AGATA (gamma-ray detector)

AGATA, for advanced gamma tracking array, is a highly developed detector system to track gamma rays. It is a European collaboration project funded by twelve countries in Europe. The project was proposed in 2001 and in 2002 it was signed by the participant countries; in 2005 the first detector showed its result. It is expected that the complete AGATA will be ready within 2018. The spectrometer is 4π gamma-ray detector which is a combination of several Germanium detectors (Ge-detector). It is a major instrument to study nuclear structure ray tracking by measuring the γ-radiation. AGATA will have very good full energy peak efficiency with high peak-to-total ratio (P/T) and angular resolution. The system will be capable of high event rates with ancillary detectors to measure light charged particles or neutron.
Gamma-ray tracking.
Correlating and constructing the multiple interactions of a single γ-ray in a segmented detector is the main technique of γ-ray tracking. The new generation of 4π Ge detectors has been developed to significantly improve the efficiency and resolving power of γ-ray spectroscopy. The tracks of the γ-rays in the Ge-detector can be constructed in 3D. A detector used for this purpose consists of:
High-fold segmented Ge detectors.
It is important to know the position of the γ-ray interaction inside the detector with high accuracy (1–2 mm) to get a high efficiency. For this purpose, one Ge detector should consist of 30000 voxels. It is almost impossible to get such a high granularity by a physical segmentation of the crystal. But, the pulse shape analysis method developed for AGATA can provide the position accuracy with high resolution and time information. This method requires only 20-40 segments per detector. The AGATA detectors are Ge-detectors that are 36-fold segment with six-fold azimuthal and six-fold longitudinal segmentation.
The detector is 10 cm long and is circular at the rear side with a diameter of 8 cm and hexagonal at the front face. A common inner electrode and 36 segments are read out via individual preamplifiers. The segments can then be considered as separate detectors.
The parameters for the hexagonal crystals are:
By exploiting the spatial information contained in the detector signal we can more accurately localize the γ-ray interaction than is possible by the geometry of the segments. A photoelectron or Compton electron generates electrons and holes which induce image charges of opposite signs on the detector electrodes when a signal is produced. The change of the image charge causes a flow of currents into or out of the electrodes. The induced charge is distributed over several electrodes for the large distance in a multi-segmented detector. For the closer distance an increase and decrease of induced charges of the electrodes continue until the primary charge finally reaches to its destination electrodes and neutralizes the image. To identify the detector sector where the interaction took place we have to observe the net charge on the charge-collecting electrode simply observing the polarity of the induced signal. This allows for distinguishing between interactions at small and large radii.
Digital signal processing electronics.
The spatial information of the detector signals are known from digital pulse-shape analysis. The pre-amplified detector signal is digitized with 14-bit resolution with a speed of 100 Ms/s. The pre-amplifier signals are digitized with the analog-to-digital converter (ADC). The γ-ray tracking system required a compact digital signal processing electronics with high computing power. Only five values per interaction is enough for the whole information: energy deposition, its time and three spatial coordinates of the interaction point. Different algorithms have been developed depending on the different detector information.
Pulse-shape analysis.
The Ge-detector determines the pulse-shape of the γ-ray which contains the information about the three-dimensional position of each individual interaction within the detector with the released energy in the interactions. The efficiency of the tracking array depends on these data. We must be able to compare the pulse-shapes to the respective shapes produced by charges each point to extract the position of the interaction. This is done experimentally using tightly collimated γ-ray sources with an external collimated detector for the Compton scattered coincidence. The conductivity of the Ge-detector influences the magnitude of the drift velocities and the angle between the electric field vector and the drift velocity. As a result the shape of the signal is directly influence because the Ge crystal is anisotropic with respect to the crystallographic axis direction. To determine the position of the interaction of the γ-ray one needs to consider the shapes of the induced real and mirror signals. The electrodes of the segment in which an interaction takes place are used to measure the real signals while mirror signals are measured on the neighboring segments where no interaction takes place.
Multi Geometry Simulation is one of the most developed packages for the analysis are uses multi step algorithm. As shown in the figure, results from the each stage of the calculation are stored in matrices which are later recalled to generate the pulse shape response which is determined by the charge carriers through the weighted field. The crystal volume is divided into cubic matrices for a given detector. For each position the values of the electrical potential, electric field and weighted field are calculated and the drift velocity matrices are calculated from the electric field matrix.
The simulation of the pulse shape for the any arbitrary detector is shown in the figure 8. For a given detector, the crystal volume is divided into a cubic matrix of lattice sites. Values for the electric potential, electric field and weighting field are calculated at each position. The drift velocity matrices are calculated from the electric field matrix. The detector response for a given interaction site is calculated by tracking the trajectory of the charge carriers through the weighting field as shown in figure 8. The steps which should follow to compute the pulse shape response for a given interaction position in the detector volume are:
Gamma-ray path reconstruction algorithm.
Reconstructing the path of the γ-ray interaction is one of the main problems of the γ-ray tracking. There are several proposed methods for constructing the path of the γ-ray and two of them are dominating: the back tracking algorithm and clusterisation. The tracking performance is quite sensitive depending on the choice of the formula for the figure-of-merit so; different figures-of-merit have investigated in detail. The influence of the initial momentum of the Compton scattering on the reconstruction results are need to be investigated.
AGATA is the most efficient γ-ray tracking array ever developed and position sensitive Ge-detectors are the main concept for this. It is mentionable that the Composite Ge detectors were first developed for the EUROGAM spectrometer and it has been used many standard applications. The Encapsulated Ge detectors were developed for the EUROBALL spectrometer. The Segmented techniques are the latest of their combination and are used in AGATA.


2999 Dante


List of women in statistics

This is a list of women who have made noteworthy contributions to or achievements in statistics.


Trident Studios

Trident Studios was a British recording facility, located at 17 St Anne's Court in London's Soho district between 1968 and 1981. It was constructed in 1967 by Norman Sheffield, drummer of the 1960s group the Hunters, and his brother Barry.
"My Name is Jack" by Manfred Mann was recorded at Trident in March 1968, and helped launch the studio's reputation. Later that year, the Beatles recorded their song "Hey Jude" there and part of their self-titled double album (also known as the "White Album"). Other well-known albums and songs recorded at Trident include Elton John's "Your Song", David Bowie's "The Rise and Fall of Ziggy Stardust and the Spiders from Mars", Lou Reed's "Transformer", Carly Simon's "No Secrets", and Queen's albums "Queen", "Queen II" and "Sheer Heart Attack".
Other artists recorded at Trident included the Bee Gees, Chris de Burgh, Frank Zappa, Genesis, Brand X, James Taylor, Joan Armatrading, Joe Cocker, Golden Earring, Harry Nilsson, Kiss, Tygers of Pan Tang, Lou Reed, Peter Gabriel, Marc Almond, Marc and the Mambas, Soft Cell, the Rolling Stones, Rush, Free, Thin Lizzy, Tina Turner, T.Rex, Van der Graaf Generator, Yes and John Entwistle.
The Sheffield brothers had a relaxed working attitude, but also emphasised high standards of audio engineering. The studio's state-of-the-art recording equipment helped attract many major artists to record there.
The Beatles and Apple Records.
In mid-1968, Trident Studios was the first in the UK to use Dolby noise reduction, and employ an eight-track reel-to-reel recording deck.
While Abbey Road Studios still only used four-track at the time, Trident's Ampex eight-track machine drew the Beatles on 31 July 1968 to record their song "Hey Jude". Paul McCartney later said about recording the track at Trident: "Words cannot describe the pleasure of listening back to the final mix of 'Hey Jude' on four giant Tannoy speakers which dwarfed everything else in the room ..." The band also recorded some songs for their 1968 double album "The Beatles" (also known as the White Album) at Trident – "Dear Prudence", "Honey Pie", "Savoy Truffle" and "Martha My Dear" – and on February 22 1969, they first recorded "I Want You (She's So Heavy)" there for the album "Abbey Road". John Lennon and Yoko Ono later returned with the Plastic Ono Band to record "Cold Turkey" featuring Eric Clapton on lead guitar.
Many of the Beatles' Apple Records artists used Trident Studios, including Badfinger, Billy Preston, Mary Hopkin, Jackie Lomax and James Taylor. Part of George Harrison's triple album "All Things Must Pass", containing the hit "My Sweet Lord", and Ringo Starr's "It Don't Come Easy", were also recorded there. Harry Nilsson recorded "Without You" at Trident, and portions of several of his 1970s albums.
Queen.
The history of the Sheffield brothers and Trident Studios is also linked to the early discovery and success of the rock band Queen. In 1972, Trident Studios started two record production companies, one of which (Neptune Productions) initially signed three artists, Mark Ashton, Eugene Wallace and Queen. The agreements with the artists were for recording and publishing, but Queen had no management, so they insisted that Trident also take on that responsibility. Trident, initially reluctant, eventually agreed and Queen signed an agreement with Trident Recording, Publishing and Management, on 1 November 1972.
The Management at the time claimed the deal allowed the band full access to the studio's cutting edge facilities, and supported them by providing the best producers and engineers - so long as the foundations of the band's first album "Queen" were recorded 'off peak'. Roger Taylor later quoted these early off-peak studio hours as "gold dust".
After the album was completed the Sheffield brothers had great difficulty finding a record label to take on the album and release it. Finally, eight months later, the brothers decided to take on the risk and fund the release themselves and Queen released their self-titled first album under the Trident label in a license deal with EMI Records in the UK and Elektra Records in the US. Trident subsequently released "Queen II" and "Sheer Heart Attack" under this same arrangement. After the band left Trident, they signed directly with EMI and Elektra for "A Night at the Opera" .
The 2018 Queen biopic "Bohemian Rhapsody" featured a dramatisation of the studio, during the making of Seven Seas of Rhye.
David Bowie, Elton John and others.
In March 1968, Manfred Mann recorded Trident's first number one at the studio, the single "My Name Is Jack". From 1968 to 1981, some of the most reputed artists used the studios for their recordings, including David Bowie, Elton John, Marc Bolan/T.Rex, Carly Simon, Frank Zappa, the Rolling Stones, Free, Genesis, Lou Reed, Joan Armatrading, Black Sabbath, Lindisfarne, Dusty Springfield, the Mahavishnu Orchestra, Krisma, Jeff Beck/Rod Stewart and other artists. Elton John's "Your Song" and Carly Simon's "You're So Vain" were both engineered at Trident by Robin Geoffrey Cable, who later went on to produce two albums for The Dickies.
Tony Stratton-Smith's Charisma Records was also one of the most regular clients of the studios during the 1970s. Genesis recorded several of their most renowned albums there, including "Trespass" (1970), "Nursery Cryme" (1971) and "A Trick of the Tail" (1976). The jazz fusion band Brand X recorded their debut studio album "Unorthodox Behaviour" here (1976). Other artists from the label who recorded at Trident were Van der Graaf Generator, Peter Hammill, Lindisfarne and Peter Gabriel. Charisma's first Van der Graaf Generator release, "The Least We Can Do Is Wave to Each Other", was recorded at Trident from 11 to 14 December 1969. Most of the album was recorded on eight-track, but the last song, "After the Flood", was recorded on 16. Trident was also among the first studios in the UK to obtain a 16-track machine.
The Trident 'A' Range console.
The Trident A Range consoles were originally designed and built as an in house project by Malcolm Toft who was chief recording engineer at Trident and Barry Porter who was in charge of studio maintenance. Other studios heard about it and placed orders for consoles and Trident Audio Developments was formed with Malcolm Toft as managing director. Cherokee Studios in Los Angeles was one of the early recipients of one of the first production models, and ultimately purchased three new from Trident and one from a broker at a later time. David Bowie, Rod Stewart, and Frank Sinatra are among the early artists who first recorded hit records on Cherokee's first 'A' Range console.
"Though it had a very limited run, the Trident A Range console gained a reputation for its very distinct and pleasant sound with a very "musical" EQ section. Along with channel strips from early Neve and Helios consoles, original Trident A Range modules have kept a healthy resale value and are much sought after by engineers who like to combine old-school analogue gear with cutting-edge digital recording technology."
Studio piano.
Trident also gained a reputation for the sound of its piano, which can be heard on the Beatles' "Hey Jude", Elton John's "Your Song", Carly Simon's "The Right Thing To Do", Queen's "Killer Queen" and many other tracks. It was a handmade C. Bechstein concert-sized instrument that was over one hundred years old. The piano was offered for auction in November 2001, but failed to sell.
Later history.
Trident Studios was sold in December 1981. It was bought by its senior engineer, Stephen Short, along with three other investors. In 1986, Short bought out the other investors and opened Trident 2 which was opened in 1983 and the investors were J.P. Illiesco and Rusty Egan. There were also another group of producers and investors who tried to buy Trident in the 1980s after its initial closure, headed by Neville Kernick-Nixon, Flood and John Keating; the former then opened The Mad House, later known as The Music Station.
The original Trident mixing desk also survived, and was purchased in the early 1980s from the studio's owners by songwriter and former Cure bassist Phil Thornalley. It is now housed in Thornalley's own recording studio, Swamp Studios in north-west London. The Swamp is actually based around the Trident Tri‑mix desk.
Blue plaque.
On 15 June 2017, a British Plaque Trust permanent blue plaque was unveiled outside the building at 17 St Anne's Court, London in the recognition of the multiple David Bowie albums recorded there.
Partial discography.
The following is a partial list of work either recorded, mixed or mastered at Trident Studios between 1968 and 1981, edited from the timeline on the Trident Studios official website.


