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One Heart to Win book by Johanna Lindsey | 9 available editions | Alibris Books
Hidden identities, family feuds, and a love that will never die... Some young ladies marry for money and social standing, a few lucky ones marry for love, but Tiffany Warren is marrying to end a feud. The quarrel between the Warrens and the Callahans has to be resolved, but when Tiffany reluctantly travels west to meet rancher Hunter Callahan she finds herself being kidnapped by the enemy family. Hunter, a handsome, sweet-talking charmer whom she has to fight off because he can't keep his eyes-or his hands-off her, is ... Read More
Hidden identities, family feuds, and a love that will never die... Some young ladies marry for money and social standing, a few lucky ones marry for love, but Tiffany Warren is marrying to end a feud. The quarrel between the Warrens and the Callahans has to be resolved, but when Tiffany reluctantly travels west to meet rancher Hunter Callahan she finds herself being kidnapped by the enemy family. Hunter, a handsome, sweet-talking charmer whom she has to fight off because he can't keep his eyes-or his hands-off her, is unaware of Tiffany's true identity. But as Hunter goes about claiming his rightful bride-to-be, he knows that he has only one heart to win... Read Less
ISBN 1476714282
ISBN-13 9781476714288
Alibris ID 14489380786
Alibris ID 14525486745
Alibris ID 14546451386
ISBN 141045830X
ISBN-13 9781410458308
Alibris ID 13959749188
ISBN 1476739188
ISBN-13 9781476739182
Alibris ID 13744220573
Alibris ID 14175604313
Alibris ID 14521590269
Alibris ID 14157908719
Alibris ID 14368387755
ISBN-13 9781476714264
Alibris ID 14185660506
ISBN-13: 9781624605321
ISBN-13: 9781624605338

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text:
The history of Ulaanbaatar, the capital of Mongolia, dates to 1639 when it was first established as a moveable monastery.
4 Mobile monastery
5 Urga and the Kyakhta Trade
6 Communist era
7 Democratic revolution
8 2008 protests
Human habitation at the site of Ulaanbaatar dates from the Lower Paleolithic. Alexey Okladnikov's archeological work in 1949 and 1960 revealed many Paleolithic sites on Mt. Bogd Khan Uul, Buyant-Ukhaa and Mt. Songinokhairkhan. In 1962 various Paleolithic tools were discovered at Mt. Songinokhairkhan as well as Buyant-Ukhaa (23 stone tools) that scholars date from 300,000 years ago to 40,000-12,000 years ago. Okladnikov also revealed an Upper Paleolithic (40,000-12,000 years ago) site on the south-east base of the Zaisan Hill on the northern edge of Mt. Bogd Khan Uul. Byambyn Rinchen mentions it as an inspiration for his prehistoric novel Zaan Zaluudai. The lower strata of this bistratified settlement located at the present-day Zaisan Memorial revealed tools and materials fashioned according to the Levallois technique. These Upper Paleolithic people hunted mammoth and woolly rhinoceros, the bones of which are found abundantly around Ulaanbaatar.
To the north of Ulaanbaatar there are the vast Noin-Ula Xiongnu (Hunnu) royal tombs which are over 2,000 years old. A Xiongnu tomb has been found in Chingeltei district. The Xiongnu tombs of Belkh Gorge near Dambadarjaalin monastery are under city protection. The Xiongnu tombs of Mount Songinokhairkhan however are under national protection. Wooden cups, plates, ceramic vessels and a 12 branch deer horn were found in the "Xiongnu Queen Tomb" (Hunnu Khatni Bulsh) at the Baruun Boginiin Am gorge of Mount Bogd Khan Uul. Six tombs around this tomb show signs of ancient looting. The Wuhuan carried out large scale looting of Xiongnu tombs in 87-74 BC. Located on the banks of the sacred Tuul River ("Khatun Tuul" or Queen Tuul in legend), the area of Ulaanbaatar was well within the sphere of nomadic empires such as the Xiongnu (Hunnu) (209BC-93AD), Xianbei (Sumbe) (93AD-4th century), Rouran (Nirun) (402-555), Göktürk (555-745), Uighur (745-840), Khitan (907-1125) and Mongol Empire (1206–1368). At Nalaikh District there is the important Stele of Tonyukuk (c. 722 AD) with an Old Turkic inscription in the Orkhon alphabet.
Wang Khan Toghrul (1130-1203) of the Keraites, a Nestorian Christian monarch who was identified as the legendary Prester John by Marco Polo, is said to have had his palace here (the Black Forest of the Tuul River) and forbade hunting in the holy mountain Bogd Uul. The ruins of his palace (15x27 metres with a gate facing south) was found in Songinokhairkhan District in 1949 and excavated by D. Navaan in 2006. This brick palace influenced by Chinese architecture, later also called the Third Palace of Genghis Khan or Yesui Khatun's palace, is where Genghis Khan stayed with Yesui Khatun before attacking the Tangut in 1226. A drainage channel carried roof water out through the east and west gates of the complex. In 2003 Japanese and Koreans made special programs about this palace where many important events of Genghis Khan's life took place. Genghis Khan's father Yesukhei became blood brothers with Toghrul here and later Genghis Khan himself became son of Toghrul at this place.
In 1984 a rich 13th century tomb of a 50- to 60-year-old, 175 cm (69 in) tall warrior with an ornate golden belt was excavated at Dadart Uul of Mt. Songinokhairkhan. He was buried with a sheep scapula, a dagger with iron blade and wooden handle, a 65 cm (26 in) bark quiver with three iron arrows inside, two light curved stirrups (13th century type) and remains of a cast iron tripod cauldron. His highly ornate belt composed of 39 parts with a scarab at his right hip has led to speculations this is the tomb of Jamukha. A simple 13th century rock painting of a Mongolian woman with distinct Mongolian headdress can be seen on the north side of Mt Bogd Khan Uul. Abtai Sain Khan is said to have worshipped the mountain in the 16th century as well. The French missionary Gerbillon camped at the site of Ulaanbaatar on August 5, 1698 and continued north the next day along the Selbe River valley (present-day Sukhbaatar District). He says in his Journal:
On the 5th, we made fifty li, which should actually be reduced to thirty-five li (17km), West-North-West, because of a big detour we made in the mountains, holding to the south and south-west to avoid the marshes of the plains. We camped on the banks of the Tula, which separates into many branches, still ornamented by beautiful trees. On the way we passed many streams that empty into the River, and for a distance of about thirty li, we followed the edge of a high mountain, called Han-alin (Mount Bogd Khan Uul), covered by a grand forest of pine and fir trees, full of bears, wild boars and deer. We camped in the valley that is at the foot of this mountain, on the bank of the same River.[1]
The Manchu envoy Tulišen wrote an account of his travels through this region in 1712, describing how his party rested and fished ten to twenty salmon and pike in the river "Tu-la" while one Ko-tcha-eur-too killed a deer with a gun in the "Han-shan" (i.e., Khan Uul). He also describes the "rich and luxuriant" nature around the "Sung-kee-na" mountains (i.e., Mount Songino Khairkhan).[2] Before Khalkha Mongolian nobles went and pledged allegiance to the Manchu emperor at Dolon Nor (formerly Kublai Khan's summer capital Xanadu) in 1691, the area of present-day Ulaanbaatar was under the control of Tusheet Khan Chakhundorj the brother of Zanabazar. In 1691 Chakhundorj's eldest son Galdandorj was given the title Jun Wang at Dolon Nor and given the area of present-day Ulaanbaatar. From that time onwards it became a clearly demarcated hereditary princedom called the Darkhan Chin Wangiin Khoshuu (Banner of the Darkhan Chin Wang). The Banner was centered on Mount Bogd Khan Uul and its boundaries are described in historical records of the period.[3] Galdandorj (1691-1692) was the first Darkhan Chin Wang. His successors are: his eldest son Dondovdorj (1692-1743), Rinchendorj (1743-1755), Khajivdorj (1757-1759), Gejeedorj (1759-1771), Tsevdendorj (1771-1774), Sundevdorj (1774-1798), Nyambuudorj (1799-1832) all the way till Darkhan Chin Wang Puntsagtseren (1914-1921). Starting from 1728 till 1921 the 21 banners of Tusheet Khan Aimag held the "Khan Uuliin Chuulgan" (Assembly of Khan Uul) every three years at the north side of Mount Bogd Khan Uul, the site of Ulaanbaatar. The Assembly discussed a wide range of issues including finances, military census, livestock tax and legal issues. There were 26 Presidents of the Khan Uul Assembly starting from Tusheet Khan Vanjildorj (1728-1732) till Puntsagtseren (1914-1921). There were also a total 30 Deputy Presidents or Speakers.[4] The 2nd Jebtsundamba Khutuktu was born at Mount Songinokhairkhan in present-day Ulaanbaatar in 1724 as the son of Darkhan Chin Wang Dondovdorj and Tsagaan Dari Bayart. Dondovdorj carried the titles Jun Wang, Darkhan Chin Wang, Khoshoi Chin Wang and Efu and also sat on the Tusheet Khan throne for two years (1700-1702). He played a part in bringing Urga inside his banner territory. From 1733 to 1743 he was both the Said (Minister-governor) of Urga and the President of the Khan Uul Assembly. One of his wives was Amarlingui Hichiyengui the 6th daughter of the Kangxi Emperor whom he received in marriage in 1697. Her tomb the Gunj Temple (1740) is partially intact in the forests north-east of Ulaanbaatar. Dondovdorj, an accomplished poet, composed the song "Tumen Ekh" praising a race horse.[5] In 1696 Zanabazar and the Khalkha Mongolian nobles returned from Dolon Nor and camped at the north side of Mount Bogd Khan Uul. The gorge where khans and princes camped was called Tur Khurakhyn Am (State Gathering Gorge) while the one where monks and abbots camped was named Shajin Khurakhyn Am (Religion Gathering Gorge). Nobles and lamas continued to meet at this place for the next 330 years. Nukhtiin Am, on the south of Ulaanbaatar, was where Zanabazar (1635-1723) consecrated and meditated under a tree called Janchivsembe, the shadow of which was used to choose the location of Gandan Monastery in 1838.
