Creep-testing machine

A creep-testing machine measures the alteration of a material after it has undergone stresses.
Engineers use Creep machines to determine the stability and behaviour of a material when put through ordinary stresses. They determine how much strain (load) an object can handle under pressure, so engineers and researchers are able to determine what materials to use.
The device generates a creep time-dependent curve by calculating the steady rate of creep in reference to the time it takes for the material to change.
Creep.
Creep is the tendency of a material to change form over time after facing high temperature and stress. Creep increases with temperature and it is more common when a material is exposed to high temperatures for a long time or at the melting point of the material.
Creep machines are used to understand the creep of materials and determine which type can do the job better, which is important when making and designing materials for everyday uses. They most commonly test the creep of alloys and plastics for the understanding of their properties and advantages of one material's use over another.
Background.
The first creep testing machines were created in 1948 in Britain to test materials for aircraft to see how they would stand in high altitudes, temperature and pressure. The machines were first developed to further calculate and understand the steady rate of creep in materials.
Design.
Researchers look to test objects with a creep machine to understand the process of metallurgy and the physical mechanical properties of a metal, test the development of alloys, receive data from the loads that are derived and to find out whether a sample or material is within the boundary of what they are testing. The basic design of a creep machine is the furnace, loading device and support structure.
The main type of creep testing machine is a constant load creep testing machine. The constant load creep machine consists of a loading platform, foundation, fixture devices and furnace. The fixture devices are the grips and pull rods.
Applications.
Creep machines are most commonly used in experiments to determine how efficient and stable a material is. The machine is used by students and companies to create a creep curve on how much pressure and stress a material can handle. The machine is able to calculate the stress rate, time and pressure.
Creep testing has three different applications in the industry:
Graphing of creep.
Creep is dependent on time so the curve that the machine generates is a time vs. strain graph. The slope of a creep curve is the creep rate dε/dt The trend of the curve is an upward slope. The graphs are important to learn the trends of the alloys or materials used and by the production of the creep-time graph, it is easier to determine the better material for a specific application.
Stages of creep.
There are three stages of creep:
By examining the three stages above, scientists are able to determine the temperature and interval in which an object will be disturbed once exposed to the load. Some materials have a very small secondary creep state and may go straight from the primary creep to the tertiary creep state. This is dependent on the properties of the material that is being tested. This is important to note because going straight to the tertiary state causes the material to break faster from its form.
A linear graph denotes that the material under stress is gradually deforming, and this would be harder to track at what level of stress an object can handle. This would also mean that the material would not have distinct stages, which would make an object's breaking point less predictable. This is a disadvantage to scientists and engineers when trying to determine the level of creep the object can handle.


UK Metric Association

The UK Metric Association, or UKMA, is an advocacy group in the United Kingdom that argues for Metrication in the United Kingdom and advocates the use of the metric system among the general public in the UK. UKMA argues that the continued use of two incompatible systems of measurement causes misunderstanding, confusion and mistakes, undermines consumer protection, wastes time during children's education, results in additional costs, and is against the national interest.
History.
UKMA was founded by Chris Keenan in 1999 and formally associated in 2002 as an independent, non-party political, single-issue organisation. Later, an e-mail forum was started for supporters of metrication. In 2005, a website called ThinkMetric to help and encourage the general public to think in metric units was launched. In 2006, a blog called MetricViews was launched.
The current secretary of UKMA is Derek Pollard. Political patrons include Lord Kinnock (Lab), Dr Nick Palmer (Lab) and Ian Taylor (Con).
Strategies.
One of UKMA's strategies, aimed at getting their message to a wider audience including journalists and researchers, is to use "Wikipedia" as a conduit for their information. In an article in their December 2008 newsletter, members were urged to "correct any inaccuracies" in "Wikipedia" articles. It told about the "bias and inaccuracy" in metrication related articles, including Metrication in the United Kingdom, and highlighted the importance of "keeping an eye on them [metrication articles], visiting them regularly and checking that nobody has reversed any changes that you have made."
Publications.
UKMA has released four major reports, aimed at stimulating discussion in Britain about completing the transition to international standard units:
In 2009, UKMA published an update to Signs Ahead", which reflects the changes that have happened since the publication of the Metric Signs Ahead report. In the same year, UKMA published a traffic signs leaflet called Signs 2.0", which recommends changes to UK road signs to improve clarity, legibility and safety by using universally understood symbols and units of measurement.
Opposition.
The aims of UKMA contrast with those of the British Weights and Measures Association (BWMA), which campaigns against compulsory Metrication in the United Kingdom and advocates the continued use of imperial measures.


Lithobraking

Lithobraking is a landing technique used by uncrewed space vehicles to safely reach the surface of a celestial body while reducing landing speed by impact with the body's surface. The word was probably coined as a whimsical adaptation of aerobraking, which is the process of slowing a space vehicle by the use of aerodynamic drag in a planet's atmosphere. "Lithos" is a Greek word meaning "rock" or "stone," similarly used in words such as lithosphere or lithography.
Successful lithobraking requires either reducing the velocity of the lander prior to impact or protecting the probe with sufficient cushioning to withstand an impact with the surface undamaged. The velocity of a lander can be reduced using retrorockets or parachutes, and it can be protected from the force of impact by cushioning air bags or shock absorbers. The first successful lithobraking was achieved by the Soviet Luna 9 probe resulting in the first soft landing on the Moon using a combination of retrorockets and gas-filled cushioning bags.
When landing on bodies with an atmosphere, lithobraking can be combined with aerobraking instead of relying on retrorockets and air-bags. For bodies with a significant yet insufficiently thick atmosphere (e.g., Mars) all of these may be used together. The Mars Pathfinder and Mars Exploration Rover programs have used this approach successfully. The Russian Mars 96 mission would have attempted a similar landing had it not been lost in Earth's atmosphere shortly after launch. For bodies such as Venus with an exceptionally thick atmosphere, the combination of lithobraking and aerobraking can be sufficient. The Soviet Venera landers descended using parachutes high in the atmosphere before falling freely through the dense lower atmosphere until finally dissipating their remaining velocity (between approximately 7.5 and 8 m/s) on impact.
In the absence of a thick atmosphere, lithobraking is difficult due to the extremely high orbital velocities of most bodies. However, the orbital velocity of small moons (e.g., Phobos), asteroids, and comets can be sufficiently small for this strategy to be feasible. For example, Rosetta lander, Philae, passively landed on the comet 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko after separating from the orbiter, dissipating energy only through impact with the surface of comet. The MASCOT lander from Hayabusa2 landed on asteroid 162173 Ryugu in a similar manner. Rather than risking a large monolithic lander in a lithobraking maneuver, a proposed alternative is to instead attempt lithobraking with a swarm of much smaller landers at the same time. If there are many opportunities for a successful landing, then the chance of success on any single landing does not need to be high.
Instead of attempting to slowly dissipate the incoming velocity, it can be used to enable the probe to penetrate the surface.
This can be tried on bodies with low gravitation, such as comets and asteroids, or on planets with atmospheres (by using only small parachutes, or no parachutes at all). Several such missions have been launched, including penetrators on the two Phobos probe landers targeted for Mars' moon Phobos and ones for Mars itself on Mars 96 and Deep Space 2, but so far none have succeeded. The cancelled LUNAR-A probe would have carried penetrators to the Moon.
Certain concepts involve the spacecraft in an orbit tangent to the surface of the body in question, and "docking" with a magnetically levitated (maglev) train, and the train then slowing. This qualifies as lithobraking, as the reaction mass is the planet itself. This technique requires extremely precise guidance and control, in addition to a large infrastructure, and is thus not yet a viable option – although it may be in the future. An advantage to this method is that it can also launch spacecraft without needing propellant.
Lithobraking is also used as a humorous euphemism for the result of a spacecraft crashing into the surface of a body with no measures to ensure its survival, either by accident or with intent. For instance, the term has been used to describe the impact of MESSENGER into Mercury after the spacecraft ran out of fuel. This usage is popular among fans of the game "Kerbal Space Program", where unintentional use of lithobraking is a common gameplay experience, and is referenced in the "Kerbal Space Program 2" announcement trailer, where the tagline is "Lithobraking near you in 2020."


