Article element

HTML5 Article is a HTML5 semantic element, similar to and . It is most commonly used to contain information that may be distributed independently from the rest of the site or application it appears in.
Features and usage.
The HTML5 element represents a complete composition in a web page or web application that is independently distributable or reusable, e.g. in syndication. This could be a forum post, a magazine or newspaper article, a blog entry, a user-submitted comment, an interactive widget or gadget, or any other independent item of content.
Examples.
At its most basic, can be used to encapsulate a body of text and a corresponding title like so:

Insert Title Here

Insert a paragraph of text here

Forum entries and comments are typically implemented by nesting tags:

Entry Title

Header Info

Content of entry...

Author: John Smith

Comment Info

Comment text...

Author: Jane Johnson

2nd Comment's Info

Comment text...

Attributes.
The element only includes the global HTML attributes such as "contenteditable", "id", and "title." However, "pubdate", an optional boolean attribute of the element, is often used in conjunction with . If present, it indicates that the element is the date the was published. Note that "pubdate" applies only to the parent element, or to the document as a whole.
Comparison with "
".
HTML5 introduced both and ; both are semantic tags, defining sections in a document, such as chapters, headers, footers. The element is effectively a specialized kind of and it has a more specific meaning, referring to an independent, self-contained block of related content.
Nesting examples.
To better organize independent content tags can be nested inside tags:

Names of Shapes

There are several different types of shapes...

Triangles

Here is some info about triangles

Circles

These Pi-shaped wonders are mesmerizing and...

Conversely, it may sometime be appropriate to nest an element inside a element. For example, in a web page containing several articles on varying subjects:

Articles about Paris Tourism

The Eiffel Tower

Standing at over 12 inches high...

The Louvre

A must-see in Paris tourism...

Browser support.
The following browsers have support for this element:


High Earth orbit

A high Earth orbit is a geocentric orbit with an altitude entirely above that of a geosynchronous orbit (). The orbital periods of such orbits are greater than 24 hours, therefore satellites in such orbits have an apparent retrograde motion – that is, even if they are in a prograde orbit (90° > inclination ≥ 0°), their orbital velocity is lower than Earth's rotational speed, causing their ground track to move westward on Earth's surface.


All fifths tuning

Among guitar tunings, all-fifths tuning refers to the set of tunings in which each interval between consecutive open strings is a perfect fifth. All-fifths tuning is also called fifths, perfect fifths, or mandoguitar. The conventional "standard tuning" consists of perfect fourths and a single major third between the "g" and "b" strings:
All-fifths tuning has the set of open strings
which have intervals of 3 octaves minus a half-step between the lowest and highest string. The conventional tuning has an interval of 2 octaves between lowest and highest string.
All-fifths tuning is a tuning in intervals of perfect fifths like that of a mandolin or a violin. It has a wide range. It was used by jazz guitarist Carl Kress in the form
An approximation: New standard tuning.
All-fifths tuning has been approximated with tunings that avoid the high b' replacing it with a g' in the New Standard Tuning of King Crimson's Robert Fripp, which has been taught in Guitar Craft courses. Guitar Craft, which has been succeeded by Guitar Circle, has taught Fripp's tuning to 3,000 students.
Relation with all-fourths tuning.
All-fifths tuning is closely related to all-fourths tuning. All-fifths tuning is based on the perfect fifth (the interval with seven semitones), and all-fourths tuning is based on the perfect fourth (five semitones). The perfect-fifth and perfect-fourth intervals are inversions of one another, and the chords of all-fourth and all-fifths are paired as inverted chords. Consequently, chord charts for all-fourths tunings may be used for left-handed all-fifths tuning.


Arcsecond


Ion drift meter

An ion drift meter is a device used to measure the velocity of individual ions in the area of a spacecraft. This information can then be used to calculate the ion drift in the space surrounding the instrument as well as the strength of an electric field present, provided that the magnetic field strength has been determined using a magnetometer.
The device itself works by allowing ions to pass through an opening at the front of the instrument and measuring the currents produced by the impacts of ions in different locations on a grid at the back. The trajectories of the ions can then be determined.
Ion drift meters have been used on several spacecraft including the Dynamics Explorer, CHAMP and Ionospheric Connection Explorer.


2760 Kacha


Kaleidica

The Kaleidica Light Instrument, is software developed by Chuck Henderson and published by Fishrock Studios for creating symmetrical and abstract pattern art, animations and real-time user-generated light-shows much like a mechanical kaleidoscope. Kaleidica creates imagery and script-generated animations based on a number of geometric algorithms that arrange arrays of images or animation clips in various user-determined patterns. Composed of multiple internal "studios," Kaleidica can produce patterns reminiscent of kaleidoscope art, Arabic tapestries, psychedelic "op-art," mandala and yantra meditative patterns, and abstract forms akin to Kandinsky or Renoir. Kaleidica uses images as brushes that are selected from a collection of image libraries. Images libraries can be changed and new libraries can be created by users. Animated brush effects are created by cycling through a series of images creating three dimensional and abstract effects.
In light-show mode users of the Kaleidica are able to move the mouse in-sync with music and simultaneously manipulate a variety of functions using the keyboard. Subtle and vigorous effects can be achieved by manipulating blend, rotation, image-brush size, skew, etc.
The sequel to Yantram: Sacred Art Toolbox (Published in 2000 also by fishrock studios), Kaleidica enables users to record and play-back the process of creating symmetrical art, effectively creating full-screen animations. Using simultaneous input from both keyboard and mouse, users manipulate the position, size, rotation, blend, skew and other variables in real-time. Computers with modest video card and processor speeds can display evolving artwork in sync with live or recorded music suitable for interactive light-shows. Kaleidica uses single images and loops of sequential images as animated brushes. These image-brushes are written to the screen buffer much like paint applied to a canvas. In the case of Kaleidica multiple brush strokes are applies simultaneously to create the kaleidoscopic variations.
Description.
Kaleidica is based on a system of studios, each of which can produce a distinct effect. In each studio, the user controls the movement of the brushes with the mouse, while manipulating the characteristics of the brush (like size or rotation) with the keyboard.
The studios inside Kaleidica include the maze studio, the mirror studio, the star studio, the array studio, and the kaleido studio, among others.
In most Kaleidica Studios the same brush appears multiple times on the screen, each brush exactly mimicking the others. The brush appears as many times as the user specifies, each radiating from the central point called a "centroid" which can be placed anywhere inside or outside the screen.
Users may retrieve content from the program by capturing the screen. As well, users can record their actions on the screen in real time to be later replayed.
Custom Content.
Users can upload their own content into Kaleidica, using their own images as brushes. The Kaleidica website sometimes has updated brushes and studios, such as the recent Louvre studio.


Fluid tuning

Fluid tuning is a tuning system for the piano. It was developed by Geoff Smith, a composer and musician from Brighton, England.
Fluid tuning is accomplished by the addition of the microtonal tuning mechanism to the instrument. This mechanism enables the musician to alter each note individually and separately by precise microtonal intervals. With this design modification, the musician can choose either to leave the piano in 'fixed tuning', or to use the mechanism to retune any number of notes microtonally to any desired combination. The modification, therefore, allows a number of tuning layouts to be created and explored per composition, in contrast to the instrument being creatively limited to fixed tuning which is typically the culturally predominant Western chromatic octave.
The microtonal tuning mechanism consists of a sliding bridge, a groove and buffers fitted to each note of the instrument. The bridge is in constant contact with the strings. If the musician slides the bridge along the groove to any point between the buffers, a precise microtonal interval change results.


Betty Allan

Frances Elizabeth Allan (1905–1952) was an Australian statistician. She was known as the first statistician at CSIRO, as "the effective founder of the CSIRO Division of Mathematics and Statistics", and for her advocacy of biometrics.
Allan was born on 11 July 1905 in St Kilda, Victoria; her parents were both journalists with "The Argus", and she was one of four sisters. As a schoolgirl, she attended the Melbourne Church of England Girls' Grammar School. She studied mathematics at the University of Melbourne, earning a bachelor's degree in 1926 and a master's in 1928 for her work with John Henry Michell on solitary waves on liquid-liquid interfaces.
She traveled on a scholarship to Newnham College, Cambridge, where she worked with Ronald Fisher and John Wishart on agricultural statistics.
Returning to Australia in 1930, she became a biometrician in the Division of Plant Industry of CSIRO. While at CSIRO, she also taught at Canberra University College and the Australian Forestry School. In 1935, she helped found the Australian Institute of Agricultural Science. In 1940 she married CSIRO botanist Patrick Joseph Calvert, and was forced to retire by the laws of the time, which banned married women from public service. She died on 6 August 1952 in Canberra.
The Betty Allan Data Centre of CSIRO's Queensland Centre for Advanced Technologies is named after her. In 2019 the Statistical Society of Australia and Data61 created a joint travel award named in her honour.


Inch per second

The inch per second is a unit of speed or velocity. It expresses the distance in inches ("in") traveled or displaced, divided by time in seconds ("s", or "sec"). The equivalent SI unit is the metre per second.
Abbreviations include in/s, in/sec, ips, and less frequently in s−1.
Conversions.
1 inch per second is equivalent to:
1 metre per second ≈ 39.370079 inches per second (approximately)

1 foot per second = 12 inches per second (exactly)

1 mile per hour = 17.6 inches per second (exactly)

1 kilometre per hour ≈ 10.936133 inches per second (approximately)
Uses.
In magnetic tape sound recording, magnetic tape speed is often quoted in inches per second (abbreviated "ips").
Also computer mice sensitivity is also often referred to in inches per second (abbreviated as "ips") along with g force.
In rotorcraft health monitoring, rotor and shaft induced vibration levels are often quoted in inches per second.


