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An Introduction to Theoretical and Computational Aerodynamics by Jack Moran - Read Online
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Publisher: Dover PublicationsReleased: Apr 22, 2013ISBN: 9780486317533Format: book
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An Introduction to Theoretical and Computational Aerodynamics - Jack Moran
Most of this book is about the aerodynamics of wings. Therefore, we start by looking at wings, what they do, and how they do it.
1.1.FUNCTION
The main purpose of a wing is to provide a lift force, the force that gets the airplane off the ground, raises it to an efficient and safe cruising altitude, lets it maneuver about, and allows a safe landing. The same results can be obtained by pointing a rocket or other engine in the right direction, and that, in fact, is how you fly in the absence of an atmosphere. However, when an atmosphere is available, a lot of energy can be saved by using wings. The wing acts as a thrust amplifier, giving you a lifting force many times the force it takes to keep you going.
To make this precise, consider an airplane in straight and level flight at speed V, as shown in Fig. 1.1. The forces on the airplane are its weight W and the aerodynamic forces, the forces exerted by the air on its surfaces. Thrust is the aerodynamic force on the surfaces associated with the propulsive system. Its separation from the other aerodynamic forces is often somewhat arbitrary. For example, in the case of a turbojet-powered aircraft, the usual definition of the engine thrust is the aerodynamic force on all surfaces within the volume enclosed by the engine and surfaces S1 and S2 that cover its inlet and exit, respectively, as shown in Fig. 1.2. However, shouldn’t the propulsion-system specialist also be held accountable for the drag on the exterior of the engine nacelle? With a little imagination, you can visualize the pain various definitions of thrust could cause different members of the design team.
FIG. 1.1. Balance of forces on an airplane in straight and level constant-speed flight. T = thrust, L = lift, D = drag, W = weight.
FIG. 1.2. Control volume for analyzing the drag of a propulsion system.
Once the thrust is defined, the aerodynamic forces on the remaining surfaces of the aircraft are resolved into components along and parallel to the direction of flight. Lift is the component perpendicular to the velocity vector V, whereas drag is the component along (but opposite to) V.
For flight at constant speed and altitude, the propulsive system thrust is in rough balance with the drag, and the lift with the weight. Of course, to change direction, the lift must exceed the weight, and the thrust must exceed the drag when you need to accelerate. However, what I meant when I called the wing a thrust amplifier is that its lift, which must at least equal the airplane’s weight in order for it to get off the ground, can be many times as large as its drag, which must be overcome by the engine’s thrust.
This can be seen from Fig. 1.3, taken from Chuprun [1], who examined data on the performance of various modern (as of 1980) fighter and transport aircraft. The wings of transports are seen to be capable of providing a lift force up to about 35 times their drag, whereas those of fighter aircraft provide lift to drag ratios from 16 to 24. Of course, as is also shown in Fig. 1.3, the lift to drag ratio of the complete airplane is considerably less than that of the wing alone, but it is still more than eight for fighters and about twice that for transports. Thus, for example, the C5A lifts over 750,000 lb with four 41,000-lb thrust engines.
FIG. 1.3. Maximum lift to drag ratios for fighters and transports in subsonic flight. Copyright AIAA; from The AIAA Evolution of Aircraft Wing Design Symposium, 1980 [1]
The differences evident in Fig. 1.3 between the performances of the wings of fighters and transports can be understood in terms of their different missions. Since range is directly proportional to the lift/drag ratio,¹ transport wings are designed to give as high a ratio of lift to drag as possible. Fighter aircraft, on the other hand, must be able to change direction rapidly and so must have a high lift/weight ratio. Figure 1.4, also Chuprun’s, shows that fighter wings can exert lift forces of up to 90 times their weight, whereas the lift/weight ratio of transport wings is about 22.
FIG. 1.4. Maximum lift/weight ratio for fighters and transports in subsonic flight. Copyright AIAA; from The AIAA Evolution of Aircraft Wing Design Symposium, 1980 [1].
Lift and drag are not the only parameters of interest to the aerodynamicist. He or she must also know where the lift acts, what is called the center of pressure of the wing. To fly straight and level, for example, the airplane must be in equilibrium with respect to the moments about its mass center of the forces acting on it; see Fig. 1.5. Also, although our focus in this book is on the aerodynamic performance of wings, it should be noted that a wing has nonaerodynamic design parameters, too. In the first place, it must be strong enough to bear the loads the aerodynamicist wants to impose on it. This demands a thicker wing than the aerodynamicist might like. Think of the wing as a beam. Then its stresses and deflection are seen to go inversely with the moment of inertia of the wing section, which is proportional to the cube of the wing thickness. And the storage function of wings must not be overlooked; most aircraft use the wings to store fuel and also the landing gear. Thus, the aerodynamicist will be well received if she or he can design a wing that not only flies the airplane but is nice and thick.
FIG. 1.5. Balance of moments about mass center on a trimmed aircraft.
1.2.GEOMETRY
Having briefly outlined the objectives of wing design, let us now look at the geometric variables at the designer’s disposal.
The first is planform; the shape of the wing as viewed from above. As shown in Fig. 1.6, the span of a wing is the distance between its tips. The chord is the dimension of the wing from its leading edge to its trailing edge; generally it varies along the span. The taper of a wing is the ratio of its tip chord to its root chord, the chord at midspan. Another planform variable is the sweep angle Λ, defined as the angle between a line one-quarter of the chord behind the leading edge (the quarter-chord line ) and the spanwise direction.
Probably the most important planform parameter is the aspect ratio of the wing,
FIG. 1.6. Nomenclature for wing planforms.
The aspect ratio can be regarded as the ratio of the span to an average chord, which is in turn defined as the ratio of the planform area to the span. This can be seen from Fig. 1.3 of the preceding section to correlate very well the maximum lift to drag ratios of a variety of real wings, and even complete airplanes. Generally, for reasons to be discussed in Chapter 5, the higher the aspect ratio, the higher the ratio of lift to drag. Sailplanes, for which a high lift to drag ratio is of paramount importance, are therefore characterized by very high aspect ratios, limited mainly by structural and weight considerations.²
The sweep angle of a wing is usually selected with its design speed in mind. For flight at low speeds, little or no sweep is best. Roughly speaking, it just reduces the aspect ratio for a given weight, while introducing some serious problems in getting performance from all of the wing. As the speed gets close to and beyond the speed of sound, sweep becomes more desirable. Some military aircraft must perform over such a wide speed range that their wings are designed to pivot in flight to change the sweep angle.
Some of the variety of planform shapes that have been used on one airplane or another are shown in Fig. 1.7 [1]. I hope the preceding discussion sheds some light on the rationale for their design, although, as Chuprun points out, some geometries may simply represent the artistic flair of the designer. However, most of the designs shown are rational. In particular, the forward-swept wing has a number of aerodynamic advantages over conventionally swept-rearward designs but has not been used because of an aeroelastic instability called divergence. The recent advent of composite materials, with their very high strength/weight ratio, may make this design more attractive.
