Geno Smith

Eugene Cyril "Geno" Smith III (born October 10, 1990) is an American football quarterback for the Seattle Seahawks of the National Football League (NFL). He played college football at West Virginia, leading the Mountaineers to multiple bowl games, breaking numerous passing records, and garnering multiple awards before getting drafted by the New York Jets in the second round of the 2013 NFL Draft. After two inconsistent seasons as the Jets' starting quarterback, Smith eventually lost his starting position due to injuries in his final two years with the team. He has also spent time as the backup for the New York Giants and Los Angeles Chargers, becoming the first African American quarterback to start for the former.
Early years.
Smith was born to Eugene Smith Jr. and Tracy Seller in Lakemont, Georgia, on October 10, 1990. His great-uncle, Danny Smith was a record breaking All-American hurdler at Florida State, and his cousin Melvin Bratton was a star running back at Miami in the mid-1980s. His nickname, Geno, came from his grandfather, who was nicknamed "Big Geno".
Smith was admitted to Norland Middle School's magnet program, which dedicated two hours per day to arts instruction. He went on to attend Miramar High School where he was coached by former Mountaineer Damon Cogdell. As a junior, he passed for 2,200 yards, 25 touchdowns, and three interceptions, and was named second-team all-state quarterback. He was also named second-team all-Broward County as an athlete for 2007. Following his junior year he was invited to the prestigious Elite 11 quarterback camp in Aliso Viejo, California.
During Smith's senior season, he led his team to the state 6A semi-finals and completed 205 of 338 passes for 3,089 yards and 30 touchdowns while also rushing for over 300 yards. He was a first-team all-state selection in Florida Class 6A and a Parade All-American. He was also the No. 1 rated player in Broward County according to the "Miami Herald" and "South Florida Sun Sentinel", and finished No. 2 in the voting for Mr. Florida. He finished his career as the third-best passer in Broward County history, and was named to the ESPN Top 150 prospects list. He chose to attend West Virginia over offers from Florida State, South Florida, Boston College, and Alabama.
College career.
Smith attended West Virginia University, where he played for the West Virginia Mountaineers football team from 2009 to 2012. He was an English major during his time at West Virginia.
Freshman year.
Smith saw some action his freshman year as the backup behind senior Jarrett Brown. His first snap in a regular season game came against Auburn; he completed 5 of 8 passes for 50 yards and one interception. He would see action again against Syracuse, Marshall, Louisville, and in the Gator Bowl against Florida State. In his freshman year at West Virginia University, Smith completed 32 of 49 passes for 309 yards, throwing one touchdown and one interception, and rushing for 7 yards on 17 attempts as the backup to starting quarterback Brown. He finished his freshman season with an 81.1 quarterback rating.
Sophomore year.
2010 was Smith's first year as the starting quarterback. For the year, he completed 241 of 372 passes for 2,763 yards, throwing 24 touchdowns and 7 interceptions, and rushing for 217 yards on 106 attempts.
He got his first start in the season opener against the Coastal Carolina Chanticleers. He completed 20 of 27 passes for 216 yards, two touchdowns, and one interception in the 31–0 victory.
With the Mountaineers down 21–6 against in-state rival, Marshall, Smith led his team to a 4th quarter comeback victory. Smith led the first drive from the Mountaineers' 4-yard line. With help from senior running back Noel Devine, the Mountaineers cut Marshall's lead to 8 points. After the Mountaineers' defense stopped Marshall, a punt put the Mountaineers near their own end zone again, starting from the 2-yard line. After completing 9 of 13 passes and scrambling for 20 yards, Smith found tight end Will Johnson in the corner of the endzone for a touchdown. With Marshall still leading 21–19, head coach Bill Stewart elected to go for the two-point conversion. Smith completed a pass to wide receiver Jock Sanders in the back of the end zone for a two-point conversion. The Mountaineers went on to win the game in overtime by a score of 24–21. Smith finished the game completing 32 of 45 passes for 316 yards and one touchdown. He rushed for 13 yards on 14 attempts. After two games, Smith lead the Big East in passing yards and passing efficiency.
In a 31–17 victory over Maryland, Smith completed 19 of 29 pass attempts for 268 passing yards and four touchdowns. Two of his touchdowns were to Tavon Austin, and two were to Stedman Bailey. Smith won his first Big East Offensive Player of the Week for this performance.
In West Virginia's first meeting ever with LSU, the Mountaineers lost at Tiger Stadium by a score of 20–14. Smith completed 14 of 29 pass attempts for 119 yards, two touchdowns, and one interception. He rushed for 10 yards on five attempts.
Smith threw for 220 yards and ran for 19 yards in West Virginia's 49–10 win over UNLV. It was the most points WVU had scored since playing Connecticut in 2007.
In a 16–13 overtime loss to Connecticut, Smith was 22 for 34, throwing for 160 yards. He had a season high of 64 rushing yards. This was the first game all season Smith did not throw a touchdown pass. The loss was the first time Connecticut had ever beaten West Virginia.
Smith tied his record for touchdowns in a game in a 37–10 win over Cincinnati, where he was 15 for 25, throwing for 174 yards, four touchdowns, and one interception. The win came after a two-game losing streak. It was the first time the Mountaineers beat Cincinnati since 2007. Smith won his second Big East Offensive Player of the Week for this performance.
On November 26, against Pittsburgh, he finished with 212 passing yards and three touchdowns in the 35–10 victory. In the next game against Rutgers, he had 352 passing yards and a touchdown in the 35–14 victory. He finished the 2010 season with 196 passing yards, one touchdown, and one interception in the 23–7 loss to North Carolina State in the Champs Sports Bowl.
Overall, in his sophomore season, Smith finished with 2,763 passing yards, 24 touchdowns, and seven interceptions.
Junior year.
With the arrival of new West Virginia football head coach Dana Holgorsen and a new passing-based offensive system, Smith saw his passing numbers improve drastically.
In the fourth game of the season against the #2 LSU Tigers, Smith set school records for completions (38), attempts (65), and passing yards (463) in the 47–21 loss on September 24, 2011.
With 372 passing yards against the Cincinnati Bearcats on November 12, Smith tied a Big East record with his seventh 300-yard game of the season. He tied the record that was set in 2007 by Brian Brohm of the Louisville Cardinals.
He set single-season school records for pass completions (291), attempts (448) and yards (3,741) on November 25 in a win against the rival Pittsburgh Panthers. All three records were previously held by Marc Bulger.
In West Virginia's 70–33 rout of the Clemson Tigers in the 2012 Orange Bowl Smith tied three individual bowl records: most touchdown passes (six), most touchdowns overall (seven) and total points (42). Smith's 401 passing yards broke Tom Brady's Orange Bowl record of 396 that he set in the 2000 Orange Bowl. Smith also became the Big East single-season passing leader with 4,379 yards, breaking Brian Brohm's mark that he set in 2007.
Senior year.
As a senior, Smith put together multiple great statistical performances for the Mountaineers. In the season opening victory over Marshall, he finished 32-of-36 for 323 yards and four touchdowns. In the next game, a victory over James Madison, he finished 34-of-39 for 411 yards and five touchdowns. On September 29, against Baylor, he had a career-day going 45-of-51 for 656 yards and eight touchdown passes in the 70–63 victory. In the next game, a victory over Texas, he finished with 268 passing yards and four touchdowns to help lead the Mountaineers to a 5–0 record. After the win over Texas, the season started to falter for the Mountaineers. Despite some solid individual results, Smith and the Mountaineers dropped the next five games. On November 23, Smith had 236 passing yards and two touchdowns in a victory over Iowa State to stop the losing streak. In the regular season finale against Kansas, he finished 23-of-24 for 407 yards, three touchdowns, and one interception in the 59–10 victory. In the Pinstripe Bowl against Syracuse, he finished with 201 passing yards and two touchdowns in the 38–14 loss. Overall, in the 2012 season, Smith finished the season with 4,205 passing yards, 42 touchdowns, and 6 interceptions. After the season, Smith officially announced to enter the 2013 NFL Draft.
Professional career.
Smith received an invitation to the NFL Scouting Combine where his performance was well received by scouts who highlighted his athleticism and strong arm but noted his ball placement needed improvement. Smith was widely regarded as one of the top prospects alongside EJ Manuel of Florida State. In the days leading up to the draft, several NFL teams expressed interest in Smith including the Kansas City Chiefs (No. 1 selection), the Jacksonville Jaguars (No. 2 selection), the Oakland Raiders (No. 3 selection), the Philadelphia Eagles (No. 4 selection), the Buffalo Bills (No. 8 selection), and the New York Jets (No. 9 and No. 13 selections).
New York Jets.
Draft and signing.
Smith was in attendance for the first round of the draft as many analysts and scouts expected him to be taken that night however he was not selected; EJ Manuel was the lone quarterback taken in the first round. Smith declined to be interviewed by ESPN afterwards and originally planned to return home but later decided to attend the second day of the draft. Several league executives alleged Smith did not handle the draft process in a professional manner which caused him to fall out of the first round while analysts pointed to his late-season decline as a senior at West Virginia, which exposed his flaws, as the primary reason. The following day, the Jets expressed interest in trading up in the second round to select Smith but couldn't consummate a trade. Despite this, Smith remained available and the Jets selected him with the 39th overall pick. General manager John Idzik, following the selection, stated Smith would compete with incumbent Mark Sanchez in training camp to determine the starting quarterback.