Random element

In probability theory, random element is a generalization of the concept of random variable to more complicated spaces than the simple real line. The concept was introduced by who commented that the “development of probability theory and expansion of area of its applications have led to necessity to pass from schemes where (random) outcomes of experiments can be described by number or a finite set of numbers, to schemes where outcomes of experiments represent, for example, vectors, functions, processes, fields, series, transformations, and also sets or collections of sets.”
The modern-day usage of “random element” frequently assumes the space of values is a topological vector space, often a Banach or Hilbert space with a specified natural sigma algebra of subsets.
Definition.
Let formula_1 be a probability space, and formula_2 a measurable space. A random element with values in "E" is a function which is formula_3-measurable. That is, a function X such that for any formula_4, the preimage of B lies in formula_5.
Sometimes random elements with values in formula_6 are called formula_6-valued random variables.
Note if formula_8, where formula_9 are the real numbers, and formula_10 is its Borel σ-algebra, then the definition of random element is the classical definition of random variable.
The definition of a random element formula_11 with values in a Banach space formula_12 is typically understood to utilize the smallest formula_13-algebra on "B" for which every bounded linear functional is measurable. An equivalent definition, in this case, to the above, is that a map formula_14, from a probability space, is a random element if formula_15 is a random variable for every bounded linear functional "f", or, equivalently, that formula_11 is weakly measurable.
Examples of random elements.
Random variable.
A "random variable" is the simplest type of random element. It is a map formula_17 is a measurable function from the set of possible outcomes formula_18 to formula_9.
As a real-valued function, formula_11 often describes some numerical quantity of a given event. E.g. the number of heads after a certain number of coin flips; the heights of different people.
When the image (or range) of formula_11 is finite or countably infinite, the random variable is called a discrete random variable and its distribution can be described by a probability mass function which assigns a probability to each value in the image of formula_11. If the image is uncountably infinite then formula_11 is called a continuous random variable. In the special case that it is absolutely continuous, its distribution can be described by a probability density function, which assigns probabilities to intervals; in particular, each individual point must necessarily have probability zero for an absolutely continuous random variable. Not all continuous random variables are absolutely continuous, for example a mixture distribution. Such random variables cannot be described by a probability density or a probability mass function.
Random vector.
A random vector is a column vector formula_24 (or its transpose, which is a row vector) whose components are scalar-valued random variables on the same probability space formula_1, where formula_26 is the sample space, formula_5 is the sigma-algebra (the collection of all events), and formula_28 is the probability measure (a function returning each event's probability).
Random vectors are often used as the underlying implementation of various types of aggregate random variables, e.g. a random matrix, random tree, random sequence, random process, etc.
Random matrix.
A random matrix is a matrix-valued random element. Many important properties of physical systems can be represented mathematically as matrix problems. For example, the thermal conductivity of a lattice can be computed from the dynamical matrix of the particle-particle interactions within the lattice.
Random function.
A random function is a type of random element in which a single outcome is selected from some family of functions, where the family consists some class of all maps from the domain to the codomain. For example, the class may be restricted to all continuous functions or to all step functions. The values determined by a random function evaluated at different points from the same realization would not generally be statistically independent but, depending on the model, values determined at the same or different points from different realisations might well be treated as independent.
Random process.
A Random process is a collection of random variables, representing the evolution of some system of random values over time. This is the probabilistic counterpart to a deterministic process (or deterministic system). Instead of describing a process which can only evolve in one way (as in the case, for example, of solutions of an ordinary differential equation), in a stochastic or random process there is some indeterminacy: even if the initial condition (or starting point) is known, there are several (often infinitely many) directions in which the process may evolve.
In the simple case of discrete time, as opposed to continuous time, a stochastic process involves a sequence of random variables and the time series associated with these random variables (for example, see Markov chain, also known as discrete-time Markov chain).
Random field.
Given a probability space formula_1 and a measurable space X,
an "X"-valued random field is a collection of "X"-valued
random variables indexed by elements in a topological space "T". That is, a random field "F" is a collection
where each formula_31 is an "X"-valued random variable.
Several kinds of random fields exist, among them the Markov random field (MRF), Gibbs random field (GRF), conditional random field (CRF), and Gaussian random field. An MRF exhibits the Markovian property
where formula_33 is a set of neighbours of the random variable "X""i". In other words, the probability that a random variable assumes a value depends on the other random variables only through the ones that are its immediate neighbours. The probability of a random variable in an MRF is given by
where Ω' is the same realization of Ω, except for random variable "X""i". It is difficult to calculate with this equation, without recourse to the relation between MRFs and GRFs proposed by Julian Besag in 1974.
Random measure.
A random measure is a measure-valued random element. Let X be a complete separable metric space and formula_35 the σ-algebra of its Borel sets. A Borel measure μ on X is boundedly finite if μ(A) < ∞ for every bounded Borel set A. Let formula_36 be the space of all boundedly finite measures on formula_35. Let be a probability space, then a random measure maps from this probability space to the measurable space . A measure generally might be decomposed as:
Here formula_39 is a diffuse measure without atoms, while formula_40 is a purely atomic measure.
Random set.
A random set is a set-valued random element.
One specific example is a random compact set. Let formula_41 be a complete separable metric space. Let formula_42 denote the set of all compact subsets of formula_43. The Hausdorff metric formula_44 on formula_42 is defined by
formula_47 is also а complete separable metric space. The corresponding open subsets generate a σ-algebra on formula_42, the Borel sigma algebra formula_49 of formula_42.
A random compact set is а measurable function formula_51 from а probability space formula_52 into formula_53.
Put another way, a random compact set is a measurable function formula_54 such that formula_55 is almost surely compact and
is a measurable function for every formula_57.
Random geometric objects.
These include random points, random figures, and random shapes.


LBOZ

LBOZ is a coefficient used in spectrophotometry to estimate selectivity (amount of overlapping of spectra) in a quantitative manner. It is named after its creators: Lorber, Bergmann, von Oepen, and Zinn.
Definition.
Let formula_1 be a matrix of the spectra (absorbances), where the "k" rows correspond to the components in mixture and "n" columns correspond to the sequence of wavelengths. The LBOZ criterion for "k"th component is calculated from the following formula:
where formula_3 means a pseudoinverse of the matrix and formula_4 means an euclidean length of a vector.
Properties.
The image above show synthetic gaussian spectra. The LBOZ criteria are: 0.561 for black compound, 0.402 for red compound, 0.899 for green and 0.549 for blue. LBOZ always lie in range <0,1> and has strong mathematical sense - it presents the amount of spectral signal which is not overlapped by the others. Hence, the uncertainty of a compound quantity increases by formula_5 in presence of the other compounds. In this case, the highest uncertainty is expected during determination of red compound - theoretically 2.38 times greater than during determination of its compound alone.


Newag

Newag S.A. [pronounced: nevag] is a Polish company, based in Nowy Sącz, specialising in the production, maintenance, and modernisation of railway rolling stock. The company's products include the 14WE, 19WE, 35WE types electric multiple units; it has also developed the Nevelo tram.
History.
In 1876 the Royal Railway Workshop opened, serving a newly built Austrian railway line. After the First World War the establishment, renamed "1st Class Main Workshop" served Polish State Railways, employing some 1800 workers in 1922. In post-World War II communist Poland the workshop was nationalised and later became a separate, though still state-owned, enterprise officially called "Nowy Sacz Railway Stock Repairs Depot in Nowy Sacz, State Independent Enterprise" (), with a workforce of about 3,500 in 1952. The last steam locomotive was serviced in 1972. After the fall of communism and the economic changes of 1989, the enterprise was transformed into a State Treasury Joint Stock Company, with the Polish state as the only shareholder. The company went through a period of financial turmoil around 2001 and its shares were acquired by a private domestic investor in 2003. The current name was adopted in 2005.
Current products.
Locomotives are available with both AC electric, DC electric and diesel-electric traction. The Dragon is also available with Last Mile Diesel


