Transmission Raman spectroscopy

Transmission Raman spectroscopy (TRS) is a variant of Raman spectroscopy which is advantageous in probing bulk content of diffusely scattering samples. Although it was demonstrated in the early days of Raman spectroscopy it was not exploited in practical settings until much later, probably due to limitations of technology at the time. It was rediscovered in 2006, where the authors showed that it was capable of allowing Raman spectroscopy through many millimetres of tabletted or powdered samples. In addition, this research has also identified several highly beneficial analytical properties of this approach, including the ability to probe bulk content of powders and tissue in the absence of subsampling and to reject Raman and fluorescence components originating from the surface of the sample.
Theory.
Transmission Raman is possible because light scatters through turbid materials that do not significantly absorb or block the light. By a similar mechanism to spatially offset Raman spectroscopy, the light in a diffusely scattering sample spreads through the object randomly (Transmission Raman can be regarded as an extreme example of SORS). As Raman photons can be created at all points that the light passes through the total scrambled Raman signal measured on the opposite face of the object is highly representative of the bulk of the material. This desirable property removes a problem with conventional, widely used back-scattering Raman spectroscopy where the signal tends to be representative of the surface and near-surface composition. Because Raman spectroscopy does not rely on absorption and the light spreads throughout the sample, a large thickness can be measured in the absence of photon absorption. This produces an analysis representative of the entire mixture and is typically insensitive to coatings, or thin containers.
Pharmaceutical applications.
Transmission Raman lends itself to rapid, non-invasive and non-destructive analysis of pharmaceutical dosage forms such as capsules and tablets. This addresses several limitations of traditional pharmaceutical assay techniques including limitations due to surface sensitivity (e.g., reflectance NIR), the presence of phase changes due to sample preparation (liquid chromatography) or sub-sampling (conventional Raman, NIR). Transmission Raman is largely insensitive to surface, requires no sample preparation, involves no phase change and is rapid. Transmission Raman spectroscopy of pharmaceutical tablets and capsules was first demonstrated by Matousek and Parker. Subsequent research established the technique’s accuracy and applicability to quantifying tablet and production-style capsule formulations.
Pharmaceutical tablets and capsules are typically composed of a combination of APIs and excipients, each of which will produce a Raman spectral component with a relative intensity proportional to the ingredient concentrations. Analysing Raman spectra to produce assay results requires a method to separate the individual spectral components and correlate their intensity contributions with a relative concentration measure. This is typically facilitated using chemometric analysis methods.
Transmission Raman spectroscopy can be used as a process analytical technology (PAT) tool for the detection of physical state of the API and for obtaining qualitative and quantitative information about the composition.
Medical applications.
The use of Raman spectroscopy in medical applications has been limited to depths of hundreds of micrometres (confocal Raman). Transmission Raman has been demonstrated as a potential diagnostic tool for lesions in breast tissue.


French submarine X

X was a steel single hull submarine built for the French Navy between 1904 and 1905. She was launched in November 1904 and commissioned in 1905. Gaston Romazzotti modified the design of to create an experimental submarine which was the first with twin shafts.
Design.
"X" was an experimental submarine designed by Gaston Romazzotti based on the previous . Steel was used to construct the single hull and she was the first submarine to have twin shafts. The submarine had a surfaced displacement of and a submerged displacement of . Her dimensions were long, with a beam of and a draught of . "X" had two shafts powered by two gasoline engines for surface running with a combined total of and two electric motors which together produced for submerged propulsion. Her maximum speed was on the surface and while submerged with a surfaced range of at and a submerged range of at . Her complement was 15 men.
Her armament comprised one bow torpedo tube, two Drzewiecki drop collar torpedo launchers and a external cradle for one torpedo. In total six torpedoes were carried.
Construction and career.
"X" was laid down in the Arsenal de Cherbourg, launched on 15 November 1904 and completed in 1905. The submarine received the pennant number Q 35 at her commissioning and cost just under half a million Francs.
On 13 February 1911, "X" was renamed "Dauphin". "Dauphin" served in the English Channel until 21 May 1914, when she was struck from the Navy List.


American Dream (comics)

American Dream (Shannon Carter) is a fictional superhero appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. The character has been featured in Marvel Comics MC2 series "A-Next". Her costume is very similar to that of Captain America. Her initial weapons are throwing disks like Ricochet's but later obtains the trademark shield. She appeared as a civilian in "A-Next" #1, and was named as "Shannon" in "A-Next" #3; it was not until "A-Next" #4 that she appeared in costume as a prospective team member.
American Dream has since appeared in two mini-series, her own in May 2008 and a second in June 2011, "Captain America Corps".
Fictional character biography.
The niece of S.H.I.E.L.D. agent Sharon Carter, Shannon Carter grew up idolizing Captain America. She was hired by Edwin Jarvis as a tour guide for the Avengers Headquarters, at that time functioning only as a museum. When the new Avengers team was formed, she was determined to join. She wears a costume based on Captain America's and carries on her arms disc weapons resembling miniature versions of his shield. Her strength and agility are honed by intensive physical training. After joining the team as the American Dream, Shannon soon proved herself to be an effective Avenger, and when the team saved the original Avengers from a dark parallel world, Captain America himself judged her worthy to wield the shield of the alternate Captain. She also proved to be an important character in defeating Galactus in the "Last Planet Standing" limited series. She, along with Stinger and Spider-Girl, took down Galactus from the inside. They survived the imminent explosion by shrinking to microscopic size.
Carter is the leader of the "Dream Team", consisting of herself, Bluestreak, Crimson Curse and Freebooter. All members of the Dream Team became members of the new Avengers team in "A-Next" #4. American Dream is also an ally of Spider-Girl, Earth Sentry, Blacklight, Coal Tiger, Argo and Captain America.
American Dream has fought against the Sons of the Serpent, Seth, the Revengers, Fatal Force and Loki. When Superia launched a cross-temporal attack to eliminate Steve Rogers' post-war career as Captain America and take his place herself, American Dream was one of five heirs to Rogers' legacy that were assembled by the Contemplator to thwart her plans, the others being Rogers early in his career, John Walker shortly after his own time as Cap, Bucky during his time as Captain America, and Commander A from the twenty-fifth century.
Powers and abilities.
Although a non-powered human, American Dream is in peak physical condition and is a skilled martial artist and an Olympic level athlete. She has disc weapons similar to Ricochet's and has a superb aim. She now also carries a version of Captain America's shield, which she uses both defensively and offensively to great effect. Her fighting skills are matched by her leadership ability.
Reception.
The first issue of the mini-series sold out.


Electric field proximity sensing

Electric Field Proximity Sensing or EFPS is a sensory system that relies on the fact that an electric field can be perturbed by the existence of a nearby object, provided it is at least slightly conductive. One type of EFPS is The People Detector. The People Detector is a micro-electronic based device that can detect the presence of both moving and stationary objects through solid materials. Its ability to operate through any non-conductive material permits complete invisibility. The sensor functions by detecting small changes in an ultra-low-power electromagnetic field generated between two remotely located antenna electrodes. Its range is adjustable from a few centimetres [inches] to 4 m [over 12 feet]. Electric field proximity detectors can detect partially conducting or conducting objects and does not depend on impedance to ground.
Advantages.
Because EF sensors provide comparatively low amounts of data, they have the potential to provide several advantages over optical systems. Electric field systems can be made smaller, lighter, and power efficient (valuable qualities in an age of ever shrinking electronics such as palm and watch based computers). Since EF sensors penetrate non-conducting materials, they can remain hidden allowing them to remain protected from weather. EFPS systems today are used in a wide variety of industrial and commercial applications, including automobile airbag systems (to determine where passengers are seated), in advanced robotic manipulators (to determine the properties of an object in the manipulator's grasp), and in home automation, to determine which rooms are occupied.
Electric fish.
This is the same sensing system that is used by the electric catfish to navigate through muddy waters. These fish make use of spectral changes and amplitude modulation to determine factors such shape, size, distance, velocity, and conductivity. The abilities of the electric fish to communicate and identify sex, age, and hierarchy within the species are also made possible through electric fields. EF gradients as low as 5nV/cm can be found in some saltwater weakly electric fish.
MIT prototype.
Researchers at MIT have created a prototype of a 3-dimensional EFPS called the "Fish". It can monitor objects in a 3-dimensional space. The People Detector operates in only 2-dimensions and does not have a microprocessor.
Technology review.
"Technology Review", a science and technology magazine published by MIT, featured EFPS in their September 2007 computing section. Intel had created a robotic arm that could distinguish between plastic bottles that had water present or not. The robotic arm did not have to touch the bottles to determine which ones had water inside. Researchers applied an oscillating voltage to an electrode, in the thumb of the robot for example, which created an electric field. As the field interacted with the water in the bottle, special sensors could determine the change in the electric field and then cause the robot to behave in certain ways.


