Timber harvesting on federal lands is a long-standing activity which sometimes generates controversy. Most timber harvesting on federal lands occurs on lands directed to provide a regular output of multiple uses under current law. Determining the proportions of these uses, in whole and on individual lands, is challenging for land management agencies. Often at issue is the appropriate use of federal lands for timber harvesting under these policies, including what amount of timber harvesting should occur and what constitutes proper balance among timber harvesting and other uses. Congress has authorized timber harvesting on certain federal lands under specified circumstances. Most timber harvesting on federal lands occurs on two land systems. The majority of harvests occur on the National Forest System (NFS), which is managed by the Forest Service (FS) within the Department of Agriculture (USDA). Harvests also occur on the public lands managed by the Bureau of Land Management (BLM) within the Department of the Interior (DOI). The FS manages 144.9 million acres of forest, while the BLM manages 37.6 million acres of forest (see Figure 1 ). Together, FS and BLM forest comprises 76% of federal forest area and 23% of all forest in the United States. Within their respective forest, the FS has 96.1 million acres of timberlands, and the BLM has 6.1 million acres of timberlands. The United States has 765.5 million acres of forest, of which 514.4 million acres is timberland and 57% is private. The United States has 57.0 million acres of woodland. Timber harvesting is the physical cutting and removal of trees or parts of trees from a given forested site. Harvested timber , or cut and removed trees, is the raw material for items made of wood, such as lumber, plywood, paper, and other products. Timber harvesting may occur on private, federal, or non-federal publicly owned lands, and may be conducted by the landowner or by another entity they allow to do so. Most timber harvesting in the United States is conducted on private lands: in 2011, 88% of timber harvests were conducted on private lands, and in 2012, 90% of wood and paper products in the United States originated on private lands. FS and BLM conduct timber sales as the most general way to allow timber harvesting on their respective lands, although they may allow harvesting in other ways. A timber sale is a formal process whereby an entity may purchase a contract to cut and remove specified timber. FS and BLM receive revenue from the sale of the contract. Information on timber harvesting in this report, such as harvested volume, harvested value, and other statistics, derives from FS and BLM data and may include timber harvested through timber sales or other means. Both FS and BLM timber sale planning and implementation proceed under similar principles of achieving multiple use and sustained yield. Both agencies conduct timber harvesting for various purposes. Both plan long-term timber management by designating areas that can support sustainable timber harvest and calculating yields that can be taken without permanent impairment. In the short term, both agencies create plans for timber sales, determine the value of offered timber and specify what timber may be cut, and conduct sales in a competitive manner open to the public. Timber harvesting may also occur on two other federal land systems, the National Park System, managed by the National Park Service, and the National Wildlife Refuge System (NWRS), managed by the Fish and Wildlife Service (both agencies are within DOI). In the case of the National Park System, the Secretary may dispose of timber to control insects and diseases or to conserve natural or historic resources. In the case of the NWRS, the Secretary of the Interior may permit timber harvesting to achieve desired fish and wildlife habitat conditions. On both systems, timber harvesting is rare, and harvested volumes are small. This report provides an overview of timber harvesting on FS and BLM lands. The report describes general statutory authorities and regulations, planning activities, timber sales, and trends in the volume and value of timber harvested, first from FS lands, and then for BLM lands. It concludes with a discussion of issues Congress has debated concerning timber harvesting and federal lands. The National Forest System comprises nearly 193 million acres. It is made up of 154 national forests, national grasslands, and other units such as research and experimental areas. Approximately 75% of national forest acreage is located in 15 states. As discussed, the NFS contains 144.9 million acres of forest and woodland, of which 66% are considered timberland. Most of the lands contained in the modern Forest Service were reserved from the public lands in the late 19 th and early 20 th centuries, in what were first called "forest reserves". The forest reserves were initially managed by the DOI and later moved to the USDA and the Forest Service. Through the Organic Administration Act, Congress specified that the purpose of these forests was to "improve and protect the forest within the reservation … and to