3000-year-old Bronze Age red ochre paintings.
Engraving of N.A. Charushin's panorama photo of the old center of Urga from trip (1888) with Potanin
Founded in 1639 as a yurt monastery, Ulaanbaatar, then Örgöö (palace-yurt), was first located at Lake Shireet Tsagaan nuur (75 km directly east of the imperial capital Karakorum) in what is now Burd sum, Övörkhangai, around 230 kilometres (143 miles) south-west from the present site of Ulaanbaatar, and was intended by the Mongol nobles to be the seat of the first Jebtsundamba Khutughtu, Zanabazar, son of Tusheet Khan Gombodorj (1597-1655). Gombodorj was the grandson of Abtai Sain Khan (1554-1588) the grandson of Gersenz Jalair Huangtaizi (1513-1549) the youngest son of Dayan Khan (1464-1517/1543?) the 29th Great Khan and descendant of Kublai Khan (1215-1294). Zanabazar (1635-1723), known as a child prodigy able to recite the Jambaltsanjod (praise of Manjusri) at age three, was enstated in Urga in 1639. His Urga (palatial residence) was known as the Shira Busiin Ord (Yellow Screen Palace). There he was proclaimer "teacher of multitudes", ordained by high lama Wensa Brulgu Luvsandanzanjamts and received the name Luvsandambiijaltsan (Blo-bzang-bstan-pa'i-rgyal-mtshan). In 1651 Zanabazar returned to Mongolia from Tibet and founded seven aimags (monastic departments) in Urga. They were the Department of the Treasury, Department of Administration, Department of Meals, Department of the Honored Doctor, Department of Amdo, Department of Orlog and the Department of Khuukhen Noyon. In his old age he established four more monastic departments in Urga.
As a mobile monastery-town, it was often moved to various places along the Selenge, Orkhon and Tuul rivers, as supply and other needs would demand. During the Dzungar wars of the late 17th century, it was even moved to Inner Mongolia.[6] As the city grew, it moved less and less.[7] The movements of the city can be detailed as following: Shireet Tsagaan Nuur (1639), Khoshoo Tsaidam (1640), Khentii Mountains (1654), Ogoomor (1688), Inner Mongolia (1690), Tsetserlegiin Erdene Tolgoi (1700), Daagandel (1719), Usan Seer (1720), Ikh Tamir (1722), Jargalant (1723), Eeven Gol (1724), Khujirtbulan (1729), Burgaltai (1730), Sognogor (1732), Terelj (1733), Uliastai River (1734), Khui Mandal (1736), Khuntsal (1740), Udleg (1742), Ogoomor (1743), Selbe (1747), Uliastai River (1756), Selbe (1762), Khui Mandal (1772), Selbe (1778). In 1778, the city moved from Khui Mandal and settled for good at its current location, near the confluence of the Selbe and Tuul rivers and beneath Bogd Khan Uul, back then also on the caravan route from Beijing to Kyakhta.[8] One of the earliest Western mentions of Urga is the account of the Scottish traveller John Bell in 1721:
In regard to our commerce with China, it is, at present, in a very languishing condition; and nothing in the world would bring more prejudice to our caravans, than the commerce which is carried on at Urga; for from this place is brought, monthly, even weekly, to Pekin, not only the same sorts of goods which our caravans bring, but of a better quality than those brought by our caravans; and in so great quantities, that the merchandises which the merchants of Pekin, who go continually between Pekin and Urga to trade with our people, and the goods which the lamas of the Mongols bring from their parts, amount every year to four or five times as much value as the caravans that come to Pekin in the name of his Czarish Majesty.[10]
By the time of Zanabazar's death in 1723 Urga had already become the preeminent monastery in Mongolia in terms of religious authority. A council of seven of the highest ranking lamas (Khamba Nomon Khan, Ded Khamba and five Tsorj) made most of the religious decisions in the city. It had also become the commercial center of Outer Mongolia. From 1733 till 1778 Urga basically moved around in the vicinity of its present location. In 1754 the Erdene Shanzodba Yam (Administration of Ecclesiastical Estate) of Urga was given full authority to supervise the administrative affairs of the shabinar (lay subjects of the Bogd). It also functioned and would continue to function as the chief judicial court of the city. Sunduvdorj was the Erdene Shanzodba at this time. In 1758 the Qianlong Emperor appointed the Khalkha Vice General Sanzaidorj as the first Mongol amban of Urga with full authority to "oversee the Khuree and administer well all the Khutugtu's shabinar".[11] In 1761 a second amban was appointed for the same purpose, a Manchu one. In 1786 a decree was issued in Peking which gave right to the Urga ambans to make final decisions concerning the administrative affairs of Tusheet Khan and Setsen Khan territories. With this, Urga became the highest civil authority in the country. Based on Urga's Mongol governor Sanzaidorj's petition the Qianlong Emperor officially recognized an annual ceremony on Mt. Bogd Khan Uul in 1778 and provided the annual imperial donations. The city was the seat not only of the Jebtsundamba Khutugtus, but also of two Qing ambans, and a Chinese trade town grew "four trees" or 4.24 km (2.63 mi) east of the city center at the confluence of the Uliastai and Tuul rivers. This trade district was kept at a distance in order not to block the way of pilgrims or defile the holy city (as demanded by the 4th Bogd Jebtsundamba). It had agricultural fields and artificial lakes. The Chinese had large, beautifully decorated shops selling different articles. A pair of highly ornate 11 metre tall inscribed columns (1783) standing in front of the surviving Dari Ekh Temple (1778) in the former Maimaicheng district is now under national protection. The large store Nomtiin Puus (Shop of the Pious Merchant) and ruins of another old Chinese shop are still visible. There were 14 temples in Maimaicheng: 8 Chinese and 6 Mongolian, including the Kunz Bogdiin Sum (Confucius Temple), Odon Sum (Astrological Temple), Tsagaan Malgaitiin Sum (White Hat Mosque of Chinese Muslims), Dari Ehiin Sum (Guanyin Temple), Geser Sum (Guandi Temple), Erleg Khaani Sum (Temple of the Lord of Death), Erliiziin Sum (Temple of the Mixed-Ethnicity People) and Urchuudiin Sum (Temple of Craftsmen). A Zargachiin Yam (Chamber of Judges) located east of the Chinese mosque handled legal affairs of the Chinese.
Since 1778 Urga may have had around 10,000 monks. They were regulated by a monastic rule called the Internal Rule of the Grand Monastery or Yeke Kuriyen-u Doto'adu Durem (for example, in 1797 a decree of the 4th Jebtsundamba forbade "singing, playing with archery, myagman, chess, usury and smoking"). Executions were forbidden where the holy temples of the Bogd Jebtsundama could be seen, so capital punishment was carried out a certain distance away from the city. In 1839 the 5th Bogd Jebtsundamba moved his residence to Gandan Hill, an elevated position to the west of the Baruun Damnuurchin markets. A part of the city was moved to nearby Tolgoit. The reason given for this move was that prevailing north-western winds brought the impure air of the Baruun Damnuurchin markets (known for its many Chinese and Russian shops as well as brothels) onto the inviolably sacred area of the Bogd Jebtsundamba's Zuun Khuree temple complex, located just to the east of the markets. Despite this, in 1855 the part of the camp that moved to Tolgoit was brought back to its 1778 location and the 7th Bogd Jebtsundamba moved back to the Zuun Khuree permanently. The Gandan Monastery flourished as a center of philosophical studies (tsanid). Women were not allowed to enter the area and its Yellow Hat monks were forbidden to go to the lay quarters (khoroo) where Red Hat sect monks freely took wives. Urga was visited by many foreign envoys and travelers, including Egor Fedorovich Timkovskii (1820), N.M.Przhevalsky, Pyotr Kozlov, M. De Bourbolon (1860) and A.M. Pozdneev. The Russian embassy of 130 persons which arrived in Urga in January 1806 included Count Yury Golovkin, Count Jan Potocki, Julius Klaproth and Andrey Yefimovich Martynov.[12] In 1863 the Russian Consulate of Urga was opened in a newly built two-storey building on Consul Hill. A small onion-domed Chapel of the Holy Trinity was opened the same year. There were protests from some Urga monks who complained that the Consulate on Consul Hill was higher than the sacred pole of the Bogd Jebtsundamba. Most of the major Mongolian khans and nobles had representative residence quarters in Urga located in the south-east and south-west khoroo lay quarters which they occasionally visited. The south-west lay quarters also included the Tibetan and Buryat quarters and had a number of Red Hat temples, shamanic shrines as well as Yellow Hat temples. The quarters (Amban Khan Khoroo) of the Mongol and Manchu governors of Urga were located in the Zuun Omnod Khoroo (Southeast Khoroo) lay quarters.