Augmented sixth chord

In music theory, an augmented sixth chord contains the interval of an augmented sixth, usually above its bass tone. This chord has its origins in the Renaissance, was further developed in the Baroque, and became a distinctive part of the musical style of the Classical and Romantic periods.
Conventionally used with a predominant function (resolving to the dominant), the three more common types of augmented sixth chords are usually called the "Italian sixth", the "French sixth", and the "German sixth".
Augmented sixth interval.
The augmented sixth interval is typically between the sixth degree of the minor scale, , and the raised fourth degree, . With standard voice leading, the chord is followed directly or indirectly by some form of the dominant chord, in which both and have resolved to the fifth scale degree, . This tendency to resolve outwards to is why the interval is spelled as an augmented sixth, rather than enharmonically as a minor seventh ( and ).
Although augmented sixth chords are more common in the minor mode, they are also used in the major mode by borrowing of the parallel minor scale.
Types.
There are three main types of augmented sixth chords, commonly known as the "Italian sixth", the "French sixth", and the "German sixth".
 \override Score.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f
 \new PianoStaff «
 \new Staff «
 \relative c' {
 \clef treble \key c \major \time 4/4
 \textLengthOn
 »
 \new Staff «
 \relative c' {
 \clef bass \key c \major \time 4/4
 <aes c>1 \bar "||"
 <aes c> \bar "||"
 <aes c> \bar "||"
 »
</score>
Though each is named after a European nationality, theorists disagree on their precise origins and have struggled for centuries to define their roots, and fit them into conventional harmonic theory. According to Kostka and Payne, the other two terms are similar to the "Italian sixth", which, "has no historical authenticity-[being] simply a convenient and traditional label."
Italian sixth.
The Italian sixth (It+6 or It6 or iv6) is derived from iv6 with an altered fourth scale degree, . This is the only augmented sixth chord comprising just three distinct notes; in four-part writing, the tonic pitch is doubled.
 \new PianoStaff «
 \new Staff «
 \relative c' {
 \clef treble \key c \major \time 4/4
 <c fis>1 <d g>
 »
 \new Staff «
 \relative c' {
 \clef bass \key c \major \time 4/4
 <aes c>1_\markup { \concat { "It" \raise #1 \small "+6" \hspace #4.3 "V" } }
 <g b> \bar "||"
 »
</score>
The Italian sixth is enharmonically equivalent to an incomplete dominant seventh. VI7=V7: A, C, (E,) G.
French sixth.
The French sixth (Fr+6 or Fr) is similar to the Italian, but with an additional tone, . The notes of the French sixth chord are all contained within the same whole tone scale, lending a sonority common to French music in the 19th century (especially associated with Impressionist music).
 \new PianoStaff «
 \new Staff «
 \relative c' {
 \clef treble \key c \major \time 4/4
 <d fis>1 <d g>
 »
 \new Staff «
 \relative c' {
 \clef bass \key c \major \time 4/4
 <aes c>1_\markup { \concat { "Fr" \raise #1 \small "+6" \hspace #3.7 "V" } }
 <g b> \bar "||"
 »
</score>
This chord has the same notes as a dominant seventh flat five chord and is in fact the second inversion of II75.
German sixth.
The German sixth (Ger+6 or Ger) is also like the Italian, but with an added tone, .
 \new PianoStaff «
 \new Staff «
 \relative c' {
 \clef treble \key c \major \time 4/4
 <es fis>1 <d g>
 »
 \new Staff «
 \relative c' {
 \clef bass \key c \major \time 4/4
 <g b> \bar "||"
 »
</score>
In Classical music, however, it appears in much the same places as the other variants, though perhaps less often because of the contrapuntal difficulties outlined below. It appears frequently in the works of Beethoven, and in ragtime music. The German sixth chord is enharmonically equivalent to a dominant seventh chord though it functions differently.
Avoiding parallel fifths.
It is more difficult to avoid parallel fifths when resolving a German sixth chord to the dominant chord. These parallel fifths, referred to as "Mozart fifths", were occasionally accepted by common practice composers. There are two ways they can be avoided:
Other types.
Other variants of augmented sixth chords can be found in the repertoire, and are sometimes given whimsical geographical names. For example: 4–6–7–2; (F–A–B–D) is called by one source an "Australian sixth", and 7–1–3–5 (B–C–E–G#), sometimes called the "Japanese sixth" Such anomalies usually have alternative interpretations.
Function.
Standard function.
From the Baroque to the Romantic periods, augmented sixth chords had the same harmonic function: as a chromatically altered predominant chord (typically, an alteration of ii, IV, vi7 or their parallel equivalents in the minor mode) leading to a dominant chord. This movement to the dominant is heightened by the semitonal resolution to from above and below (from and ); essentially, these two notes act as leading-tones.
This characteristic has led many analysts to compare the voice leading of augmented sixth chords to the secondary dominant V of V because of the presence of , the leading-tone of V, in both chords. In the major mode, the chromatic voice leading is more pronounced because of the presence of two chromatically altered notes, and , rather than just .
In most occasions, the augmented-sixth chords precede either the dominant, or the tonic in second inversion. The augmented sixths can be treated as chromatically altered passing chords.
Other functions.
In the late Romantic period and other musical traditions, especially jazz, other harmonic possibilities of augmented sixth variants and sonorities outside its function as a predominant were explored, exploiting their particular properties. An example of this is through the "reinterpretation" of the harmonic function of a chord: since a chord could simultaneously have more than one enharmonic spelling with different functions (i.e., both predominant as a German sixth and dominant as a dominant seventh), its function could be reinterpreted mid-phrase. This heightens both chromaticism by making possible the tonicization of remotely related keys, and possible dissonances with the juxtaposition of remotely related keys.
Tchaikovsky considered the augmented sixth chords to be altered dominant chords. He described the augmented sixth chords to be inversions of the diminished triad and of dominant and diminished seventh chords with a lowered second degree (), and accordingly resolving into the tonic. He notes that, "some theorists insist upon [augmented sixth chord's] resolution not into the tonic but into the dominant triad, and regard them as being erected not on the altered 2nd degree, but on the altered 6th degree in major and on the natural 6th degree in minor", yet calls this view, "fallacious", insisting that a, "chord of the augmented sixth on the 6th degree is nothing else than a modulatory degression into the key of the dominant".
The example below shows the last nine measures from Schubert's Piano Sonata in A major, D. 959. In m. 352, an Italian sixth chord built on scale degree functions as a substitute for the dominant.
 #(set-global-staff-size 18)
 \new PianoStaff «
 \new Staff «
 \set Score.currentBarNumber = #349
 \bar ""
 \new Voice \relative c' {
 \clef bass \key a \major \time 4/4
 a8 r \ottava #1 <cis e a> \ottava #0 r r2\fermata
 bes8 r \ottava #1 <d gis! d'> \ottava #0 r r2\fermata \break
 R1
 r2 4 r
 1
 \new Voice \relative c {
 \clef bass \key a \major \time 4/4
 \once \stemDown <cis e>4\pp
 »
 \new Staff «
 \relative c, {
 \clef bass \key a \major \time 4/4
 \omit TupletNumber \tuplet 3/2 { a8 \sustainOn cis e } \tuplet 3/2 { a cis e } r2
 \clef treble r4 8 r r2\fermata
 \clef bass \tuplet 3/2 { bes,,8 d f } \tuplet 3/2 { bes d f } r2
 \clef treble r4 <bes' d gis!>8 r r2\fermata
 \clef bass \tuplet 3/2 { a,,8 cis e } \tuplet 3/2 { a cis e } r2
 R1
 a4 r r
 1 \bar "|."
 »
</score>
Inversions.
Augmented sixth chords are occasionally used with a different chord member in the bass. Since there is no consensus among theorists that they are in root position in their normal form, the word "inversion" isn't necessarily accurate, but is found in some textbooks, nonetheless. Sometimes, "inverted" augmented sixth chords occur as a product of voice leading.
Rousseau considered that the chord could not be inverted. Seventeenth century instances of the augmented sixth with the sharp note in the bass are generally limited to German sources.
The excerpt below is from J.S. Bach's Mass in B minor. At the end of the second measure, the augmented sixth is inverted to create a diminished third or tenth between the bass and the soprano (C–E); these two voices resolve inward to an octave.
 #(set-global-staff-size 16)
 \set Score.proportionalNotationDuration = #(ly:make-moment 1/8)
« \new StaffGroup «
 \new Staff «
 \set Staff.midiInstrument = #"voice oohs"
 \relative c' {
 \clef treble \key g \major \time 3/2
 fis1 f2 e1 \breathe es2 d2^( c4 b) c2 b1.\fermata \bar "|."
 \new Staff «
 \set Staff.midiInstrument = #"voice oohs"
 \clef treble \key g \major \time 3/2
 \new Voice \relative c' {
 c2 b1~ b2 \breathe c bes a1 a2 g1.\fermata
 \new Staff «
 \set Staff.midiInstrument = #"voice oohs"
 \clef "treble_8" \key g \major \time 3/2
 \new Voice \relative c {
 fis1^( gis2~ gis) a \breathe g! g1 fis2 d1.\fermata
 \new Staff «
 \set Staff.midiInstrument = #"voice oohs"
 \clef bass \key g \major \time 3/2
 \new Voice \relative c {
 dis2( d) d cis \breathe c cis d1 d2 g,1.\fermata
 \addlyrics { pul -- tus est et se -- pul -- tus est. } »
 { \new PianoStaff «
 \new Staff «
 \set Staff.midiInstrument = #"piano"
 \clef treble \key g \major \time 3/2
 \new Voice \relative c' {
 R1. R1. R1. R1.\fermata
 \new Staff «
 \set Staff.midiInstrument = #"piano"
 \clef bass \key g \major \time 3/2
 \new Voice \relative c, {
 <dis dis'>4-.( <dis dis'>-. <d d'>-. <d d'>-. <d d'>-. <d d'>-.)
 <cis cis'>-.( <cis cis'>-. <c c'>-. <c c'>-. <cis cis'>-. <cis cis'>-.)
 <d d'>-.( <d d'>-. <d, d'>-. <d d'>-.^\ppp <d d'>-. <d d'>-.)
 <g g'>1.\fermata
</score>
Related chords.
In music theory, the double-diminished triad is an archaic concept and term referring to a triad, or three note chord, which, already being minor, has its root raised a semitone, making it "doubly diminished". However, this may be used as the derivation of the augmented sixth chord. For example, F–A–C is a minor triad, so F–A–C is a doubly diminished triad. This is enharmonically equivalent to G–A–C, an incomplete dominant seventh A, missing its fifth), which is a tritone substitute that resolves to G. Its inversion, A–C–F, is the Italian sixth chord that resolves to G.
Classical harmonic theory would notate the tritone substitute as an augmented sixth chord on 2. The augmented sixth chord can either be (i) an It+6 enharmonically equivalent to a dominant seventh chord (with a missing fifth); (ii) a Ger+6 equivalent to a dominant seventh chord with (with a fifth); or (iii) a Fr+6 equivalent to the Lydian dominant (with a missing fifth), all of which serve in a classical context as a substitute for the secondary dominant of V.
 \relative c' {
 \time 4/4
 <des f aes ces>1^\markup { "Tritone sub" }
 <c e g c> \bar "||"
 <des f b>^\markup { "(i) Italian" }
 <c e c'> \bar "||"
 <des f aes b>^\markup { "(ii) German" }
 <c e g c> \bar "||"
 <des f g b>^\markup { "(iii) French" }
 <c e g c> \bar "||"
</score>
All variants of augmented sixth chords are closely related to the applied dominant V7 of II. Both Italian and German variants are enharmonically identical to dominant seventh chords. For example, in the key of C, the German sixth chord could be reinterpreted as the applied dominant of D.
 \override Score.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f
 \new PianoStaff «
 \new Staff «
 \relative c' {
 \clef treble \key c \major \time 4/4
 <es ges>1
 <c fis>
 <es fis>
 »
 \new Staff «
 \relative c' {
 \clef bass \key c \major \time 4/4
 <aes c>1_\markup { \center-align { \concat { "V" \raise #1 \small "7" "/♭II" } } } \bar "||"
 <aes c>1_\markup { \concat { "It" \raise #1 \small "+6" } } \bar "||"
 <aes c>1_\markup { \concat { "Ger" \raise #1 \small "+6" } } \bar "||"
 »
</score>
Simon Sechter explains the chord of the French sixth chord as being a chromatically altered version of a seventh chord on the second degree of the scale, . The German sixth is explained as a chromatically altered ninth chord on the same root but with the root omitted.
 \override Score.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f
 \new PianoStaff «
 \new Staff «
 \relative c' {
 \clef treble \key c \major \time 4/4
 \textLengthOn
 <fis c'>1^\markup { "French" }
 <fis c' es>^\markup { "German" }
 »
 \new Staff «
 \relative c {
 \clef bass \key c \major \time 4/4
 <d aes'>1 \bar "||"
 <\parenthesize d aes'>1 \bar "||"
 »
</score>
The tendency of the interval of the augmented sixth to resolve outwards is therefore explained by the fact that the A, being a dissonant note, a diminished fifth above the root (D), and flatted, must fall, whilst the F – being chromatically raised – must rise.
Relationship between the different types.
The following "curious chromatic sequence", graphed by Dmitri Tymoczko as a four-dimensional tesseract, outlines the relationships between the augmented sixth chords in 12TET tuning:
Minor seventh as virtual augmented sixth chord.
The minor seventh chord may also have its interval of minor seventh (between the root and seventh degree (i.e.: C–B in C–E–G–B) rewritten as an augmented sixth (C–E–G–A). Rearranging and transposing, this gives A–C–E–F, a virtual minor version of the German sixth chord. Again like the typical +6, this enharmonic interpretation gives a resolution irregular for the minor seventh but normal for the augmented sixth, where the two voices at the enharmonic major second converge to a unison or diverge to an octave.
Half-diminished seventh as virtual augmented sixth chord.
The half-diminished seventh chord is the inversion of the German sixth chord (it is its inversion as a set, rather than as a chord). Its interval of minor seventh (between root and seventh degree (i.e.: C–B in C–E–G–B) can be written as an augmented sixth (C–E–G–A). Rearranging and transposing, this gives A–C–D–F, a virtual minor version of the French sixth chord. Like the typical +6, this enharmonic interpretation gives a resolution irregular for the half-diminished seventh but normal for the augmented sixth, where the two voices at the enharmonic major second converge to a unison or diverge to an octave.
Tristan chord.
Richard Wagner's Tristan chord, the first vertical sonority in his opera, "Tristan und Isolde", can be interpreted as a half-diminished seventh that transitions to a French sixth in the key of A minor (F–A–B–D, in red below). The upper voice continues upward with a long appoggiatura (G to A). Note that the D resolves down to D instead of up to E:
 \new PianoStaff «
 \new Staff «
 \new Voice \relative c" {
 \clef treble \key a \minor \time 6/8
 \voiceOne \partial8 r8 R2. gis4.->(~ gis4 \once \override NoteHead.color = #red a8 ais8-> b4~ b8) r r
 \new Voice \relative c' {
 \override DynamicLineSpanner.staff-padding = #4.5
 \once \override DynamicText.X-offset = #-5
 \voiceTwo \partial8 a\pp( f'4.~\< f4 e8 \once \override NoteHead.color = #red dis2.)(\> d!4.)~\p d8 r r
 »
 \new Staff «
 \relative c {
 \clef bass \key a \minor \time 6/8
 \partial8 r8 R2. \once \override NoteHead.color = #red <f b>2.(_\markup { \concat { "Fr" \raise #1 \small "+6" \hspace #8 "V" \raise #1 \small "7" } } <e gis>4.)~ <e gis>8 r r
 »
</score>


