these cues are in turn correlated with the manner in which the sensory apparatus has physically and computationally evolved . while not directly related to the kind of movements mentioned above , finger movements involved in performing a dexterity task are also required for haptic sensitivity ; the two ( i.e. size discrimination and dexterity ) being influenced by similar factors . yoga is an ancient science , originating in india which includes specific postures , voluntary breath regulation , meditation , and certain philosophical principles . practicing yoga has been shown to influence several motor functions . these include static motor performance , tweezer dexterity , maze learning , as well as visuomotor speed . early studies on experienced practitioners of burmese buddhist meditation showed that experienced meditation practitioners were more sensitive to various aspects of visual stimuli , such as size , shape , color and texture . apart from meditation alone , a combination of yoga practices was shown to improve the sensitivity to a flickering light stimulus , to reduce visual geometric illusions , as well as to improve visual contrast sensitivity . more recently tai chi , a chinese slow - motion meditation was shown to enhance tactile acuity in long - term practitioners . a blinded assessor compared the ability to discriminate between two different orientations ( i.e. , parallel and horizontal ) of different cross - grating widths at the fingertips in tai chi practitioners and controls . this tactile spatial acuity was found to be better in more experienced tai chi practitioners , compared to those with less experience in meditation . the authors also speculated that related somatosensory attentional practices such as yoga mindfulness meditation , and qigong could have similar effects . however , there has been no study on the effect of yoga on tactile acuity based on the performance in a size and shape discrimination task . hence the present study was planned to assess the short term ( or immediate ) effect of two yoga breathing practices on ( i ) finger dexterity and ( ii ) size and shape discrimination . one of them was a high frequency yoga breathing practice(s ) , called kapalabhati ( where kapala = forehead , bhati = shining , in sanskrit ) . immediately after this practice , university students , middle - aged adults and persons 60 years of age and older , performed better in a cancellation task . the letter cancellation task assesses selective and sustained attention , shifting attention , as well as visual scanning . there was no change when the same participants practiced breath awareness ( as control ) to assess re - test effects on another day . breath awareness was chosen in the study cited above , as well as in the present study as a control as breath awareness is an important part of all yoga voluntary regulated breathing and in traditional yoga . hence , in summary the present study assessed the immediate effects of ( i ) high frequency yoga breathing ( kapalabhati ) and ( ii ) breath awareness , on ( i ) size and shape discrimination and ( ii ) finger dexterity . the participants were attending an outpatient department to receive treatment in yoga and ayurveda at patanjali yogpeeth , haridwar , india . all participants were also given an opportunity to learn yoga in the outpatient facility area . a general announcement was made in the out - patient department and interested subjects who were seeking stress management enrolled and expressed their interest to volunteer . all of them gave their signed consent to participate in the study , which was approved by the ethics committee of patanjali research foundation . they were randomly allocated to two groups namely , high frequency yoga breathing hfyb ( kapalabhati ) group and the breath awareness group , using a random number table . hand dominance of all the participants was checked using the edinburgh handedness inventory . during handedness testing , it was found that one person from the high frequency yoga breathing group was left hand dominant , and this person was exempted from the study . for ease of analysis and to make the groups equal in number , one more person ( selected at random ) who was allocated to the breath awareness group was excluded from the study . out of ninety - four patients , forty - seven patients , ( 28 females and 19 males ) were taken as the high frequency yoga breathing group ( group average ages.d . the remaining forty - seven participants , ( 26 females and 21 males ) were assigned to the breath awareness group ( group average ages.d . none of the participants had any active form of disease nor did they have any physical disability which would have interfered with their performance on the task . all of them had seven days of experience for both high frequency yoga breathing and breath awareness exercises , which they practiced every day ( during the seven days ) . the ninety - four participants were randomized as two groups , with