1913 color photo of Dechingalav temple (1739). To its right is the smaller golden roof of the Abtai Khan ger temple (1585). To the left is the Maidar temple (1833) and edge of the big Bat Tsagaan temple (1654).
1874 photo (flipped horizontally) of the Dechingalav, Maidar, Bat Tsagaan and Abtai Khan temples in central Urga.
Painting of Urga (flipped horizontally) showing Gandan and Zuun Khuree. Dates to 1809-1833 (between founding of Gandan and construction of the Maidar temple).
Maidar Temple (1833) of Zuun Khuree in Urga photographed in 1913.
1913 color photo of Gandan Monastery.
1913 color photo of the ceremonial Gate of Zuun Khuree.
1913 color photo of Mongol Lamas of Zuun Khuree wearing Buddhist robes/togas.
1913 photo of monks on Tasgan Hill facing the city to the south.
1913 photo of Mongol woman next to the Khais (hedge fence) of Zuun Khuree.
By 1908[13] there was a Russian quarter with a few hundred merchants and a Russian club and informal Russian mayor. East of the main town was the Russian consulate built in 1863 with an Orthodox church, post office and 20 Cossack guards. It was fortified in 1900 and briefly occupied by troops during the Boxer Rebellion. There was a telegraph line north to Kyakhta and southeast to Kalgan and weekly postal service along these routes. Beyond the Russian consulate was the Chinese trading post called Maimaicheng and nearby the palace of the Manchu viceroy. With the growth of Western trade at the Chinese ports the tea trade to Russia declined, some Chinese merchants left and wool became the main export. Manufactured goods still came from Russia but most were now brought from Kalgan by caravan. The annual trade was estimated at 25 million rubles, nine tenths in Chinese hands and one tenth Russian.
The Moscow trade expedition of the 1910s estimated the population of Urga at 60,000 based on Nikolay Przhevalsky's study in the 1870s.[14] The city's population swelled during the Naadam festival and major religious festivals to more than 100,000. In 1919 the number of monks had reached 20,000, up from 13,000 in 1810.[14] In 1910 the amban Sando went to quell a major fight between Gandan lamas and Chinese traders started by an incident at the Da Yi Yu shop in the Baruun Damnuurchin market district. He was unable to bring the lamas under control and was forced to flee back to his quarters. In 1911, with the Qing Dynasty in China headed for total collapse, Mongolian leaders in Ikh Khüree for Naadam met in secret on Mount Bogd Khan Uul and resolved to end 220 years of Manchu control of their country. On December 29, 1911 the 8th Jeptsundamba Khutughtu was declared ruler of an independent Mongolia and assumed the title Bogd Khan.[7] Khüree as the seat of the Jebtsundamba Khutugtu was the logical choice for the capital of the new state. However, in the tripartite Kyakhta agreement of 1915 (between Russia, China, Mongolia), Mongolia's status was changed to mere autonomy. In 1919, Mongolian nobles, over the opposition of the Bogd Khan, agreed with the Chinese resident Chen Yi on a settlement of the "Mongolian question" along Qing-era lines, but before this settlement could be put into effect, Khüree was occupied by the troops of Chinese warlord Xu Shuzheng, who forced the Mongolian nobles and clergy to renounce autonomy completely.
In 1921 the city changed hands twice. First, in February 4, 1921, a mixed Russian/Mongolian force led by White Russian warlord Roman von Ungern-Sternberg captured the city, freeing the Bogd Khan from Chinese imprisonment and killing a part of the Chinese garrison. Baron Ungern's capture of Urga was followed by clearing out Mongolia's small gangs of demoralized Chinese soldiers and, at the same time, looting and murder of foreigners, including a vicious pogrom that killed off the[15][16][17] Jewish community. On February 22, 1921 the Bogd Khan was once again elevated the Great Khan of Mongolia in Urga.[18] However, at the same time Baron Ungern was taking control of Urga, a Soviet-supported Communist Mongolian force led by Damdin Sükhbaatar was forming up in Russia, and in March they crossed the border. Ungern and his men rode out in May to meet Red Russian and Red Mongolian troops, but suffered a disastrous defeat in June.[19] In July the Communist Soviet-Mongolian army became the second conquering force in six months to enter Urga. Mongolia came to the control of the Soviet Russia. On October 29, 1924 the town was renamed to Ulaanbaatar (Mongolian "red hero"), by the advice of T.R. Ryskulov, the Soviet representative in Mongolia.
In the socialist period, and especially following the Second World War, most of the old ger districts were replaced by Soviet-style blocks of flats, often financed by the Soviet Union. Urban planning began in the 1950s, and most of the city today is the result of construction from 1960 to 1985.[20] The Transmongolian Railway, connecting Ulaanbaatar with Moscow and Beijing, was completed in 1956, and cinemas, theaters, museums etc. were erected. On the other hand, most of the temples and monasteries of pre-socialist Khüree were destroyed following the anti-religious purges of the late 1930s. The Gandan monastery was reopened in 1944 when US Vice President Henry Wallace asked to see a monastery during his visit to Mongolia.
Ulaanbaatar was the site of demonstrations that led to Mongolia's transition to democracy and market economy in 1990. On December 10, 1989, protesters outside the Youth Culture Centre called for Mongolia to implement perestroika and glasnost in their full sense. Dissident leaders demanded free elections and economic reform. On January 14, 1990 the protesters, having grown from two hundred to over a thousand, met at the Lenin Museum in Ulaanbaatar. A demonstration in Sükhbaatar Square on Jan. 21 followed. Afterwards, weekend demonstrations in January and February were held accompanied by the forming of Mongolia's first opposition parties. On March 7, ten dissidents assembled in Sükhbaatar Square and went on a hunger strike. Thousands of supporters joined them. More came on March 8, and the crowd grew more unruly; seventy people were injured and one killed. On March 9 the communist Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party government resigned. The provisional government announced Mongolia's first free elections, which were held in July. The MPRP won the election and resumed power.[21]
2008 protests[edit]
Main article: 2008 riot in Mongolia
In 2008, Ulaanbaatar was the scene of riots after the Mongolian Democratic, Civic Will Party and Republican parties disputed the Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party's victory in the parliamentary elections. Approximately 30,000 people took part in a public meeting led by the opposition parties. After the meeting was over some protestors left the central square and moved on to the nearby headquarters of the Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party, attacking and burning the building. A police station was also attacked.[22] At night rioters set fire to the Cultural Palace, where a theatre, museum and National art gallery were vandalised and burned. Torched cars,[23] bank robberies and looting were reported.[22] The organisations in the burning buildings were vandalised and looted. Police used tear gas, rubber bullets and water cannons against stone-throwing protestors.[22] A four-day state of emergency was declared, the capital was placed under a 22:00 to 08:00 curfew, and alcohol sales banned,[24] following which measures rioting did not resume.[25] Five people were killed and hundreds arrested by the police during the suppression of the riots. Human rights groups expressed concerns about the handling of this unprecedented incident by the authorities.[26][27]
After the Oyu Tolgoi investment agreement was signed in 2009 the first phase of the Mongolian mining boom started. Ulaanbaatar as the capital of the country came to be labelled one of the world's top frontier investment destinations. From 2009 to 2012 Ulaanbaatar's position rapidly rose in the investment world. Miners and bankers flocked to the city as construction and other sectors boomed. In September 2011 Ulaanbaatar was featured on CNNGo TV - the same year Mongolia had the fastest GDP growth in the world at 17.3%. Developments in the Mongolian parliament in Ulaanbaatar came to be closely watched by foreign investors. The pace of growth slowed after the passing of SEFIL (Strategic Entities Foreign Investment Law) in 2012. Although the law was amended in 2013 the pace of growth has yet to return to previous boom levels. In the meantime Ulaanbaatar has been steadily increasing its international profile on a political and international relations level. Ulaanbaatar has been receiving regular OSCE delegations after Mongolia became a participating state of the Organization of Security and Cooperation in Europe in November 2012. In April 2013 Ulaanbaatar (as capital of the country holding presidency) successfully hosted the 7th Ministerial Conference of the Community of Democracies attended by 1,215 delegates from 104 countries. Aung San Suu Kyi was one of the attendees. It has also hosted the North Korea-Japan talks on abduction issues. In November 2013 Ulaanbaatar organized the first Meeting of Women Parliamentarians of Northeast Asian Countries. In June 2014 it hosted the first international conference of the Ulaanbaatar Dialogue on Northeast Asian Security. In August 2014 Ulaanbaatar hosted the Northeast Asian Mayors' Forum and became sister cities with Beijing. In August and September 2014 Ulaanbaatar was visited by both Xi Jinping and Vladimir Putin. In 2016 Ulaanbaatarwill host the 11th Asia Europe Meeting (ASEM Summit). Ulaanbaatar also started hosting international music concerts in large stadiums. Michael Learns to Rock, ONYX and the Korean K-pop group T-ara have all performed in Ulaanbaatar. Previously only little known Russian pop stars used to come. The city has become increasingly Anglophone and English signs are common on streets and billboards. Korean culture also has a strong influence in the city as reflected in the numerous Korean businesses in the city center and the adoption of Korean styles among a large number of urban youth. Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi visited Mongolia on 16 May 2015.[28]
^ "Мэдлэг". Asubi.Mn. 2011-05-23. Retrieved 2013-11-25.