History of Cinema (2008 film)

History of Cinema is a 2008 Iranian Irish experimental short film directed by Rouzbeh Rashidi. The film is an experimental derivation from the concept of cinema, expressing this perception through images and sound. The 33 minute film reflects the notion of seventh art with complete personal and free interpretation.
Production.
Rashidi shot the film with webcam and mobile phone cameras between 2002 and 2004. Each segment of the film was shot and edited separately, and compiled them together in 2008 for the final version. Rashidi used archival footage from the early films of cinema and integrated them with the rest of material in order to create the sense of history. The film is heavily saturated, grainy and full of distorted images. The soundscape designed by Rashidi was added into the film with chosen music.
Reception.
History of Cinema premiered at the Global Cinema Festival 2009 in India.
Lucca Film Festival 2010 - (An)Other Irish Cinema Category


Ellen Hamaker

Ellen Louise "E.L." Hamaker (born February 13, 1974) is a Dutch-American psychologist, and statistician. Since 2018 she has been a full professor at Utrecht University, holding the chair Longitudinal Data Analysis at the Department of Methodology and Statistics. Her work focuses on the development of statistical models for the analysis of intensive longitudinal data in psychology, mainly within the frameworks of structural equation modeling and time series analysis.
Biography.
Education.
Hamaker received a bachelor's and master's degree in psychology from Utrecht University, in 1997 and 1999 respectively. She earned her PhD in psychological methods in 2004 at the University of Amsterdam, under the supervision of Peter Molenaar and Conor Dolan, for her thesis: "Time series analysis and the individual as the unit of psychological research"
Academic career.
In 2005 Hamaker became a postdoctoral fellow at the Department of Psychology, University of Virginia. Hamaker returned to the Netherlands in 2006, being appointed assistant professor at the Department of Methodology and Statistics, Utrecht University. She was promoted to associate professor in 2011, before being promoted to full professor with the chair Longitudinal Data Analysis in 2018. Since 2014 she has also been a research fellow at the Research Group of Quantitative Psychology and Individual Differences, KU Leuven, in Belgium.
Research focus.
Hamaker's early research focused on the application of time series techniques within psychology, to study process that unfold within individuals over time. Increased availability of data collected using the experience sampling method in psychology led to increased interest in this methodology in applied psychological research. Most notable of her papers is her critique of the cross-lagged panel model, in which she proposes to better account for stable trait-like differences between individuals through the use of multilevel models with random intercepts. She is also an advocate of within-person thinking in social sciences, pointing out that conclusions based on cross-sectional data do not necessarily generalize to the processes within a particular person.
Since 2015 Hamaker has collaborated frequently with Bengt O. Muthén and Tihomir Asparouhov in the development of the Dynamic Structural Equation Modeling, a module that allows for Bayesian Time Series analysis in the software package Mplus.
Hamaker has stated that the overarching goal of her research is to establish a connection between innovative statistical techniques and applied psychological research.
Achievements and awards.
Throughout her academic career, Hamaker has served as associate editor of "Multivariate Behavioral Research". In 2019 she was appointed a fellow of the Association for Psychological Science.
Personal life.
Hamaker is the granddaughter of Dutch scientist Hugo Christiaan Hamaker, noted for his contributions to physics (the Hamaker constant) and statistics.


Radar chart

A radar chart is a graphical method of displaying multivariate data in the form of a two-dimensional chart of three or more quantitative variables represented on axes starting from the same point. The relative position and angle of the axes is typically uninformative, but various heuristics, such as algorithms that plot data as the maximal total area, can be applied to sort the variables (axes) into relative positions that reveal distinct correlations, trade-offs, and a multitude of other comparative measures.
The radar chart is also known as web chart, spider chart, spider web chart, star chart, star plot, cobweb chart, irregular polygon, polar chart, or Kiviat diagram. It is equivalent to a parallel coordinates plot, with the axes arranged radially.
Overview.
The radar chart is a chart and/or plot that consists of a sequence of equi-angular spokes, called radii, with each spoke representing one of the variables. The data length of a spoke is proportional to the magnitude of the variable for the data point relative to the maximum magnitude of the variable across all data points. A line is drawn connecting the data values for each spoke. This gives the plot a star-like appearance and the origin of one of the popular names for this plot. The star plot can be used to answer the following questions:
Radar charts are a useful way to display multivariate observations with an arbitrary number of variables. Each star represents a single observation. Typically, radar charts are generated in a multi-plot format with many stars on each page and each star representing one observation. The star plot was first used by Georg von Mayr in 1877. Radar charts differ from glyph plots in that all variables are used to construct the plotted star figure. There is no separation into foreground and background variables. Instead, the star-shaped figures are usually arranged in a rectangular array on the page. It is somewhat easier to see patterns in the data if the observations are arranged in some non-arbitrary order (if the variables are assigned to the rays of the star in some meaningful order).
Applications.
One application of radar charts is the control of quality improvement to display the performance metrics of any ongoing program.
They are also used in sports to chart players' strengths and weaknesses, where they are usually called radar charts.
Limitations.
Radar charts are primarily suited for strikingly showing "outliers" and "commonality", or when one chart is greater in every variable than another, and primarily used for ordinal measurements – where each variable corresponds to "better" in some respect, and all variables on the same scale.
Conversely, radar charts have been criticized as poorly suited for making trade-off decisions – when one chart is greater than another on some variables, but less on others.
Further, it is hard to visually compare lengths of different spokes, because radial distances are hard to judge, though concentric circles help as grid lines. Instead, one may use a simple line graph, particularly for time series.
Radar charts can distort data to some extent, especially when areas are filled in, because the area contained becomes proportional to the square of the linear measures. For example, in a chart with 5 variables that range from 1 to 100, the area contained by the polygon bounded by 5 points when all measures are 90, is more than 10% larger than the same for a chart with all values of 82.
Artificial structure.
Radar charts impose several structures on data, which are often artificial:
For example, the alternating data 9, 1, 9, 1, 9, 1 yields a spiking radar chart (which goes in and out), while reordering the data as 9, 9, 9, 1, 1, 1 instead yields two distinct wedges (sectors).
In some cases there is a natural structure, and radar charts can be well-suited. For example, for diagrams of data that vary over a 24-hour cycle, the hourly data is naturally related to its neighbor, and has a cyclic structure, so it can naturally be displayed as a radar chart.
One set of guidelines on the use of radar charts (or rather the closely related "polar area graph") is:
Data set size.
Radar charts are helpful for small-to-moderate-sized multivariate data sets. Their primary weakness is that their effectiveness is limited to data sets with less than a few hundred points. After that, they tend to be overwhelming.
Example.
The chart on the right contains the star plots of 15 cars. The variable list for the sample star plot is:
We can look at these plots individually or we can use them to identify clusters of cars with similar features. For example, we can look at the star plot of the Cadillac Seville (the last one on the image) and see that it is one of the most expensive cars, gets below average (but not among the worst) gas mileage, has an average repair record, and has average-to-above-average roominess and size. We can then compare the Cadillac models (the last three plots) with the AMC models (the first three plots). This comparison shows distinct patterns. The AMC models tend to be inexpensive, have below average gas mileage, and are small in both height and weight and in roominess. The Cadillac models are expensive, have poor gas mileage, and are large in both size and roominess.
Alternatives.
Most simply, one may use a simple line graph, particularly for time series.
For graphical qualitative comparison of 2-dimensional tabular data in several variables, a common alternative are Harvey balls, which are used extensively by "Consumer Reports". Comparison in Harvey balls (and radar charts) may be significantly aided by ordering the variables algorithmically to add order.
An excellent way for visualising structures within multivariate data is offered by principal component analysis (PCA).
Another alternative is to use small, inline bar charts, which may be compared to sparklines.
Although radar and polar charts are often described as the same chart types, some sources make a difference between them and even consider the radar chart to be a polar chart's variation that does not display data in terms of polar coordinate.