Smith fired his agency, Select Sports Group, upon the completion of the draft and sought new representation. He signed with Roc Nation Sports on May 22, 2013 with Kimberley Miale serving as his representative. Smith worked out in his home state of Florida during the offseason, prompting questions as to whether or not he had spurned Sanchez by not attending Sanchez's Jets West summer camp in California. Smith and Sanchez dismissed this notion with Sanchez saying that it was 'no big deal.' Smith signed a four-year, $5 million contract on July 22, 2013 with approximately $690,000 in workout bonuses.
2013 season.
Smith made his professional debut in the preseason on August 9, 2013 against the Detroit Lions. He completed 6-of-7 passes for 47 yards but left the game due to an ankle injury in the second quarter. X-rays showed no structural damage and Smith returned to practice on August 11. Smith started the Jets' third preseason game against the New York Giants completing 16 of 30 passes for 199 yards, a touchdown, and four turnovers. Smith was named the team's starting quarterback on September 4 after Sanchez suffered a shoulder injury against the Giants.
In his first regular season game against the Tampa Bay Buccaneers, Smith completed 24-of-38 passes for 256 yards and a touchdown. With only a few seconds left in the fourth quarter, Smith was hit out of bounds by Lavonte David, which drew a late hit penalty and the Jets went on to score the game-winning field goal. In Week 2 against the New England Patriots, Smith struggled as he completed 15 of his 35 passes for 214 yards, a touchdown and three interceptions, as the Jets lost 10–13. In Week 3 against the Buffalo Bills, Smith completed 16 of his 29 passes for 331 yards, rushing for a touchdown and passing for two touchdowns and two interceptions as the Jets won 27–20. Smith became the first rookie quarterback in franchise history to throw for 300 or more yards in a game.
Smith struggled Week 4 against the Tennessee Titans. He completed 23 of his 34 passes for 289 yards and a touchdown while committing four turnovers—two led to Titans touchdowns as the Jets lost 13–38. The Jets faced the Atlanta Falcons on "Monday Night Football" in Week 5; Smith completed 16 of his 20 passes for 199 yards and three touchdowns. He completed all four of his passes on the Jets' final drive, allowing Nick Folk to kick the game-winning 43-yard field goal. Smith was named AFC Offensive Player of the Week and the Pepsi NFL Rookie of the Week for his performance. In Week 6 against the Pittsburgh Steelers, Smith threw for 201 yards and two interceptions as the Jets lost, to the previously winless Steelers, 6–19. In Week 7, the Jets played the New England Patriots; Smith completed 17 of his 33 passes for 233 yards and scored two touchdowns as the Jets won 30–27 in overtime.
Smith struggled in the Jets' Week 8 loss against the Cincinnati Bengals as he completed 20-of-30 passes for 159 yards but threw two interceptions that were returned for touchdowns before being replaced by Matt Simms in the fourth quarter. Smith started the following week against the New Orleans Saints; he completed 8 of his 19 passes for 115 yards and a rushing touchdown in a 26–20 upset of the Saints. The Jets returned from their bye week to lose three straight contests to the Bills, Ravens and Dolphins. Smith struggled during this stretch as he failed to score any points and committed eight turnovers; he was benched in favor of Simms against Buffalo and Miami leading coach Rex Ryan to be noncommittal in starting Smith the rest of the year.
Smith showed gradual improvement as the Jets won three of their final four games. Against the Raiders, Smith completed 16 of his 25 passes for 219 yards and scored twice in the Jets' 37–27 win that kept the team in playoff contention. The following week, the Jets played the Carolina Panthers. Smith performed well until throwing a costly pick six in the fourth quarter. The Jets lost 30–20 and were eliminated from playoff contention. Smith finished the game completing 15 of his 28 passes for 167 yards, a touchdown and interception. The Jets won their next contest against the Browns with Smith completing 20-of-36 passes for 214 yards and three touchdowns. In 20–7 win over the Miami Dolphins in his season finale, Smith completed 17-of-27 passes for 190 yards and a touchdown as the loss eliminated Miami from playoff contention. Smith completed his rookie season with 3,046 yards, 12 touchdowns and 21 interceptions.
2014 season.
Smith was named the starter for the 2014 season on August 22, 2014. Smith opened the season passing for 221 yards and throwing a touchdown and an interception in a 19–14 victory over the Oakland Raiders. During Week 2 against the Green Bay Packers, Smith passed for 176 yards and rushed for a touchdown but had an interception in the 31–24 loss. During "Monday Night Football" against the Chicago Bears in Week 3, Smith's very first play resulted in an interception returned for a touchdown by Ryan Mundy. Smith finished the game with 316 passing yards, a touchdown and 2 interceptions as the Jets lost to the Bears 27–19. During Week 4 against the Detroit Lions, Smith threw for 209 yards with an interception and a lost fumble during the 24–17 loss. On October 3, 2014, Smith was fined $12,000 for yelling profanity at fans while walking to the locker room during halftime in Week 4. Despite this incident, he was allowed to start in Week 5 against the San Diego Chargers, in which he threw for only 27 yards with an interception and was benched for the second half in favor of Michael Vick as the Jets were shut out 31–0. Prior to the Week 5 game, Smith missed a team meeting, eventually admitting that he went to a movie theater in San Diego, unaware that the eastern and pacific time zones had a three-hour difference. Smith started in Week 6 against the Denver Broncos, throwing for 190 yards, two touchdowns, and an interception in a 31–17 loss. During "Thursday Night Football" against the Patriots in Week 7, Smith threw for 226 yards and the Jets combined for 218 rushing yards but an ensuing game-winning drive fell short due to a blocked field goal as the Jets lost 27–25. On October 26, Smith lasted only ten minutes to begin regulation as he went 2-of-8 with three interceptions against the Bills, and was subsequently benched in favor of Michael Vick. His passer rating for that game was 0.04. On the final regular season game at Miami, Smith lead the Jets to a 37–24 victory. Smith passed for a career-high 358 yards, three touchdowns, and no interceptions, completing 20-of-25 attempts for a perfect passer rating. This was Smith's first perfect game, the sixth in Jets history, and the only one of the 2014 season. For the 2014 season, Smith finished the season with 2,525 passing yards, 13 touchdowns, and 13 interceptions in 14 games (13 starts).
2015 season.
On August 11, 2015, Smith was involved in an altercation with defensive end IK Enemkpali in the locker room. Smith suffered a fractured jaw after Enemkpali punched him in the face. Smith was ruled out for 6–10 weeks, and Enemkpali was released by the Jets shortly thereafter. Two days later, Smith underwent surgery on his fractured jaw. Ryan Fitzpatrick led the team to a 2–0 record while Smith was injured, so new head coach Todd Bowles decided to continue starting Fitzpatrick, even with Smith being healthy.
On November 1, 2015, Smith entered the Jets' game against the Oakland Raiders in relief of Fitzpatrick, who left the game with an injured thumb. Smith threw 42 passing attempts, with 27 completions, two touchdowns, and one interception in the 34–20 loss. This was Smith's only appearance in a game in 2015.
2016 season.
With Ryan Fitzpatrick re-signing with the Jets, Smith continued to remain in the backup role.
During Week 6 against the Arizona Cardinals, Smith came in relief for Fitzpatrick for the first time in the 2016 season due to the Jets being down 28–3 and an unpleasant performance by Fitzpatrick during the first three quarters. Two days later, Smith was named starter for the following game in place of the struggling Fitzpatrick.
Making the start in Week 7 against the Baltimore Ravens, Smith had 95 passing yards until leaving the game with an apparent knee injury. Fitzpatrick would later lead the Jets to a 24–16 victory over the Ravens. The next day, it was revealed that Smith had a torn ACL, effectively ending his 2016 season. He was placed on injured reserve on October 26, 2016.
New York Giants.
On March 28, 2017, Smith signed with the New York Giants. On November 5, 2017, during Week 9 against the Los Angeles Rams, Smith came in the game in relief of Eli Manning late in the fourth quarter. Smith finished with only two incomplete passes, as the Giants lost 51–17.
On November 28, 2017, the Giants named Smith the starter for the upcoming game against the Oakland Raiders, which ended Manning's 210-game starting streak with the Giants. The start made Smith the first black quarterback to start for the Giants and the first quarterback to start for both the Giants and the Jets; it also meant every NFL team had started a black player at quarterback, with the Giants being the last team to do so. Making his first start with the Giants on December 3, 2017 against the Raiders, Smith finished with 212 passing yards and a touchdown but had two first-half fumbles within the Raiders' 30 yard line and the Giants lost, 24–17. On December 5, Manning was renamed the starter.
Los Angeles Chargers.
On April 1, 2018, Smith signed a one-year contract with the Los Angeles Chargers.
During Week 6, Smith made his first appearance with the Chargers, completing one pass for eight yards as the Chargers won 38–14 over the Cleveland Browns. Overall, Smith appeared in five games in the 2018 season in relief roles.
Seattle Seahawks.
Smith signed with the Seattle Seahawks on May 15, 2019. He competed with Paxton Lynch for the backup job behind Russell Wilson. He was released on August 31, 2019, along with Lynch, but was re-signed the next day, earning the backup job.
Smith re-signed with the Seahawks on May 20, 2020. He re-signed with the team again on April 22, 2021.
Personal life.
Smith is a Christian and frequently posts about his faith on his Twitter account.