Box plot

In descriptive statistics, a box plot or boxplot is a method for graphically depicting groups of numerical data through their quartiles. Box plots may also have lines extending from the boxes ("whiskers") indicating variability outside the upper and lower quartiles, hence the terms box-and-whisker plot and box-and-whisker diagram. Outliers may be plotted as individual points.
Box plots are non-parametric: they display variation in samples of a statistical population without making any assumptions of the underlying statistical distribution (though Tukey's boxplot assumes symmetry for the whiskers and normality for their length). The spacings between the different parts of the box indicate the degree of dispersion (spread) and skewness in the data, and show outliers. In addition to the points themselves, they allow one to visually estimate various L-estimators, notably the interquartile range, midhinge, range, mid-range, and trimean. Box plots can be drawn either horizontally or vertically. Box plots received their name from the box in the middle, and from the plot that they are.
History of the box plot.
The range-bar was introduced by Mary Eleanor Spear in 1952 and again in 1969. The box and whiskers plot was first introduced in 1970 by John Tukey, who later published on the subject in 1977.
Elements of a box plot.
A boxplot is a standardized way of displaying the dataset based on a five-number summary: the minimum, the maximum, the sample median, and the first and third quartiles.
Minimum ("Q"0 or 0th percentile): the lowest data point excluding any outliers.
Maximum ("Q"4 or 100th percentile): the largest data point excluding any outliers.
Median ("Q"2 or 50th percentile): the middle value of the dataset.
First quartile ("Q"1 or 25th percentile): also known as the "lower quartile" "q""n"(0.25), is the median of the lower half of the dataset.
Third quartile ("Q"3 or 75th percentile): also known as the "upper quartile" "q""n"(0.75), is the median of the upper half of the dataset.
An important element used to construct the box plot by determining the minimum and maximum data values feasible, but is not part of the aforementioned five-number summary, is the interquartile range or IQR denoted below:
Interquartile range (IQR) : is the distance between the upper and lower quartiles.
A boxplot is constructed of two parts, a box and a set of whiskers shown in Figure 2. The lowest point is the minimum of the data set and the highest point is the maximum of the data set. The box is drawn from "Q"1 to "Q"3 with a horizontal line drawn in the middle to denote the median.
The same data set can also be represented as a boxplot shown in Figure 3. From above the upper quartile, a distance of 1.5 times the IQR is measured out and a whisker is drawn up to the largest observed point from the dataset that falls within this distance. Similarly, a distance of 1.5 times the IQR is measured out below the lower quartile and a whisker is drawn up to the lower observed point from the dataset that falls within this distance. All other observed points are plotted as outliers.
However, the whiskers can represent several alternative values, among them:
Any data not included between the whiskers should be plotted as an outlier with a dot, small circle, or star, but occasionally this is not done.
Some box plots include an additional character to represent the mean of the data.
On some box plots a crosshatch is placed on each whisker, before the end of the whisker.
Rarely, box plots can be presented with no whiskers at all.
Because of this variability, it is appropriate to describe the convention being used for the whiskers and outliers in the caption for the plot.
The unusual percentiles 2%, 9%, 91%, 98% are sometimes used for whisker cross-hatches and whisker ends to show the seven-number summary. If the data are normally distributed, the locations of the seven marks on the box plot will be equally spaced.
Variations.
Since the mathematician John W. Tukey popularized this type of visual data display in 1969, several variations on the traditional box plot have been described. Two of the most common are variable width box plots and notched box plots (see Figure 4).
Variable width box plots illustrate the size of each group whose data is being plotted by making the width of the box proportional to the size of the group. A popular convention is to make the box width proportional to the square root of the size of the group.
Notched box plots apply a "notch" or narrowing of the box around the median. Notches are useful in offering a rough guide to significance of difference of medians; if the notches of two boxes do not overlap, this offers evidence of a statistically significant difference between the medians. The width of the notches is proportional to the interquartile range (IQR) of the sample and inversely proportional to the square root of the size of the sample. However, there is uncertainty about the most appropriate multiplier (as this may vary depending on the similarity of the variances of the samples). One convention is to use formula_2.
Adjusted box plots are intended for skew distributions. They rely on the medcouple statistic of skewness. For a medcouple value of MC, the lengths of the upper and lower whiskers are respectively defined to be
For symmetrical distributions, the medcouple will be zero, and this reduces to Tukey's boxplot with equal whisker lengths of formula_4 for both whiskers.
Other kinds of plots such as violin plots and bean plots can show the difference between single-modal and multimodal distributions, a difference that cannot be seen with the original boxplot.
Example(s).
Example without outliers.
A series of hourly temperatures were measured throughout the day in degrees Fahrenheit. The recorded values are listed in order as follows: 57, 57, 57, 58, 63, 66, 66, 67, 67, 68, 69, 70, 70, 70, 70, 72, 73, 75, 75, 76, 76, 78, 79, 81.
A box plot of the data can be generated by calculating five relevant values: minimum, maximum, median, first quartile, and third quartile.
The minimum is the smallest number of the set. In this case, the minimum day temperature is 57 °F.
The maximum is the largest number of the set. In this case, the maximum day temperature is 81 °F.
The median is the "middle" number of the ordered set. This means that there are exactly 50% of the elements less than the median and 50% of the elements greater than the median. The median of this ordered set is 70 °F.
The first quartile value is the number that marks one quarter of the ordered set. In other words, there are exactly 25% of the elements that are less than the first quartile and exactly 75% of the elements that are greater. The first quartile value can easily be determined by finding the "middle" number between the minimum and the median. For the hourly temperatures, the "middle" number between 57 °F and 70 °F is 66 °F.
The third quartile value is the number that marks three quarters of the ordered set. In other words, there are exactly 75% of the elements that are less than the third quartile and 25% of the elements that are greater. The third quartile value can be easily determined by finding the "middle" number between the median and the maximum. For the hourly temperatures, the "middle" number between 70 °F and 81 °F is 75 °F.
The interquartile range, or IQR, can be calculated:
Hence, formula_6
1.5 IQR above the third quartile is:
1.5IQR below the first quartile is:
The upper whisker of the box plot is the largest dataset number smaller than 1.5IQR above the third quartile. Here, 1.5IQR above the third quartile is 88.5 °F and the maximum is 81 °F. Therefore, the upper whisker is drawn at the value of the maximum, 81 °F.
Similarly, the lower whisker of the box plot is the smallest dataset number larger than 1.5IQR below the first quartile. Here, 1.5IQR below the first quartile is 52.5 °F and the minimum is 57 °F. Therefore, the lower whisker is drawn at the value of the minimum, 57 °F.
Example with outliers.
Above is an example without outliers. Here is a followup example with outliers:
The ordered set is: 52, 57, 57, 58, 63, 66, 66, 67, 67, 68, 69, 70, 70, 70, 70, 72, 73, 75, 75, 76, 76, 78, 79, 89.
In this example, only the first and the last number are changed. The median, third quartile, and first quartile remain the same.
In this case, the maximum is 89 °F and 1.5IQR above the third quartile is 88.5 °F. The maximum is greater than 1.5IQR plus the third quartile, so the maximum is an outlier. Therefore, the upper whisker is drawn at the greatest value smaller than 1.5IQR above the third quartile, which is 79 °F.
Similarly, the minimum is 52 °F and 1.5IQR below the first quartile is 52.5 °F. The minimum is smaller than 1.5IQR minus the first quartile, so the minimum is also an outlier. Therefore, the lower whisker is drawn at the smallest value greater than 1.5IQR below the first quartile, which is 57 °F.
In the case of large datasets.
General equation to compute empirical quantiles.
Using the example from above with 24 data points, meaning "n" = 24, one can also calculate the median, first and third quartile mathematically vs. visually.
Median : formula_11
First quartile : formula_12
Third quartile : formula_13
Visualization.
The box plot allows quick graphical examination of one or more data sets. Box plots may seem more primitive than a histogram or kernel density estimate but they do have some advantages. They take up less space and are therefore particularly useful for comparing distributions between several groups or sets of data (see Figure 1 for an example). Choice of number and width of bins techniques can heavily influence the appearance of a histogram, and choice of bandwidth can heavily influence the appearance of a kernel density estimate.
As looking at a statistical distribution is more commonplace than looking at a box plot, comparing the box plot against the probability density function (theoretical histogram) for a normal N(0,"σ"2) distribution may be a useful tool for understanding the box plot (Figure 7).


Penning ionization

Penning ionization is a form of chemi-ionization, an ionization process involving reactions between neutral atoms or molecules.
The Penning effect is put to practical use in applications such as gas-discharge neon lamps and fluorescent lamps, where the lamp is filled with a Penning mixture to improve the electrical characteristics of the lamps.
History.
The process is named after the Dutch physicist Frans Michel Penning who first reported it in 1927. Penning started to work at the Philips Natuurkundig Laboratorium at Eindhoven to continue the investigation of electric discharge on rare gases. Later, he started measurements on the liberation of electrons from metal surfaces by positive ions and metastable atoms, and especially on the effects related to ionization by metastable atoms.
Reaction.
Penning ionization refers to the interaction between an electronically excited gas-phase atom G* and a target molecule M. The collision results in the ionization of the molecule yielding a cation M+., an electron e−, and a neutral gas molecule, G, in the ground state. Penning ionization occurs via formation of a high energy collision complex, evolving toward the formation of a cationic species, by ejecting a high energy electron.
Penning ionization occurs when the target molecule has an ionization potential lower than the excited energy of the excited-state atom or molecule.
Variants.
When the total electron excitation energy of colliding particles is sufficient, then the bonding energy of two particles that bonded together can also be contributed into the associative penning ionization act.
Associative Penning ionization can also occur:
Surface Penning ionization (Auger Deexcitation) refers to the interaction of the excited-state gas with a surface S, resulting in the release of an electron:
The positive charge symbol <chem>S+</chem> that would appear to be required for charge conservation is omitted, because S is a macroscopic surface and the loss of one electron has a negligible effect.
Applications.
Electron spectroscopy.
Penning ionization has been applied to Penning ionization electron spectroscopy (PIES)for gas chromatography detector in glow discharge by using the reaction for He or Ne. The kinetic energy of electron ejected is analyzed by the collisions between target (gas or solid) and metastable atoms by scanning the retarding field in a flight tube of the analyzer in the presence of a weak magnetic field. The electron produced by reaction has a kinetic energy E determined by:
The Penning ionization electron energy does not depend on the conditions of the experiments or any other species since both E and IE are atomic or molecular constants of the energy of He and the ionization energy for the species. Penning ionization electron spectroscopy applied to organic solids. It enables the study of local electron distribution of individual molecular orbitals, which exposes to the outside of the outermost surface layers.
Mass spectrometry.
Multiple mass spectrometric techniques, including glow discharge mass spectrometry and direct analysis in real time mass spectrometry rely on Penning ionization.
Glow discharge mass spectrometry is the direct determination of trace element in solid samples. It occurs with two ionization mechanisms: the direct electron impact ionization and Penning ionization. Processes inherent to the glow discharge, namely cathodic sputtering coupled with Penning ionization, yield an ion
population from which semi-quantitative results can be directly obtained.


