Public image of Narendra Modi

Narendra Modi the 14th Prime Minister of India, has elicited a number of public perceptions regarding his personality and background.
Personal life.
Modi was born in a Gujarati Hindu family and is a vegetarian. He has two older brothers and three younger brothers. He is married, but acknowledged the marriage only in April 2014, shortly before the national elections that swept him to power. His spouse is Jashodaben, a retired school teacher. The couple has remained married, but estranged for more than fifty years. He is a lifelong member of Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) and its political arm, the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP). Modi became a 'Pracharak' (missionary worker) of the RSS in early 1970s. Since becoming a prachark, Modi has either cut down or reduced ties to his family per the RSS rules.
Perception through the years.
Journalist Ashis Nandy, who is also a trained psychologist, was one of the first to interview Modi when the latter was an RSS pracharak at the height of the Ram Janmabhoomi campaign in the early 1990s. At that time in Modi, he found "a classic, clinical case of a fascist".
Soon after becoming the chief minister of Gujarat, the state was convulsed by sectarian riots in 2002.The complicity of Modi's government in the pogrom against the Muslim minorities made Modi a pariah for many years. The United States and many European countries imposed visa bans on Modi after the riots. These remained in force for many years and were lifted shortly before he became prime minister in 2014
Soon after the Gujarat riots, Modi embarked on a strategy to make the state a friendly place to set up business and rebrand his image from being a Hindu hardliner to a development oriented leader. This led to him being dubbed as Vikaspurush (Development man). This was the main theme during his successful campaign in 2014.
Modi has for years presented himself as an able administrator with an eye for detail. But his reputation as a vigilant administrator started to lose its shine in 2016 when his notorious demonetisation policy caused distress to millions of Indians who largely relied on cash. His reputation took a further hit last year when he imposed a complete lockdown in the country at four hours notice to stop the spread of Covid-19. This led to millions losing their jobs and many lost their lives. The Indian economy also shrunk in percentage terms by double digit numbers.
For foreign observers, his nationalist impulses are always paired with a sense of technocratic competence. But according to Christopher Clary, assistant professor of political science at the State University of New York, technocratic competence has been entirely missing from his response to the second wave of Covid-19 in India.
Communication strategies.
Modi has used multiple strategies to build up his image. These include use of Social media, government media outlets, and a distinct attire. The machinery for this works also includes ad makers, speechwriters and assorted spinners managing Modi's image and campaigns.
Social media.
One of the main strategies used by Narendra Modi and his government has been the extensive use of Social media to directly communicate with the public. In September 2014 Modi became the second-most-followed leader in the world with 5 million Twitter subscribers. Modi's 31 August 2012 post on Google Hangouts made him the first Indian politician to interact with the public on live chat. Modi was the second-most-followed leader in the world (with over 30 million followers on Twitter, as of June 2017 behind only Barack Obama. For the 2014 elections, The BJP's National Digital Operations Centre (NDOC) led a group of volunteers for the social media campaign. The volunteers were charged with trolling and attacking mainstream journalists considered unfavorable to Modi. The group was headed by Arvind Gupta. Gupta joined the team in 2009 and for 2014 election campaign, he was in charge of websites, uploading videos of rallies and meetings, distributing them to media houses, and posting comments and releases and trolling opponents online.
There has been concern over misinformation and fake news being spread on social media platforms, particularly Whatsapp, by Modi's BJP.
Mann ki Baat.
Modi's use of social media has been at the expense of traditional media such as Television and print media. He rarely gives interviews or holds a press conference. Since coming to power in 2014, Modi has also been hosting a monthly monologue called Mann Ki Baat on the government owned All India radio and Doordarshan. His supporters applaud the use of an old fashioned medium like radio to promote positive social causes while his detractors call it another propaganda tactic by Modi to reach out to millions of people untouched by the internet.
Media intimidation.
Modi has been called a controversial, polarising and divisive figure by many media sources. There are reports that Modi and his government are highly anxious to avoid negative media attention. Journalists and public figures have lost their jobs following criticism of Modi.
Optics and Attire.
Modi has been called a fashion leader in India, and his clothing choices have been discussed internationally. Recognition of his sartorial style is a major part of his public image. The type of vest regularly worn by Modi have become popular, and called as "Modi Jackets".
In January 2015 while receiving United States President Barack Obama in a state visit at the Hyderabad House, Modi wore a suit with his name embroidered repeatedly in the pinstripes. Modi claimed that the suit was gifted to him. Modi's political opposition criticized his wearing the suit, complaining that he campaigns on an image of coming from a poor background and living without money while at the same time wearing luxury products such as this suit. Other commentators said that in choosing this suit Modi was being a "parvenu", at the height of vanity, going to a ridiculous extreme, and political opposition party leader Jairam Ramesh said that he was a megalomaniac. A month later the suit was auctioned for and amount was directly donated to the Clean Ganga Mission. Journalist Siddharth Varadarajan commented on the public support for the auction by saying "the manner in which Mr. Modi's leadership has been projected is extremely unhealthy in any democratic society". What was noticeable was that though Modi had not paid a penny for the suit material and also the making which was done free of cost by Jade Blue, he still managed to auction the suit for US$695,000 and contributed the entire amount for Clean Ganga project.
Modi's usual attire is a kurta and vest, and his half-sleeve kurta is sometimes called the Modi Kurta. The prime minister's clothes are made of silk or cotton, are crisply ironed and are handmade in Gujarat. When he was chief minister he wore bold, bright colours, changing to pastels as prime minister. For holidays, Modi wears a traditional turban from wherever he is. Some of his clothing has been created by Bollywood fashion designer Troy Costa.
In 2009, Modi's clothing was said to be Bollywoodesque and indicative of Gujarat's modernism. According to "Vogue India" editor Priya Tanna in a "New York Times" blog, "Never before has there been such a strong convergence between what a politician in India stands for and his clothing." Tanna called his clothing choice "100% India": democratic, supportive of Indian industry (separating him from politicians in Western suits), emblematic of his humble birth, clean and hygienic. Responding to Tanna, another commentator said that Modi's fashion choice has no particular meaning and there is no need to interpret it.
Modi also likes to don the orange (bhagwa) robes of a Hindu sanyasi for photo opportunities. At the end of the election campaign in May 2019, he travelled to a mountain cave in the Himalayas at Kedarnath for meditation.He was heavily mocked by national and international media for conducting his meditation (tapasya in Sanskrit) in a cave that had an attached toilet, a heater, a bathing area, an electric geyser, a telephone, WiFi, and a grand view. A cameraperson was allowed to record the session.
56-inch Chest.
One of the strategies that Modi and his handlers have used to project his "Hero" status is his "56-inch Chest". Although a masculine attribute, the 56-inch chest seems to have garnered him support from female voters.Author Manjima Chatterjee claims that Modi's perceived decisiveness makes him a sex symbol for women. His detractors, however, lampoon this attribute or try to demolish the myth by saying that it is only 44 inch.
Charity.
Modi donates generously for different government related schemes. He always auctions gifts received. He has raised Rs 89.96 crore by auctioning all gifts he received as Chief Minister of Gujarat and donated this to the Kanya Kelavani Fund. After becoming PM, he has contributed to public causes ranging from Girl Child Education to Clean Ganga to welfare of underprivileged. These donations have now exceeded 103 crores and most of that comes from his personal savings and auctions of the gift he has received. The ethics of his auctioning of gifts that he received as a government official has been subjected to criticism.
Yoga.
After promoting Yoga in his 2015 address to the UN, Modi has been holding the International Day of Yoga every year on 21 June, the day of Northern Summer solstice.
Popularity and Influence.
In November 2017, a survey of Pew Research Center showed Modi to be the "by far" most popular figure in Indian politics. In this survey Modi at 88% was ahead of Rahul Gandhi (58%), Sonia Gandhi (57%) and Arvind Kejriwal (39%).
In a nationwide survey concerning Indian Chief Ministers, Modi was named Best Chief Minister in 2007 by "India Today". In March 2012 Modi appeared on the cover of the Asian edition of "Time", one of the few Indian politicians to have done so, and made the 2014 Time 100 list of the world's most influential people. He has become the most followed Asian leader on Twitter, and in 2014 was ranked the 15th-most-powerful person in the world by "Forbes". In 2015, Modi was one of "Time"s "30 most influential people on the internet" as the second-most-followed politician on Twitter and Facebook. In 2015, Modi was ranked 5th on "Forbes" magazine's list of 'World's Greatest Leaders'. Modi was featured in a cover story written by journalist and novelist, Aatish Taseer in a Time magazine article titled "India's divider in chief" in the May 20 2019 issue. This was followed by an article, in the same magazine, written by Modi's advisor, Manoj Ladwa titled, "Modi united India like no PM in decades" in the May 30 2019 issue of "Time" magazine.
Honours from Foreign governments.
Modi has received honours from countries such as Afghanistan and Saudi Arabia in the year 2016. In 2018, he also received highest civilian order by Palestine on his state visit. In 2019, after second win in the 2019 Lok Sabha elections, he received honours from UAE, Russia, Maldives and Bahrain. In the year end of 2020, the United States government awarded him with Legion of Merit.