Vibrational spectroscopy of linear molecules

To determine the vibrational spectroscopy of linear molecules, the rotation and vibration of linear molecules are taken into account to predict which vibrational (normal) modes are active in the infrared spectrum and the Raman spectrum.
Degrees of freedom.
The location of a molecule in a 3-dimensional space can be described by the total number of coordinates. Each atom is assigned a set of "x", "y", and "z" coordinates and can move in all three directions. Degrees of freedom is the total number of variables used to define the motion of a molecule completely. For "N" atoms in a molecule moving in 3-D space, there are 3"N" total motions because each atom has 3"N" degrees of freedom.
Vibrational modes.
"N" atoms in a molecule have 3"N" degrees of freedom which constitute translations, rotations, and vibrations. For non-linear molecules, there are 3 degrees of freedom for translational (motion along the x, y, and z directions) and 3 degrees of freedom for rotational motion (rotations in Rx, Ry, and Rz directions) for each atom. Linear molecules are defined as possessing bond angles of 180°, so there are 3 degrees of freedom for translational motion but only 2 degrees of freedom for rotational motion because the rotation about its molecular axis leaves the molecule unchanged. When subtracting the translational and rotational degrees of freedom, the degrees of vibrational modes is determined.
Number of degrees of vibrational freedom for nonlinear molecules: 3"N"-6
Number of degrees of vibrational freedom for linear molecules: 3"N"-5
Symmetry of vibrational modes.
All 3"N" degrees of freedom have symmetry relationships consistent with the irreducible representations of the molecule's point group. A linear molecule is characterized as possessing a bond angle of 180° with either a C∞v or D∞h symmetry point group. Each point group has a character table that represents all of the possible symmetry of that molecule. Specifically for linear molecules, the two character tables are shown below:
However, these two character tables have infinite number of irreducible representations, so it is necessary to lower the symmetry to a subgroup that has related representations whose characters are the same for the shared operations in the two groups. A property that transforms as one representation in a group will transform as its correlated representation in a subgroup. Therefore, C∞v will be correlated to C2v and D∞h to D2h. The correlation table for each is shown below:
Once the point group of the linear molecule is determined and the correlated symmetry is identified, all symmetry element operations associated to that correlated symmetry's point group are performed for each atom to deduce the reducible representation of the 3"N" Cartsian displacement vectors. From the right side of the character table, the non-vibrational degrees of freedom, rotational (Rx and Ry) and translational (x, y, and z), are subtracted: Γvib = Γ3N - Γrot - Γtrans. This yields the Γvib, which is used to find the correct normal modes from the original symmetry, which is either C∞v or D∞h, using the correlation table above. Then, each vibrational mode can be identified as either IR or Raman active.
Vibrational spectroscopy.
A vibration will be active in the IR if there is a change in the dipole moment of the molecule and if it has the same symmetry as one of the x, y, z coordinates. To determine which modes are IR active, the irreducible representation corresponding to x, y, and z are checked with the reducible representation of Γvib. An IR mode is active if the same irreducible representation is present in both.
Furthermore, a vibration will be Raman active if there is a change in the polarizability of the molecule and if it has the same symmetry as one of the direct products of the x, y, z coordinates. To determine which modes are Raman active, the irreducible representation corresponding to xy, xz, yz, x2, y2, and z2 are checked with the reducible representation of Γvib. A Raman mode is active if the same irreducible representation is present in both.
Example.
Carbon Dioxide, CO2
1. Assign point group: D∞h
2. Determine group-subgroup point group: D2h
3. Find the number of normal (vibrational) modes or degrees of freedom using the equation: 3n - 5 = 3(3) - 5 = 4
4. Derive reducible representation Γ3N:
5. Decompose the reducible representation into irreducible components:
Γ3N = Ag + B2g + B3g + 2B1u + 2B2u + 2B3u
6. Solve for the irreducible representation corresponding to the normal modes with the subgroup character table:
Γ3N = Ag + B2g + B3g + 2B1u + 2B2u + 2B3u
Γrot = B2g + B3g
Γtrans = B1u + B2u + B3u
Γvib = Γ3N - Γrot - Γtrans
Γvib = Ag + B1u + B2u + B3u
7. Use the correlation table to find the normal modes for the original point group:
"v1" = Ag = Σ
"v2" = B1u = Σ
"v3" = B2u = Πu
"v4" = B3u = Πu
8. Label whether the modes are either IR active or Raman active:
"v1" = Raman active
"v2" = IR active
"v3" = IR active
"v4" = IR active


First Terrace Records

First Terrace Records is an independent record label founded in 2016 by Alex Ives & Joseph Summers.
First Terrace release music covering ambient, electronica, experimental, drone, jazz, modern composition & sound art. First Terrace have released music from artists such as Specimens, K. Leimer and the very well received Peter Broderick project "The Beacon Sound Choir - 'Sunday Songs"' also featuring Machinefabriek.
Label philosophy.
The name of the label and logo are inspired by Dante's "Divine Comedy" & the first level in Purgatorio. Depicting the souls of the proud bent over by the weight of huge stones on their backs in the face of sculptures expressing humility, the opposite virtue to pride which serves as an ethos for the label to remain humble.
The original First Terrace logo was sketched by co-founder Alex Ives and is present on only one record, Specimens - 'Sculptures' LP. Following this a refined version was used on all releases up until 2020 when the label introduced a new version of the logo which is present to this day. Consistent throughout all versions of the logo are the legs (of the proud) which symbolise holding up the weight of pride & thus a reminder to remain humble in your work.
Artists.
List of artists First Terrace Records have released records for:
See also.
List of record labels


930 Westphalia

930 Westphalia ("prov. designation": "or" ) is a very dark background asteroid and a slow rotator from the inner regions of the asteroid belt, that measures approximately in diameter. It was discovered on 10 March 1920, by German astronomer Walter Baade at the Bergedorf Observatory in Hamburg. The carbonaceous C-type asteroid (Ch) has an exceptionally long rotation period of 100.7 hours and is likely spherical in shape. It was named after Westphalia, a region in northwestern Germany.
Orbit and classification.
"Westphalia" is a non-family asteroid of the main belt's background population when applying the hierarchical clustering method to its proper orbital elements. It orbits the Sun in the inner asteroid belt at a distance of 2.1–2.8 AU once every 3 years and 9 months (1,384 days; semi-major axis of 2.43 AU). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.14 and an inclination of 15° with respect to the ecliptic. The asteroid was first observed as () at the Simeiz Observatory on 24 February 1916. The body's observation arc begins with its official discovery observation at Bergedorf Observatory on 10 March 1920.
Naming.
This minor planet was named after the region of Westphalia in northwestern Germany, bordering the Netherlands and the Rhine river. It is the birthplace of the discoverer Walter Baade (1893–1960). The was mentioned in "The Names of the Minor Planets" by Paul Herget in 1955 ().
Physical characteristics.
In the Bus–Binzel SMASS classification, "Westphalia" is a hydrated carbonaceous C-type asteroid (Ch).
Rotation period.
In April 2015, a rotational lightcurve of "Westphalia" was obtained from photometric observations by Eduardo Manuel Álvarez at the Los Algarrobos Observatory in Uruguay. Lightcurve analysis gave a rotation period of hours with a brightness amplitude of magnitude, indicative of a spherical, non-elongated shape (). This was the first time a period could be determined for this asteroid, and, as the observer noted, there were only 18 tree-digit asteroids left for which no such measurement had yet been made. With a period above 100 hours, "Westphalia" is a slow rotator. While the slowest rotators have periods above 1000 hours, the vast majority of asteroids have periods between 2.2 and 20 hours.
Diameter and albedo.
According to the survey carried out by the NEOWISE mission of NASA's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer (WISE), the Infrared Astronomical Satellite IRAS, and the Japanese Akari satellite, "Westphalia" measures (), () and () kilometers in diameter and its surface has a very low albedo of (), () and (), respectively.
The "Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link" derives an albedo of 0.0438 and a diameter of 36.53 km based on an absolute magnitude of 11.2. Further published mean-diameters and albedos by the WISE team in ascending order include (), (), (), (), () and () and albedos of (), (), (), (), () and ().