Much work has been done on the design of wing sections or airfoils; that is, on the shape of the wing in planes perpendicular to the span. The analysis and design of airfoils are generally conducted under the assumption of a two-dimensional flow; that is, the wing section is taken to be constant along the span, and the span to be infinite. As will be shown in Chapter 5, results obtained under this assumption can be used for real wings of large aspect ratio and little or no sweep. However, the main reason for the emphasis of this book on two-dimensional problems is that they are easier to deal with than three-dimensional problems and so more suitable for an introductory textbook. On the other hand, emphasis is given to approaches that have been or could be carried over to the three-dimensional world.
It is convenient to describe an airfoil shape in terms of its thickness and camber distributions. As shown in Fig. 1.8, we define a chord line to run from the airfoil’s leading edge to its trailing edge and a camber line, which is midway between the airfoil’s upper and lower surfaces. The camber of the airfoil is the distance between the camber and chord lines. The thickness may be defined as the dimension of the airfoil in the direction perpendicular to the chord line, or, as in Fig. 1.8, to the camber line; usually it doesn’t make too much difference.
As will be seen in Chapter 4, the lift and moment per unit width of a thin airfoil depend mainly on the shape of its camber line and on the angle of attack of the airfoil, the angle between its chord line and the velocity vector of the undisturbed flow relative to the airfoil. The thickness distribution does influence the pressure distribution along the airfoil surface, which, as described in Chapter 7, controls the behavior of the boundary layer on the airfoil, including the phenomenon of stall, which limits the maximum lift an airfoil can generate.
FIG. 1.7. Some of the variety of planforms that have been used. Copyright AIAA; from The AIAA Evolution of Aircraft Wing Design Symposium, 1980 [1].
FIG. 1.8. Nomenclature for airfoils.
Most airfoil shapes are defined by giving the coordinates of 50 or more points on its surface. In some cases, the camber line is described analytically and the thickness distribution by giving its value at selected points. Two rather famous series of airfoils, the NACA four- and five-digit series, are defined completely by formulas. In both cases, the thickness distribution is
Here c is the airfoil chord (length of its chord line) and x the distance along the chord line from the leading edge. The parameter τ is the thickness ratio of the airfoil (maximum thickness/chord). This thickness distribution was derived in 1930 by Eastman Jacobs, of the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics’ Langley Laboratory, on the basis of examination of airfoils known to be efficient (in particular, the airfoils known as the Gottingen 398 and the Clark Y) [4].
The camber line of the four-digit airfoils consists of two parabolas joined at the maximum camber point, as shown in Fig. 1.9. If εc is the maximum camber, and pc is the distance between the leading edge and the maximum camber point, we then have
The first digit of the four-digit airfoil’s designation is the maximum camber ratio ε times 100, while the second digit is the chordwise position of the maximum camber p times 10. The last two digits are 100 times the thickness ratio τ. Thus, a NACA 2412 airfoil is 12% thick (τ = 0.12) and has maximum camber ε = 0.02 at x = 0.4c. As indicated in Fig. 1.9, the thickness of the NACA four-digit airfoil is defined in the direction perpendicular to the camber line.
The four-digit airfoils are thus defined by three parameters: τ, p, and ε. Airfoil models with systematic variations in these parameters were tested in the Langley Laboratory’s variable-density wind tunnel (which, for the first time, allowed model testing at full-scale Reynolds numbers, by working at pressures of up to 20 atm) in the 1930s. Because their performance was so well documented [5] (and good, too), these airfoils became very popular. When it was found that the two-parabola camber line was not so useful for far-forward positions of the maximum camber, NACA engineers developed the five-digit series, which used the same thickness distribution but a camber line comprised of a cubic polynomial in x up to some point past the maximum camber, followed by a straight line. Modern airfoils have much more complex camber lines. As noted above, their shape is described, not by explicit formulas, but by giving the coordinates of points on their surface. Criteria for airfoil design will be discussed in Chapter 7.
FIG. 1.9. Geometry of NACA four-digit airfoils.
Aside from fighter aircraft, whose maneuverability requirements place an extra demand on the aircraft designer, the lift force required of an airplane wing does not change much over its flight profile. However, as we shall show in Chapter 4, the aerodynamic force on a particular geometry is proportional to the density of the atmosphere and to the square of the airplane’s velocity, factors that vary considerably during the course of a flight. Although it seems possible to meet the varying demands on lift by changing the incidence of the aircraft (and its wing) to the direction of flight, some variation in the geometry of the airplane’s lifting surfaces (tailplane as well as wing) is required to keep the aircraft trimmed (in moment equilibrium) and to control its direction of flight. One of the Wright brothers’ major contributions was the invention of a system for varying the camber of their wings by warping them, by tugging on wires attached to the corners of the wing tips. Glenn Curtiss was the first to use hinged ailerons to provide differential lift on the wings, a system that has been used by most aircraft since then (1908), including later products of the Wrights.³ From the aileron it is but a small step⁴ to the flapped wing, which increases the total lift without requiring the whole aircraft to change its inclination to the direction of flight. Flaps are therefore very nice to have during takeoff and landing. At low speeds you need extra performance from the wings to get a given lift force, and you don’t want to fly at a large angle from horizontal.
FIG. 1.10. Some flap designs. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [2].
Some of the variety of flap designs that have been and are used are shown in Fig. 1.10, taken from McCormick [2], who also gives an excellent summary of design data for flaps. Although the man-powered Gossamer Condor and Gossamer Albatross achieved their goals by warping the wings, multielement airfoils are here to stay. Their proper design remains an important and interesting challenge to the aerodynamicist.
1.3.REFERENCES
1.Chuprun, J., Wings, in The AIAA Evolution of Aircraft Wing Design Symposium. Air Force Museum, Dayton (March 1980).
2.McCormick, B. W., Aerodynamics, Aeronautics, and Flight Mechanics. Wiley, New York (1979).
3.Lissaman, P. B. S., Wings for Human-Powered Flight, in The Evolution of Aircraft Wing Design, AIAA Symposium. Air Force Museum, Dayton (March 1980).
4.Abbott, I., Airfoils, in The Evolution of Aircraft Wing Design, AIAA Symposium. Air Force Museum, Dayton (March 1980).
5.Abbott, I. H. and von Doenhoff, A. E., Theory of Wing Sections. Dover, New York (1959).
1.Compare any three of the planforms shown in Fig. 1.7. Explain their design in terms of the mission of the aircraft to which they belong.
2.If an airplane’s engine fails at an altitude of 5000 ft, how far can it glide at constant speed before reaching the ground if its lift to drag ratio is 16? What if the ratio is 12?
3.Compute the aspect ratio of a wing with the trapezoidal planform shown.
4.Make a scale drawing of an NACA four-digit airfoil. Use a computer or programmable calculator, and find the coordinates of at least 15 points each on the upper and lower surfaces.
¹ See the Breguet range formula in, for example, McCormick [2], p. 440.
² In the case of the Gossamer Condor and Gossamer Albatross, the famous human-powered aircraft, the limiting factor was the dimensions of the hangar available [3].
³ They had the poor grace to sue Curtiss for infringement on their patent for lateral control by warping the wing and won. After 1915, even Wright airplanes used ailerons.
⁴ In logic, if not in time; flaps did not come into widespread use until the 1930s.
REVIEW OF BASIC FLUID DYNAMICS
This chapter contains in outline form results and derivations you should have seen in previous courses in fluid mechanics and/or mathematics. For more details, see the books listed in the bibliography at the end of the chapter.
