Joe West (Arrowverse)

Joseph West is a fictional character portrayed by Jesse L. Martin in The CW's Arrowverse franchise. Created by Geoff Johns, Greg Berlanti and Andrew Kreisberg, the character was introduced in the pilot episode of "The Flash". He is the foster father (later father-in-law) of protagonist Barry Allen / Flash, father of Iris West, Wally West, and Jenna West. Joe works at the Central City Police Department initially as a detective, heading its metahuman task force, and later as the captain, aiding Barry in keeping Central City safe from superpowered and dangerous criminals. Martin has received positive reviews for his performance as Joe.
Fictional character biography.
In season one, Central City Police Department (CCPD) detective Joe West becomes the legal guardian to his neighbor Barry Allen after the boy's mother Nora was murdered and his father Henry convicted. Joe remains convinced Henry killed Nora, despite Barry's insistence of witnessing mysterious speedsters fighting that night and pursuit of other claims of metahuman activities to establish Henry's innocence. Several year later, Joe realizes that Barry may have been right after the S.T.A.R. Labs' particle accelerator explodes and transforms Barry and other Central City individuals into metahumans. He aids in Barry's crime-fighting efforts as the costumed speedster known as the Flash and agrees to help exonerate Henry. Joe becomes one of the few who knows Barry's secret early on, alongside Caitlin Snow and Cisco Ramon, and he tells Barry to not reveal this secret for his daughter Iris's safety. Joe is aware that Iris and his partner Eddie Thawne have been dating, and although initially a bit upset, ultimately gives them his blessing. Joe secretly investigates S.T.A.R. Labs' director Harrison Wells. He, Barry, Caitlin and Cisco ultimately discover "Wells" is actually Eobard Thawne, Nora's killer. Joe is powerless when Eddie sacrifices himself to erase Thawne (his descendant) seemingly from existence.
In season two, Joe becomes head of the CCPD's metahuman task-force, working with Cisco and Patty Spivot. He relies on Cisco's inventions to deal with superhuman criminals and becomes a mentor to the two. Joe later struggles with his disintegrated marriage when his estranged wife Francine resurfaces. He later tells Iris, who believed her mother was dead based on Joe's lies, that Francine is actually alive and a former addict. Francine reveals to Joe that she is dying of a terminal illness; Iris learns that Francine had given birth to Joe's son eight months after leaving him, and initially hides this fact from her father. Supported by Barry, Iris ultimately tells Joe about his son, Wally who eventually shows up at their home. Once they are introduced, their connection is uneasy; Joe is unsure of how to be a father to Wally, and Wally is somewhat resentful that his detective father was not there for him. But after Hunter Zolomon kidnaps Wally, father and son become close. After Wally is exposed to Harry Wells's dark matter experiment, Joe suspects he has become a metahuman. Joe gets captured during an attempt to neutralize Zolomon, however, Barry defeats Zolomon and saves the multiverse.
In season three, Joe experiences radical differences after Barry creates the alternate Flashpoint timeline. Changes to Joe's life are made even after the timeline is reset, primarily that he and Iris are not speaking because Joe never said that Francine was alive. However, they settle matters after Barry reveals the timeline changes. Joe fears for Wally's life after discovering Wally's dreams as a speedster and was badly injured in the erased timeline. After Wally becomes a speedster, however, Joe eventually accepts his son's destiny thanks to H. R. Wells. He also begins to move on from his widowhood by dating Cecile Horton. After the demise of Savitar, Barry decides to atone for creating Flashpoint by entering the Speed Force, entrusting Central City to Joe and Team Flash.
In season four, Joe learns that Cecile is pregnant with his child. Having a child young enough to be their grandchild causes him and Cecile to initially experience a midlife crisis. Joe and Cecile attend Barry and Iris' wedding ceremony, but it is suddenly interrupted by invaders from the Nazi-dominated Earth-X led by Dark Arrow and his Kryptonian wife Overgirl. Barry and his allies fight the invaders, while Wally takes Joe and Cecile to safety. After the deaths of Dark Arrow and Overgirl, John Diggle officiates Barry and Iris' wedding in an impromptu ceremony despite Joe's absence. When Barry is on trial after being framed for Clifford DeVoe's "murder", Joe considers framing DeVoe's wife Marlize to prove Barry's innocence, but is talked out of doing it by Ralph Dibny. After Barry is exonerated, Joe is among those who celebrate with him. When Cecile goes into labor during Barry's final battle with DeVoe, Joe stays by Cecile as Caitlin helps to deliver their child; following DeVoe's demise, he and Cecile later name their newborn daughter Jenna Marie West. His friends and family also meet Nora West-Allen, Barry and Iris' future daughter and therefore Joe's yet-to-be born granddaughter.
In season five, Barry tells Joe that Nora is beginning to annoy him by spending so much time with him. Joe pacifies Barry by revealing that Nora's situation is identical to Barry's when he was a child. Joe is later held hostage by the masked serial killer Cicada, but saved due to Cisco's intervention. He later tells Iris he thinks Cicada is a father because of how he held Jenna's blanket and talked about family while holding his hostage. After Nora's relationship with Iris worsens, she decides to stay with Joe for a while. Eventually, using all the information gathered by Joe and Team Flash, detective Sherloque Wells announces Cicada's true identity: Orlin Dwyer. After the defeat of Dwyer, and his niece's alternate future self Cicada II, and the erasure of Nora from the timeline, Joe commiserates with Barry and Iris over their loss. CCPD captain David Singh, having been promoted to Chief of Police, names Joe as his replacement.
In season six, Wally voices his suspicions about Iris' recent behavior to Joe; both are unaware that "Iris" is an impostor and the real one is trapped in a dimension called the Mirrorverse. Joe starts to investigate businessman Joseph Carver, who sends Ragdoll to kill him. After Joe's car is sabotaged, Singh urges him to go into witness protection; but he refuses. Following the different attacks by Ragdoll where one had Sunshine sprung from police custody and another had Cecile's life threatened, Joe accepts Singh's offer, unaware that "Singh" is actually an impostor from the Mirrorverse, and the real Singh's whereabouts unknown. Barry, having realized what happened to Iris, visits Joe and tells him about this. Following Carver's murder, Joe is released from witness protection and joins forces with Team Flash to rescue Iris from the Mirrorverse.
Development.
Executive producers Greg Berlanti and Andrew Kreisberg, and DC Comics CCO Geoff Johns, created the character of Joe West for the CW series "The Flash". In January 2014, Jesse L. Martin was cast in the role, described as "an honest, blue-collar cop who is a surrogate father to Barry", and the biological father of Iris West. Although Barry's foster father in the comics is Darryl Frye, and Iris' father during the Bronze Age of Comic Books was Ira West, and William West since the launch of the New 52, Joe West is an original creation for the TV series. However, like Iris' family in the comics since the launch of the New 52, he and Iris were written as African-American for the TV series. Regarding Joe's relationship with Barry, Martin said, "When something is bothering [Barry], he will come to [Joe]. He won't go to Harrison Wells to talk about his real life. He comes to [Joe]." Martin also reprised his role in the TV series "Supergirl" (also part of the Arrowverse franchise along with "The Flash") in that series' episode of the four-part crossover event "Crisis on Earth-X". In season five of "The Flash", Joe made less appearances due to Martin taking a medical leave of absence after suffering a back injury, and thus Joe became an unseen character before Martin's return.
Critical reception.
Reviewing the pilot episode of "The Flash", IGN's Jesse Schedeen praised the dynamic between Joe and Barry, calling it "solid". In 2015, Leah Thomas of "Bustle" ranked Joe fifth in her list of "original characters who help complete DC Comics' TV Universe". Irina Curovic of "Comic Book Resources" felt that Joe lacked a clear purpose in season 3 since, unlike the first two seasons where he was an important ally for Barry in catching criminals, "the third season mostly used Joe for the purposes of exposition". She felt that for this reason, the series no longer needed him. "Screen Rant"s Jason Berman ranked Martin eighth on his 2016 list "20 Best Actors in the Arrowverse". The following year, Katerina Daley of the same website included Joe in her list "7 Best (And 8 Worst) Arrowverse Characters", saying, "One of the most loving and committed fathers on television right now, Joe West portrayed with beautiful conviction by the esteemed Jesse L. Martin, is everything that a father should be."


