According to the 2015 report ordered by the Secretary of Defense and issued by the Military Justice Review Group, the military justice system is designed to ensure discipline and order in the armed forces, since crimes committed by servicemembers have the potential to destroy the bonds of trust, seriously damage unit cohesion, and compromise military operations. The jurisdiction of the UCMJ extends to all places and applies to all active-duty servicemembers. UCMJ jurisdiction applies to other individuals as well, such as members of the National Guard or reserves who are performing active-duty service; retired members who are entitled to pay or are receiving hospitalization in a military hospital; prisoners of war in custody of the armed forces; persons serving with or accompanying the armed forces in the field in time of declared war or contingency operations, such as contractors; and members of organizations such as the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration and the Public Health Service when assigned to and serving with the armed forces. In creating the military justice system, Congress established three types of military courts, called courts-martial: summary, special, and general. Each of these types respectively is intended to deal with progressively more serious offenses, and each court-martial type may adjudicate more severe maximum punishments as prescribed under the UCMJ. In addition, an accused servicemember can receive nonjudicial punishment under Article 15 of the UCMJ, by which a commander can punish a servicemember without going through the court-martial process. Table 1 provides an overview of nonjudicial punishments and the three different types of courts-martial. The Military Justice Act of 2016 enacted significant reforms to the UCMJ, most of the provisions of which became effective on January 1, 2019. These reforms included changes such as limitations on the types of punishments permitted with nonjudicial punishments, changes to required size of the panel, or jury, and changes to what judicial outcomes are subject to automatic appeal. There are some areas where individual services supplement but remain consistent with the UCMJ. For example, the Air Force provides a right to counsel in certain forums where the services are not required to do so. In addition to the reforms affecting the UCMJ, the Military Justice Act of 2016 also directed changes to military justice data collection and accessibility. Specifically, section 5504 of the Military Justice Act of 2016 directed the Secretary of Defense to prescribe uniform standards and criteria pertaining to case management, data collection, and accessibility of information in the military justice system. As a result, the DOD Office of General Counsel authorized the establishment of the Article 140A Implementation Subcommittee of the Joint Service Committee on Military Justice to, among other things, assess each service’s case management system, recommend what data fields the services should collect, propose uniform definitions for the data fields the services should collect, and recommend standardized methods and data field definitions to improve the collection of data concerning race and ethnicity of individuals involved in the military justice system. The subcommittee conducted a study and submitted its recommendations to the Joint Service Committee Voting Group on July 2, 2018, and the Voting Group submitted a report and its agreed upon recommendations to the DOD Office of General Counsel on August 24, 2018. The Military Justice Act of 2016 provides that the Secretary of Defense was to carry out this mandate by December 23, 2018, and that the Secretary’s decisions shall take effect no later than December 23, 2020. On December 17, 2018, the General Counsel of the Department of Defense issued uniform standards and criteria, which directed that each military justice case processing and management system be capable of collecting uniform data concerning race and ethnicity. From fiscal years 2013 through 2017, more than 258,000 active-duty servicemembers were disciplined for a violation of the UCMJ, out of more than 2.3 million unique active-duty servicemembers who served across all of the military services during this period. Figure 1 shows the number of cases of each type of court-martial and of nonjudicial punishments in each of the military services. There are several steps in the discipline of a servicemember who allegedly commits a crime under the UCMJ, which are summarized in figure 2 below. The military justice process begins once an offense is alleged and an initial report is made, typically to law enforcement, an investigative entity, or the suspect’s chain of command. Policies for initiating criminal investigations by military criminal investigative organizations (MCIO) and procedures for investigating criminal allegations are set forth in DOD and service guidance. At this time, the commanding officer or law enforcement will conduct an inquiry or investigation into the accusations and gather all reasonably available evidence. MCIOs have the authority and independent discretion to assume investigative jurisdiction, and do not require approval from any authority outside of the MCIO to conduct such an investigation—commanders outside of the organization are not to impede or interfere with such decisions or investigations by the MCIO. If an MCIO is involved in the inquiry, the investigative entity is to gather all reasonably available evidence and provide the commanding officer with unbiased findings that reflect impartiality as required by DOD instruction. According to service officials, during the conduct of the criminal investigation, the subject of the investigation has the right to obtain legal counsel at any time. After an investigation, the first step toward initiation of a court-martial is when the accused is presented with a list of charges signed by the accuser under oath, which is called preferral of charges; the accuser who prefers the charges may be anyone subject to the UCMJ. After charges are preferred, the charges are forwarded to an officer with sufficient legal authority to convene a court-martial, also known as the “convening authority.” The convening authority in receipt of preferred charges may, among other actions and depending on the nature of the charges and the level of the convening authority, refer the case to its own court or forward the case to a superior commander for disposition, for example, to a general court-martial convening authority. The general court-martial convening authority would have similar options: to dismiss the charges, refer them to a general or special court-martial, or take some lesser action. Before any case is referred to a general court-martial, the case must proceed through a preliminary hearing under Article 32 of the UCMJ, unless waived by the accused. The Article 32 hearing is presided over by an impartial judge advocate, or another individual with statutory authority, who is appointed by the convening authority and makes a recommendation to the convening authority. We analyzed general and special courts-martial that were preceded by investigations recorded in databases maintained by MCIOs, which we refer to as recorded investigations, and general and special courts-martial that did not have a record within an MCIO database. As shown in figure 3 below, the majority of general and special courts-martial, ranging from 53 percent to 74 percent across the services, had a recorded investigation, while the remaining cases would have been investigated by other sources, such as local civilian law enforcement, command investigations, or in the case of the Air Force, their military law enforcement forces. Once referred to a general or special court-martial, an accused servicemember may be tried by a military judge alone or by a military judge with a military jury, referred to as members of the court-martial. If the accused servicemember is tried by a military jury, the members of the court-martial determine whether the accused is proven guilty and, if the accused requests sentencing by the members, adjudicate a sentence. Otherwise, the military judge adjudicates the sentence. If the accused is tried by a military judge alone, the judge determines guilt and any sentence. In a summary court-martial, a single commissioned officer who is not a military judge adjudicates minor offenses and a sentence. Convictions at the general and special court-martial level are subject to a post-trial process and may be appealed to higher courts in cases where the sentence reaches a certain threshold. For example, depending on the forum and the adjudged sentence, the accused may be entitled to appellate review by the service Court of Criminal Appeals, and may be able to request or waive assignment of appellate defense counsel, or waive appellate review entirely. Depending, again, on forum and sentence, some cases that do not qualify for appellate review will receive review by a judge advocate to, among other things, determine that the court had jurisdiction and that the sentence was lawful. Some cases may then be further reviewed by the Court of Appeals for the Armed Forces, as well as by the U.S. Supreme Court at their discretion, if the case was reviewed by the Court of Appeals for the Armed Forces. The military justice system, like the civilian criminal justice system, provides avenues for accused servicemembers to raise allegations of discrimination, improprieties in investigations, improprieties in disposition, and improprieties in the selection of panel members at the court-martial proceeding, before a military judge and on appellate review. The Military Justice Act of 2016 requires that legal training be provided to all officers, with additional training for commanders with authority to take disciplinary actions under the UCMJ. The Office of Management and Budget (OMB) has established standards for collecting, maintaining, and presenting data on race and ethnicity for all federal reporting purposes. These standards were developed in cooperation with federal agencies to provide consistent data on race and ethnicity throughout the federal government. OMB standards establish the following five categories of race: American Indian or Alaska Native: A person having origins in any of the original peoples of North and South America (including Central America), and who maintains tribal affiliation or community attachment. Asian: A person having origins in any of the original peoples of the Far East, Southeast Asia, or the Indian subcontinent including, for example, Cambodia, China, India, Japan, Korea, Malaysia, Pakistan, the Philippine Islands, Thailand, and Vietnam. Black or African American: A person having origins in any of the black racial groups in Africa. Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander: A person having origins in any of the original peoples of Hawaii, Guam, Samoa, or other Pacific Islands. White: A person having origins in any of the original peoples of Europe, the Middle East, or North Africa. The OMB standards also establish two categories of ethnicity. Hispanic or Latino: A person of Cuban, Mexican, Puerto Rican, South or Central American, or other Spanish culture or origin, regardless of race. Not Hispanic or Latino: A person not having the above attributes. In addition to defining race and ethnicity for federal administrative reporting and record keeping requirements, OMB standards provide two methods for federal agencies to follow regarding the collection of data on race and ethnicity. 1. Separate questions shall be used for collecting information about race and ethnicity wherever feasible. In this case, there are 5 categories of race noted above which individuals can select, and individuals can identify with more than one category of race. In addition to race, individuals can select one of the two ethnicity categories above. 2. If necessary, a single question or combined format can be used to collect information about race and ethnicity, where the following categories are provided for individuals: American Indian or Alaska Native, Asian, Black or African American, Hispanic or Latino, Native Hawaiian or other Pacific Islander, and White. In this instance, individuals can also select more than one category. Information collected on servicemembers’ gender is governed by DOD guidance. DOD Instruction 1336.05 provides that information collected on a servicemember’s gender is based on reproductive function. It provides that there are three options that can be selected when inputting a servicemember’s gender: male, female, or unknown. Racial and gender disparities in the civilian criminal justice system have been the subject of several studies in the past decade. While the civilian and military justice systems differ from each other, we reviewed information about racial and gender disparities in the civilian criminal justice system to enhance our understanding of the complexities of the issues, including how others had attempted to measure disparities. Some studies have assessed the rates at which minority groups are policed. For example, a Department of Justice study of data from the Bureau of Justice Statistics’ 2011 Police-Public Contact survey found that Black drivers were more likely than White or Hispanic drivers to be pulled over in a traffic stop; specifically, the study found that 10 percent of White drivers and 10 percent of Hispanic drivers were pulled over in a traffic stop, compared to 13 percent of Black drivers. This study also found that Black and Hispanic drivers were more likely to be searched once they were pulled over by the police; specifically, the study found that 2 percent of White drivers stopped by police were searched, compared to 6 percent of Black drivers and 7 percent of Hispanic drivers. In addition, U.S. government data shows that racial disparities exist among individuals who are arrested. For example, data from the Federal Bureau of Investigation’s Uniform Crime Reporting Program, which compiles data from law enforcement agencies across the country, indicates that in 2016, Black individuals represented 26.9 percent of total arrests nationwide, but comprised 13.4 percent of the U.S. population according to U.S. census data estimates as of July 1, 2017. This data also shows that 69.6 percent of all arrested individuals were White, while White individuals comprised 76.6 percent of the U.S. population. Studies have also identified racial and gender disparities in civilian justice sentencing. In 2010 and 2017, the U.S. Sentencing Commission reported that Black male offenders received longer sentences than similarly situated White male offenders. Specifically, in 2017, the Commission analyzed federal sentencing data and reported that Black male offenders received sentences that on average were 19.1 percent longer than similarly situated White males for fiscal years 2012 to 2016. This analysis controlled for factors such as type of offense, race, gender, citizenship, age, education level, and criminal history. This study also found that female offenders of all races received shorter sentences than White male offenders. Similarly, the Commission’s 2010 report found that Black offenders received sentences that were 10 percent longer than those imposed on White offenders from December 2007 through September 2009, and male offenders received sentences that were 17.7 percent longer than female offenders, after controlling for the same factors as noted for the 2017 study, among others. Finally, racial and gender disparities have been identified among incarcerated populations. According to data from the Bureau of Justice Statistics, for prisoners with sentences of 1 year or more under the jurisdiction of state or federal correctional officials in 2016, Black males were six times more likely to be imprisoned than White males, and Hispanic males were 2.7 times more likely to be imprisoned than White males. The racial disparities were more pronounced for younger males, where Black males aged 18 to 19 were approximately 11.8 times more likely than White males of the same age to be imprisoned. The Bureau also reported that Black females were imprisoned at approximately twice the rate of White females. We did not assess the methodologies used in any of these studies or the reliability of the data cited in the studies; these studies are discussed here to provide broader context for the discussion about racial and gender disparities in the military justice system. The military services collect and maintain gender information, but they do not collect and maintain consistent information about race and ethnicity in their investigations, military justice, and personnel databases. This limits the military services’ ability to collectively or comparatively assess these demographic data to identify any racial or ethnic disparities in the military justice system within and across the services. The military services use different databases to collect and maintain information for investigations, courts-martial, and nonjudicial punishments. All of the databases collect and maintain gender information, but the Coast Guard’s military justice database does not have the capability to query or report on gender data. While the military services’ databases collect and maintain complete data for race and ethnicity, the information collected and maintained about race and ethnicity is not consistent among the different databases within and across the services. Moreover, the Coast Guard, the Navy, and the Marine Corps do not collect and maintain complete and consistent servicemember identification data, such as social security number or employee identification number, in their respective military justice databases, although DOD leadership recently directed improvements in this area. Finally, the military services do not report data that provides visibility into disparities in the military justice system, and DOD and the services lack guidance about when potential racial, ethnic, or gender disparities should be further reviewed, and what steps should be taken to conduct such a review if needed. Each military service uses a different database to collect and maintain information on investigations and courts-martials, and, in some services, nonjudicial punishments, as shown in figure 4. For three of the military services—the Army, the Navy, and the Coast Guard—the databases listed in figure 4 include information about some, but not all, of their nonjudicial punishment cases. Additionally, the nature of the information collected by each of the services’ databases varies, as noted below. Investigations. The Army collects and maintains information on investigations conducted by the Army Criminal Investigation Command in the Army Law Enforcement Reporting and Tracking System database. According to Army officials, the Office of the Provost Marshal General and the Army Criminal Investigation Command developed this database to replace a 2003 system, the Army