2.1.FORCES AND MOMENTS DUE TO PRESSURE
In Chapters 3 and 4, we shall exaggerate the smallness of shear stresses in flows of interest to the aerodynamicist by ignoring them entirely. In this approximation, the forces and moments on a body are due entirely to the pressure exerted by the fluid at the body surface. Since the magnitudes of this force and moment are among the prime objectives of an aerodynamic analysis, let us see how we would calculate them if we knew the pressure distribution on the body.
Specifically, consider a two-dimensional airfoil to be in motion with constant velocity – V∞, as shown in Fig. 2.1. The flow is steady in coordinates (x, y) fixed to the airfoil; that is, the fluid velocity and pressure depend only on the position coordinates (x, y) and not on time. In this frame of reference, the airfoil appears to be immersed in an onset flow whose velocity is V∞; that is, far from the body, the flow velocity is V∞. Let the angle of attack of the airfoil—the angle between its chord line (the x axis) and the direction of the onset flow—be α.
The shape of the airfoil can be described by functions Yu(x) and Yl(x), which give the contours of its upper and lower surfaces, respectively, as shown in is made definite by writing
FIG. 2.1. Body-fixed coordinates.
FIG. 2.2. Nomenclature for computing force and moment on an airfoil due to its pressure distribution.
Let θ to the x axis. Note from , and θ behave on the upper and lower surfaces. In either case,
are unit vectors in the x and y directions, respectively.
The net force on the body can be found by dividing the airfoil contour into a large number of small segments dl and summing the forces on all such segments. In the limit, as the number of such segments approaches infinity, the sum becomes an integral. If the unit normal to dl , and the fluid pressure at dl is p, the force felt by dl (per unit width of the airfoil) is
and so the net force is
and p generally vary around the airfoil and so cannot be taken outside the integral. Thus, to evaluate F, we need to know the distribution of pressure around the airfoil contour. For now, we shall suppose that it is known and proceed to put equation 2-2 into a form more convenient for computation.
FIG. 2.3. Details of definitions of unit vectors and surface slope.
Observe that, with θ defined as shown in Fig. 2.3,
on both upper and lower surfaces. Then the force associated with the segment dl is, from equations 2-1 and 2-2,
so the force can be calculated by integrating over x, if the pressure p on the airfoil and its slope dY/dx are known functions of x:
Since we integrate clockwise around the airfoil, x runs from c (the chord) to 0 on the lower surface and from 0 to c on the upper surface. Letting the pressure on the upper and lower surfaces be pu(x) and pl(x), respectively, we then have
Thus, the x and y components of the force on the airfoil are
Aerodynamicists define the moment on an airfoil as being positive if clockwise ( nose up ). From equation 2-3 and Fig. 2.4, the moment about the origin (leading edge) of the force on the element dl is
and the total moment is found to be
FIG. 2.4. Forces on an element of the surface.
For airfoils of practical interest, the slope dY/dx is small except, perhaps, near the leading edge, where Y itself is small. In such cases, equation 2-5 is well approximated by
2.2.THE BASIC CONSERVATION LAWS OF FLUID MECHANICS
The opening section of this chapter should demonstrate the importance of knowing the variation of pressure over the surfaces of bodies on which you want to know the aerodynamic force and moment. Now we will review the conservation laws that connect the pressure and velocity fields.
within the fluid. Let S a unit vector normal to S and directed out of are, respectively,
Here ρ is the fluid density, V the fluid velocity, and e the internal energy per unit mass.
FIG. 2.5. Control volume for application of conservation laws.
changes with time if there is an imbalance in the flux of mass through the bounding surface S:
The flow of fluid across S , at the rates
respectively. From Newton’s second law, the rate of change of momentum of a fixed portion of matter is due only to the pressure exerted at its boundary, we can write
The pressure force also does work on the fluid, which, from the first law of thermodynamics, increases its energy. In the absence of heat addition, we then have
Equations 2-7 to 2-9 are the fundamental principles that govern every fluid motion. They are usually referred to as conservation laws for mass, momentum, and energy, although, as was noted above, the momentum and energy of any system change when it is subjected to external forces. Thus, cases in which energy and momentum are actually conserved are not very interesting.
The mass conservation law always has the form of equation 2-7, but you should know that the forms (2-8) and (2-9) given for the momentum and energy conservation laws are based on approximations that cannot always be justified. In particular, they must often be modified to include the effects of shear stresses, heat conduction, and (if the environment is hot enough) radiation. The inclusion of shear stresses in the momentum conservation principle is the subject of Chapter 6.
In any case, the conservation laws must be supplemented by connections among the fluid properties called constitutive equations. Most often in this book we shall consider the special case of incompressible fluid motion, for which
In this case, the mass and momentum conservation laws (2-7) and (2-8) decouple from the energy equation 2-9, with the result that the energy equation is not needed to determine the pressure field. Values of the density of common fluids at room temperature are listed in Table 2.1.
Densities of Common Liquids at 68°F
Gas Constants for Common Gases
Another constitutive equation important to aerodynamicists is the perfect gas law
T being the absolute temperature and R a constant (the gas constant). From thermodynamics, equation 2-11 implies that the internal energy e depends only on T. The relation between e and T is a second constitutive equation that must be supplied to study the motion of a perfect gas. Air behaves very much like a perfect gas up to temperatures of about 1000 °R, with a gas constant R of 1715 ft lb/ slug °R. Gas constants for some other gases are listed in Table 2.2. As is shown in courses on compressible fluid flow, a perfect gas may be treated as an incompressible fluid when the flow speed (in a frame of reference in which the flow is steady) is small compared with the speed of sound waves (Chapter 11 will deal with compressible flows, especially in the transonic regime).
An important result concerning the force on a solid body immersed in a steady flow may be derived directly from the momentum principle ( to be the fluid between the body surface SB and some control surface SC (that is often taken to be far from the body); see Fig. 2.6. Because the flow is steady, the left side of equation 2-8 is zero. The surface S on the right side now has two pieces, SB and SC, for which separate integrals of the same form may be written. Since the flow velocity is tangential to the surface of a solid body, V = 0 on SB, whereas the pressure integral over SB is, from equation 2-2,² just the force FB on the body. Thus
FIG. 2.6. Control surfaces for analysis of forces by application of momentum theorem.
and the force may be deduced by measuring (or analyzing) the flow on the control surface SC.
2.3.VECTOR CALCULUS
From time to time in this book, you will need some familiarity with vector calculus. One of those times is coming up shortly, and so we shall review here the basic results that will be required.
First, we must define the differential operators grad, div, and curl. The gradient operator transforms a scalar f into a vector ∇f (read "del f") or grad f. Its value at a point P is
in which, as shown in is a small volume containing P, ΔS is a unit normal to ΔS .
FIG. 2.7. Nomenclature for definition of gradient and divergence operators.
to be a rectangular parallelepiped, with surfaces normal to the Cartesian coordinate directions, we get a formula for the gradient in Cartesian coordinates,
This formula may be used to get a useful interpretation of ∇f: it is a vector whose magnitude and direction are those of the maximum rate of increase of f Thus the gradient is perpendicular to surfaces on which f is constant; see Fig. 2.8.