furnish a continuous supply of timber for the use and necessities of the citizens of the United States," in addition to protecting water flows. The act authorized timber sales of "dead, matured or large growth of trees" and set out procedures for conducting them. Congress expanded the purposes for the national forests, and developed management goals to achieve those purposes, through the Multiple Use-Sustained Yield Act of 1960 (MUSYA). Congress added the provision of fish and wildlife habitat, recreation, energy and mineral development, and livestock grazing as official purposes of the national forests, in addition to timber harvesting and watershed protection. To supply these activities, management of the forests' resources is to be organized for multiple uses in a "harmonious and coordinated" manner that considers the combination of uses that best meets the needs of the American people, not that necessarily yields the largest dollar return or output. The act also directs a sustained yield of products and services, meaning high-level regular output in perpetuity without impairing the lands' productivity. Congress has directed FS to engage in long-term land use and resource management. Plans set the framework for land management, uses, and protection. They are developed through an interdisciplinary process with opportunities for public participation. FS uses these plans to guide implementation of site-specific activities. In the case of timber, plans describe where timber harvesting may occur and include measures of sustainable timber harvest levels, and are used to guide implementation of individual sales. These sales generate revenues. Congress has specified various uses for these revenues. Congress directed the Forest Service to conduct long-term planning and management through the passage of the National Forest Management Act of 1976 (NFMA). NFMA requires the FS to prepare a land and resource management plan—often called a "forest plan"—for each NFS unit. These plans are to be revised at least every 15 years. The FS has issued regulations to implement the planning requirement—often called "planning rules"—and to establish the procedures for developing, amending, and revising forest plans. The first planning rule was issued in 1979 and later revised; the current rule dates from 2012. Forest planning and implementation generally proceed as described below. Forest Service timber planning and administration proceed under general FS planning procedures. Forest plans guide management of the plan area by specifying objectives, standards, and guidelines for resources and activities. They contain certain components required by statute, such as components addressing provision of outdoor recreation, range, wildlife, fish, and timber. Among the most general required components addressing timber are requirements to identify areas and quantities for timber harvesting. The FS must identify lands that may be not suited for timber production . All other lands in the NFS unit are considered suitable for timber production. The plan must contain the allowable sale quantity, the measure of timber that can be removed annually without impairing future yield, although FS also considers other measures of sustainable yield in planning over various time horizons. The allowable sale quantity informs the amount of timber that can be removed annually over a ten-year plan period. Plans are required to be developed with public participation and in accordance with various other administrative and environmental statutes, such as the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA). Forest plans may consider harvesting for various purposes—for example, to produce timber or to achieve and maintain desired resource conditions, such as habitat improvement, fire risk reduction, and sanitation. If the forest plan identifies lands as suitable for timber production, the plan must address timber harvesting on those lands. If the forest plan considers timber harvesting for purposes other than producing timber, it must delineate areas where such activities may occur. These areas may be identified by forest type, geographic area, or other criteria. FS conducts timber sales to achieve the objectives in the forest plan. FS establishes a sale schedule and timber sale project plan, which may include more than one timber sale. The plan estimates volume offered, acreage, and harvest methods for the relevant sales. Site-specific timber harvests must also comport with NEPA and relevant statutes, including any requirement for site-specific environmental analysis and review. Prior to an individual sale, FS marks and appraises the timber to be offered. FS may designate timber in one of three ways: physical marking, a written description of specific trees for harvest (called description ) , or a written description of desired post-harvest stand characteristics (called prescription ). FS creates a sale package, including a prospectus, sample contract, and other required documentation; some requirements are site-specific. FS advertises the package at an appraised starting price. Interested parties may bid on the