Criminal Investigation and Intelligence System, and a significant part of the military police’s 2002 system, the Centralized Operations Police Suite. The officials said that the Army Law Enforcement Reporting and Tracking System has been operational since 2015, and has become the primary case management system for all Army law enforcement professionals. However, Army officials said that cases involving commander-led investigations are unlikely to be recorded in this database. Courts-martial and nonjudicial punishments. The Army uses Military Justice Online and the Army Courts-Martial Information System to collect data on court-martial cases. According to Army officials, Military Justice Online, created in 2008, is a document- generating system that primarily is used by the Army’s judge advocate general corps and promotes uniformity in case processing among the Army’s staff judge advocate offices. Military Justice Online includes information about courts-martial, some nonjudicial punishments, administrative separations, and administrative reprimands of servicemembers. Army officials said that the Army Courts-Martial Information System, which has been used since 1989, serves as the Army trial judiciary’s case tracking system and is used by the Army’s trial judiciary to track court-martial cases. Investigations. The Air Force military criminal investigative organization, the Office of Special Investigations, uses a system called the Investigative Information Management System to collect and maintain information related to investigations. According to Air Force officials, the Investigative Information Management System has been in use since 2001. Courts-martial and nonjudicial punishments. The Air Force uses the Automated Military Justice Analysis and Management System, which is designed to be a case management system to collect comprehensive information for both court-martial cases and nonjudicial punishments. According to Air Force officials, the Automated Military Justice Analysis and Management System has been in use since 1974. Investigations. According to Navy officials, the Navy and Marine Corps’ joint system for maintaining and collecting information related to investigations is the Consolidated Law Enforcement Operations Center, which has been in use since 2004. Navy officials said that this database initially contained information regarding Navy and Marine Corps law enforcement incidents and criminal investigations, but began to include investigations conducted by the Naval Criminal Investigative Service in 2012. Courts-martial. The Navy and the Marine Corps both use the Case Management System to collect and maintain information about military justice matters with involvement by a Navy or Marine Corps legal office, including special and general court-martial cases. This system was initially developed by the Marine Corps to track information about legal services provided by their legal offices. According to Navy and Marine Corps officials, the system has been in use by the Marine Corps since 2010 and by the Navy since 2013. Officials from the Marine Corps said that although the Case Management System has been in use since 2010, the system was not widely used until 2012. Nonjudicial punishments. The Marine Corps Total Force System, the Marine Corps personnel database, collects and maintains information on summary courts-martial and nonjudicial punishments for cases where there was a conviction or punishment. According to Marine Corps officials, this system has been in use since 1995. Navy officials said that their personnel database records information about nonjudicial punishments if the punishment involved a change in pay or grade. The services’ military justice Case Management System includes information on some nonjudicial punishment cases in the Navy and the Marine Corps, which Navy and Marine Corps officials said was for those cases that had involvement by their legal offices. Investigations. The Coast Guard Investigative Service uses the Field Activity Case Tracking System to collect and maintain information on servicemembers investigated for violations of the UCMJ. According to Coast Guard officials, this system has been in use since July 2014. Courts-martial. According to Coast Guard officials, the Coast Guard uses Law Manager to collect and maintain administrative information on court-martial cases. Law Manager has been in use since 2000, but was not used for court-martial data until 2003. Nonjudicial punishments. Coast Guard officials said that their military justice database contains records of nonjudicial punishments if a case involved their legal offices. In addition, according to Coast Guard officials, Direct Access, the Coast Guard’s personnel database, also collects and maintains information about some court-martial cases and nonjudicial punishments if the punishment resulted in a change in rank or pay or an administrative action against the accused servicemember. All of the military services collect and maintain gender information in their investigations, military justice, and personnel databases, but are inconsistent in whether they allow an unknown or unspecified gender, and the Coast Guard’s military justice database does not allow Coast Guard officials to query or report on gender data. Table 2 below summarizes how data regarding the servicemember’s gender is entered into the services’ databases and the number of potential gender options. Each database identifies at least two potential options—male and female—for data related to the servicemember’s gender, while about half of the databases (8 of 15) provide a third option to indicate that the gender is either unknown or not specified. Each of the military services’ investigations, military justice, and personnel databases maintained gender data for almost 100 percent of servicemembers, except we were unable to determine this completion rate for the Coast Guard’s military justice database. We could not determine the completeness of the Coast Guard’s gender data in its military justice database because, as previously noted, its military justice database does not have the capability to query on gender data. Standards for Internal Control in the Federal Government states that management should use quality information and obtain data on a timely basis so they can be used for effective monitoring. However, the Coast Guard does not have visibility over the gender of servicemembers prosecuted for UCMJ violations without merging data from multiple databases, which can be a labor-intensive and time-consuming process. According to Coast Guard officials, information regarding the gender of servicemembers prosecuted for UCMJ violations can be recorded in its military justice database, but gender is not a field that can be searched on or included in the reports they run using information from their military justice database, because of the way the military justice module in the database was designed. Coast Guard officials told us that the military justice database—Law Manager—was designed to determine the status of court-martial cases, and captures attributes that are generated by relevant UCMJ documents. Those official documents do not require the annotation of demographics such as gender, so this information is not used in Law Manager. A Coast Guard official indicated that it would be feasible to modify Law Manager to make it easier to run reports and queries that include gender information. The ability to query and report on the gender of servicemembers in its military justice database would provide the Coast Guard with more readily available data to identify or assess any gender disparities that may exist in the investigation and trial of military justice cases. Each of the military services’ databases collect and maintain complete data for race and ethnicity, but the military services do not collect and maintain consistent information regarding race and ethnicity in their investigations, military justice, and personnel databases. Additionally, the military services have not developed a mechanism to aggregate the data into consistent categories of race and ethnicity to allow for efficient analysis and reporting of consistent demographic data. The number of potential responses for race and ethnicity within the 15 databases across the military services ranges from 5 to 32 options for race and 2 to 25 options for ethnicity, which can complicate cross-service assessments. For example, the Army’s personnel database maintains 6 options for race and 23 options for ethnicity, whereas the Coast Guard’s personnel database maintains 7 options for race and 3 for ethnicity. Table 3 summarizes how the databases used by the military services vary in how the servicemember’s race is entered and the number of potential race options. Table 4 shows that the military services’ databases also vary in how information about servicemembers’ ethnicity is entered into the databases and the number of potential ethnicity options that are collected. Although the data collected and maintained was not consistent within and across the military services, each of the military services’ databases maintained race and ethnicity data for at least 99 percent of the servicemembers, with the exception of the Coast Guard. The Coast Guard does not track information about race or ethnicity in its military justice database. Coast Guard officials stated that this is because Law Manager was designed to determine the status of court-martial cases, and captures attributes that are needed to generate relevant UCMJ documents, such as court pleadings. Demographic information such as race and ethnicity is not included in these official documents, so this information is not input into Law Manager. Further, four of the databases we reviewed—including both of the Army’s military justice databases, and the Navy and the Marine Corps’ military justice databases—collect information on race and ethnicity in a combined data field as shown in table 4, whereas the other databases collect and maintain race and ethnicity information in two separate fields. Standards for Internal Control in the Federal Government states that management should use quality information to achieve the entity’s objectives. Among other things, attributes of this internal control principle call for management to identify information requirements; obtain relevant data from reliable sources that are reasonably free from error; ensure that the data it receives is timely and reliable; and process the data obtained into quality information— information that is appropriate, current, complete, and accurate. In addition, federal internal control standards call for management to design the entity’s information system and related control activities to achieve objectives and respond to risks, thereby enabling information to become available to the entity on a timelier basis. Further, the Military Justice Act of 2016 required the Secretary of Defense to prescribe uniform standards and criteria for various items, including data collection and analysis for case management at all stages of the military justice system, including pretrial, trial, post-trial, and appellate processes, by December 2018. On December 17, 2018, the General Counsel of the Department of Defense issued the uniform standards and criteria required by article 140a of the Military Justice Act of 2016. As part of these uniform standards, the services were directed to collect data related to race and ethnicity in their military justice databases, and to collect racial and ethnic data in separate data fields. The standards provide that the services may have their military justice databases capture expanded ethnic or racial categories; however, for reporting purposes, expanded categories will aggregate to those categories listed in the standards. For race, the services will choose from six designations: (1) American Indian/Alaska Native, (2) Asian, (3) Black or African American, (4) Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander, (5) White, or (6) Other. For ethnicity, the services will choose from two options: (1) Hispanic or Latino, or (2) Not Hispanic or Latino. These categories are consistent with the OMB standards for collecting and presenting such data. The military services are to implement the Secretary’s direction no later than December 23, 2020. However, DOD has applied these newly issued standards only to the military justice databases and not to the investigations and personnel databases. DOD officials stated that the investigations and personnel databases do not fall under the charter of the DOD General Counsel, which issued the standards for the military justice databases. Hence, these uniform standards do not apply to the military services’ investigations and personnel databases. We were able to analyze data across the investigations, military justice, and personnel databases by merging data from these databases, but this took multiple, detailed steps and would not be an efficient approach for routine analyses. Taking steps to develop the capability to present the race and ethnicity data in the military services’ personnel and investigations databases using the same categories included in the December 2018 standards for the military justice databases would allow for more efficient analysis of consistent demographic data. This could be done through either collecting and maintaining race and ethnicity data in the investigations and personnel databases using the December 2018 uniform standards or developing a capability to aggregate the data into the race and ethnicity categories included in the standards. The Navy, the Marine Corps, and the Coast Guard did not collect and maintain complete servicemember identification data, such as social security number or employee identification number, in their military justice or investigations databases; however, DOD recently directed them to do so. In the course of conducting our analysis, in some instances, we could not match personnel records with military justice records because the social security number or employee identification number in the military justice database did not match the information in the personnel database. In other instances, we could not match personnel records with military justice records because the military justice records did not contain a social security number or employee identification number to match with information found in their personnel record. As shown in table 5, we initially were unable to match 5 percent of Navy military justice cases, 12 percent of Marine Corps military justice cases, 18 percent of Coast Guard investigation cases, and 6 percent of Coast Guard military justice cases. On December 17, 2018, the General Counsel of the Department of Defense issued the uniform standards and criteria required by article 140a of the Military Justice Act of 2016. As part of these uniform standards, the services were directed to collect either the social security number or DOD identification number in their military justice databases. The military services are to implement the Secretary’s direction no later than December 23, 2020. Although some military services report demographic information about the subjects of military justice actions internally, the military services do not externally report data that provides visibility into, or would enable an analysis of, the extent of racial, ethnic, or gender disparities in the military justice system. Service officials from all of the military services told us that they compile internal quarterly or monthly staff judge advocate reports, which include the total number of each type of court-martial handled by their legal offices and of nonjudicial punishments. According to service officials, in the Air Force and the Army these reports include demographic information about servicemembers involved in these cases, such as the total number of each type of case broken out by the subject’s race, ethnicity, or gender, but the Navy, Marine Corps, and Coast Guard reports do not include this demographic information, and there is no requirement to do so. Regarding external reporting, the UCMJ directs the Court of Appeals for the Armed Forces, the Judge Advocates General, and the Staff Judge Advocate to the Commandant of the Marine Corps to submit annual reports on the military justice system to the Congressional Armed Services Committees, the Secretary of Defense, the secretaries of the military departments, and the Secretary of Homeland Security. These reports are to include information on the number and status of pending cases handled in the preceding fiscal year, among other information. The annual reports include the total number of cases each service handled for each type of court-martial and for nonjudicial punishments. However, these annual reports do not include demographic information about servicemembers who experienced a military justice action, such as breakdowns by race or gender, because the reporting requirement does not direct the services to include such information. A DOD official expressed concern about expanding the reporting requirement to have public dissemination of race, ethnicity, and gender information due to the potential for misinterpretation, but stated that such reporting requirements for internal use would be beneficial. However, Congress and members of the public have expressed an interest in this information. Standards for Internal Control in the Federal Government state that management should externally communicate the necessary quality information to achieve the entity’s objectives. Furthermore, these standards state that management should use quality information to make informed decisions and evaluate the entity’s performance. According to DOD guidance, the Joint Service Committee on Military Justice, a committee comprised of representatives from each service’s legal office, is responsible for reviewing the Manual for Courts-Martial and the UCMJ on an annual basis. The Joint Service Committee can consider suggested changes to the UCMJ or the Manual for Courts-Martial or its supplementary materials from the services or from the general public. The Joint Service Committee then determines whether to propose any desired amendments to the UCMJ, or the Manual for Courts-Martial or its supplementary materials. If the Joint Service Committee finds that an amendment to either the Manual for Courts-Martial or the UCMJ is required, the committee will provide the General Counsel of DOD with a draft executive order containing the recommended amendments or will forward a legislative proposal to amend the UCMJ. While it is unclear whether the committee has ever considered or proposed an amendment to the UCMJ or Manual for Courts-Martial that would require the external reporting on an annual basis of demographic information about the race, ethnicity, and gender of servicemembers charged with violations of the UCMJ, no such change has been made. Reporting this information would provide servicemembers and the