The divergence of a vector has a definition in terms similar to those of ∇f:
FIG. 2.8. Geometric interpretation of the gradient.
to be a rectangular parallelepiped whose sides are aligned with the Cartesian axes, we get
in which Ux, Uy, and Uz are the Cartesian components of U.
The divergence theorem can be derived directly from the definition ( is an arbitrary volume, with surface S , and div U (meaning, as can be seen from equation 2-16, that U ), then
A similar (but nameless) formula can be derived from the definition (2-13) of the gradient
Equations 2-17 and 2-18 are useful for integration by parts in two and three dimensions.
The curl of a vector has a rather more cumbersome definition. Its component in a particular direction—say, in the direction of the unit vector ê—is determined by constructing a small surface ΔS around the point at which curl U is sought, such that ΔS is perpendicular to ê; see Fig. 2.9. Then
FIG. 2.9. Nomenclature for definition of the curl.
in which ΔC is the perimeter of ΔS and we integrate around ΔS in the direction associated with ê by a right-hand rule. In Cartesian coordinates,
a formula that is remembered in the form of a determinant
which form leads to the representation
∇ ( del ) being a differential operator (see equation 2-14) whose form in Cartesian coordinates is
Equation 2-16 can be written in similar terms:
Stokes’s theorem follows from the definition (2-19):
is the unit normal to an arbitrary surface S, and the integration along C, the boundary of S by a right-hand rule, as shown in Fig. 2.10.
FIG. 2.10. Nomenclature for Stokes’s theorem.
Example 1 If f = x²z – 2y/z, find ∇f.
Example 2 If V = 3xyî + 2y²z – z³/x , find div V and curl V.
2.4.DIFFERENTIAL FORMS OF THE CONSERVATION LAWS
If ρ , we can interchange the order of integration and differentiation in the mass conservation law (2-7) and write it
If V , the divergence theorem (2-17) can be used to turn the surface integral into a volume integral, and we get
within a flow only if the integral is zero everywhere within the flow, and so we get the continuity equation, a partial differential equation that expresses the law of mass conservation for a flow in which ρ and V are continuous:
A similar treatment may be given the momentum equation 2-8, with results most easily obtained in Cartesian coordinates, one component at a time. Letting (u, v, w) be the Cartesian components of the velocity V, we get
These are the Euler equations. The differential form of the energy equation 2-9 is
By subtracting various multiples of the continuity equation 2-26 from the Euler and energy equations, we may transform them into
where, in Cartesian coordinates,
The same combination of derivatives may be made to appear in the continuity equation itself, by expanding the divergence of the product ρV:
Called variously the convective derivative, total derivative, particle derivative, or substantive derivative, Df/Dt has the significance of being the time rate of change of f as observed


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Folgers Folgers Ground Coffee See All Folgers Ground Coffee $8.34 Folgers Classic Roast Medium Ground Coffee, 30.5 oz 5.0 stars 81 ratings ShippingPilot $8.26 List price $8.44 Save $0.18 Folgers Black Silk Dark Roast Ground Coffee, 24.2 oz 5.0 stars 59 ratings ShippingPilot $8.34 Folgers 100% Colombian Medium Dark Roast Ground Coffee, 24.2 oz 5.0 stars 43 ratings ShippingPilot $11.37 Folgers Simply Smooth Medium Roast Ground Coffee, 31.1 oz 5.0 stars 340 ratings ShippingPilot $5.08 Folgers French Vanilla Ground Coffee, 11.5 oz 4.0 stars 91 ratings ShippingPilot $7.85 Folgers Custom Roast Mild Ground Coffee, 31.1 oz 4.5 stars 16 ratings ShippingPilot $10.94 Folgers Classic Decaf Medium Ground Coffee, 30.5 oz 4.5 stars 7 ratings ShippingPilot $5.08 Folgers Flavors Hazelnut Ground Coffee, 11.5 oz 4.5 stars 57 ratings ShippingPilot $5.08 Folgers Simply Smooth Ground Coffee, 11.5 oz 5.0 stars 384 ratings ShippingPilot $5.23 Folgers Gourmet Selections Caramel Drizzle Ground Coffee, 10 oz 4.5 stars 63 ratings ShippingPilot $4.14 List price $4.28 Save $0.14 Coffee Medium Classic Roast Ground, 11.3 oz 5.0 stars 329 ratings ShippingPilot $5.08 Folgers Simply Smooth Decaf Coffee, 11.5 oz 5.0 stars 53 ratings ShippingPilot Folgers Single-Serve Cups & Pods See All Folgers Single-Serve Cups & Pods $10.98 Folgers Gourmet Selections Classic Roast K-Cup Ground Coffee, 0.28 oz, 18 count 5.0 stars 179 ratings ShippingPilot $10.98 Folgers Gourmet Selections Caramel Drizzle K-Cups, 18 count 4.5 stars 109 ratings ShippingPilot $10.98 Folgers Gourmet Selections K-Cups Decaf Lively Colombian Medium Roast Coffee, 18 Ct 4.5 stars 60 ratings ShippingPilot $10.98 Folgers Gourmet Selections K-Cups Black Silk Dark Roast Coffee, 18 Ct 5.0 stars 145 ratings ShippingPilot $5.02 Folgers Classic Roast Coffee Singles, 3 oz 4.5 stars 47 ratings ShippingPilot $10.98 Folgers Gourmet Selections Morning Cafe K-Cup Ground Coffee, 0.28 oz, 18 count 5.0 stars 77 ratings ShippingPilot $5.44 Folgers Classic Decaf Coffee Singles, 3 Oz 4.5 stars 31 ratings ShippingPilot $10.98 Folgers Gourmet Selections Vanilla Biscotti Coffee K-Cups, 18 count, 5.71 oz 4.5 stars 108 ratings ShippingPilot $10.98 Folgers Gourmet Selections Lively Colombian Medium Roast K-Cups Coffee, 18 count 5.0 stars 63 ratings ShippingPilot $8.65 Folgers Gourmet Selections Mocha Swirl Coffee K-Cup Packs, 0.31 oz, 18 count 4.5 stars 59 ratings ShippingPilot $11.53 Folgers Gourmet Selections Hazelnut Cream Coffee K-Cup Packs, 0.31 oz, 18 count 5.0 stars 9 ratings ShippingPilot $9.43 Folgers Coffee Singles, 38 ct 4.5 stars 26 ratings ShippingPilot Folgers Instant Coffee See All Folgers Instant Coffee $6.59 Folgers Classic Decaf Instant Coffee, 8 Oz 4.0 stars 31 ratings ShippingPilot $4.45 Folgers Classic Roast Medium Coffee Filter Packs, 10ct 4.5 stars 22 ratings ShippingPilot $4.14 Folgers Mocha Chocolate Cappuccino Coffee Mix, 16 oz 4.5 stars 38 ratings ShippingPilot $51.11 FOLGERS FOLGERS Coffee, Decaffeinated, 1.75 oz., PK42 G5924992 ShippingPilot In stores only FOLGERS 3.4 OUNCE CAFFEINATED MOCHA 4 COUNT CAPPUCCINO STICKS ShippingPilot $11.61 Out of stock Mountain Grown Folgers: Medium Classic Decaf Ground Coffee, 33.9 Oz 4.5 stars 38 ratings ShippingPilot $2.75 Out of stock Folgers Classic Decaf Instant Coffee, 3 oz 4.0 stars 15 ratings ShippingPilot Folgers Collection See All Folgers Collection $39.67 List price $50.26 Save $10.59 FOLGERS (40 per Carton) Folgers Filter, Decaffeinated, 0.9 oz. 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text:
Readymade (disambiguation)
Readymade is art created from undisguised, but often modified, objects or products that are not normally considered art.