Michael Morris (oceanographer)

Michael Morris is an American biochemist, oceanographer and businessman, who has designed, developed and marketed new applications of optical sensing technology and spectroscopy. He has founded several companies including pHish Doctor (pH sensors for home aquariums), Ocean Optics Inc. (OOI) (miniature spectrometers), and SpectrEcology (engineering and support services for optical sensing applications).
Morris is credited with developing the first miniature spectrometer.
The miniature spectrometers introduced by Morris' Ocean Optics have wide applications in the food industry, pharmaceuticals, agriculture, aquaculture, the environment, medicine, dentistry, and forensics. They have been used on the Mir Space Station, the Space Shuttle, and the Mars Rover "Curiosity". They have been used to discover new information about the structure and properties of the Hope Diamond and other blue diamonds.
Education.
Morris has a B.Sc. in Chemical and Cell Biology from Rutgers University and an M.Sc. in Marine Science from the University of South Florida.
Career.
Morris gained experience as a sales representative for Fisher Scientific. He also served as the associate director of technology transfer for the Southern Technology Applications Center for technology entrepreneurs, sponsored by NASA.
His first entrepreneurial venture, in 1986, was pHish Doctor. He borrowed $10,000 to create the company, which sold pH sensors for home aquariums. That project was successful enough to help him start his next company.
Morris worked with Robert Byrne, Luis Garcia-Rubio, and Roy Walters from the University of Central Florida, on the development of a fiber-optic pH sensor for use in seawater.
In 1989, they co-founded Ocean Optics, Inc. with the help of a Small Business Innovation Research (SBIR) grant from the U.S. Department of Energy.
A miniature spectrometer that they had developed as part of the fiber-optic project became the company's core product.
They introduced the first miniature fiber-optic spectrometer, the S1000, in 1992. It was capable of measuring wavelengths in the visible range.
The company focused its mission around being agile, understanding customers' desires and creating applications to meet customer demand, "enabling any measurement involving absorbance, transmission, reflection, or emission of light." The company was bought by Halma in 2004.
After the sale of Ocean Optics Morris went on to found SpectrEcology, which specializes in engineering and support services for applications that use optical sensing.
Applications.
NASA projects.
Ocean Optics' miniature spectrometers have been used on the Mir Space Station, the Space Shuttle, and the Mars Rover "Curiosity".
In 2009, an Ocean Optics QE65000 Spectrometer named "ALICE" was modified by Aurora Design & Technology for use in NASA's Lunar CRater Observation and Sensing Satellite (LCROSS) mission. ALICE measured ultraviolet light resulting from the impact of the Centaur upper rocket stage on the floor of the crater Cabeus. This confirmed that water ice is present on the moon.
The Rocky 7 Rover prototype used an Ocean Optics point spectrometer which was sensitive in the range of 350-800 nm.
Three Ocean Optics HR2000 spectrometers were customized as part of the ChemCam unit of the NASA Mars Science Laboratory rover, "Curiosity", which was launched November 26, 2011. The spectrometers were configured to measure different wavelengths of light, in the ranges of 240-336 nm, 380-470 nm, and 470-850 nm. The Laser Induced Breakdown Spectrometer (LIBS) used a laser to fire a series of very short pulses at a nearby target. The initial shots cleared away any dust, while the later ones heated the rock to create a flash of ionized gas or plasm. The resulting light was measured by the spectrometers and the spectra were analyzed to determine the composition of Martian rock and soil.
Since landing, the ChemCam has identified hundreds of thousands of samples, including calcium, gypsum and bassanite.
The incorporation of an instrument for Raman spectroscopy is being planned by NASA's Mars 2020 Rover Science Definition Team.
Blue diamonds.
Ocean Optics' portable spectrometers have been also been used to examine the phosphorescence spectrum of the Hope Diamond, the Blue Heart Diamond and other natural type IIb blue diamonds.
The Smithsonian, the United States Naval Research Laboratory, Ocean Optics Co. and Pennsylvania State University collaborated on a study to examine hundreds of blue diamonds.
Researchers examined the spectral and temporal properties of the diamonds using a USB2000-FL spectrometer for UV/Vis light studies and an IR512 spectrometer for Raman spectroscopy.
The Hope Diamond, in the collection of the Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History, shows a distinctive red phosphorescent glow when exposed to ultraviolet light. Visible to the human eye, it had never been explained.
The researchers discovered that all blue diamonds show red and green peaks in their phosphorescence spectrum, due to the presence of nitrogen and boron in the stones. The intensity and rate of decay of the spectrum varies from diamond to diamond.
This technique may enable individual blue diamonds to be "fingerprinted" for identification purposes.
Other applications.
Ocean Optics' miniature spectrometers are used in hospitals, in airport security and in university and high school chemistry labs.
They have applications in the food industry, pharmaceuticals,
agriculture,
aquaculture, the environment,
medicine,
dentistry,
and forensics.
Their small size means that they can be incorporated into scientific instruments that are used outside laboratories, in industrial production settings, on agricultural fields, for environmental monitoring, and for point of care medical use.
Philanthropy.
Morris has contributed to the Endowed Fellowship Awards program at the College of Marine Science of the University of South Florida, St. Petersburg, Florida.
He is also a supporter of the St. Petersburg Downtown Partnership's Technology Fund which helps to provide capital for young start-ups in the St. Petersburg area.


Joule-second

The joule-second (symbol J⋅s or J s) is the product of an SI derived unit, the joule (J), and an SI base unit, the second (s). The joule-second is a unit of action or of angular momentum. The joule-second also appears in quantum mechanics within the definition of Planck's constant. Angular momentum is the product of an object’s moment of inertia, in units of kg⋅m2 and its angular velocity in units of rad⋅s−1. This product of moment of inertia and angular velocity yields kg⋅m2⋅s−1 or the joule-second. Planck's constant represents the energy of a wave, in units of joule, divided by the frequency of that wave, in units of s−1. This quotient of energy and frequency also yields the joule-second (J⋅s).
Base units.
In SI base units the joule-second becomes kilogram-meter squared-per second or kg⋅m2⋅s−1. Dimensional Analysis of the joule-second yields M L2 T−1. Note the denominator of seconds (s) in the base units.
Confusion with joules per second.
The joule-second "should not be confused" with the physical process of joules "per" second (J/s).
Joules "per" second: In physical processes, when the unit of time appears in the denominator of a ratio, the described process occurs at a rate. For example, in discussions about speed, an object like a car travels a known distance of kilometers spread over a known number of seconds, and the car’s rate of speed becomes kilometers "per" second (km/s). In physics, work "per" time describes a system’s power; defined by the unit watt (W), which is joule per second (J/s).
joules-second: To understand joules x second (J⋅s) we can imagine the operator of an energy storage facility quoting a price for storing energy. Storing 10,000 joules for 400 seconds would cost a certain amount. Storing double the energy for half the time would use the same resources, and cost the same.