Tadao Kitajima

 is a Japanese professional shogi player ranked 7-dan. He is a former director of the Japan Shogi Association.
Early life.
Kitajima was born in Tokyo on January 1, 1966. He entered the Japan Shogi Association's apprentice school in November 1980 at the rank 6-kyū as a student of shogi professional . He was promoted to the rank of 1-dan in 1983 and obtained full professional status and the rank of 4-dan in April 1995.
JSA director.
Tadajima is a former member of the Japan Shogi Association's board of directors, having served as a director from 2002 to 2004 and then again from 2011 to 2013.
Promotion history.
Kitajima's promotion history is as follows:


Oli Sihvonen

Oli Sihvonen (1921–1991) was a post-war American artist known for hard-edge abstract paintings. Sihvonen's style was greatly influenced by Josef Albers who taught him color theory and Bauhaus aesthetics at Black Mountain College in the 1940s. Sihvonen was also influenced by Russian Constructivism, Piet Mondrian, and Pierre Matisse. His work has been linked to Abstract Expressionism, Minimalism, Hard-Edge and Op-Art.
Biography.
Oli Sihvonen was a Finnish-American born in Brooklyn, New York in 1921. He began his art career by attending the Norwich Art School, now known as Norwich University College of the Arts, in Connecticut from 1933 to 1938. He then studied at the Art Students League of New York from 1938 to 1941. He served in the U. S. Army during World War II. After which he studied art from his mentor Josef Albers at Black Mountain College in North Carolina from 1946 to 1948, where he met and befriended many people including Buckminster Fuller, Merce Cunningham, Robert Creeley, John Cage. Tapestry weaver Joan Potter Loveless also attended Black Mountain and the couple married in 1947.
Throughout his career Sihvonen was noted for his dedication to painting that began at Black Mountain College and carried through to his time in Taos, Mexico where he started to be recognized for his ellipse paintings, and then also in New York where he received much critical, if not financial, success. "His entire body of work remained clean, objective and flat, with no gestural or emotional contrivances."
After graduating from Black Mountain, Sihvonen lived and studied in New Mexico under the G.I. Bill at Louis Ribak’s Taos Valley Art School from 1949 to 1950. He then went to Mexico where he painted murals. He then moved to Washington D.C. and later New York where he taught at Hunter College and Cooper Union. In the 1950s Sihvonen moved to Taos, New Mexico where he stayed until the 1960s. During this time he painted large canvases and diptychs. While in Taos he was considered a part of a group of modern artists known as the Taos Moderns. Because of the scale and subject matter of his paintings there wasn't a strong market for them in New Mexico in the 1950s and 1960s, but he was gaining attention in New York. In 1965 The Museum of Modern Art acquired one of his Ellipse paintings for the exhibition "The Responsive Eye." He moved to back to New York in 1967.
Through the 1970s and 1980s Sihvonen continued to paint and exhibit regularly. He spent time with Allan Graham in New York - in the mid to late 1980s Sihvonen gave Graham a roll of echocardiograms of his heart and suggested he make something out of them. These became Graham's 1995 series "Heart Sutra" and they were exhibited alongside a selection of Sihvonen's paintings in 2000 at a SITE Santa Fe exhibition.


Betsy Eby

Betsy Eby (born April 3, 1967) is an American artist and musician known for her abstract encaustic paintings. Eby lives and works in Columbus, Georgia and Wheaton Island, Maine.
Life.
Eby was born April 3, 1967 in Seaside, Oregon. In 1972, her family moved to the suburbs of Portland, Oregon. Her father worked in the timber industry, and her mother worked in community college admissions. At the age of five, Eby began playing the piano and learned the traditional classical repertoire. She continues to study seriously under master musicians.
Eby earned her bachelor's degree in art history at the University of Oregon, with an emphasis in ancient Greek, Roman and Asian antiquities. In 1990 she moved to Seattle, Washington, where she lived and worked until 2013, when she and her husband, American artist Bo Bartlett, moved to Columbus, Georgia. They now share their time between Columbus, Georgia and Wheaton Island, Maine. In 2018, Eby and Bartlett opened the Bo Bartlett Center at Columbus State University, an interactive gallery space designed to engage nearby communities through arts programming.
Work.
Betsy Eby works primarily in encaustic, a painting medium of hot beeswax, damar resin, and pigments. The encaustic technique dates back to the 4th century B.C., when it was originally used for Egyptian mummy funerary portraits. Encaustic was not a common medium for painters until its revival by the Pop artist, Jasper Johns, in his iconic flag paintings.
Eby uses a technique of layering and spreading pigmented wax over her canvas using brushes and knives. She liquefies the wax with a blowtorch and the layers are fused, resulting in the illusion of surface depth and translucency. This illusion is heightened by Eby's use of impasto on the surface of her canvases.
Her work expresses atmosphere and motion in a style Eby has referred to as “lyrical abstraction.” An accomplished classical pianist, music bears a prominent influence in her artworks, which are often inspired by and titled after pieces of classical and contemporary music by composers such as John Cage, Alan Hovhaness, Johannes Brahms and Claude Debussy.
Eby's native Pacific Northwest inspires her misty palette and foggy, blurred edges, while her study of Japanese art lends restraint and intentionality to her practice. Early influences on her work include Morris Graves and Mark Tobey, among a group of artists known as the Northwest Mystics, known for their muted colors and economy of brush. Since moving to Georgia, Eby has explored the richness of the light and an expanded color palette.
Eby is guided by the idea that “the health of our environment is a mirror to the health of our collective conscience.” In the South, Eby is keenly aware of the edges defined by the cultural tension of competing beliefs related to race, religion, and politics. She finds parallels between this cultural tension and the natural environment during her studies of nature in Maine, where changes in weather can be sudden and severe.
In 2018 Betsy Eby was to chosen to represent the United States as a Cultural Exchange Artist through the U.S. State Department's Art in Embassies program in Papua New Guinea and The Solomon Islands. As a cultural exchange artist, Eby aimed to promote a message of female empowerment through creativity, through working with local artists, and participating in television and radio interviews.
Film.
Betsy Eby is also a film producer and musician for film. In 2013, she and Bo Bartlett released the feature-length documentary film "SEE, An Art Road Trip". In 2019, she was executive producer and musician for the feature-length film "Things Don’t Stay Fixed", the documentary short film "Helga", and the documentary "Lobster Dinner".
Collections & Exhibitions.
Betsy Eby has exhibited widely across the United States. Her 2013 solo exhibition, “Painting with Fire,” traveled to the Columbus Museum of Art in Columbus, GA; the Morris Museum of Art in Augusta, GA; the Center for Maine Contemporary Art in Rockport, ME; and the Ogden Museum in New Orleans, LA. Eby's works are held in the collections of the Tacoma Art Museum, Tacoma, WA, the Columbus Museum of Art, Columbus, GA, the Georgia Museum of Art, Athens, GA, and several United States Embassies around the world.


Neltje Doubleday Kings

Neltje, also known as Neltje Doubleday Kings (October 10, 1934 - April 30, 2021), is an American artist, businesswoman and philanthropist. In 2005 Neltje received the Wyoming Governor's Art Award for her artwork; she is an abstract painter.
She has also created a variety of awards and programs to encourage writing and the arts, including the Neltje Blanchan Literary Award and the Jentel Foundation, which supports artists' residencies at her ranch in Banner, Wyoming.
In 2010, Neltje made an estate gift to the University of Wyoming, which it says is the largest in its history. It consists of her ranch, studio, art collection, and financial holdings. When the gift is realized, the university will base the UW Neltje Center for the Visual and Literary Arts at her ranch, creating a center for collaboration among three university departments.
Early life and education.
Born Neltje Doubleday in 1934, she is the daughter of Ellen McCarter and Nelson Doubleday, and has an older brother Nelson Doubleday, Jr. The siblings were born in New York City; they grew up in Oyster Bay, Long Island. The family also spent time in South Carolina. Nelson and Neltje attended private schools.
Their paternal grandparents were Neltje Blanchan De Graff and Frank N. Doubleday; their grandfather was the founder of the United States Doubleday publishing company. Their grandmother wrote books on gardens and birds. Their maternal grandfather Thomas McCarter was head of the New Jersey Public Service Commission and a benefactor of Princeton University.
Marriage and family.
In May 1953 at the age of 18, Neltje married John Turner Sargent, Sr., then 28 and already working at the Doubleday Company. They had a daughter Ellen and son John Turner Sargent, Jr. Sargent was promoted to leadership positions at Doubleday, where he later served as president and chairman.
After the couple divorced in 1965, Neltje moved with her young children to Wyoming. They also continued to see their father in New York. She started to draw at the age of 30 and became increasingly involved in making art.
By 1967, she married a Mr. Kings, an artist; they divorced after six years. Some years later, Neltje dropped her surnames, legally using only one name: Neltje.
Career.
Neltje Doubleday left New York and moved to Banner, Wyoming, where in 1966 she bought a 440-acre ranch on Lower Piney Creek. She has since added to the property for cattle ranching and hay production. She operates the working ranch in part for preservation of historic and land resources; the original stone house was built soon after the Spanish–American War. There she has gradually built her art career, learning to paint and working in a variety of materials, including sculpting.
In 1967, the heiress bought the Sheridan Inn in Sheridan, Wyoming to save it from destruction; the property was a National Historic Landmark that had been condemned because of deterioration. She renovated parts of it, and in 1968, "re-opened the Inn’s saloon, which was followed a year later by the re-opening of the dining room, the Ladies Parlor and the Wyoming Room, an all new addition to the Inn." It was renewed as part of community life of the city. She owned and operated it for 18 years. Working in every aspect of its operations, she also added a gift shop and art gallery to the hotel interior. The inn has been owned since 1990 by the Sheridan Heritage Center, Inc.
In her art, Neltje has concentrated on painting abstract works. She is represented by galleries and her work is held in numerous private collections and museums, including the Smithsonian Institution; Wyoming State Museum, Cheyenne; and Yellowstone Art Museum, Billings, Montana.
She is the author of the 2016 memoir, "North of Crazy" (9781250088147).
Philanthropy, Legacy, and Honors.
In addition to creating her own artwork, Neltje has endowed and organized programs to encourage other artists and writers. As the leader of the Wyoming Arts Council, from 1985 to 1988, she established and endowed the Neltje Blanchan literary award, named in honor of her paternal grandmother, who used this pen name as an author of books about gardens and birds. In January 2001 she created the private Jentel Foundation, to support and manage artists' residencies at her ranch in Banner. Following the first pilot residencies of writers in 2001, the foundation had undertaken both renovation of existing buildings and new construction to create additional facilities to support the Jentel program. The program has expanded to admit artists and writers for short-stay residencies which run eleven months of the year. Applications are taken twice a year. In 2005 she received the Wyoming Governor's Art Award. She has also received an honorary degree from Rocky Mountain College in Billings, Montana.