public with greater visibility into potential disparities and help build confidence that DOD is committed to a military justice system that is fair and just. Furthermore, DOD has not issued guidance that establishes criteria to specify when any data indicating possible racial, ethnic, or gender disparities in the investigations, trials, or outcomes of cases in the military justice system should be further reviewed, and to describe what steps should be taken to conduct such a review if it were needed. GAO’s Standards for Internal Control in the Federal Government provides that an agency needs to establish a baseline in order to perform monitoring activities. The baseline helps the agency understand and address deficiencies in its operations. While equal employment opportunity enforcement is a very different context than the military justice system, other federal agencies have developed such criteria in the equal employment opportunity context that can indicate when disparities should be examined further. For example, the Department of Justice, the Department of Labor, the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, and the Office of Personnel Management use a “four-fifths” test to determine when differences between subgroups in the selection rates for hiring, promotion, or other employment decisions are significant. These criteria, though inexact, provide an example of the type of criteria that DOD could consider using as a basis for determining when disparities among racial or gender groups in the military justice process could require further review or analysis. By issuing guidance that establishes criteria for determining when data indicating possible racial and gender disparities in the investigations, trials, or outcomes of cases in the military justice system should be further examined, and describes the steps that should be taken to conduct such further examination, DOD and the services would be better positioned to monitor the military justice system to help ensure that it is fair and just, a key principle of the UCMJ. Racial and gender disparities exist in investigations, disciplinary actions, and punishment of servicemembers in the military justice system, and gender disparities exist in convictions in the Marine Corps. Our analysis of available data from fiscal years 2013 through 2017, which controlled for attributes such as race, gender, rank, education, and years of service, found racial and gender disparities were more likely in actions that first brought servicemembers into the military justice system. Specifically, we found that: Black, Hispanic, and male servicemembers were more likely than White and female servicemembers to be the subjects of recorded investigations in all of the military services, and were more likely to be tried in general and special courts-martial in the Army, the Navy, the Marine Corps, and the Air Force. There were fewer statistically significant racial and gender disparities in most military services in general and special courts-martial that were preceded by a recorded investigation than in general and special courts-martial overall. We also found that statistically significant racial and gender disparities in general and special courts-martial that did not follow a recorded investigation were similar to those we identified for general and special courts-martial overall. Black and male servicemembers were more likely than White and female servicemembers to be tried in summary courts-martial and to be subjects of nonjudicial punishment in the Air Force and the Marine Corps. The Army and the Navy did not maintain complete data, and the Coast Guard had too few summary courts-martial for us to analyze, and did not maintain complete nonjudicial punishment data. We identified fewer statistically significant racial or gender disparities in case outcomes—convictions and punishment severity. Specifically: Race was not a statistically significant factor in the likelihood of conviction in general and special courts-martial in the Army, the Navy, the Marine Corps, and the Air Force, but gender was a statistically significant factor in the Marine Corps. Black servicemembers were less likely to receive a more severe punishment in general and special courts-martial compared to White servicemembers in the Navy but there was no statistically significant difference for Black servicemembers in the Marine Corps, the Army, and the Air Force. Additionally, there were no statistically significant differences for Hispanic servicemembers in the Navy, the Marine Corps, the Army, or the Air Force; and males were more likely than females to receive a more severe punishment in the Marine Corps, the Army, and the Air Force. Finally, DOD and the military services have taken some steps to study racial and gender disparities in the military justice system over the last several decades, but they have not comprehensively studied the extent or causes of any disparities. Black, Hispanic, and male servicemembers were more likely than White or female servicemembers to be the subjects of recorded investigations in all of the military services, after controlling for other attributes, as shown in figure 5. Servicemembers in the Other race category were more likely than White servicemembers to be the subjects of recorded investigations in the Navy, but were less likely in the Army. Our analyses did not identify any statistically significant differences for servicemembers in the Other race category from the Air Force, the Marine Corps, or the Coast Guard. For the Army, the Navy, the Marine Corps, and the Air Force, Black, Hispanic, and male servicemembers were more likely than White and female servicemembers to be tried in general and special courts-martial after controlling for other attributes, as shown in figure 6 below. Servicemembers in the Other race category were more likely than White servicemembers to be tried in general and special courts-martial in the Navy, but we found no statistically significant differences in the likelihood of servicemembers in the Other race category in the Army, the Marine Corps, and the Air Force to be tried in general and special courts-martial compared to White servicemembers. We could not analyze Coast Guard cases due to the small number of general and special courts- martial adjudicated in the Coast Guard from fiscal years 2013 through 2017. When separating general and special court-martial cases into those that either were or were not preceded by an investigation recorded in an MCIO database, we found fewer statistically significant racial and gender disparities in most of the military services in general and special courts- martial that were preceded by a recorded investigation. However, statistically significant racial and gender disparities were also present in general and special courts-martial that did not follow a recorded investigation in all services included in this analysis, which would include cases where the investigation was performed by the servicemember’s command. Specifically, as shown in figure 7 below, we found that Black, Hispanic, Other, and male servicemembers in the Army, Hispanic servicemembers in the Marine Corps, and males in the Air Force were more likely than White or female servicemembers to be tried in general and special courts- martial following a recorded investigation, after controlling for other attributes. We found no statistically significant differences in the likelihood of any other racial or gender groups to be tried in general and special courts-martial following a recorded investigation in any other services. Our analyses of general and special courts-martial with a recorded investigation generally found fewer statistically significant differences compared to the results of our analyses for all special and general courts martial. We also found that Black and male servicemembers in all of the military services were more likely than White and female servicemembers to be tried in general and special courts-martial without a recorded investigation after controlling for other attributes, as shown in figure 8 below. Further, Hispanic servicemembers in the Army were more likely than White servicemembers to be tried in general and special courts-martial without a recorded investigation, but we found no statistically significant differences in the likelihood of Hispanic servicemembers to be tried in general and special courts-martial without a recorded investigation in the Marine Corps, the Navy, or the Air Force. We found no statistically significant differences in the likelihood of servicemembers in the Other race category to be tried in general and special courts-martial compared to White servicemembers in all of the military services. Our findings of racial and gender disparities in general and special courts-martial without a recorded investigation found statistically significant differences for Black and male servicemembers consistent with the differences we identified for general and special courts-martial overall, as shown in figure 6 above. Black and male servicemembers were more likely than White or female servicemembers to be tried in summary courts-martial in the Air Force and the Marine Corps after controlling for other attributes, as shown in figure 9 below. We did not identify any statistically significant differences in summary courts-martial rates for servicemembers who identified as Hispanic or in the Other race category in either the Air Force or the Marine Corps. We could not determine whether there were racial or gender disparities for summary courts-martial in the Army, the Navy, and the Coast Guard due to data limitations. We could not analyze Coast Guard cases due to the small number of summary courts-martial adjudicated in the Coast Guard from 2013 through 2017. We could not determine whether disparities existed among servicemembers tried in summary courts-martial in the Army and the Navy because the Army and the Navy did not collect complete summary courts-martial data in their investigations, military justice, or personnel databases. Specifically, as part of our data reliability checks, we identified the total number of summary courts-martial that the Army and the Navy reported in the Court of Appeals for the Armed Forces annual reports for fiscal years 2013 through 2017, and compared these totals to the number of cases we identified in their military justice databases. While our comparisons are not exact, due to differences in the dates we used to count the number of cases, we found that approximately 60 percent of the Army’s reported summary courts-martial cases and less than 50 percent of the Navy’s reported summary courts-martial cases were included in their military justice databases. Army and Navy officials cited several reasons why complete summary courts-martial information was not collected. First, they said that the services are not required to collect and maintain complete data on summary courts-martial because these cases result in non-criminal convictions under the UCMJ. Summary courts-martial are typically used for minor offenses, and the accused is not guaranteed the right to be represented by a military attorney. As a result, military attorneys may not be involved in summary courts-martial. Army and Navy officials said that if military attorneys are not involved in the case, there is not likely to be a record of the case in their service’s military justice database. In contrast, Air Force officials said that they provide a military attorney to represent the accused in summary courts-martial; as a result, Air Force officials said their attorneys create records for these cases in the Air Force’s military justice database. The Marine Corps does not maintain summary court- martial data in its military justice database but tracks summary courts- martial in its personnel database. Officials in the Navy and the Army told us that the lack of complete summary court-martial data in their military justice databases is also in part because these systems were not designed to serve as repositories for complete military justice data. Instead, the officials said that the military justice databases were primarily created to assist attorneys in generating trial documents, meeting timeframes, and other aspects of case management. Nevertheless, Army officials said they plan to start collecting more complete summary court-martial information. Specifically, Army officials said that the Army is encouraging their judge advocate general staff to create records for all summary courts-martial in the service’s military justice database. The absence of complete summary court-martial data in the military justice databases of the Army and the Navy limits these services’ visibility into any disparities that may exist among servicemembers involved in these types of military justice proceedings. On December 17, 2018, the General Counsel of the Department of Defense issued the uniform standards and criteria required by article 140A of the Military Justice Act of 2016. As part of these uniform standards, the services were directed to collect certain information about all cases in their military justice databases, which a DOD official said includes summary courts-martial cases. The military services are to implement the Secretary’s direction no later than December 23, 2020. Black and male servicemembers were more likely than White or female servicemembers to be subject to nonjudicial punishments in the Air Force and the Marine Corps, after controlling for other attributes, as shown in figure 10 below. In the Air Force, we found that Hispanic servicemembers were more likely than White servicemembers to receive nonjudicial punishments, while we observed no statistically significant differences in nonjudicial punishment rates for Hispanic servicemembers in the Marine Corps. Servicemembers in the Other race category in the Marine Corps were less likely to receive nonjudicial punishments, but we observed no statistically significant differences in nonjudicial punishment rates for servicemembers in the Other race category in the Air Force. However, we could not determine whether there were racial or gender disparities among servicemembers subject to nonjudicial punishments in the Army, the Navy, and the Coast Guard because these services do not collect complete nonjudicial punishment data, such as data on the servicemember’s race, ethnicity, gender, offense, and punishment, in any of their databases. As part of our data reliability checks, we identified the total number of nonjudicial punishments that the Army, the Navy, and the Coast Guard reported in the Court of Appeals for the Armed Forces annual reports for fiscal years 2013 through 2017, and compared these totals to the number of cases we identified in their military justice and personnel databases. As shown in figure 11 below, we found that 65 percent of the Army’s reported nonjudicial punishments, 8 percent of the Navy’s reported nonjudicial punishments, and 82 percent of the Coast Guard’s reported nonjudicial punishments were recorded in their military justice databases. Officials from these services cited several reasons why they did not have complete information about all nonjudicial punishments. First, they said that the services are not required to track nonjudicial punishment cases because they are non-criminal punishments that are typically imposed for less serious offenses. Army and Navy officials noted that complete records of these punishments are not recorded at least in part because nonjudicial punishments are not meant to follow servicemembers throughout their career, but instead are intended to incentivize servicemembers to correct their behavior. Because nonjudicial punishments are not criminal punishments, the process afforded to servicemembers in nonjudicial punishment proceedings differs as well. For example, the servicemember is not guaranteed the right to representation by a military attorney. Army and Navy officials noted that their military justice databases contain records of nonjudicial punishments if there was legal involvement by the Judge Advocate General’s Corps in the case. Similarly, Coast Guard officials said that their military justice database contains records of nonjudicial punishment if a case originated as a criminal case involving a judge advocate, for example, if charges were preferred. According to Air Force and Marine Corps officials, the Air Force maintains complete nonjudicial punishment data in its military justice database, and the Marine Corps maintains complete nonjudicial punishment data in its personnel database. Standards for Internal Control in the Federal Government state that management should use quality information to achieve an entity’s objectives. Additionally, management should identify information requirements; ensure that the data it receives are timely and reliable; and process the data obtained into quality information. Officials from the Army, the Navy, and the Coast Guard expressed concerns regarding the feasibility of collecting and maintaining information about all nonjudicial punishments. Army officials stated that the collection and maintenance of all nonjudicial punishment data would be a substantial administrative burden due to the number of nonjudicial punishments awarded to servicemembers every week. Navy officials also stated that it would be a significant challenge to collect and maintain information about all nonjudicial punishments in either the Navy’s military justice database or its personnel database. They stated that there are few individuals who have access and can input data into the military justice database, and to expand the scope of criminal justice data collected in that manner, more people would have to be hired or assigned to assist with data entry. Similarly, Coast Guard officials said that tracking all nonjudicial punishment cases would be a difficult addition to their current data collection and maintenance workload. Coast Guard officials further stated that in addition to providing commanders with an essential means of providing good order and discipline, nonjudicial punishment also may promote positive change. Some Coast Guard officials stated concerns that recording all nonjudicial punishments in a database may inhibit the rehabilitative component of nonjudicial punishment. While the Army, Navy, and Coast Guard officials expressed these concerns, none of these military services had formally assessed the feasibility of collecting data on nonjudicial punishments. The absence of complete nonjudicial punishment data limits the military services’ visibility into the vast majority of legal punishments imposed on servicemembers under the UCMJ every year. Without such data, these three services will remain limited in their ability to assess or identify disparities among populations subject to this type of punishment. Among the servicemembers convicted in general and special courts- martials, we found no statistically significant differences regarding the likelihood