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Bringing together an international and interdisciplinary team of contributors, this Handbook is a wide-ranging and invaluable reference guide to language teaching.A comprehensive reference work on language teaching, which combines the latest research findings, coverage of core topics, and examples of teaching experience from a variety of languages and settingsProvides a unique breadth of coverage, including: the psycholinguistic underpinnings of language learning; social, political, and educational contexts; program design; materials writing and course design; teaching and testing; teacher education; and assessment and evaluationOffers a balanced evaluation of the major positions and approaches, including examining the increasingly important social and political context of language teachingWritten by an international and interdisciplinary group of authors from a dozen different countries; English is only one of the many languages used as examples throughout the volume
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The Handbook ofLanguage TeachingThe Handbook of Language Teaching Edited by Michael H. Long and Catherine J. Doughty© 2009 Blackwell Publishing Ltd. ISBN: 978-1-405-15489-5 2.
Blackwell Handbooks in LinguisticsThis outstanding multi-volume series covers all the major subdisciplines within linguistics todayand, when complete, will offer a comprehensive survey of linguistics as a whole.Already published:The Handbook of Child LanguageEdited by Paul Fletcher and Brian MacWhinneyThe Handbook of Phonological TheoryEdited by John A. GoldsmithThe Handbook of Contemporary Semantic TheoryEdited by Shalom LappinThe Handbook of SociolinguisticsEdited by Florian CoulmasThe Handbook of Phonetic SciencesEdited by William J. Hardcastle and John LaverThe Handbook of MorphologyEdited by Andrew Spencer and Arnold ZwickyThe Handbook of Japanese LinguisticsEdited by Natsuko TsujimuraThe Handbook of LinguisticsEdited by Mark Aronoff and Janie Rees-MillerThe Handbook of Contemporary Syntactic TheoryEdited by Mark Baltin and Chris CollinsThe Handbook of Discourse AnalysisEdited by Deborah Schiffrin, Deborah Tannen, and Heidi E. HamiltonThe Handbook of Language Variation and ChangeEdited by J. K. Chambers, Peter Trudgill, and Natalie Schilling-EstesThe Handbook of Historical LinguisticsEdited by Brian D. Joseph and Richard D. JandaThe Handbook of Language and GenderEdited by Janet Holmes and Miriam MeyerhoffThe Handbook of Second Language AcquisitionEdited by Catherine J. Doughty and Michael H. LongThe Handbook of BilingualismEdited by Tej K. Bhatia and William C. RitchieThe Handbook of PragmaticsEdited by Laurence R. Horn and Gregory WardThe Handbook of Applied LinguisticsEdited by Alan Davies and Catherine ElderThe Handbook of Speech PerceptionEdited by David B. Pisoni and Robert E. RemezThe Blackwell Companion to Syntax, Volumes I–VEdited by Martin Everaert and Henk van RiemsdijkThe Handbook of the History of EnglishEdited by Ans van Kemenade and Bettelou LosThe Handbook of English LinguisticsEdited by Bas Aarts and April McMahonThe Handbook of World EnglishesEdited by Braj B. Kachru, Yamuna Kachru, and Cecil L. NelsonThe Handbook of Educational LinguisticsEdited by Bernard Spolsky and Francis M. HultThe Handbook of Clinical LinguisticsEdited by Martin J. Ball, Michael R. Perkins, Nicole Müller, and Sara HowardThe Handbook of Pidgin and Creole StudiesEdited by Silvia Kouwenberg and John Victor Singler 3.
The Handbookof LanguageTeachingEdited byMichael H. Long andCatherine J. Doughty A John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., Publication 4.
This edition ﬁrst published 2009© 2009 Blackwell Publishing Ltd except for editorial material and organization © 2009 MichaelH. Long and Catherine J. DoughtyBlackwell Publishing was acquired by John Wiley & Sons in February 2007. Blackwell’spublishing program has been merged with Wiley’s global Scientiﬁc, Technical, and Medicalbusiness to form Wiley-Blackwell.Registered OfﬁceJohn Wiley & Sons Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ,United KingdomEditorial Ofﬁces350 Main Street, Malden, MA 02148-5020, USA9600 Garsington Road, Oxford, OX4 2DQ, UKThe Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, UKFor details of our global editorial ofﬁces, for customer services, and for information about howto apply for permission to reuse the copyright material in this book please see our website atwww.wiley.com/wiley-blackwell.The right of Michael H. Long and Catherine J. Doughty to be identiﬁed as the authors of theeditorial material in this work has been asserted in accordance with the Copyright, Designs andPatents Act 1988.All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system,or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording orotherwise, except as permitted by the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, without theprior permission of the publisher.Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears inprint may not be available in electronic books.Designations used by companies to distinguish their products are often claimed as trademarks.All brand names and product names used in this book are trade names, service marks,trademarks or registered trademarks of their respective owners. The publisher is not associatedwith any product or vendor mentioned in this book. This publication is designed to provideaccurate and authoritative information in regard to the subject matter covered. It is sold on theunderstanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services. Ifprofessional advice or other expert assistance is required, the services of a competentprofessional should be sought.Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data The handbook of language teaching / edited by Michael H. Long and Catherine J.Doughty. p. cm. — (Blackwell handbooks in linguistics) ISBN 978-1-4051-5489-5 (hardcover : alk. paper) 1. Language and languages—Study and teaching—Handbooks, manuals, etc. 2. Second language acquisition—Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. Long, Michael H. II. Doughty, Catherine. P51.H3265 2009 418.0071—dc22 2009008867A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.Set in 10/12 Palatino by Graphicraft Ltd, Hong KongPrinted in Singapore1 2009 5.
Craig Chaudron (1946–2006) 6.
ContentsList of Contributors xPart I Overview 1 1 Language Teaching 3 Michael H. LongPart II Social, Political, and Educational Contexts of Language Teaching 7 2 The Social and Sociolinguistic Contexts of Language Learning and Teaching 9 Sandra Lee McKay and Rani Rubdy 3 The Politics and Policies of Language and Language Teaching 26 Robert Phillipson and Tove Skutnabb-Kangas 4 History of Language Teaching 42 Diane MusumeciPart III Psycholinguistic Underpinnings of Language Learning 63 5 The Language-Learning Brain 65 Alan Beretta 6 Sequences and Processes in Language Learning 81 Lourdes Ortega 7 The Importance of Cross-Linguistic Similarity in Foreign Language Learning 106 Håkan Ringbom and Scott Jarvis 8 Cognitive-Psychological Processes in Second Language Learning 119 Robert M. DeKeyser 9 Optimizing the Input: Frequency and Sampling in Usage-Based and Form-Focused Learning 139 Nick C. Ellis 7.
viii ContentsPart IV Program Design 15910 Bilingual and Immersion Programs 161 Jim Cummins11 Heritage Language Programs 182 Silvina Montrul12 Speciﬁc Purpose Programs 201 Ken Hyland13 Study Abroad Research: Findings, Implications, and Future Directions 218 Joseph Collentine14 Less Commonly Taught Languages: Issues in Learning and Teaching 234 Kira gor and Karen Vatz15 Third Language Acquisition Theory and Practice 250 William P. Rivers and Ewa M. GolonkaPart V Course Design and Materials Writing 26716 Foreign and Second Language Needs Analysis 269 James Dean Brown17 Syllabus Design 294 Peter Robinson18 Advances in Materials Design 311 Alan Waters19 Corpora in Language Teaching 327 John Flowerdew20 Technology-Enhanced Materials 351 David Brett and Marta González-LloretPart VI Teaching and Testing 37121 Methodological Principles for Language Teaching 373 Michael H. Long22 Teaching and Testing Listening Comprehension 395 Larry Vandergrift and Christine Goh23 Teaching and Testing Speaking 412 Martin Bygate24 Teaching and Testing Reading 441 William Grabe25 Learning to Read in New Writing Systems 463 Keiko Koda26 Teaching and Testing Writing 486 Charlene Polio and Jessica Williams27 Teaching and Testing Grammar 518 Diane Larsen-Freeman 8.