Readymade may also refer to:
Prefabrication, the practice of assembling components in a factory and transporting complete assemblies to a construction site
"Readymade", a 1996 alternative rock song by Beck from his album Odelay
"Readymade" (song), a 2006 rock song by the Red Hot Chili Peppers
ReadyMade (magazine), an American hobby magazine
Readymades of Marcel Duchamp, a variety of ordinary manufactured objects presented by Marcel Duchamp as works of art
Readymades (album), an album by Chumbawamba
This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - https://wn.com/Readymade_(disambiguation)
Babilonia released: 2006
Flexion / F.Me released: 2002
Bold released: 2001
Slide (feat. Yael Naïm)
A Fire in the Forest (feat. David Sylvian)
The Only One (feat. Yael Naïm)
Flexion / F.Me
Flexion, Part 1
Flexion, Part 2
F.Me, Part 1
F.Me, Part 2
F.Me, Part 2 (altern version 1)
F.Me, Part 2 (altern version 2)
F.Me, Part 2 (altern version 3)
Sugarfuel (feat. David Sylvian)
Breathe, Parts 1 & 2
Lonely Boy (Hard Bossa mix) (feat. Juice Aleem)
Mid-Class Hero
Eden "Apple" (edit version)
Uro Breaks released: 1990
Uro Breaks
Stupid (Something)
Toxical Teutonic
See Saw (Victor)
Latino State
Ready-made, Tonic Sol-fa
I’ve been driving ’cross the country just looking for a place to stay
In thirty words or less I’m a tall, dark bass-man,
I got love, I got the moves
I got the shake, shimmy, guarantee to chase away your blues
You can tell me all your problems, girl
As long as it’s on your dime
Girls from every corner tryin’ to ring me up on the phone
Well I don’t have nothing, but I’ll give you everything that I own
Call me up, honey-do
We can take a trip to Bali, girl
I’ll send the bill to you
Got a pocket full of quarters and a long, cool lemonade
If you’re ever feelin’ lonely call me three times everyday
Call me up, anytime
And I’ll call you back by…
Yeah, Santa Claus is worried now cuz all of his mail comes here
And I went to see the doc but he said “sorry son”
Give me hal-an-hour to…shoo-bi-di-bop
You won’t need to fix me up
Latest News for: ready made
Aaron and Barbara Levine spent 20 years purchasing art by Marcel Duchamp, the pioneering conceptual artist considered a giant of the 20th century ... Soon they will add another adjective. public ... He made art as an idea rather than an object ... The Levines’ collection reflects the range of Duchamp’s creative output, including examples of the famous ready-mades, the everyday items he purchased, signed and declared art ... He made it fun ... ....
Caughtoffside 29 Sep 2018
Arsenal won again this afternoon as they really start to get going under new manager Unai Emery. The post ‘Changed the game’ – Arsenal star convinces these fans they have a ready-made Aaron Ramsey replacement appeared first on CaughtOffside ... ....
Anthony Sims Jr is "the worst kept secret in boxing", says promoter Eddie Hearn ... He's in a stacked division and he's ready-made. Eddie Hearn ... But he's rolling again now ... He's in a stacked division and he's ready-made - 15-0 and just needs one or two more and then he's ready for the big fights. "Anthony fights in Chicago and then we go again in December - and in 2019 we're ready for all the big fights." ... ....
Iceland has launched a ready-made scrambled eggs product that can be rustled up in the microwave for busy workers and students who don't know how to make them ... ....
Supermarket chain Iceland is to start selling ready-made scrambled eggs for culinary challenged students who don't know how to make them....
Iceland is selling ready-made scrambled egg that you can pop in the microwave, and just like pre-chopped vegetables and peeled oranges before it, the product’s attracting plenty of groans and eye rolls ... Unfortunately Iceland says the bags of egg still require some action before they’re ready ... ‘Our ready-made scrambled eggs are made using British free range eggs with a little seasoning and are ready in just 90 seconds....
Life-saving? Or just lazy? ... ....
SCRAMBLED eggs are a cheap and easy meal to cook, but now Iceland has launched a ready-made version - as it claims workers and students don't know how to cook them. The frozen food supermarket is selling the pre-made eggs in microwaveable pouches for £1.50 that take 90 seconds to heat up ... “Our ready-made scrambled eggs are made using British free range eggs with a little seasoning and are ready in just 90 seconds....
Former Cobras coach Paul Adams, though, believes the Western Cape side have a ready-made replacement in the form of 22-year-old Janneman Malan, who joined the Cobras from North West during the winter ... Adams, in his current guise as coach of Western Province, saw the blistering innings first-hand and believes Malan is ready to take over the mantle from Levi at the top of the order, particular in white-ball cricket....
Global Female Ready Made Clothes Market 2018 Share, Trend, Segmentation and Forecast to 2023
Female Ready Made Clothes Market 2018 Global Analysis, Growth, Trends and Opportunities Research Report Forecasting to 2023 ... This report studies Female Ready Made Clothes in Global market, especially in North America, Europe, China, Japan, Southeast Asia and India, focuses on top manufacturers in global market, with capacity, production, price, revenue and market share for each manufacturer, covering ....
At the intersection of hip-hop and sports is often where you'll find the Migos and mainly their frontman Quavo, who is a noted talented ... ....
First ever mall run by women to open in city next month
... the mall, is hopeful of getting it ready by the end of the month ... The mall will house all kinds of enterprises such as supermarket, food court, children’s park, spa, beauty parlour, women’s bank, fancy stores, textiles and ready-mades, boutiques, footwear, dry cleaning, car washing, opticals, handicrafts, baby care, home appliances and book stall....
Ready-made holiday gifts at half price? World-Herald's fall Auction Block is here
The weather outside isn’t yet frightful, but it’s never too early for holiday gift buying ... Now through Tuesday, Sept ... Close 1 of 8 ... Featured....

value: This website is a news aggregator founded in March 1995 and launched online in 1998. In 2003, Search Engine Watch praised the service for its "Special Reports", and called it "an interesting alternative" to other news aggregation services.


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Best Price on The Skelton House Bed And Breakfast in Hartwell (GA) + Reviews
See all 5 properties in Hartwell (GA).