Absorption band

According to quantum mechanics, atoms and molecules can only hold certain defined quantities of energy, or exist in specific states. When such quanta of electromagnetic radiation are emitted or absorbed by an atom or molecule, energy of the radiation changes the state of the atom or molecule from an initial state to a final state. An absorption band is a range of wavelengths, frequencies or energies in the electromagnetic spectrum which are characteristic of a particular transition from initial to final state in a substance.
Overview.
According to quantum mechanics, atoms and molecules can only hold certain defined quantities of energy, or exist in specific states. When electromagnetic radiation is absorbed by an atom or molecule, the energy of the radiation changes the state of the atom or molecule from an initial state to a final state. The number of states in a specific energy range is discrete for gaseous or diluted systems, with discrete energy levels. Condensed systems, like liquids or solids, have a continuous density of states distribution and often possess continuous energy bands. In order for a substance to change its energy it must do so in a series of "steps" by the absorption of a photon. This absorption process can move a particle, like an electron, from an occupied state to an empty or unoccupied state. It can also move a whole vibrating or rotating system, like a molecule, from one vibrational or rotational state to another or it can create a quasiparticle like a phonon or a plasmon in a solid.
Electromagnetic transitions.
When a photon is absorbed, the electromagnetic field of the photon disappears as it initiates a change in the state of the system that absorbs the photon. Energy, momentum, angular momentum, magnetic dipole moment and electric dipole moment are transported from the photon to the system. Because there are conservation laws, that have to be satisfied, the transition has to meet a series of constraints. This results in a series of selection rules. It is not possible to make any transition that lies within the energy or frequency range that is observed.
The strength of an electromagnetic absorption process is mainly determined by two factors. First it is important to realize that transitions that only change the magnetic dipole moment of the system are much weaker than transitions that change the electric dipole moment and that transitions to higher order moments like quadrupole transitions are weaker than dipole transitions. Second, not all transitions have the same transition matrix element, absorption coefficient or oscillator strength.
For some types of bands or spectroscopic disciplines temperature and statistical mechanics plays an important role. For (far) infrared, microwave and radio frequency ranges the temperature dependent occupation numbers of states and the difference between Bose-Einstein statistics and Fermi-Dirac statistics determines the intensity of observed absorptions. For other energy ranges thermal motion effects, like Doppler broadening may determine the linewidth.
Band and line shape.
A wide variety of absorption band and line shapes exist, and the analysis of the band or line shape can be used to determine information about the system that causes it. In many cases it is convenient to assume that a narrow spectral line is a Lorentzian or Gaussian, depending respectively on the decay mechanism or temperature effects like Doppler broadening. Analysis of the spectral density and the intensities, width and shape of spectral lines sometimes can yield a lot of information about the observed system like it is done with Mössbauer spectra.
In systems with a very large number of states like macromolecules and large conjugated systems the separate energy levels can't always be distinguished in an absorption spectrum. If the line broadening mechanism is known and the shape of then spectral density is clearly visible in the spectrum, it is possible to get the desired data. Sometimes it is enough to know the lower or upper limits of the band or its position for an analysis.
For condensed matter and solids the shape of absorption bands are often determined by transitions between states in their continuous density of states distributions. For crystals the electronic band structure determines the density of states. In fluids, glasses and amorphous solids there is no long range correlation and the dispersion relations are isotropic. This makes density of states calculations of absorption band shapes easier. For charge-transfer complexes and conjugated systems the band width is determined by a variety of factors.
Types.
Electronic transitions.
Electromagnetic transitions in atoms, molecules and condensed matter mainly take place at energies corresponding to the UV and visible part of the spectrum. Core electrons in atoms, and a lot of other phenomena, are observed with different brands of XAS in the X-ray energy range. Electromagnetic transitions in atomic nuclei, as observed in Mössbauer spectroscopy, take place in the gamma ray part of the spectrum. The main factors that cause broadening of the spectral line into an absorption band of a molecular solid are the distributions of vibrational and rotational energies of the molecules in the sample (and also those of their excited states). In solid crystals the shape of absorption bands are determined by the density of states of initial and final states of electronic states or lattice vibrations, called phonons, in the crystal structure. In gas phase spectroscopy, the fine structure afforded by these factors can be discerned, but in solution-state spectroscopy, the differences in molecular micro environments further broaden the structure to give smooth bands. Electronic transition bands of molecules may be from tens to several hundred nanometers in breadth.
Vibrational transitions.
Vibrational transitions and optical phonon transitions take place in the infrared part of the spectrum, at wavelengths of around 1-30 micrometres.
Rotational transitions.
Rotational transitions take place in the far infrared and microwave regions.
Other transitions.
Absorption bands in the radio frequency range are found in NMR spectroscopy. The frequency ranges and intensities are determined by the magnetic moment of the nuclei that are observed, the applied magnetic field and temperature occupation number differences of the magnetic states.
Applications.
Materials with broad absorption bands are being applied in pigments, dyes and optical filters. Titanium dioxide, zinc oxide and chromophores are applied as UV absorbers and reflectors in sunscreen.
Absorption bands of interest to the atmospheric physicist.
In oxygen:
In ozone:
In nitrogen:


327 Columbia

Columbia (minor planet designation: 327 Columbia) is a stony asteroid from the middle region of the asteroid belt, approximately 26 kilometers in diameter. It was discovered on 22 March 1892, by French astronomer Auguste Charlois at Nice Observatory in southeast France. It is named after Christopher Columbus (1451–1506).
Description.
"Columbia" orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.6–2.9 AU once every 4 years and 8 months (1,691 days). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.06 and an inclination of 7° with respect to the ecliptic. The body's observation arc begins the night after its official discovery at Nice.
Physical characteristics.
In the SMASS taxonomy, "Columbia" has been characterized as a Sl-type, an intermediary between the common S-type and rather rare L-type asteroids.
Rotation period and spin axis.
In May 2003, a rotational lightcurve of "Columbia" was obtained by French amateur astronomer René Roy. It gave a rotation period of 5.93 hours with a brightness variation of 0.16 magnitude (). In February 2007, photometric observations by his college Pierre Antonini gave a well defined period of 5.9320 hours and an amplitude of 0.42 ().
In 2016, a modeled lightcurve was derived from various photometric database sources, giving a concurring period of 5.93183 hours and a spin axis of (52.0°, 43.0°) in ecliptic coordinates.
Diameter and albedo.
According to the surveys carried out by the Infrared Astronomical Satellite IRAS, the Japanese Akari satellite, and NASA's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission, "Columbia" measures between 26.13 and 30.29 kilometers in diameter, and its surface has an albedo between 0.214 and 0.250. The "Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link" derives an albedo of 0.2565 and a diameter of 26.24 kilometers using an absolute magnitude of 10.0.
Naming.
This minor planet was named in honor of Italian explorer Christopher Columbus (1451–1506), who reached the New World during his first voyage in 1492, instead of arriving at Japan as he had intended. The asteroid was named in 1892, on the occasion of the 400th anniversary of this historic discovery. Naming citation was first mentioned in "The Names of the Minor Planets" by Paul Herget in 1955 ().


The Computer Language Benchmarks Game

The Computer Language Benchmarks Game (formerly called The Great Computer Language Shootout) is a free software project for comparing how a given subset of simple algorithms can be implemented in various popular programming languages.
The project consists of:
Supported languages.
Due to resource constraints, only a small subset of common programming languages are supported, up to the discretion of the game's operator.
Metrics.
The following aspects of each given implementation are measured:
It is common to see multiple solutions in the same programming language for the same problem. This highlights that within the constraints of a given language, a solution can be given which is either of high abstraction, is memory efficient, is fast, or can be parallelized better.
Benchmark programs.
It was a design choice from the start to only include very simple toy problems, each providing a different kind of programming challenge.
This provides users of the Benchmark Game the opportunity to scrutinize the various implementations.
History.
The project was known as "The Great Computer Language Shootout" until 2007.
A port for Windows was maintained separately between 2002 and 2003.
The sources have been archived on GitLab.
There are also older forks on GitHub.
The project is continuously evolving. The list of supported programming languages is updated approximately once per annum, following market trends. Users can also submit improved solutions to any of the problems or suggest testing methodology refinement.
Caveats.
The developers themselves highlight the fact that those doing research should exercise caution when using such microbenchmarks:
Impact.
The benchmark results have uncovered various compiler issues. Sometimes a given compiler failed to process unusual, but otherwise grammatically valid constructs. At other times, runtime performance was shown to be below expectations, which prompted compiler developers to revise their optimization capabilities.
Various research articles have been based on the benchmarks, its results and its methodology.


Diffraction efficiency

Diffraction efficiency is the performance of diffractive optical elements – especially diffraction gratings – in terms of power throughput. It's a measure of how much optical power is diffracted into a designated direction compared to the power incident onto the diffractive element.
If the diffracted power is designated with formula_1 and the incident power with formula_2 the efficiency formula_3 reads
Grating efficiency.
In the most common case – the diffraction efficiency of optical gratings (therefore also called "grating efficiency") – there are two possibilities to specify efficiency:


William Swan (physicist)

Prof William Swan FRSE PRSSA LLD (13 March 1818 in Edinburgh – 1 March 1894 in Shandon, Argyll) was a Scottish mathematician and physicist best known for his 1856 discovery of the Swan band.
Life.
He was born in Edinburgh the only child of David Swan, engineer, and his wife, Janet Smith. Janet was the daughter of Thomas Smith, lighthouse engineer. Her sister was married to the famous lighthouse engineer, Robert Stevenson. He was privately educated at home, 7 Union Street, and appears to have been both lonely and unhappy. His father died in 1821 when he was only three. His mother took in lodgers to make ends meet, including at one point Thomas Carlyle. William's only childhood friend is said to have been his cousin, Thomas Stevenson (father of Robert Louis Stevenson).
At 17 he was sent to Edinburgh University to study divinity. He "came out" during the Disruption of 1843 and became an active member of the Free Church, teaching mathematics and physics at the Free Church Normal School. From there he move to teach the same subjects at the Scottish Naval and Military Academy in Edinburgh.
In 1848 he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh his proposer being Philip Kelland. He served as Secretary to the society 1858-59. In the 1850s "William Swan, teacher of mathematics" was living at 4 Duke Street in the New Town, renamed Dublin Street in the 1920s.
In 1856, Swan applied to join the faculty at Marischal College, but was passed over in favor of James Clerk Maxwell. Swan subsequently joined the Scottish Naval and Military Academy, where in 1857 he demonstrated that Fraunhofer's D-line in the spectrum of the Sun was caused by the presence of sodium; in this respect, he is sometimes credited as having inspired Gustav Kirchhoff's research into the same issue.
In 1859, he joined the faculty of Saint Andrews University, where he was a professor of natural philosophy until 1880.
He was awarded two honorary doctorates (LLD): firstly from Edinburgh University in 1869, secondly from St Andrews University in 1886.
He died of heart disease at his wife's country house of Ardchapel in Shandon in western Scotland.
He is buried with his wife Georgina (who pre-deceased him) in Warriston Cemetery in northern Edinburgh. The grave lies in the narrow walled area between the main cemetery and the Water of Leith Walkway (in the south-east corner of the main cemetery.
Recognition.
In 1843, the Royal Scottish Society of the Arts awarded Swan a gold medal for his scientific achievements. He served as their President 1882–1885.
Family.
In 1859 he married Georgina Frances Downie (née Cullen) (1809–1882). They had no children.