Ian Davenport

Ian Davenport (born 8 July 1966) is an English abstract painter and former Turner Prize nominee.
Life and work.
Ian Davenport was born in Sidcup, and studied art at the Northwich College of Art and Design in Cheshire before going to Goldsmiths College, from which he graduated in 1988. Some of his classmates included Damien Hirst, Michael Landy, Gary Hume and Sarah Lucas. In the same year, he exhibited in the Damien Hirst-curated "Freeze" exhibition which first brought together many of the later-to-be Young British Artists. Davenport's first solo show was in 1990 and in the same year he was included in the British Art Show. In 1991, he was nominated for the annual Turner Prize.
Many of Davenport's works are made by pouring paint onto a tilted surface and letting gravity spread the paint over the surface. He has usually worked on medium-density fibreboard rather than canvas, and most often employs household gloss paint, meaning the viewer can see their own reflection in the work. He has made a number of diptychs and triptychs as well as single works.
For the "Days Like These" exhibition at Tate Britain in 2003, Davenport made a thirteen-metre-high mural by dripping lines of differently coloured paint down the wall from a syringe. In September 2006 he unveiled his largest public commission to date on Southwark Bridge, entitled "Poured Lines: Southwark". He painted the West End Wall of the University of Oxford Department of Biochemistry.
Stylistic comparisons have been made between Davenport's work and those of Bridget Riley, Helen Frankenthaler and Callum Innes.
The first monograph dedicated to Davenport was published in 2014, launched with a show, "Colourfall" at Waddington Custot Galleries.
Davenport's works have been exhibited globally, first in London in the Swansea Arts Workshop and currently on exhibit at the Art Plural Gallery in Singapore.
Davenport lives and works in London.
Davenport is a Patron of Paintings in Hospitals, a charity that provides art for health and social care in England, Wales and Northern Ireland.


HexInput

HexInput, as originally described, is an on-screen keyboard with the following characteristics:
The name ‘HexInput’ is unfortunate: in computing, ‘hex’ tends to mean hexadecimal notation, though it may be argued that a general text input method is named for general users, not just those with computing backgrounds. The use of hexagons is not essential to the idea, though they do maximize the available area per cell and the number of easily reachable neighbors per cell.
The original exposition included an alternative layout using squares (keys having four neighbours unless at an edge of the keyboard), and a later edition depicted an essentially honeycomb pattern but some hexagons split in half. Alternatively (not mentioned in the original exposition), one could leave gaps between keys so that one can drag through gaps to reach a larger number of “neighboring” keys.
The HexInput concept is available for Palm OS devices via myKbd, where it is now known as the "QUONG" layout (after the first five letters in the top row).
ATOMIK is a closely related input concept from researchers at IBM.


Gareth Sparham

Gareth Sparham is a scholar and translator in the field of Tibetan Buddhism.
Biography.
Born in Britain, Gareth Sparham lived as a Buddhist monk among the Tibetan exile community of Dharamsala, India, for twenty years, and studied through the Institute of Buddhist Dialectics from 1974 to 1982. Sparham earned his Ph.D. in 1989 from the University of British Columbia. He retired from his position as a lecturer in the Department of Asian Languages and Cultures of the University of Michigan in 2009.


List of teletext services

This is an incomplete list of teletext services available on different television channels around the world:
Countries with functioning teletext services.
Denmark.
In fact, almost all tv channels in Denmark have teletext (called tekst-tv). Some of those services are entirely in Danish, while international channels (Discovery Channel, Animal Planet etc.) share their teletext with the other Scandinavian countries.
Finland.
The Finnish national public broadcaster Yle has its own Teletext (Yle Teksti-TV). It shows news, sport and programme information round the clock. Theme pages on the weather, traffic, work and leisure. Teksti-TV also has news in English on page 190.
France.
A lot of French channels have teletext left only for subtitling. Here some with a complete text:
Germany.
Almost all German TV stations have teletext. Here is a small selection:
Netherlands.
The Netherlands has run a regular Teletext service since the end of 1977 on the public broadcasting channels, and the commercial and regional channels that were later introduced also have their own services. Some of these channels also run Tekst-tv, which broadcasts a selection of their teletext pages as a regular TV broadcast, using improved fonts and background graphics, when no normal programming is shown.


Lindsay Edward

Lindsay M. Edward (1919–2007) was an Australian abstract artist, mosaicist and teacher. He was born in Victoria on 26 August 1919.
Edward studied at the National Gallery Art School from 1938–41 under Charles Wheeler and W.B. McInnes. For 31 years he was associated with the Art School at the Royal Melbourne Technical College (and former Working Men's College) now known as RMIT, where he had been a student, and where he was teacher 1947–1954, head of painting, 1954–67 and head of school 1967–79. As head of the art department, Edward set up an initiative for systematically developing the RMIT Art Collection, and to make Australian art more accessible to staff and students. He retired from RMIT in August 1979, after which he made many painting trips to Australia's outback.
His semi-abstract work was exhibited widely in Melbourne, Sydney and Perth and described by Professor Bernard Smith as "a perceptive art with its own quiet distinction". He described his approach to abstraction as simply wanting "to place sequences of shapes, colours and tones on a surface in an abstract manner, like the notes of a Bach fugue".
Edward also undertook mural commissions for the Victoria Housing Commission, and for church mosaic panels. One of his murals made of glass mosaic tiles can be seen on the old State Library of Queensland building at 159 William St, Brisbane. This was the winning entry in an Australia-wide competition for a mural to adorn the walls of the Brisbane Public Library in time for the 100-year celebration of responsible government in Queensland in 1959. On winning the competition in 1958, Edward explained that his mosaic design was not a literal subject but rather a 'basic formation of organic forms indicating growth and development'. Photographs of the winning mural were exhibited in Melbourne at Gallery A in September 1960, and were thought to "reveal a quality in design related in strength to figure compositions on Greek pottery". This mural contributed to the listing of the former State Library Building on the State Heritage Register in 1992. Edward's mural is discussed in the book "Monumental Queensland: sign posts on a cultural landscape". A close-up image of the mural taken by Graham de Gruchy can be seen at the UQ eSpace Library.
Edward had around 20 solo exhibitions of his work between 1944-1993. In the 1950s he showed paintings at many Melbourne galleries, including Stanley Coe Gallery, Peter Bray Gallery, the Victorian Artists' Society Galleries, and Gallery A. In the 1970s he exhibited in other Melbourne galleries - the Warehouse Galleries, Realities Galleries and Powell St Gallery and in the 1980s and 1990s at David Ellis and the Eastgate Galleries in Hawthorn. In Sydney he exhibited at the Holdsworth Gallery and in Perth, the Quentin Gallery. He also exhibited at the RMIT Gallery in October 1979 on the occasion of his retirement.
His work is held in numerous collections, including the National Gallery of Victoria, the National Gallery of Australia, ArtBank, and several regional and tertiary galleries in Victoria, including RMIT.
Lindsay Edward died on 9 January 2007. His obituary was written by Jenny Zimmer who taught art history at RMIT during his time there, and was published in "The Age".


Farouk Hosny

Farouk Hosny (or Hosni) (; born 1938) is an Egyptian abstract painter who was Minister of Culture from 1987 to 2011.
Early life and career.
Hosny was born and grew up in Alexandria. He graduated from Alexandria University's School of Fine Arts in 1964 and upon graduation directed the Al-Anfoushi Cultural Palace for several years. An abstract painter, Hosny held exhibitions worldwide and won the Japanese Soka Gakai International University cultural and peace prize.
Between 1971-1978, he was Egypt's cultural attaché in Paris and from 1979 to 1987 served in the same position in Rome, where he also was the director of the Egyptian Academy of Arts.
Tenure as Minister of Culture in Egypt.
In 1987, Hosny was appointed the Minister of Culture in Egypt from his position in Rome. During his tenure, he expanded state-run exhibition spaces and initiated various cultural programs, including the Horizon One Gallery, the Palace of Arts, Gezira Arts Center, Alexandria Center of Arts, the Modern Dance Troupe and School, the Cairo History Rehabilitation Project (which included a number of Jewish synagogues), the Nubian Museum in Aswan and the Alexandria National Museum (under construction are the Grand Egyptian Museum and the National Museum of Civilisation in Fustat) and the Cultural Development Fund.
In 2005, Hosny tendered his resignation to President Hosni Mubarak in the wake of the Beni Suef Cultural Palace fire, in which 48 spectators were killed and more injured. Mubarak rejected Hosny's resignation, in response to the pleas of some 400 high-profile intellectuals.
Hosny's term as Minister of Culture ended as a result of the Egyptian revolution of 2011. In March 2011, the interim government of Egypt appointed Cairo University professor Emad Abu Ghazi to the post.
Criticism.
Hijab controversy.
In a November 2006 newspaper interview, Hosny criticized the hijab headdress, calling it "regressive." He added that it is "a step backward for Egyptian women," and that "women with their beautiful hair are like flowers and should not be covered up." For his remarks, Hosny came under intense criticism from hardliners, particularly by the Islamist Muslim Brotherhood, and 130 members of Egyptian Parliament called for his resignation.
Censorship.
Hosny has also censored some media and films, including banning of a heavy metal music concert and arresting its fans, as well as banning the Israeli film "The Band's Visit" from being screened at the Cairo International Film Festival.
UNESCO candidacy.
On July 30, 2007, Egypt nominated Hosny to succeed Koichiro Matsuura as Director-General of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) and began a campaign to have him elected to the position. No Arab had previously held the position. Hosni was regarded as certain to win the September 2009 election, but his May 2008 pledge to burn Israel books in Egyptian libraries sparked doubts about his suitability for the position and strengthened opposition to his candidacy. Three Jewish intellectuals and activists—Bernard-Henri Lévy, Claude Lanzmann, and Elie Wiesel—led a campaign to oppose Hosny's election. In a May 2009 open letter to the international community, the three figures decried that Hosny's victory "would be an obvious provocation so transparently contrary to the proclaimed ideals of the UN that UNESCO would not recover." They implored, "We must, without delay, appeal to everyone's conscience to keep UNESCO from falling into the hands of a man who, when he hears the word 'culture,' responds with a book burning." On censorship grounds, Reporters Without Borders also opposed Hosny, stating, "This minister of Hosni Mubarak has been one of the main actors of censorship in Egypt, unfailingly trying to control press freedom as well as citizens' freedom of information."
Despite the opposition, Hosny was still expected to win by a large margin, receiving pledges of support from the Arab League, the Organization of African Unity and the Organisation of the Islamic Conference. Months prior to the UNESCO election, the Israeli government ceased opposition to Hosni's candidacy following a May 2009 meeting between Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu and Mubarak. In the West, Mubarak's allies were publicly neutral but behind the scenes worked to diminish Hosni's support.
On September 22, 2009, Hosny lost the UNESCO election in a stunning upset in the fifth and final round of voting to Bulgaria's Irina Bokova, who received 31 votes to Hosni's 27. In the fourth round of voting, the two candidates were tied at 29 votes each. Hosny blamed his defeat on Zionist pressures and a group of influential Jews, possible referring to Lévy, Lanzmann, and Wiesel who strongly opposed him. He criticized the US Ambassador at UNESCO, David Killion, for derailing his election and stated, "The north always has to control the south."