The Skelton House Bed And Breakfast97 Benson Street, Hartwell, Hartwell (GA), United States, 30643 - View on mapThe Skelton House Bed And BreakfastSee more photosView on mapFeatures you'll loveCar park
More about The Skelton House Bed And BreakfastAn overviewThe Skelton House Bed And Breakfast, located in Hartwell, Hartwell (GA), is a popular choice for travelers. From here, guests can enjoy easy access to all that the lively city has to offer. For sightseeing options and local attractions, one need not look far as the hotel enjoys close proximity to The Hart County Botanical Gardens, Hart State Park, Hartwell Dam. At The Skelton House Bed And Breakfast, the excellent service and superior facilities make for an unforgettable stay. For the comfort and convenience of guests, the hotel offers Wi-Fi in public areas, car park. Guests can choose from 7 rooms, all of which exude an atmosphere of total peace and harmony. Besides, the hotel's host of recreational offerings ensures you have plenty to do during your stay. The Skelton House Bed And Breakfast is an ideal place of stay for travelers seeking charm, comfort and convenience in Hartwell (GA).Show moreWhat they offerInternet accessWi-Fi in public areasFree Wi-Fi in all rooms Getting aroundCar park Services and conveniencesSmoking area AccessPets allowed Languages spokenEnglish Show lessGuest policiesExtra beds are dependent on the room you choose. Please check the individual room capacity for more details.When booking more than 5 rooms, different policies and additional supplements may apply.Show moreSome helpful factsThe propertyNumber of rooms : 7
Hartwell (GA) Hotels

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text:
Desirable daughters : a novel (Book, 2002) [WorldCat.org]
I thought you might be interested in this item at http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/47927759 Title: Desirable daughters : a novel Author: Bharati Mukherjee Publisher: New York : Theia, ©2002. ISBN/ISSN: 0786865989 9780786865987 0786885157 9780786885152 OCLC:47927759
New York : Theia, ©2002.
Women -- India -- Kolkata -- Fiction.
0786865989 9780786865987 0786885157 9780786885152
47927759
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text:
Patent US6391422 - Wiring substrate and stiffener therefor - Google PatentsSearch Images Maps Play YouTube News Gmail Drive More »Sign inAdvanced Patent SearchPatentsA wiring substrate includes a wiring substrate body and a stiffener. The latter is formed from a rolled metallic sheet and is bonded to a first main surface of the wiring substrate body. The stiffener has a boundary profile, in a plan view, which is substantially identical to that of the wiring substrate...http://www.google.com/patents/US6391422?utm_source=gb-gplus-sharePatent US6391422 - Wiring substrate and stiffener thereforAdvanced Patent SearchPublication numberUS6391422 B1Publication typeGrantApplication numberUS 09/579,140Publication dateMay 21, 2002Filing dateMay 30, 2000Priority dateDec 2, 1998Fee statusLapsedPublication number09579140, 579140, US 6391422 B1, US 6391422B1, US-B1-6391422, US6391422 B1, US6391422B1InventorsSeiji Mori, Takuya HandoOriginal AssigneeNgk Spark Plug Co., Ltd.Export CitationBiBTeX, EndNote, RefManPatent Citations (4), Referenced by (8), Classifications (37), Legal Events (6) External Links: USPTO, USPTO Assignment, EspacenetWiring substrate and stiffener therefor
US 6391422 B1Abstract
A wiring substrate includes a wiring substrate body and a stiffener. The latter is formed from a rolled metallic sheet and is bonded to a first main surface of the wiring substrate body. The stiffener has a boundary profile, in a plan view, which is substantially identical to that of the wiring substrate body, and a first direction of the boundary profile of the stiffener or the wiring substrate body intersects the rolling direction of the stiffener at an angle. This construction reduces the amount of deformation of the wiring substrate produced by bonding of the stiffener to the wiring substrate body and/or caused by temperature variations experienced by the construction. Because of this reduction in deformation, the wiring substrate provides improved reliability with respect to connections made to an electronic component mounted thereon as well as improved reliability with respect to connections made to another printed wiring board.
a wiring substrate body having a main surface; and a metallic plate formed from a rolled metallic sheet so as to define a rolling direction of the metallic plate, and having a boundary profile, in a plan view, which is identical to, or smaller than, that of the wiring substrate body, the metallic plate being bonded to the wiring substrate body within the main surface of the wiring substrate,

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text:
NEW THUNDERCATS SNARF KEYRING RETRO TV METAL LOOP 80s	See original listing
NEW THUNDERCATS SNARF KEYRING RET... £2.50
NEW THUNDERCATS LIONO KEYRING RET... £2.50
NEW THUNDERCATS MUMM-RA KEYRING... £2.50
NEW THUNDERCATS LOGO KEYRING RET... £2.50
NEW DANGERMOUSE KEYRING RETRO TV... £2.50
Item number:261016398266
22 Feb, 2013 11:51:29 GMT View all revisions
NEW THUNDERCATS SNARF KEYRING RETRO TV METAL LOOP 80s Thundercats Snarf Keyring. Snarf Snarf! Tough multi-layered rubber body with sturdy metal keyring.
TV Keyring,
Star Wars Metal Keyring

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BRAND NEW RARE ADIDAS JET CONCEPT KNEE SUIT JETCONCEPT | eBay
Details about BRAND NEW RARE ADIDAS JET CONCEPT KNEE SUIT JETCONCEPT
BRAND NEW RARE ADIDAS JET CONCEPT KNEE SUIT JETCONCEPT
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Roller, Duane W. [WorldCat Identities]
43 works in 208 publications in 4 languages and 9,356 library holdings
History Biography Biographies Sources Registers (Lists) Bibliography
Author, Translator, Editor, Author of introduction, Creator
Most widely held works by Duane W Roller
Cleopatra : a biography by Duane W Roller( Book )
25 editions published between 2010 and 2013 in 3 languages and held by 2,794 WorldCat member libraries worldwide
Few personalities from classical antiquity are more famous, yet more poorly understood, than Cleopatra VII, queen of Egypt. In the centuries since her death in 30 BC, she has been endlessly portrayed in the arts and popular culture, from Shakespearean tragedy to paintings, opera, and movies. Despite the queen's enduring celebrity, however, many have dismissed her as a mere seductress. In this major new biography, Duane Roller reveals that Cleopatra was in fact a learned and visionary leader whose overarching goal was always the preservation of her dynasty and kingdom. Roller's authoritative account is the first to be based solely on primary materials from the Greco-Roman period: literary sources, Egyptian documents (Cleopatra's own writings), and representations in art and coinage produced while she was alive. His compelling portrait of the queen illuminates her prowess as a royal administrator who managed a large and diverse kingdom extending from Asia Minor to the interior of Egypt, as a naval commander who led her own fleet in battle, and as a scholar and supporter of the arts. Even her love affairs with Julius Caesar and Marcus Antonius, the source of her reputation as a supreme seductress who drove men to their doom, were carefully crafted state policies: she chose these partners to insure the procreation of successors who would be worthy of her distinguished dynasty. That Cleopatra ultimately lost to her Roman opponents, Roller contends, in no way diminishes her abilities. This definitive portrait restores the Egyptian queen to her rightful historical status as a potent force in the ancient world, one whose policies and influence long survived her and played a determining role in the future course of the Roman empire.--From the publisher