Optically stimulated luminescence thermochronometry

Optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) thermochronometry is a dating method used to determine the time since quartz and/or feldspar began to store charge as it cools through the effective closure temperature. The closure temperature for quartz and Na-rich K-feldspar is 30-35 °C and 25 °C respectively. When quartz and feldspar are beneath the earth, they are hot. They cool when any geological process e.g. focused erosion causes their exhumation to the earth surface. As they cool, they trap electron charges originating from within the crystal lattice. These charges are accommodated within crystallographic defects or vacancies in their crystal lattices as the mineral cools below the closure temperature.
During detrapping of these electrons, luminescence is produced. The luminescence or light emission from the mineral is assumed to be proportional to the trapped electron charge population. The age recorded in standard OSL method is determined by counting the number of these trapped charges in an OSL detection system. The OSL age is the cooling age of the quartz and/or feldspar. This cooling history is a record of the mineral's thermal history, which is used to reconstruct the geological event.
The sub-Quaternary period (104 to 105 years) is the geological age where OSL is a favourable dating technique because of low closure temperature of quartz and feldspar used in this technique. The Quaternary period is marked by intense crustal erosion particularly within active mountain ranges, leading to high exhumation rate of crustal rocks and formation of sub-Quaternary sediments. Previous techniques (e.g. Apatite Fission Track, Zircon Fission Track, and (Uranium-Thorium)/ Helium dating) could not adequately track the geological age records particularly in the last ~300 thousand years. OSL dating is currently the only dating method that has been successfully applied to understand the cooling ages of the geological events.
Theoretical concepts of electron trapping and detrapping for OSL measurement.
In natural environment, crystal lattices of quartz and/or feldspar are bombarded with radiation released from radiogenic source such as "in -situ" radioactive decay. As the crystals are irradiated, charges are stored up in their crystallographic defects. The charge trapping process involves atomic-scale ionic substitution of both electron and hole within the crystal lattices of quartz and feldspar. The electron diffusion happens in response to ionizing radiation as the minerals cools below their closure temperature.
If quartz or feldspar gains are exposed to natural light source such as the sun, the trapped charges will be evicted in form of luminescence. This natural process is called bleaching. Any other process that could heat up the sample will also cause the trapped electrons to escape from the crystal lattice known as thermal bleaching. Optical bleaching of the mineral leads to eviction of trapped charges in the minerals, hence, careful sampling and handling must be followed to avoid using bleached sample for OSL thermochronometry. To artificially produce luminescence in the laboratory for luminescence study of the mineral, these two processes are adopted.
Kinetic or rate equations for trapping and detrapping processes.
A wide range of kinetic models have been developed to explain trapping and detrapping processes in quartz and feldspar crystals. Two of these models are particularly useful in determining the cooling histories of quartz or feldspar These models are known as the general order kinetic model and band tail model. The two models consider three major processes to characterize the mineral luminescence, which are: trapping process, thermal detrapping process and athermal detrapping process. Each of the processes are guided by different equations discussed below. These models are useful for the determining of cooling history of the mineral, which involves subtracting the differential sum of thermal detrapping and athermal detrapping from the trapping process (i.e. Trapping – (Thermal detrapping + Athermal detrapping).
Determination of cooling history from the kinetic equations.
By combining the four equations above, a single differential equation is developed to convert the luminescence into cooling rate. We have:
formula_1 for the general order kinetic model; and
formula_2for the band tail model.
Any of the models can be used because the same series of laboratory experiments are followed for the estimation of all the parameters involved in the equations. The inversion of measured formula_3for a range of temperature -time history or T-t path can be used to determine the cooling rate. Sufficient number of T-t paths conducted in the laboratory is used to build a probability density function, which will help to determine the most likely cooling histories undergone by the mineral.
Sample preparation.
Bedrock samples from earth surface or boreholes are required earth materials for OSL dating. Minerals (quartz and/or feldspar) are usually separated from the rock or sediment samples under regulated laboratory lighting system similar to procedures used in archaeological OSL dating. The light source is usually a controlled red light condition to avoid luminescence signal resetting.[7] Crushing of sample are gently carried out to avoid generating heat that is strong enough to reset OSL signal in the minerals. Crushed samples are separated by means of a sieve to get fine-grained. A range of values varying from 90 – 125 microns, 100 – 200 microns and 180 – 212 microns can be used for OSL measurement. The selected grains are chemically treated with HCl to digest carbonates and with H2O2 to remove organic materials that can contaminate the sensitivity of OSL signal during measurement. Feldspar and quartz with densities of < 2.62 g cm−3 and < 2.68 g cm−3 respectively are separated from other heavier minerals by density separation. Inclusions of zircon, apatite and feldspar in quartz as well as alpha-particles irradiated grain edges that can contaminate OSL signal are removed by etching in hydrofluoric acid (HF).
OSL signal detection system.
OSL ages are commonly measured using an automated RisThermal Luminescence Reader (e.g. TL-DA-20). It contains an internal beta-source (e.g. 90Sr/90Y) with optical stimulation emitted through laser diodes (LEDs). The reader also has a detection filter for transmission of stimulated luminescence signals. During this measurement, the mineral grain (quartz or feldspar) is glued on a heater strip (stainless-steel discs) using adhesive (commonly silicone spray). The mineral grain is stimulated with the light source. This light is the series of light emitting diode. This bombardment stimulates the electrons, which are trapped and begin to recombine in the crystal. During this process, they give the OSL signal, which is collected or recorded in the ray sensitive photomultiplier tube. The photomultiplier tube converts all the incident photons (i.e. light) to electronic charge. This is the basic principle of how the luminescence (light) emission from the minerals under investigation is measured.
OSL age determination.
To determine the OSL age of the sample, the dose rate, (formula_4) and the equivalent dose (formula_5). A dose is the quantity of natural radiation or energy absorbed by a mineral. The dose rate is the effective radiation absorbed from naturally occurring ionizing source per unit time.
The age is calculated by determining the ratio of equivalent dose (formula_5) and the dose rate (formula_4) using the equation below.
formula_8
where formula_9 is the age (yr), formula_5is measured in Gray (Gy). Note that 1 Gy is equivalent to 1 J.kg−1 (Joule per kilogram) and formula_4is Gy year−1
Dose rate determination.
For a single grain of mineral, the dose rate (formula_4) can be determined by measuring the concentrations of uranium, potassium and thorium by direct mass spectrometric analysis of quartz or feldspar grains. Ge-Gamma, INAA, X-ray flourescnce and ICP-MS or ICP-OES are spectrometers that can could be used. Other methods for the determination the dose rate include: (1) overburden cosmic dose rate estimation, (2) water content attenuation method, and (3) disequilibrium dose rate correction method. An average dose rate is usually calculated as representative of the dose rate.
Equivalent dose determination.
The equivalent dose (formula_5) is also known as the dose response is determined from the dose response curve (see Plot B). The single-aliquot regenerative (SAR) protocol is a commonly used method for the determination of the equivalent dose. The protocol involves series of laboratory measurement of OSL signal (see Plot A), which is emitted by the aliquot after it has been optically stimulated at a known beta dose within a given time in seconds. The beta-source may be 90Sr/90Y in an automated RisThermal Luminescence Reader . During SAR protocol, the difference in the measurement for quartz and feldspar is mainly on the degree of heat required per time and the source of stimulation.
The first stage involves determination of the natural dose (see Plot B) preheating the aliquot to about 160 -130 °C (for feldspar) for 10 s or 160-300 °C (for quartz) when the natural luminescence signal (i.e. natural dose) is still intact. This is done to remove unstable signals in the mineral. After preheating, the aliquot is optically stimulated by Infrared light emitting diode (for feldspar) or Blue light emitting diode (for quartz) depending on which mineral (see OSL detection system) for 40 s at 125 °C (for feldspar) or 100 s at 125 °C (for quartz) and the natural OSL signal (NL) is measured and recorded in the photomultiplier tube. For the second stage, the aliquot is irradiated with a fixed known test dose (beta dose). The aliquot is preheated at temperature less than 160 °C. The IRSL signal measurement is taken as a test dose IRSL response (NT) after it has been optically stimulated for 40 s at 125 °C (for feldspar) or 100 s at 125 °C (for quartz). At this stage the aliquot is completely bleached. A regenerative test dose is then started after bleaching.
The same procedure as described above is followed but a range of regenerative dose is given at different temperature for sensitivity correction of OSL signal (See Plot B). For the regenerative dose measurement, the aliquot is irradiated with a known dose before preheating at 160-130 °C for 10 s or 160-300 °C for feldspar or quartz respectively while the signal response (Ri) is measured. A fixed test dose is by irradiating the aliquot and a preheating of the aliquot is carried out at a temperature less than 160 °C. The aliquot is optically stimulated at the same rate and the IRSL signal (RT) is measured. The steps are repeated for range of different regenerative dose including zero test dose. During each of the tests, all OSL signals are recorded in the photomultiplier tube and the OSL counts are plotted against the OSL exposure time in seconds as shown in the OSL signal curve (first graph).
For sensitivity correction, NL is plotted against NT representing the natural OSL signal while the plot of Ri against RT representing regenerative dose test (see Plot B). The natural dose is along the vertical axis because no laboratory dose is given at the stage. The regenerative dose measurement will vary with respect to the given dose at each stage. The equivalent dose (formula_5) is determined by drawing a line (red discontinuous line in Plot B) from the natural dose to intercept with the regenerative dose curve. The point of interception with the curve represent the equivalent dose by reading its value on the horizontal axis (See Plot B). The corresponding dose value at the horizontal axis is recorded for the equivalent dose (formula_5).
Applications..
General applications.
OSL finds application in all low-temperature (<50 °C) tectonic and sedimentary processes. These studies are mainly captured within the sub-Quaternary period including, but not limited to focused fluvial and/or glacial erosion, rock exhumation and evolution of topography in active tectonic regions. Other applications include glaciation deposits, lagoon deposits, storm surge and tsunami deposits, lake deposits including shoreline migration history, fluvial erosion deposits, loess deposit records. For example, the rate of slip on a normal faults plane can also be modelled, the rate of glacial or fluvial erosion of the earth surface can also be modelled as well as when sedimentary deposits are found within the sub-Quaternary period.
In active tectonics regions, the application of OSL dating is very useful in tracking the thermal history and rate of rock exhumation towards the Earth's surface. The closer the cooling ages, the higher the rate of erosion and/or exhumation of the rock unit under investigation. When the OSL age of quartz or feldspar is known, the obtained ages are coupled with the existing thermal-mechanical equations e.g. Pecube to reconstruct the thermal-mechanical history.
The OSL ages (see diagram), cooling ages, elevation data are plotted against the horizontal distance where samples and elevation data were collected to interpret the exhumation rate of rock or the evolution of the relief system through time. For example, OSL dating has been applied in determined the cooling histories of some rapidly eroding active regions at sub-Quaternary time-scale (i.e. 104 to 105 years). These examples are Whataroa-Perth catchment area in the Southern Alps of New Zealand and Namche Barwa-Gyala Peri dome in eastern Himalaya. In the Namche Barwa-Gyala Peri dome, river erosion was prevalent while glacial erosion was the main active process in the Whataroa-Perth catchment area. In both studies, the rate of exhumation and evolution of the relief systems were estimated by inversion of OSL thermochronological ages.