Ron Shuebrook

Ron Shuebrook (born 1943 in Fort Monroe, Virginia) is a Canadian artist living in Toronto, Ontario.
Work.
Shuebrook exhibits his work nationally and internationally. His paintings, drawings, prints, and wall constructions have been acquired by more than 50 public galleries, museums, and corporations such as the National Gallery of Canada, the Art Gallery of Ontario, Art Gallery of Hamilton, MacDonald Stewart Art Center, Beaverbrook Art Gallery, the Art Gallery of Nova Scotia, The Four Seasons, and many others. He was President of the Ontario College of Art and Design in 2000 where he was a Professor of painting and drawing until 2009. He was the President of the Royal Canadian Academy of Arts from 2006 to 2007. In Toronto, he is represented by Olga Korper Gallery.


Renato Bertelli

Renato Bertelli (1900 in Lastra a Signa – 1974 in Florence) was an Italian Futurist artist.
His most, and perhaps only, noted work is the 1933 ceramic bust of Benito Mussolini in the "aeroceramica" style, "Profilo continuo del Duce" (also cited as "Profilo contino del Duce"). The title is sometimes given as "Head of Mussolini" but is better known as "Head of Mussolini (Continuous Profile)", "Continuous profile of Mussolini", or "Continuous Profile – Head of Mussolini". The sculpture is one block with the Mussolini's distinctive profile continuing around 360 degrees.
The sculpture was later mass produced in several versions, in bronzed terracotta, wood, and aluminium.
Mussolini, with his taste for self-commemoration, approved it as an official portrait.
References.
Marco Moretti, "Renato Bertelli", monografia critica,Masso delle Fate Edizioni, Signa, 2007, pp. 160.


Matthew Moskowitz

Matthew Moskowitz (born 1976 in the United States) is an American abstract painter who works in New York. In 2012 his paintings were seen in the Museum of Modern Art (MoMA). Moskowitz's show in London England was held in the art district Trinity Buoy Wharf. Moskowitz represented the United States. The title of the show was "Breathe." It was an international event with career artists from several countries. Moskowitz's painting are within both private and corporate art collections.
Moskowitz is within the collection of Guild Hall Art Museum in East Hampton, New York. His painting titled "Safari" hung in its 79th Annual Artist Member Exhibition in April 2017. The show is the oldest running exhibition on Long Island.


Laurie Fendrich

Laurie Fendrich (born 1948) is an American artist, writer and educator based in New York City, best known for geometric abstract paintings that balance playfulness and sophistication. Her work has been featured in solo exhibitions in New York, Los Angeles and Chicago, a retrospective at the Williamson Gallery at Scripps College (2010), and group shows at MoMA PS1, the Los Angeles County Museum of Art, and the National Academy of Design, among many venues. She has received reviews in publications including "The New York Times", "Artforum", "Art in America", "Arts Magazine", "ARTnews" "Partisan Review", and "New York Magazine". Fendrich has been awarded fellowships from the Guggenheim Foundation (2016), Brown Foundation at the Museum of Fine Arts, Houston (2009, 2017), and National Endowment for the Arts (1983–4). She has been an educator for more than four decades, notably at Hofstra University (1989–2014), and a regular essayist for "The Chronicle Review" at "The Chronicle of Higher Education".
Fendrich's art has been described as a "deft blending of mid-twentieth century Cubism and biomorphism" that avoids easy harmony, playing a pictorial game of "part playground, part calculated wager against chaos." Critic Hilton Kramer characterized her work as "devoid of solemnity, dogmatism and existential angst," with an undercurrent of humor that embraces the worldly as it renegotiates the relationship between abstraction and representation in modernist painting.
Life and career.
Fendrich was born in Paterson, New Jersey in 1948 and attended Mount Holyoke College, where she studied painting, but graduated with a political science degree (1970), considering it a more practical major. She worked in publishing for three years, traveled across the country, and in 1975, enrolled at the School of the Art Institute of Chicago (MFA, 1978), where she studied painting with professors Ray Yoshida and Richard Loving. She met her future husband, artist and critic Peter Plagens, in Chicago; they would marry in 1981 and, after living in California and Chapel Hill, North Carolina, move to New York City in 1985.
Fendrich has shown in museums, universities and galleries across the U.S., notably solo exhibitions at John Davis and E. M. Donahue in New York (1990s), Jan Cicero in Chicago (1981–1993), Gary Snyder Fine Art and Katharina Rich Perlow in New York (2000s), and Louis Stern Fine Arts in Los Angeles (2016). She lives and works in New York City and Callicoon Center, New York, and shares a studio with Plagens.
Work.
Critics identify Fendrich as an artist whose work makes a case for the viability of geometric abstraction and the modernist tradition, while simultaneously taking a knowing jab at its quest for purity. Fendrich notes her inclination toward a Platonic, "modernist, optimistic spirit that strives for the eternal and universal." She cites 1930s American artists Stuart Davis and George L. K. Morris, Esphyr Slobodkina, and Russian Constructivism as influences; other touchstones include Cubist Juan Gris, early American comics, and Jane Austen. Art historian Mark Stevens likened Fendrich's sensibility to Austen's tempered mix of passion, reason and humor, a balancing act others observe makes Fendrich's work "hum with friction" as it seeks a "fusion of rationality and emotion, order and ardor," freedom and limitation, stasis and dynamism.
Painting.
In her early work, Fendrich created large abstractions dominated by triangular forms and tonal contrast, seeking, in her words, to "make the most eye-grabbing, dynamic painting … while not sacrificing harmony and balance." In the 1990s, she reduced her work's scale in reaction against the bombastic art of the day, and crucially, discovered Russian Constructivism and the oval and irregular bulbous forms of her mature work, which posed greater compositional challenges. Since that time, her vocabulary of interlocking, jigsaw–puzzle shapes orbiting complex, off-kilter compositions has remained fairly consistent. Her later work (e.g., "My Own Dolly", 2018), which "Art in America" called "her jauntiest, most complex and absorbing ever," has broadened to include near-cartoony forms alluding to the figure and Pop art, a more subdued palette, variation in the scale of shapes, and airier compositions.
Critics such as Karen Wilkin identify color as a defining aspect of Fendrich's work, describing her palette as inventive, "a little off," carnivalesque, riotous, and "slightly postmodern" in its "peculiar shades," while acknowledging its key role in creating harmony in her paintings. For Fendrich, color and composition are one. She introduces tension through unexpected color pairings, diagonals, ambiguous figure-ground relationships, and contained fields whose shapes bump the picture edges like balls ricocheting on a billiard table—then painstakingly resolves it through "an obsessive tinkering with color and mass."
While committed to overall harmony and an ideal of perfect geometric form, Fendrich injects the warmth, spontaneity and quirkiness of the human touch through her handling of paint and form. She insists on hand-rendering all shapes (even squares), creating quivering, soft edges and texture, and allows areas of irregular color and underpainting to be revealed. Her eccentric, biomorphic shapes—which just barely suggest eyes, noses, cartoon profiles, pots and other worldly things—add levity and wit through their "familial" interactions and allusions. Critic Donald Kuspit, however, wrote that while the work was "lovely to look at," it summarized the innovations of its predecessors rather than breaking new ground.
Drawing.
Fendrich began creating black-and-white Conté crayon works in the 1990s, inspired by a show of Seurat drawings. Works in their own right rather than studies for paintings, the drawings have been exhibited in four solo shows. The drawings resemble her paintings in their puzzle-like construction, sense of musicality, and droll anthropomorphic shapes, but differ in their exploration of nuanced tone and stippled texture, and in their approach, which is subtractive rather than additive (as the painting are). Critics describe her process as "a tightrope walk" in which she must carefully eliminate the white of the paper (always leaving some in the final work), because it can never be brought back.
Writing.
Fendrich's writing began with the publication of an essay in "The Chronicle of Higher Education" (1999) entitled, "Why Painting Still Matters," which later became the basis for a short book. Since then, she has regularly contributed to "The Chronicle" and for five years was a blogger for "Brainstorm", the "Chronicle"'s blog site that ran from 2007-2012. In addition, she has contributed essays and reviews to "The Common Review". Her topics range from the role of art and artists in society, abstraction in contemporary art, art education, art criticism, and individual artists such as Picasso, Matisse and Anselm Kiefer. She also contributed an essay on the philosophy of painting to an anthology in honor of the political philosopher Thomas L. Pangle. Her exhibition catalogue essays include those for Judith Geichman, Don Gummer, and Doug Hilson.
Teaching.
Fendrich has taught painting, drawing and contemporary art theory for more than four decades, emphasizing foundational skills and often drawing on her philosophy background. She was an Instructor at the University of Houston (1978–79) and University of Southern California, Los Angeles (1979-80), before joining the faculty at Art Center College of Design in Pasadena from 1980–5. In 1989, she began teaching at Hofstra University, where she served in various appointments until 2014, including Professor, Director of the Comparative Arts and Culture MA Program, and since then, Professor Emerita of Fine Arts and Art History.
Fendrich has also been a visiting artist, lecturer and panelist at numerous institutions, including the Pratt Institute, Whitney Museum of American Art, University of California, Davis, School of the Art Institute of Chicago, San Francisco Art Institute, Colorado State University, and Irish Arts Council, among many others.