Boston Underground Film Festival

The Boston Underground Film Festival (BUFF) is an annual event held in the Boston area that specializes in alternative film and video. BUFF is the largest underground film festival in New England, spotlighting short films and feature-length films that would not otherwise find an audience. It was the only film festival in the world to give an award for "Most Effectively Offensive" films, an accolade it awarded from its inception until 2017; on the festival's twentieth anniversary, the award was retired and replaced with "Best First Feature Film," marking a shifting focus towards celebrating new voices in filmmaking.
Despite the festival's title, BUFF has not taken place in Boston proper since 2003. The 2004 festival was held mainly in Arlington, Massachusetts. In 2005, BUFF was held entirely in Somerville, Massachusetts. From 2006 on, BUFF has taken place entirely in Cambridge, Massachusetts.
Although BUFF, as an organization, has hosted year round programming at various Boston venues (such as Space 242 in the South End, The Savant Project (now defunct) in Mission Hill and the Milky Way Lounge in Jamaica Plain), there seem to be no current plans to hold the festival in the City of Boston. Starting in 2016, the festival expanded operations to include a monthly screening series called "Dispatches from the Underground" at the Somerville Theatre Microcinema. The series screens "the ones that got away," highlighting films that weren't selected for the official festival, as well as occasional repertory titles and guest curated programs from other New England festivals, as well as traveling festivals.
BUFF is one of the longest continuously-running underground film festivals in the world, second only to Chicago Underground Film Festival.
Recognition.
BUFF was named one of MovieMaker Magazine's "Bloody Best Genre Fests in the World" in 2019. Following the 2018 festival, BUFF was recognized on Boston Magazine's Best of Boston 2018 list as Best Film Festival and received a special commendation at the Boston Society of Film Critics' 2018 Special Awards.
The festival received DigBoston's DIGTHIS! Award in 2014 and 2015 for Best Film Festival.
History.
Started in 1998, by film professor/curator David Kleiler, BUFF was an extension of an all night film marathon produced by Kleiler and Dima Ballin. The First Annual Boston Underground Film Festival took place in February 1999 at the now defunct Revolving Museum in South Boston. Described by programmer Bernard Broginart as "a wonderful hoax of a film festival," the first BUFF was an extremely informal event. Patrons were encouraged to wander from room to room for a single ticket price in the art gallery converted to a cinema. This format was continued for the 2000 festival.
In the years following, BUFF has adopted a more traditional festival format with set screening start times and using actual cinemas and screening rooms. Between 2001 and 2004, BUFF had expanded and contracted with no central location or venue and no set duration. The festival took place during the month of February from 1999 to 2002. In 2003, it was moved to October; then to May in 2004. During this period, numerous venues housed BUFF screenings, including the Milky Way Lounge in Jamaica Plain, The Allston Cinema Underground (now defunct), The Arlington Regent Theatre, and the Brattle Theatre.
By 2005, BUFF was under new management, with Anna Feder and Kevin Monahan taking over as co-managing directors and bringing on Bryan McKay as graphic designer. David Kleiler retained Executive Director duties this year. One of Feder and Monahan's first actions was to feature the Bacchus bunny front and center by using McKay's striking designs. They also centralized operations during this year, with all screenings taking place at the Somerville Theatre in Davis Square. In 2006 they made Harvard Square BUFF's new home, using the Brattle Theatre as the primary venue. The Brattle also hosted the festival in 2007 and 2008. Kleiler stepped down as Executive Director after the 2006 festival.
According to BUFF's website, the 2009 festival was held at the Kendall Square Cinema and the Brattle Theatre, both in Cambridge. The 2010 and 2011 festivals were held exclusively at the Kendall Square Cinema.
Anna Feder stepped down as Director after the 2011 festival. As of the 2012 festival, Kevin Monahan and Nicole McControversy stepped up into dual festival director roles as Artistic Director and Director of Programming, respectively, and restructured the festival as an officially registered LLC. The festival's graphic designer, Bryan McKay, was promoted to Media Director in 2012.
BUFF's core staff is currently:
Artistic Director – Kevin Monahan, Director of Programming – Nicole McControversy, Media Director – Bryan McKay. BUFF is organized by an entirely unpaid, volunteer group of dedicated film fans.
In 2012, BUFF moved back to the Brattle Theatre where it has remained the festival's primary screening venue. The festival also used the Harvard Film Archive as a secondary venue from 2016 to present.
BUFF's 22nd annual festival, originally scheduled for March 2020 was postponed indefinitely due to the COVID-19 pandemic. BUFF was one of the five genre festivals that organized NIGHTSTREAM, an online film festival in October 2020. Four feature films and five short programs originally intended for the 22nd BUFF were featured in NIGHTSTREAM.
The Bacchus Awards.
Rather than giving cash or trade value prizes for awards, BUFF doles out a trophy in the shape of a demonic black bunny with red eyes; various iterations of the award also had a vibrating feature. The Bacchus Award was incorporated into BUFF in its second year and has since become the official mascot of the festival, a focal point in poster/logo design, and the rationale behind the festival's red/black/white color scheme. "And the bunny goes to..." is the much-anticipated phrase at the award ceremony that closes the festival. A new version of Bacchus, clad in white briefs and clutching a liquor bottle was unveiled for the 2008 festival and designed by Casey A. Riley.
Riley designed an updated version of the award in 2009, featuring a slightly svelter Bacchus wearing a pink bunny suit, clutching a liquor bottle and exhibiting a raised middle-finger. This version of the Bacchus Award remained in use through 2017. As of 2018, a new Bacchus was designed in celebration of the festival's twentieth anniversary. Designed by Jason Rosen of Skinwalker Studios, the latest version of Bacchus is entirely ebony and emphasizes more demonic and occult-suggestive traits.
Awards Categories.
Audience Choice Award: Best of Fest Short, Best of Fest Feature
Best First Feature (as of 2018)
Director's Choice (BUFF organizers): Best Short, Best Feature
Retired: Most Effectively Offensive Award
Occasionally awards for Lifetime Achievement and Best New England Film are selected as well.


Brooks Pate

Brooks H. Pate is the William R. Kenan, Jr. Professor of Chemistry at the University of Virginia.
He graduated from the University of Virginia with a B.S. in Chemistry in 1987, and from Princeton University with a Ph.D. in 1992. He was a NRC Postdoctoral Fellow at NIST (Gaithersburg, MD) from 1992 to 1993. He heads the Pate Research Group.


480 Hansa

Hansa (minor planet designation: 480 Hansa), provisional designation , is a stony asteroid and the namesake of the Hansa family located in the central region of the asteroid belt, approximately in diameter. It was discovered on 21 May 1901, by astronomers Max Wolf and Luigi Carnera at the Heidelberg Observatory in southwest Germany. The S-type asteroid has a rotation period of 16.19 hours and possibly an elongated shape. It was named after the Hanseatic League, a medieval European trade association.
Orbit and classification.
"Hansa" is the namesake and parent body of the stony Hansa family (), a high-inclination family with more than a thousand known members. "Hansa" and the asteroid 925 Alphonsina are the two largest member of this family.
It orbits the Sun in the central asteroid belt at a distance of 2.5–2.8 AU once every 4 years and 4 months (1,570 days; semi-major axis of 2.64 AU). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.05 and an inclination of 21° with respect to the ecliptic. The body's observation arc begins at Heidelberg, the night after its official discovery observation in May 1901.
Physical characteristics.
In the Tholen classification, "Hansa" is a common, stony S-type asteroid. The near infrared spectra suggests the surface has a primary component of low-Ca pyroxene with lower amounts of olivine.
Rotation period.
Several rotational lightcurves of "Hansa" were obtained from photometric observations since the 1990s (). Analysis of the two best-rated lightcurves gave a rotation period of 16.19 hours with a brightness amplitude of 0.58 and 0.44 magnitude, respectively (). A high brightness variation typically indicates an elongated shape.
A modeled lightcurve using photometric data from large collaboration network was published in 2016. It gave a concurring period of 16.1894 hours, as well as two spin axes at (352.0°, −18.0°) and (173.0°, −32.0°) in ecliptic coordinates (λ, β).
Diameter and albedo.
According to the surveys carried out by the Infrared Astronomical Satellite IRAS, the Japanese Akari satellite and the NEOWISE mission of NASA's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer, "Hansa" measures between 55.94 and 65.67 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo between 0.162 and 0.254.
The "Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link" adopts the results obtained by IRAS, that is an albedo of 0.2485 and a diameter of 56.22 kilometers based on an absolute magnitude of 8.38.
Naming.
This minor planet was named after the Hanseatic League (), a medieval confederation of merchant guilds and market towns in Northern Europe and the Baltic region. On the height of its expansion during the 14th and 15th century, the league included cities that are now located in Germany, Poland, Sweden, Estonia, Latvia, the Netherlands and Russia. The official naming citation was mentioned in "The Names of the Minor Planets" by Paul Herget in 1955 (). The name was proposed by astronomer Heinrich Kreutz in 1906, who was an editor of the journal "Astronomische Nachrichten" based in the German city of Kiel, which was a member town of the Hanse League.


Nancy Bates

Nancy A. Bates is a statistician who works as a senior researcher at the United States Census Bureau. Bates earned bachelor's and master's degrees from the University of Oklahoma in 1985 and 1987, and began working for the census bureau in 1988.
In 2013 the University of Oklahoma named her as a Distinguished Alumna. In 2014 she was elected as a Fellow of the American Statistical Association "for outstanding contributions to the federal statistical system in survey methodology; for improving the measurement of same-sex couples in federal surveys; for leadership in the census to increase response rates in hard-to-count populations; and for outstanding service to the profession." Bates is past president of the Washington Statistical Society and founder of the Delta Mike chapter of the League of Lady Statisticians. In 2019 Bates was awarded the American Association for Public Opinion Research Public Service Award.


Chips per second


Laurence Broze

Laurence Broze (born 1960) is a Belgian applied mathematician specializing in statistics and econometrics and particularly in the theory of rational expectations. She is a professor of applied mathematics at the University of Lille in France. From 2012 to 2018 she was president of l'association femmes et mathématiques, a French association for women in mathematics.
Education and career.
Broze was born in Brussels. She went to high school in Charleroi and earned an agrégation in mathematics in 1982 at the Université Libre de Bruxelles. She earned her doctorate at the same university in 1986, and completed a habilitation at the University of Lille in 1994. Her doctoral thesis, "Réduction, identification et estimation des modèles à anticipations rationnelles", was supervised by Simone Huyberechts.
She became an assistant at the Université Libre de Bruxelles in 1985, and moved to Charles de Gaulle University – Lille III in 1989. At Charles de Gaulle University, she also served as vice president of research from 2000 to 2006, and directed the unit for mathematics, computer science, management, and economics (UFR MIME) from 2009 to 2014; since 2015 she has been assistant director of UFR MIME. In 2018, Charles de Gaulle University merged with two others to become the University of Lille. Since 1996 she has also been a part-time visiting professor at Saint-Louis University, Brussels.
Contributions.
With A. Szafarz, Broze is the author of "The Econometric Analysis of Non-Uniqueness in Rational Expectations Models" (Contributions to Economic Analysis, Elsevier, 1991). With Szafarz and C. Gourieroux, she is the author of "Reduced Forms of Rational Expectations Models" (Fundamentals of Pure and Applied Economics 42, Harwood Academic Publishers, 1990).
Recognition.
In 2014, Broze became a knight of the Legion of Honour, and an officer of the Ordre des Palmes Académiques.


Software audit review

A software audit review, or software audit, is a type of software review in which one or more auditors who are not members of the software development organization conduct "An independent examination of a software product, software process, or set of software processes to assess compliance with specifications, standards, contractual agreements, or other criteria".
"Software product" mostly, but not exclusively, refers to some kind of technical document. IEEE Std. 1028 offers a list of 32 "examples of software products subject to audit", including documentary products such as various sorts of plan, contracts, specifications, designs, procedures, standards, and reports, but also non-documentary products such as data, test data, and deliverable media.
Software audits are distinct from software peer reviews and software management reviews in that they are conducted by personnel external to, and independent of, the software development organization, and are concerned with compliance of products or processes, rather than with their technical content, technical quality, or managerial implications.
The term "software audit review" is adopted here to designate the form of software audit described in IEEE Std. 1028.
Objectives and participants.
"The purpose of a software audit is to provide an independent evaluation of conformance of software products and processes to applicable regulations, standards, guidelines, plans, and procedures". The following roles are recommended:
Principles of a Software Audit.
The following principles of an audit should find a reflection:
This list of audit principles for crypto applications describes - beyond the methods of technical analysis - particularly core values, that should be taken into account
Tools.
Parts of Software audit could be done using static analysis tools that analyze application code and score its conformance with standards, guidelines, best practices. From the List of tools for static code analysis some are covering a very large spectrum from code to architecture review, and could be use for benchmarking.