2306 Bauschinger


Temperament ordinaire

The phrase temperament ordinaire (French "tempérament ordinaire", meaning literally "ordinary temperament" or "usual temperament") is a term for musical intonation, particularly the tempered tuning of keyboard instruments. In modern usage, it usually refers to temperaments falling within the range (as understood broadly) of tunings
now known as "well-tempered".
The expression occurs primarily in French-language works of the 17th and 18th centuries concerning theory and practice of musical intonation with regard to keyboard instruments. It is discussed again, in the same or a similar musical application, in modern literature concerned with historical practices relating to keyboard instruments and performance.
17th-century usage and application.
One of the early historical documents in which the phrase was used is Christiaan Huygens' "Lettre touchant le cycle harmonique", ("Letter concerning the harmonic cycle") of 1691. This refers several times, in a comparative way, to "temperament ordinaire". The main purpose of Huygens' letter was to describe and discuss an unconventional 31-fold division of the octave. He did this by first recapitulating a conventional known temperament of his time, and then he compared that with his new scheme (which actually had been approximately conceived before, albeit without Huygens' mathematical precision); and he discussed the differences. Huygens' description of the conventional arrangement was quite precise, and it is clearly identifiable with what is now classified as (quarter-comma) meantone temperament.
Huygens referred to this conventional arrangement, variously, in the course of his comparisons, as "the Temperament that I have just explained", "the Temperament", "the ordinary Temperament" (temperament ordinaire), "the Ordinary Temperament" (with both words capitalized), and then by mentioning "the new Temperament" as contrasted with "the one that everyone uses".
Accordingly, it does appear that for Huygens in 1691, "temperament ordinaire" was a phrase denoting just the temperament in ordinary use, with no sign that he was using this expression as a proper or conventional name or label; and it also appears that for him, the one in ordinary use was (quarter-comma) meantone temperament.
18th century.
The term was later used in the "Encyclopédie" of Diderot and D'Alembert, published in Paris in 1751–1772, which contains an article on temperament written by Jean-Jacques Rousseau. The article discusses the contrasting merits of equal temperament and of an arrangement referred to as "temperament ordinaire", "temperament" (without qualifier), and also as "the common rule of temperament", and gives practical instructions how to tune a keyboard to this temperament.
In regard to the use of the expressions denoting the temperament in this article, it is noticeable that while all occurrences of the word 'temperament' in the original article stand italicized, the accompanying words, including 'ordinaire', never are. That seems to show that Rousseau was using the phrase just to denote descriptively what he regarded as usual, rather than as a proper name or conventional designatory label.
As for the nature and identity of the temperament that Rousseau called the common one, the content of the article (see instructions reproduced below) leaves it clear that it was a circulating temperament, rather than the quarter-comma meantone referred to by Huygens about 60 years previously.
It is relevant to reproduce here the actual instructions from the Encyclopedie (in translation) for tuning to "the common rule of temperament", so as to leave it clear where they are specific, and where they are vague:
"To do this: 1st, start with the middle C of the keyboard, and narrow the first four fifths going up, until the fourth, E, makes a very true major third with the first note C; this is called 'the proof'. 2nd, Continuing to tune by fifths, as soon as one has arrived at the sharp notes, one then widens the fifths – even though the thirds suffer by it – and one stops when one has arrived at G#. 3rd, Return to C and tune the fifths going down, that is, F, B flat, and so on, widening them all the time, until one has arrived at D flat, which – when taken as C# - ought to be in harmony as a fifth with the G# where one stopped before. The final fifths will be a little too wide, like the thirds. But the harshness will be tolerable if the tuning across the octaves is done properly, and besides, these fifths are so situated that they are rarely used."
Among the notable points of this description:
1: there is a possible misprint or similar thoughtless mistake, or else an instruction to cover some of the ground twice, in that the third-stage stopping point, D flat, would have been tuned already as C# before the G#, and so the expected stopping point of the third stage might more naturally be E flat/D#, to be checked against the G#. So D flat (re bemol) might have been a misprint etc. for E flat (mi bemol).
2: There might have been no need for the user to actually widen any of the fifths, if only the ones between CGDAE had been narrowed: things should have worked out if all the others had just been left pure. This highlights also that the instructions are not quite specific on what to do about the fifths E->B and B->F#: to narrow them like the earlier ones? (which would necessitate some widening further along the chain), or to leave them pure? (in which case all the rest could be pure too). And then, how to distribute the amounts of any widening of the remaining fifths?
3: According to the degree of any widening used, some of the thirds would actually be made worse than necessary. This point seems possibly to have escaped the originators and users of the method described here, as of other methods involving widening fifths.
Perhaps it is possible to be too precise about this kind of thing.
Maybe the intent of an 18th-century description, such as the one referenced and discussed above, was that complete precision was not sought at all, rather to give a guideline for completion in practice, according to the taste and ear of the individual musician.
The two scales, both referred to as temperament ordinaire by Huygens and by Rousseau/Encyclopedie, have in common the degree of tempering applied to the fifths CGDAE. The difference between them is that the 'wolf' error arising in the chain of fifths is either left whole in only one of those remaining fifths (meantone), or else divided up and distributed amongst them.
The two examples of usage given above do not seem to show any sign that the expression "temperament ordinaire" (in its 17th-18th-century French usages) was anything more than a descriptive or denotative phrase, denoting whatever was to be referred to as "the usual temperament": and the examples also make clear that other similar indicative words might equally be used instead, e.g. "the common rule", or "the one that everyone uses". Some of the modern literature might seem to apply "temperament ordinaire" as if it is (or might have been, in the 17th or 18th centuries) a kind of proper name or conventional label of some particular tuning arrangement(s). Perhaps it is an open question whether this was ever so. The status that the phrase actually had at that time is relevant in turn to the substantive question of what actual tuning (or range of tunings) the phrase was then used to refer to. The examples above show, at least, that the temperament so referred to was not uniquely identified.
In summary, it seems that once the 18th century had got well under way, the expression 'temperament ordinaire' could refer in the French literature to a circulating irregular keyboard temperament with some slightly widened fifths as well as some narrowed ones: and that in the late 17th century it could refer to what is now called quarter-comma mean-tone temperament. It seems not impossible that both usages might have been at some time concurrent.


5 nm process

In semiconductor manufacturing, the International Roadmap for Devices and Systems defines the 5 nm process as the MOSFET technology node following the 7 nm node. In 2020, Samsung and TSMC entered volume production of chips, manufactured for companies including Apple, Marvell, Huawei and Qualcomm.
The term "5 nanometer" has no relation to any actual physical feature (such as gate length, metal pitch or gate pitch) of the transistors. It is a commercial or marketing term used by the chip fabrication industry to refer to a new, improved generation of silicon semiconductor chips in terms of increased transistor density, increased speed and reduced power consumption.
History.
Background.
Quantum tunnelling effects through the gate oxide layer on 7 nm and 5 nm transistors become increasingly difficult to manage using existing semiconductor processes. Single-transistor devices below 7 nm were first demonstrated by researchers in the early 2000s. In 2002, an IBM research team including Bruce Doris, Omer Dokumaci, Meikei Ieong and Anda Mocuta fabricated a 6-nanometre silicon-on-insulator (SOI) MOSFET.
In 2003, a Japanese research team at NEC, led by Hitoshi Wakabayashi and Shigeharu Yamagami, fabricated the first 5 nm MOSFET.
In 2015, IMEC and Cadence had fabricated 5 nm test chips. The fabricated test chips are not fully functional devices but rather are to evaluate patterning of interconnect layers.
In 2015, Intel described a lateral nanowire (or gate-all-around) FET concept for the 5 nm node.
In 2017, IBM revealed that they had created 5 nm silicon chips, using silicon nanosheets in a "gate-all-around" configuration (GAAFET), a break from the usual FinFET design. The GAAFET transistors used had 3 nanosheets stacked on top of each other, covered in their entirety by the same gate, just like FinFETs usually have several physical fins side by side that are electrically a single unit and are covered in their entirety by the same gate. IBM's chip measured 50 mm2 and had 600 million transistors per mm2.
Commercialization.
In April 2019, Samsung Electronics announced they had been offering their 5 nm process (5LPE) tools to their customers since 2018 Q4. In April 2019, TSMC announced that their 5 nm process (CLN5FF, N5) had begun risk production, and that full chip design specifications were now available to potential customers. The N5 process can use EUVL on up to 14 layers, compared to only 5 or 4 layers in N6 and N7++. For the expected 28 nm minimum metal pitch, SALELE is the proposed best patterning method.
For their 5nm process, Samsung started process defect mitigation by automated check and fix, due to occurrence of stochastic (random) defects in the metal and via layers.
In October 2019, TSMC started sampling 5nm A14 processors for Apple.
In December 2019, TSMC announced an average yield of ~80%, with a peak yield per wafer of >90% for their 5nm test chips with a die size of 17.92 mm2. In mid 2020 TSMC claimed its (N5) 5nm process offered 1.8x the density of its 7nm N7 process, with 15% speed improvement or 30% lower power consumption; an improved sub-version (N5P) was claimed to improve on N5 with +5% speed or -10% power.
On October 13, 2020, Apple announced a new iPhone 12 lineup using the A14, together with the Huawei Mate 40 lineup using the HiSilicon Kirin 9000, which were the first devices to be commercialized on TSMC's 5nm node. Later, on November 10, 2020, Apple also revealed three new Mac models using the Apple M1, another 5nm chip. According to Semianalysis, the A14 processor has a transistor density of 134 million transistors per mm2.
5 nm process nodes.
Transistor gate pitch is also referred to as CPP (contacted poly pitch) and interconnect pitch is also referred to as MMP (minimum metal pitch).
Beyond 5 nm.
"3 nm" (3-nanometer) is the usual term for the next node after 5 nm. , Intel, Samsung, and TSMC have plans to commercialize the 3 nm node.
3.5 nm has also been given as a name for the first node beyond 5 nm.