of conviction among racial groups in the Army, the Navy, the Marine Corps, and the Air Force, while controlling for other attributes, as shown in figure 12 below. In the Marine Corps, male servicemembers were more likely to be convicted compared to female servicemembers. We found no statistically significant differences in the likelihood of convictions between males and females in the Army, the Air Force, and the Navy. In the military services that maintained complete punishment data—the Army, the Navy, the Marine Corps, and the Air Force—we found that minority servicemembers were either less likely to receive a more severe punishment in general and special courts-martial compared to White servicemembers, or there were no statistically significant differences in punishments among racial groups. Our findings regarding gender varied among the services. Male servicemembers were more likely to receive a more severe punishment compared to females in the Marine Corps, the Army, and the Air Force; for the Navy, we found there were no statistically significant differences in punishments between males and females. Navy and Marine Corps: Among servicemembers that were convicted in general and special courts-martial in the Marine Corps, we found no statistically significant differences regarding minority servicemembers being more likely or less likely to receive a dismissal or discharge punishment versus some other punishment, while controlling for other attributes, as shown in figure 13 below. In the Navy, among servicemembers that were convicted in general and special courts- martial, Black servicemembers were less likely than White servicemembers to receive a discharge or dismissal. We found no statistically significant differences regarding Hispanic servicemembers or those of Other races in the Navy. In the Marine Corps, among servicemembers that were convicted in general and special courts-martial, male servicemembers were more likely than female servicemembers to receive a discharge or dismissal. In the Navy, there were no statistically significant differences in punishments between males and females. Army and Air Force: We found no statistically significant differences regarding Black or Hispanic servicemembers being more likely or less likely to receive a more severe punishment in the Air Force or the Army, while controlling for other attributes, as shown in figure 14 below. We also found that servicemembers in the Other race group were less likely to receive a more severe punishment compared to White servicemembers in the Army, but punishment results for servicemembers in the Other race group in the Air Force were not statistically significant. Additionally, we found that male servicemembers were more likely to receive a more severe punishment compared to female servicemembers in the Army and the Air Force. We could not determine disparities in case outcomes—convictions and punishment severity—in the Coast Guard’s general and special courts- martial for fiscal years 2013 through 2017 because the Coast Guard did not collect and maintain complete conviction and punishment data in its military justice database. Specifically, 16 percent of all Coast Guard cases were missing conviction and punishment data. When broken down by court-martial type, 20 percent of general court-martial cases, 15 percent of special court-martial cases, and 4 percent of summary court- martial cases were missing conviction and punishment data. Coast Guard officials acknowledged that incomplete conviction and punishment data entry is a consistent problem. They said that data entry had improved recently. On December 17, 2018, the General Counsel of the Department of Defense issued the uniform standards and criteria required by article 140a of the Military Justice Act of 2016. As part of these uniform standards, the services were directed to collect information about the findings for each offense charged, and the sentence or punishment imposed. The military services are to implement the Secretary’s direction no later than December 23, 2020. DOD and the military services have conducted some assessments of disparities in the military justice system. We previously reported in 1995 on DOD studies on discrimination and equal opportunity, and found DOD and the services conducted seven reviews of racial disparities in discipline rates between 1974 and 1993. Since our 1995 report through 2016, DOD and service assessments of military justice disparities have been limited. Officials in the Office of Diversity, Equity and Inclusion (ODEI) noted DOD has not conducted any department-wide assessments of racial or gender disparities in military justice during this period. The military services’ diversity offices also were not able to identify any service-specific reviews of disparities in military justice. However, the military services have some initiatives to examine and address disparities in military justice. For example, Air Force officials said that in May 2016, the Air Force conducted a servicewide data call to solicit information about cases involving a challenge to a member of a court-martial based on race or a motion for selective prosecution. The officials said that a thorough review revealed no evidence of selective prosecution in Air Force courts-martial. In addition, the Air Force has conducted analyses of its own military justice data. Specifically, the Air Force routinely analyzes military justice data using a rates-per-thousand analysis to identify whether certain demographic groups are tried by court-martial or subject to nonjudicial punishments at higher rates than others. These Air Force analyses found that Black and male servicemembers were more likely than White and female servicemembers to be subject to courts-martial and nonjudicial punishments from fiscal years 2013 through 2017, which is consistent with what we found. However, the other services do not routinely conduct such analyses. Moreover, DOD has conducted climate surveys to address servicemembers’ perceptions of bias. In 2013, for example, DOD conducted service-wide equal opportunity surveys that queried servicemembers on whether they believed they received nonjudicial punishment or a court martial they should not have, and whether they believed their race or ethnicity was a factor. The survey responses showed that 1.3 percent of servicemembers indicated experiencing a perceived undue punishment, a result that was unchanged from the 2009 survey. Minority members were more likely to indicate experiencing perceived undue punishment than White members, but there were no significant differences between racial or ethnic groups who indicated experiencing undue punishment. ODEI officials told us that their office did not make any recommendations related to military justice as a result of these 2013 survey results because the findings were too small to warrant such steps. Moreover, ODEI officials said that while they have not completed their analysis of the 2017 survey data, the question about receiving nonjudicial punishment or court-martial had been removed from the 2017 survey. ODEI officials explained that the question was removed because the perception of unfair punishment was not the goal of the survey, although they said that the question could be reinstated for future surveys if the goals for the survey change. In June 2017, ODEI initiated a review of the military justice system following the publication of a report by a non-profit organization that found racial disparities in military justice actions. According to ODEI officials, their review assesses disparities in the military justice system using a similar analysis to that in the non-profit organization’s report, which analyzed rates of military justice actions per thousand servicemembers. ODEI officials told us they also observed racial and gender disparities among servicemembers involved in the military justice system in their own analysis of the service data. The officials said that the report on the results of their review will not directly address the issue of whether bias exists in the military justice process or the causes of any disparities, but will serve as a precursor to a future research study that looks more comprehensively into the issue of whether bias exists in the military justice system. ODEI officials said that their report should be issued in 2019. Standards for Internal Control in the Federal Government state that management uses quality information to make informed decisions and evaluate the entity’s performance in achieving key objectives and addressing risks. The standards further provide that management should evaluate issues identified through monitoring activities and determine appropriate corrective actions. Officials from DOD and the military services acknowledged that they do not know the cause of the racial and gender disparities that have been identified in the military justice system. This is because they have not conducted a comprehensive evaluation to identify potential causes of these disparities and make recommendations about any appropriate corrective actions to remediate the cause(s) of the disparities. By conducting a comprehensive analysis into the causes of disparities in the military justice system, DOD and the military services would be better positioned to identify actions to address disparities, and thus help ensure that the military justice system is fair and just, a key principle of the UCMJ. The single overarching principle of the UCMJ is that a system of military law can foster a highly disciplined force if it is fair and just, and is recognized as such by both members of the armed forces and by the American public. DOD and the military services collect and maintain data on the race, ethnicity, and gender of all servicemembers. However, these data vary within and across the services, limiting the ability to collectively or comparatively assess military justice data to identify any disparities. DOD has recently taken steps to address this issue by directing the military services to, no later than December 23, 2020: collect uniform race and ethnicity data in their military justice databases, or aggregate any expanded ethnic or racial categories to the categories listed in the standards; collect either the social security number or DOD identification number in their military justice databases; and collect complete summary courts-martial information. It will be important for the military services to complete these actions to allow for efficient analysis and reporting of consistent military justice data. However, the newly issued standards apply only to the military justice databases and not to the investigations and personnel databases. The ability to query and report on the gender of servicemembers in its military justice database would provide the Coast Guard with more readily available data to identify or assess any gender disparities that may exist in the investigation and trial of military justice cases without merging data from multiple databases. Moreover, taking steps to develop the capability to present the race and ethnicity data from the military services’ personnel and investigations databases using the same categories included in the December 2018 standards for the military justice databases would enable DOD and the military services to more easily and efficiently assess the extent to which there are any racial or ethnic disparities throughout the military justice process. Further, DOD’s annual reports about the number and status of pending military justice cases do not include demographic information, such as breakdowns by race or gender, about servicemembers who experienced a military justice action. Reporting this information would provide servicemembers and the public with greater visibility into potential disparities and help build confidence that DOD is committed to a military justice system that is fair and just. Moreover, DOD does not have guidance that establishes criteria to determine when data indicating possible disparities among racial, ethnic, or gender groups in the investigations, trials, or outcomes of cases in the military justice system should be further reviewed, or describes the steps that should be taken to conduct such further review. By establishing such criteria, DOD and the services would be better positioned to monitor the military justice system to help ensure that it is fair and just, a key principle of the UCMJ. Our analysis of available data identified racial and gender disparities in all of the military services for servicemembers with recorded investigations, and for four of the military services for trials in special and general courts- martial, but these disparities generally were not present in the convictions or punishments of cases. These findings suggest disparities may be limited to particular stages of the military justice process for the period covered by our analysis. However, we were unable to determine whether there were disparities among servicemembers subject to nonjudicial punishments in the Army, the Navy, and the Coast Guard because these services do not collect complete nonjudicial punishment data, such as data on the servicemember’s race, ethnicity, gender, offense, and punishment for all nonjudicial punishments, in any of their databases. The absence of complete nonjudicial punishment data in the Army, the Navy, and the Coast Guard limits their visibility into the vast majority of legal punishments imposed on servicemembers under the UCMJ every year. Without such data, these three services will remain limited in their ability to assess or identify disparities among populations subject to this type of punishment. Finally, DOD recently conducted a study of racial and gender disparities in the military justice system, and expects to complete its report in 2019. However, this study will not assess the causes of the racial and gender disparities identified in the military justice system. Our findings of racial and gender disparities, taken alone, do not establish whether unlawful discrimination has occurred, as that is a legal determination that would involve other corroborating information along with supporting statistics. By conducting a comprehensive evaluation of the causes of these disparities, DOD and the military services would be better positioned to identify actions to address disparities, and thus help ensure that the military justice system is fair and just, a key principle of the UCMJ. We are making a total of 11 recommendations, including 3 to the Secretary of Homeland Security, 3 to the Secretary of Defense, 2 to the Secretary of the Army, 2 to the Secretary of the Navy, and 1 to the Secretary of the Air Force. The Secretary of Homeland Security should ensure that the Commandant of the Coast Guard modifies the Coast Guard’s military justice database so that it can query and report on gender information. (Recommendation 1) The Secretary of the Army should develop the capability to present servicemembers’ race and ethnicity data in its investigations and personnel databases using the same categories of race and ethnicity established in the December 2018 uniform standards for the military justice databases, either by (1) modifying the Army’s investigations and personnel databases to collect and maintain the data in accordance with the uniform standards, (2) developing the capability to aggregate the data into the race and ethnicity categories included in the uniform standards, or (3) implementing another method identified by the Army. (Recommendation 2) The Secretary of the Air Force should develop the capability to present servicemembers’ race and ethnicity data in its investigations and personnel databases using the same categories of race and ethnicity established in the December 2018 uniform standards for the military justice databases, either by (1) modifying the Air Force’s investigations and personnel databases to collect and maintain the data in accordance with the uniform standards, (2) developing the capability to aggregate the data into the race and ethnicity categories included in the uniform standards, or (3) implementing another method identified by the Air Force. (Recommendation 3) The Secretary of the Navy should develop the capability to present servicemembers’ race and ethnicity data in its investigations and personnel databases using the same categories of race and ethnicity established in the December 2018 uniform standards for the military justice databases, either by (1) modifying the Navy’s investigations and personnel databases to collect and maintain the data in accordance with the uniform standards, (2) developing the capability to aggregate the data into the race and ethnicity categories included in the uniform standards, or (3) implementing another method identified by the Navy. (Recommendation 4) The Secretary of Homeland Security should ensure that the Commandant of the Coast Guard develops the capability to present servicemembers’ race and ethnicity data in its investigations and personnel databases using the same categories of race and ethnicity established in the December 2018 uniform standards for the military justice databases, either by (1) modifying the Coast Guard’s investigations and personnel databases to collect and maintain the data in accordance with the uniform standards, (2) developing the capability to aggregate the data into the race and ethnicity categories included in the uniform standards, or (3) implementing another method identified by the Coast Guard. (Recommendation 5) The Secretary of Defense should ensure that the Joint Service Committee on Military Justice, in its annual review of the UCMJ, considers an amendment to the UCMJ’s annual military justice reporting requirements to require the military services to include demographic information, including race, ethnicity, and gender, for all types of courts-martial. (Recommendation 6) The Secretary of Defense, in collaboration with the Secretaries of the military services and the Secretary of Homeland Security, should issue guidance that establishes criteria to specify when data indicating possible racial, ethnic, or gender disparities in the military justice process should be further reviewed, and that describes the steps that should be taken to conduct such a review. (Recommendation 7) The Secretary of the Army should consider the feasibility, to include the benefits and drawbacks, of collecting and maintaining complete information for all nonjudicial punishment cases in one of the Army’s databases, such as information on the servicemembers’ race, ethnicity, gender, offense, and punishment imposed. (Recommendation 8) The Secretary of the Navy should consider the feasibility, to include the benefits and drawbacks, of collecting and maintaining complete information for all nonjudicial punishment cases in one of the Navy’s databases, such as information on the servicemembers’ race, ethnicity, gender, offense, and punishment imposed. (Recommendation 9) The Secretary of Homeland