The building program of Herod the Great by Duane W Roller( )
12 editions published in 1998 in English and held by 2,203 WorldCat member libraries worldwide
Eratosthenes' Geography by Eratosthenes( )
14 editions published in 2010 in English and held by 1,223 WorldCat member libraries worldwide
This is the first modern edition and first English translation of one of the earliest and most important works in the history of geography, the third-century Geographika of Eratosthenes. In this work, which for the first time described the geography of the entire inhabited world as it was then known, Eratosthenes of Kyrene (ca. 285-205 BC) invented the discipline of geography as we understand it. A polymath who served as librarian at Alexandria and tutor to the future King Ptolemy IV, Eratosthenes created the terminology of geography, probably including the word geographia itself. Building on his previous work, in which he determined the size and shape of the earth, Eratosthenes in the Geographika created a grid of parallels and meridians that linked together every place in the world: for the first time one could figure out the relationship and distance between remote localities, such as northwest Africa and the Caspian Sea. The Geographika also identified some four hundred places, more than ever before, from Thoule (probably Iceland) to Taprobane (Sri Lanka), and from well down the coast of Africa to Central Asia. This is the first collation of the more than 150 fragments of the Geographika in more than a century. Each fragment is accompanied by an English translation, a summary, and commentary. Duane W. Roller provides a rich background, including a history of the text and its reception, a biography of Eratosthenes, and a comprehensive account of ancient Greek geographical thought and of Eratosthenes' pioneering contribution to it. This edition also includes maps that show all of the known places named in the Geographika, appendixes, a bibliography, and indexes
23 editions published between 2003 and 2014 in English and held by 1,195 WorldCat member libraries worldwide
"The World of Juba II and Kleopatra Selene explores the complex culture and legacy of the kingdom, with emphasis on Juba's scholarship and the world created by these two remarkable monarchs. This detailed and comprehensive study is not only the first examination in English of Juba's life and career, but the first critical analysis of the king both as an implementer of the Augustan political, artistic and intellectual programme and as a notable scholar."--Jacket
Ancient geography : the discovery of the world in classical Greece and Rome by Duane W Roller( )
17 editions published between 2015 and 2017 in English and held by 448 WorldCat member libraries worldwide
The last dedicated book on ancient geography was published more than sixty years ago. Since then new texts have appeared (such as the Artemidoros palimpsest), and new editions of existing texts (by geographical authorities who include Agatharchides, Eratosthenes, Pseudo-Skylax and Strabo) have been produced. There has been much archaeological research, especially at the perimeters of the Greek world, and a more accurate understanding of ancient geography and geographers has emerged. The topic is therefore overdue a fresh and sustained treatment. In offering precisely that, Duane Roller explores important topics like knowledge of the world in the Bronze Age and Archaic periods; Greek expansion into the Black Sea and the West; the Pythagorean concept of the earth as a globe; the invention of geography as a discipline by Eratosthenes; Polybios the explorer; Strabo?s famous Geographica; the travels of Alexander the Great; Roman geography; Ptolemy and late antiquity; and the cultural reawakening of antique geographical knowledge in the Renaissance, including Columbus? use of ancient sources --Amazon
Through the pillars of Herakles : Greco-Roman exploration of the Atlantic by Duane W Roller( Book )
19 editions published between 2005 and 2008 in English and held by 306 WorldCat member libraries worldwide
"Although the Greco-Roman world was centered on the Mediterranean ... from c700 BC into the Roman period a series of explorers were to discover the entire Atlantic coast, north to Ireland, Scandinavia and the Baltic, and south into the African tropics."--Jacket
The geography of Strabo by Strabo( Book )
5 editions published between 2014 and 2015 in English and held by 292 WorldCat member libraries worldwide
"The Geography of Strabo is the only surviving work of its type in Greek literature, and the major source for the history of Greek scholarship on geography and the formative processes of the earth. In addition, this lengthy and complex work contains a vast amount of information on other topics, including the journey of Alexander the Great, cultic history, the history of the eastern Mediterranean in the first century BC, and women's history. Modern knowledge of seminal geographical authors such as Eratosthenes and Hipparchos relies almost totally on Strabo's use of them. This is the first complete English translation in nearly a century, and the first to make use of recent scholarship on the Greek text itself and on the history of geography. The translation is supplemented by a detailed discussion of Strabo's life and his purpose in writing the Geography, as well as the sources that he used."
Cleopatra's daughter : and other royal women of the Augustan era by Duane W Roller( Book )
9 editions published between 2017 and 2018 in English and Dutch and held by 257 WorldCat member libraries worldwide
A historical and topographical guide to the geography of Strabo by Duane W Roller( Book )
13 editions published between 2017 and 2018 in English and held by 182 WorldCat member libraries worldwide
"The story that the Argonauts returned home by means of the Istros (Danube) and the Adriatic (see 1.2.10) meant that there were also relics in those areas, some of which were mentioned by Kallimachos. He placed the Argonauts in the Aegean (Anaphe, an island east of Thera where they landed [Apollonios 4.1717]), Thessaly (called Haimonia), and on the Istrian (Histrian) peninsula, where the pursuing Kolchians founded Pola (modern Pula in Croatia). Such a return for the Argo is based on the idea that the Istros split into two branches, one to the Black Sea and the other to the Adriatic, a geographical improbability first mentioned in the fourth century BC (Pseudo-Skylax 20; Aristotle, Research on Animals 7[8].13). The idea may have come through erroneous understanding of the complex river systems of the region, the fact that tributaries of the Danube are within 20 km. of the Adriatic in Croatia, and the similarity of the names Istros (the river) and Histria (the peninsula)"
Early travellers in Eastern Boiotia by Duane W Roller( Book )
7 editions published in 1988 in English and Undetermined and held by 124 WorldCat member libraries worldwide
Tanagran studies by Duane W Roller( Book )
11 editions published in 1989 in English and Undetermined and held by 53 WorldCat member libraries worldwide
11 editions published in 1989 in English and Undetermined and held by 52 WorldCat member libraries worldwide
Sources and documents on Tanagra in Boiotia by Duane W Roller( Book )
The prosopography of Tanagra in Boiotia by Duane W Roller( Book )
An archaeological survey in the heel of Italy : the work of the Southern Messapia survey, 1989-1997 by Duane W Roller( Book )
Scholarly kings : the writings of Juba II of Mauretania, Archelaos of Kappadokia, Herod the Great, and the Emperor Claudius by Duane W Roller( Book )
Cleopatra by Duane W Roller( )
Eratosthenes' Geography by Duane W Roller( Book )
Audience level: 0.22 (from 0.05 for The buildi ... to 0.96 for Eratosthen ...)