Contents ix28 Teaching and Testing Vocabulary 543 Paul Nation and Teresa Chung29 Teaching and Testing Pragmatics 560 Carsten Roever30 Task-Based Teaching and Testing 578 John M. Norris31 Radical Language Teaching 595 Graham Crookes32 Diagnostic Feedback in Language Assessment 610 Antony John Kunnan and Eunice Eunhee Jang33 Computer-Assisted Teaching and Testing 628 Carol A. ChapellePart VII Teacher Education 64534 Language Teacher Education 647 Renée Jourdenais35 Diffusion and Implementation of Innovations 659 Kris Van den BrandenPart VIII Assessing and Evaluating Instruction 67336 Current Trends in Classroom Research 675 Rosamond F. Mitchell37 Issues in Language Teacher Evaluation 706 Kathleen M. Bailey38 Investigating the Effects and Effectiveness of L2 Instruction 726 Rick de Graaff and Alex Housen39 Program Evaluation 756 Steven J. RossAuthor Index 779Subject Index 791 9.
ContributorsKathleen M. BaileyKathleen M. Bailey received her PhD from the University of California at LosAngeles. She is a professor of Applied Linguistics at the Monterey Institute ofInternational Studies, where she has taught since 1981. In 1998–99 she was thePresident of the international TESOL association.Alan BerettaAlan Beretta is Professor of Linguistics at Michigan State University. His re-search is in neurolinguistics and has been published in such journals as Brain andLanguage, Cognitive Brain Research, and Aphasiology.David BrettDavid Brett worked in Italy as an ESL teacher for 10 years before becoming aresearcher in English Linguistics at the University of Sassari. He has publishedand presented widely on New Technologies and Second Language Learning, withparticular reference to pronunciation teaching. He has also held training work-shops for language teachers on various aspects of technology-enhanced teaching,both in Italy and in other countries.James Dean BrownJames Dean (“JD”) Brown is Professor of Second Language Studies at the Univer-sity of Hawai’i at Manoa. He has authored or co-authored numerous articles andbooks on topics as diverse as second language testing and quantitative researchmethods, language curriculum development, using surveys in language programs,teaching connected speech, and heritage language curriculum.Martin BygateMartin Bygate is Professor in Applied Linguistics and Language Education atLancaster University, UK. He has undertaken funded research and taught courseson oral language teaching and development. Principal publications are Speaking 10.
Contributors xi(1987, Oxford University Press), Grammar and the Language Teacher (co-editedwith A. Tonkyn and E. Williams, 1994, Prentice-Hall), Researching pedagogic tasks:Second language learning, teaching and testing (co-edited with P. Skehan & M. Swain,2001, Pearson Educational Ltd), and, co-authored with Virginia Samuda, Tasks insecond language learning (2008, Palgrave).Carol A. ChapelleCarol A. Chapelle, Professor of TESL/Applied Linguistics at Iowa State University,is Past President of the American Association for Applied Linguistics (2006–7),former editor of TESOL Quarterly (1999–2004), and co-editor of the CambridgeApplied Linguistics Series. Her books include Computer applications in secondlanguage acquisition: Foundations for teaching, testing, and research (2001, CambridgeUniversity Press), English language learning and technology: Lectures on applied lin-guistics in the age of information and communication technology (2003, John Benjamins),Assessing language through technology (with Dan Douglas, 2006, Cambridge Univer-sity Press), Building a validity argument for the Test of English as a Foreign Language(with Mary Enright & Joan Jamieson, 2007, Routledge) and Tips for teaching withCALL (2008, Pearson-Longman).Teresa ChungMihwa Chung (Teresa) teaches at Korea University. She has published articleson technical vocabulary, the vocabulary of newspapers, and developing readingspeed in a foreign language. Her PhD thesis from Victoria University of Welling-ton was on the methodology of developing lists of technical vocabulary and therole of technical vocabulary in technical texts.Joseph CollentineJoseph Collentine is Professor of Spanish at Northern Arizona University. He haspublished articles and research about study abroad, the acquisition of grammar,and corpus linguistics. He is currently the director of the Spanish Masters pro-grams at NAU and the coordinator of the Spanish online program.Graham CrookesGraham Crookes is Professor, Department of Second Language Studies, Univer-sity of Hawai’i at Manoa, where he is also Executive Director, ESL Programs. Hismost recent books are A Practicum in TESOL and Making a Statement: Values,Philosophies, and Professional Beliefs in TESOL (2003 and 2008, Cambridge Univer-sity Press).Jim CumminsJim Cummins is Professor and Canada Research Chair in the Curriculum, Teach-ing and Learning Department at the Ontario Institute for Studies in Education(OISE) at the University of Toronto. His research focuses on literacy developmentin multilingual school contexts, as well as on the potential roles of technology inpromoting language and literacy development. 11.
xii ContributorsRobert DeKeyserRobert DeKeyser (PhD, Stanford University) is Professor of Second LanguageAcquisition at the University of Maryland. His research is mainly on secondlanguage acquisition, with emphasis on cognitive-psychological aspects suchas implicit versus explicit learning, automatization of rule knowledge, and indi-vidual differences and their interaction with instructional treatments. He haspublished in a variety of journals, including Studies in Second Language Acquisi-tion, Language Learning, Language Testing, The Modern Language Journal, TESOLQuarterly, and AILA Review. He has contributed chapters to several highly re-garded handbooks, and he recently published an edited volume with CambridgeUniversity Press entitled Practice in a Second Language: Perspectives from AppliedLinguistics and Cognitive Psychology (2007).Catherine J. DoughtyCatherine J. Doughty is Senior Research Scientist and SLA Area Director at theCenter for the Advanced Study of Language at the University of Maryland, andis an afﬁliate Professor of SLA at the University of Maryland.Nick C. EllisNick C. Ellis is Research Scientist at the English Language Institute and Professorof Psychology at the University of Michigan. His research interests include lan-guage acquisition, cognition, reading in different languages, corpus linguistics,cognitive linguistics, psycholinguistics, and emergentist accounts of languageacquisition.John FlowerdewJohn Flowerdew is Professor of Applied Linguistics, Centre for LanguageEducation Research, School of Education, University of Leeds. For many years heworked at the City University of Hong Kong. He has also worked in SouthAmerica and the Middle East. As well as writing and editing a number of books,he has published widely in the leading Applied Linguistics, Language Teachingand Discourse Analysis journals, focusing on academic discourse, corpus linguis-tics, and English for Speciﬁc Purposes. His most recent book (with Lindsay Miller)is Second Language Listening (2005, Cambridge University Press). His most recentedited book (with Vijay Bhatia and Rodney Jones) is Advances in Discourse Studies(2008, Routledge).Christine GohChristine Goh is Associate Professor of applied linguistics in the National Insti-tute of Education, Singapore (Nanyang Technological University). Her interestsare in listening and speaking development, and the role of metacognition in L2learning. She has authored many international journal articles and book chapterson listening research and teaching methodology for listening. 12.