High energy X-ray imaging technology

High energy X-ray imaging technology (HEXITEC) is a family of spectroscopic, single photon counting, pixel detectors developed for high energy X-ray and Ύ-ray spectroscopy applications.
The HEXITEC consortium was formed in 2006 funded by the Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council, UK. The consortium is led by the University of Manchester; other members include the Science and Technology Facilities Council, the University of Surrey, Durham University and University of London, Birkbeck. In 2010 the consortium expanded to include the Royal Surrey County Hospital and the University College London. The vision of the consortium was to "develop a UK-based capability in high energy X-ray imaging technology". It is now available commercially through Quantum Detectors.
High energy X-ray imaging technology.
X-ray spectroscopy is a powerful experimental technique that provides qualitative information about the elemental composition and internal stresses and strain within a specimen. High energy X-rays have the ability to penetrate deeply into materials allowing the examination of dense objects such as welds in steel, geological core sections bearing oil or gas or for the internal observation of chemical reactions inside heavy plant or machinery. Different experimental techniques such as X-ray fluorescence imaging and X-Ray diffraction imaging require X-ray detectors that are sensitive over a broad range of energies. Established semiconductor detector technology based on silicon and germanium have excellent energy resolution at X-ray energies under 30 keV but above this, due to a reduction in the material mass attenuation coefficient, the detection efficiency is dramatically reduced. To detect high energy X-rays, detectors produced from higher density materials are required.
High density, compound semiconductors such as cadmium telluride (CdTe), cadmium zinc telluride (CdZnTe), gallium arsenide (GaAs), mercuric iodide or thallium bromide have been the subject of extensive research for use in high energy X-ray detection. The favorable charge transport properties and high electrical resistivity of CdTe and CdZnTe have made them ideally suited to applications requiring spectroscopy at higher X-ray energies. Imaging applications, such as SPECT, require detectors with a pixelated electrode that allow objects to be imaged in 2D and 3D. Each pixel of the detector requires its own chain of readout electronics and for a highly pixelated detector this requires the use of a high sensitivity application-specific integrated circuit.
The HEXITEC ASIC.
The HEXITEC application specific integrated circuit (ASIC) was developed for the consortium by the Science and Technology Facilities Council Rutherford Appleton Laboratory. The initial prototype consisted of an array of 20 x 20 pixels on a 250μm pitch fabricated using a 0.35μm CMOS process; the second generation of the ASIC expanded the array size to 80 x 80 pixels (4 cm2). Each ASIC pixel contains a charge amplifier, a CR-RC shaping amplifier and a peak track-and-hold circuit. The ASIC records the position and total charge deposited for each X-ray event detected.
The PIXIE ASIC.
The PIXIE ASIC is a research and development ASIC developed by the Science and Technology Facilities Council Rutherford Appleton Laboratory for the consortium. The ASIC is being used to investigate charge induction and the small pixel effect in semiconductor detectors as described by the Shockley–Ramo theorem. The ASIC consists of three separate arrays of 3 x 3 pixels on a 250μm pitch and a single array of 3 x 3 pixels on a 500μm pitch. Each pixel contains a charge amplifier and output buffer allowing the induced charge pulses of each pixel to be recorded.
HEXITEC detectors.
HEXITEC ASICs are flip-chip bonded to a direct conversion semiconductor detector using a low temperature (~100 °C) curing silver epoxy and gold stud technique in a hybrid detector arrangement. The X-ray detector layer is a semiconductor, typically cadmium telluride (CdTe) or cadmium zinc telluride (CdZnTe), between 1 – 3 mm thick. The detectors consist of a planar cathode and a pixelated anode and are operated under a negative bias voltage. X-ray and Ύ-rays interacting within the detector layer form charge clouds of electron-hole pairs which drift from the cathode to the anode pixels. The charge drifting across the detectors induce charge on the ASIC pixels as described by the Shockley–Ramo theorem which form the detected signal. The detectors are capable of measuring an X-ray/Ύ-ray photo-peak FWHM of the order 1 keV in the energy range 3 - 200 keV.
Applications.
HEXITEC detectors are in use in a number of different application areas including:
materials science, medical imaging, illicit material detection,
and X-ray astronomy.


ISO/TC 289

ISO/TC 289 Brand evaluation is Technical Committee n.289 of the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) formed in 2014 to develop standards in the area of Brand evaluation.
History.
In January 2014 the Technical management Board of ISO (TMB) took the decision to create a new ISO Technical committee called ISO/TC 289.
The first plenary meeting was held on 2014 September 25–26 in Beijing, hosted by Standardization Administration of China (SAC) and China Council for Brand Development (CCBD).
The first meeting of ISO/TC 289/WG1 was held by China Council for Brand Development in Shenzhen (China), from November 11 to 12, 2015.
The first meeting of ISO/TC 289/WG2 was held by UNI (Italian Standardization Body) in Rome (Italy), from January 21 to 23, 2019.
Scope.
The current scope of ISO/TC 289 primarily focuses on standardization in the field of brand evaluation. The
main activity of ISO/TC 289 is to develop international standards supporting the international practice
of brand evaluation and brand management .
Leadership and organization.
ISO/TC 289 currently has the following organisation.
ISO/TC 289 has 12 Participating countries and 24 Observer countries.
Published standards.
published ISO standards under the direct responsibility of ISO/TC 289:
Brand evaluation
ISO standards under development with the direct responsibility of ISO/TC 289:


Broadband acoustic resonance dissolution spectroscopy

Broadband acoustic resonance dissolution spectroscopy (also known as BARDS) is a technique developed in the late 2000s, which is used in analytical chemistry. It involves the analysis of the changes in sound frequency generated when a solute dissolves in a solvent, by harnessing the hot chocolate effect first described by Frank S. Crawford.
The technique is partly based on the solubility difference of gas in pure solvents and in solutions. The dissolution of a compound in a pure solvent results in the generation of gas bubbles in the solvent, due to the lowering of gas solubility in the resulting solution, as well as the introduction of gases with the solute. The presence of these gas bubbles increases the compressibility of the solution, thereby lowering the velocity of sound in the solution. This effect can be monitored by means of the frequency change of acoustic resonances that are mechanically produced in the solvent.
Principles of the BARDS response.
Water is approximately 800 times more dense than air. However, air is approximately 15,000 times more compressible than water. The velocity of sound, "υ", in a homogeneous liquid or gas is given by the following equation:
where ρ is the mass density and K the compressibility of the gas or liquid. K is given as:
where V is the volume of the medium, and dV is the volume decrease due to the pressure increase dp of the sound wave. When water is filled with air bubbles, the fluid density is essentially the density of water, and the air will contribute significantly to the compressibility. Crawford derived the relationship between fractional bubble volume and sound velocity in water, and hence the sound frequency in water, given as.
where "υw" and "υ" are the velocities of sound in pure and bubble-filled water, respectively, "fw" and "f" are the frequencies of sound in pure and bubble-filled water, respectively, Va is defined as the fractional volume occupied by gas bubbles, and "α" is a constant. When the solvent is water and the gas is air, the value of "α" is 1.49 × 104.
The effect of changes in solution density and solution compressibility are additive and reinforce the phenomenon, causing a significant decrease in the velocity of sound and, therefore, a significant decrease in the frequency of sound passing through an aerated solution.
Applications.
BARDS has significant potential as an analytical technique. Applications researched so far include:


Swimming with Men

Swimming with Men is a 2018 British comedy film starring Rob Brydon, Jane Horrocks, Rupert Graves, Daniel Mays, Thomas Turgoose, Jim Carter, Adeel Akhtar and Charlotte Riley. It was directed by Oliver Parker.
Screenwriter Aschlin Ditta based the script on the 2010 Swedish documentary "Men Who Swim".
Plot.
When accountant Eric (Brydon) seeks to win back his wife Heather (Horrocks), he stumbles upon a solution in the form of a male synchronised swimming team: Men Who Swim. Joining his local team, Eric finds brotherhood in this crew as they train for the World Championships in Milan.
Production.
The scenes from the championship competition were filmed at the 25 x 50 metre pool in Basildon Sporting Village.
Release.
The film closed the Edinburgh International Film Festival on 1 July 2018. It went on general release in the UK on 4 July.
Reception.
On Rotten Tomatoes the film has a score of 44% based on reviews from 25 critics. The site's consensus states: "Swimming with Men touches on thought-provoking themes surrounding modern masculinity, but ultimately never manages to do much more than tread water."
Peter Bradshaw of "The Guardian" gave the film 3/5. "Empire" gave it two stars and compared it unfavorably to "The Full Monty".


Identification Projection Series

Identification Projection Series ( IPS ) refers to a projective technique used in psychotherapy.
IPS is related to other, more established, projective methods in psychotherapy such as the Rorschach Test and the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT). A more recent projective method with a higher degree of validity is the Adult Attachment Projective Picture System (AAP).
IPS is based on two sets of 40 pictures based on paintings or photographs. One set contains various stages and possibilities of male and the other the female socialization.
Purpose.
IPS is used to elicit emotional responses from a client. According to the principles of IPS, art is particularly well-suited to elicit strong responses from a client because the works of art contain the psychological energies of the artist, which can be reproduced by the client through empathy. Another purpose of IPS is to increase the client's awareness of recurring themes throughout his or her biography.
The IPS pictures can further assume a catalytic function during therapy. The pictures elicit emotional or physical responses, associations, set in motion thought processes and may trigger identification, projection or other defense mechanisms. The interpretation of the client's responses is aimed at the integration of previously unvoiced subjects and themes into therapy.
Administration.
The client is given the 40 cards and asked to sort them into two stacks: “meaningful” and “not meaningful”, according to the client's emotional and physical responses. The client is asked to review the pictures one by one. He is asked to focus on changes in mood or emotions during the viewing process. Pictures that elicit physical or emotional reactions or elicit a memory are placed onto the “meaningful” stack.
The subset of “meaningful” picture is distributed into new categories: according to the current state in the therapeutic process, these can be: “past”, “present”, and “future”; “inside” and “outside”; “dreams” or “therapy session”.
Basics for interpretation of results:
A written protocol is required to interpret the responses. The following elements are protocolled:
There has been no reliable psychometric data collection and evaluation for IPS. The qualitative analysis of the client's verbal responses can be conducted with the evaluation scheme by Lester Luborsky, Kurt Lewin or David McClelland. The analysis aims to make inferences of recurring themes in the client's biography and personality traits.