Security should ensure that the Commandant of the Coast Guard considers the feasibility, to include the benefits and drawbacks, of collecting and maintaining complete information for all nonjudicial punishment cases in one of the Coast Guard’s databases, such as information on the servicemembers’ race, ethnicity, gender, offense, and punishment imposed. (Recommendation 10) The Secretary of Defense, in collaboration with the Secretaries of the military services and the Secretary of Homeland Security, should conduct an evaluation to identify the causes of any disparities in the military justice system, and take steps to address the causes of these disparities as appropriate. (Recommendation 11) We provided a draft of this report to DOD and the Department of Homeland Security for review and comment. Written comments from DOD and the Department of Homeland Security are reprinted in their entirety in appendixes X and XI, respectively. DOD and the Department of Homeland Security provided additional technical comments, which we incorporated in the report, as appropriate. In written comments, DOD concurred with six recommendations, and partially concurred with two recommendations that were directed to the Secretary of Defense. The Department of Homeland Security concurred with the three recommendations directed to the Secretary of Homeland Security. DOD concurred with our six recommendations to present servicemembers’ race and ethnicity data in each of the military services’ respective investigations and personnel databases using the same categories of race and ethnicity established for their military justice databases; consider an amendment to the UCMJ’s annual military justice reporting requirements to require the military services to include demographic information for all types of courts-martial; and consider the feasibility of collecting and maintaining complete information for all nonjudicial punishment cases. DOD partially concurred with two of our recommendations, agreeing with the content, but requesting that we modify the recommendations to direct them to more appropriate entities. Specifically, DOD concurred with our recommendations that guidance should be issued to establish criteria specifying when data indicating possible racial, ethnic, or gender disparities require further review and the steps that will be taken to conduct the review; and to conduct an evaluation to identify the causes of any racial or gender disparities in the military justice system and, if necessary, take remedial steps to address the causes of these disparities. For both recommendations, DOD suggested that the Secretary of Homeland Security be added, and that we remove the DOD Office for Diversity, Equity and Inclusion and the Commandant of the Coast Guard, as they fall under the Secretary of Defense and the Secretary of Homeland Security, respectively. We agree with DOD’s suggestions, and we have modified both recommendations accordingly. In an email correspondence, the Department of Homeland Security and the Coast Guard concurred with the updates. In its written comments, the Department of Homeland Security concurred with our three recommendations to modify the Coast Guard’s military justice database so that it can query and report on gender information, to present servicemembers’ race and ethnicity data in its investigations and personnel databases using the same categories of race and ethnicity established for the military justice database, and to consider the feasibility of collecting and maintaining complete information for all nonjudicial punishment cases. We are sending copies of this report to the appropriate congressional committees, the Acting Secretary of Defense, and the Acting Secretary of Homeland Security. In addition, this report will also be available at no charge on the GAO website at http://www.gao.gov. If you or your members of your staff have any questions regarding this report, please contact me at (202) 512-3604 or farrellb@gao.gov. Contact points for our Offices of Congressional Relations and Public Affairs may be found on the last page of this report. GAO staff who made significant contributions to this report are listed in Appendix XII. The objectives of this report were to assess the extent to which (1) the military services collect and maintain information about the race, ethnicity, and gender of servicemembers investigated and disciplined for violations of the Uniform Code of Military Justice (UCMJ) that can be used to assess disparities; and (2) there are racial and gender disparities in investigations, disciplinary actions, and case outcomes in the military justice system, and whether the Department of Defense (DOD) and the military services have taken steps to study any identified disparities. To address both of our objectives, we analyzed data collection, data maintenance, and military justice disciplinary actions involving active-duty servicemembers in the Army, the Navy, the Marine Corps, the Air Force, and the Coast Guard. Although the Coast Guard is part of the Department of Homeland Security, the Coast Guard is a military service and a branch of the armed forces at all times. We analyzed military justice actions initiated and recorded in service investigations and military justice databases between fiscal years 2013 through 2017. We chose this time period because it provided the most recent history of available military justice data at the time of our review. We requested record-level data from each of the military services’ personnel, investigations, and military justice databases, which resulted in a total of 15 data requests. Table 6 below provides an overview of the databases included in our review, broken out by database type. We sent individual data requests that were tailored based on our conversations with service officials and our own analysis of the availability of data. In addition to requesting the race, ethnicity, and gender of servicemembers subject to military justice actions, we also requested other demographic and administrative attribute data—such as rank, age, years of service, duty station, and occupation—from the services’ personnel databases to include in our statistical models. We identified these attributes by reviewing relevant literature and interviewing agency officials. Personnel databases. We requested and received monthly snapshots with record-level data on all active-duty servicemembers in each of the military services from fiscal years 2013 through 2017. Specifically, we requested demographic and administrative data, including race, ethnicity, gender, rank, education, age or date of birth, years of service, occupation, location or duty station, deployed status, administrative or disciplinary actions and dates, character of service separation, and servicemembers’ unique identifiers (social security number and employee identification number). Investigations databases. We requested and received record-level data on all investigations recorded in a military service military criminal investigative organization (MCIO) database that were initiated from fiscal years 2013 through 2017, where the subject of the investigation was an active-duty servicemember. For each case, we requested certain attribute data on the investigation subject, including race, ethnicity, gender, rank, age or date of birth, service and component, offense(s) investigated, case initiation date, investigation source, investigating entity, investigation outcome and date, incident location, and the subject’s unique identifier, such as social security number or employee identification number. In some services not all of these attributes were available or requested. For example, since the Air Force database only included investigations conducted by the Air Force Office of Special Investigations, we did not request information about the investigating entity. In addition, the Navy Criminal Investigative Service provided us with data about and we analyzed closed cases only, whereas the Army and the Air Force MCIOs provided us with data about and we analyzed all cases in their database during the period of our review. Military justice databases. We requested and received record-level data on all cases where a servicemember was subject to disciplinary proceedings under the Uniform Code of Military Justice (UCMJ) from fiscal years 2013 through 2017. For each case where charges were preferred against a servicemember during this period, we requested demographic and administrative data on the servicemember as well as key information related to their case, including race, ethnicity, gender, rank, age or date of birth, component, case type and forum, offense(s) charged, case disposition and date, appeals status, case outcome or sentence, disciplinary action taken, date charges were first preferred, and the servicemember’s unique identifier, such as social security number or employee identification number. We received general and special courts- martial data from all of the services from their military justice databases. For the Army, in addition to data from their military justice database, Military Justice Online, we also received courts-martial data from a separate database, called the Army Court-Martial Information System (ACMIS), which is used by the service’s trial judiciary to track courts- martial. For summary courts-martial and nonjudicial punishments, the services varied in the extent that and the location where they collected and maintained complete data for these two military justice actions, as is discussed further earlier in this report. In the Air Force, summary courts-martial and nonjudicial punishment data is maintained in the service’s military justice database, the Automated Military Justice Analysis and Management System. The Marine Corps did not collect and maintain complete data about summary courts-martial or nonjudicial punishments in its military justice database, however, its personnel database included information about all summary courts-martial and nonjudicial punishments imposed on servicemembers during the period of our review. The Army and the Navy did not collect and maintain complete data about summary courts-martial or nonjudicial punishments in their military justice databases, or other databases. In these services, summary courts-martial and nonjudicial punishments were recorded in their military justice databases if these actions had involvement by the services’ legal offices. Further, summary courts-martial and nonjudicial punishments were recorded in the personnel databases used by these services only if these actions resulted in an administrative action against the accused, such as a forfeiture of pay or reduction in grade. The Coast Guard did not collect and maintain complete data about nonjudicial punishments in its military justice database or other databases; nonjudicial punishments were recorded in its military justice database if a legal office was involved in the action. Further, nonjudicial punishments were recorded in the Coast Guard’s personnel database if they resulted in an administrative action against the accused, such as a forfeiture of pay or reduction in grade. To evaluate the extent to which the military services collect and maintain race, ethnicity, and gender data about servicemembers investigated and disciplined for violations of the UCMJ, we first reviewed service guidance, user manuals, and other documents related to the services’ investigations, military justice, and personnel databases. We reviewed these documents to determine: the types of data officials are required to collect and maintain; and the internal procedures the services follow in inputting information about race, ethnicity, and gender data into each type of database. For example, we determined whether collection of this information was mandatory, and how this information was entered into and recorded in each database. Specifically, we determined whether information about race, ethnicity, and gender was entered into each database manually, using a drop-down menu, or was auto-populated from another database. Further, we identified the number of possible response options that each database contained for each of these demographic fields. Second, we interviewed service officials who manage and use the military justice, investigations, and personnel databases to discuss: which fields in each database track the race, ethnicity, and gender of how these data are input and their insights regarding the reliability of these data. Specifically, we interviewed officials from the legal branches of the military services, including the Army Office of the Judge Advocate General, the Navy Judge Advocate General’s Corps, the Marine Corps’ Judge Advocate Division, the Air Force Judge Advocate General’s Corps, and the Coast Guard Office of the Judge Advocate General. In addition, we spoke with officials in the military criminal investigative organizations (MCIO), including the Army Criminal Investigation Command, the Naval Criminal Investigative Service, the Air Force Office of Special Investigations, and the Coast Guard Investigative Service. We also interviewed officials from the manpower and personnel offices of the services with responsibility for the services’ personnel databases, including the Army’s Human Resources Command and the Office of the Deputy Chief of Staff; the Navy’s Personnel Command; the Marine Corps Manpower and Reserve Affairs Manpower Information Systems Branch; the Air Force Personnel Center; and the Coast Guard’s Personnel Service Center. Finally, we analyzed the data we received from the investigations, military justice, and personnel databases to determine the completeness of the race, ethnicity, and gender information that was recorded in each of the databases. We assessed the military services’ systems and procedures for collecting data against DOD and service guidance and relevant federal internal control standards. To evaluate the extent to which there are racial, ethnic, and gender disparities in investigations, disciplinary actions, and case outcomes, we analyzed data from the military services’ investigations, military justice, and personnel databases to determine summary statistics and we then conducted bivariate and multivariate regression analyses. Investigations. We focused on alleged violations of the UCMJ that were recorded in databases used by service-specific MCIOs. Investigations are recorded in the MCIO databases when a servicemember is the subject of a criminal allegation made by another person; for purposes of this report, we say the servicemember had a “recorded investigation” to describe these cases. We analyzed investigation information from the databases used by each of the military services’ MCIOs. Specifically, we analyzed data from the Army’s Criminal Investigation Command, which included cases investigated by military police and Criminal Investigation Command; the Navy and Marine Corps’ Naval Criminal Investigative Service, which included cases investigated by the Naval Criminal Investigative Service and military police; the Air Force’s Office of Special Investigations, which included only Office of Special Investigations cases; and the Coast Guard Investigative Service, which included only Coast Guard Investigative Service cases. Our analysis of recorded investigations data did not include investigations conducted by a servicemember’s command, because those investigations are not recorded in the MCIO databases. Military Justice Discipline. We included in our definition of servicemembers disciplined for a violation of the UCMJ those servicemembers with cases that resulted in a trial in any type of court- martial (general, special, and summary), or servicemembers who were subject to a nonjudicial punishment from fiscal years 2013 through 2017. We analyzed data for trials in general and special courts-martial separately from trials in summary courts-martial because general and special courts-martial result in a criminal conviction if the servicemember is found guilty, while summary courts-martial are not a criminal forum and do not result in a criminal conviction. We analyzed general and special courts-martial cases together due to the small number of cases for some racial or gender groups. In addition, we also separated general and special courts-martial into cases that either were or were not preceded by an investigation recorded in an MCIO database. Our analysis of general and special courts-martial cases without a recorded investigation included those general and special courts-martial that were investigated by a servicemember’s command or other law enforcement entities. We used the preferral date, or the date when an accused servicemember was first charged with a violation, to count the number of courts-martial that occurred in a given fiscal year. However, each military service uses the date in which the court-martial judgment was given when reporting the number of each type of court-martial in their annual reports to the Court of Appeals for the Armed Forces. As a result, the number of court-martial cases in a given year analyzed for our review differs from what was reported in the annual reports. In discussions with officials after we had completed our preliminary analyses, they recommended that we use the referral date instead of the preferral date, so that our total number of cases would be more consistent with the number of cases that they reported. However, changing the date for grouping cases would have required us to request new military justice data from each of the military services, and conduct additional work. Above all, using the preferral date would not impact the findings of racial and gender disparities. In addition, our analyses only counted cases that were ultimately tried at general, special, or summary courts-martial, and excluded those cases where charges were dismissed, withdrawn, or subject to some alternate resolution. For nonjudicial punishments, we used the date that the punishment was imposed. To prepare the data for our analyses and ensure that we had consistent profiles for the race, ethnicity, and gender of the servicemembers, we merged records from the military services’ investigations, military justice, and personnel databases. We merged records using servicemembers’ unique identifiers, such as social security number or employee identification number, that were common among a particular service’s databases. In some instances—a small proportion of cases—we could not match personnel records with military justice records because the social security number or employee identification number in the military justice database did not match the information in the personnel database. In other instances, we could not match personnel records with military justice records because the military justice records did not contain a social security number or employee identification number to match with information found in their personnel record. We first tried to match these cases using the servicemembers’ name and date of birth; however, in some cases we were unable to match personnel records with investigations or military justice cases. As a result, we compiled lists of those cases we were unable to match, and we provided the services with lists of these cases. Service officials manually looked up this data and provided us with the missing social security numbers or employee identification numbers for these cases so that we could complete our analyses. These manual look up efforts increased our match rates so that we had a data set that we determined was sufficiently complete to perform our analyses. For servicemembers who were the subjects of military justice actions, we used the attribute data that was available in the personnel database at the time an investigation or disciplinary action was initiated (the preferral date for courts-martial). For our total service populations, which included servicemembers who were not the subject of a military justice action, we used their attribute data from the “median” snapshot of the five fiscal years of personnel data we received. Based on discussions with service officials, we treated the personnel databases as the authoritative sources for servicemembers’ demographic and administrative data. For some services when needed, if we identified a discrepancy in the race or gender value for a servicemember between the data in the personnel and military justice databases, we used the value recorded in the personnel database because service officials had told us that the personnel databases were the official sources for demographic data such as race and gender, and would be more likely to contain more reliable data for these fields than the investigations or military justice databases. For some services where there were cases where an attribute value was missing in the personnel database, we used the military justice or investigative database as a secondary source for this information. In merging the records from the personnel, military justice, and investigations databases, we created a single data file for each service that contained attribute data for all active-duty servicemembers, as well as complete information on the investigation and discipline of servicemembers who were the subject of a military justice action from fiscal years 2013 through 2017. In using this methodology to merge the records, the total number of servicemembers we use in our report when discussing the total service populations for each service is greater than the total active-duty force end strength of that service in any given fiscal year. This is because our total service populations represent the number of unique individuals who served on active duty from fiscal years 2013 through 2017. In addition, as part of our data preparation, we consolidated the various race and ethnicity values in the service personnel databases to the five groups for race and the two groups for ethnicity established by Office of Management and Budget (OMB) standards for maintaining, collecting, and presenting data on race and ethnicity for all federal reporting purposes. The five race groups in the standards are American Indian or Alaska Native; Asian; Black or African American; Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander; and White. The two ethnic groups are Hispanic or Latino and Not Hispanic or Latino. First, we collapsed race and ethnicity data into a single combined field. Specifically, we grouped individuals of Hispanic ethnicity together, regardless of their racial identification, so that we could compare those of Hispanic ethnicity to other racial groups. We did this in part because of the ways in which some of the services record these data in their databases. For example, the Navy’s and the Marine Corps’ military justice databases do not have separate fields for race and ethnicity; instead, the values are tracked in a single field. Throughout the discussion for objective 2 of this report, we refer to the combined race and ethnicity values as race. We then consolidated races to the five racial groups in the OMB standards. When military service personnel databases included different or additional possible options for race and ethnicity than the groups established by the OMB standards, we consolidated the options in accordance with the definitions for each race and ethnicity listed in the OMB standards. Given the small number of cases in some racial groups, we collapsed certain racial groups into an “Other” group in order to report statistically reliable results. The “Other” group includes individuals who identified as Asian, Native Hawaiian/Other Pacific Islander, American Indian/Alaska Native, and multiple races. Summary statistics. We analyzed data from the military services’ investigations, military justice, and personnel databases to determine the extent to which racial and gender groups were the subjects of recorded investigations, tried in courts-martial, and subject to nonjudicial punishments (for Army and Marine Corps, services for which we had complete data) at higher rates or lower rates than each racial and gender group’s proportion of the overall service populations. Other than our analysis of recorded investigations, we did not analyze Coast Guard cases due to the small number of general and special courts-martial adjudicated in the Coast Guard from fiscal years 2013 through 2017. To conduct this analysis, we used data on all active-duty servicemembers to identify what proportion each racial group (White, Black, Hispanic, and Other) and gender group (male, female) made up of the overall service population from fiscal years 2013 through 2017. We then used data from the services’ military justice or personnel databases to calculate the representation of each racial and gender group as a percent of the population subjected to each type of military justice action. We also examined the rates at which certain racial and gender groups were charged with drug offenses (Article 112a) and sexual assault offenses (Article 120) compared to their proportions of the overall service populations. See Appendix III for information regarding recorded investigations and general and special courts-martial of drug and sexual assault offenses. We analyzed these two specific UCMJ offenses because officials from some services told us that an investigation into these offenses may frequently be mandatory, and thus could potentially mitigate the risk of bias. To conduct this analysis, we used offense data from the services’ military justice databases to determine each racial and gender group’s representation in the population that was the subject of a military justice action for a drug, sexual assault, or other offense type. Bivariate and Multivariate Regression Analyses. We developed a logistic regression model using the data we received from the services’ investigations and military justice databases to determine the extent that certain attributes were associated with higher rates of investigation or discipline of servicemembers. We conducted bivariate logit analyses to estimate the association between select attribute factors (or independent variables) and the outcome variables (the dependent variable) in a binary format, except for the two offense outcome variables. Table 7 below lists all of the dependent and independent variables we used in our analyses. To conduct our statistical analyses, we created groups for each demographic and administrative attribute (independent variable) that we tested in our regression model. We created these groups based on input and guidance from service officials. While the modeling subgroups we created are largely consistent across services, some values are different for certain services. Table 8 summarizes the modeling groups we constructed for each service for each attribute included in our regression analyses. When analyzing the severity of punishments, we developed two groups for the Navy and the Marine Corps, and three groups for the Air Force and the Army, as shown in table 9 below. We did not create a third punishment group for confinement without dismissal or discharge for the Navy and the Marine Corps because of the small number of cases with confinement that did not also include some sort of discharge. Based on discussions with service officials, we determined that a sentence resulting in a dismissal or discharge was the most severe punishment outcome. Typically, a logistic regression model is appropriate when the model outcome is a binary (yes/no) response. Because the punishment groups for the Army and the Air Force were not binary, they could not be analyzed using a multivariate logistic regression. Instead, we used an ordered logit model, also called an ordered logistic regression model, to analyze punishment severity in the Army and the Air Force. An ordered logistic regression is an extension of the logistic regression model that applies to dependent variables where there are more than two response categories. This model allowed us to examine the degree to which a racial or gender group was more likely or less likely than another group to receive a more severe punishment in general and special courts-martial, while controlling for other attributes, such as gender, education, rank, composition of panel, and offense type. To conduct this analysis, we reviewed outcome data from the services’ personnel, investigations, and military justice databases. Based on our bivariate analyses, we determined which variables were significantly associated with military justice actions, and that appeared to be statistically significant predictors of an individual’s likelihood to be subject to a military justice action. Appendix IX includes a summary of those indicators for each of the services. We also examined correlation matrices of the independent variables to determine where there were high correlations between two variables. Where variables were highly correlated, we chose one variable over the others or created a hybrid variable combining those two variables. Specifically, we excluded age and years of service for most of the military services, due to high correlation with the rank variable. Based on our discussions with service officials, they indicated that rank would be the preferred variable to include in our analyses if selecting only one variable among rank, age, and years of service. However, for the Air Force, based on discussion with Air Force officials, we did control for years of service among the lower enlisted ranks (E1-E4). In addition, we could not include education for the Army due to variability and overlapping values in the data. Further, we chose not to model attributes such as occupation and location due to the great variability in these data and the difficulty in creating groups and reaching agreement about those groups with service officials. Based on these results, we then conducted a series of multivariate logistic regression models. Multivariate logistic regression modeling is a statistical method that examines several variables simultaneously to estimate whether each of these variables are more likely or less likely to be associated with a certain outcome. A multivariate regression analysis analyzes the potential influence of each individual factor on the likelihood of a binary outcome (e.g., a specific military justice action) while simultaneously accounting for the potential influence of the other factors. This type of modeling allowed us to test the association between servicemember characteristics, such as race or gender, and the odds of a military justice action (shown as the outcome variables in table 7 above), while holding other servicemember attributes constant (such as gender, rank, and education, shown as the independent variables in table 7 above). We conducted a separate regression for each of the military justice actions listed as an outcome variable. We selected this type of model because it could account for the attributes simultaneously. For the purposes of consistency, in our multivariate regression analyses, we made all racial comparisons with White servicemembers as the reference category. Similarly, we made all gender comparisons with female servicemembers as the reference category. A logistic regression model provides an estimated odds ratio, where a value greater than one indicates a higher or positive association; in this case, between the race, ethnicity, or gender of a servicemember (the independent variables) and the likelihood of being the subject of a military justice action (the dependent, or outcome, variable). An estimated odds ratio less than one indicates lower odds or likelihood of being the subject of a military justice action when a factor—here, a specific demographic or administrative attribute—is present. The statistical significance of the logistic regression model results is determined by a p-value of less than 0.05. As a result, in our report we state that odds ratios that are statistically significant and greater than 1.00 or lower than 1.00 indicate that individuals with that characteristic are more likely or less likely, respectively, to be the subject of a particular outcome or military justice action. In cases where the p-value was greater than 0.05, we report that we could not identify any statistically significant differences, which means that we could not conclude that there was an association between race or gender and the likelihood of a military justice action. We report the results from our regression models as odds ratios. We generally report multivariate results from testing associations between key attributes—including race, ethnicity, gender, rank, and education—on a servicemember’s likelihood of being investigated and disciplined for a UCMJ violation. In the body of this report, we focused on race and gender disparities among servicemembers investigated and disciplined for violations of the UCMJ, while holding other factors constant; however, our analyses of recorded investigations and general and special courts- martial for drug and sexual assault offenses are discussed in Appendix III. In all of these analyses for the Air Force, we also controlled for years of service among the lower enlisted ranks (E1-E4). In the analyses we conducted for the Army, we could not control for education, but we were able to control for age. All regression models are subject to limitations. For our analyses, the limitations included: Results of our analyses are associational and do not imply a causal relationship. We did not identify the causes of any racial or gender disparities, and the results of our work alone should not be used to make conclusions about the military justice process. Our analyses of these data in finding the presence or absence of racial or gender disparities, taken alone, do not establish the presence or absence of unlawful discrimination, as that is a legal determination that would involve other corroborating information along with supporting statistics. We could not assess some attributes that potentially could be related to a servicemember’s likelihood of facing a military justice action in the data analyzed for this review. For example, a servicemember’s socioeconomic background or receipt of a waiver upon entering the service could potentially be related to the likelihood of being investigated, tried in a court-martial, or subject to a nonjudicial punishment. However, we were unable to test these associations because most services indicated they did not have information about socioeconomic status or waivers in the databases that we requested data from. Furthermore, while some other attributes may have been available—such as marital status of the subject or the number of dependent children—we did not include these attributes in our data requests because we prioritized analyzing other demographic factors based on our background research and conversations with service officials. As outlined above, we incorporated input from service officials to the extent possible as we prepared our modeling groups for the demographic and administrative attributes we tested, such as rank, education, and years in service. However, this process was necessarily imprecise. Our modeling results may have been impacted by our discretionary decisions to include certain values in the groups we created for these variables. Data reliability. We conducted data reliability assessments on the datasets we received from the databases in our review. We examined the documentation officials provided to us on each database and conducted electronic tests on the data we received to check for completeness and accuracy. We also sent data reliability questionnaires to database managers about how the data are collected and their appropriate uses, and had discussions with database managers to discuss the reliability of the data in their databases. When we determined that particular fields were not sufficiently reliable, we excluded them from our analysis. For example, we did not use data in our analysis where a substantial number of values were missing. We also checked to see that the values for variables were internally consistent and that results were not affected unduly by outlier values that might suggest miscoded values. For the purposes of our analysis, we found the variables we ultimately reported on to be sufficiently reliable. Furthermore, due to the sensitivity of the information analyzed in this report, we did not include information in instances where the number of servicemembers subjected to a particular military justice action was fewer than 20, to protect privacy. Literature review. To assess the extent to which disparities in the military justice system and the civilian justice system had been previously assessed, we conducted a literature review. To identify relevant publications about disparities in the military justice system and the civilian justice system, we performed a literature search of a number of bibliographic databases, including ProQuest Academic, ProQuest Dialog, Scopus, EBSCO, and HeinOnline. We also searched two think tank search engines: Policy File and the Think Tank Search (from the Harvard Kennedy School). We received the following types of publications: scholarly/peer reviewed material, dissertations, and association/think tank/nonprofit publications. To identify publications by DOD and the services related to the military justice system, we reviewed prior GAO reports and asked officials at the DOD Office of Diversity, Equity and Inclusion, and in the services’ respective diversity and inclusion offices to identify relevant publications. We concluded our searches in October 2018. We also asked the service Judge Advocate General offices for publications relevant to disparities in military justice. We also identified publications in our own background information search. We reviewed those publications that assessed racial, ethnic, or gender disparities among servicemembers in the military justice system. While the civilian and military justice systems differ from each