Contributors xiiiEwa M. GolonkaEwa M. Golonka holds a PhD in Russian Linguistics and Second LanguageAcquisition from Bryn Mawr College. She has taught Russian, linguistics, andSLA at various universities. Currently, she is an Assistant Research Scientist atthe University of Maryland Center for Advanced Study of Language.Marta González-LloretMarta González-Lloret has taught at the Spanish division of the LLEA depart-ment at the University of Hawai’i for more than a decade. She holds a PhD inSecond Language Acquisition from the University of Hawai’i at Manoa and herresearch interests include second language acquisition, technology for languagelearning and teaching, and teacher training.Kira GorKira Gor is Associate Professor of Russian and Second Language Acquisition inthe School of Languages, Literatures, and Cultures at the University of Maryland.Her research interests include psycholinguistic mechanisms underlying cross-linguistic and second-language processing of phonology and morphology.William GrabeWilliam Grabe is Regents Professor of English at Northern Arizona University,where he teaches in the MATESL and PhD in Applied Linguistics programs. Hisinterests include reading, writing, written discourse analysis, and the disciplinarystatus of applied linguistics. His most recent book is Reading in a Second Language:Moving from Theory to Practice (2009, Cambridge University Press).Rick de GraaffRick de Graaff is a language teaching consultant/researcher at the IVLOS Insti-tute of Education, Utrecht University, the Netherlands. His main ﬁelds of interestinclude: task effectiveness in language teaching, the role of instruction in L2pedagogy, the role of peer feedback in collaborative writing, and content andlanguage integrated learning. Most recently he has contributed to the Interna-tional Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism and ITL – International Journalof Applied Linguistics.Alex HousenAlex Housen (MA, UCLA; PhD, University of Brussels) is Senior Lecturer inEnglish, Second Language Acquisition and Bilingualism at the University of Brus-sels (VUB). His research interests include second/foreign language acquisition,second/foreign language teaching, and bilingualism. His recent publicationsinclude Investigations in Instructed Second Language Acquisition (with M. Pierrard,2005, Mouton de Gruyter) and Bilingualism: Basic Principles and Beyond (with J. M.Dewaele and L. Wei, 2003, Multilingual Matters). 13.
xiv ContributorsKen HylandKen Hyland is Professor of Education and director of the Centre for Academicand Professional Literacies at the Institute of Education, University of London.He has published over 130 articles and 13 books on language teaching andacademic writing, most recently Academic Discourse (2009, Continuum). He isco-editor of the Journal of English for Academic Purposes.Eunice Eunhee JangEunice Eunhee Jang is Assistant Professor at Ontario Institute for Studies inEducation of the University of Toronto. Her research interests include validityand fairness issues in language testing and cognitive diagnostic assessment. Herresearch has been published in Journal of Educational Measurement, Language Testing(in press), International Journal of Testing, Journal of Mixed Methods Research, and inthe book New Directions in Psychological Measurement with Model-Based Approaches(edited by S. Embretson & J. S. Roberts, American Psychological Association).Scott JarvisScott Jarvis is an Associate Professor of Linguistics at Ohio University, where heteaches courses on second language acquisition, language testing, and otherareas of applied linguistics. His main research interests are cross-linguistic in-ﬂuence (or language transfer) and lexical diversity, and his work has appeared injournals such as Studies in Second Language Acquisition, Language Learning, AppliedLinguistics, and Language Testing. He is also co-author with Aneta Pavlenko ofCrosslinguistic Inﬂuence in Language and Cognition (2008, Routledge), and is theAssociate Editor for Language Learning.Renée JourdenaisRenée Jourdenais is an associate professor in the MATESOL/MATFL program atthe Monterey Institute of International Studies, where she specializes in secondlanguage acquisition and in language teacher education. She also has extensiveexperience in curriculum development and in language assessment. Her recentresearch work explores the development of teacher knowledge.Keiko KodaKeiko Koda is Professor of Second Language Acquisition and Japanese in theDepartment of Modern Languages at Carnegie Mellon University. Her majorresearch areas include second language reading, biliteracy development, psycho-linguistics, and foreign language pedagogy. Her recent books include Insights intoSecond Language Reading (2005, Cambridge University Press), Reading and LanguageLearning (2007, Blackwell), and Learning to Read across Languages (2008, Routledge).Antony John KunnanAntony John Kunnan is Professor of TESOL and Language Education at Califor-nia State University and the University of Hong Kong respectively. He has pub-lished in the Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, Language Testing, and Language 14.
Contributors xvAssessment Quarterly and in many edited volumes and handbooks. He was thePresident of the International Language Testing Association in 2004 and is thefounding editor of Language Assessment Quarterly.Diane Larsen-FreemanDiane Larsen-Freeman is Professor of Education, Professor of Linguistics, andResearch Scientist at the English Language Institute, University of Michigan. Hermost recent book (2008) is Complex Systems and Applied Linguistics, co-authoredwith Lynne Cameron and published by Oxford University Press.Michael H. LongMichael H. Long is Professor of SLA in the School of Languages, Literatures, andCultures at the University of Maryland, College Park, where he teaches coursesand seminars in the PhD program in SLA. Mike is the author of over 100 articlesand several books, and has served on the editorial boards of Studies in SecondLanguage Acquisition, TESOL Quarterly, Language Teaching Research, and other jour-nals. His recent publications include The Handbook of Second Language Acquisition,co-edited with Catherine Doughty (2003, Blackwell), Second Language Needs Analysis(2005, Cambridge), and Problems in SLA (2007, Lawrence Erlbaum).Sandra Lee McKaySandra Lee McKay is Professor of English at San Francisco State University,where she teaches courses in sociolinguistics, as well as methods and materialsfor graduate students in TESOL. Her books include Teaching English as an Interna-tional Language: Rethinking Goals and Approaches (2002, Oxford University Press,winner of the Ben Warren International Book Award), Sociolinguistics and LanguageTeaching (edited with Nancy Hornberger, 1996, Cambridge University Press) andResearching Second Language Classrooms (2006, Lawrence Erlbaum). Her newestbook, International English in Its Sociolinguistic Contexts: Towards a Socially SensitivePedagogy (with Wendy Bokhorst-Heng, 2008, Routledge) is an examination of thesocial and sociolinguistic context of present-day English teaching and learning.Rosamond F. MitchellRosamond F. Mitchell is Professor of Education at the University of Southamp-ton. Her research interests are in the area of Second Language Acquisition, espe-cially of French. She is particularly interested in theories of language learningand their empirical implications, and in the interface between linguistic theoryand cognitive approaches to the learning of second languages. She is co-editor ofTeaching Grammar: Perspectives in Higher Education (1996) and co-author of SecondLanguage Learning Theories (2004).Silvina MontrulSilvina Montrul is Associate Professor of Spanish, Linguistics and SecondLanguage Acquisition at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Sheis author of The Acquisition of Spanish (2004, John Benjamins) and Incomplete 15.