Russian guitar

The Russian guitar (sometimes referred to as a "Gypsy guitar") is an acoustic seven-string guitar that was developed in Russia toward the end of the 18th century: it shares most of its organological features with the Spanish guitar, although some historians insist on English guitar ascendancy. It is known in Russian as the "semistrunnaya gitara" (семиструнная гитара), or affectionately as the "semistrunka" (семиструнка), which translates to "seven-stringer". These guitars are most commonly tuned to an open G chord as follows: . In classical literature, the lowest string (D) occasionally is tuned down to the C.
History.
Although in a number of sources the invention of the Russian guitar is attributed to Andrei Sychra (1773–1850), there are strong reasons to believe that the instrument was already in use when Sychra began his career. It is true that Sychra was very influential in creating the school of Russian guitar playing. He left over a thousand compositions, seventy-five of which were republished in the 1840s by Stellovsky, and then again in the 1880s by Gutheil. Some of these were published yet again in the Soviet Union in 1926.
The first known written instruction for 7-string guitar was published in St. Petersburg, Russia in the year 1798, December, 15th. (15.12.1798), written by Ignaz Held (1766, Bohemia – 1816, Russia).
The Russian version of the seven-string guitar has been used by professionals because of its great flexibility, but has also been popular with amateurs for accompaniment (especially Russian bards) due to the relative simplicity of some basic chords and the ease of playing alternating bass lines.
Construction.
Construction of the Russian is very similar to that of the western 6-string guitar except for the additional string. The same basic components are present: headstock; nut; tuners; neck; fingerboard; frets; inlays; truss rod (in modern instruments); heel; body; bridge & bridge saddle; soundboard (top); sound hole and rosette; back; sides; strings. Woods used and internal bracing layouts are also similar.
Types.
There are two basic types of Russian guitar: the "classical" model and the "gypsy" model. The classical model closely resembles the western 6-string classical guitar, and has nylon or gut strings. The gypsy model is steel strung, and resembles the western 6-string steel-string acoustic guitar, although more size and shape variations are found among gypsy guitars.
A two-necked version of the Russian guitar was also once popular; these guitars usually had 11 or 12 strings—one neck with seven fretted strings, and another with four or five unfretted strings. There are also some rare specimens that were built with an oval body.
Head.
The head or "headstock" is located at the end of the guitar neck farthest from the body. Modern instruments are fitted with machine head tuners, though older instruments (particularly from the 19th century) have friction pegs. The tuner layout is usually in one of two forms: "4+3", with four tuners on the bass-string side of the head and three on the treble string side; or "3+1+3", with three tuners on each side of the headstock and one in the middle. The nut is a small strip traditionally of bone, but plastic, brass, and other materials are also sometimes seen.
Neck.
Headstock, fingerboard (fretboard), and truss rod (if present), all attached to a long wooden extension which collectively constitutes the neck. The wood used to make the fretboard usually differs from the wood in the rest of the neck. The neck joint or heel is the point at which the neck is attached to the body of the guitar.
Fingerboard.
The fingerboard is made of hardwood (ebony or rosewood are common), fitted with metal frets of brass or steel. Fret spacing almost always follows the western twelve tone equal temperament (12-tet) system. The surface of the fingerboard may be flat or curved slightly ("radiused"), although the radius of a curve on the Russian guitar is usually somewhat less than that of an equivalent western 6-string guitar. Inlayed position markers are common, and appear in the same locations as 6-string guitars (e.g., typically the 5th, 7th, 9th, and 12th frets, among others).
Body.
The sound board is usually made of spruce or cedar, and sized and shaped much like that of the 6-string guitar. Overall proportions of classical seven string instruments nylon string) are similar to those of 6-string guitars. "Gypsy" instruments (steel string) may be proportioned similarly, but also may often feature a narrower upper bout, and an enlarged sound hole. Both traditionally shaped instruments and instruments with cut-away bodies are available.
The bridge is made of a hardwood similar to that used for the fingerboard, and the bridge saddle is usually bone or sometimes plastic; on old instruments, ivory was sometimes used.
A pickguard, or "scratchplate"—usually a piece of laminated plastic—is frequently found on steel-string "gypsy" instruments; on nylon-string classical instruments it is usually lacking.
Strings.
As noted above, Russian guitars may have either nylon (or equivalent non-metal) strings, or steel (or equivalent metal) strings, depending on whether the instrument is a classical or gypsy guitar. On classical instruments the four lower pitched strings are generally wound, and the three higher strings are of plain material. On gypsy instruments five strings are wound, and the top two are plain.
Measurements.
Proportions of Russian guitars typically do not differ greatly from those of western 6-string instruments. Since the range of both types of instrument are comparable, this makes acoustical sense. One notable physical difference, however, concerns string spacing: since Russian guitars have essentially the same neck width as 6-string guitars, the 7 strings on the Russian instruments are necessarily closer together.
Handedness.
Left-handed Russian guitars exist, but are extremely rare.
Tuning.
Traditionally, Russian and Spanish guitars are tuned differently. On the Spanish guitar the open-string chord is an Em11, while on the Russian guitar it is a G-major. While the Spanish guitar is tuned in fourths with one (major) third (G3–B3), the Russian guitar is tuned in thirds (G2–B2, B2–D3, G3–B3, and B3–D3) with two fourths (D2–G2, and D3–G3):
Derivation.
This tuning is thought to have been derived from the baroque cittern of the English guitar type. According to the historical article by Valerian Rusanov, "there was a cittern player in Leipzig, named Scheidler, who enhanced the tuning by addition a bass string". These musical instruments, made by Gerard J. Deleplanque, G. Le Blond, Johann Georg Ochstermann and Johann Wilhelm Bindernagel, were delivered via Elbe river, and still awaits a recognition from lovers of Russian romance in Glinka Museum in Moscow, as well as in the Musical Museum in Leipzig. Known as "Deutsche Guitarre", two hundred years ago they already had some of the hallmarks of a modern seven-string guitar, including "Viennese" bracing and a radial fretboard. One of the first performers on seven-string citterns in Germany were Johann David Scheidler and Johann Clauduis Hanff, the second later worked in St.-Petersburg in Russia.
Years before Johann David Scheidler, there was another guitar player, who also played in "Open G" tuning on Harp Guitar in Mainz, but there is no evidence that they were relatives.
Reverberation and Echoing.
Some guitar historians insist that the Russian 7-string tuning was invented in 1793 by Andrey Sychra, acknowledged harpist of the 18th century, in order to adapt a harp tuning for guitar, and facilitate the playing of harp-like arpeggios:
This sound, resembling a runaway stream of pure fifths, was discovered by Sychra.
Performance practice.
The Russian guitar is traditionally played without a pick, using fingers for either strumming or picking.
The open G tuning allows major chords to be played with only one finger of the fretting hand (the left hand for right-handed guitars), as barre chords. The A-major chord can be played most easily as a barré on the second fret, the B major as a barré on the fourth, C major on the fifth, D major on the seventh, and so on (although other, more involved major shapes are employed as well for a variation in voicing). A fair amount of open-G chord shapes use six or five strings, and so these shapes require the player to mute or not play particular strings.
Perhaps the most audible difference between the Spanish and Russian tunings is in the ability to play chords with a tighter, more piano-like voicing on the latter. For example, an E-minor chord on a Spanish guitar (as 022000) is usually played in the order, from low to high, of "E (root), B (fifth), E (root), G (minor third), B (fifth)" and again "E (root)". On a Russian guitar it is possible to play the E minor (2002002) as "E (root), G (minor third), B (fifth), E (root), G (minor third), B (fifth)," and "E (root)" — or to play it with the same voicing as the six string E minor (using 99X9989).
This tighter voicing is particularly audible with seventh chords, including the rootless seventh chord (seventh chords without a root note, actually a diminished chord).
It is fairly common for Russian guitar players (particularly those accompanying themselves singing, such as bards) to bring the tuning up or down several steps as desired, either to accommodate the voice or for varying string tension. Vladimir Vysotsky often tuned down a whole step, sometimes even a step and a half to an open E. Also, variations in the open G tuning were fairly common, e.g., Bulat Okudzhava would use the tuning of to play songs written in C, while bard Sergey Nikitin tuned his guitar to an open G minor: .
There are more than 1,000 different chords possible for the standard open G tuning and plenty of different schools for left hand (vibrato) and right hand (fingerstyle playing) and enormous classical music musical transposition archives and music composed for Russian 7-string guitar for 200 years in Russia. Because much of this music was published during the years of the Soviet Union, little of it left Russia, and printed scores of music for Russian guitar are difficult to come by in Europe or North America.
Six string adaptations.
A common practice for six string guitar players of Russian romances and bard music is to retune their guitars using variations of the seven string tuning, such as:
and so on.
Popularity.
For many years, the seven-string guitar was far more popular in Russia than the regular six-string Spanish guitar; the latter was a rarity in Russia before the revolution of 1917. The Russian guitar gained significant popularity in the latter half of the 19th century with the increasing popularity of guitar oriented "city romance" songs.
The six-string first came to serious prominence in the Russian classical guitar world when Andrés Segovia toured Soviet Russia in 1926. Possibly looking for something new and exciting to give life to their repressed craft, many Russian classical guitarists began making a switch to the six-string and the EADGBE tuning. Classical guitarist Piotr Agafoshin made the switch, and wrote a Russian book on six string technique that remains a standard to this day.
The Russian guitar remained the standard for popular musicians until the 1960s, when a strong interest in underground music such as jazz and Western rock acts such as the Beatles and Elvis Presley developed.
However, the parallel emergence of Russian bard music, which relied heavily on popular Russian guitar technique used in "urban romances," kept the seven-string guitar relevant. Actor Vladimir Vysotsky, arguably Russia's most prominent bard, retained his monogamous relationship with the seven string up to his death in 1980. Pioneering bard Bulat Okudjava switched to the six string in the early 1990s, but continued tuning it in open G (skipping the middle D).
Thanks to the "bard boom" and cheap factory production, a Russian guitar could be bought new for as little as 12 rubles in the 1970s. Soviet factories continued to manufacture the seven string exclusively for quite a long time before making a gradual switchover to accommodate the demand for six string guitars in the mid to late 1970s. Prior to that, western pop and rock oriented guitarists had a tradition of modifying cheap factory made Soviet seven string guitars to six strings (or sometimes to bass guitars) and retuning them to the EADGBE tuning.
Conversely, Russian émigré guitarists living in western countries, where only six string guitars were available, have been known to modify six string (and sometimes twelve string) acoustic guitars to seven string instruments, in order to better play their favorite Russian songs.
Recently, the repertoire for the Russian guitar has been the subject of a new scholarly examination and has seen increased performance due to the work of Oleg Timofeyev, who has unearthed and recorded works by the composer Matvei Pavlov-Azancheev (1888−1963).