forty seven participants in each group . the sample size ( i.e. , 47 in each group ) was not calculated prior to the test . however , the g*power ( a general power analysis program ) 3.1 software was used to calculate the power of the test as a post - hoc analysis . the power was found to be adequate i.e. , 0.9997 ( for the finger dexterity task ) and 0.9998 ( for the shape and size discrimination task ) . these are described below : finger dexterity was measured using the oconnor finger dexterity apparatus , which consists of a shallow tray beside a metal plate which has 100 holes arranged in ten rows of ten holes each . the participants had to place three cylindrical metal pins 2.5 cm long and 0.2 cm in diameter in each hole . the shape and size discrimination task ( takei scientific instruments co. , ltd . , t.k.k.117 coin sorting model , japan ) assesses a participant 's ability to discriminate between coins of different sizes depending on their visual and tactile sensations as well as their speed of sorting . the participant has to insert fifty small coins , which are different in size and thickness into one of the five slits , where each slit is designed to allow a specific coin to pass through . the high frequency yoga breathing ( hfyb ) group was asked to practice 10 min of high frequency yoga breathing ( kapalabhati ) where the person had to breathe with a frequency of approximately 1.0 hz , during which the exhalation is an intentionally active process . the other group practiced breath awareness for the same period . during breath awareness , the participants maintained awareness of spontaneous breathing without any intentional manipulation of the nostrils , throat or chest . the participants attention was directed to the natural movement of air into and out of their nostrils . they also attempted to be aware of the air flow and its temperature as it moved through their nasal passages . ( i ) finger dexterity and ( ii ) shape and size discrimination scores obtained before and after high frequency yoga breathing ( kapalabhati ) practice and before and after breath awareness were compared using repeated measures analyses of variance ( anova ) , with one between - subjects factor ( i.e. groups , with two levels , high frequency yoga breathing ( kapalabhati ) group and breath awareness group ) , and one within - subjects factor ( i.e. , states , with two levels , before and after ) . post - hoc analyses with multiple comparisons and bonferroni adjustment ( when multiple comparisons are carried out statistically , there is an increase in the risk of false positives , the bonferroni corrections reduced this risk ) was carried out to compare values recorded before and after high frequency yoga breathing ( kapalabhati ) , as well as before and after breath awareness . the participants were attending an outpatient department to receive treatment in yoga and ayurveda at patanjali yogpeeth , haridwar , india . all participants were also given an opportunity to learn yoga in the outpatient facility area . a general announcement was made in the out - patient department and interested subjects who were seeking stress management enrolled and expressed their interest to volunteer . all of them gave their signed consent to participate in the study , which was approved by the ethics committee of patanjali research foundation . they were randomly allocated to two groups namely , high frequency yoga breathing hfyb ( kapalabhati ) group and the breath awareness group , using a random number table . hand dominance of all the participants was checked using the edinburgh handedness inventory . during handedness testing , it was found that one person from the high frequency yoga breathing group was left hand dominant , and this person was exempted from the study . for ease of analysis and to make the groups equal in number , one more person ( selected at random ) who was allocated to the breath awareness group was excluded from the study . out of ninety - four patients , forty - seven patients , ( 28 females and 19 males ) were taken as the high frequency yoga breathing group ( group average ages.d . the remaining forty - seven participants , ( 26 females and 21 males ) were assigned to the breath awareness group ( group average ages.d . none of the participants had any active form of disease nor did they have any physical disability which would have interfered with their performance on the task . all of them had seven days of experience for both high frequency yoga breathing and breath awareness exercises , which they practiced every day ( during the seven days ) . the ninety - four participants were randomized as two groups , with forty seven participants in each group . the sample size ( i.e. , 47 in each group ) was not calculated prior to the test . however , the g*power ( a general power analysis program ) 3.1 software was used to calculate the power of the test as a post - hoc analysis . the power was found to be adequate i.e. , 0.9997 ( for