^ "Khalkha Ochirbat Tusheet Khan Aimag". Asubi.mn. 2010-08-10. Retrieved 2013-11-24.
^ "Монгол ардын айзам уртын дуу ТҮМЭН ЭХ Төв Халхын уртын дууч Ч НАМЖИЛ". YouTube. 2012-11-07. Retrieved 2013-11-25.
^ a b From Khutagtiin Khuree to Niislel Khuree. Presentation of the Director of the General Archives Authority D. Ulziibaatar.
^ a b c "BBC.Mongolia calls state of emergency". BBC News. 2008-07-01. Retrieved 2012-04-18.
^ "ABC News.Mongolia clamps down after 5 killed in unrest". Abc.net.au. 2008-07-02. Retrieved 2012-04-18.
^ "Amnesty International Are the Mongolian Authorities getting away with murder?". Amnesty.org. 2009-01-15. Retrieved 2012-04-18.
^ [1] Archived January 6, 2011, at the Wayback Machine.
^ http://www.ndtv.com/india-news/pm-narendra-modi-arrives-in-mongolia-on-historic-visit-763646
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_Ulaanbaatar&oldid=857337450"
Histories of cities in Mongolia

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At the Gates of Darkness (Demonwar Saga Series #2) by Raymond E. Feist | NOOK Book (eBook) | Barnes & Noble® B&N's Biggest Books Books by Author Book Awards Books by Series Collectible Editions Coming Soon Coupons & Deals New Releases NY Times Bestsellers The Paperback Store Signed Books
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Insane necromancer Belasco called up and sent demons to destroy Midkemia. However, a shaky alliance between enemies, especially Pug the Black Sorcerer of Sorcerer's Isle and the Conclave of Shadows led by field agent James Jamison defeated the Demon King Maarg and his horde (see Maarg Rides a Dread Legion). Although they won that battle, the war is far from over as Belasco has other demonic contacts ready to fight. In the Valley of Lost Men, Belasco regroups with Dahun the demon as they unite in a level of dark magic never tried before. Still healing physically, they have no time to do so mentally especially to grieve for so many valiant, who died in their just cause, James warns the band of Midkemia protectors that the next battle has begun. James, Pug, Amirantha the necromancer, Brandos the warlock, Sandreena the Knight-Adamandt, the Star Elven siblings, and others set out to end the latest deadly threat; none of the brave heroes and heroines expect to come back alive. The second Demonwar fantasy is an exciting thriller that continues the latest demonic assault on Midkemia. The story line is fast-paced and fun to follow as the various cast of heroes and the two prime villains make their magical skills and species seem genuine. Well written even long time fans wondering when Pug will start receiving medicare will think two ways about Yogi Berra's comment "deja vu all over again" as Raymond E. Feist like Mantle and Maris hits back to back home runs though his saga has that sameness feel from the previous series. Still readers will enjoy the latest battle against the demon minion. Harriet Klausner
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Irish Fan Commands Navy Instead - The Washington Post
Irish Fan Commands Navy Instead
By Christine Brennan October 31, 1984
Leave it to Notre Dame. The Irish, no matter how mediocre they may have become on the football field, always seem to push a good story out of the woodwork.
Try this one. There's a kid, the son of Irish immigrants, growing up in California, near San Francisco. He ends up going to the Naval Academy, which is kind of strange.
He never dreamed of ships or jets or submarines. He dreamed of Notre Dame.
His hero was Joe Montana. He grew up watching the national championships, the miracle finishes, and he made up his mind. He was Catholic; he was, obviously, Irish. The only place he ever wanted to go to school was South Bend, Ind.
He was too tall and skinny to attract much attention in high school, even as the quarterback of an undefeated team, so he came to Navy, a place he says he does not love.
After practice ended last spring, this player, now a sophomore, was listed as the No. 6 quarterback on the team. His picture and biography were left out of the press guide. He was hoping to make his way to third team, so he could travel. "I wanted to go to the Notre Dame game that way," he said.
This Saturday at 12:20 p.m., when Navy (3-3-1) plays the Irish (4-4) at Giants Stadium in East Rutherford, N.J., Bill Byrne, this quarterback, will be at the game. He comes not as a bench warmer, but as Navy's most important player.
"This is just what I've been waiting for for years," Byrne said today before practice. "I just fell in love with the Irish. I wanted to go there so bad -- that was my lifelong dream. When I decided to go to Navy, I knew we played Notre Dame every year, and it got me fired up a little more."
This is only part of the story. Byrne, who has started every game for the Midshipmen in an up-and-down season, has a younger brother named Tom, also a quarterback. Naturally, he plays at Notre Dame. (Which means their parents are flying in from California for the reunion.) Actually, Tom is being redshirted this season, although the Irish consider him a top prospect.
Bill Byrne certainly was not when he arrived here from Pacifica, Calif. After a year at Navy Prep, he played for the junior varsity, running the other team's offense in practice last season. He didn't enjoy either year very much.
But, since the spring, two quarterbacks have quit and he has passed the other three. He has thrown for 1,340 yards on 98 completions in 194 attempts and has set a school record with 11 touchdown passes. Last week, in a dramatic 28-28 tie with Pittsburgh, he threw for 340 yards for another school mark.
Byrne was sitting in all black, having just arrived from class on his way to the field. He says he has answered the same questions "hundreds" of times now. He is almost getting famous.
Behind him, on a cream-colored stoneblock wall in the sports information department, simple frames surround Heisman trophy winners Joe Bellino and Roger Staubach as they peer out, in dress uniform, from respective Sports Illustrated covers. Leaning nearby are two crisp black-and-white pictures of tailback Napoleon McCallum, who was Navy's most important player until he broke his ankle in the second game of the season.
Images of Byrne are not nearly as permanent. In his opinion, his best play was the 60-yard touchdown pass to tailback Rich Clouse that won the opening game against North Carolina, 33-30. It was quite a way to start. His worst plays came last week against Pitt, he says, after he brought Navy back with two touchdowns in 13 seconds. He missed Clouse on a screen pass, then threw an interception on a drive that could have won the game.
When Navy Coach Gary Tranquill props his feet on his desk and is asked to compare Byrne to somebody else, he can't come up with an answer.
"He's a little bit unique in his delivery," Tranquill said. "In coaching terminology, he 'short-arms' the ball a little. He doesn't have a classic delivery."
Byrne has a tendency to drop his elbow as he brings the ball back. Coaches teach quarterbacks to keep their elbow above their shoulder as they throw. Byrne doesn't always do that.
Is Tranquill going to change that?
"I don't love it here at all," Byrne said frankly. "I'm putting up with it. I don't like the (social) restrictions I'm going through, but I know I'm making a sacrifice now so I'll be better off in the long run.
"I'd like the freedom my brothers have at their civilian colleges (older brother John is a starting defensive tackle at Oregon) and I'd like the social lives that they have. But I'm happy here."
He is even happier this week. Notre Dame excites him. "They're good, they're always good. Their defense is just nails. When my brother and I talk, I ask him about what's going on there (the .500 record). He is confused. The coaches are confused. Maybe they're not playing up to their potential, not playing as a team."
You don't have to tell this man to respect Notre Dame. However . . .
"We can beat Notre Dame, we definitely can beat Notre Dame if we don't commit any turnovers on offense and we don't beat ourselves," Byrne said. "If we execute, we definitely can beat Notre Dame. We can score on them offensively and our defense can stop them."
It's Notre Dame week. Anything is possible.