English guitar

The English guitar or guittar (also citra), is a stringed instrument – a type of cittern – popular in many places in Europe from around 1750–1850. It is unknown when the identifier "English" became connected to the instrument: at the time of its introduction to Great Britain, and during its period of popularity, it was apparently simply known as "guitar" or "guittar". The instrument was also known in Norway as a "guitarre" and France as "cistre" or "guitarre allemande" (German guitar). There are many examples in Norwegian museums, like the Norsk Folkemuseum and in British ones, including the Victoria and Albert Museum. The English guitar has a pear-shaped body, a flat base, and a short neck. The instrument is also related to the Portuguese guitar and the German waldzither.
Early examples had tuning pegs (similar to a violin or lute), but many museum examples have what are commonly referred to now as Preston tuners, an innovation that appears closely linked with the instrument.
Tuning.
It usually had ten strings in a repetitive open C tuning, of which the highest eight are paired in four courses (doubled strings),
in Helmholtz notation.
The English guitar may have influenced the development and tuning of the Russian guitar, which has seven strings tuned to open G in thirds (G–B, B–D, g–b, and b–d) with two in fourths (D–G, and D–g):


634 Ute

634 Ute is a minor planet orbiting the sun.


Werner Junck

Werner Junck (28 December 1895 – 6 August 1976) was a German general in the Luftwaffe during World War II and the one time commander of Fliegerführer Irak. He claimed 5 aerial victories during World War I.
Career.
Werner Junck was born in Magdeburg, the Province of Saxony, the Kingdom of Prussia, the German Empire, on 28 December 1895. He was interested in aviation before World War I, and learned to fly in 1913. However, he entered military service as an artillery officer as World War I began. In 1916, he was posted to "Flieger-Abteilung" (Flier Detachment) 33 of the "Die Fliegertruppen" (the flying troops).
In October 1916, as "Die Fliegertruppen" morphed into the "Luftstreitkräfte", Junck was transferred to a fighter squadron, "Jagdstaffel 8". He scored his first aerial victory on 24 April 1917, downing a 20 Squadron FE.2d east of Ypres. He rose to command of the "jasta" on 4 April 1918 and stayed with it through war's end. Junck would be wounded three times and shoot down four SPADs in northern France before the Armistice. His five victories made him an ace. His three wounds qualified him for a Silver Wound Badge, though there is no record it was awarded to him.
Werner Junck was one of the instructors at the "Luftwaffe"'s secret Lipetsk fighter-pilot school in the Soviet Union from 1925 to 1928. Junck also participated in the first, third and fourth FAI International Tourist Plane Contest Challenge 1929 (27th place) Challenge 1932 (14th place) and Challenge 1934 (6th place). In 1934, he joined the nascent "Luftwaffe" at the rank of major. By 1938-1939, he was an "Oberstleutnant" commanding "Jagdgruppe 334".
Junck's best known role in World War II is commanding "Fliegerführer Irak", the aerial component of "Sonderstab F", a military mission sent to Iraq in May 1941 to aid Rashid Ali's rebel government after it forced out the pro-British regime the previous month. On 29 May they retreated from the country. Later in the war, he led forces in the fighting against the Allied forces in Normandy. In 1960 he was appointed honorary chairman of the "Gemeinschaft der Jagdflieger", the Association of Fighter Pilots.


Daylight saving time in the Americas

Daylight saving time in the Americas is the arrangement in the Americas by which clocks are advanced by one hour in spring and moved back in autumn, to make the most of seasonal daylight. The practice is widespread in North America, with most of Canada, Mexico, and the United States of America participating, but much less so in South America.
North America.
Canada, Mexico, and the United States of America.
Canada, Mexico, and the United States of America use daylight saving time on a wide scale, with only a few states/provinces and parts thereof opting out of the practice or adopting it year-round without the twice yearly switch.
The United States territory of Puerto Rico remains in Atlantic Standard Time (AST) all year long.
Since 2007, in areas of Canada and the United States of America in which it is used, daylight saving time begins on the second Sunday of March and ends on the first Sunday of November. In Mexico, Congress has consistently been refusing to adopt this schedule on a nationwide basis, so only certain border cities in Mexican states that observe DST follow the same pattern as Canada and the United States of America. The rest of Mexico remains out of phase beginning DST on the first Sunday of April and ending on the last Sunday of October, the same schedule followed by Canada and the United States of America prior to 2007.
Saint Pierre and Miquelon.
Saint Pierre and Miquelon, located near the Canadian coast, belongs to France, but observes daylight saving time according to Canadian rules.
Greenland.
Greenland (excluding two minor areas at Danmarkshavn and Pituffik) observes DST and uses the European convention (DST begins 01:00 UTC last Sunday in March and ends 01:00 UTC last Sunday in October). Most populated places in the country are in the zone in the winter ( in the summer). Because of this, with respect to local time, clocks are changed from 22:00 to 23:00 in the spring (on the Saturday before the last Sunday in March), and reset back from 23:00 to 22:00 in the autumn (on the Saturday before the last Sunday in October).
Danmarkshavn does not use DST, because it is a weather station with an airstrip which is supplied from Iceland, which does not use DST. This might apply to some other weather stations in the area.
Pituffik/Thule Air Base uses and United States conventions on DST because it is a US air base, meaning it is part of the Atlantic Time Zone.
Bermuda.
Bermuda has observed DST annually since 1974.
The Caribbean lands.
Puerto Rico remains all year long in Atlantic Standard Time. (AST).
The Bahamas.
The Commonwealth of The Bahamas observes DST according to the American schedule.
Barbados.
Barbados in the western Atlantic no longer observes Daylight Saving Time, like many Caribbean nations. The last observance of a daylight saving-related time clock adjustment was between Sunday, 20 April 1980 at 2:00 AM – Thursday, 25 September 1980 at 2:00 AM. On 25 September the clock was shifted -3:00 – -4:00 where it has remained since.
Cuba.
Cuba normally observes DST from March to October although the precise dates vary. For two years in the mid-2000s (decade), Cuba stayed on DST throughout the year. In 2009 it was on DST from the second Sunday in March to the last Sunday of October. In 2011, it was on DST from the third Sunday in March to the second Sunday in November.
Dominica.
Dominica in the Caribbean does not observe Daylight Saving Time, like several other Caribbean nations.
The Dutch Caribbean Islands.
The Dutch Caribbean islands of Aruba, Bonaire, Curaçao, Saba, Sint Eustatius and Sint Maarten do not observe Daylight Saving Time.
The French Caribbean Islands.
The French Caribbean islands of Guadeloupe, Martinique, Saint-Barthélemy and Saint-Martin do not observe Daylight Saving Time.
Haiti.
Haiti had reestablished Daylight Saving Time in 2012, following the US/Canada DST Rules, starting on the second Sunday in March and ending on the first Sunday in November. This was discontinued in 2016,but was re-introduced in 2017.
Jamaica.
Jamaica previously used Daylight Saving Time, utilising the US and Canadian rules. The practise was used from 1974 before being discontinued in 1983.
Trinidad and Tobago.
Trinidad and Tobago remains on Atlantic Standard Time and does not observe DST.
The Turks and Caicos Islands.
Turks and Caicos discontinued Daylight Saving Time in March 2015, at the same time moving from the Eastern Time Zone to the Atlantic Time Zone, the end result being the same as having year-round Daylight Saving in the Eastern Time Zone.
In 2018, the islands reintroduced daylight saving time by setting the clocks back 1 hour to Eastern Standard Time; the islands follow the same daylight saving schedule as the United States of America and Canada.
Central America.
Guatemala.
Guatemala has used DST during energy crises. The last time it used DST was from April 30, 2006, to October 1, 2006.
Honduras.
Honduras adopted DST from May 1994 until September 1994 but then abandoned it. On May 7, 2006 it again used DST; however it ended on August 7, 2006, making this the shortest use of DST in the northern hemisphere as it was only applied for 3 months. The government decided not to use DST in 2007.
Nicaragua.
Nicaragua observed DST from January 1, 1992 until February 20, 1994 but it was stopped. On April 10, 2005 until October 2, 2005 DST was implemented, and the following year the period was similar, beginning on April 30, 2006 and ending on October 1, 2006; this measure was for energy conservation. In 2007, the government of Nicaragua decided to stop observing daylight saving time.
South America.
In equatorial regions, DST is not useful because of the stability of light levels throughout the year. As a result large areas of South America do not observe DST. DST is used in some of the more southerly countries such as Paraguay and most of Chile.
These countries or regions in South America do not use daylight saving time:
Argentina.
Since 2009, Argentina has not been observing DST and the entire country has stayed on . Argentina is located at a longitude that would naturally put it in the UTC−04:00 or UTC−05:00 time zone.
San Luis province, which was previously in a different time zone than most of the country and which formerly observed DST, decided in April 2010 not to change its clocks back and to stay on all year round.
The most recent history of Argentina observing DST dates from 2007 to 2009. After a period of not observing DST, Argentina observed DST in some provinces in an attempt to save energy. For each period, the executive branch of the government set the specific start and end dates for DST, i.e. there was no fixed annual schedule.
Bolivia.
In 2011, Bolivia planned to observe DST starting September 1 for the first time in its history, advancing the clock an hour on a nationwide basis in order to offset their energy problems. The schedule change was planned to take place every year between September and March, corresponding to the spring and summer of the South American country. However, the day before the scheduled change, on August 31, 2011, the national government indefinitely suspended the observation of DST due to opposition from experts in electricity, neighborhood and school leaders, and the general populace.
Brazil.
Brazil adopted DST (called "horário de verão"—"summer time"—in Portuguese) for the first time in 1931, and it was in effect across the entire country. The duration and regional applicability of DST has varied over the years (see for details). As of 2013, DST was used only in the southern region (the states of Rio Grande do Sul, Santa Catarina, Paraná), the southeast region (the states of São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, Espirito Santo, Minas Gerais), and the central-west region (the state of Goiás and the Distrito Federal, and the states of Mato Grosso and Mato Grosso do Sul).
Formerly, starting and ending dates were variable, but in 2008, a decree (No. 6558 of 9 September 2008) established a permanent rule: DST starts at 00:00 on the third Sunday in October from 2008 to 2017 (and on the first Sunday in November from 2018 to the present), and ends at 00:00 on the third Sunday in February—unless the latter falls during Carnaval: in this case, the end of DST was postponed by one week.
In 2019, Brazil scrapped daylight saving time and now stays on standard time year round.
Chile.
Chile currently observes DST from the first Saturday in September to the first Saturday in April.
In the past, DST was observed from the second Saturday in October to the second Saturday in March, but it has varied (see Time in Chile). In 2008, for example, the time was adjusted on Sunday, March 30, at 12 midnight.
In 2010, because of an earthquake, DST remained in effect until April 3.
In 2011, in order to prevent energy shortages after a dry summer, DST was first extended until April 2 and then until May 7.
From 2011-2014, Chile DST started the first Saturday of September at 24:00, and ended the last Saturday of April at 24:00.
DST was not observed in 2015 when the government declared that the country would remain on permanently. But on March 16, 2016, decree 253 modified the 2015 decision and restored winter time. It would last 90 days from the second weekend of May to the second weekend of August.
Colombia.
From February 1992 until March 1993, Colombia suffered rolling blackouts of up to 10 hours a day due to a particularly strong El Niño season, which dried the reservoirs in hydroelectric plants in a country deriving 70% of its energy output from hydroelectric sources; consequently, the government decided to use DST to help save electricity. The experiment failed to deliver the intended results, possibly due to Colombia's low latitude, and the DST experiment was discontinued.
Ecuador.
Ecuador's President Sixto Durán Ballén imposed daylight saving time in 1992 in an energy-saving effort. It was poorly received by the populace and did not last long.
Falkland Islands.
DST () is generally observed from the first Sunday of September to the third Sunday of April. However, the Falklands remained on DST throughout 2011 and 2012.
Paraguay.
Paraguay observes DST under decree 1867 of March 5, 2004. DST ends on the second Sunday of March and starts on the third Sunday of October.
In 2007, DST started on October 15, 2006 and ended on March 11, 2007.
In 2010, Paraguay changed its own DST rules because of the energy crisis, ending DST on the second Sunday in April, a month later than previous years. The start date remains unchanged.
Uruguay.
Since 2004, Uruguay has observed DST. Starting in 2006, DST begins on the first Sunday in October and ends on the second Sunday in March of every year. On 30 June 2015, Uruguay abolished DST.