Minot (unit)

The minot () is an old unit of dry volume, used in France prior to metrication. The unit was equivalent to three French bushels ("boisseaux"), half a "mine", and one quarter of a "setier". The size of the "minot" is comparable to the US and Imperial bushels.
The name "minot" derives from the larger unit, the "mine", with an -ot diminutive suffixed. The term "mine" in this case derives from the same Greek origin as the word hemisphere, and refers to half of the larger "setier". The volumetric "mine" should not be confused with the mass unit mina, which is also called a "mine" in French.
As the French bushel was defined as 10/27 of a cubic French royal foot, or 640 cubic French royal inches, the "minot" was 1920 cubic French royal inches, corresponding to about 38.086 litres.
In Toulouse the minot was used for charcoal and salt measurement.
Later on, there was also a minot de Paris based on exactly one cubic French royal foot, which is equivalent to 34.277 litres. The ancient Roman amphora shared a similar definition (one cubic Roman foot). It was itself divided into three units, similar to the "minot".


Dhrystone

Dhrystone is a synthetic computing benchmark program developed in 1984 by Reinhold P. Weicker intended to be representative of system (integer) programming. The Dhrystone grew to become representative of general processor (CPU) performance. The name "Dhrystone" is a pun on a different benchmark algorithm called Whetstone, which emphasizes floating point performance.
With Dhrystone, Weicker gathered meta-data from a broad range of software, including programs written in FORTRAN, PL/1, SAL, ALGOL 68, and Pascal. He then characterized these programs in terms of various common constructs: procedure calls, pointer indirections, assignments, etc. From this he wrote the Dhrystone benchmark to correspond to a representative mix. Dhrystone was published in Ada, with the C version for Unix developed by Rick Richardson ("version 1.1") greatly contributing to its popularity.
Dhrystone vs. Whetstone.
The Dhrystone benchmark contains no floating point operations, thus the name is a pun on the then-popular Whetstone benchmark for floating point operations. The output from the benchmark is the number of Dhrystones per second (the number of iterations of the main code loop per second).
Both Whetstone and Dhrystone are "synthetic" benchmarks, meaning that they are simple programs that are carefully designed to statistically mimic the processor usage of some common set of programs. Whetstone, developed in 1972, originally strove to mimic typical Algol 60 programs based on measurements from 1970, but eventually became most popular in its Fortran version, reflecting the highly numerical orientation of computing in the 1960s.
Issues addressed by Dhrystone.
Dhrystone's eventual importance as an indicator of general-purpose ("integer") performance of new computers made it a target for commercial compiler writers. Various modern compiler static code analysis techniques (such as elimination of dead code: for example, code which uses the processor but produces internal results which are not used or output) make the use and design of synthetic benchmarks more difficult. Version 2.0 of the benchmark, released by Weicker and Richardson in March 1988, had a number of changes intended to foil a range of compiler techniques. Yet it was carefully crafted so as not to change the underlying benchmark. This effort to foil compilers was only partly successful. Dhrystone 2.1, released in May of the same year, had some minor changes and remains the current definition of Dhrystone.
Other than issues related to compiler optimization, various other issues have been cited with the Dhrystone. Most of these, including the small code size and small data set size, were understood at the time of its publication in 1984. More subtle is the slight over-representation of string operations, which is largely language-related: both Ada and Pascal have strings as normal variables in the language, whereas C does not, so what was simple variable assignment in reference benchmarks became buffer copy operations in the C library. Another issue is that the score reported does not include information which is critical when comparing systems such as which compiler was used, and what optimizations.
Dhrystone remains remarkably resilient as a simple benchmark, but its continuing value in establishing true performance is questionable. It is easy to use, well documented, fully self-contained, well understood, and can be made to work on almost any system. In particular, it has remained in broad use in the embedded computing world, though the recently developed EEMBC benchmark suite, HINT, Stream, and even Bytemark are widely quoted and used, as well as more specific benchmarks for the memory subsystem (Cachebench), TCP/IP (TTCP), and many others.
Results.
Dhrystone may represent a result more meaningfully than MIPS (million instructions per second) because instruction count comparisons between different instruction sets (e.g. RISC vs. CISC) can confound simple comparisons. For example, the same high-level task may require many more instructions on a RISC machine, but might execute faster than a single CISC instruction. Thus, the Dhrystone score counts only the number of program iteration completions per second, allowing individual machines to perform this calculation in a machine-specific way. Another common representation of the Dhrystone benchmark is the DMIPS (Dhrystone MIPS) obtained when the Dhrystone score is divided by 1757 (the number of Dhrystones per second obtained on the VAX 11/780, nominally a 1 MIPS machine).
Another way to represent results is in DMIPS/MHz, where DMIPS result is further divided by CPU frequency, to allow for easier comparison of CPUs running at different clock rates.
Shortcomings.
Using Dhrystone as a benchmark has pitfalls:


Divergent double subduction

Divergent double subduction (abbreviated to DDS, also called as outward dipping double-sided subduction) is a special type of subduction system where two parallel subduction zones with different directions are developed on the same oceanic plate. In conventional plate tectonics theory, an oceanic plate subducts under another plate and new oceanic crust is generated somewhere else, commonly along the other side of the same plates However, in divergent double subduction, the oceanic plate subducts on two sides. This results in the closure of ocean and arc-arc collision. This concept was first proposed and applied to the Lachlan fold belt in southern Australia. Since then, geologists have applied this model to other regions such as the Solonker Suture Zone of the Central Asian Orogenic belt, the Jiangnan Orogen, the Lhasa–Qiangtang collision zone and the Baker terrane boundary. Active examples of this system are 1) the Molucca Sea Collision Zone in Indonesia, in which the Molucca Sea plate subducts below the Eurasian plate and the Philippine Sea plate on two sides, and 2) the Adria microplate in the Central Mediterranean, subducting both on its western side (beneath the Apennines and Calabria) and on its eastern side (beneath the Dinarides). Note that the term "divergent" is used to describe one oceanic plate subducting in different directions on two opposite sides. It should not be confused with use of the same term in 'divergent plate boundary' which refers to a spreading center that separates two plates moving away from each other.
Evolution of divergent double subduction system.
The complete evolution of a divergent double subduction system can be divided into four major stages.
Initial stage.
As the central oceanic plate subducts on both sides into the two overriding plates, the subducting oceanic slab brings fluids down and the fluids are released in the mantle wedge. This initiates the partial melting of the mantle wedge and the magma eventually rise into the overriding plates, resulting in the formation of two volcanic arcs on the two overriding plates. At the same time, sediment deposits on the two margins of the overriding plates, forming two accretionary wedges. As the plate subducts and rollback occurs, the ocean becomes narrower and the subduction rate reduces as the oceanic plate becomes closer to an inverted "U" shape.
Second stage.
The ocean is closed eventually as subduction continues. The two overriding plates meet, collide, and weld together by a "soft" collision. The inverted "U" shape of the oceanic plate inhibits the continued subduction of the plate because the mantle material below the plate is trapped.
Third stage.
The dense oceanic plate has a high tendency to sink. As it sinks, it breaks along the oceanic plate and the welded crust above and a gap is created. The extra space created leads to the decompression melting of mantle wedge materials. The melts flow upward and fill the gap and intrude the oceanic plate and welded crust as mafic dykes intrusion. Eventually, the oceanic plate completely breaks apart from the welded crust as it continues to sink.
Final stage.
When the oceanic plate breaks apart from the crust and sinks into the mantle, underplating continues to occur. At the same time, the sinking oceanic plate starts to dewater and release the fluids upward to aid the partial melting of mantle and the crust above. It results in extensive magmatism and bimodal volcanism.
Magmatic and metamorphic features.
Arc magmatism.
Unlike one sided subduction where only one magmatic arc is generated on the overriding plate, two parallel magmatic arcs are generated on both colliding overriding plates when the oceanic plate subducts on two sides. Volcanic rocks indicating arc volcanism can be found on both sides of the suture zone. Typical rock types include calc-alkaline basalt, andesites, dacite and tuff. These arc volcanic rocks are enriched in large ion lithophile element (LILE) and light rare earth element (LREE) but depleted in niobium, hafnium and titanium.
Extensive intrusions.
Partial melting of mantle generate mafic dyke intrusion. Because the mantle is the primary source, these dykes record isotopic characteristics of the depleted mantle in which the 87Sr/86Sr ratio is near 0.703 and samarium-neodymium dating is positive. On the other hand, partial melting of the lower crust (accretionary complex) leads to S-type granitoid intrusions with enriched aluminium oxide throughout the evolution of divergent double subduction.
Bimodal volcanism.
When the oceanic plate detaches from the overlying crust, intense decompressional melting of mantle is induced. Large amount of hot basaltic magma intrude and melt the crust which generate rhyolitic melt. This results in alternating eruption of basaltic and rhyolitic lava.
Low grade metamorphism.
Without continental collision and deep subduction, high grade metamorphism is not common like other subduction zones. Most of the sedimentary strata and volcanics in the accretionary wedge experience low to medium grade metamorphism up to greenschist or amphibolite facies only.
Structural features.
Thrusting and folding.
When the two overriding plates converge, two accretionary wedges will develop. The two accretionary wedges are in opposite direction. Thus, direction of thrust and vergence of the folds in the accretionary wedges are opposite also. However, this proposed feature may not be observed because of the continuous deformation. For example, in the modern day example of Molucca Sea Collision Zone, the continuous active collision causes the Sangihe Arc to override the Halmahera Arc and the back arc of Halmahera Arc to overthrust itself. In this case, complex fold thrust belt including the accretionary complex is formed. In the future, the Sangihe Arc will override the Halmahera Arc and the rock records in Halmahera will disappear.
Unconformity.
When the two overriding plates collide and the ocean basin is closed, sedimentation ceases. Sinking of the oceanic plate drag down the welded crust to form a basin that allows continued sedimentation. After the oceanic plate completely detaches from the crust above, isostatic rebound occurs, leaving a significant unconformity in the sedimentary sections.
Factors controlling the evolution of divergent double subduction system.
In nature, the inverted "U" shape of the oceanic plate in divergent double subduction should not be always perfectly symmetrical like the idealized model. An asymmetrical form is preferred like the real example in Molucca Sea where the length of the subducted slab is longer on its western side beneath the Sangihe Arc while a shorter slab on its eastern side beneath the Halmahera Arc. 3D numerical modelling had been done to simulate divergent double subduction, to evaluate different factors that can affect the evolution and geometry of the system discerned below.
Width of the oceanic plate.
The width of the plate determines whether the divergent double subduction can be sustained. The inverted "U" shape of the oceanic plate is not an effective geometry for it to sink because of the mantle materials beneath. Those mantle materials need to escape by toroidal flow at the edge of the subducted oceanic plate. With a narrow oceanic plate (width < 2000 km), the trapped mantle beneath the oceanic plate can effectively escape by toroidal flow. In contrast, for a persistent oceanic plate (width > 2000 km), the trapped mantle beneath the oceanic plate cannot escape effectively by toroidal flow and the system cannot be sustained. Therefore, divergent double subduction can only occur in small narrow oceanic plate but not in large width oceanic plate. This also explains why it is rare in nature and most subduction zones are single sided.
Order of subduction.
Order of subduction control the geometry of divergent doubled subduction. The side that begins to subduct earlier enters the eclogitization level earlier. The density contrast between the plate and the mantle increases which makes the sinking of the plate faster, creating a positive feedback. It results in an asymmetrical geometry where the slab length is longer on the side which subducts earlier. The slab pull, amount of poloidal flow and the rate of convergence on the side with shorter length will be reduced.
It remains unclear how initiation occurs for both sides of a single plate if subduction is in form of divergent double subduction, even though this subduction type has been clearly observed . This is because it's difficult to break a moving oceanic plate (i.e., acting as a trailing edge, which moving in the reverse direction of the ongoing, earlier-initiated subduction) due to lack of compression required for forced (induced) subduction initiation. Therefore, self-consistent initiation of divergent double subduction, together with other forms of double subduction, requires further studies of structural and magmatic records.
State of motion of the overriding plates.
The state of motion of overriding plates control the geometry of divergent doubled subduction and the position of collision. The length of the subducting slab beneath a stagnant overriding plate is shorter because the mantle flow is weaker and the subduction is slower. In contrast, the length of the subducting slab beneath a free moving plate is longer. Additionally, the position of collision is shifted more to the side with stagnant plate as the rollback is faster on the free moving side.
Thickness of the overriding plates.
Thickness of the overriding plates have similar effect as state of motion of overriding plates to control the geometry of divergent doubled subduction and the position of collision. A thicker overriding plate hinders subduction because of the larger friction. It results in a shorter slab. Vice versa, a thinner overriding plate have a longer slab.
Density contrast between oceanic plate and mantle.
Larger density contrast between oceanic plate and mantle create a larger negative buoyancy of the oceanic plate. It results in a faster subduction and a stronger rollback. Therefore, the mantle flow induced by the rollback (poloidal flow) is also enhanced. The convergence rate is increased, resulting in a faster and more vigorous collision between the two overriding plates.