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murugesan | Electrical Engineering | Electricity
Uploaded by venkatmani1979
Name Father’s Name Date of Birth Gender Marital Status Nationality Religion Permanent Address : : : : : : : : D.MURUGESAN K.Dhandapani 30.01.1982 – 25 Yrs Male Unmarried Indian Hindu 7B, Vasaian Chettiar Street, Negamam Post, Pollachi Tk Coimbatore Dist. Tamil Nadu, INDIA English, Tamil & Cannada D.E.E.E ( Diploma in Electrical and Electronics Engg.) 84.33% & Fist class with Honours. April 2002 Since February 2003 PLC programming in PSG Polytechnic College Coimbatore. Certificate in computer Application in JKK Sampoooraniammal polytechnic, TN Palayam. EXPERIENCE : Name of the Company Designation Duration COMPANY PROFILE: This company Digital weighing scale, Electronic Counters, Digital Temperature controllers & Manufacturer. : M/s. Micro Electronics, : Service Executive : Sep 2004 to till date Mobile : 99650 63633 Venkatmani1979@yahoo.co.in
Languages Known Technical Qualification Percentage of Marks and Class Year of Completion Total Years of Experience Additional Qualification
JOB PROFILE 1. Maintenance of electronics weighing scale services 2. Digital temperature control service work 3. Digital counter service work. Name of the Company Designation Duration COMPANY PROFILE: This company is the Asia’s first Biomass Gasification based power plant. Indian institute of science, Bangalore, developed this technology. The plant has a power generation of 1 Mw capacity & export to TNEB grid. JOB PROFILE : 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Taking independent shift. Testing and maintenance of LT & HT Breaker and it’s relays. Design & modification of existing circuits as per the requirement. Taking preventive and breakdown maintenance in Transformer (capacity : 11kv/415v, 1.6 mva), synchronous generator (1.25 mva) and 11kv indoor type VCB and its auxiliaries. Optimizing manpower utilization. : M/s. Arashi Hi-Tech Bio Power (P) Ltd., Coimbatore. : Electrical Supervisor : May 2002 to Aug 2004
JOB EXPERIENCE: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Having an experience in grid paralleling to 11kv feeder. Having an experience in erection & commissioning of LT Breakers & MV panels. Having an experience in erection & commissioning of 1.25 MVA synchronous generator and it’s panels. Having an experience in 11 KV transformer erections and also its operation & maintenance. Erection of UG cables for HT ad LT Sides Having an experience in Earth pit erection. Having an Experience in erection and commissioning of motor and it’s panel boards. Having an experience in conveyor erection and maintenance Having an experience in erection and commissioning of 6 Nos. 380 KVA synchronous generator with prim over of gas engines and it’s panels. Declaration I hereby declare that, the information given by me are true to the best of my knowledge and belief. Yours Sincerely (D.MURUGESAN)
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Amazon.co.uk: Profile For SKenna: Reviews
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Q Connect Telephone Message Book 400 Messages Duplicate
4.0 out of 5 stars I would still recommend it, 21 May 2014
This review is from: Q Connect Telephone Message Book 400 Messages Duplicate (Office Product)
This is excellent for recording messages and keeping a permanent copy to refer back too. Unfortunately the cardboard to separate the pages is a little thin and so the message transfers to the next page hence the 4 star ratting. However I would still recommend because it covers every need to record a message but I would suggest using a thicker piece of card.
5.0 out of 5 stars Well worth the money, 21 May 2014
It has everything I needed in one handy place including a calender for this year and next year. Well worth the money I would fully recommend it!!!
5.0 out of 5 stars Enjoyable, 9 Jan 2014
This review is from: Shall We Dance (2004) [Blu-ray] (Blu-ray)
Enjoyable and different from his normal type of film but well worth watching I do on several occasions. Recommend it
I love all of the Batman films but this is the best for me by far. Amazing graphics and story fully recommend it.
5.0 out of 5 stars Enjoyable and Different, 9 Jan 2014
Enjoyable but a bit of a let down. Hugh Jackman, Russell Crowe, Anne Hathaway and Samantha Barks gave fantastic performances.
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An enjoyable film with amazing graphics to tell a once in a life time story. Well worth watching for the graphics alone.
5.0 out of 5 stars Fantastic product and service, 9 Jan 2014
Easy to install on to a plasterboard wall with all the fittings included. I would recommend this product to everyone.
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This product is easy to install and holds loads of items and is fitted to a plasterboard wall. It comes with everything required to install it. it keeps everything neat and tidy and of the floor. Fully recommend it to everyone
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I wanted to ensure that the Ipod was fully covered to protect it as much as possible if dropped and having a hard and soft plastic cover, it does that. I have used a screen protector as well as the case and it fitted well within the this case.

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AbstractFormatSummarySummary (text)AbstractAbstract (text)MEDLINEXMLPMID ListApplySend to:Choose DestinationFileClipboardCollectionsE-mailOrderMy BibliographyCitation managerFormatSummary (text)Abstract (text)MEDLINEXMLPMID ListCSVCreate File1 selected item: 24132240FormatSummarySummary (text)AbstractAbstract (text)MEDLINEXMLPMID ListMeSH and Other DataE-mailSubjectAdditional textE-mailDidn't get the message? Find out why...Add to ClipboardAdd to CollectionsOrder articlesAdd to My BibliographyGenerate a file for use with external citation management software.Create File
See comment in PubMed Commons belowNature. 2013 Nov 14;503(7475):267-71. doi: 10.1038/nature12618. Epub 2013 Oct 16.SHANK3 and IGF1 restore synaptic deficits in neurons from 22q13 deletion syndrome patients.Shcheglovitov A1, Shcheglovitova O, Yazawa M, Portmann T, Shu R, Sebastiano V, Krawisz A, Froehlich W, Bernstein JA, Hallmayer JF, Dolmetsch RE.Author information1Department of Neurobiology, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, USA.AbstractPhelan-McDermid syndrome (PMDS) is a complex neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by global developmental delay, severely impaired speech, intellectual disability, and an increased risk of autism spectrum disorders (ASDs). PMDS is caused by heterozygous deletions of chromosome 22q13.3. Among the genes in the deleted region is SHANK3, which encodes a protein in the postsynaptic density (PSD). Rare mutations in SHANK3 have been associated with idiopathic ASDs, non-syndromic intellectual disability, and schizophrenia. Although SHANK3 is considered to be the most likely candidate gene for the neurological abnormalities in PMDS patients, the cellular and molecular phenotypes associated with this syndrome in human neurons are unknown. We generated induced pluripotent stem (iPS) cells from individuals with PMDS and autism and used them to produce functional neurons. We show that PMDS neurons have reduced SHANK3 expression and major defects in excitatory, but not inhibitory, synaptic transmission. Excitatory synaptic transmission in PMDS neurons can be corrected by restoring SHANK3 expression or by treating neurons with insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF1). IGF1 treatment promotes formation of mature excitatory synapses that lack SHANK3 but contain PSD95 and N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors with fast deactivation kinetics. Our findings provide direct evidence for a disruption in the ratio of cellular excitation and inhibition in PMDS neurons, and point to a molecular pathway that can be recruited to restore it.PMID: 24132240 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE] SharePublication Types, MeSH Terms, Substances, Supplementary Concepts, Grant SupportPublication TypesResearch Support, N.I.H., ExtramuralResearch Support, Non-U.S. Gov'tMeSH TermsCell LineChildChromosome DeletionChromosome Disorders/geneticsChromosome Disorders/physiopathology*Chromosomes, Human, Pair 22/geneticsFemaleGABA Agents/pharmacologyGene Expression Regulation/drug effectsHumansInsulin-Like Growth Factor I/pharmacology*Lentivirus/geneticsMaleNerve Tissue Proteins/genetics*Nerve Tissue Proteins/metabolism*Neurons/cytologyNeurons/drug effectsNeurons/physiology*Pluripotent Stem Cells/cytologyReceptors, Glutamate/geneticsSequence DeletionSynapses/drug effects*Synapses/geneticsSynapses/physiology*Synaptic Transmission/drug effectsSynaptic Transmission/geneticsSubstancesGABA AgentsNerve Tissue ProteinsReceptors, GlutamateSHANK3 protein, humanInsulin-Like Growth Factor ISupplementary ConceptsTelomeric 22q13 Monosomy SyndromeGrant Support5DP1OD3889/OD/NIH HHS/United StatesDP1 OD003889/OD/NIH HHS/United StatesR33MH087898/MH/NIMH NIH HHS/United StatesLinkOut - more resourcesFull Text SourcesNature Publishing GroupOvid Technologies, Inc.Other Literature SourcesSee the articles recommended by F1000Prime's Faculty of more than 5,000 expert scientists and clinical researchers. - Faculty of 1000Cited by Patents in - The LensMedical22q13 Deletion Syndrome - Genetic AllianceSHANK3 Gene - Genetics Home ReferenceMiscellaneousOMIM: Data: Gene annotation - SciCrunchPubMed Commons home

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Find sources: "History of the Jews in England" 1066–1290 – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (April 2019) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Hugh of Lincoln, 1255; "Sir Hugh" ballad
It is believed that the first Jews in England arrived during the Norman Conquest of the country by William the Conqueror (the future William I) in 1066. The first written record of Jewish settlement in England dates from 1070. They suffered massacres in 1189-90. In 1290, all Jews were expelled from England by the Edict of Expulsion.