the finger dexterity task ) and 0.9998 ( for the shape and size discrimination task ) . all participants were assessed using two tasks . these are described below : finger dexterity was measured using the oconnor finger dexterity apparatus , which consists of a shallow tray beside a metal plate which has 100 holes arranged in ten rows of ten holes each . the participants had to place three cylindrical metal pins 2.5 cm long and 0.2 cm in diameter in each hole . the shape and size discrimination task ( takei scientific instruments co. , ltd . , t.k.k.117 coin sorting model , japan ) assesses a participant 's ability to discriminate between coins of different sizes depending on their visual and tactile sensations as well as their speed of sorting . the participant has to insert fifty small coins , which are different in size and thickness into one of the five slits , where each slit is designed to allow a specific coin to pass through . finger dexterity was measured using the oconnor finger dexterity apparatus , which consists of a shallow tray beside a metal plate which has 100 holes arranged in ten rows of ten holes each . the participants had to place three cylindrical metal pins 2.5 cm long and 0.2 cm in diameter in each hole . , t.k.k.117 coin sorting model , japan ) assesses a participant 's ability to discriminate between coins of different sizes depending on their visual and tactile sensations as well as their speed of sorting . the participant has to insert fifty small coins , which are different in size and thickness into one of the five slits , where each slit is designed to allow a specific coin to pass through . the high frequency yoga breathing ( hfyb ) group was asked to practice 10 min of high frequency yoga breathing ( kapalabhati ) where the person had to breathe with a frequency of approximately 1.0 hz , during which the exhalation is an intentionally active process . the other group practiced breath awareness for the same period . during breath awareness , the participants maintained awareness of spontaneous breathing without any intentional manipulation of the nostrils , throat or chest . the participants attention was directed to the natural movement of air into and out of their nostrils . they also attempted to be aware of the air flow and its temperature as it moved through their nasal passages . ( i ) finger dexterity and ( ii ) shape and size discrimination scores obtained before and after high frequency yoga breathing ( kapalabhati ) practice and before and after breath awareness were compared using repeated measures analyses of variance ( anova ) , with one between - subjects factor ( i.e. groups , with two levels , high frequency yoga breathing ( kapalabhati ) group and breath awareness group ) , and one within - subjects factor ( i.e. , states , with two levels , before and after ) . post - hoc analyses with multiple comparisons and bonferroni adjustment ( when multiple comparisons are carried out statistically , there is an increase in the risk of false positives , the bonferroni corrections reduced this risk ) was carried out to compare values recorded before and after high frequency yoga breathing ( kapalabhati ) , as well as before and after breath awareness . the finger dexterity scores showed a significant difference between states [ i.e. before and after , with f=138.37 , df=1 , 46.0 , p<0.001 ] and between groups ( i.e. high frequency yoga breathing and breath awareness with f=5.13 , df=1 , 46.0 , p<0.001 ) . the error scores in the shape and size discrimination test also showed a significant difference in the interaction between groups and states [ f=51.25 , df=1 , 46.0 , p<0.001 ] . there was no significant difference between groups ( i.e. high frequency yoga breathing and breath awareness ) . the time taken to complete the test also showed a significant difference between states ( i.e. before and after with f=88.84 , df=1 , 46.0 , p<0.001 ) and no significant difference was found between groups . in all cases , the hyunh feldt epsilon was equal to 1 ( symmetry is an assumption that the numbers in the analysis of variance ( anova ) matrix are homogenous , or almost nearly so . if the data do not meet the criteria for sphericity correction factors have to be used . the scores of finger dexterity were significantly higher following high frequency yoga breathing ( kapalabhati ) as well as breath awareness compared to before ( p<0.001 , two tailed ) . the percentage change after high frequency yoga breathing ( kapalabhati ) practice was 19.0% whereas in the case of breath awareness the increase was 9.0% after the practice . there was a significant reduction in the error rate as well as time taken to complete the shape and size discrimination test after both practices i.e. high frequency yoga breathing ( kapalabhati ) and breath awareness ( p<0.001 , two tailed ) . errors were reduced by 41% after high frequency yoga breathing ( kapalabhati ) practice whereas after practicing breath awareness the errors were