xvi ContributorsAcquisition in Bilingualism. Re-examining the Age Factor (2008, John Benjamins).Her research focuses on linguistic and psycholinguistic approaches to adult sec-ond language acquisition and bilingualism, in particular syntax, semantics, andmorphology. She is also an expert in language loss and retention in minority-language-speaking bilinguals.Diane MusumeciDiane Musumeci is Associate Professor and Head in the Department of Spanish,Italian, and Portuguese at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Sheis the author of Breaking Tradition: An Exploration of the Historical RelationshipBetween Theory and Practice in Second Language Teaching (1997, McGraw-Hill).Paul NationPaul Nation is professor of Applied Linguistics in the School of Linguistics andApplied Language Studies at Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand.His specialist interests are language teaching methodology and vocabularylearning. His latest book on vocabulary is Teaching Vocabulary: Strategies and Tech-niques published by Cengage Learning (2008), and two books, Teaching ESL/EFLListening and Speaking (with Jonathan Newton) and Teaching ESL/EFL Reading andWriting, have just appeared from Routledge/Taylor and Francis.John M. NorrisJohn M. Norris is associate professor in the Department of Second LanguageStudies at the University of Hawai’i at Manoa. His work focuses on assessment,program evaluation, research methods, and task-based language teaching in for-eign and second language education. His recent publications include a single-author book Validity Evaluation in Language Assessment (2008, Peter Lang) and aco-edited volume with Lourdes Ortega Synthesizing Research on Language Learningand Teaching (John Benjamins, 2006).Lourdes OrtegaLourdes Ortega is associate professor at the University of Hawai’i, where sheteaches graduate courses in second language acquisition and foreign languageeducation. Her most recent book is Understanding Second Language Acquisition(2009, Hodder Arnold).Robert PhillipsonRobert Phillipson is a Professor Emeritus at Copenhagen Business School, Denmark.His Linguistic Imperialism (1992, Oxford University Press) has also been published inChina and India. Recent publications include English-Only Europe? Challenging Lan-guage Policy (2003, Routledge) and Linguistic Imperialism Continued (Orient Black-swan). Several articles can be downloaded from www.cbs.dk/staff/phillipson.Charlene PolioCharlene Polio is an associate professor at Michigan State University, where shedirects the MA TESOL program. She has published research on second language 16.
Contributors xviiwriting, classroom discourse, and second language acquisition and in journalssuch as the Journal of Second Language Writing, the Modern Language Journal, andStudies in Second Language Acquisition. She is the incoming editor of the AnnualReview of Applied Linguistics and co-editor of Multiple Perspectives on Interaction:Second Language Research in Honor of Susan M. Gass to be published by Routledge.Håkan RingbomHåkan Ringbom is emeritus professor of English at Åbo Akademi University,Turku/Åbo, Finland. Among his previous publications are The Role of the FirstLanguage in Foreign Language Learning (1987) and Cross-Linguistic Similarity inForeign Language Learning (2007), both with Multilingual Matters.William P. RiversWilliam P. Rivers is Chief Linguist at Integrated Training Solutions, Arlington,VA. His publications include Language and National Security in the 21st Century(with Richard D. Brecht, 2001) and Language and Critical Area Studies after Septem-ber 11 (with Richard D. Brecht, Ewa Golonka, and Mary E. Hart). His researchinterests include third language acquisition, computational sociolinguistics, andlanguage policy.Peter RobinsonPeter Robinson is Professor of Linguistics and SLA in the Department of English,Aoyama Gakuin University, Shibuya, Tokyo, where he teaches and supervisesresearch on second language acquisition, cognitive abilities for language learning,and effects of instruction. Recent publications include Task Complexity, theCognition Hypothesis and Second Language Instruction, special issue of theInternational Review of Applied Linguistics (co-edited with Roger Gilabert, 2007),Handbook of Cognitive Linguistics and Second Language Acquisition (co-edited withNick Ellis, 2008, Routledge), and Second Language Task Complexity: Researching theCognition Hypothesis of Learning and Performance (in press, John Benjamins).Carsten RoeverCarsten Roever is a Senior Lecturer in Applied Linguistics in the School ofLanguages and Linguistics at the University of Melbourne. His research interestsinclude second language acquisition, interlanguage pragmatics, and secondlanguage assessment. He has written several book chapters, journal articles, andthe book Testing ESL Pragmatics (2005, Peter Lang) and has co-authored LanguageTesting: The Social Dimension with Tim McNamara (2006, Blackwell).Steven J. RossSteve Ross teaches at the School of Policy Studies, Kwansei Gakuin University.His research has appeared in Language Learning, Applied Linguistics, InternationalJournal of Testing, Language Testing, Journal of Pragmatics, Studies in Second LanguageAcquisition, Second Language Research, System, International Review of Applied Lin-guistic, TESOL Quarterly, and in several edited volumes. 17.
xviii ContributorsRani RubdyDr Rani Rubdy is Senior Fellow at the National Institute of Education, NanyangTechnological University in Singapore. She is co-editor of two recently publishedbooks, English in the World: Global Rules, Global Roles (Continuum, 2006) andLanguage as Commodity: Global Structures, Local Marketplaces (Continuum, 2008).Her other recent publications include the book chapters, ‘Remaking Singaporefor the new age: Ofﬁcial ideology and the realities of practice’ in Decolonization,Globalization: Language-in-education Policy and Practice (edited by Angel M. Y. Lin& Peter W. Martin, 2005, Multilingual Matters) and ‘Language planning ideo-logies, communicative practices an their consequences’ in Springer’s Encyclopediaof Language and Education (2008).Tove Skutnabb-KangasTove Skutnabb-Kangas, emerita (University of Roskilde, Denmark and ÅboAkademi University, Finland), bilingual from birth in Finnish and Swedish, haswritten or edited around 50 monographs and almost 400 articles and bookchapters, in 32 languages, about minority education, linguistic human rights,linguistic genocide, subtractive spread of English and the relationship betweenbiodiversity and linguistic diversity. She lives on an ecological farm with husbandRobert Phillipson. For publications, see http:/ /akira.ruc.dk/~tovesk/.Kris Van den BrandenKris Van den Branden is a professor of linguistics at the Katholieke UniversiteitLeuven. He is one of the current directors of the Centre for Language andEducation at the same university. His main research interests are in task-basedlanguage teaching, the role of interaction in instructed language learning, and thediffusion of innovations in the educational ﬁeld. He has published in many inter-national journals, and has edited a volume on task-based language teaching inthe Cambridge University Press Applied Linguistics Series.Larry VandergriftLarry Vandergrift is Professor at the Ofﬁcial Languages and Bilingualism Insti-tute (OLBI) at the University of Ottawa. His research in the teaching of second/foreign language listening has been published in Annual Review of Applied Lin-guistics, Applied Linguistics, Canadian Modern Language Review, Language Learning,Language Teaching, Modern Language Journal, and more. He is currently a co-editorof the Canadian Modern Language Review and director of the research centre atOLBI.Karen VatzKaren Vatz is a graduate student in the Second Language Acquisition PhD pro-gram at the University of Maryland. She is currently working on her dissertationon the representation and processing of grammatical gender in advanced L2learners. Other areas of interest include bilingual lexical representation and crit-ical period effects. 18.