Metrication in Barbados

The process of metrication in Barbados started in the early 1970s with an initiative by the government to push for industrialisation of the economy. The process has progressed slowly but the metric system has now replaced the previous imperial units.
Although the metric system is the official system of weights and measures of the country, both metric and US customary units (similar to or identical with imperial units in many instances) must be used on commodity labels which are exported to the American market. The real estate industry may also tend to cater to most categories of home buyers and likewise may use both metric and imperial standards of measure. Beyond this distances are usually measured in metres or kilometres; mass in milligrams, grams or kilograms; and temperature in degrees Celsius.
History.
The establishment of a Barbados Industrial Development Corporation, stimulated the advent of a local Barbados National Standards Institute (BNSI) in 1972. The BNSI was a joint collaboration of the Government of Barbados along Mr. Davis and Mr. Gordon Watson from UNIDO. As part of the BNSI's approach, it sought to implement standards to replace the former Imperial Standards for Weights and Measures in Barbados.
Weights and Measures in Barbados were defined through the act of Parliament of the same name that dated back to 1891. It was by-and-large made up of former British Imperial units of measurement, save for local peculiarities. For example: The standard of liquid gallons in Barbados was measured at exactly 231 cu. ins. (a measure used in the United States of America), whereas the British unit of the same was about 277.419 cu.ins. Due to this and other complexities of the market, the government enacted in 1977 an Act of Parliament to switch Barbados to the International Standards of Units (SI). At that point of time, Barbados was one country out of thirteen across the globe which had not yet implemented a process for metrication and it was thought that Barbados needed to move in the direction of the global standards. The plan for the metrication of Barbados called for completion of the processes by 1979. The process was undertaken with the help of a Metrication Board established within BNSI.
BNSI.
The BNSI similarly was further spurred by the creation of the Caribbean Free Trade Association CARIFTA, and trade within this block and external markets created a realisation of benefits to be derived from a transition to metric.


905 Universitas

905 Universitas is an S-type asteroid orbiting in the Main belt as part of the Flora family. Its diameter is about 21 km and it has an albedo of 0.085. Its rotation period is approximately 14.2 hours.


Teastas Eorpach na Gaeilge

Teastas Eorpach na Gaeilge (TEG) or "European Certificate in Irish " is a set of examinations for adult learners of Irish. TEG is linked to the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (Council of Europe, 2001). It examines four skills: speaking, listening, reading and writing. Examinations are currently available at five levels from Beginners 1 (A1) to Advanced 1 (C1) and are run internationally. In 2016 exams were held in Sydney, New York, Ottawa, and nationally in Ireland. There is the option for candidates at all levels to undertake the full examination (Lánchreidiúint) or just the oral examination (partial credit).
TEG is the first certification system for adult learners of Irish connected with the ALTE (Association of Language Testers in Europe) examination system and the Council of Europe. Such a system had already been developed for most other European languages. This system helps learners to plan their studies and gain recognition for the progress they have made. Another advantage of the system is that it gives educational institutions and employers a guide to the language ability of candidates applying for courses, jobs or promotions. In Ireland this makes it of particular relevance to the provisions of the Official Languages Act 2003. The Language Centre in Maynooth is a member of ALTE and monitors the content and quality of TEG.


Eddy Merckx in the Vicinity of a Cup of Coffee

Eddy Merckx in the Vicinity of a Cup of Coffee (original title: "Eddy Merckx i nærheden af en kop kaffe") is a 1973 Danish experimental short film by Jørgen Leth. It was produced by Stig Crab Barfoed and Charlotte Strandgaard and is 29 minutes long.
Concept.
The film features Leth reading pieces of poetry in a TV studio, followed by footage from the 1970 Tour de France contest depicting cyclists Eddy Merckx and Walter Godefroot. The music is by Antonio Carlos Jobim.


GRIM test

The granularity-related inconsistency of means (GRIM) test is a simple statistical test used to identify inconsistencies in the analysis of data sets. The test relies on the fact that, given a dataset containing "N" integer values, the arithmetic mean (commonly called simply the average) is restricted to a few possible values: it must always be expressible as a fraction with an integer numerator and a denominator "N". If the reported mean does not fit this description, there must be an error somewhere; the preferred term for such errors is "inconsistencies", to emphasise that their origin is, on first discovery, typically unknown. GRIM inconsistencies can result from inadvertent data-entry or typographical errors or from scientific fraud. The GRIM test is most useful in fields such as psychology where researchers typically use small groups and measurements are often integers. The GRIM test was proposed by Nick Brown and James Heathers in 2016, following increased awareness of the replication crisis in some fields of science.
Procedure.
The GRIM test is straightforward to perform. For each reported mean in a paper, the sample size ("N") is found, and all fractions with denominator "N" are calculated. The mean is then checked against this list (being aware of the fact that values may be rounded inconsistently: depending on the context, a mean of 1.125 may be reported as 1.12 or 1.13). If the mean is not in this list, it is highlighted as mathematically impossible.
Example.
Consider an experiment in which a fair dice is rolled 20 times. Each roll will produce one whole number between 1 and 6, and the hypothesized mean value is 3.5. The results of the rolls are then averaged together, and the mean is reported as 3.48. This is close to the expected value, and appears to support the hypothesis. However, a GRIM test reveals that the reported mean is mathematically impossible: the result of dividing any whole number by 20, written to 2 decimal places, must be of the form X.X0 or X.X5; it is impossible to divide any integer by 20 and produce a result with an "8" in the second decimal place.
Interpretation and limitations.
Even if the data fails the GRIM test, this is not automatically a sign of manipulation. Errors in the mean can come about innocently as a result of an error on the part of the tester, typographical errors, calculation and programming mistakes, or improper reporting of the sample size. However, it can be a sign that some data has been improperly excluded or that the mean has been illegitimately fudged in order to make the results appear more significant. The location of failures can be indicative of the underlying cause: an isolated impossible mean may be caused by an error, multiple impossible values in the same row of a table indicate a poor response rate, and multiple impossible values in the same column indicate the given sample size is incorrect. Multiple errors scattered throughout a table can be a sign of deeper problems, and other statistical tests can be used to analyze the suspect data.
The GRIM test works best with data sets in which: the sample size is relatively small, the number of subcomponents in composite measures is also small, and the mean is reported to multiple decimal places. In some cases, a valid mean may appear to fail the test if the input data is not discretized as expected – for example, if people are asked how many slices of pizza they ate at a buffet, some people may respond with a fraction such as "three and a half" instead of a whole number as expected.
Applications.
Brown and Heathers applied the test to 260 articles published in "Psychological Science", "", and "Journal of Personality and Social Psychology". Of these articles, 71 were amenable to GRIM test analysis; 36 of these contained at least one impossible value and 16 contained multiple impossible values.
GRIM testing also played a significant role in uncovering errors in publications by Cornell University's Food and Brand Lab under Brian Wansink. GRIM testing revealed that a series of articles on the effect of price on consumption at an all-you-can-eat pizza buffet contained many impossible means – deeper analysis of the raw data revealed that in many cases, sample sizes were incorrectly stated and values incorrectly calculated.


FINA World Junior Synchronised Swimming Championships

The FINA World Junior Synchronised Swimming Championships is an international, synchronized swimming event organized by FINA held every 2 years. It was first held in 1989, and 2012 saw its thirteenth edition.
The event features competition in the four synchro event (Solo, Duet, Team and Free Combination). (Note: Free Combination was added to the event beginning in 2002.)


Sandy Hook Proving Ground

The Sandy Hook Proving Ground was a military facility along the Atlantic coast of New Jersey established by the Secretary of War on August 7, 1874, to serve as the United States Army's first proving ground for the testing of ordnance and materiel. The facility was located at Sandy Hook, a narrow coastal spit of land, approximately in length and 0.5 miles (varying between 0.1 and 1 miles) wide, in Middletown Township in Monmouth County. The facility was operated in conjunction with the adjoining Fort Hancock. Essentially abandoned in 1919 for a larger facility, the area was left to degrade and most of the structures still remain today. The proving ground and parts of Fort Hancock are now property of the National Park Service and mostly closed to the public.
Background.
The Civil War, just ten years earlier, had introduced several new innovations in weaponry. Rifled cannon fired pointed-nosed projectiles farther and faster than cannonballs and ironclad warships with mounted guns that could destroy the walls of a traditional fort. The Army needed a place to test its own new weapons. The Sandy Hook Peninsula met the Army's needs for an experimental testing area for heavy ordnance and was on land that was already government owned, which provided flat and open areas for testing. Sandy Hook was distant enough to be far from towns but close enough to large cities and transportation by water. In 1874, most of Sandy Hook was covered with holly and cedar forests and tidal marshes which still cover a large percentage of it today. Most of the Federal development of the Hook was concentrated on the northern end. A huge granite five-bastioned fort near the northern end of the Hook dominated the area, even though it was still incomplete and was destined never to be completed. In addition to the fort, there was the Engineer's wharf, erected on the western shore in 1857, to accommodate the fort's construction, the Engineers' shop and quarters, and the Sandy Hook Life-Saving Station, established on the northeastern shore in 1854. It was decided to lay out the Proving Ground on the eastern margin of the Hook, just below the southeast bastion of a Civil War-era fort. The firing range was to extend southward along the beach with the facilities consisting of the wooden gun platforms of the proof battery, a bombproof, a frame instrument house, and sand butts on the firing range.
After its formal establishment in 1874, it was nearly two years before facilities were completed that allowed staffing and testing to reach its potential. Because of the period of time involved, the bulk of the weaponry designed, built and installed for coastal defense under both the Taft and Endicott Boards were tested at Sandy Hook. Over time, several red brick buildings, including structures used as maintenance buildings and an Officers Club, were built as part of the Proving Ground. When Fort Hancock was commissioned in 1895 as a Coast Artillery Post, it shared the peninsula with the Proving Ground.
Proof Battery.
The "Proof Battery," where new and converted guns would be fired, was built at the northeastern end of Sandy Hook along the ocean side. The firing range extended south along the beach and for long range test firing, guns would be aimed out to sea to provide the necessary distance. The first test firing took place in October 1874, when a Rodman smoothbore cannon, converted into an rifled gun, was fired. After firing 700 rounds, the Ordnance Board found the gun to still be "sound and serviceable."
To test the guns' striking power, armor-piercing projectiles were fired at large, thick iron plates, similar to those used in making warships. These tests proved that rifled Rodman guns could penetrate the armor but only at limited distances. In the 1880s, new high- powered, breech-loading rifled cannons made of steel were introduced. They had greater ranges and more striking power. When new models of guns and mortars passed their ordnance tests, they were mass-produced at gun foundries around the country and then sent to Sandy Hook for testing before being issued for use. Many new types of gunpowder, artillery shells, fuses and primers used to explode projectiles were also tested.
In 1900, Proof Battery was relocated because of Fort Hancock's need for the location to build a gun battery. The new Battery was built southeast of its old location. The eastern end of the new Proof Battery was designed for test firing machine guns, field and siege guns, and howitzers – larger guns like a caliber – were test fired at the west end of the battery. In the middle were mounted a variety of guns from caliber. When a gun was fired, the gun crew stood behind thick concrete walls in the niches in case the gun blew up during testing and personnel could watch from atop a observation tower behind the traverses.
Base railroad.
In 1889, a narrow gauge railroad was constructed to bring equipment and guns from the docks to the proof battery. In 1893, a standard gauge railroad was completed to the mainland and connected with commercial railroad lines that were originally built to allow civilians from steamships to travel down the shore. It is believed that the New Jersey Southern Railroad had a dock in Horseshoe Cove. The train would then take the tourists that came from New York City to destinations including Long Branch.
When Fort Hancock did not want civilians near its facilities, the civilian railroad was moved to a dock in the Spermaceti Cove vicinity and later removed altogether. Later, the Sandy Hook Proving Ground took over the railroad on the Hook, and utilized it for passenger, troop train, and railway gun movements. This also allowed for interchange with Class 1 railroads at Highlands, New Jersey. The Sandy Hook Proving Ground's engine was named "General Rodman". When they left circa 1920, the railroad operation was transferred to the engineer unit at Fort Hancock.
Final years.
Sandy Hook Proving Ground became a permanent installation in 1903 and continued to test weapons through World War I. During the war, the site was commanded by Colden Ruggles, who later served as the Army's Chief of Ordnance. A dual military command existed with the Sandy Hook Proving Ground – contained within the site of Fort Hancock – continuing to test ordnance equipment while the Coast Artillery Corps exercised the harbor defense mission for New York Harbor. However, as guns could hit targets further and further away, Sandy Hook lacked enough space to test new long-range guns. In 1919, when Sandy Hook could no longer contain the ever-increasing range of larger and more powerful weapons, testing was moved to the Aberdeen Proving Ground in Aberdeen, Maryland.