Galina Khitrova

Galina Khitrova (1959 – June 4, 2016) was a Russian-American physicist and optical scientist known for her research on cavity quantum electrodynamics, excitons, nonlinear optics, quantum dots, and vacuum Rabi oscillations. She was a professor of optical sciences at the University of Arizona.
Education and career.
Khitrova was born in Saint Petersburg, and has degrees in physics from Yerevan State University, Brooklyn College, and New York University, where she completed her Ph.D. She came to the University of Arizona as a researcher in 1986, married Arizona professor Professor Hyatt M. Gibbs in 1986, was given tenure as an associate professor in 1997, and became full professor in 2002.
Recognition.
Khitrova was named a Fellow of The Optical Society in 2007, "for leadership in research in fundamental optical phenomena in semiconductor nanostructures". She was named a Fellow of the American Physical Society (APS) in 2012, after a nomination by the APS Division of Laser Science, "for fundamental studies of pump probe spectroscopy of atomic vapors and light-matter coupling of cavity fields with quantum wells and dots. In particular, for demonstrating the quantum regime of semiconductor cavity quantum electrodynamics via the vacuum Rabi splitting between a single quantum dot and the field in a photonic crystal nanocavity."


C6 tuning

C6 tuning is one of the most common tunings for steel guitar, both on single and multiple neck instruments. On a twin-neck, the most common set-up is C6 tuning on the near neck and E9 tuning on the far neck.
On a six-string neck, for example, on lap steel guitar, C6 tuning is most usually C-E-G-A-C-E, bass to treble and going away from the player. Some other six-string C6 tunings are:
On an eight-string neck, for example, on a console steel guitar, popular C6 tunings are:
On a ten-string neck, typical of pedal steel guitars, a popular C6 tuning is C-F-A-C-E-G-A-C-E-G, adding two bass strings to the "high" eight-string tuning, or one string on either side of the F-bass "low" tuning. This is sometimes called the "Texas tuning". Another frequent variant is the reentrant C-F-A-C-E-G-A-C-E-D.
Kayton Roberts, a noted steel guitar player, used a modified C6 on his steel guitar's inside neck: A(low)-A-C#-E-G-A-C-E. On the outside neck he had F-C-Eb-G-F-A-C(though sometimes D)-F.


Canna (unit)

Canna (pl. "canne"; proper meaning in Italian: Cane) was an ancient Italian unit of length, which differed from place to place.


Belgian units of measurement

Before it adopted the metric system in 1816, the area that now constitutes Belgium used a number of units of measurement to measure different types of quantities including length, mass, and area. Since 1820, the International Metric System has been compulsory in Belgium. Initially, different names were used for units like metre, litre, kilogram, etc.
Pre-metric Units.
Before 1820, different units were used in the area that now constitutes Belgium. Belgium became an independent country in 1830.
Length.
Different units were used to measure length in Belgium. One perche was equal to . One pied was equal to 1/20 perche.
Mass.
A number of units were used to measure mass in Belgium. One livre was equal to . Some other units are provided below:
1 loth = 1/32 livre
1 once = 1/16 livre
1 marc 1/2 livre
1 stein = 8 livre
1 quintal = 100 livre
1 chariot = 165 livre
1 balle = 200 livre
1 schiffpfund = 300 livre
1 charge = 400 livre.
Area.
Different units were used to measure area in Belgium. One arpent was equal to 400 perche2 (130.6 a)
Units with Metric System.
In the starting era of the metric system in Belgium, other names were used for metric units, including aune for metre, litron for litre, livre for kilogram, once for hectogram, lood for decigram, and wigtje for gram.


Orders of magnitude (area)

This page is a progressive and labelled list of the SI area orders of magnitude, with certain examples appended to some list objects.


Disques Hushush

Disques Hushush Inc. (also known as Disques Hushush or more simply as Hushush) is an independent record label created by Dimitri della Faille (aka recording artist Szkieve) in Montreal (Quebec), Canada in 1998. Hushush mainly releases experimental, improvisation, electroacoustic, dark ambient and electronic music.
Notable artists.
Since 1998, Hushush has released over twenty CD and vinyls from more than thirty artists from Europe, North America, South America and Asia. Notable artists include Mick Harris, Mark Spybey, KK Null, Nihilist Spasm Band, Reynols, Vromb, Lilith (Scott Gibbons), C-drík, Aube, Goem, Kapotte Muziek, Moonsanto, Orphx, Szkieve, Ambre.
Hed Nod.
Hed Nod is a sidelabel from Hushush. The main focus of Hed Nod is to release downtempo hip hop or illbient music, mainly by Mick Harris.


Chilean units of measurement

A number of different units of measurement were used in Chile to measure quantities like length, mass, area, capacity, etc. From 1848, the metric system has been compulsory in Chile.
Pre-metric units.
Spanish customary units were used before 1848.
Length.
To measure length several units were used. Legally, one vara is equal to 0.836 m. Some of the units and their legal values as follows:
Mass.
Several units were used to measure mass. One libra is equal to 0.460093 kg. Some other units are given below:
Capacity.
Mainly two systems, dry and liquid, were used to measure capacity in Chile.
Dry.
One almud was equal to 8.083 l. 12 almud were equal to one fanega.
Liquid.
One cuartillo was equal to 1.111 l. 32 cuartillo were equal to one arroba.


Ontario Secondary School Literacy Test

The Ontario Secondary School Literacy Test (OSSLT; or TPCL) is a compulsory standardized test for secondary school students in Ontario who wish to obtain the Ontario Secondary School Diploma. For students who entered Grade 9 in 1999–2000, successful completion of the test was not a graduation requirement. However, for those students who took the field test of the OSSLT in 2000–2001, failed the test, and chose to retake the OSSLT in October 2001, successful completion of the provincial literacy graduation requirement became a diploma requirement. It is administered by the Education Quality and Accountability Office (EQAO).
The OSSLT is written every year in March or April in order to assess students' reading and writing skills. The test is taken by all of the province's public secularized and separate secondary schools, and private secondary schools in Ontario. The test is either administered in either English or French, dependent on whether or not the student is enrolled in a anglophone, or francophone school system.
Layout.
The OSSLT consists of two booklets that must be completed by students in two and a half hours. The first booklet includes multiple-choice and short answer questions, as well as a question asking the student to compose a newspaper article based on the headline and picture provided. The second booklet also includes multiple-choice and short answer questions, as well as a question asking the student to write an opinion piece on a given topic (series of paragraph). The test is out of 400 marks.
Reading component.
Students are asked to read a variety of selections and answer questions about each of them. The questions asked are designed to measure students understanding of ideas and information that are directly or indirectly stated in the text. Students are also expected to make personal connections related to the reading selections.
The selections used in the OSSLT consist of common reading materials, including information materials (e.g. instructions, newspaper articles), graphic materials (e.g. graphs, diagrams, legends) and literary materials (e.g. stories).
Writing component.
Students have to produce four pieces of writing for the OSSLT. The writing component is designed to measure the student's ability to develop a main idea, provide supporting details, organize and link ideas and information, use a tone for the particular type of writing and use correct spelling and grammar.
Examples of pieces requested in the OSSLT include summaries, opinion pieces, news reports and information paragraphs.
Marks may be deducted due to a lack of detail. However, the inclusion of too much information can also result in penalties.
Preparation.
Preparation for the test ranges from "Literacy Monday" activities in Grade 10 classes every Monday from the start of the school year. Some schools offer part-time after school practice courses to entire semester long courses that occupy a whole "period" each school day (OSSLC), although this is only targeted at struggling students or students who have failed in the past.
Reports have circulated by disgruntled parents that their teen who attends the local secondary school was never informed of the OSSLT's existence and thus was never prepared for the tests. This problem is mostly limited to under performing schools mostly in inner city areas.
Procedure.
Before the OSSLT is written, teachers are expected to assist students in preparation for the test.
Upon completion of the test, booklets are shipped for marking. Those who fail must attempt the test the following year or take the Ontario Secondary School Literacy Course (OLC 4O) in grade 12 to meet the literacy requirement.
Alternatives.
Ontario Secondary School Literacy Course.
The Ontario Secondary School Literacy Course (OSSLC, Course Code: OLC3O/OLC4O) is a Grade 11 or 12 Open course that can be taken by those who had written the OSSLT more than once. It is designed to assist students in acquiring basic literacy skills required for getting an Ontario high school diploma.
In the course, students will have to read a variety of text (e.g. narrative text) and produce different types of writing (e.g. news reports). Accommodations can be made for students with an IEP (Individual Education Plan) so as to strengthen those students' language skills.
The OSSLC can serve as one of at least four first language credits necessary for graduating high school, as well as a replacement for the OSSLT.
Adjudication process.
Adjudication panels may be established at the end of the school year by school boards to provide certain students with an additional opportunity to meet the Ontario literacy requirement. Those who qualify for adjudication include students who were unable to write the OSSLT and/or enroll in or complete the OSSLC due to unforeseen circumstances, as well as students who have an IEP documenting required accommodations but, because of unforeseen circumstances, did not have access to these accommodations when taking the OSSLT.
Criticism.
The failed implementation of an online form of the OSSLT by Kathleen Wynne's Liberal government was criticized by NDP MPP Lisa Gretzky on October 25, 2016.