reduced by 22% . the difference between the two groups , namely , kapalabhati ( 41% change ) and breath awareness ( 22% change ) can be explained based on studies which have shown that kapalabhati compared to breath awareness increases attention more and increases visual perceptual activity more as well . apart from this while breath awareness appears to increase sympathetic tone based on the lf / hf ratio of the heart rate variability spectrum , kapalabhati does not have this effect . this may be due to the fact that breath awareness involves a certain degree of focusing which is known to increase sympathetic tone . the time taken was reduced by 15% after high frequency yoga breathing ( kapalabhati ) as well as after practicing breath awareness ( it reduced by 15% ) . the mean valuess.d . of finger dexterity test and shape and size discrimination tasks before and after kapalabhati and breath awareness the finger dexterity scores showed a significant difference between states [ i.e. before and after , with f=138.37 , df=1 , 46.0 , p<0.001 ] and between groups ( i.e. high frequency yoga breathing and breath awareness with f=5.13 , df=1 , 46.0 , p<0.001 ) . the error scores in the shape and size discrimination test also showed a significant difference in the interaction between groups and states [ f=51.25 , df=1 , 46.0 , p<0.001 ] . there was no significant difference between groups ( i.e. high frequency yoga breathing and breath awareness ) . the time taken to complete the test also showed a significant difference between states ( i.e. before and after with f=88.84 , df=1 , 46.0 , p<0.001 ) and no significant difference was found between groups . in all cases , the hyunh feldt epsilon was equal to 1 ( symmetry is an assumption that the numbers in the analysis of variance ( anova ) matrix are homogenous , or almost nearly so . if the data do not meet the criteria for sphericity correction factors have to be used . the scores of finger dexterity were significantly higher following high frequency yoga breathing ( kapalabhati ) as well as breath awareness compared to before ( p<0.001 , two tailed ) . the percentage change after high frequency yoga breathing ( kapalabhati ) practice was 19.0% whereas in the case of breath awareness the increase was 9.0% after the practice . there was a significant reduction in the error rate as well as time taken to complete the shape and size discrimination test after both practices i.e. high frequency yoga breathing ( kapalabhati ) and breath awareness ( p<0.001 , two tailed ) . errors were reduced by 41% after high frequency yoga breathing ( kapalabhati ) practice whereas after practicing breath awareness the errors were reduced by 22% . the difference between the two groups , namely , kapalabhati ( 41% change ) and breath awareness ( 22% change ) can be explained based on studies which have shown that kapalabhati compared to breath awareness increases attention more and increases visual perceptual activity more as well . apart from this while breath awareness appears to increase sympathetic tone based on the lf / hf ratio of the heart rate variability spectrum , kapalabhati does not have this effect . this may be due to the fact that breath awareness involves a certain degree of focusing which is known to increase sympathetic tone . the time taken was reduced by 15% after high frequency yoga breathing ( kapalabhati ) as well as after practicing breath awareness ( it reduced by 15% ) . the mean valuess.d . of finger dexterity test and shape and size discrimination tasks before and after kapalabhati and breath awareness the scores of finger dexterity were significantly higher following high frequency yoga breathing ( kapalabhati ) as well as breath awareness compared to before ( p<0.001 , two tailed ) . the percentage change after high frequency yoga breathing ( kapalabhati ) practice was 19.0% whereas in the case of breath awareness the increase was 9.0% after the practice . there was a significant reduction in the error rate as well as time taken to complete the shape and size discrimination test after both practices i.e. high frequency yoga breathing ( kapalabhati ) and breath awareness ( p<0.001 , two tailed ) . errors were reduced by 41% after high frequency yoga breathing ( kapalabhati ) practice whereas after practicing breath awareness the errors were reduced by 22% . the difference between the two groups , namely , kapalabhati ( 41% change ) and breath awareness ( 22% change ) can be explained based on studies which have shown that kapalabhati compared to breath awareness increases attention more and increases visual perceptual activity more as well . apart from this while breath awareness appears to increase sympathetic tone based on the lf / hf ratio of the heart rate variability spectrum , kapalabhati does not have this effect . this may be due to the fact that breath awareness involves a certain degree of focusing which is known to increase sympathetic tone . the time taken was reduced by 