package. A contract is awarded to the highest bidder provided legal conditions are met. The winning bidder conducts the timber harvest according to the terms—such as timeline, harvest method, and road construction conditions—specified in the contract. Timber harvests must generally be completed in 3 years, with a maximum term of 10 years. Timber sales generate revenue, and disposition of this revenue depends on several factors. Congress has established several funds for FS to retain and use timber sale receipts. Depending on the type of sale, among other factors, FS may be required to make certain deposits to these funds. If any portion of receipts are not required to be deposited, FS may distribute receipts among funds at their discretion, including depositing all revenue in a single fund. The money in these funds may be used by the FS for a variety of purposes, sometimes without further appropriation (i.e., as mandatory appropriations). See Table A-1 for a list of these funds. A more detailed discussion of revenue levels, expenditures, and issues related to FS timber revenue funds is outside the scope of this report. Timber harvesting is one of many authorized uses of the NFS. The amount of timber harvested from the NFS, and its relative proportion of total U.S. timber supply, has fluctuated over time. This section provides an overview of timber volume harvested from the NFS, and value of those harvests, along with some economic and historical factors which may have contributed to observed changes. The volume of timber harvested from the national forests (and their precursors, the forest reserves) increased slowly from 1898 until the 1940s. Most demand for wood was met by private timberlands; by 1940, for example, FS lands supplied 2% of U.S. timber supply. In the post-World War II era, timber harvest volume from the NFS grew (see Figure 2 ). The timber supply from private forestry was unable to keep pace with the increased demand, due in part to high harvest levels during WWII. In the 1950s, the FS began to raise harvest limits. Harvests rose from 1-3 billion board feet (abbreviated BBF) annually in the early 1940s to more than 10 BBF in some years of the 1960s and 1970s. According to historical data from one source, harvest from the NFS rose from 9% of total U.S. harvest in 1952 to 16% in 1962 and 1970, and 15% in 1976. Harvest volume declined from the mid-1970s to the early 1980s. Harvest on FS lands shifted to more marginal timberlands; in part, clear-cutting in the previous decades had reduced tree volume available for harvest in productive areas. This period also coincided with recessions in 1980 and 1982, which may have reduced demand. Timber harvests rose from the early 1980s to the early 1990s, sometimes reaching levels of over 12 BBF per year. These timber harvests coincided with the 1986 U.S. peak in per capita consumption of wood products, driven in part by an increase in housing starts following the 1982 recession. In 1986, timber harvests from the NFS were 13% of total U.S. timber harvests. In the early 1990s, harvested timber volume began a sustained decrease. In 1991, the NFS supplied 11% of total U.S. harvested timber, and in 1997, the NFS supplied 5% of total U.S. harvested timber. In 2011, NFS supplied 2% of U.S. wood and paper products. Numerous interrelated factors, including statutory, administrative, biological, and market influences, may have contributed to this decline. The effect of each individual factor is not settled, as is the effect of each factor over time. These factors occurred at varying points in time and may not coincide directly with observed harvest level changes. Some sources have noted that statutory changes added complexity to forest management and increasing litigation frequency, while also increasing transparency and public participation. Other sources have noted changing management priorities. Others have noted decreasing domestic demand, volatile prices, and the prevalence of less valuable timber due to high harvest levels in previous decades. The listing of the northern spotted owl ( Strix occidentalis caurina) under the Endangered Species Act in 1990 is often discussed in regard to declining timber harvest levels. Harvested volumes have consistently been between 2 BBF and 3 BBF annually from FY2004 onward. In FY2018, approximately 2.8 BBF were harvested from FS lands. Although the national timber market in the United States was affected by the 2008 housing market collapse and the subsequent decline in demand, timber volumes harvested from FS experienced relatively little change in volume, for unclear reasons. In FY2018 dollars, harvest values from approximately FY2000 onward are similar to harvest values in the early 1940s. Harvest values generally increased from the early 1940s to a peak of approximately $3.4 billion (FY2018 dollars) in FY1979, before a decline through FY1982. They rose again thereafter, reaching another peak of approximately $2.6 billion (FY2018 dollars) in FY1989, before again declining. Values from FY2001 onward have generally been between approximately $100 million and $300 million in FY2018 