Ostrich guitar

The ostrich guitar or ostrich tuning is a type of trivial tuning. It assigns one note to all strings, e.g. E-E-e-e-e'-e' or D-D-D-D-d'-d'. The term "ostrich guitar" was coined by the Velvet Underground's Lou Reed after the pre-Velvet Underground song "The Ostrich"
by Lou Reed and the Primitives, on which he first recorded using this tuning, the first known commercial composition to make use of a trivial guitar tuning.
Musical theory.
The trivial tuning is a regular tuning based on the unison musical interval, which has zero semitones. It assigns exactly one pitch class (for example D, A, F or B) to all guitar-strings, tuned to the same note over two or three octaves.<ref name="33 1/3">
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This creates an intense, chorused drone music, and interesting fingering potential. Among alternative tunings for the guitar, the trivial tuning is a regular and repetitive tuning. It is its own left-handed tuning.
Example.
To create a trivial D tuning from a standard guitar tuning:
 1d ----- * downtuned to d (from e to d)
 2d ----- * uptuned to d (from B to d)
 3D ----- * downtuned to D (from G to D)
 4D ----- * left at standard
 5D ----- * uptuned to D (from A to D)
 6D ----- * downtuned to D (from E to D)
Origins.
The term "ostrich guitar" was coined by Lou Reed in 1965 after the song "The Ostrich" by Lou Reed and the Primitives, on which he first used this tuning.
John Cale, a collaborator with avant-garde composer La Monte Young, recognised the similarity between Reed's guitar tuning and Young's work involving drone music when he was hired to play Reed's song "The Ostrich" as part of a fabricated touring group.
Reed and Cale (who would play viola, keyboards and bass) began to collaborate and investigate the connections between ostrich tuning and drone music, as the band introduced new members (such as guitarist Sterling Morrison and percussionist Angus MacLise, another student of La Monte Young) and they became known as the Velvet Underground. Cale had composed and recorded "Loop" in 1964, but which became the first EP released under this band name, composed of drones played on an electric viola, and the combination of both Cale's viola and Reed's guitar tunings would be an early hallmark of their work. Reed used ostrich tunings on the 1967 album "The Velvet Underground & Nico" on the songs "Venus in Furs" (appearing at the end of the song) and "All Tomorrow's Parties", which also included Cale playing drones on viola.
According to an interview with drummer Moe Tucker in "What Goes On?", Reed's ostrich guitar was a guitar that had its frets removed, and was stolen shortly after the album sessions.


Third principal meridian

The third principal meridian begins at the mouth of the Ohio River and extends north to the northern boundary of the state of Illinois, and with the base line in latitude 38° 28′ 20″, governs the surveys in the state east of the third principal meridian, with the exception of those projected from the second principal meridian, and the surveys on the west, to the Illinois River. This meridian is nearly coincident with 89° 10′ 15″ of west longitude from Greenwich.


Myriagram

The myriagram () is a former French and metric unit of mass equal to 10,000 grams ("myriad" being the Greek word for ten thousand). Although never as widely used as the kilogram, the myriagram was employed during the 19th century as a replacement for the earlier American customary system quarter, which was equal to .
In 1975, the United States, having previously authorized use of the myriagram in 1866, declared the term no longer acceptable.


Claudia Czado

Claudia Czado is a mathematical statistician at the Technical University of Munich, known for her research on copulas, vines, and their applications in statistical finance.
Early life and education.
Czado grew up in a family with five children in Borken, Hesse, a small town in central Germany. She earned a diploma in 1984 from the University of Göttingen, specializing in probability and statistics. Inspired by a high school fascination with Native American culture, Czado enrolled in an master's-level exchange program between University of Göttingen and Cornell University. At Cornell, she worked with Murad Taqqu in their department of operations research and industrial engineering. Returning to Göttingen, she completed her master's degree in 1987, with a thesis on the law of the iterated logarithm for self-similar processes.
Czado continued to work with Taqqu, and joined the doctoral program in operations research and industrial engineering at Cornell. However, while she was there, Taqqu moved to Boston University. Frustrated with her progress on the law of the iterated logarithm, Czado took advantage of the opportunity to change topics under another advisor. Instead of moving with Taqqu, she remained at Cornell and began working on binary regression using computer simulations.
She completed her doctorate at Cornell in 1989. Her dissertation, "Link Misspecification and Data Selected Transformations in Binary Regression Models", was supervised by Thomas J. Santner.
Career.
After postdoctoral research at McGill University, Czado became a faculty member in the department of mathematics and statistics at York University, Canada, in 1989. In part, she chose Canada over returning to Germany because the German habilitation system would have required more years of effort before she could obtain a permanent position.
After receiving tenure at York in 1994, she went on sabbatical to Germany and began searching for a faculty position in statistics in Germany.
In 1998 she took her present position at the Technical University of Munich.
Books.
Czado is the author of the textbooks "Mathematische Statistik" (with Thorsten Schmidt, Springer, 2011) and "Analyzing Dependent Data with Vine Copulas: A Practical Guide With R" (Springer, 2019).


3037 Alku

3037 Alku, provisional designation , is a carbonaceous asteroid from the central region of the asteroid belt, approximately 20 kilometers in diameter. It was discovered on 17 January 1944, by Finnish astronomer Yrjö Väisälä at Turku Observatory in Southwest Finland.
Orbit and classification.
The C-type asteroid orbits the Sun in the central main-belt at a distance of 2.2–3.2 AU once every 4 years and 4 months (1,597 days). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.19 and an inclination of 19° with respect to the ecliptic. No precoveries were taken before its discovery.
Rotation period.
A rotational lightcurve for this asteroid was obtained from photometric measurements taken by American astronomer Brian Warner at the Palmer Divide Observatory, Colorado, in January 2005. The lightcurve gave a well-defined rotation period of hours with a brightness variation of 0.95 in magnitude ().
Diameter estimates.
According to the space-based surveys carried out by the Infrared Astronomical Satellite (IRAS), the Japanese Akari satellite, and the NEOWISE mission of NASA's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer, the asteroid measures between 18.9 and 29.9 kilometers in diameter and it has an albedo in the range of 0.03 to 0.11. The "Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link" agrees with the results obtained by IRAS, and derives an albedo of 0.09 with a diameter of 18.8 kilometers with an absolute magnitude of 11.8.
Naming.
This minor planet was named after the sailing boat "Alku" ("the beginning" in Finnish). Built by his father, the discoverer used to sail it in his childhood, and it became the origin of his enduring passion for sailing. The approved naming citation was published by the Minor Planet Center on 27 June 1991 ().


Unit of volume

A unit of volume is a unit of measurement for measuring volume or capacity, the extent of an object or space in three dimensions. Units of capacity may be used to specify the volume of fluids or bulk goods, for example water, rice, sugar, grain or flour.
Units.
According to the SI system, the base unit for measuring length is the metre and volumes are thus measured in cubic metres, where:
1 m3 = 1 m • 1 m • 1 m.


Conservative two-phase locking

In computer science, conservative two-phase locking (C2PL) is a locking method used in DBMS and relational databases.
Conservative 2PL "prevents" deadlocks.
The difference between 2PL and C2PL is that C2PL's transactions obtain all the locks they need before the transactions begin. This is to ensure that a transaction that already holds some locks will not block waiting for other locks.
In heavy lock contention, C2PL reduces the time locks are held on average, relative to 2PL and Strict 2PL, because transactions that hold locks are never blocked.
In light lock contention, C2PL holds more locks than is necessary, because it is hard to tell what locks will be needed in the future, thus leads to higher overhead.
Also, a transaction will not even obtain any locks if it cannot obtain all the locks it needs in its initial request. Furthermore, each transaction needs to declare its read and write set (data items to be read/written during transaction), which is not always possible. Because of these limitations, C2PL is not used very frequently.


Mario Stoppani

"Sergente" Mario Stoppani (24 May 1895 – 20 September 1959) was a World War I flying ace credited with six aerial victories. His valor earned him two Silver awards of the Medal for Military Valor and the Russian Cross of St. George during the World War I.
After the war, after a short spell as an aviation instructor, in 1927 Stoppani began a long career as a test pilot and an extensive career setting aeronautical records. He would continue as a test pilot throughout World War II and beyond. While associated with aeronautical designer Filippo Zappata, Stoppani would make 15 first flights and set 41 aeronautical records, one of which still stands. In the course of these feats, Stoppani earned both a Silver and a Gold Medal for Aeronautical Valor. Post World War II, he worked for Breda and SIAI Marchetti.
Early life.
Mario Stoppani was born in Lovere, Kingdom of Italy on 24 May 1895. He apprenticed as an auto mechanic at age 15, circa 1910. On 6 November 1913, he enlisted in the "Battaglione Aviatori" (Aviators' Battalion). In February 1915, he was selected for pilot's training at Pisa.
World War I.
In June 1915, Stoppani was posted to an operational unit, "3a Squadriglia". Based at Medeuzza, he flew a Macchi Parasol on reconnaissance patrols. He was awarded a Silver Medal for Military Valor for his exploits during August through November 1915.
In January 1916, he was seconded to instructor duty at Malpensa. He stayed there until May, when he was assigned to newly formed "76a Squadriglia", based at La Comina. Flying a Nieuport 11, he scored his first aerial victory on 9 July 1916, sharing it with Luigi Olivari. By 1 December 1916, he had tallied five more, including a shared win with Luigi Olivi. He was recommended for a second Silver Medal for Military Valor in November; that same month he was asked to become a test pilot for Ansaldo.
In January 1917, Stoppani was awarded the Russian Cross of Saint George, Third Class. In March, he moved to Genoa to begin his duties with Ansaldo by testing the Ansaldo A.1 Balilla and SVA. In June 1917, he finally received his second Silver Medal. Stoppani finished out the war as a test pilot. He scored all of his victories flying in the Nieuport 11, becoming one of the most successful pilots in the type.
Post World War I.
Stoppani made a career of aviation. He became an instructor with SAI, first at Foggia, then at Passignano sul Trasimeno in 1925. In 1927, he moved to Trieste and resumed test piloting, for SISA Airline. He then became the chief test pilot for CANT aircraft company until mid-World War II, circa 1943. During his career with CANT, he was closely associated with designer Filippo Zappata; the association led to Stoppani making fifteen first flights and setting 41 flying records. Stoppani was awarded both a Silver and Gold Medal for Aeronautical Valor for his efforts. He still holds the distance record for a seaplane in a closed circuit; in 1937, he covered 3,231 miles without landing, piloting a CRDA CANT Z.506.
After World War II, he worked for Breda and SIAI Marchetti. Mario Stoppani died on 20 September 1959.