460 Scania

460 Scania (; "prov. designation": "or" ) is a background asteroid and a slow rotator from the central regions of the asteroid belt. It was discovered by German astronomer Max Wolf at the Heidelberg-Königstuhl State Observatory on 22 October 1900. The uncommon K-type asteroid has an exceptionally long rotation period of 164.1 hours and measures approximately in diameter. It was named after the Swedish region of Scania, where a meeting was held by the Astronomische Gesellschaft in 1904.
Orbit and classification.
"Scania" is a non-family asteroid from the main belt's background population. It orbits the Sun in the central asteroid belt at a distance of 2.4–3.0 AU once every 4 years and 6 months (1,637 days; semi-major axis of 2.72 AU). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.11 and an inclination of 5° with respect to the ecliptic. The body's observation arc begins at Vienna Observatory on 25 October 1900, three nights after its official discovery observation at Heidelberg.
Naming.
This minor planet was named after the Swedish region of Scania or Skåne by its Latin name, on the occasion of a meeting held in Lund by the Astronomische Gesellschaft in 1904 (). The was also mentioned in "The Names of the Minor Planets" by Paul Herget in 1955 ().
Physical characteristics.
In the Bus–Binzel SMASS classification, "Scania" is an uncommon K-type asteroid.
Rotation period.
In December 2017, a rotational lightcurve of "Scania" was obtained from photometric observations by Frederick Pilcher. Lightcurve analysis gave a well defined rotation period of hours with a brightness variation of magnitude (). The results supersedes previous observations.
Diameter and albedo.
According to the surveys carried out by the Infrared Astronomical Satellite IRAS, the Japanese Akari satellite and the NEOWISE mission of NASA's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer, "Scania" measures between 19.689 and 23.58 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo between 0.189 and 0.262. The "Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link" derives an albedo of 0.1808 and a diameter of 21.63 kilometers based on an absolute magnitude of 10.8.


Archean subduction

Archean subduction is a contentious topic involving the possible existence and nature of subduction in the Archean, a geologic eon extending from 4.0-2.5 billion years ago. Until recently there was little evidence unequivocally supporting one side over the other, and in the past many scientists either believed in shallow subduction or its complete non-existence. However, the past two decades have witnessed the potential beginning of a change in geologic understanding as new evidence is increasingly indicative of episodic, non-shallow subduction.
The importance of Archean subduction.
Subduction is the density-driven process by which one tectonic plate moves under another and sinks into the mantle at a convergent boundary. Gravitational pull from dense slabs provides approximately 90% of the driving force for plate tectonics, and consequently subduction is crucial in changing the Earth's layout, guiding its thermal evolution and building its compositional structure. In particular, subduction zones are the primary sites of present-day continental crust formation, another process of modern Earth that has a mysterious past. Furthermore, subduction is the main mechanism by which surface materials enter the deep Earth and is also largely responsible for the formation of ores. Considering the importance of subduction in many geological processes, it is clear that studying its past and present nature is essential to developing our understanding of the Earth as a dynamic system.
The case against Archean subduction.
Those who favour non-existent subduction in the Archean point to the well-established model that the Archean Earth was significantly hotter than it is today, which would have affected lithospheric density in such a way as to perhaps prohibit subduction. The higher temperatures of the Archean Earth can be attributed to the release of tremendous amounts of energy from the accretion of solar system material and subsequent differentiation into core and mantle. This energy, coupled with a greater concentration of heat-producing elements, led to the Earth being 200 K hotter in the Archean than it is today. Assuming seafloor spreading generated oceanic lithosphere in the Archean, higher temperatures led to greater melting of mantle material rising at oceanic spreading centres. This in turn produced thicker oceanic crust and thicker regions of underlying depleted lithospheric mantle. As such, the density of the lithosphere was reduced due to both differentiation of the crust from the mantle and the ensuing relative depletion of the residual mantle in Fe and Al. These expected properties have led to suggestions that oceanic lithosphere was so light that it subducted very shallowly or not at all. Scientists who favour this hypothesis argue that felsic material formed from hydrous partial melting of thickened oceanic crust in the root zones of oceanic plateaus, and not from subduction zones as generally believed.
The case for Archean subduction.
Those who favour Archean subduction claim that recent modelling has elucidated the following fundamental features of the Archean, which they argue can be used to describe why subduction was occurring:
1) Mantle temperatures were indeed 200 K hotter than they are today.
2) The oceanic crust was approximately 21 km thick, compared to 7 km thick today.
3) The depth to which the mantle was partially melted was 114 km, compared to 54 km today.
4) Heat flow into the base of the tectonic plates was 1.3-2.0 times higher than it is today.
Mathematical reasoning based on these constraints led to the conclusion that cooling was sufficient to provide a driving force for subduction. In fact, it is thought that the low flexural rigidity of Archean plates perhaps made subduction initiation easier than it is today. On one hand, the lower density of oceanic plates reduced slab pull, but this effect was likely balanced by delamination of low-density crust as well as the passage of thick crust through the eclogite transition. In addition to modelling, geologic evidence has been discovered that further supports the existence of Archean subduction. Many Archean igneous rocks show enrichment of large-ion lithophile elements (LILE) over high-field-strength elements (HFSE), which is a classic subduction signature commonly observed in volcanic arc rocks. Furthermore, the presence of structural thrust belts and paired metamorphic belts are also hallmarks of subduction dynamics and subsequent environmental changes.
While the existence of Archean subduction implies that continental crust likely formed via subduction to an extent, it does not require that subduction was the only way to form continental crust. Thus the continued debate over the origin of continental crust cannot be fully resolved by subduction arguments alone.
Conclusion and future directions.
Though the subject of Archean subduction has long been controversial, the emergence of innovative modelling and geologic evidence has begun to sway some of the scientific community toward favouring the existence of non-shallow, episodic subduction. Moving forward, the rheology of early-earth materials should be emphasized in future research as it is not well understood, and therefore subduction dynamics are poorly constrained. Moreover, the paucity of Archean data requires an even better understanding of the links between the Earth's interior and its surface processes if we plan on gaining additional insight into Archean subduction.