dollars. In FY2018, cut value was approximately $188.8 million. FS harvest value declined during the recession and housing collapse of 2008. Harvest value may vary due to quality, species, and age class of offered timber and timber market conditions, and is correlated with volume harvested. FS harvest volume differs by region; these differences mirror the major production regions in private forestry (see Figure 3 ). FS Region 6 (the Pacific Northwest), Region 8 (the Southeast), and Region 9 (the North), are the three largest producing regions in both private and public forestry. In general, harvest volume and value by region is a function of many complex factors, including the dominant timber type, age class, and condition; the suitability of FS sites for harvest operations; the legal limitations on land uses; and the status of the local forest products industry. The Bureau of Land Management (BLM) administers about 246 million surface acres of federal lands, almost entirely located in twelve western states. As noted, about 37.6 million acres of BLM lands are forest; of that, 16% is considered timberland. The Oregon and California (O&C) lands, which comprise approximately 2.6 million acres, contain 2.4 million acres of forest (see " Statutory Authorities for Harvesting Timber ," below, for a description of the O&C lands). The transfer of the forest reserves to FS administration in the early 1900s reduced the amount of forest land and timberland under BLM management today. The modern BLM was formed in 1946 to manage the public domain lands. At its formation, BLM had no general authority to harvest timber on those lands. Congress authorized BLM to dispose of forest materials through the Materials Act of 1947. Congress later elaborated BLM's management responsibilities with the passage of the Federal Land Policy and Management Act of 1976 (FLPMA). Like the MUSYA's mandate for the FS, FLPMA requires BLM to manage the public lands for multiple use and sustained yield in a "harmonious and coordinated" manner that considers the combination of uses that best meets the needs of the American people, not necessarily yields the largest dollar return or output. The act directs a sustained yield of renewable resources, meaning high-level regular output in perpetuity without impairing the lands' productivity. The O&C lands are lands in western Oregon managed according to their own establishing statutes, mostly by BLM. FS manages 492 thousand acres of the O&C lands, or 18% of this total area. The lands consist of several areas, the Oregon and California lands and the Coos Bay Wagon Road (CBWR) lands, which were revested to the federal government following violation of grant terms. They are usually referred to collectively as "O&C lands" and often grouped for legislative purposes. BLM or FS's mandate to sell timber on the O&C lands derives directly from the O&C lands' establishing statute. The O&C Act directs that O&C lands be managed for sustained yield of permanent forest production, watershed protection, recreation, and contributing to the economic stability of local communities and industries. Congress has directed BLM to engage in long-term land use and resource management planning . Plans set the framework for land management, uses, and protection. They are developed through an interdisciplinary process with opportunit ies for public participation. BLM uses these plans to guide implementation of site-specific activities. In the case of timber, plans describe where timber harvesting may occur and include measures of sustainable timber harvest levels . They are used to guide execution of individual sales , which generate revenues. Congress has specified various uses for these revenues. BLM timber planning and administration follow general BLM land use planning procedures. Through FLPMA, Congress directs BLM to develop, maintain, and revise plans for managing public lands. BLM issued the first regulations to implement the planning requirement in 1979, and subsequently revised them; the current BLM planning rule dates from 2005. Plans must be developed with public participation and in accordance with various other administrative and environmental statutes (e.g., NEPA). Under BLM's planning rule, resource management plans remain in effect indefinitely. They are to include monitoring and evaluation standards, and are to be amended or revised when circumstances warrant. The planning rule directs BLM to identify indicators that describe the desired forest outcomes in the plan area. BLM is to identify a suite of management actions to achieve those outcomes, including identifying sustained yield areas, areas that could support long-term timber harvest. BLM personnel determine a harvest level for these areas that can be maintained without permanent impairment; this harvest level is known as the allowable sale quantity . Allowable sale quantity is measured for a ten-year period. In addition, BLM generally makes annual forest product sale plans. These plans contain estimates of sale volume, acreage, and permitted harvest methods for any sales proposed for the year. Site-specific timber