2504 Gaviola


Antiopic

Antiopic is an independent record label in Chicago, Illinois. It was started in New York City in 2002 by David Daniell and James Elliott.
Live series.
In 2004, Antiopic initiated a series of releases of live, improvised performances, titled the Live Series. The Live Series releases are packaged as 3" CDs in cardboard sleeves.
Allegorical Power series.
From June through December 2003, Antiopic published a monthly series of MP3 releases online via the Antiopic website titled the Allegorical Power Series. According to the Antiopic website, "this series was meant to address the possibilities and roles of abstract or experimental music as social and political response; it attempted to provide a forum and space for artists to present new work as protest and as an exploration of the meaning and potential of sound art in the context of and as response to global injustice."
Volume II: July 2003.
With an essay by Jena Jolissaint
Volume III: August 2003.
Curated and with an essay by Dion Workman
Volume VII: December 2003.
With an essay by Matthew Hyland.


Aleutian Trench

The Aleutian Trench (or Aleutian Trough) is an oceanic trench along a convergent plate boundary which runs along the southern coastline of Alaska and the Aleutian islands. The trench extends for from a triple junction in the west with the Ulakhan Fault and the northern end of the Kuril–Kamchatka Trench, to a junction with the northern end of the Queen Charlotte Fault system in the east. It is classified as a "marginal trench" in the east as it runs along the margin of the continent. The subduction along the trench gives rise to the Aleutian Arc, a volcanic island arc, where it runs through the open sea west of the Alaska Peninsula. As a convergent plate boundary, the trench forms part of the boundary between two tectonic plates. Here, the Pacific Plate is being subducted under the North American Plate at a dip angle of nearly 45°. The rate of closure is per year.
Trench morphology.
The north side of the trench slopes 3°–4° and the south side 1°–4°. The deepest part of the Aleutian trench has been measured at at 51.21°N, 174.83°E., located about SSW of Buldir Island.
Center pressure: . Variations in total magnetic intensity (residual) of more than 600 γ (600 nanoteslas) were found in the center of the trench and more than 1100 γ on the southern flank.
Associated seismicity.
The subduction of the Pacific Plate below the North American Plate along the Aleutian Trench is associated with numerous earthquakes. Several of these earthquakes are notable for their size and/or associated tsunamis.


Bipedality (film)

Bipedality is a 2010 Irish Experimental film directed by Rouzbeh Rashidi that tells the visual story of a relationship between a man and a woman which discloses during the course of the film.
Production.
Rouzbeh Rashidi made this film with a low budget and total cast and crew of three people including the actor and actress. There wasn't any script or pre-writing planning for this film and all the shots were taken only one time without any rehearsal but occasionally Rashidi gave his actors notes to read in order to provoke certain feelings and then filmed the scene straight away. Rouzbeh Rashidi shot the three main segments of the film in only three days but the inserts and pillow shots were taken over a full year in various parts of Ireland. The film is heavily saturated with sound and colour, making use of meditative still photography.
Reception.
"Bipedality" premiered in London Underground Film Festival in December 2010.


Weber (unit)

In physics, the weber ( ; symbol: Wb) is the SI derived unit of magnetic flux. A "flux density" of one Wb/m2 (one weber per square metre) is one tesla.
The weber is named after the German physicist Wilhelm Eduard Weber (1804–1891).
Definition.
The weber may be defined in terms of Faraday's law, which relates a changing magnetic flux through a loop to the electric field around the loop. A change in flux of one weber per second will induce an electromotive force of one volt (produce an electric potential difference of one volt across two open-circuited terminals).
Officially:
The weber is commonly expressed in a multitude of other units:
where
Wb = weber,

Ω = ohm,

C = coulomb,

V = volt,

T = tesla,

J = joule,

N = newton

m = metre,

s = second,

A = ampere,

H = henry,

Mx = maxwell.
History.
In 1861, the British Association for the Advancement of Science (known as "The BA") established a committee under William Thomson (later Lord Kelvin) to study electrical units. In a February 1902 manuscript, with handwritten notes of Oliver Heaviside, Giovanni Giorgi proposed a set of rational units of electromagnetism including the weber, noting that "the product of the volt into the second has been called the "weber" by the B. A."
The International Electrotechnical Commission began work on terminology in 1909 and established Technical Committee 1 in 1911, its oldest established committee, "to sanction the terms and definitions used in the different electrotechnical fields and to determine the equivalence of the terms used in the different languages."
In 1930, TC1 decided that the magnetic field strength (H) is of a different nature from the magnetic flux density (B), and took up the question of naming the units for these fields and related quantities, among them the integral of magnetic flux density.
In 1935, TC 1 recommended names for several electrical units, including the weber for the practical unit of magnetic flux (and the maxwell for the CGS unit).
Also in 1935, TC1 passed responsibility for "electric and magnetic magnitudes and units" to the new TC24. This "led eventually to the universal adoption of the Giorgi system, which unified electromagnetic units with the MKS dimensional system of units, the whole now known simply as the SI system (Système International d'unités)."
In 1938, TC24 "recommended as a connecting link [from mechanical to electrical units] the permeability of free space with the value of "μ"0 = 4π H/m. This group also recognized that any one of the practical units already in use (ohm, ampere, volt, henry, farad, coulomb, and weber), could equally serve as the fourth fundamental unit. "After consultation, the ampere was adopted as the fourth unit of the Giorgi system in Paris in 1950."


Two-dimensional infrared spectroscopy

Two-dimensional infrared spectroscopy (2D IR) is a nonlinear infrared spectroscopy technique that has the ability to correlate vibrational modes in condensed-phase systems. This technique provides information beyond linear infrared spectra, by spreading the vibrational information along multiple axes, yielding a frequency correlation spectrum. A frequency correlation spectrum can offer structural information such as vibrational mode coupling, anharmonicities, along with chemical dynamics such as energy transfer rates and molecular dynamics with femtosecond time resolution. 2DIR experiments have only become possible with the development of ultrafast lasers and the ability to generate femtosecond infrared pulses.
Systems studied.
Among the many systems studied with infrared spectroscopy are water, metal carbonyls, short polypeptides, proteins, perovskite solar cells, and DNA oligomers.
Experimental approaches.
There are two main approaches to two-dimensional spectroscopy, the Fourier-transform method, in which the data is collected in the time-domain and then Fourier-transformed to obtain a frequency-frequency 2D correlation spectrum, and the frequency domain approach in which all the data is collected directly in the frequency domain.
Time domain.
The time-domain approach consists of applying two pump pulses. The first pulse creates a coherence between the vibrational modes of the molecule and the second pulse creates a population, effectively storing information in the molecules. After a determined waiting time, ranging from a zero to a few hundred picoseconds, an interaction with a third pulse again creates a coherence, which, due to an oscillating dipole, radiates an infrared signal. The radiated signal is heterodyned with a reference pulse in order to retrieve frequency and phase information; the signal is usually collected in the frequency domain using a spectrometer yielding detection frequency formula_1. A two-dimensional Fourier-transform along formula_2 then yields a (formula_2, formula_1) correlation spectrum. In all these measurements phase stability among the pulses has to be preserved. Recently, pulse shaping approaches were developed to simplify overcoming this challenge.
Frequency domain.
Similarly, in the frequency-domain approach, a narrowband pump pulse is applied and, after a certain waiting time, then a broadband pulse probes the system. A 2DIR correlation spectrum is obtained by plotting the probe frequency spectrum at each pump frequency.
Spectral interpretation.
After the waiting time in the experiment, it is possible to reach double excited states. This results in the appearance of an overtone peak. The anharmonicity of a vibration can be read from the spectra as the distance between the diagonal peak and the overtone peak. One obvious advantage of 2DIR spectra over
normal linear absorption spectra is that they reveal the coupling between different states. This for example, allows for the determination of the angle between the involved transition dipoles.
The true power of 2DIR spectroscopy is that it allows following dynamical processes such as chemical exchange, motional narrowing, vibrational population transfer, and molecular reorientation on the sub-picosecond time scale. It has for example been used successfully to study hydrogen bond forming and breaking and to determine the transition state geometry of a structural rearrangement in an iron carbonyl compound. Spectral interpretation can be successfully assisted with developed theoretical methods.
Currently, two freely available packages exists for modeling 2D IR spectra. These are the SPECTRON developed by the Mukamel group (University of California, Irvine) and the NISE program developed by the Jansen group (University of Groningen).
Solvent effect.
The consideration of the solvent effect has been shown to be crucial in order to effectively describe the vibrational coupling in solution, since the solvent modify both vibrational frequencies, transition probabilities and couplings. Computer simulations can reveal the spectral signatures arising from solvent degrees of freedom and their change upon water reorganization.