CliffsNotes

CliffsNotes are a series of student study guides. The guides present and create literary and other works in pamphlet form or online. Detractors of the study guides claim they let students bypass reading the assigned literature. The company claims to promote the reading of the original work and does not view the study guides as a substitute for that reading.
Company history.
CliffsNotes was started by Nebraska native Clifton Hillegass in 1958. He was working at Nebraska Book Company of Lincoln, Nebraska, when he met Jack Cole, the co-owner of Coles, a Toronto book business. Coles published a series of Canadian study guides called Coles Notes, and sold Hillegass the U.S. rights to the guides.
Hillegass and his wife, Catherine, started the business in their basement at 511 Eastridge Drive in Lincoln, with sixteen William Shakespeare titles. By 1964 sales reached one million Notes annually. CliffsNotes now exist on hundreds of works. The term "Cliff's Notes" has now become a proprietary eponym for similar products.
IDG Books purchased CliffsNotes in 1998 for $14,200,000. John Wiley & Sons acquired IDG Books (renamed Hungry Minds) in 2001. In 2011, CliffsNotes announced a joint venture with Mark Burnett, a TV producer. This would be a series of 60-second video study guides of literary works. In 2012, CliffsNotes was acquired by Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.
Other guides.
In addition to guides for literature, the company produces several other series of guides, including:


List of brown dwarfs

This is a list of brown dwarfs. These are objects that have masses between heavy gas giants and low-mass stars. The first isolated brown dwarf discovered was Teide 1 in 1995. The first brown dwarf discovered orbiting a star was Gliese 229 B, also discovered in 1995. The first brown dwarf found to have a planet was 2M1207, discovered in 2004. , more than 2,800 brown dwarfs have been identified. An isolated object with less than about 13 Jupiter masses is technically a sub-brown dwarf or rogue planet.
Because the mass of a brown dwarf is between that of a planet and that of a star, they have also been called planetars or hyperjovians. Various catalog designations have been used to name brown dwarfs. Brown dwarfs with names ending in a letter such as B, C, or D are in orbit around a primary star; those with names ending in a lower-case letter such as b, c, or d, may be exoplanets (see Exoplanet naming convention).
Some exoplanets, especially those detected by radial velocity, can turn out to be brown dwarfs if their mass is higher than originally thought: most have only known minimum masses because the inclination of their orbit is not known. Examples include HD 114762 b (>11.68 MJ), Pi Mensae b (>10.312 MJ), and NGC 2423-3 b (>10.6 MJ).
Confirmed brown dwarfs orbiting primary stars.
"Sorted by increasing right ascension of the parent star. Brown dwarfs within a system sorted by increasing orbital period."
"Some brown dwarfs listed could still be massive planets."
Unconfirmed brown dwarfs.
"Sorted by increasing right ascension of the parent star. Brown dwarfs within a system sorted by increasing orbital period."
"Some brown dwarfs listed could still be massive planets."
Field brown dwarfs.
"Data updated from and merged from previous tables"


Zepp (brand)

Zepp is a smart wearable brand that was founded in Silicon Valley in 2010, with headquarters in Hefei. In 2020, it unveiled Zepp E and Zepp Z, lines of smartwatches, and Zepp app, a mobile application for digital health management, available for iOS and Android operating systems.
History.
Zepp was established in 2010 in San Jose of the United States.
Initially, it focused on the field of smart sports, specializing in producing sensors suitable for the golf, baseball and tennis.
In 2018, Zepp was acquired by Huami Corporation, a NYSE publicly listed company with ticker symbol "HMI".
In November 2020, Zepp partnered with World Sleep Society, the organizer of World Sleep Day, to release a sleep survey report.


James D. McCaffrey

James D. McCaffrey is a software researcher and author known for his contributions to the fields of mathematical combinatorics and software test automation. McCaffrey holds a PhD in cognitive psychology and computational statistics from the University of Southern California, and degrees in psychology and applied mathematics from the University of California, Irvine and California State University, Fullerton.
McCaffrey is a research scientist engineer at Microsoft Research where he directs the internal Microsoft AI School, focusing on creating machine learning and artificial intelligence algorithms.
Prior to joining Microsoft, McCaffrey was the Associate Vice President of Research at Volt Information Sciences in Redmond, Washington, supporting the needs of software engineers at Microsoft. He has also worked on Microsoft products such as Azure and Bing and is the Senior Technical Editor for Microsoft Visual Studio Magazine.


T-46 (tank)

The T-46 was a Soviet fast light tank developed in 1935, as an improvement to the earlier T-26. The design was later discarded by the government, after the prototypes were built and tested. The project ended up being too expensive and a poor design. The thin armor, bulky hull and small main gun put the crew in great danger, which made the tank unsuitable for use in combat.
History.
The Soviet T-46, began as an improvement to the T-26. The T46 served the same purpose as the T26, but it was quite different. It was a fast and lightly armored tank. It could reach speeds of up to 50 km/h with relative ease. The T-26 suspension consisted of eight small road wheels carried in pairs on small bogies. The bogies were supported in pairs by leaf springs. This was a much less effective system than the Christie suspension, which had a more advanced, yet more expensive system to maintain and produce. This is the reason why the OKMO team at Zavod No.185 was ordered by the Government of Soviet Union to produce an improved version of the fast light-tank, T-26. Yet the design of the T-46 has proved being too expensive, compared to the final performance of the vehicle to mass-produce. The thin armor, small main armament and the bulky, big design of tank, made the government of Soviet Union cancel the project, and rather create the T-26S and later T-46S, as the improved, mass-production capable tanks.
Yet some legacy left over by the T-46S, a later improved version of the T-46 lived on to see the battles in Finland.


844 Leontina

844 Leontina, provisional designation 1916 AP, is a stony asteroid from the outer region of the asteroid belt, about 36 kilometers in diameter. It was discovered on 1 October 1916, by Austrian astronomer Joseph Rheden at Vienna Observatory, Austria.
Description.
"Leontina" is an X-type asteroid in the SMASS classification. It orbits the Sun at a distance of 3.0–3.4 AU once every 5 years and 9 months (2,097 days). Its orbit is tilted by 9 degrees to the plane of the ecliptic and shows an eccentricity of 0.07.
Multiple lightcurve analysis rendered a well-defined, concurring rotation period of 6.79 hours. According to the surveys carried out by the Japanese Akari satellite and the U.S. Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission, measurements of the body's brightness gave a divergent albedo of 0.13, 0.20 and 0.31, respectively. As a result, the asteroid's estimated diameter strongly varies between 28 and 40 kilometers. The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link (CALL) considers Akari's albedo-figure of 0.20 the most accurate one and consequently assumes the otherwise classified X-type body to be of a stony surface composition with a calculated diameter of 36 kilometers.
This minor planet was named by the discoverer for his home town Lienz in East Tyrol, Austria.


2279 Barto


Epsilon Phoenicis

Epsilon Phoenicis is a star in the constellation Phoenix. Its apparent magnitude is 3.87. Located around distant, it is an orange giant of spectral type K0III, a star that has used up its core hydrogen and has expanded.


Conditionality principle

The conditionality principle is a Fisherian principle of statistical inference that Allan Birnbaum formally defined and studied in his 1962 JASA article. Informally, the conditionality principle can be taken as the claim that experiments which were not actually performed are statistically irrelevant.
Together with the sufficiency principle, Birnbaum's version of the principle implies the famous likelihood principle. Although the relevance of the proof to data analysis remains controversial among statisticians, many Bayesians and likelihoodists consider the likelihood principle foundational for statistical inference.
Formulation.
The conditionality principle makes an assertion about an experiment "E" that can be described as a mixture of several component experiments "E"h where "h" is an ancillary statistic (i.e. a statistic whose probability distribution does not depend on unknown parameter values). This means that observing a specific outcome "x" of experiment "E" is equivalent to observing the value of "h" and taking an observation "x"h from the component experiment "E"h, for example, rolling a dice (whose value is "h" = 1 ... 6) to determine which of six experiments to conduct (experiment "E" ... "E").
The conditionality principle can be formally stated thus:
An illustration of the conditionality principle, in a bioinformatics context, is given by .


Plug nozzle

The plug nozzle is a type of nozzle which includes a centerbody or plug around which the working fluid flows. Plug nozzles have applications in aircraft, rockets, and numerous other fluid flow devices.
Hoses.
Common garden hose trigger nozzles are a simple example of the plug nozzle and its method of operation. In this example the nozzle consists of a conical or bell shaped opening with a plug on a movable rod positioned in front of the nozzle. The plug looks similar to a poppet valve. The stem of the valve runs back through the body of the nozzle body to a "trigger", normally a long lever running down the back of the nozzle assembly. A spring keeps the valve pressed against the opening under normal use, thereby providing a failsafe cut-off that stops the flow of water when the nozzle is dropped.
When water is supplied to the hose, it flows through the nozzle body to the opening, where it would normally flow straight forward in a stream. Just after leaving the opening it encounters the plug, which deflects the water sideways through an angle. After travelling a short distance the water encounters the outside of the nozzle opening, which deflects it forward again. This two-step process causes the water to be ejected in a ring-shaped pattern, which causes less water to strike any one location, and thereby reduces erosion while also making it easier to water larger areas.
The shaping of the plug and the nozzle opening allows the angle of the ring to be adjusted. Normally this is shaped so that when the plug is pulled back toward the opening it both partially cuts off the water flow, as well as causing it to spread out to the widest possible angle. This can be used for "misting" plants. When the trigger is pushed down further, the plug moves away from the opening, causing less blockage and disruption of the flow, ultimately allowing the water to form back into a stream.
In rockets.
Plug nozzles belong to a class of altitude compensating nozzles much like the aerospike which, unlike traditional designs, maintains its efficiency at a wide range of altitudes.
Similar to the garden hose example, plug nozzles use a shaped rocket nozzle with a poppet-shaped plug to allow the pattern of the rocket exhaust to be changed. This is used to adjust for changes in altitude; at lower altitudes the plug is pulled back to cause the exhaust to spread out, while at higher altitudes the lower air pressure will cause this to happen naturally. An alternative construction for the same basic concept is to use two nozzles, one inside the other, and adjust the distance between them. This pattern has the advantage of better control over the exhaust and simpler cooling arrangements.
Confusingly, the term "plug nozzle" may also be used to refer to an entirely different class of engine nozzles, the aerospikes. In theory the aerospike should look roughly like a lance. with a wide base and long tapering forebody. However, the "spike" portion can be cut off with only minor effects on performance, leaving just the base section. This looks very similar to a common drain plug or bung, and leads to widespread use of the term "plug nozzle" for this design as well.
In aircraft and missiles.
The jet-engine plug nozzle has its origins in rocketry but has also been studied over the years, but not used, for supersonic cruise aircraft such as the Boeing SST, the proposed General Electric Variable Cycle Engine, with its acoustic plug nozzle, and Concorde. However, it was used for the AGM-28 Hound Dog missile and the Tu-144 airliner. The plug / "external-expanding" nozzle has a central plug and a freely-expanding supersonic jet rather than a diverging cone surface to contain the internal supersonic expansion as in a delaval con-di nozzle. The Pratt & Whitney J52 aircraft engine used in the supersonic AGM-28 Hound Dog missile used a plug nozzle which performed better over the missile's flight envelope than either a convergent or a con-di nozzle. A translating center-body was used on the non-afterburning Kolesov RD-36-51A engine used for the Tupolev Tu-144D supersonic airliner. The center-body was perforated and compressed air forced into the exhaust jet through the perforations to attenuate the noise.
Weight and cooling are typical concerns with aircraft plug nozzles. A plug nozzle design evaluated at the National Gas Turbine Establishment was rejected for the Concorde engine due to the weight penalty from the required variable features and concerns about adequate plug cooling during reheat operation.
Plug nozzle model tests have shown reduced noise levels compared to traditional convergent-divergent nozzles.
Propelling nozzles for subsonic aircraft have used a center-body/bullet/cone to give the nozzle exit area required to set an axial compressor running-line correctly on its map. The first operational German turbojet engines with axial compressors, the Jumo 004 and BMW 003, needed a different exhaust nozzle areas for running properly at each of the operating regimes: start/idle, climb, high speed, high altitude. A nozzle with a fore/aft-translating "bullet" restrictive body in the center was chosen for each design. It provided area control with relatively simple actuation and matched the annular shape of the turbine exhaust.