harvests must comport with NEPA and relevant statutes, including any additional requirement for site-specific analysis and review. To conduct an individual sale within the plan, BLM designates the timber for sale and appraises the value of the timber. BLM timber may be designated by physical marking or by enclosing timber in a sale boundary. BLM prepares a sale contract, along with a prospectus describing the sale. The sale is advertised at an appraised starting price. Interested parties may bid on the contract. A contract is awarded to the highest bidder provided legal conditions are met. The winning bidder conducts the timber harvest according to the terms specified in the contract, such as timeline and harvest method. Timber harvests must generally be completed in three years, but may be extended under certain circumstances. Timber sales generate revenues, and disposition of these revenues depends on a number of factors. Congress has established several funds for timber sale revenues. Depending on the type of sale and the originating lands, BLM may be required to make certain deposits to these funds. If any portion of revenues are not required to be deposited, BLM may allocate those revenues among funds at its discretion, including depositing all revenues in a single account. Some funds are permanently appropriated to BLM and may be used without further congressional action (i.e. as mandatory appropriations). See Table A-2 for a list of these funds. A more detailed discussion of funding levels, expenditures, and issues related to BLM timber revenue funds is outside the scope of this report. Timber harvesting is one of many authorized uses of BLM lands. Long-term historical data regarding BLM timber harvesting is unavailable. Other data on past timber program activity show that BLM timber harvesting may have changed over time. This section provides data on timber offered for sale, timber sold, and timber harvested from BLM lands at various points in time, along with some economic and historical factors which may have contributed to observed changes. Data on cut timber volume from BLM lands is available from FY1994 onward (see Figure 4 ). While complete historical cut data is unavailable prior to FY1994, some data exists about past sales (see Table 1 ). The intermittent nature of this data challenges drawing conclusions about larger trends in these periods, especially in the missing decades. In addition, these data refer to either timber sold or timber offered for sale, which differs from volume of timber cut. However, as an approximate comparison, the data show that the volumes sold prior to FY1990 are large compared to recent volumes offered for sale. Observers confirmed a decline in public domain timber offered for sale beginning in 1991, though the investigation did not consider the O&C lands. Volumes harvested from BLM lands were between 100 and 260 MMBF from FY1995 to FY2000 and from FY2004 to FY2018 (see Figure 4 ). Harvests were lower in FY1994 and between FY2001 and FY2003. Harvested volumes have shown a generally increasing trend since FY2001, with the largest recently recorded harvest in FY2015 (about 258 MMBF). Like the NFS, harvests from BLM lands during the recession and housing market collapse of 2008 experienced relatively little change in volume, for unclear reasons. In FY2018, BLM harvested about 178 MMBF. Data on cut timber value from BLM lands is available from FY1996 onward (see Figure 4 ). Total value of harvests has declined since FY1996. Harvest values have generally increased since the low value of approximately $15.4 million in FY2001, and have been between $20 million and $50 million since FY2011 (FY2018 dollars). In FY2018, cut value was $41.3 million. Like the FS, BLM harvest value during the recession and housing market collapse of 2008 declined, but the relative change was small compared to the decreases of the late 1990s. Harvest value may vary due to the quality, species, and age class of offered timber as well as timber market conditions, and is correlated with harvested volume. BLM harvest values per unit of timber are higher than FS values per unit, due to the dominant timber type harvested from BLM lands, among other factors. Most timber harvests on BLM lands are conducted on the O&C lands. From FY2014 to FY2018, the average harvested volume from O&C lands was 93% of the average total volume. The large proportion of volume harvested from O&C lands reflects the forest cover and type, dominant use for forest production, and the size of the forest industry in the Pacific Northwest. As with the NFS, in general, BLM harvest volume and value is a function of many complex factors, including the dominant timber type, age class, and condition; the suitability of sites for harvest operations; legal limitations on land uses; and the status of the local forest products industry. Management of federal lands for multiple uses and sustained yield is challenging, including balancing timber harvesting with other uses. Timber production from federal lands is driven by a complex interaction of environmental factors, market forces, and land management