Infrared multiphoton dissociation

Infrared multiple photon dissociation (IRMPD) is a technique used in mass spectrometry to fragment molecules in the gas phase usually for structural analysis of the original (parent) molecule.
How it works.
An infrared laser is directed through a window into the vacuum of the mass spectrometer where the ions are. The mechanism of fragmentation involves the absorption by a given ion of multiple infrared photons. The parent ion becomes excited into more energetic vibrational states until a bond(s) is broken resulting in gas phase fragments of the parent ion. In the case of powerful laser pulses, the dissociation proceeds via inner-valence ionization of electrons.
IRMPD is most often used in Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometry.
Infrared photodissociation spectroscopy.
By applying intense tunable IR lasers, like IR-OPOs or IR free electron lasers, the wavelength dependence of the IRMPD yield can be studied. This infrared photodissociation spectroscopy allows for the measurement of vibrational spectra of (unstable) species that can only be prepared in the gas phase. Such species include molecular ions but also neutral species like metal clusters that can be gently ionized after interaction with the IR light for their mass spectrometric detection.
Analytical applications of IRMPD.
The combination of mass spectrometry and IRMPD with tunable lasers (IR ion spectroscopy) is increasingly recognized as a powerful tool for small-molecule identification. Examples are metabomics, where biomarkers are indentified in body fluids (urine, blood, cerebrospinal) and forensic sciences, where isomeric designer drugs were identified in seized samples.
Isotope separation.
Due to the relatively large differences in IR absorption frequencies that are due to different resonance frequencies for molecules containing different isotopes, this technique has been suggested as a way to perform Isotope separation with difficult-to-separate isotopes, in a single pass. For example, molecules of UF6 containing U-235 might be ionized completely as a result of such a laser resonance, leaving UF6 containing the heavier U-238 intact.


3262 Miune


Somali units of measurement

A number of units of measurement were used in Somalia to measure length, mass, area, capacity, etc. Metric system adopted in 1950, and has been compulsory since 1972 in Somalia.
System before metric system.
A number of units were used. These units were local and varied with materials and provinces.
Length.
Several units were used to measure length. One top was equal to 3.92 m. One cubito was equal to 1/7 top.
Mass.
A number of units were used to measure mass. One rottolo (pound) was equal to 0.448 kg. Some other units are given below:
1 okia (ounce) = rottolo
1 frasla = 36 rottolo
1 gisla = 360 rottolo.
Area.
One darat was equal to 8000 m2.
Capacity.
Two main systems, dry and liquid, were used.
Dry.
Several units were used to measure dry capacity. One chela was equal to 1.359 l. Some other units were given below:
1 tabla = 15 chela
1 gisla = 120 chela.
Liquid.
One caba was equal to 0.453 l.


4332 Milton

4332 Milton, provisional designation , is a background asteroid from the central regions of the asteroid belt, approximately in diameter. It was discovered on 5 September 1983, by American astronomer Carolyn Shoemaker at the Palomar Observatory in California. The Xe-subtype has a rotation period of 3.3 hours. It was named after Daniel Milton, American geologist with the USGS.
Orbit and classification.
"Milton" is a non-family asteroid from the main belt's background population. It orbits the Sun in the central asteroid belt at a distance of 1.8–3.4 AU once every 4 years and 2 months (1,518 days; semi-major axis of 2.58 AU). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.32 and an inclination of 19° with respect to the ecliptic.
The asteroid was first observed as at Heidelberg Observatory in September 1933. The body's observation arc begins with its official discovery observation at Palomar in September 1983.
Physical characteristics.
In the SMASS classification, "Milton" is a Xe-subtype that transitions between the X-type and E-type asteroids. It has also been characterized as a carbonaceous C-type by Pan-STARRS large-scale survey.
Rotation period.
In September 2008, a rotational lightcurve of "Milton" was obtained from photometric observations by Julian Oey at the Kingsgrove and Leura observatories. Lightcurve analysis gave a rotation period of 3.2978 hours with a brightness variation of 0.30 magnitude (). In August 2012, a refined period of 3.295 hours and an amplitude of 0.16 magnitude was measured by Afşar Kabaş at the Çanakkale University Observatory in Turkey ().
Diameter and albedo.
According to the surveys carried out by the Infrared Astronomical Satellite IRAS and the NEOWISE mission of NASA's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer, "Milton" measures between 11.500 and 11.54 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo between 0.1002 and 0.2306.
The "Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link" derives an albedo of 0.1158 and a diameter of 11.26 kilometers based on an absolute magnitude of 12.7.
Naming.
This minor planet was named after Daniel J. Milton (born 1934), American geologist with the United States Geological Survey, known for his geological studies of the Moon and Mars, as well as for research on impact craters and features in Australia. The official naming citation was published by the Minor Planet Center on 30 January 1991 ().


3687 Dzus

3687 Dzus, provisional designation , is a carbonaceous asteroid from the central region of the asteroid belt, approximately 31 kilometers in diameter. It was discovered by German astronomer August Kopff at Heidelberg-Königstuhl State Observatory on 7 October 1908.
Orbit and classification.
"Dzus" orbits the Sun in the central main-belt at a distance of 2.2–3.3 AU once every 4 years and 6 months (1,645 days). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.20 and an inclination of 16° with respect to the ecliptic. As no precoveries were taken, the asteroid's observation arc begins with its discovery observation in 1908.
Physical characteristics.
The C-type asteroid is characterized as a Ch subtype in the SMASS classification.
Diameter and albedo.
According to the surveys carried out by the Infrared Astronomical Satellite IRAS, the Japanese Akari satellite, and NASA's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission, "Dzus" measures between 28.6 and 34.5 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo between 0.038 and 0.054. The "Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link" agrees with the results obtained by IRAS; that is an albedo of 0.038 and a diameter of 28.6 kilometers, based on an absolute magnitude of 11.5.
Rotation period.
A fragmentary lightcurve of "Dzus" was obtained from photometric observations made by Robert Stephens at the Santana Observatory () in Rancho Cucamonga, California, during April to June 2002. It showed a rotation period of hours with a brightness variation of in magnitude during each rotation ().
Naming.
This minor planet was named by Brian Geoffrey Marsden, long-time director of the Minor Planet Center (MPC), in honor of Paul K. Dzus (b. 1969) in appreciation of his helpful assistance since October 1987, much of the time as a volunteer. The official naming citation was published by the MPC on 23 December 1988 ().


Nairanjana Dasgupta

Nairanjana (Jan) Dasgupta is an Indian statistician at Washington State University, where she is Boeing Distinguished Professor in Mathematics and Statistics. Her research interests include large-scale multiple testing in bioinformatics as well as applications involving nutrition and lactation, and the growth of apples.
Education and career.
Dasgupta graduated from Presidency College, Kolkata in 1990, with a bachelor's degree in statistics and minors in mathematics and economics. She went to the University of South Carolina for graduate study in statistics. She earned a master's degree in 1994 with a thesis supervised by Stephen Durham on hyperfinite probability theory, and completed her Ph.D. in 1996. Her doctoral advisor was John Spurrier, and her dissertation, on logistic regression, was "Comparison to control in logistic regression".
She joined the statistics faculty at Washington State University in 1996, and became the director of the newly established Center of Interdisciplinary Statistics Education and Research there in 2015.
Recognition.
Dasgupta was named Boeing Distinguished Professor of Math and Science Education at Washington State University in 2017. In 2018, she was named a Fellow of the American Statistical Association.


ISO Development Environment

The ISODE software (pronounced eye-soo-dee-eee), more formally the "ISO Development Environment", was an implementation of the OSI upper layer protocols, from transport layer to application layer, which was used in the Internet research community to experiment with implementation and deployment of OSI during the late 1980s and early 1990s.
The ISODE software was initially a public domain / open source implementation, led by Marshall Rose. Following version 6.0, Marshall handed the lead over to Colin Robbins and Julian Onions, who coordinated the 7.0 and 8.0 releases. Version 8.0 was the final public domain release, made on June 19, 1992. The Open Source version is still available, even if only for historic interest. The software was ported to a wide set of Unix and Linux variants.
ISODE Stack.
The ISODE stack
was an implementation of layers 3 to 6 of the OSI model. While the ISODE implementation could be configured to use one of several X.25 (CONS) or connectionless lower layer protocols, many ISODE deployments were based on RFC1006, the implementation of OSI transport protocol TP0 as a layer atop TCP, in order to use IP-based networks which were becoming increasingly common.
The stack also implemented an ASN.1 compiler.
Applications.
The ISODE Stack was the basis for a number of .
PP.
ISODE formed the basis an implementation for the X.400 email protocol, called PP. PP included a fully operational SMTP/MIME email server and an X.400/SMTP Mixer gateway.
PP also implemented a P7 Messagestore (PPMS).
PP was designed by Steve Kille and the lead engineer was Julian Onions.
Quipu.
ISODE had a full X.500 and LDAP directory called QUIPU ("incorrectly" pronounced kwip-ooo by the project). Quipu implemented a DSA and a Directory User Agent (DUA) called DISH. X.500 was considered too heavyweight to access directories, Colin Robbins implemented a proprietary protocol to solve the problem, this was then significantly re-worked by Tim Howes for DIXIE which led to the development of the Lightweight Directory Access Protocol.
QUIPU was designed by Kille and the lead engineer was Robbins, largely funded by the INCA project, and used extensively in the Paradise academic X.500 directory pilot.
FTAM.
ISODE contained and implementation of FTAM, and implemented an FTAM-FTP gateway.
VT.
ISODE contained a virtual terminal (VT) implementation and a VT-Telnet gateway.
OSISEC.
ISODE has a full implementation of a PKI Certificate Authority built on top of it by the OSISEC project.
OSISEC was developed by Mike Roe & Peter Williams and integrated into ISODE by Robbins.
OSIMIS.
ISODE has a full implementation of a CMIP/TMN built on top of it by the OSIMIS project.
Contributors.
The following people or groups were listed in the ISODE 8.0 manual as the significant contributors
Commercialisation.
Several companies used the ISODE software to build successful commercial products and services including (alphabetical order):