Safe semantics

Safe semantics is a computer hardware consistency model. It describes one type of guarantee that a data register provides when it is shared by several processors in a parallel computer or in a network of computers working together.
History.
Safe semantics was first defined by Leslie Lamport in 1985. It was formally defined in Lamport's "On Interprocess Communication" in 1986.
Safe register has been implemented in many distributed systems.
Description.
Safe semantics are defined for a variable with a single writer but multiple readers (SWMR). A SWMR register is safe if each read operation satisfies these properties:
In particular, given concurrency of a read and a write operation, the read can return a value that has not been written by a write. The return value need only belong to the register domain.
A binary safe register can be seen as modeling a bit flickering. Whatever the previous value of the register is, its value could flicker until the write finishes. Therefore, the read that overlaps with a write could return 0 or 1.
"Churn" refers to the entry and exit of servers to/from a distributed system. Baldoni et al. show that no register can have the stronger property of regular semantics in a synchronous system under continuous churn. However, a safe register can be implemented under continuous churn in a non-synchronous system. Modeling and implementing a type of storage memory (Safe Register) under non-quiescent churn requires some system models such as client and server systems. Client systems contains a finite, arbitrary number of processes that are responsible for reading and writing the server system. However,the server system must ensure that read and write operations happen properly.
Implementation.
Safe register implementation involves:
Safe register is maintained by the set of active servers.
Clients maintain no register information.
Eventually synchronous system
Quora (set of server or client systems)
Size of the Read and Write operation executed on quora = n – f – J (n is the number of servers, J is the number of servers that enter and exit, and f is the number of Byzantine failures.
Algorithms such as join, read, and write.
Join.
A server ("si") that wants to enter a server system broadcasts an inquiry message to other servers to inform them of its entry, si requests a current value of the register. Once other server receive this inquiry they send reply messages to si. After si receives enough replies from other servers, it collects the replies and saves them into a reply set. Si waits until it gets enough replies (n-f-j) from other servers then it picks the most frequently received value. Si also:
Read.
The read algorithm is a basic version of join. The difference is the broadcast mechanism used by the read operation. A client ("cw") broadcasts a message to the system and once a server receives the inquiry, it sends a reply message to the client. Once the client receives enough replies (n-f-j) it stops sending an inquiry.
Write.
Client ("cw") sends an inquiry into the system in different rounds and waits until it receives two acknowledgment. ("sn" =sequence number)
The reason for receiving two acknowledgments is to avoid danger in a system. When a process sends an acknowledgement ("ack"), it may die after one millisecond. Therefore, no confirmation is received by the client.
The validity of the safe register (If a read is not concurrent with any write, return the last value written) was proved based on the quorum system. Given two quorum systems (Qw, Qr) Qw indicates the servers that know about the latest value, and Qr indicates values of read responses. The size of each quorum is equal to n-f-j. Proving the safe register's validity requires proving
formula_1
were "B" is the number of Byzantine failures.
Proof : Red region indicates (Qw∩Qr)\B and the blue region indicates Qr∩B. From the assumption, the size of each quorum is n-f-j, so the red region has n-3f-2j active servers. Therefore,
formula_2is strictly greater than f.


Noon mark

The Noon mark is a type of sundial that at its simplest is a vertical line on a south facing wall or a north-south line on a horizontal pavement. When the shadow of a point (or a projected image of the Sun) crosses the line it will be midday. Noon in local standard time is defined as when the sun is overhead, however clocks and watches use mean time which varies from standard time by a few minutes each day. The difference is calculated using the equation of time and this can be shown on the noon mark by drawing an analemma, or using a correction table.


Evaporative light scattering detector

An evaporative light scattering detector (ELSD) is a detector used in conjunction with high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), Ultra high-performance liquid chromatography (UHPLC), Purification liquid chromatography such as flash or preparative chromatography, countercurrent or centrifugal partition chromatographies and Supercritical Fluid chromatography (SFC). It is commonly used for analysis of compounds where UV detection might be a restriction and therefore used where compounds do not efficiently absorb UV radiation, such as sugars, antivirals, antibiotics, fatty acids, lipids, oils, phospholipids, polymers, surfactants, terpenoids and triglycerides. ELSDs is related to the charged aerosol detector (CAD) and like the CAD, falls under the category of destructive detectors.
An evaporative light scattering detector (ELSD) is able to detect all compound which are less volatile than the mobile phase, i.e. non volatile and semi-volatile compounds.
Principles of operation.
ELSDs analyze solvent after elution from HPLC. As the eluent passes from an HPLC, it is mixed with an inert carrier gas and forced through a nebulizer, which separates the liquid into minute aerosolized droplets. These droplets then pass into a heated drift tube, where the mobile phase solvent is evaporated off. As the mobile phase evaporates, the droplets become smaller and smaller until all that is left is minute particles of dried analyte. These particles are pushed through the drift tube by the carrier gas to the detection region. In this region, a beam of light crosses the column of analyte and the scattering of light is measured by a photodiode or photomultiplier tube. The detector's output is non-linear across more than one order of magnitude and proper calibration is required for quantitative analysis.


3367 Alex

3367 Alex, provisional designation "", is a background asteroid from the intermediate region of the asteroid belt, approximately in diameter. It was discovered on 2 September 1993, by American astronomer Norman Thomas at Lowell's Anderson Mesa Station, near Flagstaff, Arizona, in the United States. The X-type asteroid has a rotation period of 9.6 hours. It was named after the grandson of the discoverer, Alex Baltutis.
Orbit and classification.
"Alex" is a non-family asteroid from the main belt's background population. It orbits the Sun in the central asteroid belt at a distance of 2.6–3.0 AU once every 4 years and 8 months (1,697 days). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.07 and an inclination of 5° with respect to the ecliptic. The asteroid was first identified as "" at Heidelberg Observatory in 1953, extending the body's observation arc by 30 years prior to its official discovery observation at Anderson Mesa.
Naming.
This minor planet was named by the discoverer after his grandson, Alex R. Baltutis. The official naming citation was published by the Minor Planet Center on 26 March 1986 ().
Physical characteristics.
In the SMASS classification, "Alex" is an X-type asteroid, while NASA's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer characterizes it as a bright E-type asteroid. Due to its intermediate albedo, the body may be of metallic composition.
Rotation period.
In February 2006 and April 2011, two rotational lightcurves of "Alex" were obtained from photometric observations made by French astronomers René Roy and Laurent Bernasconi, respectively. The fragmentary lightcurves gave an identical rotation period of and hours with a respective brightness variation of 0.01 and 0.05 in magnitude (). Such a low amplitude typically indicates that the body has a nearly spheroidal shape.
Diameter and albedo.
According to the space-based surveys carried out by the Japanese Akari satellite and by WISE with its subsequent NEOWISE mission, "Alex" has an albedo of 0.10, and measures 17.0 and 15.2 kilometers in diameter, respectively. The "Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link" assumes a standard albedo for carbonaceous asteroids of 0.057 and calculates a diameter of 19.3 kilometers with an absolute magnitude of 12.3.