Contributors xixAlan WatersAlan Waters is a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Linguistics and EnglishLanguage, Lancaster University, UK. He has taught EFL and trained teachers inthe UK and several other parts of the world. He has published a number of booksand articles on a range of ELT topics.Jessica WilliamsJessica Williams is a Professor of Linguistics at the University of Illinois atChicago, where she also directs the TESOL program. She has published onvariety of topics, including second language writing, lexical acquisition, and theeffect of focus on form. Her latest publications include an edited volume (withBill VanPatten, 2006, Routledge), Theories in Second Language Acquisition and thestudent text, Academic Encounters: American Studies (Cambridge University Press,2007). 19.
Part I OverviewThe Handbook of Language Teaching Edited by Michael H. Long and Catherine J. Doughty© 2009 Blackwell Publishing Ltd. ISBN: 978-1-405-15489-5 20.
1 Language Teaching MICHAEL H. LONGHundreds of millions of people voluntarily attempt to learn languages each year.They include adults who seek proﬁciency in a new language for academic,professional, occupational, vocational training, or religious purposes, or becausethey have become related through marriage to speakers of languages other thantheir mother tongue. Then, there are (some would argue, “captive”) school-agechildren who experience their education through the medium of a secondlanguage, or for whom one or more foreign languages are obligatory subjectsin their regular curriculum. In addition to these easily recognizable groups,language teachers around the world are increasingly faced with non-volunteers.These are the tens of millions of people each year forced to learn new languagesand dialects, and sometimes new identities, because they have ﬂed traumaticexperiences of one kind or another – war, drought, famine, disease, intolerableeconomic circumstances, ethnic cleansing, and other forms of social conﬂict –crossing linguistic borders in the process. Since the horror and frequency of suchevents show no signs of decreasing, language teaching is likely to remain acritical matter for these groups for the foreseeable future, with the scale of forcedmass migrations if anything likely to grow in the twenty-ﬁrst century, due to thepotentially disastrous effects of climate change. For both groups of learners, volunteers and non-volunteers, language teachingis increasingly recognized as important by international organizations, govern-ments, militaries, intelligence agencies, corporations, NGOs, education systems,health systems, immigration and refugee services, migrant workers, bilingualfamilies, and the students themselves. With the growing recognition come greaterresponsibility and a need for accountability. LT1 is rarely a matter of life or death,but it often has a signiﬁcant impact on the educational life chances, economicpotential and social wellbeing of individual students and whole societies. Studentsand entities that sponsor them increasingly want to know not just that the waythey are taught works, but that it constitutes optimal use of their time and money. Demonstrating effectiveness and efﬁciency is often difﬁcult. Historically, LThas been regarded as an art – or a craft, at least – not a science, with scant regardThe Handbook of Language Teaching Edited by Michael H. Long and Catherine J. Doughty© 2009 Blackwell Publishing Ltd. ISBN: 978-1-405-15489-5 21.
4 Michael H. Longand little ﬁnancial support for research. Demand for some languages, notablyEnglish and Chinese, has been so great in recent years that, with demand farexceeding supply, few consumers have been in a position to quibble over thequality of their instruction. In the case of some rarely taught languages for whichthere is a sudden surge in need, e.g., as a by-product of military actions ornatural disasters, students and sponsors have no choice but to accept whatevercan be found, adequate or not. Even in the case of widely taught languages, likeEnglish, Chinese, Arabic, French, German, and Spanish, research that is carriedout is sometimes criticized for having been conducted in real classrooms andother “natural” instructional settings, with a resulting lack of control over signiﬁc-ant variables that may have inﬂuenced the outcomes of interest. Alternatively,when conducted under controlled experimental conditions, studies are sometimescriticized for having produced ﬁndings that may not generalize to real classrooms.Series of studies of the same phenomena in both natural and artiﬁcial instructionalenvironments, utilizing a variety of research methods, are clearly desirable. Despite these problems, the situation has gradually improved in recent years,with steady growth in the amount and sophistication of research on LT itself, andin disciplines with much to say about the process LT is designed to facilitate,language learning. Of those feeder disciplines, theory and research in some areasof second language acquisition (SLA) are the most directly relevant, but work inpsychology, educational psychology, anthropology, curriculum and instruction,and more, is also valuable. This is not to say that all the answers are known, oreven that most of them are, but LT prescriptions and proscriptions that ignoretheory and research ﬁndings in those ﬁelds are gradually and justiﬁably losingcredibility. Where they are kept viable, it is chieﬂy by commercial interests, whichstill wield enormous inﬂuence, and the continued marketability of whose waresis often best served by ignorance about effectiveness. The authors of each chapter in this volume were asked wherever possible todraw on research ﬁndings when making proposals. This, they have done. Also,while many of them specialize in the teaching of English, on which the greatestnumber of studies have been carried out, and/or operate in English-speakingcountries, they were asked not to focus on the teaching of any one language orany one teaching context – foreign, second, lingua franca, etc. – but to chooseexamples and synthesize research ﬁndings and teaching experience from, andrelevant to, a variety of languages and settings. They were asked to providebalanced evaluations of major positions and approaches, but granted scope toadvance their own views. This, they have also done. As is visible in the Table of Contents, in addition to coverage of core foundationalissues, The Handbook of Language Teaching contains chapters on a few topics seldomfound in comparable anthologies and textbooks. These chapters reﬂect recentdevelopments and changing emphases in the ﬁeld, or ones we believe deservemore attention. Examples include chapters on the language-learning brain; onprograms designed speciﬁcally for heritage learners, about whom there is nowan explosion of (sometimes rather uninformed) writing; on advanced learners;study abroad; third language, conversion, and cross-training programs; LCTLs 22.
Language Teaching 5(less commonly taught languages), which geopolitics are rapidly making a lotmore commonly taught; and (not unrelated) on reading new scripts; as well as onradical language teaching and the diffusion of innovation. In another departurefrom the norm, instead of one chapter on teaching various skills, and a separateone on testing them, we invited one author to cover both in a single chapter. Theidea is to avoid overlap and facilitate greater coherence of treatment. We selectedindividuals whose prior work showed they can handle both at the required level.While certainly not unique to this volume, there is also expert coverage of theincreasingly apparent and important politics and social and political context oflanguage teaching. One author conspicuously missing from the assembled company is the lateCraig Chaudron, a widely respected expert on many aspects of LT, and a valuedcolleague and close personal friend. Craig had agreed to contribute a chapter tothe handbook, but as many readers will know, died unexpectedly in 2006. Hisuntimely passing is a tragic loss for all who knew him, and for the ﬁeld as awhole. This volume is humbly dedicated to his memory.NOTESWe are grateful to Danielle Descoteaux, Julia Kirk, and the staff at Wiley-Blackwell fortheir support at all stages of the development of this volume, and to the reviewers ofindividual chapters.1 The following abbreviations are used throughout the volume: FL – foreign language L1 – ﬁrst, or native, language L2 and SL – second language in the broad sense, including any additional language to the L1 LT – language teaching SLA – second language acquisition. 23.
Part II Social, Political, and Educational Contexts of Language TeachingThe Handbook of Language Teaching Edited by Michael H. Long and Catherine J. Doughty© 2009 Blackwell Publishing Ltd. ISBN: 978-1-405-15489-5 24.