Shearing interferometer

The shearing interferometer is an extremely simple means to observe interference and to use this phenomenon to test the collimation of light beams, especially from laser sources which have a coherence length which is usually significantly longer than the thickness of the shear plate (see graphics) so that the basic condition for interference is fulfilled.
Function.
The testing device consists of a high-quality optical glass, like N-BK7, with extremely flat optical surfaces that are usually at a slight angle to each other. When a plane wave is incident at an angle of 45°, which gives maximum sensitivity, it is reflected two times. The two reflections are laterally separated due to the finite thickness of the plate and by the wedge. This separation is referred to as the "shear" and has given the instrument its name. The shear can also be produced by gratings, see "External Links" below.
Parallel-sided shear plates are sometimes used, but the interpretation of the interference fringes of wedged plates is relatively easy and straightforward. Wedged shear plates produce a graded path difference between the front and back surface reflections; as a consequence, a parallel beam of light produces a linear fringe pattern within the overlap.
With a plane wavefront incident, the overlap of the two reflected beams shows interference fringes with a spacing of formula_1, where formula_2 is the spacing perpendicular to shear, "formula_3" is the wavelength of the beam, "n" the refractive index, and "formula_4" the wedge angle. This equation makes the simplification that the distance from the wedged shear plate to the observation plane is small relative to the wavefront radius of curvature at the observation plane. The fringes are equally spaced and will be exactly perpendicular to the wedge orientation and parallel to a usually present wire cursor aligned along the beam axis in the shearing interferometer. The orientation of the fringes varies when the beam is not perfectly collimated. In the case of a noncollimated beam incident on a wedged shear plate, the path difference between the two reflected wavefronts is increased or decreased from the case of perfect collimation depending on the sign of the curvature. The pattern is then rotated and the beam's wavefront radius of curvature "formula_5" can be calculated: formula_6, with "formula_7" the shear distance, "formula_2" the fringe distance, "formula_3" the wavelength and "formula_10" the angular deviation of the fringe alignment from that of perfect collimation. If the spacing normal to the fringes is used instead, this equation becomes formula_11, where formula_12 is the fringe spacing normal to the fringes.


Eco-map

An eco-map (or ecomap) is a graphical representation that shows all of the systems at play in an individual's life. Eco-maps are used in individual and family counseling within the social work and nursing profession. They are often a way of portraying Systems Theory in a simplistic way that both the social worker and the client can look at during the session. These ecological maps, or ecomaps, were developed by Hartman in 1975 as a means of depicting the ecological system that encompasses a family or individual.
An ecogram is a combination of a genogram and an ecomap. The terms "ecogram" and "ecomap" are often used interchangeably, however.
Symbols.
At the center of the eco-map is the client (this can either be a family or individual). They are depicted in the center of the circle. Family connections are shown. There are also connections from all of the relevant systems that are at play in the clients life. These systems are connected to either individuals or the entire circle by line:
Other uses.
In the context of ecology, "ecogram" can also refer to a kind of Venn diagram used to depict the niches a plant may live in, depending on the environmental conditions, especially used in forestry. See e.g. .


Degree (temperature)

The term degree is used in several scales of temperature. The symbol ° is usually used, followed by the initial letter of the unit, for example “°C” for degree(s) Celsius. A degree can be defined as a set change in temperature measured against a given scale, for example, one degree Celsius is one hundredth of the temperature change between the point at which water starts to change state from solid to liquid state and the point at which it starts to change from its liquid to gaseous state.
Scales of temperature measured in degrees.
Common scales of temperature measured in degrees:
Unlike the degree Fahrenheit and degree Celsius, the kelvin is not referred to or written as a degree. The kelvin is the primary unit of temperature measurement in the physical sciences, but is often used in conjunction with the degree Celsius, which has the same magnitude.
Other scales of temperature:
Kelvin.
 (Measurement of temperature)
"Degrees Kelvin" (°K) is a former name for the SI unit of temperature on the thermodynamic (absolute) temperature scale. Since 1967 it has been known simply as the kelvin, with symbol K (without a degree symbol). Degree absolute (°A) is obsolete terminology, often referring specifically to the kelvin but sometimes the degree Rankine as well.
Temperature conversions.
All three of the major units of temperature are linearly dependent, and so the conversion between any of them is relatively straightforward. For instance, any temperature formula_1 measured in °C can be calculated from a corresponding value formula_2 in degrees Fahrenheit or formula_3 Kelvin, by
formula_4
The equations above may also be rearranged to solve for formula_2 or formula_3, to give
formula_7


Gravity Records

Gravity is an underground independent record label from San Diego. It was formed in 1991 by Matt Anderson, a member of the influential underground band Heroin. It has been central in developing and promoting the "San Diego sound" – an idiosyncratic form of post-hardcore with loose, chaotic musicianship and vocals, initiated by Heroin, Antioch Arrow, and Clikatat Ikatowi, as well as Mohinder from the Bay Area and Angel Hair from Colorado. The sound is associated with the first wave of screamo, and the label played an important role in the development of post-hardcore in the 1990s. Gravity has also branched out into other forms of experimental or independent music, releasing seminal early works by Unwound, Black Dice, The Rapture, and a full-length from Man Is The Bastard.
Discography.
This list is organized by catalog number. Also note that two releases that have the catalog number 2 and, there is no release in the Gravity Records catalog to have the catalog number 50.


The Sour Thunder

The Sour Thunder is a studio recording of Mendi + Keith Obadike's internet opera. The opera was commissioned by the Yale Cabaret and supported by the Digital Media Center at Yale. It was performed live in 2002 at two locations (Yale Cabaret and Afro-American Cultural Center at Yale) on Yale's campus and streamed to the web.


Floor slip resistance testing

Floor slip resistance testing is the science of measuring the coefficient of friction (or resistance to slip accidents) of flooring surfaces, either in a laboratory (before or after installation) or on floors in situ. Slip resistance testing (or floor friction testing) is usually desired by the building's owner or manager when there has been a report of a slip and fall accident, when there has been a report of a near accident, or (preferably) before the flooring is installed on the property. Flooring is tested using a tribometer (floor slip resistance tester) to discover if there is a high propensity for slip and fall accidents on it, either dry and/or (most often) when wet with water or lubricated with other contaminants such as kitchen grease, hydraulic oil, etc. There have been numerous floor slip resistance testing tribometers and lab devices produced around the world to measure both the static (stationary) and dynamic (in motion) coefficient of friction, but presently there are only a few that have been proven to be reliable for obtaining useful safety results and that have current official test methods. If an instrument has no official published test method, then there is a problem with the instrument, often being poor precision.
To assess a floor's slip resistance, a reliable, thoroughly researched (in interlaboratory studies) floor friction test method must be used, and then a minimum safety criterion (0.43, 0.60, 36, etc.) is needed to apply to the results. Each different slip test device will have its own safety criterion. If the floor is likely to be lubricated with water or grease in use, it needs to be anti-slip under these expected conditions. Floor slip resistance testing can be carried out dry, wet with water, or lubricated with oils and other contaminants. Dry slip resistance is not an indicator of wet slip resistance — in fact the two often vary inversely — so reliable wet slip resistance testing is often needed as well as reliable dry testing.
Test methods and safety criteria.
Pendulum slip resistance tester (outdated SEE BOT-3000E Tribometer).
 The ASTM E303-93 (United States), BS EN 13036-4:2011 (United Kingdom and many other European nations) slip resistance test standards, AS 4663:2013 - "Slip resistance of existing pedestrian surfaces", and AS 4586:2013 - "Slip resistance classification of new pedestrian surface materials" (Australia/New Zealand), define the pendulum tester that is now a national standard for pedestrian slip resistance in at least 50 nations on five continents and has been endorsed by Ceramic Tile Institute of America since 2001. It is the most widely used pedestrian slip resistance test method worldwide. It has passed the ASTM F2508 in published studies (see BOT-3000E section for more information on F2508). The pendulum uses a standardized piece of rubber (FourS rubber also known as Slider 96), which is set up to travel across the flooring sample for 123-125mm, mounted onto the pendulum foot. When the arm of the pendulum is set up to miss the flooring completely, the arm swings up to parallel from where it started, and the pointer (brought along by the arm holding the rubber slider) reads zero. Slippery flooring produces readings close to zero, and flooring which show higher resistance to slipping give results further from zero—high numbers (such as those 36 and above) indicating suitable slip resistant flooring.
The United Kingdom has since 1971 had well-established slip resistance standards based on the pendulum. This test was developed for pedestrian traction by the U.S. National Bureau of Standards in the 1940s and further refined in the UK. It was validated for pedestrian traction in 1971, together with its safety standards, in the UK over a period of 25 years by 3500 real-world public walking area tests and site accident records. The test is an ASTM standard (E 303), slightly modified for pedestrian traction. The usual safety standard for a level floor is a minimum Pendulum Test Value (PTV) of 36. The pendulum is also the instrument used in the Sustainable Slip Resistance test method, which measures the possible impact of years of use on a potential flooring's slip resistance. The pendulum is also used in the U.S. and elsewhere for determining the slipperiness of roads and airport runways.
Standards Australia HB 197:1999 as well as Standards Australia HB 198:2014 give detailed recommendations/guidelines of minimum wet Pendulum Test Slip Resistance Values for many different situations in AS4586-2013: e.g. external ramps, 54; external walkways and pedestrian crossings, 45; shopping center food courts, 35; and elevator lobbies above external entry level may be 25 or less. There are also barefoot area recommendations based on pendulum tests with a soft rubber slider (TRL rubber also known as Slider 55). The Australian recommendations are presently the world's most detailed standards for pedestrian wet slip resistance.
BOT-3000E slip tester.
 America's ANSI A326.3 test standard is essentially for use of the BOT-3000E digital tribometer, which measures dynamic friction at a lower speed than the pendulum. The BOT-3000E is a drag-sled meter, which means that it crawls along the floor under its own power at a constant speed measuring the resistance to slip of a standardized piece of rubber loaded into the bottom of the machine. The BOT-3000E performs a test without human input except for the pressing of a button, making it more difficult for the operator to manipulate the results of the test.
The ANSI A137.1 test method for assessing floor friction (indoor, level floors only) was referenced in the definition of porcelain tile 2012 International Building Code. The 2012 International Building Code, as sold by the International Code Council, does not strictly adopt ANSI A137.1 with respect to floor surface testing. In fact, the 2015 version of the International Building Code no longer includes any reference to this test. However, municipalities that adopt the code are free to create amendments, and may choose to adopt the standard. Although this test method is loosely based on research that was done using the ANSI B101.3 test method discussed above, the ANSI A137.1 test method is apparently not based on a correlation to human traction tests or any justifiable level of slip risk. It is a pass/fail test method using the BOT-3000E where any level indoor flooring expected to get wet in use must have a DCOF of 0.42 or greater when wet to be acceptable for use. The test does not apply to barefoot areas, inclined floors, or outdoor flooring. The 0.42 number is considered a minimum, and many other factors must be considered, according to the test method.
ANSI A326.3 is nearly identical to A137.1 in its test method and has basically superseded ANSI A137.1, adding more detail to the test method and adding several disclaimers such as this test method "can provide a useful comparison of surfaces, but does not predict the likelihood a person will or will not slip on a hard surface flooring material.” This means that A326.3 (and therefore A137.1) should not be used to assess real-world slip risk, but is rather a useful test method to assess changes in slip resistance due to wear, maintenance practices, and other factors.
The BOT-3000E (as well as the pendulum slip resistance tester) has passed the ASTM F2508-13 standard published in 2013 called the "Standard Practice for Validation, Calibration, and Certification of Walkway Tribometers Using Reference Surfaces". Although this test is necessary for a tribometer to pass, it is not sufficient in validating a tribometer as indicative of the human traction potential of a walking surface. Although this ASTM test method was created with good intentions, the test is often conducted and interpreted by people who have a vested interest in their tribometer having passed the test. In other words, a tribometer having passed this test should not be solely relied upon in deciding whether a certain tribometer is trustworthy or not. A reliable tribometer will also be able to submit a reasonable precision statement as required by every test standard-publishing agency, such as the ASTM, ANSI, Standards Australia, and British Standards. A tribometer with internationally accepted approval will have been found to correlate well with Variable-Angle ramp tests of human traction (see below), have an official and/or well-researched test method, and be able to provide a reasonable precision statement. To date, the pendulum slip resistance tester and the BOT-3000E fit this criteria. The English XL, Brungraber Mark II, and Mark IIIB (discussed more below) do not as they cannot provide reasonable precision statements for those devices, which are commonly used by full-time expert witnesses, mainly in the USA.
Variable-angle ramp.
The Variable-Angle Ramp is a German-developed method for obtaining pedestrian slip resistance values. Flooring samples are mounted horizontally on the ramp tester and an operator clad in safety boots or bare feet performs a standardized walk up and down the sample while wearing a harness to stop the operator from being injured. The sample is slowly inclined until the operator slips on the surface. The angle at which the subject slips is then recorded. Two operators repeat this test three times and then an average is calculated. The repeatability of this test method was extensively documented. Tests can be performed dry, wet with soapy water and bare feet, wet with oil, etc.
Over 150 safety criteria have been adopted in Germany and Australia for specific situations — swimming pool decks, commercial kitchens, restrooms, etc. based on the variable-angle ramp, but the ramp itself is not readily portable, so this instrument is only for lab testing and is therefore quite limited in its utility. In other words, you can't test your specific floor tiles using this method without ripping part of your floor up and putting it into the ramp tester. However, since it is measuring real human ambulation, it is considered by many to be the most realistic test method in existence, and the results of pendulum and drag-sled meter tests are sometimes compared with results from variable-angle ramp tests to see if the results have a strong correlation. A good correlation with ramp test results can help a slip resistance test device become more widely used and accepted.
SlipAlert slip tester.
SlipAlert is a matchbox car-like tribometer that is designed to mimic the readings of the pendulum. Manufactured in the United Kingdom, it is used for field testing, but is of limited use in a laboratory setting because it requires a long path length of flooring to conduct tests. As it is a proprietary device, it does not have an official American standard test method, but it does have an official test standard in the United Kingdom in BS 8204-6:2008.
The SlipAlert "car" has a rubber slider on its bottom, which slides across the flooring after running down a fixed ramp. If the SlipAlert stops short, then the flooring is slip resistant, but if it slides a long distance then the floor is considered slippery. There is a digital readout on the device that records the maximum distance the SlipAlert has traveled across the flooring, and a safety criterion graph which interprets the results. Tests can be done dry and wet, and extensive research by U.K. and Australian government agencies have resulted in several endorsements of this test device for in situ testing.
Tortus digital tribometer.
The Tortus digital tribometer slip resistance test method is based on a proprietary or patented device, which makes it ineligible to become an ASTM standard. It is produced in the U.K., and is in a category of slip resistance tester devices known as "drag-sled meters", which means that it travels across flooring under its own power at a constant speed with a piece of standardized rubber dragging on the flooring. The amount of friction created by this piece of rubber as it is dragged across the flooring (dry or wet) is recorded and calculated by the machine as it travels a predetermined path length. An average number of dynamic coefficient of friction (DCOF) is calculated by the machine after its run across the flooring has been completed. This is recorded as the "DCOF", or the amount of friction necessary to drag (dynamic meaning "in motion") the standardized rubber across the flooring. High numbers (e.g. above 0.50) indicate that it is difficult for the machine to drag the rubber across the flooring because it is anti-slip, and low numbers (e.g. below 0.50) means that the rubber easily slides across the flooring and is therefore slippery.
The Tortus is now the primary instrument for assessing dry slip resistance in the latest Australian slip test standard - AS4586-2013. It has also been endorsed as a secondary standard by Ceramic Tile Institute of America (CTIOA) since 2001, with the pendulum being the primary standard. The advantage of the Tortus, compared to the pendulum, is that it can perform many slip tests in a short period of time, dry and wet, using both hard and soft rubbers. It is also difficult for the operator to influence the results of the test (unlike some tribometers) since an electronic button is pushed and then the test is run without any further help from the operator. This makes it a credible forensic science device. CTIOA has endorsed a minimum dynamic coefficient of friction for level floors of 0.50 using the Tortus slip resistance test method.
Withdrawn standards and unreliable test methods.
ASTM C1028-07 - static coefficient of friction testing.
Safety criteria based solely on static coefficient of friction (SCOF), often used in the U.S. in the past for assessing safety, are too often misleading where flooring gets wet or otherwise lubricated in use. That is why the ASTM C1028 test method was officially withdrawn with no replacement in 2014. In the US, architects and designers generally look for a wet static coefficient of friction of 0.60 or higher by ASTM method C 1028 to assess potential safety for wet areas of level floors. This can give deceptive results, applying “safe” ratings to some flooring samples that are in fact very slippery when wet. The method is now acknowledged by ASTM, Ceramic Tile Institute of America, and Tile Council of North America to be inadequate for assessing slip safety.
See "external links" at the bottom of this page for more information on the inadequacies of the C1028 test. Suffering from stiction and the fact that the measurement taken is a measure of how slippery a surface is when someone is standing still on it (which is irrelevant to the measuring of the slip resistance to a person walking over the surface - where almost every accident occurs), methods such as C1028-07, the James Machine, and the ASM 725/825A have very limited use in assessing wet floor friction and should not be solely relied upon. These static test methods can be used to monitor changes in slip potential over time, but are not reliable tests for determining slip resistance of flooring. For example, static tests can be conducted before and after a fresh coat of wax is applied to a floor to make sure the SCOF has not changed dramatically with the new wax, or readings can be taken at various times during a business day to make sure that dirt and dust is not making the flooring slip situation worse throughout the day. Monitoring changes in dry SCOF can be a useful practice. However, SCOF tests should never be used to determine if a floor is slippery when wet. The U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has recommended an SCOF of 0.50 for workplace environments, but often flooring having a rating of 0.60 or greater (supposedly even more slip resistant than 0.50 flooring) is proven by reliable test devices (and multiple slip and fall accident victims) to be very, very slippery when wet using this outdated test method. This ASTM test standard has expired, and there are no plans to renew it as it has caused more confusion than anything else.
English XL (VIT), Brungraber Mark I, Brungraber Mark II (PIAST), and Brungraber Mark IIIB.
The former ASTM F1677 was the test method for the Brungraber Mark II (also known as Portable Inclinable Articulated Strut Tribometer or PIAST) device, and the former ASTM F1679 test method was written for the English XL Variable Incidence Tribometer (VIT). Shortly after being published in 2004, ASTM withdrew these standards in 2006, with no replacement. Regarding ASTM F1679, ASTM provides the following 'withdrawn rationale': "Formerly under the jurisdiction of Committee F13 on Pedestrian/Walkway Safety and Footwear, this test method was withdrawn as an active ASTM standard by action of the Committee of Standards (COS) on September 30, 2006 for failure to include an approved precision statement (violating Section A21 of the Form and Style for ASTM Standards), and for including reference to proprietary apparatus where alternatives exist (violating Section 15 of the Regulations Governing ASTM Technical Committees)." ASTM offers the following, similar 'withdrawn rationale' for F1677: "Formerly under the jurisdiction of Committee F13 on Pedestrian/Walkway Safety and Footwear, this test method was withdrawn as an active ASTM standard by action of the Committee of Standards (COS) on September 30, 2006 for failure to include an approved precision statement (violating Section A21 of the Form and Style for ASTM Standards), and for including reference to proprietary apparatus where alternatives exist (violating Section 15 of the Regulations Governing ASTM Technical Committees)." Using these two instruments, different test labs got very different answers on identical tiles in interlaboratory studies, meaning these test methods (or devices) were unreliable and unable to provide "reasonable precision statements". The Mark IIIB is similar to the Mark II and suffers from the same poor precision issues as its predecessor.
Users of the English XL and the Brungraber Mark IIIB have, in recent years, begun citing that their instruments are now able to pass ASTM F2508, claiming this makes their instrument "valid" for investigating slips and falls. But as noted earlier, an instrument must be able to pass ASTM F2508, but must also be able to provide a "reasonable precision statement" required from all standards publishing agencies. Instruments that are able to accomplish both of these requirements will have international acceptance and will have published standards in one or more countries. The pendulum and the BOT-3000E are two instruments that have active standards and have achieved international acceptance as valid slip testing devices.
ASTM F462 was withdrawn by the ASTM in 2016, and was for use with the Brungraber Mark I for testing bathtubs. It was withdrawn.


Evans balance

An Evans balance, also known as a Johnson-Matthey balance (after the most prolific producer of the Evans balance) is a device for measuring magnetic susceptibility. Magnetic susceptibility is related to the force experienced by a substance in a magnetic field. Various practical devices are available for the measurement of susceptibility, which differ in the shape of the magnetic field and the way the force is measured.
In the Gouy balance there is a homogeneous field in the central region between two (flat) poles of a permanent magnet, or an electromagnet. The sample, in the form of a powder in a cylindrical tube, is suspended in such a way the one end lies in the centre of the field and the other is effectively outside the magnetic field. The force is measured by an analytical balance
The Evans balance employs a similar sample configuration, but measures the force on the magnet.
Mechanism.
Two pairs of magnets are placed back to back on a suspension strip making a balanced system with a magnetic field at each end. When a sample, which is fixed in a glass tube holder, is introduced into the field of one magnet, that magnet experiences a force which deflects the beam. The deflection is detected by an optical transducer. A magnetic field is generated at the second magnet which, by negative feedback, restores the beam to its original position. The magnetic field required to do that is generated by passing a current through a coil of wire. One end of that wire is between the poles of the second magnet. The current required to do this is proportional to the force exerted on the first magnet. There is a second coil of wire that creates an electrical zero and a copper sheet that can critically dampen the system.
The original Evans balance was described by Dennis F. Evans in 1973 based on a torsional balance developed in 1937 by Alexander Rankine. Evans used Ticonal bars with cadmium plated mild steel yokes as the magnets, a Johnson-Matthey gold alloy (hence the other name of the balance) for the suspension strip, all glued together with epoxy resin onto a phosphor brown spacer. The tubes were made from NMR tubes and the current came from CdS photocells. This original was modified with help from the Johnson-Matthey company Two pairs of magnets were glued between the arms of an H-frame. The sample was placed into the gap between one pair of magnets and a small coil in the gap between the second pair of magnets. This entire construction pivoted horizontally around a torsion strip. When a sample tube was placed between the first pair of magnets, the torsional force was restored by the current passed through the coil between the second pair of magnets, giving a reading on a display instead of a Helipot (as was used in the original).
Advantages vs alternative magnetic balances.
The main advantage of this system is that it is cheap to construct as it does not require a precision weighting device. It is also more convenient to use than the Guoy and Faraday balances. These systems were very sensitive and accurate but were very time-consuming. One reason that they were time-consuming is because the sample had to be suspended in between the two poles of a very powerful magnet. The tube had to be suspended in the same place every time in order for the apparatus constant to be accurate. In the case of the Guoy balance, static charge on the glass tube often caused the tube to stick to magnets. With the Evans balance, a reading could be taken in a matter of seconds with only small sacrifices in sensitivity and accuracy. A Johnson-Matthey balance has a range from 0.001 x 10−7 to 1.99 x 10−7 c.g.s. volume susceptibility units. Even the original Evans balance had an accuracy within 1% of literature values for diamagnetic solutions and within 2% of literature values of paramagnetic solids.
The system allows for measurements of solids, liquids, and gases forms of a wide range of paramagnetic and diamagnetic materials. For each measurement, only around 250 mg of sample is required (50 mg can be used for a thin-bore sample tube).
Calibration.
The Evans balance measures susceptibility indirectly by referring to a calibration standard of known susceptibility. The most convenient compound for this purpose is mercury cobalt thiocyanate, HgCo(NCS)4, which has a susceptibility of 16.44×10−6 (±0.5%) CGS at 20 °C. Another common calibration standard is [Ni(en)]SO which has a susceptibility of 1.104 x 10−5 erg G−2 cm−3. Three readings of the meter are needed, of an empty tube, "R"0 of the tube filled with calibrant and of the tube filled with the sample, "R"s. Some balances have an auto-tare feature that eliminates the need for the "R"0 measurement. Accuracy depends somewhat on homogenous packing of the sample. The first two provide a calibration constant, "C". The mass susceptibility in grams is calculated as
where "L" is the length of the sample, "C" is the calibration constant (usually 1 if it has been calibrated), and "m" is its mass in grams. The reading for the empty tube is needed because the tube glass is diamagnetic. There is a "V" term multiplied by an "A" term in the most general form of the equation. These two terms ("V"∗"A") are collectively added to the numerator in the above equation. The "V" term is the volume susceptibility of air (0.029 x 10−6 erg G−2 cm−3) and "A" is the cross-sectional area of the sample. These two terms can be ignored for solid samples, yielding the original equation written above.
To calculate the volume magnetic susceptibility (χ) instead of the weigh susceptibility (χg), such as a when liquid samples, the equation would have the extra "V" term added to the numerator and instead of being divided by "m", the equation would be divided by "d" for the density of the solution.


NER Dynamometer Car

The North Eastern Railway Dynamometer Car is a preserved railway dynamometer car. Built in 1906 by the North Eastern Railway (NER) at Darlington Works, its role was to scientifically measure the performance of trains in order to effect improvements.
In 1923 it was included in the acquisition of the NER by the LNER, and used extensively by Chief Engineer Nigel Gresley. In 1938 it was used to record world record high speed runs on the East Coast Main Line behind 4468 "Mallard". It was used in the 1948 Locomotive Exchange Trials by British Railways.
Part of the National Collection, it is preserved at the National Railway Museum in York.


Kathy Ensor

Katherine Bennett Ensor is an American statistician interested in spatiotemporal data, environmental statistics, financial modeling, and risk management. She is the Noah G. Harding Professor of Statistics and Director of the Center for Computational Finance and Economic Systems at Rice University. She also oversees the development of the Kinder Institute Urban Data Platform, a resource for the greater Houston area. She served as chair of the Department of Statistics from 1999 through 2013. In 2020, she was named the 117th President American Statistical Association (ASA) and served as ASA Vice President from 2018 to 2019.
Ensor earned bachelor's and master's degrees in mathematics from Arkansas State University in 1981 and 1982. She completed her Ph.D. in statistics in 1986 from Texas A&M University; her dissertation, supervised by H. Joseph Newton, was "Some Results in Autoregressive Modeling". She has been on the Rice faculty since 1987.
Ensor's results have included the discovery of a correlation between ozone and heart attacks, and of geographic patterns in severe asthma attacks in schoolchildren.
She became a Fellow of the American Statistical Association in 2000, and of the American Association for the Advancement of Science in 2013.


Infrared spectroscopy

Infrared spectroscopy (IR spectroscopy or vibrational spectroscopy) is the measurement of the interaction of infrared radiation with matter by absorption, emission, or reflection. It is used to study and identify chemical substances or functional groups in solid, liquid, or gaseous forms. The method or technique of infrared spectroscopy is conducted with an instrument called an infrared spectrometer (or spectrophotometer) which produces an infrared spectrum. An IR spectrum can be visualized in a graph of infrared light absorbance (or transmittance) on the vertical axis vs. frequency or wavelength on the horizontal axis. Typical units of frequency used in IR spectra are reciprocal centimeters (sometimes called wave numbers), with the symbol cm−1. Units of IR wavelength are commonly given in micrometers (formerly called "microns"), symbol μm, which are related to wave numbers in a reciprocal way. A common laboratory instrument that uses this technique is a Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectrometer. Two-dimensional IR is also possible as discussed below.
The infrared portion of the electromagnetic spectrum is usually divided into three regions; the near-, mid- and far- infrared, named for their relation to the visible spectrum. The higher-energy near-IR, approximately 14,000–4,000 cm−1 (0.7–2.5 μm wavelength) can excite overtone or combination modes of molecular vibrations. The mid-infrared, approximately 4,000–400 cm−1 (2.5–25 μm) is generally used to study the fundamental vibrations and associated rotational–vibrational structure. The far-infrared, approximately 400–10 cm−1 (25–1,000 μm) has low energy and may be used for rotational spectroscopy and low frequency vibrations. The region from 2–130 cm−1, bordering the microwave region, is considered the terahertz region and may probe intermolecular vibrations. The names and classifications of these subregions are conventions, and are only loosely based on the relative molecular or electromagnetic properties.
Theory.
Infrared spectroscopy exploits the fact that molecules absorb frequencies that are characteristic of their structure. These absorptions occur at resonant frequencies, i.e. the frequency of the absorbed radiation matches the vibrational frequency. The energies are affected by the shape of the molecular potential energy surfaces, the masses of the atoms, and the associated vibronic coupling.
 In particular, in the Born–Oppenheimer and harmonic approximations, i.e. when the molecular Hamiltonian corresponding to the electronic ground state can be approximated by a harmonic oscillator in the neighborhood of the equilibrium molecular geometry, the resonant frequencies are associated with the normal modes of vibration corresponding to the molecular electronic ground state potential energy surface. The resonant frequencies are also related to the strength of the bond and the mass of the atoms at either end of it. Thus, the frequency of the vibrations are associated with a particular normal mode of motion and a particular bond type.
Number of vibrational modes.
In order for a vibrational mode in a sample to be "IR active", it must be associated with changes in the dipole moment. A permanent dipole is not necessary, as the rule requires only a change in dipole moment.
A molecule can vibrate in many ways, and each way is called a "vibrational mode." For molecules with N number of atoms, linear molecules have 3"N" – 5 degrees of vibrational modes, whereas nonlinear molecules have 3"N" – 6 degrees of vibrational modes (also called vibrational degrees of freedom). As an example H2O, a non-linear molecule, will have 3 × 3 – 6 = 3 degrees of vibrational freedom, or modes.
Simple diatomic molecules have only one bond and only one vibrational band. If the molecule is symmetrical, e.g. N2, the band is not observed in the IR spectrum, but only in the Raman spectrum. Asymmetrical diatomic molecules, e.g. CO, absorb in the IR spectrum. More complex molecules have many bonds, and their vibrational spectra are correspondingly more complex, i.e. big molecules have many peaks in their IR spectra.
The atoms in a CH2X2 group, commonly found in organic compounds and where X can represent any other atom, can vibrate in nine different ways. Six of these vibrations involve only the CH2 portion: two stretching modes (ν): symmetric (νs) and antisymmetric (νas); and four bending modes: scissoring (δ), rocking (ρ), wagging (ω) and twisting (τ), as shown below. Structures that do not have the two additional X groups attached have fewer modes because some modes are defined by specific relationships to those other attached groups. For example, in water, the rocking, wagging, and twisting modes do not exist because these types of motions of the H atoms represent simple rotation of the whole molecule rather than vibrations within it. In case of more complex molecules, out-of-plane (γ) vibrational modes can be also present.
These figures do not represent the "recoil" of the C atoms, which, though necessarily present to balance the overall movements of the molecule, are much smaller than the movements of the lighter H atoms.
The simplest and most important or "fundamental" IR bands arise from the excitations of normal modes, the simplest distortions of the molecule, from the ground state with vibrational quantum number "v" = 0 to the first excited state with vibrational quantum number "v" = 1. In some cases, overtone bands are observed. An overtone band arises from the absorption of a photon leading to a direct transition from the ground state to the second excited vibrational state ("v" = 2). Such a band appears at approximately twice the energy of the fundamental band for the same normal mode. Some excitations, so-called "combination modes", involve simultaneous excitation of more than one normal mode. The phenomenon of Fermi resonance can arise when two modes are similar in energy; Fermi resonance results in an unexpected shift in energy and intensity of the bands etc.
Quantitative IR spectroscopy.
To a first approximation, the measured quantities reflectance and transmittance can be converted to absorbance by taking formula_1, where formula_2 for transmittance and formula_3 for attenuated total reflection spectroscopy or reflection-absorption spectroscopy. Absorbance is to a first approximation linearly related to the concentration according to the Beer-Lambert approximation:
Where
Allowing light to have wave properties, it can be shown based on wave optics and dispersion theory that the Beer-Lambert approximation works well if a material only has weak absorptions over the whole spectral range and/or a density that is below that of a condensed phase. If this is not the case, bands can shift and alter their shape as well as their peak intensity. In such cases the use of the wave optics based approach is advisable.
Practical IR spectroscopy.
The infrared spectrum of a sample is recorded by passing a beam of infrared light through the sample. When the frequency of the IR is the same as the vibrational frequency of a bond or collection of bonds, absorption occurs. Examination of the transmitted light reveals how much energy was absorbed at each frequency (or wavelength). This measurement can be achieved by scanning the wavelength range using a monochromator. Alternatively, the entire wavelength range is measured using a Fourier transform instrument and then a transmittance or absorbance spectrum is generated using a dedicated procedure.
This technique is commonly used for analyzing samples with covalent bonds. Simple spectra are obtained from samples with few IR active bonds and high levels of purity. More complex molecular structures lead to more absorption bands and more complex spectra.
Sample preparation.
Gas samples.
Gaseous samples require a sample cell with a long pathlength to compensate for the diluteness. The pathlength of the sample cell depends on the concentration of the compound of interest. A simple glass tube with length of 5 to 10 cm equipped with infrared-transparent windows at the both ends of the tube can be used for concentrations down to several hundred ppm. Sample gas concentrations well below ppm can be measured with a White's cell in which the infrared light is guided with mirrors to travel through the gas. White's cells are available with optical pathlength starting from 0.5 m up to hundred meters.
Liquid samples.
Liquid samples can be sandwiched between two plates of a salt (commonly sodium chloride, or common salt, although a number of other salts such as potassium bromide or calcium fluoride are also used).
The plates are transparent to the infrared light and do not introduce any lines onto the spectra.
Solid samples.
Solid samples can be prepared in a variety of ways. One common method is to crush the sample with an oily mulling agent (usually mineral oil Nujol). A thin film of the mull is applied onto salt plates and measured. The second method is to grind a quantity of the sample with a specially purified salt (usually potassium bromide) finely (to remove scattering effects from large crystals). This powder mixture is then pressed in a mechanical press to form a translucent pellet through which the beam of the spectrometer can pass. A third technique is the "cast film" technique, which is used mainly for polymeric materials. The sample is first dissolved in a suitable, non-hygroscopic solvent. A drop of this solution is deposited on surface of KBr or NaCl cell. The solution is then evaporated to dryness and the film formed on the cell is analysed directly. Care is important to ensure that the film is not too thick otherwise light cannot pass through. This technique is suitable for qualitative analysis. The final method is to use microtomy to cut a thin (20–100 μm) film from a solid sample. This is one of the most important ways of analysing failed plastic products for example because the integrity of the solid is preserved.
In photoacoustic spectroscopy the need for sample treatment is minimal. The sample, liquid or solid, is placed into the sample cup which is inserted into the photoacoustic cell which is then sealed for the measurement. The sample may be one solid piece, powder or basically in any form for the measurement. For example, a piece of rock can be inserted into the sample cup and the spectrum measured from it.
Comparing to a reference.
It is typical to record spectrum of both the sample and a "reference". This step controls for a number of variables, e.g. infrared detector, which may affect the spectrum. The reference measurement makes it possible to eliminate the instrument influence.
The appropriate "reference" depends on the measurement and its goal. The simplest reference measurement is to simply remove the sample (replacing it by air). However, sometimes a different reference is more useful. For example, if the sample is a dilute solute dissolved in water in a beaker, then a good reference measurement might be to measure pure water in the same beaker. Then the reference measurement would cancel out not only all the instrumental properties (like what light source is used), but also the light-absorbing and light-reflecting properties of the water and beaker, and the final result would just show the properties of the solute (at least approximately).
A common way to compare to a reference is sequentially: first measure the reference, then replace the reference by the sample and measure the sample. This technique is not perfectly reliable; if the infrared lamp is a bit brighter during the reference measurement, then a bit dimmer during the sample measurement, the measurement will be distorted. More elaborate methods, such as a "two-beam" setup (see figure), can correct for these types of effects to give very accurate results. The Standard addition method can be used to statistically cancel these errors.
Nevertheless, among different absorption based techniques which are used for gaseous species detection, Cavity ring-down spectroscopy (CRDS) can be used as a calibration free method. The fact that CRDS is based on the measurements of photon life-times (and not the laser intensity) makes it needless for any calibration and comparison with a reference
FTIR.
Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy is a measurement technique that allows one to record infrared spectra. Infrared light is guided through an interferometer and then through the sample (or vice versa). A moving mirror inside the apparatus alters the distribution of infrared light that passes through the interferometer. The signal directly recorded, called an "interferogram", represents light output as a function of mirror position. A data-processing technique called Fourier transform turns this raw data into the desired result (the sample's spectrum): Light output as a function of infrared wavelength (or equivalently, wavenumber). As described above, the sample's spectrum is always compared to a reference.
An alternate method for acquiring spectra is the "dispersive" or "scanning monochromator" method. In this approach, the sample is irradiated sequentially with various single wavelengths. The dispersive method is more common in UV-Vis spectroscopy, but is less practical in the infrared than the FTIR method. One reason that FTIR is favored is called "Fellgett's advantage" or the "multiplex advantage": The information at all frequencies is collected simultaneously, improving both speed and signal-to-noise ratio. Another is called "Jacquinot's Throughput Advantage": A dispersive measurement requires detecting much lower light levels than an FTIR measurement. There are other advantages, as well as some disadvantages, but virtually all modern infrared spectrometers are FTIR instruments.
Infrared microscopy.
Various forms of infrared microscopy exist. These include IR versions of sub-diffraction microscopy such as IR NSOM, photothermal microspectroscopy, Nano-FTIR and atomic force microscope based infrared spectroscopy (AFM-IR).
Other methods in molecular vibrational spectroscopy.
Infrared spectroscopy is not the only method of studying molecular vibrational spectra. Raman spectroscopy involves an inelastic scattering process in which only part of the energy of an incident photon is absorbed by the molecule, and the remaining part is scattered and detected. The energy difference corresponds to absorbed vibrational energy.
The selection rules for infrared and for Raman spectroscopy are different at least for some molecular symmetries, so that the two methods are complementary in that they observe vibrations of different symmetries.
Another method is electron energy loss spectroscopy (EELS), in which the energy absorbed is provided by an inelastically scattered electron rather than a photon. This method is useful for studying vibrations of molecules adsorbed on a solid surface.
Recently, high-resolution EELS (HREELS) has emerged as a technique for performing vibrational spectroscopy in a transmission electron microscope (TEM). In combination with the high spatial resolution of the TEM, unprecedented experiments have been performed, such as nano-scale temperature measurements, mapping of isotopically labeled molecules, mapping of phonon modes in position- and momentum-space, vibrational surface and bulk mode mapping on nanocubes, and investigations of polariton modes in van der Waals crystals.
Analysis of vibrational modes that are IR-inactive but appear in Inelastic Neutron Scattering is also possible at high spatial resolution using EELS. Although the spatial resolution of HREELs is very high, the bands are extremely broad compared to other techniques.
Computational infrared microscopy.
By using computer simulations and normal mode analysis it is possible to calculate theoretical frequencies of molecules.
Absorption bands.
IR spectroscopy is often used to identify structures because functional groups give rise to characteristic bands both in terms of intensity and position (frequency). The positions of these bands are summarized in correlation tables as shown below.
Regions.
A spectrograph is often interpreted as having two regions.
In the functional region there are one to a few troughs per functional group.
In the fingerprint region there are many troughs which form an intricate pattern which can be used like a fingerprint to determine the compound.
Badger's rule.
For many kinds of samples, the assignments are known, i.e. which bond deformation(s) are associated with which frequency. In such cases further information can be gleaned about the strength on a bond, relying on the empirical guideline called Badger's Rule. Originally published by Richard McLean Badger in 1934, this rule states that the strength of a bond (in terms of force constant) correlates with the bond length. That is, increase in bond strength leads to corresponding bond shortening and vice versa.
Uses and applications.
Infrared spectroscopy is a simple and reliable technique widely used in both organic and inorganic chemistry, in research and industry. It is used in quality control, dynamic measurement, and monitoring applications such as the long-term unattended measurement of CO2 concentrations in greenhouses and growth chambers by infrared gas analyzers.
It is also used in forensic analysis in both criminal and civil cases, for example in identifying polymer degradation. It can be used in determining the blood alcohol content of a suspected drunk driver.
IR-spectroscopy has been successfully used in analysis and identification of pigments in paintings and other art objects such as illuminated manuscripts.
A useful way of analyzing solid samples without the need for cutting samples uses ATR or attenuated total reflectance spectroscopy. Using this approach, samples are pressed against the face of a single crystal. The infrared radiation passes through the crystal and only interacts with the sample at the interface between the two materials.
With increasing technology in computer filtering and manipulation of the results, samples in solution can now be measured accurately (water produces a broad absorbance across the range of interest, and thus renders the spectra unreadable without this computer treatment).
Some instruments also automatically identify the substance being measured from a store of thousands of reference spectra held in storage.
Infrared spectroscopy is also useful in measuring the degree of polymerization in polymer manufacture. Changes in the character or quantity of a particular bond are assessed by measuring at a specific frequency over time. Modern research instruments can take infrared measurements across the range of interest as frequently as 32 times a second. This can be done whilst simultaneous measurements are made using other techniques. This makes the observations of chemical reactions and processes quicker and more accurate.
Infrared spectroscopy has also been successfully utilized in the field of semiconductor microelectronics: for example, infrared spectroscopy can be applied to semiconductors like silicon, gallium arsenide, gallium nitride, zinc selenide, amorphous silicon, silicon nitride, etc.
Another important application of Infrared Spectroscopy is in the food industry to measure the concentration of various compounds in different food products
The instruments are now small, and can be transported, even for use in field trials.
Infrared Spectroscopy is also used in gas leak detection devices such as the DP-IR and EyeCGAs. These devices detect hydrocarbon gas leaks in the transportation of natural gas and crude oil.
In February 2014, NASA announced a greatly upgraded database, based on IR spectroscopy, for tracking polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in the universe. According to scientists, more than 20% of the carbon in the universe may be associated with PAHs, possible starting materials for the formation of life. PAHs seem to have been formed shortly after the Big Bang, are widespread throughout the universe, and are associated with new stars and exoplanets.
Recent developments include a miniature IR-spectrometer that's linked to a cloud based database and suitable for personal everyday use, and NIR-spectroscopic chips that can be embedded in smartphones and various gadgets.
Isotope effects.
The different isotopes in a particular species may exhibit different fine details in infrared spectroscopy. For example, the O–O stretching frequency (in reciprocal centimeters) of oxyhemocyanin is experimentally determined to be 832 and 788 cm−1 for ν(16O–16O) and ν(18O–18O), respectively.
By considering the O–O bond as a spring, the frequency of absorbance can be calculated as a wavenumber [= frequency/(speed of light)]
where "k" is the spring constant for the bond, "c" is the speed of light, and "μ" is the reduced mass of the A–B system:
(formula_13 is the mass of atom formula_14).
The reduced masses for 16O–16O and 18O–18O can be approximated as 8 and 9 respectively. Thus
The effect of isotopes, both on the vibration and the decay dynamics, has been found to be stronger than previously thought. In some systems, such as silicon and germanium, the decay of the anti-symmetric stretch mode of interstitial oxygen involves the symmetric stretch mode with a strong isotope dependence. For example, it was shown that for a natural silicon sample, the lifetime of the anti-symmetric vibration is 11.4 ps. When the isotope of one of the silicon atoms is increased to 29Si, the lifetime increases to 19 ps. In similar manner, when the silicon atom is changed to 30Si, the lifetime becomes 27 ps.
Two-dimensional IR.
Two-dimensional infrared correlation spectroscopy analysis combines multiple samples of infrared spectra to reveal more complex properties. By extending the spectral information of a perturbed sample, spectral analysis is simplified and resolution is enhanced. The 2D synchronous and 2D asynchronous spectra represent a graphical overview of the spectral changes due to a perturbation (such as a changing concentration or changing temperature) as well as the relationship between the spectral changes at two different wavenumbers.
Nonlinear two-dimensional infrared spectroscopy is the infrared version of correlation spectroscopy. Nonlinear two-dimensional infrared spectroscopy is a technique that has become available with the development of femtosecond infrared laser pulses. In this experiment, first a set of pump pulses is applied to the sample. This is followed by a waiting time during which the system is allowed to relax. The typical waiting time lasts from zero to several picoseconds, and the duration can be controlled with a resolution of tens of femtoseconds. A probe pulse is then applied, resulting in the emission of a signal from the sample. The nonlinear two-dimensional infrared spectrum is a two-dimensional correlation plot of the frequency ω1 that was excited by the initial pump pulses and the frequency ω3 excited by the probe pulse after the waiting time. This allows the observation of coupling between different vibrational modes; because of its extremely fine time resolution, it can be used to monitor molecular dynamics on a picosecond timescale. It is still a largely unexplored technique and is becoming increasingly popular for fundamental research.
As with two-dimensional nuclear magnetic resonance (2DNMR) spectroscopy, this technique spreads the spectrum in two dimensions and allows for the observation of cross peaks that contain information on the coupling between different modes. In contrast to 2DNMR, nonlinear two-dimensional infrared spectroscopy also involves the excitation to overtones. These excitations result in excited state absorption peaks located below the diagonal and cross peaks. In 2DNMR, two distinct techniques, COSY and NOESY, are frequently used. The cross peaks in the first are related to the scalar coupling, while in the latter they are related to the spin transfer between different nuclei. In nonlinear two-dimensional infrared spectroscopy, analogs have been drawn to these 2DNMR techniques. Nonlinear two-dimensional infrared spectroscopy with zero waiting time corresponds to COSY, and nonlinear two-dimensional infrared spectroscopy with finite waiting time allowing vibrational population transfer corresponds to NOESY. The COSY variant of nonlinear two-dimensional infrared spectroscopy has been used for determination of the secondary structure content of proteins.