Analysis of daylight saving time

Daylight saving time (DST) is the practice of advancing clocks during warmer months so that darkness falls later each day according to the clock.
Proponents of DST generally argue that it saves energy, promotes outdoor leisure activity in the evening (in summer), and is therefore good for physical and psychological health, reduces traffic accidents, reduces crime or is good for business.
Opponents argue that DST disrupts human circadian rhythms (negatively impacting human health in the process), that it increases fatal traffic collisions, that the actual energy savings are inconclusive, and that DST increases health risks such as heart attack. Farmers have tended to oppose DST.
Having a common agreement about the day's layout or schedule has so many advantages that a standard schedule over whole countries or large areas has generally been chosen over efforts in which some people get up earlier and others do not. The advantages of coordination are so great that many people ignore whether DST is in effect by altering their work schedules to coordinate with television broadcasts or daylight. DST is commonly not observed during most of winter, because the days are shorter then; workers may have no sunlit leisure time, and students may need to leave for school in the dark. Since DST is applied to many varying communities, its effects may be very different depending on their culture, light levels, geography, and climate. Because of this variation, it is hard to make generalized conclusions about the effects of the practice. The costs and benefits may differ between places. Some areas may adopt DST simply as a matter of coordination with other areas rather than for any other benefits.
Energy use.
A 2017 meta-analysis of 44 studies found that DST leads to electricity savings of 0.3% during the days when DST applies. The meta-analysis furthermore found that "electricity savings are larger for countries farther away from the equator, while subtropical regions consume more electricity because of DST." This means that DST may conserve electricity in some countries, such as Canada and the United Kingdom, but be wasteful in other places, such as Mexico, the southern United States, and northern Africa. The savings in electricity may also be offset by extra use of other types of energy, such as heating fuel.
The period of daylight saving time before the longest day is shorter than the period after, in several countries including the United States of America, in areas that observe daylight saving time, and Europe. For example, in the U.S. the period of daylight saving time is defined by the Energy Policy Act of 2005. The period for daylight saving time was extended by changing the start date from the first Sunday of April to the second Sunday of March and changing the end date from the last Sunday in October to the first Sunday in November.
DST's potential to save energy comes primarily from its effects on residential lighting, which consumes about 3.5% of electricity in the United States and Canada. (For comparison, air conditioning uses 16.5% of energy in the United States.) Delaying the nominal time of sunset and sunrise reduces the use of artificial light in the evening and increases it in the morning. As Franklin's 1784 satire pointed out, lighting costs are reduced if the evening reduction outweighs the morning increase, as in high-latitude summer when most people wake up well after sunrise. An early goal of DST was to reduce evening usage of incandescent lighting, once a primary use of electricity. Although energy conservation remains an important goal, energy usage patterns have greatly changed since then. Electricity use is greatly affected by geography, climate, and economics, so the results of a study conducted in one place may not be relevant to another country or climate.
Several studies have suggested that DST increases motor fuel consumption. The 2008 DOE report found no significant increase in motor gasoline consumption due to the 2007 United States extension of DST.
Economic effects.
Those who benefit most from DST are the retailers, sporting goods makers, and other businesses that benefit from extra afternoon sunlight. Having more hours of sunlight in between the end of the typical workday and bedtime induces customers to shop and to participate in outdoor afternoon sports. People are more likely to stop by a store on their way home from work if the sun is still up. In 1984, "Fortune" magazine estimated that a seven-week extension of DST would yield an additional $30 million for 7-Eleven stores, and the National Golf Foundation estimated the extension would increase golf industry revenues $200 million to $300 million. A 1999 study estimated that DST increases the revenue of the European Union's leisure sector by about 3%.
Conversely, DST can harm some farmers, and others whose hours are set by the sun. One reason why farmers oppose DST is that grain is best harvested after dew evaporates, so when field hands arrive and leave earlier in summer, their labor is less valuable. Dairy farmers are another group who complain of the change. Their cows are sensitive to the timing of milking, so delivering milk earlier disrupts their systems. Today some farmers' groups are in favor of DST.
Young children often have difficulty getting enough sleep at night when the evenings are bright.
DST also hurts prime-time television broadcast ratings, drive-ins and other theaters.
Changing clocks and DST rules has a direct economic cost, entailing extra work to support remote meetings, computer applications and the like. For example, a 2007 North American rule change cost an estimated $500 million to $1 billion, and Utah State University economist William F. Shughart II has estimated the lost opportunity cost at around US$1.7 billion. Although it has been argued that clock shifts correlate with decreased economic efficiency, and that in 2000 the daylight-saving effect implied an estimated one-day loss of $31 billion on U.S. stock exchanges, the estimated numbers depend on the methodology. The results have been disputed, and the original authors have refuted the points raised by disputers.
Public safety.
In 1975 the United States Department of Transportation (DOT) conservatively identified a 0.7% reduction in traffic fatalities during DST, and estimated the real reduction at 1.5% to 2.0%, but the 1976 NBS review of the DOT study found no differences in traffic fatalities. In 1995 the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety estimated a reduction of 1.2%, including a 5.0% reduction in crashes fatal to pedestrians. Others have found similar reductions. Single/Double Summer Time (SDST), a variant where clocks are one hour ahead of the sun in winter and two in summer, has been projected to reduce traffic fatalities by 3% to 4% in the UK, compared to ordinary DST. However, accidents do increase by as much as 11% during the two weeks that follow the end of British Summer Time. It is not clear whether sleep disruption contributes to fatal accidents immediately after the spring clock shifts. A correlation between clock shifts and traffic accidents has been observed in North America and the UK but not in Finland or Sweden. Four reports have found that this effect is smaller than the overall reduction in traffic fatalities. A 2009 U.S. study found that on Mondays after the switch to DST, workers sleep an average of 40 minutes less, and are injured at work more often and more severely.
DST likely reduces some kinds of crime, such as robbery and sexual assault, as fewer potential victims are outdoors after dusk. Artificial outdoor lighting has a marginal and sometimes even contradictory influence on crime and fear of crime.
In several countries, fire safety officials encourage citizens to use the two annual clock shifts as reminders to replace batteries in smoke and carbon monoxide detectors, particularly in autumn, just before the heating and candle season causes an increase in home fires. Similar twice-yearly tasks include reviewing and practicing fire escape and family disaster plans, inspecting vehicle lights, checking storage areas for hazardous materials, reprogramming thermostats, and seasonal vaccinations. Locations without DST can instead use the first days of spring and autumn as reminders.
A 2017 study in the "American Economic Journal: Applied Economics" estimated that "the transition into DST caused over 30 deaths at a social cost of $275 million annually," primarily by increasing sleep deprivation.
Using a large US database of 732,835 fatal motor vehicle accidents (MVA) recorded from 1996 to 2017, Fritz et al. (2019) found a 6% increase in fatal MVA risk in the workweek following the spring transition to DST, which was more pronounced in the morning and further West of a time zone. There were no effects of the fall-back transition to standard time (ST) on MVA risk, supporting the hypothesis that circadian misalignment and sleep deprivation underlie MVA risk increases.
In March 2020, the Israeli government planned to delay daylight saving in order to discourage gatherings during the COVID-19 pandemic. However, it was decided this would be too technically difficult to implement at such short notice.
Health.
Experts in circadian rhythms and sleep are warning about the negative health implications of DST. DST cuts on sleep and causes an increased mismatch between the body clock and local time, a condition called social jetlag. Both sleep deprivation and social jetlag have been associated with negative effects on physical and mental health outcomes, including increased risks for diabetes, obesity, heart disease, depression, and some forms of cancer. Year-round standard time (not year-round DST) is proposed to be the preferred option for public health and safety.
In societies with fixed work schedules it provides more afternoon sunlight for outdoor exercise. It alters sunlight exposure; the effects depend on one's location and daily schedule, as sunlight triggers vitamin D synthesis in the skin, but overexposure can lead to skin cancer. DST may help in depression by causing individuals to rise earlier, but some argue the reverse. The Retinitis Pigmentosa Foundation Fighting Blindness, chaired by blind sports magnate Gordon Gund, successfully lobbied in 1985 and 2005 for U.S. DST extensions. DST shifts are associated with higher rates of ischemic stroke in the first two days after the shift, though not in the week thereafter.
Clock shifts were found to increase the risk of heart attack by 10 percent, and to disrupt sleep and reduce its efficiency. Effects on seasonal adaptation of the circadian rhythm can be severe and last for weeks. A 2008 study found that although male suicide rates rise in the weeks after the spring transition, the relationship weakened greatly after adjusting for season. A 2008 Swedish study found that heart attacks were significantly more common the first three weekdays after the spring transition, and significantly less common the first weekday after the autumn transition. A 2013 review found little evidence that people slept more on the night after the fall DST shift, even though it is often described as allowing people to sleep for an hour longer than normal. The same review stated that the lost hour of sleep resulting from the spring shift appears to result in sleep loss for at least a week afterward. Even so, a 2014 study conducted in the United States showed that heart attacks decreased significantly after the fall DST shift.
The government of Kazakhstan cited health complications due to clock shifts as a reason for abolishing DST in 2005. In March 2011, Dmitri Medvedev, president of Russia, claimed that "stress of changing clocks" was the motivation for Russia to stay in DST all year long. Officials at the time talked about an annual increase in suicides.
An unexpected adverse effect of daylight saving time may lie in the fact that an extra part of morning rush hour traffic occurs before dawn and traffic emissions then cause higher air pollution than during daylight hours.
In 2017, researchers at the University of Washington and the University of Virginia reported that judges who experienced sleep deprivation as a result of DST tended to issue longer sentences.
Complexity and disadvantages.
DST's clock shifts have the obvious disadvantage of complexity. People must remember to change their clocks; this can be time-consuming, particularly for mechanical clocks that cannot be moved backward safely. People who work across time zone boundaries need to keep track of multiple DST rules, as not all locations observe DST or observe it the same way. The length of the calendar day becomes variable; it is no longer always 24 hours. Disruption to meetings, travel, broadcasts, billing systems, and records management is common, and can be expensive. During an autumn transition from 02:00 to 01:00, a clock reads times from 01:00:00 through 01:59:59 twice, possibly leading to confusion.
Lists of time zones and time differences usually do not include daylight saving time, as that is considered complicated and would mean different times over the seasons of the year. For example, UK is usually listed as UTC±00:00, Japan as , and Sydney as . But in January, Sydney observes , and in July, UK observes UTC+01:00, so the differences between all these countries vary during the year. Since lists avoid taking complicated daylight saving time into account, they give wrong information about actual time.
Damage to a German steel facility occurred during a DST transition in 1993, when a computer timing system linked to a radio time synchronization signal allowed molten steel to cool for one hour less than the required duration, resulting in spattering of molten steel when it was poured. Medical devices may generate adverse events that could harm patients, without being obvious to clinicians responsible for care. These problems are compounded when the DST rules themselves change; software developers must test and perhaps modify many programs, and users must install updates and restart applications. Consumers must update devices such as programmable thermostats with the correct DST rules or manually adjust the devices' clocks. A common strategy to resolve these problems in computer systems is to express time using the Coordinated Universal Time with no offset (UTC±00:00; which, depending on time of year, is not always the same as hour as London time) rather than the local time zone. For example, Unix-based computer systems use the UTC-based Unix time internally.
Some clock-shift problems could be avoided by adjusting clocks continuously or at least more gradually—for example, Willett at first suggested weekly 20-minute transitions—but this would add complexity and has never been implemented.
DST inherits and can magnify the disadvantages of standard time. For example, when reading a sundial, one must compensate for it along with time zone and natural discrepancies. Also, sun-exposure guidelines such as avoiding the sun within two hours of noon become less accurate when DST is in effect.