List of longest bridges above water in India

This is a list of India's bridges longer than sorted by their full length above water.


2892 Filipenko

2892 Filipenko, provisional designation , is a carbonaceous asteroid from the outer region of the asteroid belt, approximately 60 kilometers in diameter.
The asteroid was discovered on 13 January 1983, by Russian female astronomer Lyudmila Karachkina at Crimean Astrophysical Observatory in Nauchnyj, on the Crimean peninsula. It was named after surgeon Aleksandr Filipenko.
Orbit and classification.
"Filipenko" is a dark asteroid that orbits the Sun in the outer main-belt at a distance of 2.5–3.8 AU once every 5 years and 8 months (2,066 days). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.21 and an inclination of 17° with respect to the ecliptic.
First identified as at Taunton Observatory () in 1910, "Filipenko"s first used observation was made at the Finnish Turku Observatory in 1953, extending the body's observation arc by 30 years prior to its official discovery observation at Nauchnyj.
Physical characteristics.
In the SMASS classification, "Filipenko" has been classified as a carbonaceous C-type asteroid.
Diameter and albedo.
According to the surveys carried out by the Infrared Astronomical Satellite IRAS, the Japanese Akari satellite and NASA's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission, "Filipenko" measures between 56.1 and 69.5 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo between 0.030 and 0.046. The "Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link" derives an albedo of 0.0426 and a smaller diameter of 56.0 kilometers with an absolute magnitude of 10.3.
Rotation period.
In November 2004, a rotational lightcurve of "Filipenko" was obtained from photometric observations by Robert D. Stephens at the Santana Observatory (), California, and gave a well-defined rotation period of hours with a brightness variation of magnitude ().
Naming.
This minor planet is named for Aleksandr Filipenko, chief surgeon at the hospital in Bakhchisarai located on the Crimean peninsula. He had saved the life of a friend of the discoverer Lyudmila Karachkina. The official naming citation was published by the Minor Planet Center on 13 July 1984 ().


Freedom Records

Freedom Records was a jazz record label headed by Shel Safran and founded by Alan Bates as a division of Black Lion Records.
Individual recordings were distributed via Polydor Records and Transatlantic Records during the early 1970s before the company was bought by Arista Records with the imprint dubbed Arista/Freedom in 1975.