5 Leadership of the Chief Rabbis, 13th century
7 Increasing persecution, 13th century
7.1 Blood libels and Little Saint Hugh of Lincoln
7.2 Further restrictions and the Statute of Jewry 1253
7.3 Targeting of Jews during the conflict with the Barons
7.4 Later policies of Henry III
8 Edward I and the Expulsion
8.2 Expulsion, 1290
There is no record of Jews in England before the Norman Conquest in 1066.[1][2] The few references to Jews in the Anglo-Saxon laws of the Roman Catholic Church relate to Jewish practices about Easter.[1]
Believing that their commercial skills and incoming capital would make England more prosperous, William I (William the Conqueror) invited a group of Jewish merchants from Rouen, in Normandy, to England in 1070.[3] However, Jews were not permitted to own land (as most gentiles were not allowed to own land) or to participate in trades (except for medicine). They were limited primarily to money lending. As Catholic doctrine held that money lending for interest was the sin of usury, Jews dominated this activity.[4] The earliest immigrants spoke Judeo-French founded on the Norman dialect.[5]
I wrote it recently putting to paper what a Jew said when formerly disputing with me against our faith in defence of his own law, and what I replied in favour of the faith against his objections. I know not where he was born, but he was educated at Mayence; he was well versed even in our law and literature, and had a mind practised in the Scriptures and in disputes against us. He often used to come to me as a friend both for business and to see me, since in certain things I was very necessary to him, and as often as we came together we would soon get talking in a friendly spirit about the Scriptures and our faith. Now on a certain day, God granted both him and me greater leisure than usual, and soon we began questioning as usual. And as his objections were consequent and logical, and as he explained with equal consequence his former objections, while our reply met his objections foot to foot and by his own confession seemed equally supported by the testimony of the Scriptures, some of the bystanders requested me to preserve our disputes as likely to be of use to others in future.[6]
This disputation was notable for the even-handed presentation of both the Christian and Jewish points of view, and for the congenial tone of the exchange.[citation needed]
At first, the status of Jews was not strictly determined. An attempt was made to introduce the continental principle that all Jews were the king's property and a clause to that effect was inserted under King Henry I in some manuscripts of the so-called Leges Edwardi Confessoris "Laws of Edward the Confessor".[1]
However, during Henry's reign (1100–1135) a royal charter was granted to Joseph, the chief rabbi of London, and all his followers. Under this charter, Jews were permitted to move about the country without paying tolls, to buy and sell goods and property, to sell their pledges after holding them a year and a day, to be tried by their peers, and to be sworn on the Torah rather than on a Christian Bible. Special weight was attributed to a Jewish person's oath, which was valid against that of 12 Christians, because they represented the King of England in financial matters. The sixth clause of the charter was especially important: it granted Jews the right of movement throughout the kingdom, as if they were the king's own property (sicut res propriæ nostræ).[1]
Jews did not settle outside of London before 1135.[7]
Christian-Jewish relations in England were disturbed under King Stephen who burned down the house of a Jewish man in Oxford (some accounts say with the owner in it) because he refused to pay a contribution to the king's expenses. It was also during this time that the first recorded blood libel against Jews was brought in the case of William of Norwich (March, 1144).[1]
While the crusaders in Germany were attacking Jews, outbursts against the latter in England were, according to the Jewish chroniclers, prevented by King Stephen.[1]
With the restoration of order under Henry II, Jews renewed their activity. Within five years of his accession, Jews are found at London, Oxford, Cambridge, Norwich, Thetford, Bungay, Canterbury, Winchester, Newport, Stafford, Windsor, and Reading. However, they were not permitted to bury their dead elsewhere than in London until 1177. Their spread throughout the country enabled the king to draw upon them as occasion demanded; he repaid them by demand notes on the sheriffs of the counties, who accounted for payments thus made in the half-yearly accounts on the pipe rolls (see Aaron of Lincoln).[1]
Strongbow's conquest of Ireland (1170) was financed by Josce, a Jewish man from Gloucester; and the king accordingly fined Josce for having lent money to those under his displeasure. As a rule, however, Henry II does not appear to have limited in any way the financial activity of Jews. The favourable position of the English Jews was shown, among other things, by the visit of Abraham ibn Ezra in 1158, by that of Isaac of Chernigov in 1181, and by the resort to England of the Jews who were exiled from France by Philip Augustus in 1182, among them probably being Judah Sir Leon of Paris.[1]
In 1168, when concluding an alliance with Frederick Barbarossa, Henry II seized the chief representatives of the Jews and sent them to Normandy, while tallaging the rest 5,000 marks).[8] When, however, he asked the rest of the country to pay a tithe for the crusade against Saladin in 1186, he demanded a quarter of the Jewish chattels. The tithe was reckoned at £70,000, the quarter at £60,000. It is improbable, however, that the whole amount was paid at once, as for many years after the imposition of the tallage arrears were demanded from the Jews.[1]
The king had probably been led to make this large demand upon English Jewry by the surprising windfall which came to his treasury at the death of Aaron of Lincoln. In this period, Aaron of Lincoln is believed to have been, probably, the wealthiest man in 12th-century Britain, in liquid assets.[9] All property obtained by usury, whether Jewish or Christian, fell into the king's hands on Aaron's death; his estate included £15,000 of debts owed by some 430 debtors scattered around the English counties. In order to track down and collect these debts a special section of the Royal Exchequer was constituted, which was known as the "Aaron's Exchequer".[9] The cash treasure of the Aaron's estate, that came into the king's hands, however, was lost on a shipwreck during a transport to Normandy.[1]
In this era, Jews lived on good terms with their non-Jewish neighbours, including the clergy; they entered churches freely, and took refuge in the abbeys in times of commotion. Some Jews lived in opulent houses, and helped to build a large number of abbeys and monasteries.[1] However, by the end of Henry's reign they had incurred the ill will of the upper classes, and anti-Jewish sentiment spread further throughout the nation, fostered by the crusades.[1]
Richard I had taken the cross before his coronation (3 September 1189). A number of the principal Jews of England presented themselves to do homage at Westminster; but there was a long-standing custom against Jews (and women) being admitted to the coronation ceremony, and they were expelled during the banquet which followed the coronation, whereupon they were attacked by a crowd of bystanders. The rumour spread from Westminster to London that the king had ordered a massacre of the Jews; and a mob in the Old Jewry, after vainly attacking throughout the day the strong stone houses of the Jews, set them on fire at night,[10] killing those within who attempted to escape. The king was enraged at this insult to his royal dignity, but was unable to punish more than a few of the offenders, owing to their large numbers and to the considerable social standing of several of them. After his departure on the crusade, riots with loss of life occurred at Lynn, where the Jews attempted to attack a baptised coreligionist who had taken refuge in a church. The seafaring population rose against them, fired their houses, and put them to the sword. So, too, at Stamford Fair, on 7 March 1190, many were slain, and on 18 March, 57 were slaughtered at Bury St Edmunds. The Jews of Lincoln saved themselves only by taking refuge in the castle.