15% after high frequency yoga breathing ( kapalabhati ) as well as after practicing breath awareness ( it reduced by 15% ) . the mean valuess.d . of finger dexterity test and shape and size discrimination tasks before and after kapalabhati and breath awareness in the present study , there was a significant improvement in finger dexterity following kapalabhati and breath awareness . the oconnor finger dexterity task is a fine motor skill task which measures fingertip dexterity and eye - hand co - ordination . the improvement observed in the present study might have resulted due to the beneficial effect of kapalabhati on conscious arousal , attention and anxiety based on changes in electroencephalography . the present group of subjects were possibly anxious as they had joined for stress relief . kapalabhati has been shown to improve attention in a study which assessed the effect of the practice on the p300 event related potential . attention has been shown to be a predictor of fine motor skills particularly in children suffering from attention deficit hyperactivity disorder . hence the improvements in attention and anxiety relief following kapalabhati practice as seen above might explain the increase in finger dexterity in the present study . this explanation is also applicable to the change seen after breath awareness as mindfulness meditation ( which breath awareness resembles ) is reported to improve attention and reduce anxiety . the improvement in shape and size discrimination following kapalabhati found in the present study is in line with an earlier study which showed improvement in selective and sustained attention , as well as visual scanning following yoga breathing other than kapalabhati . in a study on the effect of kapalabhati on spontaneous electrical activity in the brain , there was an increase in alpha , theta and beta 1 activity during the practice in the occipital region . this change might have influenced the functioning of the extrastriate cortex in the occipital region which helps in visuospatial processing . as the shape and size discrimination task involves visuospatial processing , the change in extrastriate cortical functioning may underlie the improvement following kapalabhati . closely related to this , is the finding that 15 min of kapalabhati practice reduced error in visual optical illusion , when the mller lyer lines were used for the assessments . however , these explanations are merely a speculation at this stage as the exact mechanism of kapalabhati influencing tactile discrimination was not studied . the effect of kapalabhati on attention - arousal as mentioned earlier might also contribute to the improvement . like kapalabhati , breath awareness has also been shown to improve the performance in an attention task for sustained , selective attention and visual scanning . interestingly , both kapalabhati and breath awareness did not appear to increase sympathetic tone , based on the lf / hf ratio in a frequency domain analysis of the heart rate variability spectrum in an earlier study a change normally associated with increased attention - arousal . in summary , both kapalabhati and breath awareness improved fine motor skills measured by finger dexterity and visual discrimination assessed by the shape and size discrimination task . while this may be related to earlier demonstrated effects on attention - arousal ,
background : practicing yoga has been shown to improve motor functions and attention . though attention is required for fine motor and discrimination tasks , the effect of yoga breathing techniques on fine motor skills and visual discrimination has not been assessed.aim:to study the effect of yoga breathing techniques on finger dexterity and visual discrimination.materials and methods : the present study consisted of one hundred and forty subjects who had enrolled for stress management . 
 they were randomly divided into two groups , one group practiced high frequency yoga breathing while the other group practiced breath awareness . 
 high frequency yoga breathing ( kapalabhati , breath rate 1.0 hz ) and breath awareness are two yoga practices which improve attention . 
 the immediate effect of high frequency yoga breathing and breath awareness ( i ) were assessed on the performance on the oconnor finger dexterity task and ( ii ) ( in ) a shape and size discrimination task.results:there was a significant improvement in the finger dexterity task by 19% after kapalabhati and 9% after breath awareness ( p<0.001 in both cases , repeated measures anova and post - hoc analyses ) . 
 there was a significant reduction ( p<0.001 ) in error ( 41% after kapalabhati and 21% after breath awareness ) as well as time taken to complete the shape and size discrimination test ( 15% after kapalabhati and 15% after breath awareness ; p<0.001 ) was also observed.conclusion:both kapalabahati and breath awareness can improve fine motor skills and visual discrimination , with a greater magnitude of change after kapalabhati .