2 The Social and Sociolinguistic Contexts of Language Learning and Teaching SANDRA LEE MCKAY AND RANI RUBDYWe live in an age of linguistic diversity increased greatly by globalization, themovement of people across borders, and the widespread acquisition of addi-tional languages by individuals in their own countries. All of these factors haveled to an increase in the number of second-language learners and the kinds ofcontexts in which they are learning languages. This chapter is about the social and sociolinguistic context of present-day for-eign and second-language learning and teaching. In examining the social contextof language learning, we focus on how language teaching contexts are affectedby the larger social, political, and educational setting in which the teaching takesplace. In examining the sociolinguistic context of language teaching, we focus onhow the linguistic features of interactions, both inside and outside of the class-room, are affected by the social context in which the interaction takes place. Our division is in many ways similar to a traditional distinction made in theﬁeld of sociolinguistics where one of the major debates is whether to take socialor linguistic factors as primary in investigating the relationship between thesocial context and language variables. As evidence of this debate, Wardaugh(1992) and others make a distinction between the sociology of language and sociolin-guistics. Whereas the sociology of language investigates the manner in whichsocial and political forces inﬂuence language use, sociolinguistics takes linguisticfactors as primary in its investigations of language and society. In keeping with this distinction, the ﬁrst part of the chapter focuses on twoareas of investigation typically studied in the sociology of language that inﬂu-ence the social context of language learning: language planning and policy, andsocietal multilingualism. The second part of the chapter focuses on two areas ofinvestigation typically studied in what Wardhaugh terms sociolinguistics: languagecontact and variation, and ethnographic sociolinguistics. The ﬁnal section ofThe Handbook of Language Teaching Edited by Michael H. Long and Catherine J. Doughty© 2009 Blackwell Publishing Ltd. ISBN: 978-1-405-15489-5 25.
10 Sandra Lee McKay and Rani Rubdythe chapter uses case studies of second and foreign language teaching to illus-trate how the social and sociolinguistic context can inﬂuence language pedagogy. Whereas this chapter will discuss the learning and teaching context of variouslanguages, a good deal of attention will be given to the learning of English. Thisis because today English is the most widely studied second and foreign language(Crystal, 1997), causing the study of the social and sociolinguistic context of thelearning of this language to be of interest to many learners and practitioners.The Social Context of Language Learningand TeachingLanguage planning and policyThe social context of language learning and teaching is greatly impacted by anation’s political decision to give special status to a particular language or lan-guages. This status can be achieved either by making the language an ofﬁciallanguage of a country or by giving special priority to the language by requiringits study as a foreign language. Today there are over 75 countries in which Englishhas been or continues to be an ofﬁcial language of the country, with many morenations requiring the study of English in the public schools (Crystal, 1997). Thissituation provides tremendous incentives for the learning of English. The political choice of designating an ofﬁcial language is fully discussed inChapter 3. What is important for our purposes is how this choice affects thesocial context of language learning and teaching. Three ways in which the desig-nation of an ofﬁcial language has consequences for language learning and teach-ing are (a) the insight the designation provides into prevalent social attitudestoward particular languages, (b) the effect of the language policy on the statedlanguage-in-education policy, and (c) the setting of linguistic standards. The designation of an ofﬁcial language can foster a great deal of politicaltension that polarizes social attitudes toward particular languages. Malaysia’sdecision, for example, to recognize Bahasa Melayu as the country’s sole ofﬁciallanguage was strongly opposed by the ethnic Chinese and Tamil populations,who preferred giving English equal status. The debate in South Africa over whichlanguages to designate as ofﬁcial was also based on ethnic lines. In both cases thedecision of whether or not to give special status to a particular language becamea rallying point for social and ethnic groups. Such social attitudes obviously canaffect an individual’s motivation to learn or not learn a particular language. A second consequence of a language being designated as one of the ofﬁciallanguages of the country is that in most cases the country’s ofﬁcial language orlanguages are used, or at least designated to be used, as the medium of instruc-tion in the schools. The National Educational Policy of South Africa is a casein point. In 1997, the former Minister of Education argued that South Africa’snational language-in-education policy was integral to the government’s strategy 26.
The Social Contexts of Language Teaching 11of redressing the discrimination of the past and building a non-racial nation inSouth Africa. He contended that being multilingual should be a deﬁning charac-teristic of being South African (Chick & McKay, 2001). While providing for choice from a range of language-in-education policy mod-els, the South African National Educational Policy identiﬁed additive bilingual-ism/multilingualism as the normative orientation of the language-in-educationpolicy. This policy, however, contradicts the beliefs of many South African par-ents that the best way to acquire English, the dominant ex-colonial language, isto commence studying the language as early as possible; that maintenance of theﬁrst language is unnecessary and perhaps undesirable; and that the best way forspeakers of other languages to acquire English is submersion, that is, a subtractiveapproach. Given the strong desire on the part of many parents for their childrento learn English, English-medium education is currently the only option offeredby South Africa’s most sought-after schools. This situation exempliﬁes the mannerin which the stated language-in-education policy is often undermined by prevalentsocial beliefs as to the value of particular languages. National language policies can also inﬂuence language learning and teachingby the setting of standards. For example, in Singapore today, there is a segmentof the population that speaks a localised dialect of English widely known asSinglish or Singapore Colloquial English (SCE). Like many stigmatized varieties,Singlish has begun to gain immense popularity among young professionals, whoincreasingly use it in domains of friendship and solidarity. Its negative associ-ation with the poorly educated and its accelerated usage among the general popu-lace in recent years alarmed the Singapore authorities sufﬁciently to warrant themounting of a Speak Good English Movement, a campaign that overtly promotesthe use of standard English, and whose implicit agenda is to stem the spread ofSinglish before it becomes an integral part of the cultural life of the presentgeneration of school-goers in Singapore. As in the case of Singapore, governmentpolicies can inﬂuence not only which language is promoted but also whichvariety of that language is preferred.Societal multilingualismWhen a country has more than one ofﬁcial language and the majority of thepopulation is bilingual, there are generally particular domains in which eachlanguage is used. Ferguson (1959) coined the term diglossia to describe the situationof a community in which most of the population is bilingual and/or bidialectaland the two codes serve different purposes. The term was originally used by Fer-guson to describe a context in which two varieties of the same language are usedby people of that community for different purposes. Normally one variety, termedthe High, or H, variety, is acquired in an educational context and used by thecommunity in more formal domains, such as in churches or universities. Theother variety, termed the Low, or L, variety, is acquired in the home and used ininformal domains, like the home or social center, to communicate with family andfriends. 27.