Rachel Summers

Rachel Anne Summers (also known as Rachel Grey) is a fictional character appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. The character was created by writer Chris Claremont and artist/co-writer John Byrne.
In her first appearance, the character's surname was not revealed; later publications and retcons further expanded her backstory to involve central characters of mainstream continuity. She is the daughter of the alternate future counterparts to Cyclops (Scott Summers) and Jean Grey-Summers from a harsh dystopia, the sister of Nate Grey and half sister of Cable, a niece of Havok and Vulcan, and a powerful mutant in her own right. She inherited her mother's vast telepathic and telekinetic talents, and code names Phoenix and Marvel Girl before later adopting her own code name Prestige. Although the character is considered unique to the Marvel Comics "multiverse", her name has been used to designate the mother of Marvel characters Hyperstorm and Dream Richards in respective timelines.
Publication history.
Rachel first appeared in "The Uncanny X-Men" #141 (January 1981) and has since been affiliated with several comic book superhero teams including the X-Men and Excalibur.
Fictional character biography.
Future adolescence.
Rachel Anne Summers comes from an alternate future Earth known as Earth-811, as seen in the "Days of Future Past" storyline from "The Uncanny X-Men" #141–142. In this reality, the assassination of Senator Robert Kelly provoked the ratification of the Mutant Registration Act, leading to a dystopian future where the mutant-hunting Sentinel robots rule North America. Rachel was abducted by operatives working for Ahab, who used drugs and hypnotherapy to turn Rachel into a "Hound", a mutant who tracks down other mutants. She fulfilled her duties, but her psychic powers linked her to her victims; fueling her grief and despair until she attacked Ahab and scarred him. In return, he sent her to the mutant concentration camps. There, she befriended the surviving mutant rebels, including Wolverine, Magneto, Colossus, Storm, Kate Pryde, and her lover, the adult Franklin Richards.
Rachel managed to send Kate's consciousness into the past to her younger self to prevent the assassination, but it did not change their time. Rachel sent her astral form into the past to find out why and discovered she had sent Kate into an alternate past. On the way back, she encountered the disembodied Phoenix Force and it followed her to her present. Rachel passed out from the strain of astral projection and the Phoenix Force revealed itself to Kate, who asked it to give Rachel a fresh start.
When Rachel and Kate broke into "Project: Nimrod" on a suicide mission to destroy a new model of Sentinel, they became trapped. When Kate spoke the words "Dark Phoenix," the Phoenix Force ripped Rachel from her timeline and sent her body back to the alternate past to which she had sent Kate's consciousness. This was a past where she learned Jean Grey was dead and that her father was married to someone else. Rachel experienced additional heartache and displacement trauma when she discovered that her father's new wife, Madelyne Pryor, was pregnant with a son (Nathan Summers), because in her timeline she was the first-born child of Scott Summers.
X-Men.
Rachel had a brief membership in the X-Men before finding a Shi'ar holoempathic crystal at her grandparents' home. The crystal was imprinted with a portion of Rachel's mother's essence inside it as a tribute to the family shortly after Jean Grey's death. After Rachel took a vow to remember her mother with the uniform and name of Phoenix, the Phoenix Force fully bonded with her. She was granted access to its power on a cosmic magnitude, albeit in a much more limited fashion than the Dark Phoenix. Soon after, the grudge which she had begun with Selene boiled over when Rachel secretly invaded the Hellfire Club. She did this with the intention of taking vengeance on Selene for the murders she had committed, particularly that of nightclub owner Nicholas Damiano, who had previously taken Rachel into his home after Selene had attacked her. Selene proved to be no match for Rachel's newly increased powers, but just as she was about to finish Selene, Wolverine arrived and was forced to stab Rachel in the chest. Critically injured, Rachel was lured into Spiral's "Body Shoppe."
Excalibur.
Months later, while recuperating from injuries on Muir Island, Shadowcat and Nightcrawler both had the same dream, where they were actors on a weird set and helped Rachel, who was trapped there, escape. Shortly thereafter, Rachel escaped from the alternate reality of Mojoworld. Rachel has once been cited having a flashback to her time there where she is held in chains and tortured. The three former X-Men were joined by Captain Britain and Meggan and founded the British superhero team Excalibur. While part of the team, she discovered that this universe's version of her mother, Jean Grey, was alive. She attempted to bond with Jean, but Jean, upon discovering Rachel was the present host for the Phoenix, rejected any contact with her. Jean still resented the Phoenix Force for stealing a portion of her life. She also rejected Rachel because she felt that Rachel's existence was a constant reminder of the dystopian future she feared could still come to pass. Eventually, however, Jean moved past those feelings and formally welcomed Rachel into her life.
Askani.
Rachel remained with Excalibur until an incident caused Captain Britain to be lost in the timestream. She exchanged places with the time-lost Captain Britain and emerged two thousand years in the future, in a world conquered by Apocalypse and crushed under his iron fist. She gathered together a group of rebels and founded the Askani. She trained one of her followers to travel back in time and bring her "brother" Nathan forward in time when he was infected with a techno-organic virus. The Askani cloned Nathan in case he was not able to survive the virus. Apocalypse's followers attacked the Askani and took the clone (who would later become the supervillain Stryfe), leaving Rachel critically injured. Hooked up to life support, she drew the minds of Scott and Jean into the future, as "Slym" and "Redd", to raise Nathan and tutor him in the use of his powers. Rachel finally died ten years later and sent Scott and Jean back to their original bodies seconds after they had left.
After Nathan, now known as Cable, had finally defeated Apocalypse, he went into the timeline to retrieve Rachel. There, he discovered a Rachel "sans" Phoenix Force. With the premature death of Apocalypse, the Askani timeline had been diverged from the mainstream Marvel Universe, Earth-616. As a result, she had been flung into the far future, yet subjectively a short time after she had been lost in the timestream, as the slave of a creature called "Gaunt", who had used her to lead Cable there for a "battle of the ages". Cable defeated Gaunt in the battle and Rachel, now free, was able to use her residual Phoenix Force to return them both to the present. She then decided to take a break from superheroics and enrolled in college after she made Cable promise he would not tell anyone she was back. Despite her efforts to live a normal life, however, she was kidnapped by the telepath Elias Bogan and subsequently rescued by the X-Men.
Rachel Grey.
She decided to rejoin the X-Men, taking the name "Marvel Girl" to honor her mother (who had recently died yet again) and wearing a costume her mother had designed but never worn: a variation on Jean's first green costume. She also changed her last name to "Grey", possibly to express disapproval at her father's betrayal of Jean, as well as his continuing relationship with Emma Frost; though she and Emma made a truce of sorts during one of the team's missions in Hong Kong. Rachel and Nightcrawler began to have an attraction towards each other, kissing at one point, but nothing came of it as Nightcrawler also had an attraction to Storm at the time, who was in somewhat of a romantic "friendship" with Wolverine. Her stint with this team also included a visit to the Savage Land. In the storyline "World's End", which was heavily criticized by readers, Rachel was subjected to the mind-control of a tribe of advanced dinosaur people, the Hauk'ka, causing her to believe she belonged to their species. Afterward, she subconsciously used her telekinesis to change her own genome in their image. This was eventually reverted. After "House of M" and "Decimation", where most of the world's mutants lost their powers, the government had Sentinels instituted at the X-Mansion to protect the mutants in case any enemies used this low point to attack. Though their intentions were good this time, it reminded Rachel too much of the previous timeline when Sentinels herded mutants into concentration camps.
Rachel had a short stint with newly re-formed Excalibur, reminiscent of the former team, shortly after the "House of M" events. She assisted the team in battling Shadow-X and the Shadow King (in the guise of Professor X).
End of Greys.
Rachel spent some time with her grandparents, bonding with her grandfather. At a family reunion with all her relatives, a commando unit under the order of the Shi'ar attacked the party, killing everyone in an effort to wipe out the Grey genome. The commando unit was unable to kill Rachel; instead, one member was able to graft a "deathmark" on her back that would allow them to find her wherever she went. It is assumed that the only remaining member of the Grey family now left on Earth besides Rachel is Cable. Afterward, at the graves of the Grey family, Rachel vowed a terrible vengeance on the Shi'ar and was quoted as saying, "I'm not my mom. I'm not the Phoenix. I'm my own woman. And by the time I'm done... they'll wish I "was" the Phoenix."
The Death Commandos later tracked Rachel to the psychiatry office of Dr. Maureen Lyszinski. Rachel, with the help of Psylocke, Nightcrawler, Bishop, and Cannonball, saved the doctor and took down the Death Commandos. She decided to imprison them, instead of killing them, by telling them, "I mean to find destiny in a way that brings us both [Jean Grey] honor." She is also sometimes referenced as "Starchilde" in this series.
Rise and Fall of the Shi'ar Empire.