Eratosthenes Author
McGill University (Montréal)
Eratosthenes ca. v276/273-194 Author
Wikipedia Duane W. Roller
Africa--Mauretania (Kingdom) Antiquities Architecture Architecture, Ancient Architecture, Roman Architecture, Roman--Influence Architecture--Roman influences Atlantic Ocean Bookplates Civilization Classical antiquities Classical geography Cleopatra,--Queen, consort of Juba II, King of Mauretania, Cleopatra,--Queen of Egypt, Discovery and exploration, Greek Discovery and exploration, Roman Early printed books Egypt Emperors' writings Excavations (Archaeology) Geography Geography, Ancient Geography (Strabo) George,--of Trebizond, Greece--Tanagra (Extinct city) Greece--Voiōtia Herod--I,--King of Judea, History History, Ancient Incunabula Inscriptions, Greek Israel Italy Italy--Salentina Peninsula Juba--II,--King of Mauretania, Kings and rulers Learning and scholarship Mediterranean Region Messapii Middle East--Palestine Names, Personal Names, Personal--Greek Paul--II,--Pope, Physical geography Queens Rome (Empire) Strabo Travel Travelers
Roller, Duane 1946-
롤러, 두에인 W. 1946-


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3 Love Beads Antique Bronze Love Charm 10 x 8 by FindingsKeepers
Word Love BeadDouble Sided Charms 3 spacer beads 10 x 8 x 2 mmAntique Bronze Tone Zinc Alloy Metal, Lead-Free Nickle FreeWorldwide Flat Rate Combined ShippingShips From The United StatesI Ship Next Day, I do Not Ship On Weekends or Holidays, Purchases Made On These Days Will Be Shipped Next Business Day.Click On Link To See MoreJewelry Making Supplieswww.etsy.com/shop/FindingsKeepers Meet the owner of FindingsKeepers
3 Love Beads, Antique Bronze Love Charm, 10 x 8 mm - bz 040
Craft type: BeadingPrimary color: BronzeBead size: 10 MillimetersBead hole size: 2 MillimetersShape: LetterDrill style: Side drilledPatterned: YesMixed lot: NoFusible: NoMaterials: Antique Bronze Tone Zinc Alloy Metal, Lead Free Nickle Free, Please Read Full Description, Combined Shipping, Ships From The United StatesShips worldwide from United StatesFeedback: 4621 reviewsFavorited by: 389 people
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Difference between revisions of "King's Marsh, Cheshire Genealogy" Genealogy - FamilySearch Wiki
Difference between revisions of "King's Marsh, Cheshire Genealogy"
Revision as of 21:47, 2 January 2013 (view source)
Revision as of 18:22, 18 March 2013 (view source)
Kings Marsh parish registers of christenings, marriages and burials have been indexed by the following groups:
| bgcolor="#ffffcc" align="center" scope="col" colspan="7" | '''Kings Marsh Parish Online Records'''
Revision as of 18:22, 18 March 2013
England Cheshire Cheshire Parishes King's Marsh
Kings Marsh parish registers of christenings, marriages and burials have been indexed by the following groups:
Kings Marsh Parish Online Records
Retrieved from "https://www.familysearch.org/wiki/en/index.php?title=King%27s_Marsh,_Cheshire_Genealogy&oldid=1273243"

value: This website is a nonprofit organization and website offering genealogical records, education, and software. It is operated by The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints , and is closely connected with the church's Family History Department.


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Vessel (503)
Find out if your remodeling dreams fit your budget reality.Try the Real Cost Finder 5,002 romantic bathroom decorating ideas Bath Design Photos
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Ideabooks3,724	Questions4	the idea of having a towel warmer in the master bath.Modern bathroom...finally a bathroom I love...brown bathroom...Towel warmer of guest bathroom...Main bathroom...Bathroom layout...Classy bathroom...Master suite bathroom...Bathroom WARM...Bathroom colorsCabinets — amgeorge38 Embed
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Ideabooks5,467	Questions11	Gorgeous bathroom! Could you please share details on the tiles. Thx.often as other stones in bathroom design. Bookmark this ideabook to help with your next bathroom renovation.Full story: Bathroom Workbook: 7 Natural StonesSimilar to limestone and travertine, around $5 per square foot.More: 5 Common Bathroom Design Mistakes to Avoidits own unique characteristics and strengths, worth considering for your bathroom floors, countertops and walls.” — Shana EckerI don’t think I knew enoughbathroom tiles, edges of bath and tilesTub — knitlibrarina Embed
6	HELP! Need color and decorating ideas for my new Master Bathroom!	Here is my new Master Bath.... I will be adding a chandelier (when I pick it out..lol) I'm not sure what color to go with... Help!!!!
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Women qualifying for full state pension 'to double by 2030' | Daily Mail Online
Women qualifying for full state pension 'to double by 2030'
Updated: 08:01 EDT, 28 October 2011
Pension reforms will ensure 95 per cent women retire on the full basic state pension by 2030 – more than double today's figure, according to new data.
It will be a major fillip to millions of women under 47 who, along with men, are being told they'll have to wait longer before they can claim their old age benefits.
In addition, ninety-five in a hundred new women pensioners should receive a higher, ‘flat-rate' payment at around £140 a week in today's prices.
Pension boost: Around 95 per cent of women retiring in 2030 will get the full state pension payout, the ONS says
Just 52 per cent of women retiring this year will receive the full £102.15 a week - well down on the 87 per cent of retired men who get the full whack.
Crucial changes to the rules, introduced in April 2010, will shrink the gap over the next two decades, the Office for National Statistics says.
Until last year, women needed 39 years of full National Insurance records and men 44.
Now, just 30 years are required for both sexes and the state has relaxed its policy on those caring for children or taking career breaks, making it easiser to build up entitlement.
As a growing number of pensioners qualify for the full basic payout, state pension costs will soar to to £142billion, or 6.1 per cent of GDP, from the £84billion (5.7 per cent of GDP) today, the ONS says.
Pension saving at 55-year low as just one in seven workers pay into their company scheme
Why women lose out
Women often take career breaks to raise children or work part-time. This means they've traditionally struggled to build up the 39 years needed for the full basic payout.
Some 3.6million women receive less than the maximum out of 7.5million who are passed the state pension age of 61.
A huge 31 per cent of women pensioners receive less than £61.30 a week from the state, compared with just 2 per cent of men.
Some 1.2million women are saved by the benefit net that ensures all pensioners have at least £137.35 or £209.70 for a couple.
Yet those with even meagre savings lose out due to strict means testing. The Department for Work and Pensions says many who would qualify don't claim - either because they're unaware or their rights or are too proud to go cap in hand to the state.
A number of women also get a reduced weekly payment because they only qualify through their husband's pension.
The 'married woman's stamp', not available to new applicants since 1977, allowed them to build up entitlement to 60 per cent of their husband's payout in exchange for lower National Insurance contributions.
Big rule changes will help
Things are changing radically. Firstly, the pension rules were altered in 2010 so that both men and women need just 30 qualifying years of national insurance contributions to get the full basic payout.
The new terms also made it easier for those ‘caring for others' to build up entitlements via credits.
And a rising state pension age, which for women will have jumped from 60 to 66 by 2020, will provide more opportunity to fill gaps in National Insurance records.
All told, the ONS says 95 per cent of women retiring in 2030 will get the full basic state pension.
Current pensions minister Steve Webb is also drawing up plans for a flat-rate state pension. This would scrap pension credits and the State Second Pension (a top up to the basic amount based on earnings) and provide around £140 a week to all those with 30 qualifying years. It is not expected to be introduced before 2015, though.
Unfortunately, anyone already claiming will not see any benefit from the rule changes.

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434 House - modern - laundry room - san francisco - by Diebel and Company | Architectural Studio
by Diebel and Company | Architectural StudioBurlingame, CA, US 94011 · 13 photos	434 House
jeristaley wrote:	Please tell me the manufacturer of these appliances. Mahalo! »	Like
Show 1 more comment	jeristaley	I am grateful.	3 days ago ·	Like
Diebel and Company | Architectural Studio	The washer and dryer are ASKO.	2 days ago ·	Like
added by 73vwthing to 73vwthing's ideas (4 weeks ago)Full glass windowadded by colindyl to colindyl's ideas (4 months ago)Top cabinet style - deeper sides	browse over 1,500,000 home design photos on houzz	Photos in 434 House	379 modern laundry room photos	Style
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