Richard Van Buren

Richard Van Buren (born Syracuse, New York, 5 August 1937) is an American sculptor and painter. He is an artist who, throughout his lifetime, has tested the boundaries of what sculpture should look like. He was quite active in the New York art world in the 1960s and 1970s, and still continues his art-making practices, though he now lives in Maine. His sculptures and works on paper are best summarized by experimentation between the limits of natural/organic and the man-made/inorganic materials; and he often combines the two in combinations that evoke light and contradict our assumptions.
Biography.
Van Buren first studied painting at sculpture at San Francisco State University and the National University of Mexico. While still a student, he began exhibiting in galleries who showed works by his contemporaries, Franz Kline, H.C. Westermann, Ron Nagle, Ed Moses, and Robert Morris. Eventually, he relocated to New York in 1964, where he stayed for over twenty years teaching at the School of Visual Arts and the Parsons School of Design, while also becoming deeply engrained in the contemporary art scene. His colleagues were famous sculptors such as Eva Hesse, Lynda Benglis, and Richard Serra.
Artistic style.
Richard Van Buren has displayed a career-long fascination with materials. He often makes use of dry pigment, costume jewelry, fiberglass, wallpaper paste, and glitter simultaneously. His forms are often inconsistent and biomorphic, making use of man-made materials while forming biomorphic constructions.
Exhibitions.
He began exhibiting with a solo exhibition in 1961 at New Mission Gallery, San Francisco, and has held solo exhibitions at Bykert Gallery, New York; Paula Cooper Gallery, New York; Graduate Center Mall, City University of New York; Mitchell Algus Gallery, New York; Grand Arts, Kansas City, Missouri; Tides Institute and Museum of Art, Eastport, Maine; Garth Greenan Gallery, New York; and the South Dakota Art Museum, South Dakota State University, Brookings. He was included in group exhibitions at The Jewish Museum, New York; Institute of Contemporary Art, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia; Aldrich Museum of Contemporary Art, Ridgefield, Connecticut; Whitney Museum of American Art; Albright-Knox Art Gallery, Buffalo; Art in General, New York; Museum of Fine Arts, Boston; Museum of Contemporary Art, Los Angeles; and the National Gallery of Australia, Canberra.


David Seyfort Ruegg

David Seyfort Ruegg (New York, 1931) was an eminent Buddhologist with a long career, extending from the 1950s to the present. His specialty has been Madhyamaka philosophy, a core doctrine of Mahayana Buddhism.
Ruegg graduated from École des Hautes Etudes in 1957 with degrees in historical science and Sanskrit. He published his thesis "Contributions à l'histoire de la philosophie linguistique indienne" ("Contributions to the History of Indian Linguistic Philosophy") in 1959. He received a second doctorate in linguistics from the Sorbonne in Paris, where his thesis was "La théorie du tathâgatagarbha et du gotra : études sur la sotériologie et la gnoséologie du bouddhisme" ("The Theory of Gotra and Tathâgatagarbha: A Study of the Soteriology and Gnoseology of Buddhism"), with a second half thesis on Bu Rin chen grub's approach to tathâgatagarbha. In 1964 he joined the faculty of the Ecole Francaise d'Extreme Orient, where he researched the history, philology and philosophy of India, Tibet and Buddhism.
From 1966-1972 Ruegg occupied the Chair of Languages and Cultures of India and Tibet at Leiden University. His predecessor was Jan Willem de Jong and his successor was Tilmann Vetter. He has since become associated with the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London.
Ruegg was president of the International Association for Buddhist Studies (IABS) from 1991 to 1999.
L.S. Cousins called Ruegg "certainly the leading scholar today" on the subject of tathâgatagarbha doctrine.


Jean Cohen de Vinkenhoef

Anne-Jean-Philippe-Louis Cohen de Vinkenhoef (17 October 1781 – 6 April 1848) was a French writer, translator, and librarian.
Cohen was born to Jewish parents at Amersfort, in the Netherlands. Beginning as a journalist, he contributed to the "Étoile". He went to Paris in 1809, and was appointed censor for foreign languages in 1811, and librarian of the Bibliothèque Ste-Geneviève in 1824. He was the compiler of several catalogues, and also contributed to various papers, including "" and "Les Annales de la littérature et des arts", and translated works by French, Swedish, English, Russian, and Italian authors, as "La symbolique populaire", by Jacob Buchmann; "Histoire des institutions d'éducation ecclésiastique", by Augustin Theiner; "Scènes Norvégiennes", by Frédérique Bremer; and "Histoire de la conquête de Grenade", by Washington Irving, 1829. He also contributed the "Théâtre Hollandais" section to the "Collection des théâtres étrangers".
In addition Cohen published a number of works, among which were: "La France telle que M. Kératry la rêve", Paris, 1821; "Herminie de Civray; ou, L'ermite de la foret", 1823; "Histoire de Pierre Terrail, dit le Chevalier Bayard," 1821 and 1825; "Jacqueline de Bavière, Dauphine de France", 1821; "Précis Historique sur Pie VII", 1823; "La noblesse de France, histoire, mœurs, et institutions", 1845; and "Réflexions historiques et philosophiques sur les révolutions", 1846.


David Whitaker (artist)

David Whitaker (8 June 1938 – 15 March 2007) was a British abstract artist and art teacher.
Early Life and education.
Whitaker was born in Blackpool, Lancashire. He studied at the Blackpool and the Fylde School of Art for 6 years from the age of 13 and moved to London in the late 1950s, where he began working as a graphic designer. He did not enjoy the work, and left to become a milkman instead. The early hours suited him: his job finished early, and he could spend the rest of the day painting. He married fellow artist Frances Wood in 1959, and studied as a mature student at the Royal Academy Schools from 1962 to 1966.
Later Career and Recognition.
Whitaker won the Mark Rothko Memorial Award in 1973 at the recommendation of Bridget Riley, which allowed him to work in the U.S. for several months. He then taught at the Ruskin School of Art in Oxford, helping to oversee the school's merger with the University of Oxford, before becoming a lecturer at the Wimbledon College of Art in 1984, retiring in 2001. He was elected as a member of the London Group in 1989, of the Colour Group (Great Britain) in 1996, and became a Fellow of the Royal Watercolour Society in 2004. He won a Hunting Art Prize in 1996, and won the Singer Friedlander National Watercolour Competition in 2001. Beginning in the 1960s, Whitaker held many one-man exhibitions over more than 40 years as a practitioner.
Works.
Whitaker's works in oils and watercolour are characterised by their use of straight lines of seven colours: two shades of yellow, cadmium red, magenta, viridian, and two shades of blue. His paintings were created in layers, using tape to create straight-sided stencils. The final effect, only revealed when the tape was removed, produced a shimmering graduation of colour from stripe to stripe over the canvass.
Personal life.
Outside art, Whitaker was a keen marathon runner with Kingston Stragglers, and played cricket in the Lancashire League. He died in 2007 in Kingston upon Thames and was survived by his wife, Frances, and their three sons.


Suzanne Bergeron

Suzanne Bergeron (June 23, 1930–November 19, 1998) was a Canadian abstract painter.
Education.
She studied painting under Jean Paul Lemieux at École des Beaux-Arts de Montréal, graduating in 1953. In 1955, she won the Prix de Concours Artistiques de la Provinde du Quebec for study in Paris and won several awards afterwards keeping her there.
Collections.
Her work is included in the collections of the Musée national des beaux-arts du Québec, the Art Gallery of Greater Victoria and the National Gallery of Canada


Luigi Malice

Luigi Malice (born 1937, Naples, Italy) is an Italian abstract artist.
Malice studied at Naples Academy of Fine Arts as a pupil of Emilio Notte, later studying under avant-garde and "Informal Art" painter Domenico Spinosa.
He began as an expressionist and figurative painter in the late 1950s, his then style demonstrated by his painting "Still life with figure" for which he received the "Michetti Prize", and "Ricordo di Spagna" ("Memory of Spain") which Malice exhibited for the "Posillipo Prize".
In the early 60's, he approached the "Arte Informale", an Italian art movement close to the American Abstract expressionism and to the French Art Informel or Tachisme.
In 1963, Malice became a teacher in Reggio Calabria, where he exhibited in collective and one-man shows, and in 1967 exhibited at the Flaccovio Gallery in Palermo and the Santo Stefano Gallery in Venice.
After 1968, he concentrated on sculpture, and works consisting of waterproof cloth ("tela ciriè") on twisted plywood, imitating shaped canvases, these related to the work of his contemporaries Enrico Castellani, Agostino Bonalumi, and Pino Pascali, but also to wooden silhouettes of men of Mario Ceroli, and in the early 1970s constructed works with ready-made Plexiglas panels.
Malice exhibited in 1968 at the New York Coliseum, and in 1984, held a retrospective exhibition in Milan. Subsequently, his art took on abstract impressionism and "lyrism" of the colours. The same year he became the principal of the Academy of Fine Arts, Reggio, Calabria. Malice exhibited at the Institute Francais "Le Grenoble" in Naples, and in a travelling exhibition that included Venice and Florence. In 1992, he presented a one-man show, "Percorsi 1965–1992" ("Itineraries 1965–1992"), at the Royal Palace, Naples. Since 2001, his work "Metamorphosis 1979" has been held in the "", Pieve di Cento.
Recently the artist has exhibitedhis work at the Italian pavilion of the 54th Venice Biennale.