policies. Under current law, efforts to change harvest levels must comport with the provision of a sustained yield of multiple uses. Congress has sometimes considered legislation to prioritize or exclude some uses in a limited manner—in certain geographic regions, for example—but has not changed these fundamental management concepts since their enactment in the 1960s and 1970s. The public often expresses preferences for uses of federal forests, including with respect to timber harvesting. Some may support timber harvesting generally, and believe the current levels of production are sufficient. Others may wish to see the levels of production increased or decreased, depending on their perspective. Those who support timber harvesting on federal lands may cite benefits to the local timber industry, a belief that harvesting is part of the core mission of federal forests, or a belief that timber harvesting is a tool for improving forest health conditions, among other reasons. Proponents of timber harvesting on federal lands may also emphasize the role of timber harvesting in some forest-adjacent rural economies. Others may oppose timber harvesting due to concerns about ecological or human impacts: for example, they may cite beliefs that timber sales have detrimental impacts on environmental quality, fish and wildlife habitat, forest character, recreation and tourism, or cultural and aesthetic values. Opponents may also contend that conducting timber sales favors the timber industry over other interests. In addition to the themes identified above, Congress may also debate other issues related to federal timber harvests that are not discussed in detail in this report. For example, these include issues related to the disposition and use of timber sale revenues; the relationship between timber harvest planning and statutes such as NEPA and the Endangered Species Act (ESA); and special harvest authorities, among others. The following tables list and describe the funds that receive timber sale revenues; the funds' statutory authority is also shown. A detailed discussion of funding levels, expenditures, and issues related to these funds is outside the scope of this report. 
Congress has granted some federal land management agencies the authority to sell timber from federal lands. Two agencies, the Forest Service (FS) and the Bureau of Land Management (BLM), conduct timber sales as an authorized use. Together, the FS and the BLM manage 76% of federal forest area. FS manages 144.9 million acres, while BLM manages 37.6 million acres. The other major federal land management agencies, the National Park Service (NPS) and the Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS), rarely conduct timber sales. Lands managed by the FS, the National Forest System (NFS), are managed under a multiple use-sustained yield model pursuant to the Multiple Use-Sustained Yield Act of 1960 (MUSYA). This statute directs FS to balance multiple uses of their lands and ensure a sustained yield of those uses in perpetuity. Congress, through the National Forest Management Act (NFMA), has directed FS to engage in long-term land use and resource management planning. Plans set the framework for land management, uses, and protection; they are developed through an interdisciplinary process with opportunities for public participation. In the case of timber, they describe where timber harvesting may occur and include measures of sustainable timber harvest levels. FS uses these plans to guide implementation of individual sales, which generate revenue. Congress has specified various uses for this revenue. Timber harvest on FS lands has varied over time. FS harvest volumes in the 1940s were around 1-3 billion board feet per year. Annual harvest volumes rose from the 1950s through the 1980s, sometimes exceeding 10 billion board feet. Annual harvested volumes decreased in the early 1990s and have remained between 1.8 and 2.8 billion board feet since FY2003. The total dollar value of FS timber harvests generally rose from the early 1940s to over $3 billion in FY1979. Total value has been between $100 million and $300 million since FY2001. From FY2014 to FY2018, the greatest average annual harvest volume on FS lands was from Oregon and Washington. BLM lands are managed under a multiple use-sustained yield model pursuant to the Federal Land Policy and Management Act of 1976 (FLPMA). This statute directs BLM to balance multiple uses of their lands and ensure a sustained yield of those uses in perpetuity. Congress has directed BLM to engage in long-term land use and resource management planning through FLPMA. Plans set the framework for land management, uses, and protection; they are developed made through an interdisciplinary process with opportunities for public participation. In the case of timber, they describe where timber harvesting may occur and contain measures of sustainable timber harvest levels. The FS and the BLM use these plans to guide implementation of individual sales, which generate revenue. Congress has specified various uses for this revenue. Although trends in timber activities on BLM lands are