other, we selected a few nationwide studies examining disparities in the civilian justice system to summarize in the background section of our report, in order to enhance our understanding of the complexities of the issues, including how others have attempted to measure disparities. We did not assess the methodologies used in any of these studies or the reliability of the data cited in the studies; the studies related to the civilian justice system are discussed in our report to provide broader context for the discussion about racial and gender disparities in the military justice system. We conducted this performance audit from November 2017 to May 2019 in accordance with generally accepted government auditing standards. Those standards require that we plan and perform an audit to obtain sufficient, appropriate evidence to provide a reasonable basis for our findings and conclusions based on our audit objectives. We believe that the evidence obtained provides a reasonable basis for our findings and conclusions based on our audit objectives. As shown in figure 15 below, our analysis of data contained in the military services’ military criminal investigations databases found that Black servicemembers were subjects of recorded investigations at a higher rate compared to their proportion of the overall service population in all of the military services. Hispanic servicemembers were the subjects of recorded investigations at a higher rate compared to their proportion of the overall service population in the Navy and the Air Force, at a lower rate in the Marine Corps, and at the same rate in the Army. Additionally, we found that males were the subjects of recorded investigations at higher rates than their share of the general service population in all of the military services. In addition, figure 15 above also shows the results of our bivariate analyses, which calculated the degree to which one racial or gender group was more likely or less likely than another racial or gender group to be the subject of recorded investigations. Our bivariate analyses found that Black and male servicemembers in all of the military services were statistically significantly more likely to be the subjects of recorded investigations for alleged UCMJ violations than servicemembers of all other races or females. Hispanic servicemembers were statistically significantly more likely in the Navy, the Air Force, and the Coast Guard, and were statistically significantly less likely in the Army to be the subjects of recorded investigations than servicemembers of all other races. Servicemembers in the Other race category were statistically significantly less likely than servicemembers of all other races to be the subjects of recorded investigations in the Army and the Marine Corps. Our bivariate analyses did not show any statistically significant differences for servicemembers in the Other race category in the Navy, the Air Force, or the Coast Guard, or Hispanic servicemembers in the Marine Corps. As shown in figure 16 below, Black, Hispanic, and male servicemembers in all of the military services included in this analysis were represented at a higher rate than their proportions of the overall service population. White and female servicemembers in all of the military services were represented at a lower rate than their proportions of the overall service population. Servicemembers in the Other race category were represented at a higher rate in the Navy, at a lower rate in the Army and the Air Force, and at the same rate in the Marine Corps compared to their proportion of the overall service population. We could not analyze Coast Guard cases due to the small number of general and special courts-martial adjudicated in the Coast Guard from fiscal years 2013 through 2017. The bivariate regression analysis results in figure 16 above calculate the degree to which one racial or gender group was more likely or less likely than servicemembers of all other races and genders to be tried in general and special courts-martial. We found that Black and male servicemembers in all of the military services were more likely to be tried in general and special courts-martial than servicemembers of all other races or females. Our bivariate analyses found that Hispanic servicemembers in the Army were more likely to be tried in general and special courts-martial than servicemembers of all other races. We found no statistically significant differences in the likelihood of Hispanic servicemembers to be tried in general and special courts-martial compared to servicemembers of all other races in the Navy, the Marine Corps, and the Air Force. White and female servicemembers in all of the military services were less likely to be tried in general and special courts- martial than servicemembers of other races or males. Furthermore, servicemembers in the Other race category were more likely in the Navy and less likely in the Army to be tried in general and special courts-martial than servicemembers of other races. We found no statistically significant differences in the likelihood of servicemembers in the Other race category to be tried in general and special courts-martial in the Marine Corps and the Air Force compared to servicemembers of other races. As shown in figure 17 below, for trials in general and special courts- martial that followed a recorded investigation, Black servicemembers were represented at a lower rate in the Army, the Navy, and the Marine Corps, and at the same rate in the Air Force compared to their proportions of the service population that had recorded investigations. Hispanic servicemembers in trials of general and special courts-martial following a recorded investigation were represented at a higher rate than their proportion of the overall service population that had recorded investigations in the Army and the Marine Corps, and at the same rate in the Navy and the Air Force. White servicemembers were represented at a lower rate in the Army, the Navy, and the Marine Corps, and at the same rate in the Air Force compared to their proportions of the service population with recorded investigations. Servicemembers in the Other race category were represented at a higher rate in the Army, the Navy, and the Marine Corps, and at the same rate in the Air Force compared to their proportions of the overall service population with recorded investigations. We could not analyze Coast Guard cases due to the small number of general and special courts-martial adjudicated in the Coast Guard from fiscal years 2013 through 2017. Male servicemembers with trials in general and special courts-martial that followed a recorded investigation were represented at a higher rate in all of the military services compared to their proportions of the service population that had recorded investigations. Females were represented at a lower rate in all of the military services compared to their proportions of the service population that had recorded investigations. As shown in figure 17 above, our bivariate regression analyses showed that, in the Army, White servicemembers were statistically significantly less likely to be tried in general and special courts-martial following a recorded investigation than servicemembers of all other races, whereas Hispanic servicemembers were statistically significantly more likely to be tried following a recorded investigation. In the Navy, servicemembers in the Other race category were statistically significantly more likely to be tried in general and special courts-martial following a recorded investigation than servicemembers of all other races. Males were more likely, and females were less likely, to be tried in general and special courts-martial following a recorded investigation in the Army and the Air Force. The remaining odds ratios shown in figure 17 above were not statistically significant. We identified racial and gender disparities in the rate and likelihood of trial in general and special courts-martial in cases without a recorded investigation in all of the military services. Specifically, as shown in figure 18 below, for trials in general and special courts-martial without a recorded investigation, Black and male servicemembers in all of the military services were represented at a higher rate than their proportion of the service population that did not have a recorded investigation. Hispanic servicemembers were represented at a higher rate in the Army and the Marine Corps, and at the same rate in the Navy and the Air Force compared to their proportions of the service population that did not have a recorded investigation. Servicemembers in the Other race category were represented at a lower rate in the Marine Corps and the Air Force, and at the same rate in the Army and the Navy compared to their proportion of the overall service population that did not have a recorded investigation. White and female servicemembers in all of the military services were represented at a lower rate than their proportions of the overall service population without a recorded investigation. We could not analyze Coast Guard cases due to the small number of general and special courts- martial adjudicated in the Coast Guard from fiscal years 2013 through 2017. The bivariate regression analysis results in figure 18 above calculate the degree to which one racial or gender group was more likely or less likely than servicemembers of all other races and genders to be tried in general and special courts-martial without a recorded investigation. We found that Black and male servicemembers in all of the military services were more likely to be tried at special and general courts-martial that were not preceded by a recorded investigation than servicemembers of all other races or females. White and female servicemembers in all of the military services were less likely to be tried at special and general courts-martial that were not preceded by a recorded investigation than servicemembers of all other races and males. We found no statistically significant differences in the likelihood of Hispanic servicemembers or servicemembers in the Other race category in any of the military services being tried in general and special courts-martial without a recorded investigation compared to servicemembers of all other races. We identified racial and gender disparities in the rate and likelihood of trial in summary courts-martial in the Air Force and the Marine Corps. Specifically, as shown in figure 19 below, Black and male servicemembers were tried in summary courts-martial for UCMJ violations at higher rates than their share of the overall service population in the Air Force and the Marine Corps. White and Hispanic servicemembers were tried in summary courts-martial at lower rates than their share of the overall service population in both services. Servicemembers that were included in the Other race category were tried at higher rates in the Air Force, and at lower rates in the Marine Corps. We could not determine whether there were any racial or gender disparities for summary courts-martial in the Army and the Navy because these services did not collect complete summary court-martial data— information about all summary court-martial cases, to include demographic information about the subject—in their investigative, military justice, or personnel databases, as discussed above in the report. We could not analyze Coast Guard cases due to the small number of summary courts-martial adjudicated in the Coast Guard from fiscal years 2013 through 2017. The bivariate regression analysis results in figure 19 above calculate the degree to which one racial or gender group was more likely or less likely than servicemembers of all other races and genders to be tried in summary courts-martial. We found that Black servicemembers in the Marine Corps and the Air Force were more likely to be tried in summary courts-martial than servicemembers of all other races. We also found that male servicemembers were more likely than their female counterparts to be tried in summary courts-martial in the Marine Corps and the Air Force. We observed no statistically significant differences in summary court- martial rates for servicemembers in the Other race category in either the Marine Corps or the Air Force, or for Hispanic servicemembers in the Marine Corps. As shown in figure 20 below, we found that Black and male servicemembers were subject to nonjudicial punishment for UCMJ violations at a higher rate than their share of the overall service population in the Marine Corps and the Air Force. White servicemembers were subject to nonjudicial punishments at lower rates than their share of the overall service population in both services, and Hispanic servicemembers were subject to nonjudicial punishments in a proportion equal to their share of the general service population in both services. Servicemembers that were included in the Other race category were subject to nonjudicial punishment at lower rates than their share of the overall service population in the Marine Corps and the Air Force. We could not analyze nonjudicial punishments in the Army, the Navy, and the Coast Guard because these services do not collect complete nonjudicial punishment information. The bivariate regression analyses in figure 20 above calculate the degree to which one racial or gender group was more likely or less likely than another racial or gender group to be subject to nonjudicial punishment. We found that Black and male servicemembers were more likely than servicemembers of all other races or female servicemembers to receive nonjudicial punishments in the Marine Corps and the Air Force. We also found that Hispanic servicemembers in the Air Force were less likely to be subject to nonjudicial punishment, but we observed no statistically significant difference for Hispanic servicemembers in the Marine Corps. Servicemembers in the Other race category were less likely to be subject to nonjudicial punishment than servicemembers of all other races in the Marine Corps and the Air Force. As shown in figure 21 below, we found that Black servicemembers were convicted in general and special courts-martial at a lower rate in the Army and the Air Force, and at an equal rate in the Navy and the Marine Corps compared to their proportion of the overall general and special courts- martial population. In the Army, the Navy, and the Marine Corps, Hispanic servicemembers were convicted in general and special courts- martial at an equal rate compared to their proportion of the overall general and special courts-martial population. Compared to their proportion of the overall general and special courts-martial population, Hispanic servicemembers were convicted at a lower rate in the Air Force. We could not analyze Coast Guard cases due to the small number of general and special courts-martial adjudicated in the Coast Guard from fiscal years 2013 through 2017. As shown in figure 21 above, bivariate regression analyses found that, in the Army, White servicemembers were statistically significantly more likely to be convicted, whereas Black servicemembers were statistically significantly less likely to be convicted in general and special courts- martial compared to all other servicemembers. White servicemembers in the Air Force were also statistically significantly more likely to be convicted in general and special courts-martial compared to all other servicemembers. In the Marine Corps, we found that males were more likely to be convicted than females, whereas in the Air Force, males were less likely to be convicted than females. The remaining odds ratios shown in figure 21 above were not statistically significant. As shown in figures 22 and 23 below, we found that Black servicemembers received a more severe punishment at a lower rate compared to their share of the convicted service population in the Army, the Navy, and the Air Force. We also found that Hispanic servicemembers received a more severe punishment at a lower rate compared to their share of the convicted service population in the Air Force, but at a higher rate in the Marine Corps. We found that male servicemembers in the Marine Corps and the Air Force received a more severe punishment at a higher rate, and at the same rate in the Army and the Navy, compared to their share of the convicted service population. Females received a more severe punishment at a lower rate in the Air Force and the Marine Corps, and at the same rate in the Army and the Navy, compared to their share of the convicted service population. We could not analyze Coast Guard cases due to the small number of general and special courts-martial adjudicated in the Coast Guard from fiscal years 2013 through 2017. The bivariate regression analyses in Figures 22 and 23 above calculated the degree to which one racial or gender group was more likely or less likely than another racial or gender group to be dismissed or discharged after a conviction in general and special courts-martial. In the Navy, we found that Black servicemembers were statistically significantly less likely to be dismissed or discharged after conviction in general and special courts-martial compared to all other servicemembers. We found no statistically significant differences regarding minority servicemembers being more likely or less likely to be dismissed or discharged after conviction in general and special courts-martial in the Marine Corps, or to receive a more severe punishment in the Army or the Air Force. We found that males in the Marine Corps and the Air Force were more likely to be dismissed or discharged or receive a more severe punishment after conviction than females, but we did not find any statistically significant differences regarding male servicemembers in the Army or the Navy. This appendix contains several figures that show the underlying data related to drug and sexual assault offenses from fiscal years 2013 through 2017 for the Army, the Navy, the Marine Corps, and the Air Force. Across most military services, Black, Hispanic, and male servicemembers were the subjects of recorded investigations and tried in general and special courts-martial at higher rates than their shares of the overall service population for drug offenses, sexual assault offenses, and all other offenses. We found that the likelihood of conviction varied among the services for these two offenses. We analyzed these two specific Uniform Code of Military Justice (UCMJ) offenses separately from all other offenses because service officials told us that an investigation into these offenses may frequently be mandatory, and thus could potentially mitigate the risk of bias. We analyzed data for these offenses for recorded investigations, trials in general and special courts-martial, and convictions from fiscal years 2013 through 2017 to assess the extent to which racial and gender disparities may exist. Our analyses of the services’ investigation, military justice, and personnel databases, as reflected in these figures, taken alone, do not establish the presence or