Ford Proving Grounds

Ford Motor Company operates several proving grounds worldwide, for development and validation testing of new vehicles.
North America.
Arizona Proving Ground (APG) - Wittmann, Arizona.
The Arizona Proving Ground opened in 1985. The Proving Ground consists of 1,498 acres (6.06 km²) located less than one hour northwest of the Phoenix Sky Harbor Airport at an elevation of 1,650 feet (500 m). The facility was originally a Volvo facility (VAPG) but was transitioned to the Ford branding in the summer of 2009 and renamed the Arizona Proving Ground (APG). Volvo still is a large user of it.
It features a 2-mile oval track with banked curves, a 2-mile completely straight road, a brake test area and some more tracks.
The Arizona Proving Ground is operated year round. The climate is of a desert type with low annual rainfall and low relative humidity. Daytime temperatures are high throughout the summer months. The winters are mild. Nighttime temperatures frequently drop below freezing during the three coldest months, but the afternoons are usually sunny and warm. The summer heat (over ) is the most used time of the year, since worst case should be tested in order to cover many test cases.
The facility is located on the outskirts of Phoenix.
Michigan Proving Ground (MPG) - Romeo, Michigan.
The Ford Michigan Proving Ground (MPG) of Romeo, Michigan sits on 3,880 acres (15.7 km²), and contains a total of over of roads. These grounds hold events like the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) Formula car competition (FSAE). This involves teams from colleges and universities around the world to compete in a competition involving both design and performance. The facility is also home to Twombly Mountain, the highest point in Macomb County.
Dearborn Development Center (formerly Dearborn Proving Ground (DPG)).
The Dearborn Development Center was built on the site of Ford Airport in Dearborn, Michigan. The facility, formerly known as Dearborn Proving Ground (DPG), completed major reconstruction and renovations in 2006.
Extreme Cold Weather Test Facility (ECWTF) - Thompson, Manitoba.
The facility is located at the nearby Thompson Airport in Thompson, Manitoba, Canada. The Extreme Cold Weather Test Facility offers vehicle testing in extremely cold weather conditions during the winter months from around November 1 to March 30.
Europe.
Dunton Technical Centre (DTC) - Basildon, Essex, England.
Proving ground for Ford UK.
Lommel Proving Grounds (LPG) - Lommel, Belgium.
The Lommel Proving Grounds, also known as Ford LPG, were constructed on land rented from the city of Lommel from 1960.
Former Ford Proving Grounds.
Arizona Proving Ground (APG) - Yucca, Arizona.
Arizona Proving Ground (APG) was sold to Chrysler in 2007. This is no longer a Ford facility.
Cold Climate Test Facility - Raco, Michigan.
Facility now owned by Smithers Scientific Services
Florida Evaluation Center (FEC) - Naples, Florida.
This facility is no longer leased by Ford. Ford sold the facility in 2002 to Harley Davidson. It has been taken over by Chrysler in early 2013 with Harley-Davidson leasing parts of the facility.


Emission spectroscopy


Robin M. Hochstrasser

Robin M. Hochstrasser (1931 – 27 February 2013) was a Scottish-born American chemist.
Biography.
Hochstrasser was born in Edinburgh, Scotland. In 1952 he received his B.S. from Heriot-Watt University and 3 years later got his Ph.D. from University of Edinburgh. In 1957 he joined the faculty at the University of British Columbia. From 1962 to 1967 he was Alfred P. Sloan Foundation fellow and in 1963 he taught chemistry at University of Pennsylvania. During his 50 years of teaching, he trained 75 Ph.D. students and more than 90 postdoctoral fellows. Between 1955 and 1957 he served in the Royal Air Force. He also published numerous of scientific papers and two books; "Behaviour of Electrons in Atoms" and "Molecular Aspects of Symmetry".
From 1975 to 2012 he was an editor of the scientific journal called Chemical physics. In 1972 he became visiting professor and fellow at Clare College, Cambridge University, England and next year became visiting professor at Australian National University, Canberra. In 1978 he became a Senior Fellow at Alexander von Humboldt Biological Resources Research Institute and the same year became a fellow at American Physical Society. Next year, he became the Director of the University's Regional Laser and Biotechnology Laboratories and in 1980 became visiting professor at University of Munich.
1980s.
In 1981 he received Bourke Medal from Faraday Society and a year later became Christianson Fellow at St. Catherine's College, a division of Oxford University. The same year he became a fellow at American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Another two years went by and in 1984 he was awarded an Honorary degree from Scottish Heriot-Watt University. From 1985 to his death he was a chair of the John Scott Advisory Panel for the City of Philadelphia. In 1986 he got Special President's Award from SPIE. Next year, he became associate professor at University of Paris and two years later became Grenoble Professor at the University of Grenoble. The same year he became a fellow at Optical Society of America.
1990s.
In 1990 he received Philadelphia Section Award and the same year got National Institutes of Health Merit Award. Six years have passed and he received another award, this time it was LICOR Award from University of Nebraska. The next year brought him Ellis Lippincott Award from the Optical Society of America. 1998 brought him two chair positions, one was at the Chemical Physics division of the American Physical Society, the other one was at the Biophysical Chemistry division of American Chemical Society. He was also awarded the E. Bright Wilson Award in Spectroscopy. From 2000 till his death he was an Honorary Professor of Physics at University of Strathclyde.
2000s.
In 2000, he got Centenary Silver Medal from the Royal Society of Chemistry and three years later received Benjamin Franklin Medal. In 2005, he received F. Albert Cotton Medal from Texas A&M University and in 2007 was awarded A. H. Zewail Award for Ultrafast Science and Technology. Next year, he became an honorary fellow at the Royal Society of Edinburgh and two years later received the Pittsburgh Spectroscopy Award. In 2012, he got even more awards including Linus Pauling Award. He died on 27 February 2013 at the age of 82. After his death, in June 2013 he was posthumously awarded a Doctorate of Science from the University of Edinburgh.


Heaven Benchmark

Heaven Benchmark is a benchmarking software based on the Unigine Engine. It was developed and published by UNIGINE Corp with the purpose to perform PC GPU benchmarking and stability diagnostics (testing). Heaven Benchmark is used by overclockers for online and offline competitions in GPU overclocking. Heaven Benchmark was shipped with Zotac GPUs. Included in Phoronix Test Suite.
Technological features and system requirements.
The software works with DirectX 9, DirectX 10, DirectX 11, and OpenGL 4.0. Hardware tessellation (Direct3D 11 only) and SSAO are supported. Nvidia SLI, AMD Crossfire, and AMD Eyefinity support claimed.
Heaven Benchmark natively supports stereo 3D rendering.
Release.
Heaven Benchmark is claimed to be the first DirectX 11 benchmark. It was officially introduced at Windows 7 presentation on October 22, 2009.
Heaven Benchmark versions.
Heaven Benchmark was originally released in October 2009. Then a number of updates followed:
The latest version is Heaven 4.0 was released on January 11, 2013.
Heaven Benchmark editions.
There are three editions of Heaven benchmark: Basic, Advanced, and Professional.


Lady Elizabeth Blount

Elizabeth Anne Mould de Sodington Blount, Lady de Sodington Blount born Elizabeth Anne Mould Williams lastly Elizabeth Anne Mould Morgan (7 May 1850 – 2 January 1935) was an English pamphlet writer and social activist. She led a society who believed in a flat earth. She conducted convincing, but flawed, experiments to prove this.
Life.
Blount was born in Lambeth in 1850. Her parents were Elizabeth Ann (born Mould) and James Zacharias Williams, who was a keen supporter of London clubs. She was tutored at home. She developed wide interests in art, science, social responsibility, and London's society and intelligentsia.
She married Sir Walter de Sodington Blount, 9th Baronet, and they raised a family at the family seat of Mawley Hall. She would spend time there and at their house in London where she was a fellow of the Royal Society of Literature and the Society of Antiquaries.
After Samuel Rowbotham's death in 1884, Blount became the President of the Universal Zetetic Society, whose objective was "the propagation of knowledge related to Natural Cosmogony in confirmation of the Holy Scriptures, based on practical scientific investigation". Blount's title and money was said to have attracted an archbishop, several colonels, a Major-General to the membership. The society published a magazine, "The Earth Not a Globe Review", and remained active well into the early 20th century. A flat Earth journal, "Earth: a Monthly Magazine of Sense and Science", was published between 1901 and 1904, edited by Lady Blount.
In 1898 she published a novel titled "Adrian Galilio, or a Song Writer's Story". The Flat Earth Society says that it concerns "an aristocrat who escapes her unhappy marriage and reinvents herself as a world-famous Flat Earth proponent who 'tours Europe giving elaborate lectures on cosmology, the creation, true love and hell'".
Blount and her husband wanted to provide evidence of the earth's flat surface and they created experiments on the Old Bedford Level Canal over several weeks.
On 11 May 1904, Lady Elizabeth Anne Blount hired a photographer to use a telephoto-lens camera to take a picture from Welney of a large white sheet of which she had placed the bottom edge near the surface of the river at Rowbotham's original position away. The photographer, Edgar Clifton from Dallmeyer's studio, mounted his camera above the water at Welney and was surprised to be able to obtain a picture of the target, which he believed should have been invisible to him, given the low mounting point of the camera. Lady Blount published the pictures far and wide. Blount's letter did not discuss the effects of atmospheric refraction but the photographer noted a mirage which he described as "an aqueous shimmering vapour [appearing] to float unevenly on the surface of the canal".
These controversies became a regular feature in the "English Mechanic" magazine in 1904–05, which published Blount's photo and reported two experiments in 1905 that showed the opposite results. One of these, by Clement Stratton on the Ashby Canal, showed a dip on a sight-line only above the surface.
When she was 73, on 28 August 1923, she married again to a builder and evangelist named Stephen Morgan who was forty years younger than her. She was a member of the "Society for the Protection of the Dark Races" and she gave that her active support.
Blount died in Hayling Island.


DragonFly Network Time Daemon