Alice Berger Hammerschlag

Alice Berger Hammerschlag née Berger (1917–1969) was an Austrian artist. She settled in Belfast and while creating abstract paintings also had a number of creative and administrative roles in Northern Ireland.
Biography.
Hammerschlag was born in Vienna and studied art between 1929 and 1938 under Franz Cižek at the Kunstgewerbeschule and at the Vienna Academy of Arts. In 1938 she moved to Belfast, as a refugee on a British government permit for graphic designers, to avoid persecution under the Nazi regime.
In Northern Ireland Hammerschlag did design work for commercial publishers and, later, designed theatre sets. In 1941 the Ulster Academy of Arts published a portfolio of her lithographs in aid of the Ulster Hospital for Children and Women. Hammerschlag showed three paintings at the Ulster Academy of Arts in 1942 and again in 1944. Between 1950 and 1961 she showed a further seventeen works at the Academy. Hammerschlag was active in the running of the New Gallery in Belfast and in 1959 had her first solo exhibition at the New Vision Centre Gallery in London. Further exhibitions of her work followed at Queen's University in Belfast, at the Avgarde Gallery in Manchester and, in 1965 and 1968, at the Dawson Gallery in Dublin. She participated in the Irish Exhibition of Living Art at Belfast in 1955. She also showed with the Living Art Exhibition in 1961, and between 1964 and 1967 inclusive. She also had exhibitions in Europe and the United States, at the United Nations, Rome in 1963, at the Ulster Office, London in 1966, the Gallery Creuze, Paris in 1967, and in 1968 and 1969 at the Salon International in Cannes.
In 1959 the Council for the Encouragement of Music and the Arts, CEMA, sponsored a show of eighteen abstract paintings by Hammerschlag at the Piccolo Gallery in Belfast. CEMA also hosted Hammerschlag's work in their Chicester Street Gallery in 1962 where her paintings included a series based on W. B. Yeats' "The Death of Cuchulain". Hammerschlag also exhibited in numerous group shows with the Arts Council of Northern Ireland, including "9 Ulster Artists," a travelling exhibition that visited Edinburgh in 1963, as well as the second and third "Open Painting Exhibitions" in 1964 and 1966 at the Ulster Museum. In the 1960s Hammerschlag also designed theatre sets for companies in Belfast and Dublin, including the Lyric where she was engaged as a set designer. These included sets for productions of Ibsen's "Brand" in 1961, for Stravinsky's "The Soldier's Tale" in 1965 and, also in 1965, "The Death of Cuchulain" by W. B. Yeats.
Hammerschlag was a member of the Women's International Art Club and the Free Painters and Sculptors. When the Ulster Society of Women Artists was established in 1957, Hammerschlag was appointed as joint honorary secretary with her friend Deborah Brown. Her early paintings were abstract works and she remained an abstract artist throughout her career but increasingly included more overtly rhythmic patterns in her work. The Ulster Museum, the Royal Society of Arts and the Arts Council of Northern Ireland hold examples of her work. A memorial exhibition of her work was held by the Arts Council Gallery in Belfast in 1970 and an award for artists was set up in her name by her husband, the musician Heinz Hammerschlag.


Degii Sodbaatar

Degii (Delgerjargal) Sodbaatar graduated from Ulaanbaatar University, Mongolia in 2000 with a degree in Korean language and culture. Later she did a one-year course on Korean poetics at Kim Il Sung University in Pyongyang, North Korea. She then entered Donguk University of South Korea as a graduate student, to pursue an MA in Buddhist studies.
In addition to the above academic endeavors, in 2009 Degii spent three months in residence at Smith College, Mass., USA, as part of a Mongolian art and culture exchange, and a one-month residence at the University of Indiana in Bloomington. Then in 2010-11 she did a six-month internship at the Olcott Institute of the Theosophical Society of America, Wheaton, Ill., to upgrade her English translation skills.
In Mongolia she worked as publications manager at Maitri Books, and also ran a small travel company for people wishing to visit the Buddhist power places in the country. She is a permanent member of the Board of Directors of the Kim Ill Jung Flower Growers Association of Mongolia, as well as a member of the Board of Advisors of the America Mongolia Friendship Society.
Her first book was her translation and publication of a bilingual edition of the Blavatsky classic, "The Voice of the Silence," for the Nicholas Roerich Society of Mongolia.
She also oversaw the editing work and publication of "Michael Kohn's Lama of the Gobi," a study of the life, legends and works of the great 19th century Mongolian mystic Danzan Rabjaa, the fifth incarnation of the great Gelukpa lama known as the Noyon Hutuktu.
Her most recent book is entitled "Reflections of a Mongolian Shaman", a translation of the writings from the famous Mongolian shaman Byampadorj Dondog. He was born in 1947 in Darvi Sum of Hovd Amaig, southwest Mongolia, in a maternal lineage descended from the tribe of the wife of Chinggis Haan (Genghis Khan). This was the harsh era of the Stalinist purges, when Mongolia was a satellite of the Soviets, and thus he grew up during a period when both Buddhism and Shamanism were oppressed to the point of near extinction. In his youth he secretly trained in the ancient shamanic arts under several underground masters, and when Communism fell in 1990 he emerged as a principal force in the efforts of cultural and spiritual restoration.
Degii is presently working on her third book, "Lojong: A Modern Perspective from a Mongolian Woman,"


Makoto Nakahara

 is a retired Japanese professional shogi player who achieved the rank of 9-dan. He is considered to be one of the strongest shogi players of the Shōwa period (1926–1989) and holds the titles of Lifetime Kisei, Lifetime Meijin, , Lifetime Ōi, and Lifetime Ōza.
Nakahara served as the president of the Japan Shogi Association from May 2003 until May 2005. He retired from professional shogi in March 2009 at age 61 due to health reasons.
Nakahara castle.
Nakahara won the Kōzō Masuda Award in 1996 for developing the "Nakahara castle" (中原囲い) as a counter strategy to the Side Pawn Capture opening.
Major titles and other championships.
Nakahara appeared in 91 major title matches and won 64 major titles during his career. He won the Kisei title sixteen times, the Meijin title fifteen times, the eleven times, the Ōi title eight times, the Osho title seven times, Oza title six times, and the Kioh title once. He holds the titles of Lifetime Kisei, Lifetime Meijin, , Lifetime Ōi, and Lifetime Ōza.
In addition to major titles, Nakahara won 28 other shogi championships throughout his career.


Doug Ohlson

Douglas Dean Ohlson (November 18, 1936 – June 29, 2010) was an American abstract artist who specialized in geometric patterns.
Ohlson was born on November 18, 1936, in Cherokee, Iowa and attended Bethel College before serving in the United States Marine Corps. After completing his military service, he attended the University of Minnesota, where he was awarded a degree in studio art in 1961. He moved to New York City, where he studied at Hunter College under abstract sculptor Tony Smith, but dropped out when he could no longer afford tuition. He worked as an assistant to Smith and started teaching at Hunter College in 1964.
Ohlson's early work was included in an exhibit organized by art historian E. C. Goossen at the Hudson River Museum titled "8 Young Artists" in 1964, and had a solo show that year at the Fischbach Gallery, the first of seven at that location. Goossen also included work by Ohlson in the 1968 exhibition "The Art of the Real: 1948-1968" at the Museum of Modern Art which focused on the development and history of geometric art in the United States. Sharply defined and repeated geometric shapes were characteristic of his earliest painting, that were described by Goossen as depicting "yellowish pink and green dawns, blue noons, and red-orange sunsets that swiftly slide from purple to black", hypothesizing that Ohlson's experience growing up and working long days on the family's farm gave him a unique passion for color. Ohlson was recognized with a Guggenheim Fellowship in 1968.
His works in the 1970s and 1980s, often featured at Susan Caldwell Inc., had characteristically rougher backgrounds. His later work was displayed in numerous solo exhibitions at the Andre Zarre Gallery, in addition to surveys of his work at Bennington College and at Hunter College, where he taught for 35 years. His works are included in the collections of the Brooklyn Museum, the Metropolitan Museum of Art and the Whitney Museum of American Art.
Ohlson died at age 73 on June 29, 2010, after a fall in front of his Manhattan apartment. He was survived by his second wife, Michele Toohey. He was divorced from his first wife, painter Jane Kaufman.


Denis Bowen

Denis Bowen (5 April 1921 - 23 March 2006) was a South African artist, gallery director and promoter of abstract and avant-garde art in Britain. He was founder of the New Vision Group and the New Vision Centre Gallery, both of which played an important role in the post-World War II British art scene.
Life.
Denis Bowen was born on 5 April 1921 in Kimberley, South Africa. His father was Welsh and his mother English. After being orphaned at a young age, Bowen moved to England where he was raised by his aunt in Huddersfield. He enrolled at the Huddersfield School of Art in 1936. After serving in the Navy in World War II, Bowen resumed his art studies at the Royal College of Art in London in 1946.
Between 1940 and 1986 Bowen taught art at numerous institutions including: the Kingston Institute of Art, Hammersmith School of Art, Birmingham School of Art, the Central School of Art and Design, the Royal College of Art and the University of British Columbia in Vancouver.
In 1951 Bowen founded the New Vision Group, which initially emerged from meetings and displays that he organised with his students in 1951. In 1955, Bowen worked alongside Frank Avray Wilson and Halima Nalecz to open a permanent exhibition space for the New Vision Group and associated artists. Bowen, Wilson and Nalecz were all members of the New Vision Group and also the Free Painters Group (later Free Painters and Sculptors) which had been founded a few years earlier.
Their new exhibition space was called the New Vision Centre Gallery (NVCG), and was located on Seymour Place in the Marble Arch area of London. While the importance of the NVCG was often overlooked while it was active, its significant role in shaping British art in the postwar period, and in promoting international artists and abstract art in particular, has been recognized in subsequent years. Artists who exhibited at the NVCG included Aubrey Williams, Judy Cassab, Ron Russell, and Rotraut. Bowen served as director of the gallery from the time of its opening to the time of its closure in 1966.
Working alongside British artist Kenneth Coutts-Smith, Bowen launched the Commonwealth Biennale of Abstract Art at the NVGC in 1963.
Art.
In the early years of his artistic career, from the early 1950s to the mid 1960s, Bowen formed part of a small group of UK-based artists who were associated with Tachisme and Art Informel. Between 1969 and 1980 he produced a series of "psychedelic works" that incorporated lighting effects (including the use of UV lights), music and live music performances. From the 1980s onward, Bowen's work developed cosmological and planetary themes.