KLOE (experiment)

KLOE (or the LOng Experiment) was both an experiment studying ϕ meson decays, and the particle detector used to conduct it. It was located in the DAϕNE collider at the INFN Frascati National Laboratory in Frascati, Italy. It ceased operation in 2006 and was replaced by the KLOE-2 detector, which began operation in 2014, and continues to operate to this day.
Etymology.
Both the DAϕNE collider and the KLOE detector were named after the two titular characters of the ancient Greek play Daphnis and Chloe, written in the second century AD. In the story, the two grow up and fall in love, experiencing various hardships before living happily ever after. The DAϕNE collider was designed with the KLOE experiment as its primary goal, leading to the two to be named as a pair.
KLOE.
The KLOE experiment was the first experiment performed by the DAϕNE collider. It began in ernest when the detector began taking data in 2000 and ended when data collection stopped in 2006.
The KLOE detector was designed to witness the decays of mesons that were created by colliding electrons and positrons at high speeds to generate large numbers of mesons, of which then decay into the pair, following the second most common decay mode. The detector was cylindrical in shape. It had a length of 6 meters and a diameter of 7 meters and was composed of a drift chamber surrounded by an electromagnetic calorimeter, both of which were kept within a constant magnetic field.
The interior drift chamber had a length of 3.3 meters and a diameter of 4 meters, within which it contained 52,000 wires, making it the largest drift chamber ever constructed at the time. The computer interpreting its data was able to calculate reconstructed particle trajectories with a precision of within 0.3%.
The electromagnetic calorimeter had a length of 4.5 meters and a diameter of 4 meters. It used alternating layers of lead with 15,000 kilometers of scintillating fibers before passing the energy from the fibers through 4880 photomultipliers. It was able to determine the energy released by a given particle to within 15% precision, and was able to distinguish between particles occurring at least 0.2 nanoseconds apart, but was limited to the computer's ability to calculate a maximum of 2000 events per second.
KLOE-2.
KLOE-2 began taking data in November 2014 and is scheduled to continue taking data until at least 2018. Its first run, Run-I was begun in November 2014 and continued until July 2015, observing a total of 1 billion neutral kaon decays. The second experiment, Run-II is still in progress and aims to reach 5 billion such observations. Its drift chamber has the same dimensions as KLOE. It also uses lead and scintillating fibers and the same number of photomultiplier tubes. It uses a magnetic field strength of 0.52T.


Croatian mile


Memory operations per second

Memory operations per second or MOPS is a metric for an expression of the performance capacity of semiconductor memory. It can also be used to determine the efficiency of RAM in the Windows operating environment. MOPS can be affected by multiple applications being open at once without adequate job scheduling.


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