Lenore E. Bixby

Lenore Alice Epstein Bixby (August 12, 1914 – April 5, 1994) was an American statistician who worked with the Social Security Administration and the National Academy of Sciences.
Education.
She was born in Buffalo, New York, and some of her earlier publications are listed under that name. As a student of the class of 1935 at Wellesley College, she became chairman of the school's branch of the League of Women Voters, and graduated Phi Beta Kappa with honors as a Senior Durant Scholar.
She did graduate study in economics and statistics at Columbia University, earning a master's degree there in 1937.
Career.
After completing her studies, she came to work for the Bureau of Labor Statistics and then, after World War II, as an operations officer for the Marshall Plan. This work took her away from Washington to Paris.
She joined the Social Security Administration in 1954,
and worked there as deputy assistant commissioner of the Office of Research and Statistics and later as director of the Division of Retirement and Survivors' Studies.
While there, she married F. Lovell Bixby, a prominent penologist, who died in 1975.
She retired from the administration in 1977, but continued to work as a statistician for the National Academy of Sciences, in their Committee on National Statistics.
Awards and honors.
In 1969, she was honored by the American Statistical Association, who elected her as one of their fellows. She was also a fellow of the Gerontological Society. She was a founding member of the National Academy of Social Insurance.


Kinnordy House

Kinnordy House (alternative spellings: Kynnordy, Kinardy, Kinnordie and Kinorde) is an estate house near Kirriemuir in Angus, Scotland. The first house was built in the 1680s, when Inverquharity Castle was vacated; however, the current three-storey, towered and turreted structure dates from 1881, incorporating an 18th-century wing and stables. The house was the birthplace of the noted geologist Charles Lyell, and is associated with his friend Charles Darwin.
History.
The walled garden was built after the Jacobite rising of 1745, by the "Nameless Highlanders".
On 28 November 1782 the entrepreneur Charles Lyell bought Inverquharity and Kinnordy from Sir John Ogilvy. An observatory was added by his son, the botanist Charles Lyell.
The house was designated a Category B listed building in 1980. Many of the associated buildings and structures are also listed: the home farm, the East Lodge and its gates, the Causewayend Cottages (now the Kinnordy Estate Office), the museum and observatory, the walled garden, sundial and Bell Gate.


638 Moira

638 Moira, also known as A907 JG, is a minor planet orbiting the Sun. First observed in 1906, 638 Moira was discovered to be an orbital body in 1907 by Joel Hastings Metcalf in Taunton, England. 638 Moira is a little over 59.5 km across and rotates once every 10 hours. Its farthest point from the sun is a little over 3au during its 4.5 year orbit, and it is classed as an L-type asteroid (SMASSII).


6354 Vangelis


Uruguayan units of measurement

A number of units of measurement were used in Uruguay to measure quantities. Metric system was optional in Uruguay since 1866, and has been compulsory since 1894.
System before metric system.
The older system was the Spanish (Castilian) system with some modification.
Mass.
One libra was equal to 460 g (1.014286 lb).
Capacity.
One fanega was equal to 274 l (7.776 bushels).


Cantilever magnetometry

Cantilever magnetometry is the use of a cantilever to measure the magnetic moment of magnetic particles. On the end of cantilever is attached a small piece of magnetic material, which interacts with external magnetic fields and exerts torque on the cantilever. These torques cause the cantilever to oscillate faster or slower, depending on the orientation of the particle's moment with respect to the external field, and the magnitude of the moment. The magnitude of the moment and magnetic anisotropy of the material can be deduced by measuring the cantilever's oscillation frequency versus external field.
A useful, although limited analogy is that of a pendulum: on earth it oscillates with one frequency, while the same pendulum on, say, the moon, would oscillate with a slower frequency. This is because the mass on the end of the pendulum interacts with the external gravitational field, much as a magnetic moment interacts with an external magnetic field.
Cantilever equation of motion.
As the cantilever oscillates back and forth it arches into hyperbolic curves with the salient feature that a tangent to the end of the cantilever always intersects one point along the middle axis. From this we define the effective length of the cantilever, formula_1, to be the distance from this point to the end of the cantilever (see image to the right). The Lagrangian for this system is then given by
_{v^2}-\left(\underbrace{\frac{1}{2}k ( L_{e} \theta )^{2}}_{\begin{smallmatrix}\text{Restoring}\\ \text{Energy}\end{smallmatrix}}-\underbrace{\mu B \cos{(\theta-\beta)}}_{\begin{smallmatrix}\text{Zeeman}\\ \text{Energy}\end{smallmatrix}}+\underbrace{K_uV\sin^2{\beta}}_{\begin{smallmatrix}\text{Anisotropy}\\ \text{Energy}\end{smallmatrix}}\right)
where formula_2 is the effective cantilever mass, formula_3 is the volume of the particle, formula_4 is the cantilever-constant and formula_5 is the magnetic moment of the particle. To find the equation of motion we note that we have two variables, formula_6 and formula_7 so there are two corresponding Lagrangian equations which need to be solved as a system of equations,
where we have defined formula_9.
We can plug Eq. 1 into our Lagrangian, which then becomes a function of formula_6 only. Then formula_11, and we have
formula_15
or
where formula_16. The solution to this differential equation is formula_17 where formula_18 and formula_19 are coefficients determined by the initial conditions. The motion of a simple pendulum is similarly described by this differential equation and solution in the small angle approximation.
We can use the binomial expansion to rewrite formula_20,
which is the form as seen in literature, for example equation 2 in the paper "Magnetic Dissipation and Fluctuations in Individual Nanomagnets Measured
by Ultrasensitive Cantilever Magnetometry".


Brooklyn Underground Film Festival

The Brooklyn Underground Film Festival was an annual showcase of typically low-budget, under-distributed or amateur videos and metavideos. The festival was initially held in DUMBO, Brooklyn and later moved to Park Slope neighborhood of Brooklyn, New York. The festival ran from 2002-2007.
The festival also showed the work of emerging non-media artists. The first festival included a large wheat paste mural by the artist known as Swoon.
History.
The festival was founded in 2002 by graduates of Pratt Institute, Josh Koury, Myles Kane, Cris Moris and Gaia Cornwall. It was funded in part by a growing number of local businesses.
The festival ceased operations in 2007.


Zoharei Chama Synagogue

Zoharei Chama Synagogue (, literally, "Sunrise Synagogue"), also spelled Zohorei Chama, colloquially known as the Sundial Building or Mahane Yehuda Clock Tower, is a three-story stone building with a wooden attic on Jaffa Road in Jerusalem, Israel, which features a huge, diameter sundial on its façade. The building, constructed in stages by Rabbi Shmuel Levy from 1908 to 1917, was built to house a hostel for immigrants and a synagogue. It was damaged by fire in 1941 and partly restored by the Jerusalem municipality in 1980. Today it still houses the Zoharei Chama Orthodox synagogue, which has prayer services throughout the day for local businessmen, residents and tourists.
History.
The tall, narrow building, which towers over the neighboring structures, was constructed by Rabbi Shmuel Levy, an American tailor who immigrated to Israel from the United States at the beginning of the 20th century. In 1906 he purchased a one-story house in the Mahane Yehuda neighborhood on Jaffa Road with the intention of adding to it in stages and providing rooms for immigrants as a public service. He raised money for the construction in America by selling lottery tickets for 20 francs apiece, awarding two grand prizes of 2,000 francs each and other prizes of 1,000, 500, 100, 50, and 20 francs. The tickets depicted the planned three-story building with a fourth-floor attic and fifth-floor gallery, together with pictures of the Four Holy Cities in Jewish tradition—Jerusalem, Hebron, Tiberias and Safed—and a written description of Levy's goals to build a synagogue, study hall and hostel.
Completed in stages from 1908 to 1917, Levy's three-story stone building with attic and gallery was the tallest in Jerusalem for its time. After construction was complete, Levy consecrated the upper floor as the Zoharei Chama (Sunrise) Synagogue for worshippers who prayed at sunrise ("vasikin") and also provided a beth midrash called Shoneh Halakhos (literally, "Review of Jewish Laws"). The Tiferet Zion V'yerushalayim (Glory of Zion and Jerusalem) Hostel on the lower floors accommodated 50 guests. The large sundial was added later to the fourth-story façade.
In 1927 the fifth-floor gallery collapsed during an earthquake. In 1941, an electrical short circuit ignited a fire that spread throughout the building, destroying the gallery and damaging the rest of the building together with the sundial and clocks.
In 1980 the Jerusalem municipality restored the façade and reconstructed the sundial. The Zoharei Chama Synagogue is now the only tenant, with afternoon prayer services held one after another on the first floor and continuous evening prayer services conducted on the second floor. Women are not allowed in the synagogue. The building also has a "Shabbat siren" posted on its roof, which alerts residents to the time of lighting Shabbat candles.
Sundial.
The vertical sundial on the fourth floor of the building was designed by Rabbi Moshe Shapiro, a watchmaker in Mea Shearim and a self-taught astronomer who had learned the science by studying the pertinent writings of Maimonides and the Vilna Gaon. Shapiro had built sundials for the outside walls of other synagogues, such as the Hurva Synagogue in Jerusalem's Old City, and would go on to build sundials for at least 15 other synagogues in Israel, including Petah Tikva's Great Synagogue.
Sundials were of crucial use for Orthodox synagogue-goers who needed to know the exact time of sunrise to begin their morning prayers ("vasikin"), the exact time of sunset to complete their afternoon prayers, and the time for lighting Shabbat candles, since these times vary day by day and season by season. Before the Zoharei Chama sundial was erected, Orthodox Jews would climb to the top of the Mount of Olives or the hills of the Bayit Vegan neighborhood each morning and evening to observe the times of sunrise and sunset. The third floor of Levy's building originally included an eastern-facing wooden porch which allowed worshippers to easily see the sunrise.
The Zoharei Chama sundial measures in diameter. A horizontal gnomon marks the sun's progress along a half-circle marked at each hour, with sub-markings at 15, 30, and 45 minutes. For cloudy days, Levy installed two mechanical clocks on either side of the sundial, one set for European time and one for local time. Shapiro also designed three sundials for the third floor of the building. Only the large sundial on the fourth floor is still extant.
The sundial was featured on a December 2014 Israeli postage stamp that was part of a 3 stamp series titled Sundials in Eretz Israel.