Mancala

Mancala is a generic name for a family of two-player turn-based strategy board games played with small stones, beans, or seeds and rows of holes or pits in the earth, a board or other playing surface. The objective is usually to capture all or some set of the opponent's pieces.
Versions of the game date back to the 7th century and evidence suggests the game existed in Ancient Egypt. It is among the oldest known games to still be widely played today.
Names and variants.
The name is a classification or type of game, rather than any specific game. Some of the most popular mancala games (with regard to distribution area, the numbers of players and tournaments, and publications) are:
They differ from other mancala types in that the player's store is included in the placing of the seeds. The most common type has seven holes for each player, in addition to the player store holes. This version has identical rules throughout its range. But there are also numerous variations with the number of holes and rules by region. Sometimes more than one version can be played in a single locality.
Although more than 800 names of traditional mancala games are known, some names denote the same game, while some names are used for more than one game. Almost 200 modern invented versions have also been described.
History.
Evidence of the game was uncovered in Israel in the city of Gedera in an excavated Roman bathhouse where pottery boards and rock cuts were unearthed dating back to between the 2nd and 3rd century AD. Among other early evidence of the game are fragments of a pottery board and several rock cuts found in Aksumite areas in Matara (in Eritrea) and Yeha (in Ethiopia), which are dated by archaeologists to between the 6th and 7th centuries AD; the game may have been mentioned by Giyorgis of Segla in his 14th century Ge'ez text "Mysteries of Heaven and Earth", where he refers to a game called qarqis, a term used in Ge'ez to refer to both Gebet'a (mancala) and "Sant'araz" (modern "sent'erazh", Ethiopian chess).
The games existed in especially eastern Europe. In the Baltic area, it was once very popular ("Bohnenspiel"); in Bosnia, where it is called Ban-Ban and still played today; Serbia; and Greece ("Mandoli", Cyclades). Two mancala tables from the early 18th century are to be found in Weikersheim Castle in southern Germany. In western Europe, it never caught on, but was documented by Oxford University orientalist Thomas Hyde.
The United States has a larger mancala-playing population. A traditional mancala game called Warra was still played in Louisiana in the early 20th century, and a commercial version called Kalah became popular in the 1940s. In Cape Verde, mancala is known as "ouril". It is played in the Islands and was brought to the United States by Cape Verdean immigrants. It is played to this day in Cape Verdean communities in New England.
Recent studies of mancala rules have given insight into the distribution of mancala. This distribution has been linked to migration routes, which may go back several hundred years.
Etymology.
The word "mancala" () is a tool noun derived from an Arabic root "naqala" () meaning "to move". No one game exists with the name "mancala"; the name is a classification or type of game. This word is used in Syria, Lebanon, and Egypt, but is not consistently applied to any one game, and has been used for backgammon in the ancient near east. Mancala is a game that first appeared in Africa, and later, the ancient near east.
General gameplay.
Most mancala games share a common general game play. Players begin by placing a certain number of seeds, prescribed for the particular game, in each of the pits on the game board. A player may count their stones to plot the game. A turn consists of removing all seeds from a pit, "sowing" the seeds (placing one in each of the following pits in sequence) and capturing based on the state of the board. The object of the game is to plant the most seeds in the bank. This leads to the English phrase "count and capture" sometimes used to describe the gameplay. Although the details differ greatly, this general sequence applies to all games.
If playing in capture mode, once a player ends their turn in an empty pit on their own side, they capture the opponent's pieces directly across. Once captured, the player gets to put the seeds in their own bank. After capturing, the opponent forfeits a turn.
Equipment.
Equipment is typically a board, constructed of various materials, with a series of holes arranged in rows, usually two or four. The materials include clay and other shapeable materials. Some games are more often played with holes dug in the earth, or carved in stone. The holes may be referred to as "depressions", "pits", or "houses". Sometimes, large holes on the ends of the board, called "stores", are used for holding the pieces.
Playing pieces are seeds, beans, stones, cowry shells, half-marbles or other small undifferentiated counters that are placed in and transferred about the holes during play.
Board configurations vary among different games but also within variations of a given game; for example Endodoi is played on boards from 2×6 to 2×10. The largest are Tchouba (Mozambique) with a board of 160 (4×40) holes requiring 320 seeds; and En Gehé (Tanzania), played on longer rows with up to 50 pits (a total of 2×50=100) and using 400 seeds. The most minimalistic variants are Nano-Wari and Micro-Wari, created by the Bulgarian ethnologue Assia Popova. The Nano-Wari board has eight seeds in just two pits; Micro-Wari has a total of four seeds in four pits.
With a two-rank board, players usually are considered to control their respective sides of the board, although moves often are made into the opponent's side. With a four-rank board, players control an inner row and an outer row, and a player's seeds will remain in these closest two rows unless the opponent captured them.
Objective.
The objective of most two- and three-row mancala games is to capture more stones than the opponent; in four-row games, one usually seeks to leave the opponent with no legal move or sometimes to capture all counters in their front row.
At the beginning of a player's turn, they select a hole with seeds that will be sown around the board. This selection is often limited to holes on the current player's side of the board, as well as holes with a certain minimum number of seeds.
In a process known as "sowing", all the seeds from a hole are dropped one-by-one into subsequent holes in a motion wrapping around the board. Sowing is an apt name for this activity, since not only are many games traditionally played with seeds, but placing seeds one at a time in different holes reflects the physical act of sowing. If the sowing action stops after dropping the last seed, the game is considered a "single lap" game.
"Multiple laps" or "relay sowing" is a frequent feature of mancala games, although not universal. When relay sowing, if the last seed during sowing lands in an occupied hole, all the contents of that hole, including the last sown seed, are immediately re-sown from the hole. The process usually will continue until sowing ends in an empty hole. Another common way to receive "multiple laps" is when the final seed sown lands in your designated hole.
Many games from the Indian subcontinent use "pussa kanawa laps". These are like standard multilaps, but instead of continuing the movement with the contents of the last hole filled, a player continues with the next hole. A pussakanawa lap move will then end when a lap ends just prior to an empty hole.
If a player ends his stone with a point move he gets a "free turn".
Capturing.
Depending on the last hole sown in a lap, a player may "capture" stones from the board. The exact requirements for capture, as well as what is done with captured stones, vary considerably among games. Typically, a capture requires sowing to end in a hole with a certain number of stones, ending across the board from stones in specific configurations, or landing in an empty hole adjacent to an opponent's hole that contains one or more pieces.
Another common way of capturing is to capture the stones that reach a certain number of seeds at any moment.
Also, several games include the notion of capturing holes, and thus all seeds sown on a captured hole belong at the end of the game to the player who captured it.
Psychology.
Like other board games, mancala games have led to psychological studies. Retschitzki has studied the cognitive processes used by awalé players. Some of Restchitzki's results on memory and problem solving have recently been simulated by Fernand Gobet with the CHREST computer model. De Voogt has studied the psychology of Bao playing.