challenging to infer from the available data, volumes sold in the past appear to be larger than recent volumes offered for sale. Harvested volumes for the BLM have been between 100 and 260 million board feet annually from FY1995 onward, except in FY1994 and between FY2001-FY2003. Total harvest values have declined since the mid-1990s, and have generally been between $20 million and $50 million annually since FY2011. From FY2014 to FY2018, the greatest average annual harvest volume from BLM lands was from Oregon and Washington. Congress has debated the appropriate balance of timber harvesting and other uses on federal lands. Determining the proportions of these uses, in whole and on individual lands, is challenging for land management agencies. Preferences for certain balances of these uses often stem from values about federal forests' purposes, such as consideration of economic, environmental, or recreational values. Debate has also centered on the relationship of timber harvesting levels to forest health, including whether changing harvest levels is a desirable forest management tool. Congress has granted some federal land management agencies the authority to sell timber from federal lands. Two agencies, the Forest Service (FS) and the Bureau of Land Management (BLM), conduct timber sales as an authorized use. Together, the FS and the BLM manage 76% of federal forest area. FS manages 144.9 million acres, while BLM manages 37.6 million acres. The other major federal land management agencies, the National Park Service (NPS) and the Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS), rarely conduct timber sales. Lands managed by the FS, the National Forest System (NFS), are managed under a multiple use-sustained yield model pursuant to the Multiple Use-Sustained Yield Act of 1960 (MUSYA). This statute directs FS to balance multiple uses of their lands and ensure a sustained yield of those uses in perpetuity. Congress, through the National Forest Management Act (NFMA), has directed FS to engage in long-term land use and resource management planning. Plans set the framework for land management, uses, and protection; they are developed through an interdisciplinary process with opportunities for public participation. In the case of timber, they describe where timber harvesting may occur and include measures of sustainable timber harvest levels. FS uses these plans to guide implementation of individual sales, which generate revenue. Congress has specified various uses for this revenue. Timber harvest on FS lands has varied over time. FS harvest volumes in the 1940s were around 1-3 billion board feet per year. Annual harvest volumes rose from the 1950s through the 1980s, sometimes exceeding 10 billion board feet. Annual harvested volumes decreased in the early 1990s and have remained between 1.8 and 2.8 billion board feet since FY2003. The total dollar value of FS timber harvests generally rose from the early 1940s to over $3 billion in FY1979. Total value has been between $100 million and $300 million since FY2001. From FY2014 to FY2018, the greatest average annual harvest volume on FS lands was from Oregon and Washington. BLM lands are managed under a multiple use-sustained yield model pursuant to the Federal Land Policy and Management Act of 1976 (FLPMA). This statute directs BLM to balance multiple uses of their lands and ensure a sustained yield of those uses in perpetuity. Congress has directed BLM to engage in long-term land use and resource management planning through FLPMA. Plans set the framework for land management, uses, and protection; they are developed made through an interdisciplinary process with opportunities for public participation. In the case of timber, they describe where timber harvesting may occur and contain measures of sustainable timber harvest levels. The FS and the BLM use these plans to guide implementation of individual sales, which generate revenue. Congress has specified various uses for this revenue. Although trends in timber activities on BLM lands are challenging to infer from the available data, volumes sold in the past appear to be larger than recent volumes offered for sale. Harvested volumes for the BLM have been between 100 and 260 million board feet annually from FY1995 onward, except in FY1994 and between FY2001-FY2003. Total harvest values have declined since the mid-1990s, and have generally been between $20 million and $50 million annually since FY2011. From FY2014 to FY2018, the greatest average annual harvest volume from BLM lands was from Oregon and Washington. Congress has debated the appropriate balance of timber harvesting and other uses on federal lands. Determining the proportions of these uses, in whole and on individual lands, is challenging for land management agencies. Preferences for certain balances of these uses often stem from values about federal forests' purposes, such as consideration of economic, environmental, or recreational values. Debate has also centered on the relationship of timber harvesting levels to forest health, including whether changing harvest levels is a desirable forest management tool.