A significant loss of life occurred at York on the night of March 16 (Shabbat HaGadol, the Shabbat before Passover) and 17 March 1190.[11] As crusaders prepared to leave on the Third Crusade, religious fervour resulted in several anti-Jewish violences. Josce of York, the leader of the Jews in York, asked the warden of York Castle to receive them with their wives and children, and they were accepted into Clifford's Tower. However, the tower was besieged by the mob of crusaders, demanding that the Jews convert to Christianity and be baptized. Trapped in the castle, the Jews were advised by their religious leader, Rabbi Yomtov of Joigney, to kill themselves rather than convert; Josce began by slaying his wife Anna and his two children, and then was killed by Yomtov. The father of each family killed his wife and children, before Yomtov and Josce set fire to the wooden keep, killing themselves. The handful of Jews who did not kill themselves died in the fire, or were murdered by rioters.[12][13][14][15][16][17]
During Richard's absence in the Holy Land and during his captivity, the Jews of England were harassed by William de Longchamp. The Jewish community was forced to contribute toward the king's ransom 5,000 marks, more than three times as much as the contribution of the City of London.[1]
On his return, Richard determined to organise the Jewish community in order to ensure that he should no longer be defrauded, by any such outbreaks as those that occurred after his coronation, of his just dues as universal legatee of the Jewry. Richard accordingly decided, in 1194, that records should be kept by royal officials of all the transactions of the Jews, without which such transactions would not be legal.[1]
Every debt was to be entered upon a chirograph, one part of which was to be kept by the Jewish creditor, and the other preserved in a chest to which only special officials should have access. By this means the king could at any time ascertain the property of any Jew in the land; and no destruction of the bond held by the Jew could release the creditor from his indebtedness.[1]
This "Ordinance of the Jewry" was, in practice, the beginning of the office of Exchequer of the Jews, which made all the transactions of the English Jewry liable to taxation by the King of England, who thus became a sleeping partner in all the transactions of Jewish money lending. The king besides demanded two bezants in the pound, that is, 10 per cent, of all sums recovered by the Jews with the aid of his courts.[1]
At this point in time Jews had many of the same rights as gentile citizens. However, their loans could be recovered at law, whereas the Christian money lender could not recover more than his original loan. They were in direct relation to the king and his courts; but this did not imply any arbitrary power of the king to tax them or to take their money without repayment, as is frequently exemplified in the pipe rolls.[1]
As early as 1198 Pope Innocent III had written to all Christian princes, including Richard of England, calling upon them to compel the remission of all usury demanded by Jews from Christians. This would render the Jewish community's very existence impossible.[1]
On 15 July 1205, the pope laid down the principle that Jews were doomed to perpetual servitude because they had crucified Jesus.[citation needed] In England the secular power soon followed the initiative of the Church. John, having become indebted to the Jewish community while in Ireland, at first treated Jews with a show of forbearance. He confirmed the charter of Rabbi Josce and his sons, and made it apply to all the Jews of England; he wrote a sharp remonstrance to the mayor of London against the attacks that were continually being made upon the Jews of that city, alone of all the cities of England. He reappointed one Jacob archpriest of all the English Jews (12 July 1199).[1]
But with the loss of Normandy in 1205 a new spirit seems to have come over the attitude of John to his Jews. In the height of his triumph over the pope, he demanded the sum of no less than £100,000 from the religious houses of England, and 66,000 marks from the Jews (1210). One of the latter, Abraham of Bristol, who refused to pay his quota of 10,000 marks, had, by order of the king, seven of his teeth extracted, one a day, until he was willing to disgorge.[1][18]
Though John squeezed as much as he could out of the Jewish community, they were an important element on his side in the triangular struggle between king, barons, and municipalities which makes up the constitutional history of England during his reign and that of his son. Even in the Magna Carta, clauses were inserted preventing the king or his Jewish subjects from obtaining interest during the minority of an heir.[1]
Petitions were accordingly sent to the king in many instances to remove his Jews from the boroughs, and they were expelled from Bury St. Edmunds in 1190, Newcastle in 1234, Wycombe in 1235, Southampton in 1236, Berkhamsted in 1242, Newbury in 1244.[1] Simon de Montfort issued an edict to expel the Jewish population from Leicester in 1231, "in my time or in the time of any of my heirs to the end of the world". He justified his action as being "for the good of my soul, and for the souls of my ancestors and successors".[19][20][21] The Jews appear to have found refuge in the suburbs outside his control.
The Papacy continued to develop its theological commitment to restrictions on Judaism and Jews.[22] In England, a number of Benedictine priories showed particular hostility to Jews, or sought to capitalise on it. The fictional stories of Jewish ritual murder, for instance, emerged from Benedictine priories, apparently attempting to set competing local cults. In Worcester, Bishop William de Blois pushed for tighter restrictions on Jews, writing to Pope Gregory IX for assistance in enforcing segregation between Jews and Christians, including wearing of badges and prohibitions on Christians working for Jews especially within their homes.[23]
The value of the Jewish community to the royal treasury had become considerably lessened during the 13th century through two circumstances: the king's income from other sources had continually increased, and the contributions of the Jews had decreased both absolutely and relatively. Besides this, the king had found other sources from which to obtain loans. Italian merchants, "pope's usurers" as they were called, supplied him with money, at times on the security of the Jewry. By the contraction of the area in which Jews were permitted to exercise their money-lending activity their means of profit were lessened, while the king by his continuous exactions prevented the automatic growth of interest.[1]
By the middle of the 13th century the Jews of England, like those of the Continent, had become chattels of the king. There appeared to be no limit to the exactions he could impose upon them, though it was obviously against his own interest to deprive them entirely of capital, without which they could not gain for him interest.[1] The great financial pressure Henry placed on the Jews caused them to force repayment of loans, fuelling anti-Jewish resentment.[24] Jewish bonds were purchased and used by richer Barons and members of Henry III's royal circle as a means to acquire lands of lesser landholders, through payment defaults.[25]
Henry had built the Domus Conversorum in London in 1232 to help convert Jews to Christianity, and efforts intensified after 1239. As many as 10 percent of the Jews in England had been converted by the late 1250s[26] in large part due to their deteriorating economic conditions.[27]
Blood libels and Little Saint Hugh of Lincoln[edit]
Many anti-Jewish stories involving tales of child sacrifice circulated in the 1230s-50s,[28] including the account of "Little Saint Hugh of Lincoln" in 1255.[29] The event is considered particularly important, as the first such accusation endorsed by the Crown.[30] In August 1255, a number of the chief Jews who had assembled at Lincoln to celebrate the marriage of a daughter of Berechiah de Nicole were seized on a charge of having murdered a boy named Hugh. Henry intervened to order the execution of Copin, who had confessed to the murder in return for his life, and removed 91 Jews to the Tower of London. 18 were executed, and their property expropriated by the Crown. The king had mortgaged the Jewish community to his brother Richard of Cornwall in February 1255, for 5,000 marks, and had lost all rights over it for a year,[1] so did not provide Henry with income, except when executed.[31] The story was referred to in later English literature including Chaucer and Marlowe, and entered popular folk culture through a contemporary ballad. It was quoted as fact by Thomas Fuller in his posthumous 1662 book Worthies of England.
Further restrictions and the Statute of Jewry 1253[edit]
Henry III passed the Statute of Jewry in 1253, which attempted to stop the construction of synagogues and reinforce the wearing of Jewish badges (rather than accepting fines).[32] A prohibition on Christian servants working for Jews was to reduce the 'risk' of sexual contact, also prohibited. It remains unclear to what extent this statute was actually implemented by Henry.[33] The laws themselves were following the Catholic church's existing pronouncements.[32]
In the later 1250s, as Henry was not fully in control over government, the Barons asked for limits on the resale of Jewish bonds. Jewish loans became a motivating factor in the following war. Henry's policies up to 1258 of excessive Jewish taxation, anti-Jewish legislation and propaganda had caused a very important and negative change.[30]
Targeting of Jews during the conflict with the Barons[edit]
While the level of debts to Jewish moneylenders was in fact lower in the 1260s than the 1230s, Henry III's policies had made the landowning classes fear that debts to Jews would lead to them being deprived of their lands, which were used to secure loans. Excessive taxation of Jews, forcing them to collect no matter what the circumstances, was one factor in this. The other was the King's support for courtiers and relatives who bought Jewish loans in order to dispossess defaulters of their landholdings. These were the fears that de Montfort and his supporters played on to bring support to their rebellion.[34]
With the outbreak of the Barons' war violent measures were adopted to remove all traces of indebtedness either to the king or to the higher barons. The Jewries of London, Canterbury, Northampton, Winchester, Cambridge, Worcester, and Lincoln were looted (1263–65), and the archæ (official chests of records) either destroyed or deposited at the headquarters of the barons at Ely.[1]
Simon de Montfort, who in 1231 had expelled the Jews from his town of Leicester, when at the height of his power after the battle of Lewes cancelled the debts and interest owed to Jews of around 60 men, including those held by his baronial supporters.[35]
Montfort had been accused of sharing the plunder but issued edicts for their protection after the battle.[1][36] Nevertheless, his closest allies including two of his sons had led the violence and killing, so it seems implausible to regard him as ignorant of the likely consequences of the campaign.
Later policies of Henry III[edit]
Once de Montfort was dead and the rebels were defeated, Henry's policy went into reverse and as best as he was able, the debts were reimposed. However, Henry's finances were very weak, and he also wished to pursue the Crusade that he had tried to mount in the 1250s. Parliament refused to comply without legislation that restricted the abuse of Jewish finances, particularly by Christians. In 1269 Henry agreed to limits on perpetual fee-rents, an end to the sale of Jewish loans to Christians without the permission of the Crown and a prohibition on levying interest on loans purchased by Christians. These were the grievances that had helped fuel the wider crisis since 1239. In 1271 he conceded a ban on Jews holding freehold land and again ordered that the previous legislation be enforced.[37] Nevertheless, these policies would not be adequate in allaying wider fears, which quickly resurfaced under Edward I.