12 Sandra Lee McKay and Rani Rubdy Later, Fishman (1972) generalized the meaning of diglossia to include the useof two separate languages within one country in which one language is usedprimarily for formal purposes and the other for more informal purposes. Theexpansion of the meaning of the term made it applicable to countries in whichEnglish is one of the ofﬁcial languages, as in South Africa, Singapore, and India.In these countries, English often assumes the role of what Ferguson calls theHigh variety, with the other languages of the country, or a different variety ofEnglish, being used in informal domains. The fact that these different languages or varieties serve different purposes hasimplications for second-language teaching. In many cases the language or dialectthat serves the purposes of the Low variety has lower status, so that speakers ofthis variety are marginalized in society and in the school system. Because of this,speakers of this variety are often given the impression that their home languageis inferior; furthermore, their lack of access to the High variety can impede theirprogress in the educational establishment and, ultimately, in society. Two additional concepts in the study of societal multilingualism that areimportant for our purposes are language maintenance and language shift. In thecase of language maintenance, members of a language minority group work topromote the maintenance of their ﬁrst language. This is the case of manylanguage minority groups in the United States who have established after-schoolﬁrst-language maintenance programs, funded print and media programs in theirﬁrst language, and supported special events in which the ﬁrst language is used.(See McKay & Wong, 2000.) Language shift, on the other hand, occurs whenmembers of a language minority replace the use of their ﬁrst language in favor ofanother one. This is the case for almost all third generation immigrants to theUnited States. The concepts of language maintenance and shift are particularly relevant to thetopic of linguistic diversity in an era of globalization. Today, many warn of thedanger of the spread of English and the threat it poses to the continued existenceof indigenous and smaller languages (Nettle & Romaine, 2000; Phillipson, 2003).For such individuals, English is seen as the culprit in the decrease in the numberof languages spoken in the world. However, there are others (e.g., Brutt-Grifﬂer,2002) who maintain that the spread of English is not a step toward a monolingualworld of English speakers but rather a step toward a world in which bilingualismis the norm. Indeed the tremendous increase in the number of second-languagespeakers of English would seem to support this position. The growth of individuals who are learning another language in their owncountry in order to partake in regional or global exchanges has important im-plications for second and foreign language learning and teaching. To begin with,such individuals have another language that serves their informal and intimateneeds. Hence, they typically have little need to develop informal registers ofthe regional or global language. Second, in many instances individuals will ac-quire the additional language in order to communicate with other non-nativespeakers of that language. Because of this, much more attention should be given 28.
The Social Contexts of Language Teaching 13in language classes to developing strategies that help learners to communicatein exchanges in which neither speaker is fully ﬂuent in the language.The Sociolinguistic Context of Language Learningand TeachingLanguage contact and variationOne common effect of language contact is language change. In such cases, thevarious languages used within a multilingual context may undergo phonological,lexical, and grammatical changes as bilinguals make use of two or more lan-guages on a regular basis. This situation is occurring in many countries today whereEnglish has an ofﬁcial role in the society. In these countries, English is beinginﬂuenced by the other languages it comes in contact with. In addition, Englishis often inﬂuencing other languages through the borrowing of English terms. Many studies have been undertaken to determine the types of grammaticalchanges that are occurring in various multilingual contexts in which Englishplays a signiﬁcant role. (See, for example, Kachru, 2005.) Frequently, researchersbegin by examining a written corpus of English of a particular multilingual con-text to determine what kinds of grammatical innovations exist and how accept-able these structures are to both native speakers of English and local speakers ofEnglish. In general, when investigations of language change use a written corpusof published English, only very minor grammatical differences are found. (See,for example, Parasher, 1994.) Often the kinds of grammatical changes that occur tend to be minor differ-ences, such as variation in what is considered to be a countable noun (e.g., thestandard use of luggages in English in the Philippines and the use of furnituresin Nigeria) and the creation of new phrasal verbs (e.g., the use of dismissing off inEnglish in India, and discuss about in Nigeria). In contexts in which such featuresbecome codiﬁed and recognized as standard within that social context, therearises what Kachru (1986) has termed a nativized variety of English. What is perhaps most puzzling in the development of alternate grammaticalstandards in the use of English is the fact that whereas lexical innovation is oftenaccepted as part of language change, this tolerance is generally not extended togrammatical innovation. In Widdowson’s (1994) view, the reason for this lack oftolerance for grammatical variation is because grammar takes on another value,namely that of expressing a social identity. Hence, when grammatical standardsare challenged, they challenge the security of the community and institutionsthat support those standards. Investigations of language contact have also focused on the code-switchingbehavior of bilinguals. One of the most comprehensive theories of codeswitchingis that of Myers-Scotton (1993). She explains code-switching in terms of a theoryof rights and obligations. She proposes a markedness model of code-switching 29.
14 Sandra Lee McKay and Rani Rubdywhich assumes that speakers in a multilingual context have a sense of whichcode is the one expected to be used in a particular situation. This is termed theunmarked code. However, speakers can also choose to use the marked code, that is,the language or language variety that is not expected in a particular socialcontext. Using data from multilingual African contexts, Myers-Scotton demon-strates how bilingual speakers make code choices to signal a variety of socialrelationships. Unfortunately, in many language learning and teaching contexts,the rich linguistic repertoire of bilinguals is not recognized, and policies are oftenimplemented to prohibit the use of any code other than the target language. Studies in language contact have several implications for the teaching andlearning of another language. As mentioned above, language contact will inevit-ably result in language change. Since today many individuals are using Englishin contact with other languages on a daily basis, their use of English is changing,and they are in the process of establishing their own standards of English grammarand pronunciation. In general, research on these emerging varieties of Englishindicates that the codiﬁed and accepted standard of English that exists in thesecommunities has few differences from other standard varieties of English. Hence,it is important for L2 teachers to recognize the integrity of the varieties of thelanguage they teach, to realize that they are important sources of personalidentity and signs of the current mobility of populations, and to avoid promotingnegative attitudes toward such varieties. Studies on code-switching have illustrated the regularity of code-switchingbehavior and the purposes that code-switching can serve for bilinguals. Giventhe many contexts today where English is used as one of the additional lan-guages within a country, more research is needed regarding how individualsmake use of English in reference to the other languages they speak. Such researchwill be valuable in establishing classroom objectives that complement the students’use of English within their own speech community. In addition, in classrooms inmultilingual contexts where the teacher shares a ﬁrst language, more research isneeded to determine how students’ ﬁrst language can be used to further theircompetence in a target language.Ethnographic sociolingisticsA good deal of current work in sociolinguistics falls under what is referred toas an ethnomethodologically oriented approach to the ﬁeld of sociolinguistics,with linguistic interaction as the focal point. One of the central concepts of ethno-graphic or interactional sociolinguistics is the term speech community. Hymes (1972)contends that members of a speech community must share the same rules ofspeaking and be familiar with at least one common linguistic variety. Individualsare typically members of several speech communities and alter their normsof language use to conform to other members of the same speech community.With growing mobility, individuals today can belong to many different speechcommunities. 30.