After Rachel was kidnapped, along with Cyclops, by her paternal uncle Vulcan, he freed Darwin from inside him. Later, Professor X recruited Rachel, along with Havok, Nightcrawler, Warpath, Darwin, and Polaris, for a space mission to stop Vulcan from laying waste to the Shi'ar empire. Xavier, who recently was stripped of his powers, recruited Rachel to serve as his telepathic "eyes and ears" during their mission. Aware of Rachel's vendetta against the Shi'ar, Xavier agreed to use their trip into space to find out who in the Shi'ar Empire gave the order to wipe out all members of the Grey family, and he warned Rachel that they will deal with the people responsible for her recent losses Xavier's way.
While in space, the team was attacked by Korvus, a Shi'ar warrior sent to kill Rachel. Korvus' ancestor, Rook'shir, was a previous host of the Phoenix Force, and a small portion of the Phoenix's power was left behind in his sword, the Blade of the Phoenix. With this power, Korvus made short work of the other X-Men, but when Rachel blocked the sword, their minds were involuntarily linked. Through this link, Rachel learned that Korvus' family was also murdered by the Shi'ar government because of their connection to the Phoenix. The remaining echo of the Phoenix power from the sword was then transferred to Rachel. Rachel claimed that rather than having taken the power, the power chose to go to her, saying, "The Phoenix knows me, remember? It likes me." When this happened, Rachel's normally gold energy aura turned blue, the same color as the Blade of the Phoenix. She then telekinetically disabled an explosive implant that the Shi'ar chancellor was using to force Korvus' obedience.
Due to Rachel's connection to Korvus through the sword, she discovers the Phoenix Force formerly in the blade is just an echo, a "blue shadow", of the Force. The shadow of the Phoenix begins influencing Rachel's behavior, causing her to design a new darker uniform and begin a romance with Korvus. She soon breaks off the relationship after she realizes their bond is only because of the residual Phoenix Force.
Leading up to the fight with Vulcan, Rachel is shown using her powers to kill the guards who stand in her way. Havok warns her not to, but Rachel tells him that they deserve to die after what they did to her family. When it comes to the big fight, Rachel shows just how powerful she is by protecting Korvus from one of Vulcan's blasts. Rachel is one of the X-Men stranded in Shi'ar space when their ship is sent back to Earth.
After the death of her other grandfather, Corsair, at the hands of Vulcan, she, along with Havok, Polaris, Korvus, Ch'od, and Raza, become the new Starjammers. They elect to remain in Shi'ar space and restore Lilandra to the throne or die trying. As her uncle states, "If they fail, he has no doubt that Vulcan will head for Earth."
Starjammers.
During the conflict, the Starjammers find another threat in the form of the Scy'ar Tal (translates as "Death to the Shi'ar"). Rachel makes contact with the eldest Scy'ar Tal and discovers their true origin. The Scy'ar Tal were originally called the M'Kraan. Early in their history, the Shi`ar attacked them, killing a great number of their people and making the rest flee for their lives. Eventually, the Shi'ar settled on their planet, took the M'Kraan Crystal as their own, and passed down the legend of the M'Kraan Crystal as a sacred gift from their deities, Sharra and K'ythri. The M'Kraan then changed their name to Scy'ar Tal and devoted their culture and society to the destruction of the Shi`ar Empire. With their first attack, they destroyed Feather's Edge by transporting a star to obliterate it. After which, Vulcan made contact with the Starjammers to call a temporary ceasefire.
During the ceasefire, Rachel comes into contact with the Death Commandos again and attempts to kill them to avenge the deaths of her relatives; however, she is deterred by Polaris. At the end, all the Starjammers are captured by the Shi'ar except Rachel, Korvus, and Lilandra.
X-Men: Kingbreaker and War of Kings.
Rachel and the Starjammers play a large role in the sequel to the "Emperor Vulcan" miniseries called "X-Men: Kingbreaker". She is also seen prominently in the "War of Kings" storyline, which features Vulcan, the Inhumans, Nova, and the Guardians of the Galaxy.
While with the Starjammers, in battle with Vulcan's new guard, the fragment of the "blue" Phoenix within her and Korvus' blade mysteriously leaves them. After the Phoenix echo leaves Rachel, she says "please... not now... Mom." From this frame onward, the "hound" markings reappear on Rachel's face.
In agreement with the Inhumans, the Starjammers and the Guardians of the Galaxy assault a Shi'ar vessel in order to free Lilandra, hoping to end the conflict while restoring her to the throne. Even without her Phoenix powers, Rachel is powerful enough to entrap Gladiator in an illusion in order to keep him distracted from battle. Their gambit pays off and the group is able to free Lilandra.
Rachel is next seen as Lilandra's bodyguard along with the rest of the Starjammers. On the home planet of the Shi'ar, Lilandra assumes her throne, but while making a ceremonial gesture is killed by the murderer known as Razor, who possesses the Darkhawk armor. The only person who perceives this is Rachel, since Razor is shielded from the perceptions of others.
After Lilandra is assassinated, Rachel fights alongside the Starjammers against the Shi'ar Guard and Araki, who has summoned the same Shi'ar commandos that killed Rachel's family and branded her with the Shi'ar death mark. Rachel uses her powers to implode Black Cloak's head, saying, "He was the one... He killed my family," though killing him does not make her feel happier. Gladiator finishes the job by killing Araki himself. Rachel, along with the rest of the Starjammers, regroup later on and mourn the Shi'ar, as they doubt that they will recover from this war.
Realm of Kings.
It is known through Ch'od, and apparently due to the incident where she and Korvus both lost the connection to the Phoenix Force, that Rachel and Korvus, along with Havok and Polaris, have departed for Earth.
Age of X.
While on the way back to Earth, Rachel attempted to contact Professor Xavier or Emma Frost with a message. However at that moment, Moira (a powerful alternate personality of the mutant Legion) warped reality taking Rachel's mind with it creating the amnesic Revenant. Once reality was restored, Rachel's mind is separated from her body which according to her is "half a universe away". Because of Moira's actions, Rachel no longer remembers the message and her mind retains the form of her Age of X counterpart. Scott promised her that they would return her home.
Schism and Regenesis.
Being actually a mental manifestation, Rachel soon began fading. She asks Rogue to connect with her to see what will happen. When the two of them touch, Rogue sees a vision of where Rachel, Havok and Polaris are as Rachel then returns to her body. When she awakens she is met by an unseen villain holding a gun and telling her he has killed her friends.
Borrowing one of Legion's manifold powers, Rogue teleports alongside Gambit, Magneto and Frenzy to rescue their teammates on the other side of the galaxy. Once there, Rachel is retrieved from a band of pirates as Rogue becomes their new leader. The remaining X-Men discover they've arrived at a space station called Gul Damar which is in a state of upheaval due to the rebellion of insectoid creatures called Grad Nan Holt against their Shi'ar enslavers. They are also being pulled into an exploding sun and the entire civil war is revealed to be orchestrated by a powerful Grad Nan Holt telepath known as "Friendless." A number of battles with the creature proves unsuccessful for Rachel, but with the combined efforts of Rogue and the X-Men they are able to defeat him and return home via the wormhole that was created from the collapsing star.
Rachel as part of a team of Wolverine's X-Men attempted to psychically battle Exodus in an attempt to prevent the assassination of Cyclops. The team is eventually beaten and the X-Men are saved by Generation Hope.
Rachel is then invited to hold a position as senior staff member of the "Jean Grey School for Higher Learning," which was rebuilt from the Xavier Institute and has Wolverine as acting Headmaster and Kitty Pryde as Headmistress.
Avengers vs. X-Men.
During the events of AVX, when the X-Men on Utopia escape from the invading Avengers, Rachel contacts Cyclops to provide Hope's location. Afterwards, Rachel states that she knows the Phoenix Force better than anyone else on Earth and that she is living proof that it can be controlled. She also says that if the Phoenix has chosen her and that is the destiny that Hope wants, she will do everything in her power to help her. She and Iceman tell Wolverine at the school that they are going to help Cyclops in the battle. However, when Cyclops and Emma Frost begin to be corrupted by the Phoenix's power, she, like the other X-Men, decide to oppose their rule. Rachel then battled against Cyclops and helped both the Avengers and X-Men in the final battle.
Marvel NOW! and Inhuman war.
In 2013, Marvel revealed an all new all female series simply named "X-Men". Written by Brian Wood with art by Olivier Coipel, "X-Men" will feature an all female cast including Storm, Jubilee, Rogue, Kitty Pryde, Rachel Grey and Psylocke.
The X-Men are in pursuit of Arkea who has attempted to revive the X-Men's long lost enemies. The X-Men are attacked by the newly formed Sisterhood and Rachel is telepathically locked down by Madelyne Pryor. Storm strikes a deal for Rachels freedom allowing Madelyne and Selene to walk free.
In the AXIS story arc, Storm sends the entire student body against the Red Onslaught in an attempt to save Earth. Rachel is shown to be reverted to her hound form by Dr. Doom and Wanda Maximoffs spell.
Rachel is part of Storm's team of Amazing X-Men who attempts to stop the Living Monolith from becoming the new Juggernaut.
Rachel Grey is distrusting of Spider-Man's newly appointed position as Jean Grey School guidance counseller. Using her telepathy she seeks to expose his secret identity only to lose that memory by being mind-wiped by Martha Johansson.
Rachel is shown as a teacher at the Jean Grey Institute in the battle against Kenji.
ResurrXion.
When Kitty Pryde returns from space to lead the X-Men, Rachel joins her team in "X-Men Gold" and adopts the unique, new code name Prestige.
Dawn of X.
In the new status quo for mutants post "House of X and Powers of X", Professor X and Magneto invite all mutants to live on Krakoa and welcome even former enemies into their fold. Rachel spends some time with her family on the Summer House, the new residence of the Summers Family, located on the Moon. Soon after X (Xavier) is killed by bioengineered human terrorists, Cyclops gathers Rachel and Kid Cable for a mission on the Atlantic Ocean regarding a piece of their new homeland of Krakoa.