absence of unlawful discrimination. We identified racial and gender differences in recorded investigation rates for drug offenses, sexual assault offenses, and all other offenses compared with the total service populations. Our analysis focused on alleged UCMJ violations for these offenses that were recorded in the Military Criminal Investigative Organization (MCIO) investigations databases. Other investigations conducted within the military, such as command investigations, were not considered in this analysis. For example, as shown in figure 24 below, Black servicemembers were the subjects of recorded investigations for drug offenses, sexual assault offenses, and all other offenses at a higher rate than their share of the overall service population across all military services. Hispanic servicemembers were the subjects of recorded investigations for drug offenses, sexual assault offenses, and all other offenses at a higher rate than their share of the overall service population in the Air Force, but were the subjects of recorded investigations for drug offenses at a lower rate than their share of the overall service population in both the Army and the Marine Corps. Male servicemembers were the subjects of recorded investigations for drug offenses and sexual assault offenses at a higher rate than their share of the overall service population across all of the military services. We found that White servicemembers were tried for drug offenses, sexual assault offenses, and all other offenses in general and special courts- martial at lower rates than their share of the overall service population across all of the military services. Black servicemembers were tried for drug offenses, sexual assault offenses, and all other offenses in general and special courts-martial at a higher rate than their share of the overall service population in all of the military services. Hispanic servicemembers were tried for drug offenses in general and special courts-martial at a lower rate in the Navy and the Marine Corps, and at a higher rate in the Air Force, compared to their share of the overall service population. Hispanic servicemembers were tried for sexual assault offenses at a higher rate than their proportion of the overall service population in all of the military services. Female servicemembers were tried for drug offenses, sexual assault offenses, and all other offenses in general and special courts-martial at lower rates than their share of the general service population in the Army, the Navy, and the Air Force, and were tried for sexual assault offenses and all other offenses at lower rates than their share of the overall service population in the Marine Corps. Figure 25 below shows the gender and racial composition of general and special court-martial trials for drug offenses, sexual assault offenses, and all other offenses. We could not analyze Coast Guard cases due to the small number of general and special courts-martial adjudicated in the Coast Guard from fiscal years 2013 through 2017. We conducted multivariate regression analyses to calculate the degree to which servicemembers charged with drug offenses and sexual assault offenses were more likely or less likely than a composite variable comprised of all other offenses to be convicted in general and special courts-martial, while controlling for other attributes, such as race, gender, education, and rank. As shown in figure 26 below, we did not identify any statistically significant difference in conviction rates for drug offenses compared to all other offenses in the Army, the Navy, the Marine Corps, and the Air Force. Sexual assault offenses were less likely to result in a conviction in the Army, the Navy, and the Air Force, and there was no statistically significant difference for the Marine Corps. We could not analyze Coast Guard cases due to the small number of general and special courts-martial adjudicated in the Coast Guard from fiscal years 2013 through 2017. This appendix contains several tables that show the underlying data and analyses used throughout this report relating to Army personnel and military justice disciplinary actions from fiscal years 2013 through 2017. We did not include populations that contained fewer than 20 servicemembers in the total populations presented in these tables to ensure the protection of sensitive information. As a result, the total populations presented in this appendix may vary among the different tables and may vary from the total populations presented in the body of the report. Our analyses of the Army’s investigations, military justice, and personnel databases, as reflected in these tables, taken alone, do not establish the presence or absence of unlawful discrimination. The multivariate results listed below in table 17 show the odds ratios for the multivariate regression analyses of the Army data. We used logistic regression to assess the relationship between the independent variables, such as race, education, rank, or gender, with the probability of being subject to a military justice action. Logistic regression allows for the coefficients to be converted into odds ratios. Odds ratios that are statistically significant and greater than 1.00 indicate that individuals with that characteristic are more likely to be subject to a military justice action. For example, an odds ratio of 1.55 for Black servicemembers would mean that they are 1.55 times more likely to be subject to a military justice action compared to White servicemembers. Odds ratios that are statistically significant and lower than 1.00 indicate that individuals with that characteristic are less likely to be subject to a military justice action. We excluded years of service from the Army analyses due to high correlation with the rank variable. This appendix contains several tables that show the underlying data and analyses used throughout this report relating to Navy personnel and military justice disciplinary actions from fiscal years 2013 through 2017. We did not include populations that contained fewer than 20 servicemembers in the populations presented in these tables to ensure the protection of sensitive information. As a result, the populations presented in this appendix may vary among the different tables and may vary from the populations presented in other places in this report. Our analyses of the Navy’s investigations, military justice, and personnel databases, as reflected in these tables, taken alone, do not establish the presence or absence of unlawful discrimination. The multivariate results listed below in table 26 show the odds ratios for the multivariate regression analyses of Navy data. We used logistic regression to assess the relationship between the independent variables, such as race, education, rank, or gender, with the probability of being subject to a military justice action. Logistic regression allows for the coefficients to be converted into odds ratios. Odds ratios that are statistically significant and greater than 1.00 indicate that individuals with that characteristic are more likely to be subject to a military justice action. For example, an odds ratio of 1.55 for Black servicemembers would mean that they are 1.55 times more likely to be subject to a military justice action compared to White servicemembers. Odds ratios that are statistically significant and lower than 1.00 indicate that individuals with that characteristic are less likely to be subject to a military justice action. We excluded age and years of service from the Navy multivariate regression analyses due to high correlation with the rank variable. This appendix contains several tables that show the underlying data and analyses used throughout this report relating to Marine Corps personnel and military justice disciplinary actions from fiscal years 2013 through 2017. We did not include populations that contained fewer than 20 servicemembers in the populations presented in these tables to ensure the protection of sensitive information. As a result, the populations presented in this appendix may vary among the different tables and may vary from the populations presented in other places in this report. Our analyses of the Marine Corps investigations, military justice, and personnel databases, as reflected in these tables, taken alone, do not establish the presence or absence of unlawful discrimination. The multivariate results listed below in table 35 show the odds ratios for the multivariate regression analyses of Marine Corps data. We used logistic regression to assess the relationship between the independent variables, such as race, education, rank, or gender, with the probability of being subject to a military justice action. Logistic regression allows for the coefficients to be converted into odds ratios. Odds ratios that are statistically significant and greater than 1.00 indicate that individuals with that characteristic are more likely to be subject to a military justice action. For example, an odds ratio of 1.55 for Black servicemembers would mean that they are 1.55 times more likely to be subject to a military justice action compared to White servicemembers. Odds ratios that are statistically significant and lower than 1.00 indicate that individuals with that characteristic are less likely to be subject to a military justice action. We excluded age and years of service from the Marine Corps multivariate regression analyses due to high correlation with the rank variable. This appendix contains several tables that show the underlying data and analyses used throughout this report relating to Air Force personnel and military justice disciplinary actions from fiscal years 2013 through 2017. We did not include populations that contained fewer than 20 servicemembers in the populations presented in these tables to ensure the protection of sensitive information. As a result, the populations presented in this appendix may vary among the different tables and may vary from the populations presented in other places in this report. Our analyses of the Air Force’s investigations, military justice, and personnel databases, as reflected in these tables, taken alone, do not establish the presence or absence of unlawful discrimination. The multivariate results listed below in table 45 show the odds ratios for the multivariate regression analyses of Air Force data. We used logistic regression to assess the relationship between the independent variables, such as race, education, rank, or gender, with the probability of being subject to a military justice action. Logistic regression allows for the coefficients to be converted into odds ratios. Odds ratios that are statistically significant and greater than 1.00 indicate that individuals with that characteristic are more likely to be subject to a military justice action. For example, an odds ratio of 1.55 for Black servicemembers would mean that they are 1.55 times more likely to be subject to a military justice action compared to White servicemembers. Odds ratios that are statistically significant and lower than 1.00 indicate that individuals with that characteristic are less likely to be subject to a military justice action. We controlled for years of service among the lower enlisted ranks (E1- E4), but excluded age from the Air Force multivariate regression analyses due to high correlation with the rank and years of service variables. This appendix contains several tables that show the underlying data and analyses used throughout this report relating to Coast Guard personnel and military justice disciplinary actions from fiscal years 2013 through 2017. We did not include populations that contained fewer than 20 servicemembers in the populations presented in these tables to ensure the protection of sensitive information. As a result, the populations presented in this appendix may vary among the different tables and may vary from the populations presented in other places in this report. Our analyses of the Coast Guard’s investigations, military justice, and personnel databases, as reflected in these tables, taken alone, do not establish the presence or absence of unlawful discrimination. The multivariate results listed below in table 52 show the odds ratios for the multivariate regression analyses of Coast Guard data. We used logistic regression to assess the relationship between the independent variables, such as race, education, rank, or gender, with the probability of being subject to a military justice action. Logistic regression allows for the coefficients to be converted into odds ratios. Odds ratios that are statistically significant and greater than 1.00 indicate that individuals with that characteristic are more likely to be subject to a military justice action. For example, an odds ratio of 1.55 for Black servicemembers would mean that they are 1.55 times more likely to be subject to a military justice action compared to White servicemembers. Odds ratios that are statistically significant and lower than 1.00 indicate that individuals with that characteristic are less likely to be subject to a military justice action. We excluded age and years of service from the Coast Guard analyses due to high correlation with the rank variable. We found that age, rank, length of service, and education were indicators of a servicemember’s likelihood of being the subject of a recorded investigation, court-martial, or nonjudicial punishment across the military services. To analyze age, rank, length of service, and education, we used bivariate regression analyses to determine which sub-population of each attribute was most likely to be subject to a recorded investigation, court-martial, or nonjudicial punishment. This appendix contains several tables that show the rank, education, length of service, and age groups most likely to be subject to a recorded investigation, tried in general and special courts-martial, tried in summary court-martial, and receive a nonjudicial punishment for all services from fiscal years 2013 through 2017. For the Coast Guard, we could not analyze age, rank, length of service, and education as indicators for courts-martial or nonjudicial punishment due to the small number of recorded military justice cases from fiscal years 2013 through 2017. Our analyses of the services’ investigations, military justice, and personnel databases, as reflected in these tables, taken alone, do not establish the presence or absence of unlawful discrimination. Brenda S. Farrell, (202) 512-3604 or farrellb@gao.gov. In addition to the contact named above, key contributors to this report were Kimberly C. Seay, Assistant Director; Parul Aggarwal; Christopher Allison; Renee S. Brown; Vincent M. Buquicchio; Won (Danny) Lee; Amie M. Lesser; Serena C. Lo; Dae B. Park; Samuel J. Portnow; Clarice Ransom; Christy D. Smith; Preston Timms; and Schuyler Vanorsdale.
The Uniform Code of Military Justice (UCMJ) was established to provide a statutory framework that promotes fair administration of military justice. Every active-duty servicemember is subject to the UCMJ, with more than 258,000 individuals disciplined from fiscal years 2013-2017, out of more than 2.3 million unique active-duty servicemembers. A key principle of the UCMJ is that a fair and just system of military law can foster a highly disciplined force. House Report 115-200, accompanying a bill for the National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2018, included a provision for GAO to assess the extent that disparities may exist in the military justice system. This report assesses the extent to which (1) the military services collect and maintain consistent race, ethnicity, and gender information for servicemembers investigated and disciplined for UCMJ violations that can be used to assess disparities, and (2) there are racial and gender disparities in the military justice system, and whether disparities have been studied by DOD. GAO analyzed data from the investigations, military justice, and personnel databases from the military services, including the Coast Guard, from fiscal years 2013-2017 and interviewed agency officials. The military services collect gender information, but they do not collect and maintain consistent information about race and ethnicity in their investigations, military justice, and personnel databases. This limits their ability to collectively or comparatively assess these data to identify any disparities (i.e., instances in which a racial, ethnic, or gender group was overrepresented) in the military justice system within and across the services. For example, the number of potential responses for race and ethnicity across the military services' databases ranges from five to 32 options for race and two to 25 options for ethnicity, which can complicate cross-service assessments. The services also are not required to and, thus, do not report demographic information in their annual military justice reports—information that would provide greater visibility into potential disparities. GAO's analysis of available data found that Black, Hispanic, and male servicemembers were more likely than White or female members to be the subjects of investigations recorded in databases used by the military criminal investigative organizations, and to be tried in general and special courts-martial in all of the military services when controlling for attributes such as rank and education. GAO also found that race and gender were not statistically significant factors in the likelihood of conviction in general and special courts-martial for most services, and minority servicemembers were either less likely to receive a more severe punishment than White servicemembers or there was no difference among racial groups; thus, disparities may be limited to particular stages of the process. The Department of Defense (DOD) has taken some steps to study disparities, but has not comprehensively evaluated the causes of racial or gender disparities in the military justice system. Doing so would better position DOD to identify actions to address disparities and help ensure the military justice system is fair and just. Note: These analyses, taken alone, should not be used to make conclusions about the presence or absence of unlawful discrimination. These multivariate regression analysis results estimate whether a racial or gender group is more likely or less likely to be the subject of an investigation or a trial in general or special courts-martial after controlling for race, gender, rank, and education, and in the Air Force, years of service. GAO made all racial comparisons to White servicemembers and all gender comparisons to females. GAO grouped individuals of Hispanic ethnicity together, regardless of race. GAO is making 11 recommendations, including that the services develop the capability to present consistent race and ethnicity data, and DOD include demographic information in military justice annual reports and evaluates the causes of disparities in the military justice system. DOD and the Coast Guard generally concurred with GAO's recommendations.