Expanding nozzle

The expanding nozzle is a type of rocket nozzle that, unlike traditional designs, maintains its efficiency at a wide range of altitudes. It is a member of the class of altitude compensating nozzles, a class that also includes the plug nozzle and aerospike. While the expanding nozzle is the least technically advanced and simplest to understand from a modeling point of view, it also appears to be the most difficult design to build.
In the traditional bell nozzle the engine skirt is shaped to gradually flare out from the small-diameter exit from the combustion chamber, growing larger further from the chamber. The basic idea is to lower the pressure of the exhaust by expanding it in the nozzle, until it reaches ambient air pressure at the exit. For operations at sea level
the skirt is generally short and highly angled, at least in comparison to a skirt designed for operations in space, which are longer and more gradually shaped. This means that a rocket engine that spends any significant amount of time climbing through the atmosphere cannot be optimally shaped; as it climbs the ambient pressure changes, so the exact shape and length of the skirt would have to change in order to maintain the proper pressure. Rocket designers have to select the sweet spot that is most appropriate to their needs, realizing that this will reduce thrust by as much as 30% at other altitudes.
The expanding nozzle addresses this to a degree by including two skirts on a single engine, one inside the other. The first skirt, attached directly to the combustion chamber, is designed for use at lower altitudes and is short and squat. The second, sitting outside the first, fits over the lower altitude bell to extend it into a longer and narrower (measured in terms of length) bell used for higher altitudes. At liftoff the outer bell is pulled up from the inner bell, out of the way of the exhaust. As the spacecraft climbs, the outer bell is pushed back down over the inner bell to increase the thrust efficiency. Thus an expanding nozzle can have two sweet spots, which can lead to a major improvement in overall performance.
Generally simple in concept, the expanding nozzle is considerably more complex to build than it might seem. Engine bells must be cooled to avoid damage from the hot rocket exhaust, and this has presented problems in expanding nozzle designs. The cooling is normally accomplished by running either the oxidizer or fuel (in the case of LH2 fueled engines) through tubing in the bell. With the bell moving, plumbing carrying the coolant to the bell has to be flexible and this increases complexity to the extent that the advantages of the design are often considered too costly. In the case of liquid hydrogen, the fluid also has the disadvantage of being highly reactive chemically, making a variety of common flexible materials unsuitable for use in this role.
For the aforementioned reasons modern designs (e. g. NK-33-1, RL-10A-4, and RL-10B-2) feature radiatively cooled reinforced carbon–carbon nozzle extensions needing no coolant plumbing at all.
The first engine design to include an expanding nozzle appears to be the Pratt & Whitney XLR-129. The XLR-129 was intended to power a McDonnell Aircraft boost-glide aircraft design that was entered as part of the Project ISINGLASS (or RHEINBERRY) study looking at follow-on designs to replace the Lockheed A-12 that was just entering service. It was a liquid oxygen/liquid hydrogen design that used staged combustion and generated about thrust. An enlarged version of the XLR-129 was proposed for the Space Shuttle Main Engine contest, but this was won by the RS-25, an enlarged Rocketdyne HG-3. Since these engines are fired from the point of liftoff into extra-atmospheric space flight, any sort of altitude compensation could dramatically improve their overall performance. The expanding nozzle was later abandoned in a cost-cutting phase, and the RS-25 suffers a 25% loss of performance at low altitude as a result.
Glushko has used an expanding nozzle on one design, the RD-701 tripropellant rocket. Funding ran out with the fall of the Soviet state, but the designers are convinced the engine has potential and have approached several parties for additional funding.


Scale ruler

A scale ruler is a tool for measuring lengths and transferring measurements at a fixed ratio of length; two common examples are an architect's scale and engineer's scale. In scientific and engineering terminology, a device to measure linear distance and create proportional linear measurements is called a scale. A device for drawing straight lines is a straight edge or ruler. In common usage, both are referred to as a ruler.
Architect's scale.
An architect's scale is a specialized ruler designed to facilitate the drafting and measuring of architectural drawings, such as floor plans and Multi-view orthographic projections.
Because the scale of such drawings are often smaller than life-size, an architect's scale features multiple units of length and proportional length increments.
For accuracy and longevity, the material used should be dimensionally stable and durable. Scales were traditionally made of wood, but today they are usually made of rigid plastic or aluminum. Architect's scales may be flat, with 4 scales, or have asymmetric 3-lobed cross-section, with 6 or 12 scales.
United States and Imperial units.
In the United States, and prior to metrication in Britain, Canada and Australia, architect's scales are marked as a ratio of x inches-to-the-foot (typically written as "x"″=1′-0″). For example, one inch measured from a drawing with a scale of "one-inch-to-the-foot" is equivalent to one foot in the real world (a scale of 1:12 measured from a drawing with a scale of "two-inches-to-the-foot" is equivalent to six inches in the real world (a scale of 1:6). It is not to be confused with a true unitless ratio. A 1:5 architectural scale (inches to feet) would be a 1:60 unitless scale (inches to inches) since there are 60 inches in 5 feet.
Typical scales used in the United States are:
The following scales are generally grouped in pairs using the same dual-numbered index line (one scale is read from the right, and the other scale is read from the left):
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Metric units.
Architect's scale rulers used in Britain and other metric countries are marked with ratios without reference to a base unit. Therefore, a drawing will indicate both its scale (ratio) and the unit of measurement being used.
In Britain, and elsewhere, the standard units used on architectural drawings are the (SI) units millimetres (mm) and metres (m), whereas in France centimetres (cm) and metres are most often used.
In Britain, for flat rulers, the paired scales often found on architect's scales are:
For triangular rulers, the paired scales are:
Less common scales are:
In France, in engineering departments or architectural offices, here are some scales used :
Engineer's scale.
An engineer's scale is a tool for measuring distances and transferring measurements at a fixed ratio of length. It is commonly made of plastic or aluminum and is just over long, but with the only 12  inches of markings, leaving the ends unmarked so that the first and last measuring ticks do not wear off. It is used in making engineering drawings, commonly called blueprints, blue lines, or plans on a specific scale. For example, "one-tenth size" would appear on a drawing to indicate a part larger than the drawing on the paper itself. It is not to be used to measure machined parts to see if they meet specifications.
In the United States this scale is divided into decimalized fractions of an inch but has a cross-section like an equilateral triangle, which enables the scale to have six edges indexed for measurement. One edge is divided into tenths of an inch, and the subsequent ones are directly marked for twentieths, thirtieths, fortieths, fiftieths, and finally sixtieths of an inch. Referred to as 1:10, 1:20, 1:30,1:40, 1:50 or 1:60 scale. Typically in civil engineering applications, 1:10 (1″=10′) is used exclusively for detail drawings. 1:20 and 1:40 scales are used for working plans. 1:60 is normally used only to show large areas of a project.
The engineer's scale came into existence when machining parts required a greater precision than the usual, binary fractionalization of the inch, as in the architect's scale, for houses and furniture. They were used, for example, in laying out printed circuit boards with the spacing of leads from integrated circuits as one-tenth of an inch.


53 Kalypso

Kalypso (minor planet designation: 53 Kalypso) is a large and very dark main belt asteroid that was discovered by German astronomer Robert Luther on April 4, 1858, at Düsseldorf. It is named after Calypso, a sea nymph in Greek mythology, a name it shares with Calypso, a moon of Saturn.
The orbit of 53 Kalypso places it in a mean motion resonance with the planets Jupiter and Saturn. The computed Lyapunov time for this asteroid is 19,000 years, indicating that it occupies a chaotic orbit that will change randomly over time because of gravitational perturbations of the planets.
Photometric observations of this asteroid during 2005–06 gave a light curve with a period of 18.075 ± 0.005 hours and a brightness variation of 0.14 in magnitude. In 2009, a photometric study from a different viewing angle was performed at the Organ Mesa Observatory in Las Cruces, New Mexico, yielding a rotation period of 9.036 ± 0.001 with a brightness variation of 0.14 ± 0.02 magnitude. This is exactly half of the 2005-06 result. The author of the earlier study used additional data observation that favored the 9.036 hour period. The discrepancy was deemed a consequence of viewing the asteroid from different longitudes.
Kalypso has been studied by radar.


FEAP

Florida Educator Accomplishment Practices are competencies provided by the Florida Education Standards Commission for teacher development. FEAPs are divided into three sections: Paraprofessional, Professional and Accomplished.
Paraprofessional, Professional and Accomplished FEAPs.
At all three divisions, the person performs certain activities that may take one or more of the following FEAPs: assessment, communication, continuous improvement, critical thinking, diversity, ethics, human development & learning, knowledge of subject matter, learning environments, planning, role of the teacher, and technology.