Later, she joins Polaris, Daken, Northstar and former X-students Eye-Boy and Prodigy in a new initiative in Krakoa: they are to investigate any mutant death and prepare a report for The Five as part of the Resurrection Protocols of Krakoa. Their first case involves the supposed death of Northstar's twin sister, Aurora.
Powers and abilities.
Rachel possesses various psionic abilities, generally exhibited through telepathy, psychometry, telekinesis, and limited time manipulation.
Telepathy.
Marvel Girl's "virtually unlimited" telepathy allows her to receive, broadcast, and manipulate cognitive processes (such as thoughts) in an intricate manner. Examples of Rachel's aptitudes for this include creating durable mind-links across distances, projecting blasts of psionic energy that disrupt aspects of brain functioning, shielding her mind from other telepaths, creating illusions, and rendering someone imperceptible to the five senses. In addition, Rachel has demonstrated the ability to telepathically suppress superpowers; control, repair, and exchange minds; as well as safely editing memories. Rachel has also harnessed her telepathy to sense, locate, and track other sentient beings based on their thought patterns, but has a moral apprehension about using this skill due to her experiences as a Hound.
It has been suggested that Rachel's telepathy, although immeasurable in raw power, is mitigated by her limited training and finesse. Emma Frost was able to outflank an incredulous Rachel in a contest on the astral plane. In the same issue, Emma offered her educative services; and later still, Rachel received training from Professor Charles Xavier (while he was depowered), giving her access to his vast knowledge and expertise in telepathy.
Telekinesis.
By using telekinesis, Marvel Girl can remotely manipulate matter even on a sub-atomic level. She can channel this ability to create protective force fields and blasts of concussive force. By using her telekinesis to levitate herself, Marvel Girl can fly at incredible speeds. Rachel has been able to create a micro black hole, levitate an entire city for a time, sustain shields that withstood Jovian atmospheric pressures, and direct blows from Thor's hammer, Mjolnir. Moreover, Rachel's telekinetic fine-motor control has allowed her to alter molecular valences, mentally alter clothing with ease, create a telekinetic/psionic sword (much like Psylocke's telekinetic katana), a telekinetic hammer powerful enough to knock Thor off his feet, and even rewrite human genomes.
While all depictions portray Rachel as an extremely powerful telekinetic, the limitations of her hard-psi capabilities have been somewhat inconsistent. Some instances have depicted Rachel's telekinetic potential to be nigh-unlimited, whereas others have shown her struggling against, and even outmatched by, lesser developed telekinetics such as Psylocke.
Chronoskimming.
Marvel Girl utilizes her psionic talents in conjunction with her ability to manipulate time in a variety of ways. "Chronoskimming" describes her ability to temporarily transplant a person's mind and send it through time into a younger/older version, a close ancestor/descendant, or as a disembodied astral form.
Rachel unconsciously emanates a fourth dimensional pulse, effectively creating a chrono-shield that protects her from changes in the timeline. She can also sense and manipulate residual psychic energy in the form of psychometry.
Phoenix Force.
When Rachel was bonded to the cosmic entity known as the Phoenix Force, she demonstrated heightened psi-powers, the ability to manipulate energy and life-forces, and limited cosmic awareness. Rachel's connection to the Phoenix power was lost in the distant future and did not return with her when she traveled back to the early 21st century (present) of Earth-616 (Marvel's mainstream universe).
Most recently, Marvel Girl absorbed a residual echo of the Phoenix Force left in the sword of a previous host, a Shi'ar named Rook'shir. It was revealed that this energy source was a less powerful (but easier to wield) form of the Phoenix Force. The echo was powerful enough to allow Rachel to survive in and fly through the vacuum of space without the need for additional protection, as well as being able to hold her own in combat against the tremendous physical power of Gladiator. These demonstrations were short lived, however, due to its disappearance, which Rachel attributes to Jean Grey. She now exhibits her standard power levels.
Power signature.
As a host for the Phoenix Force, Rachel manifested the cosmic firebird in displays of great power. During her 2000s "Uncanny X-Men" appearances, Marvel Girl also exhibited a Phoenix emblem over her left eye whenever she demonstrated psionic feats. It was at first accompanied by a "shadow form" (similar to the one Jean Grey manifested when she absorbed the telepathic powers of Psylocke). However, the illustration of this shadow form ceased without explanation. After regaining a small portion of the Phoenix Force (echo), the emblem over her eye changed from a gold Phoenix shape to a static version made of electric blue flame. Her display of power was once more altered in "X-Men: Emperor Vulcan" #3, where she produced the familiar fiery raptor with which the Phoenix Force is commonly associated (see profile image).
Skills and abilities.
At times, Rachel has been shown to learn new skills extremely quickly. For example, she mastered a set of "demon ninja" sword skills simply by watching her teammate Shadowcat perform them. Along with sword fighting, Rachel has experience in lock-picking, vehicular repair (such as engines), and use of advanced technology and weaponry. However, these abilities have not been evident in her more recent appearances.
Potential and limitations.
Rachel's power level and scope of abilities have been inconsistently described by writers over the years. However, she is usually depicted with "virtually unlimited" potential in her dual psionic talents. In most cases, she displayed greater feats as the Phoenix and even matched Gladiator's strength with the aid of a "Phoenix echo". Rachel is considered by many to be an Omega-level mutant (like her mother), but the only literary reference to this attribute is when the future Sentinel, Nimrod, classified Rachel as an "Omega class subject" several years before the term was established in Marvel canon.
Even with the omnipotent strength of the Phoenix, magic and magical objects are able to resist Rachel's powers. When the Soulsword appeared near the Excalibur lighthouse headquarters seeking Kitty Pryde to become its new wielder, Rachel attempted to remove it from bedrock to alleviate her friend's apprehension. Despite using the full extent of power permitted by the Phoenix Force, Rachel was unable to remove the sword, surmising that only Kitty could remove it.
Other versions.
In the very first issue of the "Uncanny X-Men" story arc "Season of the Witch", Rachel and Psylocke were transported to the White Hot Room as an indirect result of the reality-shift performed by a mentally unstable Scarlet Witch. While there, it was established that the Rachel appearing in Earth-616 (originally from Earth-811) has no true alternate counterparts within the Marvel multiverse. Rather, all other incarnations of "Rachel Summers" that exist in parallel timelines (see below) are linked only by having the same name, or attributes.
House of M.
The subsequent issues had Rachel and Psylocke return to their dimension and thus be engrossed in the Scarlet Witch's reconstruction of the world. In this reality, Rachel was the bodyguard and traveling companion to Psylocke, who was crowned British royalty after her brother, Brian, became ruler of all England. Rachel then became involved with Captain Britain's mission to seal the breach in reality (rift) that was created by the Scarlet Witch's manipulations.
Variations of Days of Future Past.
In at least three alternate future timelines derived from "Days of Future Past", a Rachel Summers married Franklin Richards and procreated mutant children. One such child was the time-traveling supervillain Hyperstorm (Jonathan Richards). Hyperstorm was responsible for causing the Fantastic Four to think that Mister Fantastic (Jonathan's grandfather) and Doctor Doom were dead; he was only defeated when he was trapped in another dimension by Galactus. The second child was Dream Summers, who possessed empathic superpowers. She was a superhero who appeared in the "Spider-Man/X-Men: Time's Arrow" trilogy of novels (although Marvel Comics novels tend to be considered non-canon). In a third reality, they produced a child named David Richards, who was rescued from a concentration camp by the interdimensional traveling Exiles and raised by the "Age of Apocalypse" version of Sabretooth. David's traumatic experiences at the camp motivated him to become a fanatical murderer.
In another variation of the "Days of Future Past", shown in "Weapon X: Days of Future Now", a Rachel Summers was captured by Weapon X and detained in the "Neverland" concentration camp.
Exiles.
In the so-called "Legacy Earth" reality, in which the Legacy Virus mutated into a techno-organic plague, a Rachel Summers was a member of the Avengers, the last superhero group. At Morph's behest, she contacted Thor and the Asgardians to help them against the Vi-Locks, a race of beings infected with the techno-organic virus.
"X-Men: The End".
The miniseries "" (written by Chris Claremont) details the last adventures of the X-Men in a possible future. In this reality, Rachel played a central role, and was the political campaign manager of Kitty Pryde (Chicago mayoral candidate). However, she abandoned this position after Cassandra Nova led a series of attacks on the X-Men and their allies. She traveled alongside Cable into Shi'ar space. After a Professor X was taken hostage by Nova, and she entered his psyche in order to free him. However, Nova traps her and Lilandra within. She seemingly kills them both, but Rachel used the power of the Phoenix to save herself and incapacitates Nova. They leave Xavier's mind and continue the battle in Rachel's mind, where Rachel is overpowered. Cassandra, using Rachel's body, kills Jean Grey and Cyclops, leaving Rachel forced to watch the ordeal. Nova then leaves Rachel's body, stealing the Phoenix force. The Phoenix being the only thing keeping her alive after her Cassandra destroyed her mental form, she simply died.