Phantom power

Phantom power, in the context of professional audio equipment, is DC electric power transmitted through microphone cables to operate microphones that contain active electronic circuitry.
It is best known as a convenient power source for condenser microphones, though many active direct boxes also use it. The technique is also used in other applications where power supply and signal communication take place over the same wires.
Phantom power supplies are often built into mixing consoles, microphone preamplifiers and similar equipment. In addition to powering the circuitry of a microphone, traditional condenser microphones also use phantom power for polarizing the microphone's transducer element.
History.
Phantom powering was first used (and still is used) in copper wire based landline telephone systems since the introduction of the rotary-dial telephone in 1919. One such application in the telephone system was to provide a DC signaling path around transformer connected amplifiers in analogue line transmission systems.
The first known commercially available phantom-powered microphone was the Schoeps model CMT 20, which came out in 1964, built to the specifications of French radio with 9–12 volt DC phantom power; the positive pole of this powering was grounded. Microphone preamplifiers of the Nagra IV-series tape recorders offered this type of powering as an option for many years and Schoeps continued to support "negative phantom" until the CMT series was discontinued in the mid-1970s, but it is obsolete now.
In 1966, Neumann GmbH presented a new type of transistorized microphone to the Norwegian Broadcasting Corporation, NRK. Norwegian Radio had requested phantom-powered operation. Since NRK already had 48-volt power available in their studios for their emergency lighting systems, this voltage was used for powering the new microphones (model KM 84), and is the origin of 48-volt phantom power. This arrangement was later standardized in DIN 45596.
Standards.
The International Electrotechnical Commission Standards Committee's "Multimedia systems - Guide to the recommended characteristics of analogue interfaces to achieve interoperability" (IEC 61938:2018) specifies parameters for microphone phantom power delivery. Three variants are defined by the document: P12, P24 and P48. In addition, two additional variants (P12L and SP48) are mentioned for specialized applications. Most microphones now use the P48 standard (maximum available power is 240 mW). Although 12 and 48-volt systems are still in use, the standard recommends 24-volt supply for new systems.
Technical information.
Phantom powering consists of a phantom circuit where direct current is applied equally through the two signal lines of a balanced audio connector (in modern equipment, both pins 2 and 3 of an XLR connector). The supply voltage is referenced to the ground pin of the connector (pin 1 of an XLR), which normally is connected to the cable shield or a ground wire in the cable or both. When phantom powering was introduced, one of its advantages was that the same type of balanced, shielded microphone cable that studios were already using for dynamic microphones could be used for condenser microphones. This is in contrast to microphones with vacuum-tube circuitry, most of which require special, multi-conductor cables.
With phantom power, the supply voltage is effectively invisible to balanced microphones that do not use it, which includes most dynamic microphones. A balanced signal consists only of the differences in voltage between two signal lines; phantom powering places the same DC voltage on both signal lines of a balanced connection. This is in marked contrast to another, slightly earlier method of powering known as "parallel powering" or "T-powering" (from the German term "Tonaderspeisung"), in which DC was overlaid directly onto the signal in differential mode. Connecting a conventional microphone to an input that had parallel powering enabled could very well damage the microphone.
The IEC 61938 Standard defines 48-volt, 24-volt, and 12-volt phantom powering. The signal conductors are positive, both fed through resistors of equal value (6.81 kΩ for 48 V, 1.2 kΩ for 24 V, and 680 Ω for 12 V), and the shield is ground. The 6.81 kΩ value is not critical, but the resistors must be matched to within 0.1% or better to maintain good common-mode rejection in the circuit. The 24-volt version of phantom powering, proposed quite a few years after the 12 and 48 V versions, was also included in the DIN standard and is in the IEC standard, but it was never widely adopted by equipment manufacturers.
Nearly all modern mixing consoles have a switch for turning phantom power on or off; in most high-end equipment this can be done individually by channel, while on smaller mixers a single master switch may control power delivery to all channels. Phantom power can be blocked in any channel with a 1:1 isolation transformer or blocking capacitors. Phantom powering can cause equipment malfunction or even damage if used with cables or adapters that connect one side of the input to ground, or if certain equipment other than microphones is connected to it.
Instrument amplifiers rarely provide phantom power. To use equipment requiring it with these amplifiers, a separate power supply must be inserted into the line. These are readily available commercially, or alternatively are one of the easier projects for the amateur electronics constructor.
Caveats.
Some microphones offer a choice of internal battery powering or (external) phantom powering. In some such microphones it is advisable to remove the internal batteries when phantom power is being used since batteries may corrode and leak chemicals. Other microphones are specifically designed to switch over to the internal batteries if an external supply fails.
Phantom powering is not always implemented correctly or adequately, even in professional-quality preamps, mixers, and recorders. In part this is because first-generation (late-1960s through mid-1970s) 48-volt phantom-powered condenser microphones had simple circuitry and required only small amounts of operating current (typically less than 1 mA per microphone), so the phantom supply circuits typically built into recorders, mixers, and preamps of that time were designed on the assumption that this current would be adequate. The original DIN 45596 phantom-power specification called for a maximum of 2 mA. This practice has carried forward to the present; many 48-volt phantom power supply circuits, especially in low-cost and portable equipment, simply cannot supply more than 1 or 2 mA total without breaking down. Some circuits also have significant additional resistance in series with the standard pair of supply resistors for each microphone input; this may not affect low-current microphones much, but it can disable microphones that need more current.
Mid-1970s and later condenser microphones designed for 48-volt phantom powering often require much more current (e.g., 2–4 mA for Neumann transformerless microphones, 4–5 mA for the Schoeps CMC ("Colette") series and Josephson microphones, 5–6 mA for most Shure KSM-series microphones, 8 mA for CAD Equiteks and 10 mA for Earthworks). The IEC standard gives 10 mA as the maximum allowed current per microphone. If its required current is not available, a microphone may still put out a signal, but it cannot deliver its intended level of performance. The specific symptoms vary somewhat, but the most common result will be reduction of the maximum sound-pressure level that the microphone can handle without overload (distortion). Some microphones will also show lower sensitivity (output level for a given sound-pressure level).
Most ground lift switches have the unwanted effect of disconnecting phantom power. There must always be a DC current path between pin 1 of the microphone and the negative side of the 48-volt supply, if power is to reach the microphone's electronics. Lifting the ground, which is normally pin 1, breaks this path and disables the phantom power supply.
There is a common belief that connecting a dynamic or ribbon microphone to a phantom-powered input will damage it. There are three possibilities for this damage to occur. If there is a fault in the cable, phantom power may damage some mics by applying a voltage across the output of the microphone. Equipment damage is also possible if a phantom-powered input connected to an unbalanced dynamic microphone or electronic musical instruments. The transient generated when a microphone is hot-plugged into an input with active phantom power can damage the microphone and possibly the preamp circuit of the input because not all pins of the microphone connector make contact at the same time, and there is an instant when current can flow to charge the capacitance of the cable from one side of the phantom-powered input and not the other. This is particularly a problem with long microphone cables. It is considered good practice to disable phantom power to devices that don't require it.
Digital phantom power.
Digital microphones complying with the AES 42 standard may be provided with phantom power at 10 volts, impressed on both audio leads and ground. This supply can furnish up to 250 mA to digital microphones. A keyed variation of the usual XLR connector, the XLD connector, may be used to prevent accidental interchange of analog and digital devices.
Other microphone powering techniques.
T-power, also known as A-B powering or T12, described in DIN 45595, is an alternative to phantom powering that is still widely used in the world of production film sound. Many mixers and recorders intended for that market have a T-power option. Many older Sennheiser and Schoeps microphones use this powering method, although newer recorders and mixers are phasing out this option. Adapter barrels, and dedicated power supplies, are made to accommodate T powered microphones. There is often no audible difference between microphones featuring this method and microphones with P48 powering. In this scheme, 12volts is applied through 180ohm resistors between the microphone's "hot" terminal (XLR pin 2) and the microphone's "cold" terminal (XLR pin 3). This results in a 12-volt potential difference with significant current capability across pins 2 and 3, which would likely cause permanent damage if applied to a dynamic or ribbon microphone.
Plug-in-power (PiP), is the low-current 3–5 V supply provided at the microphone jack of some consumer equipment, such as portable recorders and computer sound cards. It is also defined in IEC 61938. It is unlike phantom power since it is an unbalanced interface with a low voltage (around +5volts) connected to the signal conductor with return through the sleeve; the DC power is in common with the audio signal from the microphone. A capacitor is used to block the DC from subsequent audio frequency circuits. It is often used for powering electret microphones, which will not function without power. It is suitable only for powering microphones specifically designed for use with this type of power supply. Damage may result if these microphones are connected to true (48 V) phantom power through a 3.5 mm to XLR adapter that connects the XLR shield to the 3.5 mm sleeve. Plug-in-power is covered by Japanese standard CP-1203A:2007
A similar line-powering scheme is found in computer sound cards. Both plug-in-power and soundcard power are defined in the second edition of IEC 61938.
These alternative powering schemes are sometimes improperly referred to as "phantom power" and should not be confused with true 48-volt phantom powering described above.
Some condenser microphones can be powered with a 1.5-volt cell contained in a small compartment in the microphone or in an external housing.
Phantom power is sometimes used by workers in avionics to describe the DC bias voltage used to power aviation microphones, which use a lower voltage than professional audio microphones. Phantom power used in this context is 8–16volts DC in series with a 470ohm (nominal) resistor as specified in RTCA Inc. standard DO-214. These microphones evolved from the carbon microphones used in the early days of aviation and the telephone which relied on a DC bias voltage across the carbon microphone element.
Other uses.
"Phantom power" is also used in applications other than microphones:


One- and two-tailed tests

In statistical significance testing, a one-tailed test and a two-tailed test are alternative ways of computing the statistical significance of a parameter inferred from a data set, in terms of a test statistic. A two-tailed test is appropriate if the estimated value is greater or less than a certain range of values, for example, whether a test taker may score above or below a specific range of scores. This method is used for null hypothesis testing and if the estimated value exists in the critical areas, the alternative hypothesis is accepted over the null hypothesis.
A one-tailed test is appropriate if the estimated value may depart from the reference value in only one direction, left or right, but not both. An example can be whether a machine produces more than one-percent defective products. In this situation, if the estimated value exists in one of the one-sided critical areas, depending on the direction of interest (greater than or less than), the alternative hypothesis is accepted over the null hypothesis. Alternative names are one-sided and two-sided tests; the terminology "tail" is used because the extreme portions of distributions, where observations lead to rejection of the null hypothesis, are small and often "tail off" toward zero as in the normal distribution, colored in yellow, or "bell curve", pictured on the right and colored in green.
Applications.
One-tailed tests are used for asymmetric distributions that have a single tail, such as the chi-squared distribution, which are common in measuring goodness-of-fit, or for one side of a distribution that has two tails, such as the normal distribution, which is common in estimating location; this corresponds to specifying a direction. Two-tailed tests are only applicable when there are two tails, such as in the normal distribution, and correspond to considering either direction significant.
In the approach of Ronald Fisher, the null hypothesis H0 will be rejected when the "p"-value of the test statistic is sufficiently extreme (vis-a-vis the test statistic's sampling distribution) and thus judged unlikely to be the result of chance. This is usually done by comparing the resulting p-value with the specified significance level, denoted by formula_1, when computing the statistical significance of a parameter"." In a one-tailed test, "extreme" is decided beforehand as either meaning "sufficiently small" "or" meaning "sufficiently large" – values in the other direction are considered not significant. One may report that the left or right tail probability as the one-tailed p-value, which ultimately corresponds to the direction in which the test statistic deviates from H0. In a two-tailed test, "extreme" means "either sufficiently small or sufficiently large", and values in either direction are considered significant. For a given test statistic, there is a single two-tailed test, and two one-tailed tests, one each for either direction. When provided a significance level formula_1, the critical regions would exist on the two tail ends of the distribution with an area of formula_3 each for a two-tailed test. Alternatively, the critical region would solely exist on the single tail end with an area of formula_1 for a one-tailed test. For a given significance level in a two-tailed test for a test statistic, the corresponding one-tailed tests for the same test statistic will be considered either twice as significant (half the "p"-value) if the data is in the direction specified by the test, or not significant at all ("p"-value above formula_1) if the data is in the direction opposite of the critical region specified by the test.
For example, if flipping a coin, testing whether it is biased "towards" heads is a one-tailed test, and getting data of "all heads" would be seen as highly significant, while getting data of "all tails" would be not significant at all ("p" = 1). By contrast, testing whether it is biased in "either" direction is a two-tailed test, and either "all heads" or "all tails" would both be seen as highly significant data. In medical testing, while one is generally interested in whether a treatment results in outcomes that are "better" than chance, thus suggesting a one-tailed test; a "worse" outcome is also interesting for the scientific field, therefore one should use a two-tailed test that corresponds instead to testing whether the treatment results in outcomes that are "different" from chance, either better or worse. In the archetypal lady tasting tea experiment, Fisher tested whether the lady in question was "better" than chance at distinguishing two types of tea preparation, not whether her ability was "different" from chance, and thus he used a one-tailed test.
Coin flipping example.
In coin flipping, the null hypothesis is a sequence of Bernoulli trials with probability 0.5, yielding a random variable "X" which is 1 for heads and 0 for tails, and a common test statistic is the sample mean (of the number of heads) formula_6 If testing for whether the coin is biased towards heads, a one-tailed test would be used – only large numbers of heads would be significant. In that case a data set of five heads (HHHHH), with sample mean of 1, has a formula_7 chance of occurring, (5 consecutive flips with 2 outcomes - ((1/2)^5 =1/32). This would have formula_8 and would be significant (rejecting the null hypothesis) if the test was analyzed at a significance level of formula_9 (the significance level corresponding to the cutoff bound). However, if testing for whether the coin is biased towards heads or tails, a two-tailed test would be used, and a data set of five heads (sample mean 1) is as extreme as a data set of five tails (sample mean 0). As a result, the "p"-value would be formula_10 and this would not be significant (not rejecting the null hypothesis) if the test was analyzed at a significance level of formula_9.
History.
The "p"-value was introduced by Karl Pearson in the Pearson's chi-squared test, where he defined P (original notation) as the probability that the statistic would be at or above a given level. This is a one-tailed definition, and the chi-squared distribution is asymmetric, only assuming positive or zero values, and has only one tail, the upper one. It measures goodness of fit of data with a theoretical distribution, with zero corresponding to exact agreement with the theoretical distribution; the "p"-value thus measures how likely the fit would be this bad or worse.
The distinction between one-tailed and two-tailed tests was popularized by Ronald Fisher in the influential book Statistical Methods for Research Workers, where he applied it especially to the normal distribution, which is a symmetric distribution with two equal tails. The normal distribution is a common measure of location, rather than goodness-of-fit, and has two tails, corresponding to the estimate of location being above or below the theoretical location (e.g., sample mean compared with theoretical mean). In the case of a symmetric distribution such as the normal distribution, the one-tailed "p"-value is exactly half the two-tailed "p"-value:
Fisher emphasized the importance of measuring the tail – the observed value of the test statistic and all more extreme – rather than simply the probability of specific outcome itself, in his "The Design of Experiments" (1935). He explains this as because a "specific" set of data may be unlikely (in the null hypothesis), but more extreme outcomes likely, so seen in this light, the specific but not extreme unlikely data should not be considered significant.
Specific tests.
If the test statistic follows a Student's "t"-distribution in the null hypothesis – which is common where the underlying variable follows a normal distribution with unknown scaling factor, then the test is referred to as a one-tailed or two-tailed "t"-test. If the test is performed using the actual population mean and variance, rather than an estimate from a sample, it would be called a one-tailed or two-tailed "Z"-test.
The statistical tables for "t" and for "Z" provide critical values for both one- and two-tailed tests. That is, they provide the critical values that cut off an entire region at one or the other end of the sampling distribution as well as the critical values that cut off the regions (of half the size) at both ends of the sampling distribution.


6F (music)


Hurdle model

A hurdle model is a class of statistical models where a random variable is modelled using two parts, the first which is the probability of attaining value 0, and the second part models the probability of the non-zero values. The use of hurdle models are often motivated by an excess of zero's in the data, that is not sufficiently accounted for in more standard statistical models.
In a hurdle model, a random variable "x" is modelled as
where formula_3 is a truncated probability distribution function, truncated at 0.
Hurdle models were introduced by John G. Cragg in 1971, where the non-zero values of "x" were modelled using a normal model, and a probit model was used to model the zeros. The probit part of the model was said to model the presence of "hurdles" that must be overcome for the values of x to attain non-zero values, hence the designation "hurdle model". Hurdle models were later developed for count data, with Poisson, geometric, and negative binomial models for the non-zero counts .
Relationship with zero-inflated models.
Hurdle models differ from zero-inflated models in that zero-inflated models model the zeros using a two-component mixture model. With a mixture model, the probability of the variable being zero is determined by both the main distribution and the mixture weight. Specifically, a zero-inflated model for a random variable "x" is
where formula_6 is the mixture weight that determines the amount of zero-inflation. A zero-inflated model can only increase the probability of formula_7, but this is not a restriction in hurdle models.


Height gauge

A height gauge is a measuring device used for determining the height of objects, and for marking of items to be worked on.
These measuring tools are used in metalworking or metrology to either set or measure vertical distances; the pointer is sharpened to allow it to act as a scriber and assist in marking out work pieces.
Devices similar in concept, with lower resolutions, are used in health care settings (health clinics, surgeries) to find the height of people, in which context they are called stadiometers.
Height gauges may also be used to measure the height of an object by using the underside of the scriber as the datum. The datum may be permanently fixed or the height gauge may have provision to adjust the scale, this is done by sliding the scale vertically along the body of the height gauge by turning a fine feed screw at the top of the gauge; then with the scriber set to the same level as the base, the scale can be matched to it. This adjustment allows different scribers or probes to be used, as well as adjusting for any errors in a damaged or resharpened probe.
In the toolroom, the distinction between a height gauge and a surface gauge is that a height gauge has a measuring head (whether vernier, fine rack and pinion with dial, or linear encoder with digital display), whereas a surface gauge has only a scriber point. Both are typically used on a surface plate and have a heavy base with an accurately flat, smooth underside.


Dialing scales

Dialing scales are used to lay out the face of a sundial geometrically. They were proposed by Samuel Foster in 1638, and produced by George Serle and Anthony Thompson in 1658 on a ruler. There are two scales: the latitude scale and the hour scale. They can be used to draw all gnomonic dials – and reverse engineer existing dials to discover their original intended location.
History.
Dialing scales were first discussed by Samuel Foster in 1638. P. Pierre Bobynet, a Jesuit drew a scale in his book "L'horographie ingenieuse contenant des Connoissances, & Curiositez Agréables dans la composition des Cadrans", in 1647. It was however George Serles 1657 book, "Dialling Universal", printed by R & W Leybourn that brought them to popular attention. These scales remained virtually unchanged for 250 years. E. C. Middleton, who had been engraving dialling scales from about 1895, supplied dialling scales accompanied by a typewritten instruction book from Birmingham in 1913– these were the scales calculated by Serle. The North American Sundial Society has printed facsimiles of both the Serle and Middleton books.
The Middleton dial appeared without explanation in the 1994 "Encyclopedia de Diderot et Alembert" (French). Further work has done on these rulers by F.W. Cousins, and by Fred W Sawyer from 1997–2009.
Description.
The traditional scales (Foster Serle scales) are drawn on a ruler. The hour scale shows formula_1 and the latitude scale shows formula_2.
The graduation of these rulers is independent of latitude, making them suitable for drawing all dials. The Foster Serle dial is randomly set for a value of 45°, and is more precise for latitudes below 45°. It is thus a special case in an infinite set of rulers.
Usage.
A right-angle is drawn on the dial-face and the latitude scale is laid against the "x"-axis. The target latitude point is marked across on to the dial face. The hour scale is placed from this point to the noon line (conventionally, the zero point is on the noon line). Each of the hour points is copied over to the dial face, and this procedure is repeated, giving the hours both sides of noon. A straight edge is used to connect these points to the origin, thus drawing the hour lines for that location. A vertical line from the target latitude point, and a horizontal line through the noon point will bisect at the three-hour (9am–3pm) marker.
In the northern hemisphere the hours run clockwise. Symmetries about the noon line, the six-hour line and the three-hour marker can be detected – and these can be used to add additional lines.
The style will be at the same angle as the latitude. It can be simply drawn using the Line of Chords scale on the dialling ruler. A set of compasses is extended to the 60° point on the line of chords. A radius is drawn from the substyle. The compasses are set to the target latitude on the line of chords scale. This measurement is transferred along the radius. That angle represents the style height.
They can be used to draw all gnomonic dials – and reverse engineer existing dials to discover their original intended location.


Tontine Coffee House

The Tontine Coffee House was a coffeehouse in Manhattan, New York City, established in early 1793. Situated at 82 Wall Street, on the north-west corner of Water Street, it was built by a group of stockbrokers to serve as a meeting place for trade and correspondence. It was organized as a tontine, a type of investment plan, and funded by the sale of 203 shares of £200 each. The May 17, 1792, creation of the Buttonwood Agreement, which bound its signatories to trade only with each other, effectively gave rise to a new organization of tradespeople.
In its prime, the Tontine was among New York City's busiest centers for the buying and selling of stocks and other wares, for business dealings and discussion, and for political transaction. Having had a dual function as a combination club and a meeting room, the coffee house played host to auctions, banquets, and balls, among others. After hours, gambling and securities dealings were that were then deemed less than honest. The coffee house also provided a place for the registration of ship cargo and the trading of slaves. The Tontine was noted as classless; individuals from all social strata met there and collectively engaged in the many civil and economic affairs. John Lambert, an English traveller, wrote in 1807:
Political demonstrations and violence were not uncommon at the Tontine Coffee House. In the wake of the French Revolution, fistfights between those respectively sympathetic to the British and the French broke out on a daily basis. An anonymous observer wrote:
On one occasion, French Revolutionists and supporters of the Tammany Hall movement scaled the coffee house and placed a French Liberty Cap on the roof. Several New York publications mentioned the particular, those newspapers with pro-Jacobin or pro–Democratic-Republican slants applauded the perpetrators and encouraged the Tontine's proprietors to allow the Cap to remain. In addition, an onlooker named Alexander Anderson describes conflict between Whigs and Torys at the Tontine in a June 11, 1793, diary entry:
In December 1793, New York's "Columbian Gazetteer" complained that "only persons of the same party" would now associate within the Tontine.
Trading at the Tontine Coffee House continued until 1817. The growth of the Tontine's trade proceedings had effected the creation of the New York Stock and Exchange Board (NYSEB) and necessitated a larger venue. The NYSEB is recognised as the precursor to the present-day New York Stock Exchange, the largest stock exchange in the world. The Tontine itself was transformed into a tavern by a John Morse in 1826, and a hotel by Lovejoy & Belcher in 1832. It survived the Great Fire of 1835 and was demolished in the spring of 1855 to make way for a larger Tontine coffee house. The newer building was itself demolished in 1905.


Appearance event ordination

Appearance event ordination or AEO is a scientific method for biochronology through the ordering of the appearance of fossil mammal genera by multivariate analysis, using conjunctional (overlapping) and disconjunctional (nonoverlapping) range distributions in large sets of data.
Process.
AEO is based on faunal overlap and stratigraphic superposition to derive a best-fit sequence of first and last appearance events.
Step 1.
The first step is to translate patterns of overlap and superposition into pairwise first-before-last statements. The wolf species "Canis edwardii" and "Canis armbrusteri" are used as example taxa for the following patterns. Each statement means "C. edwardii", for example, must have first appeared before "C. armbusteri" last appeared. This is true whenever either (1) "C. edwardii" and "C. armbrusteri" have been found together in at least one nontime-averaged fossil collection, or (2) "C. edwardii" is found lower in at least one lithostratigraphic section than "C. armbrusteri".
Step 2.
A multivariate ordination algorithm is applied to derive a first-pass, hypothesized sequence of first and last appearances. The minimal constraint on this sequence is that if there is an observed, real-world "C. edwardii" before "C. armbrusteri" statement for any pair of taxa, the hypothesized event sequence must replicate it. Then, the program shuffles the events using a maximum likelihood criterion. The criterion basically seeks to pull apart as many hypothesized age range overlaps as possible, especially if they involve common taxa. Taxa are defined as "common" if they are known to overlap with a large fraction of the taxa with which they are implied to overlap.
Step 3.
Once the relative event sequence has been established, it is converted into numerical time with a nonlinear interpolation algorithm that compares event sequence positions and geochronological age estimates for collections that have them. The calibration only uses:
NALMA vs. AEO.
The North American land mammal ages procedure uses subjective opinions by published sources and/or authors, citing authors such as Michael O. Woodburne, Robert W. Wilson, and J. David Archibald.
Appearance event ordination uses objective, explicit, recordable, repeatable, and quantitative analyses of faunal and biostratigraphic data to arrive at a conclusion, according to John Alroy.


Sproul Observatory

Sproul Observatory was an astronomical observatory owned and operated by Swarthmore College. It was located in Swarthmore, Pennsylvania, United States, and named after William Cameron Sproul, the 27th Governor of Pennsylvania, who graduated from Swarthmore in 1891. The 24" telescope was moved from Sproul Observatory to Bentonville, Arkansas in July 2017
History.
In 1907, William Cameron Sproul communicated to the Board of Managers of Swarthmore College his desire to donate funds for the purchase of equipment for an astronomical observatory. Sproul was a successful businessman who graduated from Swarthmore in 1891 and a trustee to the college. At the time of the gift, he was serving as Pennsylvania State Senator for the 9th District and went on to become the 27th Governor of Pennsylvania.
The telescope was built in 1911 by the John A. Brashear Company in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. When the telescope was installed at the observatory in 1913, it was the largest on the East Coast of the United States and one of the largest in the world.
From 1986 to 2004, the computer science department was given office and lab space in the observatory building.
In 2009, Swarthmore College added the Peter van de Kamp Observatory to the newly built Science Center. The new observatory contained a more technologically advanced 24" reflecting telescope and replaced the Sproul Observatory for education and public outreach purposes.
In 2017, the telescope was dismantled and moved to the Eighth Street Market in Bentonville, Arkansas to be restored, upgraded and used for public outreach. The book collection of the Sproul Observatory was donated to an astronomy center in Magdalena, New Mexico.
In 2017, Swarthmore unveiled plans to renovate Sproul Observatory which will transform the observatory into the James Hormel and Michael Nguyen Intercultural Center at Sproul Hall which will bring the Intercultural Center, Interfaith Center, Religious and Spiritual Life Center and the Office of International Student Services in one building.
Planetary discovery controversies.
Under the direction of Peter van de Kamp this observatory made numerous claims of planetary systems and discoveries based on astrometry using the photographic plates made with the refractor telescope. These plates were found to have a systematic error that was misinterpreted as the effect of a planetary system on the parent star. This error was identified as early as 1973 and confirmed by the observatory in the 1980s.