Scripting language

A scripting language or script language is a programming language for a runtime system that automates the execution of tasks that would otherwise be performed individually by a human operator. Scripting languages are usually interpreted at runtime rather than compiled.
A scripting language's primitives are usually elementary tasks or API calls, and the scripting language allows them to be combined into more programs. Environments that can be automated through scripting include application softwares, text editors, web pages , operating system shells, embedded systems, and computer games. A scripting language can be viewed as a domain-specific language for a particular environment; in the case of scripting an application, it is also known as an extension language. Scripting languages are also sometimes referred to as very high-level programming languages, as they sometimes operate at a high level of abstraction, or as control languages, particularly for job control languages on mainframes.
The term "scripting language" is also used loosely to refer to dynamic high-level general-purpose interpreted languages, such as Perl, PowerShell, Python, and Tcl, with the term "script" often used for small programs (up to a few thousand lines of code) in such languages, or in domain-specific languages such as the text-processing languages sed and AWK. Some of these languages were originally developed for use within a particular environment, and later developed into portable domain-specific or general-purpose languages.
Conversely, many general-purpose languages have dialects that are used as scripting languages. This article discusses scripting languages in the narrow sense of languages for a specific environment.
The spectrum of scripting languages ranges from very small and highly domain-specific languages to general-purpose programming languages used for scripting. Standard examples of scripting languages for specific environments include: Bash, for the Unix or Unix-like operating systems; ECMAScript (JavaScript), for web browsers; and Visual Basic for Applications, for Microsoft Office applications. Lua is a language designed and widely used as an extension language. Perl is a general-purpose language that is also commonly used as an extension language, while ECMAScript is still primarily a scripting language for web browsers, but is also used as a general-purpose language. The Emacs Lisp dialect of Lisp (for the Emacs editor) and the Visual Basic for Applications dialect of Visual Basic are examples of scripting language dialects of general-purpose languages. Some game systems, notably the Second Life virtual world and the Trainz franchise of Railroad simulators have been extensively extended in functionality by scripting extensions (Linden Scripting Language and TrainzScript). In other games like Wesnoth, the variety of actual games played by players are scripts written by other users.
Characteristics.
Typical scripting languages are intended to be very fast to learn and write in, either as short source code files or interactively in a read–eval–print loop (REPL, language shell). This generally implies relatively simple syntax and semantics; typically a "script" (code written in the scripting language) is executed from start to finish, as a "script", with no explicit entry point.
For example, it is uncommon to characterise Java as a scripting language because of its lengthy syntax and rules about which classes exist in which files, and it is not directly possible to execute Java interactively, because source files can only contain definitions that must be invoked externally by a host application or application launcher.
public class HelloWorld {
 public void printHelloWorld() {
 System.out.println("Hello World");
This piece of code intended to print "Hello World" does nothing as "main()" is "not declared" in HelloWorld class, although the one below would be useful.
public class HelloWorld {
 public void printHelloWorld() {
 System.out.println("Hello World");
 public static void main(String[] args) {
 printHelloWorld();
In the example above, main is defined and so this can be invoked by the launcher, although this still cannot be executed interactively.
In contrast, Python allows the definition of some functions in a single file, or to avoid functions altogether and use imperative programming style, or even use it interactively.
print("Hello World")
print "Hello World" # Python 2.7 or earlier
This one line of Python code prints "Hello World"; no "declarative" statement like "main()" is required here.
A scripting language is usually interpreted from source code or bytecode. By contrast, the software environment (interpreter) the scripts are written for is typically written in a compiled language and distributed in machine code form.
Scripting languages may be designed for use by end users of a program—end-user development—or may be only for internal use by developers, so they can write portions of the program in the scripting language. Scripting languages typically use abstraction, a form of information hiding, to spare users the details of internal variable types, data storage, and memory management.
Scripts are often created or modified by the person executing them, but they are also often distributed, such as when large portions of games are written in a scripting language, notably the Google Chrome T-rex game.
History.
Early mainframe computers (in the 1950s) were non-interactive, instead using batch processing. IBM's Job Control Language (JCL) is the archetype of languages used to control batch processing.
The first interactive shells were developed in the 1960s to enable remote operation of the first time-sharing systems, and these used shell scripts, which controlled running computer programs within a computer program, the shell. Calvin Mooers in his TRAC language is generally credited with inventing "command substitution", the ability to embed commands in scripts that when interpreted insert a character string into the script. Multics calls these "active functions".
Louis Pouzin wrote an early processor for command scripts called RUNCOM for CTSS around 1964. Stuart Madnick at MIT wrote a scripting language for IBM's CP/CMS in 1966. He originally called this processor COMMAND, later named EXEC. Multics included an offshoot of CTSS RUNCOM, also called RUNCOM. EXEC was eventually replaced by EXEC 2 and REXX.
Languages such as Tcl and Lua were specifically designed as general-purpose scripting languages that could be embedded in any application. Other languages such as Visual Basic for Applications (VBA) provided strong integration with the automation facilities of an underlying system. Embedding of such general-purpose scripting languages instead of developing a new language for each application also had obvious benefits, relieving the application developer of the need to code a language translator from scratch and allowing the user to apply skills learned elsewhere.
Some software incorporates several different scripting languages. Modern web browsers typically provide a language for writing extensions to the browser itself, and several standard embedded languages for controlling the browser, including JavaScript (a dialect of ECMAScript) or XUL.
Types.
Scripting languages can be categorized into several different types, with a considerable degree of overlap among the types.
Glue languages.
Scripting is often contrasted with system programming, as in Ousterhout's dichotomy or "programming in the large and programming in the small". In this view, scripting is glue code, connecting software components, and a language specialized for this purpose is a "glue language". Pipelines and shell scripting are archetypal examples of glue languages, and Perl was initially developed to fill this same role. Web development can be considered a use of glue languages, interfacing between a database and web server. But if a substantial amount of logic is written in script, it is better characterized as simply another software component, not "glue".
Glue languages are especially useful for writing and maintaining:
Glue language examples:
Macro languages exposed to operating system or application components can serve as glue languages. These include Visual Basic for Applications, WordBasic, LotusScript, CorelScript, Hummingbird Basic, QuickScript, Rexx, SaxBasic, and WinWrap Basic. Other tools like AWK can also be considered glue languages, as can any language implemented by a Windows Script Host engine (VBScript, JScript and VBA by default in Windows and third-party engines including implementations of Rexx, Perl, Tcl, Python, XSLT, Ruby, Modern Pascal, Delphi, and C). A majority of applications can access and use operating system components via the object models or its own functions.
Other devices like programmable calculators may also have glue languages; the operating systems of PDAs such as Windows CE may have available native or third-party macro tools that glue applications together, in addition to implementations of common glue languages—including Windows NT, DOS, and some Unix shells, Rexx, Modern Pascal, PHP, and Perl. Depending upon the OS version, WSH and the default script engines (VBScript and JScript) are available.
Programmable calculators can be programmed in glue languages in three ways. For example, the Texas Instruments TI-92, by factory default can be programmed with a command script language. Inclusion of the scripting and glue language Lua in the TI-NSpire series of calculators could be seen as a successor to this. The primary on-board high-level programming languages of most graphing calculators (most often Basic variants, sometimes Lisp derivatives, and more uncommonly, C derivatives) in many cases can glue together calculator functions—such as graphs, lists, matrices, etc. Third-party implementations of more comprehensive Basic version that may be closer to variants listed as glue languages in this article are available—and attempts to implement Perl, Rexx, or various operating system shells on the TI and HP graphing calculators are also mentioned. PC-based C cross-compilers for some of the TI and HP machines used with tools that convert between C and Perl, Rexx, AWK, and shell scripts to Perl, Modern Pascal, VBScript to and from Perl make it possible to write a program in a glue language for eventual implementation (as a compiled program) on the calculator.
Editor languages.
A number of text editors support macros written either using a macro language built into the editor, e.g., The SemWare Editor (TSE), vi improved (VIM), or using an external implementation, e.g., XEDIT, or both, e.g., KEDIT. Sometimes text editors and edit macros are used under the covers to provide other applications, e.g., FILELIST and RDRLIST in CMS .
Job control languages and shells.
A major class of scripting languages has grown out of the automation of job control, which relates to starting and controlling the behavior of system programs. (In this sense, one might think of shells as being descendants of IBM's JCL, or Job Control Language, which was used for exactly this purpose.) Many of these languages' interpreters double as command-line interpreters such as the Unix shell or the MS-DOS codice_1. Others, such as AppleScript offer the use of English-like commands to build scripts.
GUI scripting.
With the advent of graphical user interfaces, a specialized kind of scripting language emerged for controlling a computer. These languages interact with the same graphic windows, menus, buttons, and so on, that a human user would. They do this by simulating the actions of a user. These languages are typically used to automate user actions. Such languages are also called "macros" when control is through simulated key presses or mouse clicks, as well as tapping or pressing on a touch-activated screen.
These languages could in principle be used to control any GUI application; but, in practice their use is limited because their use needs support from the application and from the operating system. There are a few exceptions to this limitation. Some GUI scripting languages are based on recognizing graphical objects from their display screen pixels. These GUI scripting languages do not depend on support from the operating system or application.
When the GUI provides the appropriate interfaces, as in the IBM Workplace Shell, a generic scripting language, e.g. OREXX, can be used for writing GUI scripts.
Application-specific languages.
Application specific languages can be split in many different categories, i.e. standalone based app languages (executable) or internal application specific languages (postscript, xml, gscript as some of the widely distributed scripts, respectively implemented by Adobe, MS and Google) among others include an idiomatic scripting language tailored to the needs of the application user. Likewise, many computer game systems use a custom scripting language to express the programmed actions of non-player characters and the game environment. Languages of this sort are designed for a single application; and, while they may superficially resemble a specific general-purpose language (e.g. QuakeC, modeled after C), they have custom features that distinguish them. Emacs Lisp, while a fully formed and capable dialect of Lisp, contains many special features that make it most useful for extending the editing functions of Emacs. An application-specific scripting language can be viewed as a domain-specific programming language specialized to a single application.
Extension/embeddable languages.
A number of languages have been designed for the purpose of replacing application-specific scripting languages by being embeddable in application programs. The application programmer (working in C or another systems language) includes "hooks" where the scripting language can control the application. These languages may be technically equivalent to an application-specific extension language but when an application embeds a "common" language, the user gets the advantage of being able to transfer skills from application to application. A more generic alternative is simply to provide a library (often a C library) that a general-purpose language can use to control the application, without modifying the language for the specific domain.
JavaScript began as and primarily still is a language for scripting inside web browsers; however, the standardisation of the language as ECMAScript has made it popular as a general-purpose embeddable language. In particular, the Mozilla implementation SpiderMonkey is embedded in several environments such as the Yahoo! Widget Engine. Other applications embedding ECMAScript implementations include the Adobe products Adobe Flash (ActionScript) and Adobe Acrobat (for scripting PDF files).
Tcl was created as an extension language but has come to be used more frequently as a general-purpose language in roles similar to Python, Perl, and Ruby. On the other hand, Rexx was originally created as a job control language, but is widely used as an extension language as well as a general-purpose language. Perl is a general-purpose language, but had the Oraperl (1990) dialect, consisting of a Perl 4 binary with Oracle Call Interface compiled in. This has however since been replaced by a library (Perl Module), DBD::Oracle.
Other complex and task-oriented applications may incorporate and expose an embedded programming language to allow their users more control and give them more functionality than can be available through a user interface, no matter how sophisticated. For example, Autodesk Maya 3D authoring tools embed the Maya Embedded Language, or Blender which uses Python to fill this role.
Some other types of applications that need faster feature addition or tweak-and-run cycles (e.g. game engines) also use an embedded language. During the development, this allows them to prototype features faster and tweak more freely, without the need for the user to have intimate knowledge of the inner workings of the application or to rebuild it after each tweak (which can take a significant amount of time). The scripting languages used for this purpose range from the more common and more famous Lua and Python to lesser-known ones such as AngelScript and Squirrel.
Ch is another C compatible scripting option for the industry to embed into C/C++ application programs.


FOSD origami

Feature Oriented Programming or Feature Oriented Software Development (FOSD) is a general paradigm for program synthesis in software product lines. Please read the Feature Oriented Programming page that explains how an FOSD model of a domain is a tuple of 0-ary functions (called values) and a set of 1-ary (unary) functions called features. This page discusses multidimensional generalizations of FOSD models, which are important for compact specifications of complex programs.
Origami.
A fundamental generalization of metamodels is "origami".
The essential idea is that a program's design
need not be represented by a single expression; multiple expressions
can be used. This involves the use of multiple orthogonal GenVoca models.
 E = D•H•P -- tool equation
 E = S•B -- language equation
Let U=[U1,U2...,Un] be a GenVoca model of n features, and
W=[W1...Wm] be a GenVoca model of m features. The relationship
between two orthogonal models U and W is a matrix UW, called an
Origami matrix, where each
row corresponds to a feature in U and each column corresponds to
a feature in W. Entry UWij is a function that implements the
"combination" of features Ui and Wj.
 formula_1
 formula_2
To see how multiple equations are used to synthesize a program, again consider
models U and W. A program F is described by two equations, one per model. We can
write an equation for F in two different ways: referencing features by name or
by their index position, such as:
 formula_3—U expression of F
 formula_4—W expression of F
The UW model defines how models U and W are implemented. Synthesizing program F involves projecting UW of unneeded columns and rows, and aggregating (a.k.a. tensor contraction):
 formula_5
A fundamental property of origami matrices, called orthogonality, is that the order in which dimensions are contracted does not matter. In the above equation, summing across the U dimension (index i) first or the W dimension (index j) first does not matter. Of course, orthogonality is a property that must be verified. Efficient (linear) algorithms have been developed to verify that origami matrices (or tensors/n-dimensional arrays) are orthogonal. The significance of orthogonality is one of view consistency. Aggregating (contracting) along a particular dimension offers a 'view' of a program. Different views should be consistent: if one repairs the program's code in one view (or proves properties about a program in one view), the correctness of those repairs or properties should hold in all views.
In general, a product of a product line may be represented by n expressions, from n "orthogonal" and "abstract" GenVoca models G1 ... Gn. The Origami
matrix (or cube or tensor) is an n-dimensional array A:
 formula_6
A product H of this product line is formed by eliminating unnecessary rows, columns, etc.
from A, and aggregating (contracting) the n-cube into a scalar:
 formula_7
Applications.
There are several of product line applications developed using Origami. Among them include:
More applications to be supplied.