6582 Flagsymphony


Quantitative analysis of behavior

Quantitative analysis of behavior is the application of mathematical models, conceptualized from a robust corpus of environment-behavior-consequence interactions in the experimental analysis of behavior, with the aim to describe and/or predict relations between a dependent variable and all possible levels of an independent variable. The parameters in the models hopefully have theoretical meaning beyond being used to fit models to data. The field was founded by Richard Herrnstein (1961) when he introduced the matching law to quantify the behavior of organisms working on concurrent schedules of reinforcement. The field has integrated models from economics, zoology, philosophy, and other branches of psychology, especially mathematical psychology of which it is a branch. The field is represented by the Society for Quantitative Analysis of Behavior. Quantitative analysis of behavior addresses the following topics among others: behavioral economics, behavioral momentum, connectionist systems or neural networks, integration, hyperbolic discounting including the delay reduction hypothesis, foraging, hunting, errorless learning, creativity, learning, and the Rescorla-Wagner model, matching law, melioration, scalar expectancy, signal detection, neural hysteresis, and reinforcement control.


Annual equivalent rate


Cinetheodolite

A cinetheodolite (a.k.a. "kinetheodolite") is a photographic instrument for collection of trajectory data. It can be used to acquire data in the testing of missiles, rockets, projectiles, aircraft, and fire control systems; in the ripple firing of rockets, graze action tests, air burst fuze tests, and similar operations. Cinetheodolites provide angular measurements of the line of sight to the vehicle. This permits acquiring accurate position data. Together with timing systems, velocity and acceleration data can be developed from the position measurements. Cinetheodolites can serve as primary sources of position and velocity data to about 30 km slant range.
These instruments were developed from a family of optical devices known as theodolites by the addition of a movie camera, thus adding the ability to track the vehicle in flight and to obtain continuous trajectory data.
Introduction.
One of the objectives of testing missile and rocket systems is to determine the actual "in-flight" performance of the vehicles themselves. One of the prime requirements for establishing the performance of vehicles in flight is to obtain accurate data which will reveal the position in space and the attitude of the vehicle during its trajectory. The employment of optics at a missile range may become highly significant in obtaining these data, if the atmosphere permits reasonably unobstructed observation, and if, moreover, an all-land test area makes possible optimum siting of instruments for most desirable look angles. Under these conditions, optics in general, and photogrammetry in particular, correlated with other instrumentation systems, can provide effective and accurate data of target trajectory.
Description.
The cinetheodolite is a combination photo-recording and surveying instrument which tracks and photographs targets (in flight vehicles, etc.) at selectable frame rates. Some cinetheodolites have rate-aided tracking control, whereby an open loop servomechanism in conjunction with operator actuated hand wheels match the angular rates of the tracking axis with the angular rates of the target line of position.
Cinetheodolites consist of a stable base and bearing, a vertical gimbal or trunnion carrier which rotates about a vertical axis normal to the plane of the base; a central drum or housing which contains the system telescopic lenses, plus a camera and film assembly; a horizontal trunnion shaft on which the central drum is mounted so that it can rise or dip about the horizontal
axis; and the sighting telescopes, which are also mounted on the horizontal trunnion shaft.
Manufacturers.
Notable cinetheodolite manufacturers include J. W. Fecker Division, American Optical Co., Pittsburgh, Pa. (USA), iMAR Navigation GmbH, St. Ingbert (Germany), "Askania Werke Rathenow" (Germany), Rheinmetall Air Defence (formerly Contraves AG, Switzerland), and BELOMO (Belarus).
[[PhotoSonics, Inc. (California, USA)
References.
Cinetheodolites, Materiel Test Procedure 5-1-031, [[White Sands Missile Range]], 31 March 1969
[[Category:Measuring instruments]]
[[Category:Articles containing video clips]]


Microphone connector

Many different electrical connectors have been used to connect microphones to audio equipment—including PA systems, radios, tape recorders, and numerous other devices.
Phone connectors.
Photo: 2.5 mm mono (TS), 3.5 mm mono and stereo (TRS), and 1/4″ (6.35 mm) stereo (TRS) phone connectors
The most common microphone connector in consumer use is the venerable phone connector, in 1/4" (6.35 mm), 3.5 mm, and 2.5 mm sizes, and in both mono and stereo configurations.
Not all microphone plugs with 3-segment TRS (Tip-Ring-Sleeve) connectors are actually stereo. Most computer microphones use the third segment to carry bias power for the microphone.
Type "O" 1930's Connectors.
These round connectors are about 1 inch in diameter. They were in common use in the later 40's and thru the 50's at WELI, New Haven Connecticut. see: http://terryking.us/OldRadio/OP-4-RCA-RemoteAmplifier-1934-Rear.jpg The 3 connectors on the left are 1934 type "P" round microphone connectors. They look like this: http://terryking.us/OldRadio/P-CG-12S.jpg
Type "UA" 1950's - 1960's Professional connectors.
These were "D" shaped upgrades of the old P connectors, with gold plated pins and sockets. They looked like this: http://terryking.us/OldRadio/UA-3-12.jpg
SwitchCraft 2501F.
This is the part number for a Swichcraft connector used with high impedance microphones up through about 1980. It was intended for coax style cable up to outside diameter.
Attachment is made with a 5/8-27 threaded ring that can be unthreaded over the body of the connector body allowing the female connector to become a male connector.
Wire connection was via solder. The center conductor is soldered to a hole resulting in a flat center contact. The cable shield is soldered to the strain-relief spring which is held in the body of the connector with a set screw.
With no provision for spring loading of the connection ring, vibration tends to loosen the threaded ring and create intermittent contact.
Amphenol 80-series and 91-Series.
Popular microphone connector from 1930s to 1980s, originally manufactured by Amphenol.
Amphenol sold this production to WPI Interconnect in early 1980s.
The Amphenol 80-MC2M microphone connector was popular with American radio manufacturers (1950s to 1970s).
XLR connectors (Mid-50's to today).
Most commonly used on professional microphones, the common 3-pin XLR connector is a standard for transferring balanced audio among professional audio equipment.
The 4-pin XLR is the standard connector for intercom headsets, such as systems made by ClearCom and Telex. Two pins are used for the mono headphone signal and two pins for the unbalanced microphone signal.
The 4-pin XLR connector is also commonly used on amateur radio microphones, but transferring unbalanced audio instead, and using the 4th pin (with the common ground) for a push-to-talk (PTT) circuit activated by a button on the microphone. Some broadcast radio professionals also use these microphones, instead using the PTT circuit as a cough button (a momentary mute button) so that they may cough, clear their throat, or make comments to others in the studio without the sounds being broadcast. It is also used for dmx512 digital stage controls.
Multi-pin Circular Connector (Marushin, MCC, CBC-series, Foster, GX-16).
First used in the 1970s by Japanese radio manufacturers, as an alternative to the German DIN connector standard for microphone connectors on Citizens Band and Amateur Radio equipment,
these screw-on circular connectors were available with 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, or 8 pins. They often were used for other purposes as well, such as 1970s amateur radio transceivers (microphone), 1970s Kenwood mobile radios (2-pin, DC power), Eastern Asian manufacturers built soldering stations in 1990s using the conne tor fir the iron/handpiece connector.
As reported by Philmore-Datel (LKG Industries of Rockford, IL), the USA importer and distributor for these connectors, the original Japanese mfg. (Foster) ceased production. After the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami (loss of factories), connector manufacturing moved from Japan to Taiwan and mainland China manufacturers.
Marushing Electric Mfg. Co., Ltd. in Kanagawa, Japan the original 1950's producer of the connector type still continues manufacturing.
Japanese communications equipment manufacturers as Icom, Yaesu Musen etc. have been using Marushin connectors in their products.
These connectors are sold under a variety of generic names: "CB connector", "Mobile connector", "Microphone connector", "Power connector" — even sometimes misidentified as XLR connectors.
The Chinese mainland (and Taiwan) manufacturers adopted this connector as the “GX16” (16mm), for “Power” or “Avionics” usage. You can find the Chinese “GX series” used as a multi-voltage connector (soldering stations, avionics, marine, etc.). Google or eBay search “GX16” , and you will find hundreds of vendors, such as Renhotecpro, based in Guangdong, China.
http://www.renhotecpro.com/gx16-connector-data-sheet/
Renhotecpro has standardized the manufacturing of GX-series, in a variety of sizes,
by the diameter of the connector (in mm):
GX12, GX16, GX20, GX25, GX30, GX35, GX40.
Even though this circular connector is largely standardized, there was NO industry standard for wiring or pin usage/assignments. The individual pin assignments to specific functions varied from manufacturer to manufacturer.
For example, in amateur radio, Icom, Kenwood, and Yaesu radios have all used the 8-pin screw-on connector, yet microphones from one brand are incompatible with the other two brands, at least without the use of an adapter cable in between the microphone and the radio.
Modular connectors.
Although originally designed for telephone usage and later adopted for computer networking, the Modular connector has been used for microphone connections extensively on modern amateur radio equipment, including models from the three major manufacturers (Icom, Kenwood, and Yaesu), but primarily used on mobile radio equipment (designed to be mounted in vehicles).
Like the screw-on round microphone connectors, there is little standardization among manufacturers, and even among different models from the same manufacturer, leading to significant interoperability problems when connecting non-OEM or homebrew microphones and other equipment.
Most radios with modular microphone connectors use the 8P8C (vernacular: RJ45) connector, but some use 6P6C or 4P4C connectors.


Degree (music)

In music theory, the term scale degree refers to the position of a particular note on a scale relative to the tonic, the first and main note of the scale from which each octave is assumed to begin. Degrees are useful for indicating the size of intervals and chords and whether they are major or minor.
In the most general sense, the scale degree is the number given to each step of the scale, usually starting with 1 for tonic. Defining it like this implies that a tonic is specified. For instance, the 7-tone diatonic scale may become the major scale once the proper degree has been chosen as tonic (e.g. the C-major scale C–D–E–F–G–A–B, in which C is the tonic). If the scale has no tonic, the starting degree must be chosen arbitrarily. In set theory, for instance, the 12 degrees of the chromatic scale usually are numbered starting from C=0, the twelve pitch classes being numbered from 0 to 11.
In a more specific sense, scale degrees are given names that indicate their particular function within the scale (see table below). This definition implies a functional scale, as is the case in tonal music.
This example gives the names of the functions of the scale degrees in the seven note diatonic scale. The names are the same for the major and minor scales, only the seventh degree changes name when flattened:
\override Score.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f
 #(set-global-staff-size 18)
 \set Score.proportionalNotationDuration = #(ly:make-moment 1/8)
\relative c' {
 \clef treble \key c \major \time 8/1
 c1
 d e f g a \override ParenthesesItem.padding = #1.5 \parenthesize bes b
 \time 1/1 c \bar "||"
</score>
The term scale step is sometimes used synonymously with scale degree, but it may alternatively refer to the distance "between" two successive and adjacent scale degrees (see steps and skips). The terms "whole step" and "half step" are commonly used as interval names (though "whole scale step" or "half scale step" are not used). The number of scale degrees and the distance between them together define the scale they are in.
In Schenkerian analysis, "scale degree" (or "scale step") translates Schenker's German "Stufe", denoting "a chord having gained structural significance" (see Schenkerian analysis#Harmony).
Major and minor scales.
The degrees of the traditional major and minor scales may be identified several ways: