. The region in which Innes and Perry initially find themselves is ruled by the Mahars, a species of intelligent flying reptiles resembling "Rhamphorhynchus" with vast psychic powers. The Mahars use telekinesis on the neighboring tribes of Stone Age humans as a way of securing their territory. Eventually, two explorers united the tribes in overthrowing the Mahars' reign and establish a human "Empire of Pellucidar" instead.
While the Mahars are the dominant species in the Pellucidar novels, these creatures are usually confined to their handful of cities. Before their downfall, the Mahars used Sagoths (a race of gorilla-men who speak the same language as Tarzan's Mangani) in enforcing their rule over any tribes who disobeyed their orders. Though Burroughs' novels suggest that the Mahars' domain is limited to one relatively small region of Pellucidar, John Eric Holmes' authorized sequel "Mahars of Pellucidar" indicates there are other areas ruled by Mahars.
Beyond the Mahars' domain exist independent human cultures, many of them at a Stone Age level of development. Technically, more advanced exceptions include the Korsars (corsairs), a maritime raiding society descended from surface-world Barbary pirates, and the Xexots, an indigenous Bronze Age civilization. All of the human inhabitants in Pellucidar share a common worldwide language.
Wildlife.
Various animals reside in Pellucidar. Many of Pellucidar's fauna consist of prehistoric creatures, which are extinct on the surface world. However, some animals are creations of Edgar Rice Burroughs himself. They are listed below by outer world name (if known), Pellucidarian name (if known), and the novel in which they first appear, along with any relevant comments.
Races and tribes.
Pellucidar is also inhabited by enclaves of various non-human or semi-human races . Among the known races and tribes in Pellucidar are:
Sequels by John Eric Holmes.
John Eric Holmes's "Mahars of Pellucidar" was a sequel to Burroughs' Pellucidar novels authorized by the Burroughs estate. Publication of Holmes' follow-up novel, "Red Axe of Pellucidar", reportedly ready for print in 1980, was reportedly blocked by the estate, and only saw print much later in a limited private edition.
In other media.
When DC Comics had the rights to the Burroughs properties in the early 1970s, they did a comic book adaptation of "At the Earth's Core" that ran in "Korak, Son of Tarzan" #46, then moved to "Weird Worlds" #1–5, then continued with an adaptation of "Pellucidar" in #6–7. Another Pellucidar story appeared in "Tarzan Family" #66. Dark Horse Comics will reprint this in trade paperback in 2017.
Pellucidar has appeared in one movie adaptation. The first novel was filmed as "At the Earth's Core" (1976), directed by Kevin Connor with Doug McClure as David Innes and Peter Cushing as Abner Perry.
Pellucidar appears in the "Tarzan, Lord of the Jungle" episode "Tarzan at the Earth's Core".
The 1996 pilot of the TV series "" also features Pellucidar, as well as the character Jana from the novel "Tarzan at the Earth's Core". This story also features a race of Mahars who are able to transform into humanoid form. Also, in the 1996 novelization of by R. A. Salvatore, based on the teleplay for the pilot of the series, Pellucidar is featured in the later part of the story. The story is inspired by "The Return of Tarzan" and "Tarzan at the Earth's Core".
Pellucidar appears in a few episodes of the Disney cartoon series "The Legend of Tarzan", loosely inspired by "Tarzan at the Earth's Core". In the show, however, Pellucidar is merely described as being a region below Africa where dinosaurs still live. None of the characteristics of it described in the novels are seen. In the episode "Tarzan and the Hidden World", Tarzan leads Professor Porter into Pellucidar so he can become famous before his rival, Professor Philander, who has also arrived in Africa. Professor Porter accidentally steals an egg from a T-rex and the dinosaur retaliates by chasing them. Philander's photographic proof of Pellucidar is ruined by a monkey who took photos with his camera. Pellucidar is mentioned again in "Tarzan and the Beast from Below". The episode revolves around some Velociraptors which escaped from Pellucidar and scare Terk.
Pellucidar is revisited by Tarzan and is the central location of the Dark Horse Comics crossover "Tarzan vs. Predator: At the Earth's Core", where Tarzan faces off against the alien Predators in Pellucidar.
Pellucidar appears in the final episode of "Tarzan and Jane" along with King Kong.
Influence.
A tribute story, "Maureen Birnbaum at the Earth's Core", appeared in George Alec Effinger's "Maureen Birnbaum, Barbarian Swordsperson".
Pellucidar was the major inspiration for Lin Carter's "Zanthodon" novels of the late 1970s and early 1980s, set in the vast cavern of Zanthodon beneath the Sahara desert.
The Hollow Earth milieu of Skartaris in the "Warlord" series of comic books by Mike Grell, published from 1976 to 1989, is essentially a translation of Pellucidar into the graphic medium, with the admixture of magic and elements of the Atlantis myth.
The hollow interior of Earth seen in the 2008 Asylum film "Journey to the Center of the Earth" bears some similarity to Pellucidar, although the film was intended as a film adaptation of a novel by Jules Verne.
The Hollow World of the fictional "Dungeons & Dragons" setting of Mystara shares many concepts from Pellucidar, such as the polar opening(s), the central sun, the floating moon(s), and the primitive cultures living in the internal surface.
In James Blaylock's "The Digging Leviathan" (1984), a pair of rival scientific teams compete to reach Pellucidar. However, the story concludes before their goal is attained. Blaylock's "Zeuglodon" revisits the Pellucidar theme, when a group of children attempt to rescue Giles Peach, one of the characters traveling to Pellucidar in The Digging Leviathan.
In Robert A. Heinlein's "Number of the Beast", the protagonists visit an inside-out world in their continua craft and discuss whether they have reached Pellucidar.
In John Crowley's "Little, Big" (1981), a drug named Pellucidar is mentioned and appears to have an exhilarating and even aphrodisiac effect.
During the initial explorations of Lechuguilla Cave in the late 1980s, a chamber was named "Pellucidar" in honor of these stories.
In Philip José Farmer's "Riders of the Purple Wage", there is a concept known as "the Pellucidar Breakthrough".
In Roderick Gordon's "Tunnels" series, the Garden of the Second Sun is strongly based on Pellucidar.
The Hollow Earth concept was used by Vladimir Obruchev in his novel "Plutonia", published in 1924, also inhabited by ancient life forms. Due to his scientific and geology career, Obruchev was not a fan of the Hollow Earth concept. However, Obruchev did use his novel to describe Pleistocene, Jurassic, and Carboniferous fauna.