P-value

In null hypothesis significance testing, the "p"-value is the probability of obtaining test results at least as extreme as the results actually observed, under the assumption that the null hypothesis is correct. A very small "p"-value means that such an extreme observed outcome would be very unlikely under the null hypothesis. Reporting "p"-values of statistical tests is common practice in academic publications of many quantitative fields. Since the precise meaning of "p"-value is hard to grasp, misuse is widespread and has been a major topic in metascience.
Basic concepts.
In statistics, every conjecture concerning the unknown probability distribution of a collection of random variables representing the observed data formula_1 in some study is called a "statistical hypothesis". If we state one hypothesis only and the aim of the statistical test is to see whether this hypothesis is tenable, but not, at the same time, to investigate other hypotheses, then such a test is called a "significance test". Note that the hypothesis might specify the probability distribution of formula_1 precisely, or it might only specify that it belongs to some class of distributions. Often, we reduce the data to a single numerical statistic formula_3 whose marginal probability distribution is closely connected to a main question of interest in the study.
The "p"-value is used in the context of null hypothesis testing in order to quantify the idea of statistical significance of evidence, the evidence being the observed value of the chosen statistic formula_3. Null hypothesis testing is a reductio ad absurdum argument adapted to statistics. In essence, a claim is assumed valid if its counterclaim is highly implausible.
Thus, the only hypothesis that needs to be specified in this test and which embodies the counterclaim is referred to as the null hypothesis; that is, the hypothesis to be nullified. A result is said to be "statistically significant" if it allows us to reject the null hypothesis. The result, being statistically significant, was highly improbable if the null hypothesis is assumed to be true. A rejection of the null hypothesis implies that the correct hypothesis lies in the logical complement of the null hypothesis. But no specific alternatives need to have been specified. The rejection of the null hypothesis does not tell us which of any possible alternatives might be better supported. However, the user of the test chose the test statistic formula_3 in the first place probably with particular alternatives in mind; such a test is often used precisely in order to convince people that those alternatives are viable because what was actually observed was extremely unlikely under the null hypothesis.
As a particular example, if a null hypothesis states that a certain summary statistic formula_3 follows the standard normal distribution N(0,1), then the rejection of this null hypothesis could mean that (i) the mean is not 0, or (ii) the variance is not 1, or (iii) the distribution is not normal. Different tests of the same null hypothesis would be more or less sensitive to different alternatives. Anyway, if we do manage to reject the null hypothesis, even if we know the distribution is normal and variance is 1, the null hypothesis test does not tell us which non-zero values of the mean are now most plausible. If one has a huge amount of independent observations from the same probability distribution, one will eventually be able to show that their mean value is not precisely equal to zero; but the deviation from zero could be so small as to have no practical or scientific interest. All other things being equal, smaller the p-values are taken as stronger evidence against the null hypothesis.
Definition and interpretation.
General.
Consider an observed test-statistic formula_7 from unknown distribution formula_3. Then the "p"-value formula_9 is what the prior probability would be of observing a test-statistic value at least as "extreme" as formula_7 if null hypothesis formula_11 were true. That is:
If the "p"-value is very small, then either the null hypothesis is false or something unlikely has occurred. In a formal "significance test", the null hypothesis formula_11 is rejected if the "p"-value is less than a pre-defined threshold value formula_18, which is referred to as the alpha level or significance level. The value of formula_18 is instead set by the researcher before examining the data. By convention, formula_18 is commonly set to 0.05, though lower alpha levels are sometimes used.
The "p"-value is a function of the chosen test statistic formula_3 and is therefore a random variable. If the null hypothesis fixes the probability distribution of formula_3 precisely, and if that distribution is continuous, then when the null-hypothesis is true, the p-value is uniformly distributed between 0 and 1. Thus, the "p"-value is not fixed. If the same test is repeated independently with fresh data (always with the same probability distribution), one will obtain a different "p"-value in each iteration. If the null-hypothesis is composite, or the distribution of the statistic is discrete, the probability of obtaining a "p"-value less than or equal to any number between 0 and 1 is less than or equal to that number, if the null-hypothesis is true. It remains the case that very small values are relatively unlikely if the null-hypothesis is true, and that a significance test at level formula_18 is obtained by rejecting the null-hypothesis if the significance level is less than or equal to formula_18.
Different "p"-values based on independent sets of data can be combined, for instance using Fisher's combined probability test.
Distribution.
When the null hypothesis is true, if it takes the form formula_25, and the underlying random variable is continuous, then the probability distribution of the "p"-value is uniform on the interval [0,1]. By contrast, if the alternative hypothesis is true, the distribution is dependent on sample size and the true value of the parameter being studied.
The distribution of "p"-values for a group of studies is sometimes called a "p"-curve. The curve is affected by four factors: the proportion of studies that examined false null hypotheses, the power of the studies that investigated false null hypotheses, the alpha levels, and publication bias. A "p"-curve can be used to assess the reliability of scientific literature, such as by detecting publication bias or "p"-hacking.
For composite hypothesis.
In parametric hypothesis testing problems, a "simple or point hypothesis" refers to a hypothesis where the parameter's value is assumed to be a single number. In contrast, in a "composite hypothesis" the parameter's value is given by a set of numbers. For example, when testing the null hypothesis that a distribution is normal with a mean less than or equal to zero against the alternative that the mean is greater than zero (variance known), the null hypothesis does not specify the probability distribution of the appropriate test statistic. In the just mentioned example that would be the "Z"-statistic belonging to the one-sided one-sample "Z"-test. For each possible value of the theoretical mean, the "Z"-test statistic has a different probability distribution. In these circumstances (the case of a so-called composite null hypothesis) the "p"-value is defined by taking the least favourable null-hypothesis case, which is typically on the border between null and alternative.
This definition ensures the complementarity of p-values and alpha-levels. If we set the significance level alpha to 0.05, and only reject the null hypothesis if the p-value is less than or equal to 0.05, then our hypothesis test will indeed have significance level (maximal type 1 error rate) 0.05. As Neyman wrote: “The error that a practising statistician would consider the more important to avoid (which is a subjective judgment) is called the error of the first kind. The first demand of the mathematical theory is to deduce such test criteria as would ensure that the probability of committing an error of the first kind would equal (or approximately equal, or not exceed) a preassigned number α, such as α = 0.05 or 0.01, etc. This number is called the level of significance”; Neyman 1976, p. 161 in "The Emergence of Mathematical Statistics: A Historical Sketch with Particular Reference to the United States","On the History of Statistics and Probability", ed. D.B. Owen, New York: Marcel Dekker, pp. 149-193. See also "Confusion Over Measures of Evidence (p's) Versus Errors (a's)in Classical Statistical Testing", Raymond Hubbard and M. J. Bayarri, The American Statistician, August 2003, Vol. 57, No 3, 171--182 (with discussion). For a concise modern statement see Chapter 10 of "All of Statistics: A Concise Course in Statistical Inference", Springer; 1st Corrected ed. 20 edition (September 17, 2004). Larry Wasserman.
Usage.
The "p"-value is widely used in statistical hypothesis testing, specifically in null hypothesis significance testing. In this method, as part of experimental design, before performing the experiment, one first chooses a model (the null hypothesis) and a threshold value for "p", called the significance level of the test, traditionally 5% or 1% and denoted as "α". If the "p"-value is less than the chosen significance level ("α"), that suggests that the observed data is sufficiently inconsistent with the null hypothesis and that the null hypothesis may be rejected. However, that does not prove that the tested hypothesis is false. When the "p"-value is calculated correctly, this test guarantees that the type I error rate is at most "α". For typical analysis, using the standard "α" = 0.05 cutoff, the null hypothesis is rejected when "p" < .05 and not rejected when "p" > .05. The "p"-value does not, in itself, support reasoning about the probabilities of hypotheses but is only a tool for deciding whether to reject the null hypothesis.
Misuse.
According to the ASA, there is widespread agreement that "p"-values are often misused and misinterpreted. One practice that has been particularly criticized is accepting the alternative hypothesis for any "p"-value nominally less than .05 without other supporting evidence. Although "p"-values are helpful in assessing how incompatible the data are with a specified statistical model, contextual factors must also be considered, such as "the design of a study, the quality of the measurements, the external evidence for the phenomenon under study, and the validity of assumptions that underlie the data analysis". Another concern is that the "p"-value is often misunderstood as being the probability that the null hypothesis is true.
Some statisticians have proposed replacing "p"-values with alternative measures of evidence, such as confidence intervals, likelihood ratios, or Bayes factors, but there is heated debate on the feasibility of these alternatives. Others have suggested to remove fixed significance thresholds and to interpret "p"-values as continuous indices of the strength of evidence against the null hypothesis. Yet others suggested to report alongside p-values the prior probability of a real effect that would be required to obtain a false positive risk (i.e. the probability that there is no real effect) below a pre-specified threshold (e.g. 5%).
Calculation.
Usually, formula_3 is a test statistic, rather than any of the actual observations. A test statistic is the output of a scalar function of all the observations. This statistic provides a single number, such as the average or the correlation coefficient, that summarizes the characteristics of the data, in a way relevant to a particular inquiry. As such, the test statistic follows a distribution determined by the function used to define that test statistic and the distribution of the input observational data.
For the important case in which the data are hypothesized to be a random sample from a normal distribution, depending on the nature of the test statistic and the hypotheses of interest about its distribution, different null hypothesis tests have been developed. Some such tests are the z-test for hypotheses concerning the mean of a normal distribution with known variance, the t-test based on Student's t-distribution of a suitable statistic for hypotheses concerning the mean of a normal distribution when the variance is unknown, the F-test based on the F-distribution of yet another statistic for hypotheses concerning the variance. For data of other nature, for instance categorical (discrete) data, test statistics might be constructed whose null hypothesis distribution is based on normal approximations to appropriate statistics obtained by invoking the central limit theorem for large samples, as in the case of Pearson's chi-squared test.
Thus computing a "p"-value requires a null hypothesis, a test statistic (together with deciding whether the researcher is performing a one-tailed test or a two-tailed test), and data. Even though computing the test statistic on given data may be easy, computing the sampling distribution under the null hypothesis, and then computing its cumulative distribution function (CDF) is often a difficult problem. Today, this computation is done using statistical software, often via numeric methods (rather than exact formulae), but, in the early and mid 20th century, this was instead done via tables of values, and one interpolated or extrapolated "p"-values from these discrete values. Rather than using a table of "p"-values, Fisher instead inverted the CDF, publishing a list of values of the test statistic for given fixed "p"-values; this corresponds to computing the quantile function (inverse CDF).
Example.
As an example of a statistical test, an experiment is performed to determine whether a coin flip is fair (equal chance of landing heads or tails) or unfairly biased (one outcome being more likely than the other).
Suppose that the experimental results show the coin turning up heads 14 times out of 20 total flips. The full data formula_1 would be a sequence of twenty times the symbol "H" or "T". The statistic on which one might focus, could be the total number formula_3 of heads. The null hypothesis is that the coin is fair, and coin tosses are independent of one another. If a right-tailed test is considered, which would be the case if one is actually interested in the possibility that the coin is biased towards falling heads, then the "p"-value of this result is the chance of a fair coin landing on heads "at least" 14 times out of 20 flips. That probability can be computed from binomial coefficients as
This probability is the "p"-value, considering only extreme results that favor heads. This is called a one-tailed test. However, one might be interested in deviations in either direction, favoring either heads or tails. The two-tailed "p"-value, which considers deviations favoring either heads or tails, may instead be calculated. As the binomial distribution is symmetrical for a fair coin, the two-sided "p"-value is simply twice the above calculated single-sided "p"-value: the two-sided "p"-value is 0.115.
In the above example:
Note that the Prob (no. of heads ≤ 14 heads) = 1 - Prob(no. of heads ≥ 14 heads) + Prob (no. of head = 14) = 1 - 0.058 + 0.036 = 0.978; however, symmetry of the binomial distribution makes it an unnecessary computation to find the smaller of the two probabilities. Here, the calculated "p"-value exceeds .05, meaning that the data falls within the range of what would happen 95% of the time were the coin in fact fair. Hence, the null hypothesis is not rejected at the .05 level.
However, had one more head been obtained, the resulting "p"-value (two-tailed) would have been 0.0414 (4.14%), in which case the null hypothesis would be rejected at the .05 level.
History.
Computations of "p"-values date back to the 1700s, where they were computed for the human sex ratio at birth, and used to compute statistical significance compared to the null hypothesis of equal probability of male and female births. John Arbuthnot studied this question in 1710, and examined birth records in London for each of the 82 years from 1629 to 1710. In every year, the number of males born in London exceeded the number of females. Considering more male or more female births as equally likely, the probability of the observed outcome is 1/282, or about 1 in 4,836,000,000,000,000,000,000,000; in modern terms, the "p"-value. This is vanishingly small, leading Arbuthnot that this was not due to chance, but to divine providence: "From whence it follows, that it is Art, not Chance, that governs." In modern terms, he rejected the null hypothesis of equally likely male and female births at the "p" = 1/282 significance level. This and other work by Arbuthnot is credited as "… the first use of significance tests …" the first example of reasoning about statistical significance, and "… perhaps the first published report of a nonparametric test …", specifically the sign test; see details at .
The same question was later addressed by Pierre-Simon Laplace, who instead used a "parametric" test, modeling the number of male births with a binomial distribution:
The "p"-value was first formally introduced by Karl Pearson, in his Pearson's chi-squared test, using the chi-squared distribution and notated as capital P. The "p"-values for the chi-squared distribution (for various values of "χ"2 and degrees of freedom), now notated as "P," were calculated in , collected in .
The use of the "p"-value in statistics was popularized by Ronald Fisher, and it plays a central role in his approach to the subject. In his influential book "Statistical Methods for Research Workers" (1925), Fisher proposed the level "p" = 0.05, or a 1 in 20 chance of being exceeded by chance, as a limit for statistical significance, and applied this to a normal distribution (as a two-tailed test), thus yielding the rule of two standard deviations (on a normal distribution) for statistical significance (see 68–95–99.7 rule).
He then computed a table of values, similar to Elderton but, importantly, reversed the roles of "χ"2 and "p." That is, rather than computing "p" for different values of "χ"2 (and degrees of freedom "n"), he computed values of "χ"2 that yield specified "p"-values, specifically 0.99, 0.98, 0.95, 0,90, 0.80, 0.70, 0.50, 0.30, 0.20, 0.10, 0.05, 0.02, and 0.01. That allowed computed values of "χ"2 to be compared against cutoffs and encouraged the use of "p"-values (especially 0.05, 0.02, and 0.01) as cutoffs, instead of computing and reporting "p"-values themselves. The same type of tables were then compiled in , which cemented the approach.
As an illustration of the application of "p"-values to the design and interpretation of experiments, in his following book "The Design of Experiments" (1935), Fisher presented the lady tasting tea experiment, which is the archetypal example of the "p"-value.
To evaluate a lady's claim that she (Muriel Bristol) could distinguish by taste how tea is prepared (first adding the milk to the cup, then the tea, or first tea, then milk), she was sequentially presented with 8 cups: 4 prepared one way, 4 prepared the other, and asked to determine the preparation of each cup (knowing that there were 4 of each). In that case, the null hypothesis was that she had no special ability, the test was Fisher's exact test, and the "p"-value was formula_30 so Fisher was willing to reject the null hypothesis (consider the outcome highly unlikely to be due to chance) if all were classified correctly. (In the actual experiment, Bristol correctly classified all 8 cups.)
Fisher reiterated the "p" = 0.05 threshold and explained its rationale, stating:
He also applies this threshold to the design of experiments, noting that had only 6 cups been presented (3 of each), a perfect classification would have only yielded a "p"-value of formula_31 which would not have met this level of significance. Fisher also underlined the interpretation of "p," as the long-run proportion of values at least as extreme as the data, assuming the null hypothesis is true.
In later editions, Fisher explicitly contrasted the use of the "p"-value for statistical inference in science with the Neyman–Pearson method, which he terms "Acceptance Procedures". Fisher emphasizes that while fixed levels such as 5%, 2%, and 1% are convenient, the exact "p"-value can be used, and the strength of evidence can and will be revised with further experimentation. In contrast, decision procedures require a clear-cut decision, yielding an irreversible action, and the procedure is based on costs of error, which, he argues, are inapplicable to scientific research.
Related quantities.
A closely related concept is the "E"-value, which is the expected number of times in multiple testing that one expects to obtain a test statistic at least as extreme as the one that was actually observed if one assumes that the null hypothesis is true. The "E"-value is the product of the number of tests and the "p"-value.
The "q"-value is the analog of the "p"-value with respect to the positive false discovery rate. It is used in multiple hypothesis testing to maintain statistical power while minimizing the false positive rate.


Regular temperament

Regular temperament is any tempered system of musical tuning such that each frequency ratio is obtainable as a product of powers of a finite number of generators, or generating frequency ratios. For instance, in 12-TET, the system of music most commonly used in the Western world, the generator is a tempered fifth (700 cents), which is the basis behind the circle of fifths.
When only two generators are needed, with one of them the octave, this is called "linear temperament". The best-known example of a linear temperaments is meantone temperament, where the generating intervals are usually given in terms of a slightly flattened fifth and the octave. Other linear temperaments include the schismatic temperament of Hermann von Helmholtz and miracle temperament.
Mathematical description.
If the generators are all of the prime numbers up to a given prime "p", we have what is called "p"-limit just intonation. Sometimes some irrational number close to one of these primes is substituted (an example of tempering) to favour other primes, as in twelve tone equal temperament where 3 is tempered to 2 to favour 2, or in quarter-comma meantone where 3 is tempered to 2 to favor 2 and 5.
In mathematical terminology, the products of these generators define a free abelian group. The number of independent generators is the rank of an abelian group. The rank-one tuning systems are equal temperaments, all of which can be spanned with only a single generator. A rank-two temperament has two generators. Hence, meantone is a rank-2 temperament.
In studying regular temperaments, it can be useful to regard the temperament as having a map from "p"-limit just intonation (for some prime "p") to the set of tempered intervals. To properly classify a temperament's dimensionality one must determine how many of the given generators are independent, because its description may contain redundancies. Another way of considering this problem is that the rank of a temperament should be the rank of its image under this map.
For instance, a harpsichord tuner it might think of quarter-comma meantone tuning as having three generators—the octave, the just major third (5:4) and the quarter-comma tempered fifth—but because four consecutive tempered fifths produces a just major third, the major third is redundant, reducing it to a rank-two temperament.
Other methods of linear and multilinear algebra can be applied to the map. For instance, a map's kernel (otherwise known as "nullspace") consists of "p"-limit intervals called commas, which are a property useful in describing temperaments.


Review Board

Review Board is a web-based collaborative code review tool, available as free software under the MIT License.
An alternative to Rietveld and Gerrit, Review Board integrates with Bazaar, ClearCase, CVS, Git, Mercurial, Perforce, and Subversion.
Review Board can be installed on any server running Apache or lighttpd and is free for both personal and commercial use.
There is also an official commercial Review Board hosting service, RBCommons.
Review requests can be posted manually or automatically using either a REST Web API, or a Python script.
Users.
Some of the notable users of Review Board are:


Shoalwater Bay

Shoalwater Bay is a large bay on the Capricorn Coast of Central Queensland, Australia 100 km north of the coastal town of Yeppoon and 628 km north-north-west of the state capital, Brisbane. Since 1966, the land surrounding Shoalwater Bay has been under the ownership of the Australian Defence Force, for the purpose of military training exercises. Shoalwater Bay is also a noted dugong habitat and is part of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park. The bay is bounded by the Torilla Peninsula to the west and the Warginburra Peninsula and Leicester and Townshend islands to the east.
History.
Pre-colonial.
The traditional inhabitants of Shoalwater Bay are the Darumbal people.The Darumbal (Tarumbul, Tharoombool) language region includes the city of Rockhampton extending south towards Raglan Creek and north towards the Styx River and inland along the Broad Sound Ranges. Specific tribes that lived and in some cases continue to live in the area include the Cookeeburra (green-headed ant people of the Warginburra Peninsula), the Risteburra (the sandfly people of Raspberry Creek), the Cooinmurburra (the plains people of Torilla) and the Woppaburra (the people of the islands in the region).
Colonial.
The first recorded European to sight Shoalwater Bay was British navigator James Cook on 28 May 1770. Cook referred to the entire region, from Cape Palmerston (south of Mackay) to Cape Townshend, including Shoalwater Bay, as the "Bay of Inlets", a name which is no longer in use. Cook bestowed the name "Shoalwater Bay" on the southeasternmost of these bays, a reference to the number of sandbars in the bay. Following Cook, Matthew Flinders conducted further exploration of Shoalwater Bay in 1802, landing on Akens Island (a small island on the western side of Shoalwater Bay) and exploring the head of the bay. Flinders described the land as such:
The hills are stony, but some of them are clothed with grass and wood, and the pine grows in the gullies between them. The low land is sandy or stony, but covered with wood & herbage. Fresh water stands in ponds at the foot of the hills.
European colonisation of the land in Shoalwater Bay region commenced in 1858. By the early 1860s, it had been divided into four pastoral stations: Tilpal, Raspberry Creek, The Peninsula and Torilla. The process of colonisation was violent with the killings of settlers and the massacres of local Aboriginal people being recorded frequently until the mid 1870s.
Tilpal.
Tilpal was formed as a sheep station in the late 1850s by "Hobby" Elliott. Not long after establishing Tilpal, Elliott and his shearers had a skirmish with the local Aboriginal people which resulted in the death or severe wounding of two of his workers and seven Aboriginal men being shot. The Native Police were called in and they tracked down "the blacks" to Torilla Hill where some more were shot. Elliott later sold Tilpal to James Black and a minor gold rush occurred on the property in the late 1860s.
Raspberry Creek.
Raspberry Creek was initially taken up by James Ross and James Hutton. Hutton commenced building the Raspberry Creek Homestead and brought his family to the station in 1861. The resident Risteburra people speared Hutton's cattle and the Native Police were called in to "disperse" the tribe. Many were shot or fell from cliffs after being pursued by the troopers into the Polygon Range. Raspberry Creek remained under the ownership of the Hutton family until 1917.
The Peninsula.
The Peninsula Station was taken up by Edward Hampton Baker (also known as "Cranky" Baker), which encompassed the entirety of the area today known as the Warginburra Peninsula. Baker was consistently at war with the local Cookeeburra people who took his rations and speared his cattle. Baker booby-trapped his house with self-firing rifles and poisoned the Cookeeburra with arsenic-laced flour. Native Police operations occurred frequently in the 1860s on The Peninsula with Baker being pleased with the efforts of Inspectors Aubin and Compigne "to inspire the natives with a wholesome respect for their Majesty's colors." Baker offered money to Rockhampton residents to shoot Aboriginal people on his property, and threatened to place an advertisement in the local newspaper offering "a premium for scalps" if the government did not provide him with even more assistance against "the blacks." In 1873 Inspector Alexander Douglas of Native Police led a large patrol through The Peninsula and around the adjacent islands. A local colonist later described the operation:
"the blacks were robbing huts and doing other damage on The Peninsula, when the owner asked for police protection. The authorities gathered several detachments, and by marching in open order from one end to the other of the Peninsula, actually drove them, like a RABBIT OR KANGAROO DRIVE into the sea, shooting any that broke back. The rest took to the sea to swim to an island, but a boat was handy, and the police got in and shot all they could when swimming. When the Inspector wired to his chief to inform him he had "dispersed" seventy blacks, a reply was received in writing as follows: — A native police officer is supposed to do his duty without making it public."
In 1876, Baker sold The Peninsula to James Hutton owner of the neighbouring Raspberry Creek property, and became a travelling photographer.
Torilla.
Torilla was formed by British colonist Frank Newbold in 1858. Newbold did not allow the local Cooinmurburra people to be present upon what was now viewed as his property and conflict ensued. In 1868, around forty Cooinmurburra attacked the Newbold's homestead, fatally wounding his son William Newbold. Around twenty Aboriginal people were shot dead. The Newbold family and their relatives, the Rogers family, retained the Torilla run for many decades afterwards. The town of Stanage on the Torilla property was established by the Rogers family in the early 1870s and was named after their hometown in the United Kingdom.
Shoalwater Bay Military Training Area.
The Shoalwater Bay Military Training Area encompasses 4,545 km2, which includes the Warginburra Peninsula, the Torilla Peninsula east of the Stanage Bay Road, Townshend and Leicester Islands, and a sizable chunk of the Shoalwater Bay hinterland north of the village of Byfield. Suggestions that the Shoalwater Bay region be acquired for the purpose of a training ground first appeared in 1960. The army formally took control of the land on 1 July 1965; by the following year, the last landholder had vacated his property. The training area was used by troops who were deployed to the Vietnam War.
In 2005 the federal government entered into a long-term agreement with the US over the use of Shoalwater Bay for military training purposes. Similar agreements over a shorter time span have been agreed to with the Singapore Ministry of Defence.
Military exercises with the United States have aroused considerable controversy in the Rockhampton-Yeppoon area, due to the threat of environmental damage to the Shoalwater Bay region. In recent years, concern has been raised, although unfounded about the possibility of depleted uranium weaponry been used during training exercises at Shoalwater Bay. Peace activists protesting Exercise Talisman Saber were arrested in 2009.
Support for a permanent US presence has been expressed by the former Rockhampton mayor, Brad Carter in 2011, and by current mayor, Margaret Strelow.
7 August 2017: "The Australian Navy has located a missing US military aircraft that crashed off Australia's east coast on Saturday, Defense Minister Marise Payne said in a statement Monday. Three US Marines have been missing since what the Marine Corps calls a "mishap" with an MV-22 aircraft. Twenty-three of the 26 personnel on board the aircraft were rescued, the Corps said."
Environment.
The bay contains one of the most important seagrass habitats in the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park. A plan of management for the bay's dugong population was released in 1997 to protect the dugong population and reduce impacts on the seagrass meadows.
Important Bird Area.
A 483 km2 area of the bay and its surrounds, covering all the habitat types suitable for migratory waders, or shorebirds, has been identified by BirdLife International as an Important Bird Area (IBA) because it supports over 1% of the world populations of pied oystercatchers, Far Eastern curlews and grey-tailed tattlers, and over 1% of the East Asian – Australasian Flyway populations of bar-tailed godwits, Eurasian whimbrels and Terek sandpipers. It also contains populations of beach stone-curlews and mangrove honeyeaters.


Maroc Soir (newspaper)

Maroc Soir is an evening Moroccan newspaper that is published in French-language.
History and profile.
"Maroc Soir" was launched on 10 November 2005 by the publishing group of the same name, Maroc Soir Group, headed by Othman Al Omeir. The paper is the successor of the newspaper with the same name which was started in 1902. The headquarters of the paper is in Casablanca. The paper is published five times per week. The editor is Mahdi Harizi, a famous Moroccan writer and journalist.
The paper is published in tabloid format and consists of 24 full color pages. The newspaper has a pro-government stance.