Edward I and the Expulsion[edit]
Jews were expelled from the lands of Queen Dowager Eleanor in January 1275 (which included towns such as Guildford, Cambridge and Worcester).[1][38]
Edward I returned from the Crusades in 1274, two years after his accession as King of England. In 1275, he made some experimental decrees. The Church laws against usury had recently been reiterated with more than usual vehemence at the Second Council of Lyon (1274), and Edward in the Statutum de Judaismo (Statute of the Jewry) absolutely forbade Jews to lend on usury, but granted them permission to engage in commerce and handicrafts, and even to take farms for a period not exceeding ten years, though he expressly excluded them from all the feudal advantages of the possession of land.[1]
This permission to own land, however, regarded as a means by which Jews in general could gain a livelihood, was illusory.[1] Farming can not be taken up at a moment's notice, nor can handicrafts be acquired at once. Moreover, in England in the 13th century the guilds were already securing a monopoly of all skilled labour, and in the majority of markets only those could buy and sell who were members of the Guild Merchant.[1]
By depriving the Jews of a resort to usury, Edward was practically preventing them from earning a living at all under the conditions of life then existing in feudal England; and in principle the "Statute of the Jewry" expelled them fifteen years before the final expulsion. Some of the Jews attempted to evade the law by resorting to the tricks of the Caursines, who lent sums and extorted bonds that included both principal and interest. Some resorted to highway robbery; others joined the Domus Conversorum; while a considerable number appear to have resorted to coin clipping as a means of securing a precarious existence. As a consequence, in 1278 the whole English Jewry was imprisoned; and no fewer than 293 Jews were executed at London.[1]
The story exerted its influence even in the absence of Jews ... the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries saw the proliferation of the Host-desecration story in England: in collections of miracle stories, many of them dedicated to the miracles of the Virgin Mary; in the art of illuminated manuscripts used for Christian prayer and meditation; and on stage, as in popular Croxton Play of the Sacrament, which itself evoked memories of an alleged ritual murder committed by Jews in East Anglia in 1191.[39]
Heinrich Hirsch Graetz (1891), History of the Jews, Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America, LCCN 04022901, OCLC 890591, OL 6944479M
Harris, Oliver D. (2008). "Jews, jurats and the Jewry Wall: a name in context" (PDF). Transactions of the Leicestershire Archaeological and Historical Society. 82: 113–33.
Hillaby, Joe (2003). "Jewish Colonisation in the Twelfth Century". In Skinner, Patricia (ed.). Jews in Medieval Britain. Woodbridge: Boydell Press. pp. 15–40. ISBN 978-1-84383-733-6.
Hillaby, Joe; Hillaby, Caroline (2013). The Palgrave Dictionary of Medieval Anglo-Jewish History. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-23027-816-5.
Huscroft, Richard (2006). Expulsion: England's Jewish solution. Stroud: Tempus. ISBN 978-0-752-43729-3. OL 7982808M.
Mundill, Robin R. (2002), England's Jewish Solution, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-52026-3, OL 26454030M
Stacey, Robert C. (1997). "Parliamentary Negotiation and the Expulsion of the Jews from England". In Prestwich, Michael; Britnell, Richard H.; Frame, Robin (eds.). Thirteenth Century England: Proceedings of the Durham Conference, 1995. 6. Woodbridge: Boydell Press. pp. 77–102. ISBN 978-0-85115-674-3.
Vincent, Nicholas (1994). "Two Papal Letters on the Wearing of the Jewish Badge, 1221 and 1229". Jewish Historical Studies. 34: 209–24. JSTOR 29779960.
^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af Jacobs (1906)
^ For a full discussion, see Scheil, Andrew P. (2004). The Footsteps of Israel: understanding Jews in Anglo-Saxon England. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. ISBN 978-0-472-11408-5.
^ Per William of Malmesbury
^ "United Kingdom Virtual Jewish History Tour | Jewish Virtual Library". www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org. Retrieved 2016-03-04.
^ Hillaby 2013, p. 22
^ Hillaby 2013, p. 23
^ Gervase of Canterbury (1879). William Stubbs (ed.). The Chronicle of the Reigns of Stephen, Henry II, and Richard I. London: Longman. p. 205.
^ a b Chazan, Robert (2006). The Jews of Medieval Western Christendom, 1000–1500. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 159. ISBN 978-0-521-84666-0.
^ York 1190: Jews and Others in the Wake of Massacre. University of York - Centre for Medieval Studies. March 2010. Retrieved 1 December 2011.
^ "The 1190 Massacre". History Of York. York Museums Trust. Retrieved 1 April 2015.
^ "The York Massacre, as Described by Ephraim of Bonn". Jewish Virtual Library. Retrieved 1 June 2016.
^ Abulafia, Anna Sapir (2014-10-16). "William of Newburgh on the attack on the Jews of York in 1190". Jewish/non-Jewish Relations. Retrieved 1 March 2016.
^ Dickerson, David. "Clifford's Tower - Massacre at York (1190)". David Dickerson's Web Site. Archived from the original on 19 September 2008. Retrieved 1 March 2016.
^ Mundill 2002, p. 265
^ Hillaby 2013, pp. 52–53 Baronial or royal bond owners could simply wait for a default, or worse, deliberately evade being paid and then claim the lands
^ Hillaby & Hillaby 2013, pp. 656–657 Richard of Cornwall intervened to release the Jews that were not executed
^ a b Hillaby 2013, p. 104
^ Jobson 2012, p. 132 Hillaby & Hillaby 2013, pp. 656–657 "After Simon's victory at the battle of Lewes in May 1264, some 60 men received royal writs pardoning debts and interest owed to Jews. The beneficiaries included prominent supporters, such as John d’Eyville and Simon’s own retainers."
^ Hillaby 2013, pp. 53–55
^ Cohen, Jeremy (2007). Christ Killers: the Jews and the Passion from the Bible to the Big Screen. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 103. ISBN 978-0-19-517841-8.
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Jacobs, Joseph (1903). "England". In Singer, Isidore; et al. (eds.). The Jewish Encyclopedia. 5. New York: Funk & Wagnalls. p. 161-174.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_England_(1066–1290)&oldid=925568683"
This page was last edited on 10 November 2019, at 23:24 (UTC).


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text: Sports & Outdoors Sports Fan Shop Clothing Fan Shop > Refine Price $ to $ Go Top brands Rico Industries Franklin Franklin Sports Store availability Sort Best sellers Price: low to high Price: high to low Highest rating New $22.22 List price $29.99 Save $7.77 Team Golf NHL Winnipeg Jets Golf Umbrella Free shipping on orders over $50 Free store pickup $32.86 - $44.99 Franklin Sports NHL Kid's Team Set, Tampa Bay Lightning Free shipping on orders over $50 Free store pickup $4.58 List price $9.99 Save $5.41 SkootZ Wristband, Winnipeg Jets Free shipping on orders over $50 Free store pickup $33.99 Winnipeg Jets Trifold Wallet Sold & Shipped by SportsFanfare $39.99 Winnipeg Jets Umbrella Free shipping on orders over $50 Free store pickup 1 Showing 5 of 5 results Departments Accessories Fan Shop Bags Fan Shop Clothing Fan Shop Jewelry Fan Shop Shipping & Pickup Show all Ship to Home FREE Pickup Sports Team St. Louis Cardinals Chicago Cubs San Francisco Giants Detroit Tigers New York Yankees Green Bay Packers Dallas Cowboys Pittsburgh Steelers Alabama Crimson Tide Baltimore Orioles Denver Broncos Indianapolis Colts Iowa Hawkeyes North Carolina Tar Heels Oakland Raiders Golden State Warriors Boston Red Sox Florida Gators Cleveland Cavaliers Carolina Panthers See more sports teams Category Golf Umbrellas Umbrellas Wallets Sports League NHL Brand Rico Industries Franklin Franklin Sports Skootz Team Golf See more brands Color Blue Black Green Multi Other See more colors Price $ to $ Go $0 - $10 $10 - $15 $15 - $20 $20 - $25 $25 - $50 $50+ Retailer Walmart.com SportsFanfare Popular in Clothing Fan Shop Dress Shoes ST. Louis Cardinals Accessories Dodgers Stone Rings MLB Clothing Mets Baseball Accessories NCAA Apparel Infinity Scarves Compute- app-11030446-8-54868077, DC- prod-dfw3, ENV- prod-a, Ver- 38.0.0, SHA- 997f0b296e5bc4a29aa0e320fda98e6239de69d7, Log- a2ef0688-3c25-1546c42d845000 Site Information Be the first to save! Email Address Sign up Privacy policy Stay connected Mobile apps Help Feedback MoneyCenter Privacy & Security CA Privacy Rights Terms of Use Financial Services Walmart MoneyCenter Walmart Credit Card Apply Now Manage Card Account Product Care Plans Walmart Pay Get to Know Us About Walmart.com Corporate Suppliers Marketplace Careers @Walmartlabs Walmart.com Terms of Use About Our Ads Affiliate Program CA Privacy Rights Privacy & Security Customer Service Returns Policy Product Recalls Int'l Customers Tax Exempt Program Contact Us Feedback In the Spotlight Mother's Day Expand Fitness Exercise Machines Vitamins Ellipticals Treadmills Expand Spring Cleaning Storage Containers Garage Storage Storage Sheds Expand International Sites Argentina Brazil Canada Chile China Japan Mexico United Kingdom © Walmart Stores, Inc. To ensure we’re able to help you as best we can, please include your reference number: Ref:

value: This website is an American multinational retail corporation that operates a chain of hypermarkets , discount department stores, and grocery stores from the United States, headquartered in Bentonville, Arkansas.


text: The couple will spend their anniversary in Hollywood, California, where they will attend a screening of ‘Nine Days that Changed the World,' a documentary about Pope John Paul II the couple co-produced.

value: This website is an American multinational conservative cable news television channel based in New York City. It is owned by Fox News Media, which itself is owned by the Fox Corporation.