The Social Contexts of Language Teaching 15 Work in linguistic interaction began as a reaction to Chomsky’s (1957) focuson the language of an idealized speaker-listener in a homogeneous speech com-munity with complete knowledge of the language. This notion was challengedby Hymes (1974), who insisted that studies on language use should strive toaccount for the communicative competence of a native speaker of a language.Gumperz (1982) also challenged Chomsky’s notion of an idealized speaker in ahomogeneous speech community, arguing instead that language use in a speechcommunity is inﬂuenced by social and cultural factors. Gumperz’s studies oncommunication between blacks and whites in the United States and betweenIndians and British in England demonstrated how differences in language useamong speech communities can cause misunderstandings leading to racial andethnic stereotypes and inequalities in power. The work of Rampton (1995, 1997) has taken the debate about linguistic diver-sity one step further. He maintains that globalization, as well as late/post-modernity (a term he prefers to postmodernism), warrants a fresh look at theissues important to sociolinguistics and L2 research. Rampton believes that thetime has come for sociolinguists to challenge the notion that societies are com-pact and systematic entities and instead to recognize the heterogeneity and ﬂuidityof modern states. In keeping with much of the discourse of postmodernism, heargues persuasively that sociolinguistics should give more attention to investig-ating issues related to fragmentation, marginality, and hybridity and recognizethat “being marginal is actually a crucial experience of late modernity. Beingneither on the inside nor the outside, being afﬁliated but not fully belonging, issaid to be a normal condition” (Rampton, 1997, p. 330). The ability to signal identity through surface linguistic features has signiﬁcantramiﬁcations for language learning and teaching. In many contexts around theworld, one of the major goals of teaching a second or foreign language is topromote the acquisition of the standard form of the target language. As a result,those who use an alternate form of the target language as a way of signaling theirhybridity and afﬁliation with a particular speech community are often penalized.They are marginalized in the society and often penalized in a school system thatuses one standard to determine proﬁciency in the language. In order for current sociolinguistic research to be in touch with issues oflate modernity, further research is needed that investigates linguistic diversitywithout preconceived ideas about native speakers and language standards. Suchresearch should examine how particular varieties of language illustrate the ﬂuidityof modern society. This type of research is presently underway in investigationsof English as a lingua franca (ELF), which Firth (1996) deﬁnes as a contactlanguage “between persons who share neither a common native tongue nor acommon (national) culture, and for whom English is the chosen foreign languageof communication” (p. 240). Since it is estimated that today about 80 percent oforal exchanges in English do not involve native speakers of English (Seidlhofer,2004), more research is needed to determine the characteristics of such exchanges.Most of the current research in this area has taken place in Expanding Circle 31.
16 Sandra Lee McKay and Rani Rubdycountries (see below), much of it in Europe. (See Seidlhofer 2004 for a review ofELF research.)Major Second and Foreign Language Learning andTeaching ContextsAs a way of illustrating how the social and sociolinguistic factors described abovehave implications for second and foreign language learning and teaching, it ishelpful to consider the three major types of learning contexts described by Kachru(1986) in reference to English learning: (a) the Inner Circle, where English is theprimary language of the country, such as in Australia, Canada, and the UnitedKingdom; (b) the Outer Circle, where English serves as a second language in amultilingual country, such as in Singapore, India, and the Philippines; and (c) theExpanding Circle, where English is widely studied as a foreign language, such asin China, Japan, and Korea. This very broad distinction of learning contexts can be generalized to all sec-ond and foreign languages. In doing so, any teaching context in which a learneris learning the major language of the host country would be termed an InnerCircle learning context. This is the type of social context faced by many immigrantstoday, who in an age of globalization often immigrate to other more prosperouscountries, typically for better economic opportunities. This is the case of manyTurks in Germany, Poles in Ireland, and Indians in Great Britain. The secondmajor type of second and foreign language learning is an Outer Circle learningcontext, in which the learner is acquiring one of the major languages spoken inthe country. This would be the case of English speakers learning French in Que-bec or Zulu speakers learning English in South Africa. Finally, in Expanding Circlelearning contexts, learners are learning a language, often a language of regional orglobal importance, in a country in which the language has no ofﬁcial role. This isthe case of American learners studying Mandarin or Japanese learners learningEnglish. The question is, in what way do the social and sociolinguistic constructsdescribed above provide insight into the learning and teaching context? In orderto address this, we examine some representative case studies in each context. Webegin with Inner Circle learning contexts.Inner Circle learning contextsLanguage maintenance and language shift, as well as language-in-education policy,are particularly relevant to Inner Circle learning contexts. In many instances,government and educational leaders make decisions that can encourage eitherlanguage maintenance or shift among its minority population. British govern-ment policies regarding the acquisition of English among minority language speak-ers illustrate the effect that government policy can have on language maintenanceand shift. During the 1960s and 1970s in the United Kingdom, students withlimited English proﬁciency were placed either in specialist language centers or 32.
The Social Contexts of Language Teaching 17withdrawn from mainstream classrooms for special ESL instruction. Then, in1986, the Commission for Racial Equality decided that language centers consti-tuted a form of racial discrimination in that language minority students, typicallymembers of racial minority groups, were being singled out and that such programswere creating further social and racial barriers between groups. As Rampton (1995) notes, British government policy in general tolerates theuse of minority languages only as a transitional measure during the early yearsof schooling, and there is no encouragement for the development of bilingual-ism during a child’s education. Obviously, such policies are designed to pro-mote language shift, with no encouragement for language maintenance. What arethe implications of such policies for language learning and teaching? In general,they promote a view of a language classroom as an English-only environmentin which the ﬁrst-language resources a child has are not recognized. Such pol-icies also do not typically promote favorable attitudes toward bilingualism orcode-switching. These pedagogical policies are in sharp contrast to the linguistic situation manylanguage minority youths encounter outside the classroom. Here, as Rampton(1995) carefully documents in his investigation of British language minorityadolescents, code alternation both between Standard English and Stylised AsianEnglish and between English and the students’ ﬁrst language plays an importantrole in “the organization of interracial adolescent solidarities” (p. 141). Whereasthe actual interactions of British adolescents with adults and their peers demon-strate the sociolinguistic sophistication of bilingual youths, this is not recognizedas an asset or promoted in classrooms which support an English-only model thatrecognizes and legitimizes only standard English. The language-in-education policies in countries like the United Kingdomreﬂect a huge gap between the sociolinguistic reality of language minority groupsand prevalent pedagogical approaches to the teaching of English. If pedagogicalmodels are to be sensitive to the social interactions of the local context, muchmore attention needs to be given in Inner Circle learning contexts to the value ofbilingualism, the maintenance of existing linguistic resources, and the sociolin-guistic knowledge of language learners. Presently, Australia is making some attempt to encourage the development ofbilingualism among its citizens. As an inducement to encourage the learning oflanguages other than English (LOTE), some Australian universities are offeringbonus points to those university applicants who include the study of LOTE intheir required university entrance subjects (Smolicz & Secombe, 2003). Even withthis incentive, only 10–20 percent of students take LOTE as a university entrancesubject. As Smolicz and Secombe point out, this is “particularly striking forstudents from the majority English-speaking background, many of whom see noobvious beneﬁts from investing the effort required to learn a new language, inview of the availability of what they perceive as ‘easier options’, as well as theglobal dominance of English” (2003, p. 16). Attitudes such as this suggest that theEnglish-speaking populations of Inner Circle countries may be the least likely tobecome bilingual in an increasingly multilingual and multicultural world. 33.
18 Sandra Lee McKay and Rani RubdyOuter Circle learning contextsDiglossia, language change, linguistic standards, and code-switching are particu-larly relevant to many Outer Circle learning contexts. Not least because many ofthe Outer Circle countries are inherently characterized by a rich and complexmultiethnic, multicultural, and multilingual ethos wherein English was trans-planted and taught either as an important ofﬁcial language or a language ofhigher education, or both. Partly a legacy of colonial history and partly the effect of post-independencepolicies, English was introduced as a panacea for solving the economic and edu-cational problems of many newly independent states in the Outer Circle, such asIndia, the Philippines, Singapore, and those of Africa, and soon became a domin-ant language of the ruling elite. The study of English was therefore initiallyrestricted to a particular socio-economic class, with a focus on literature andculture. Today, its earlier role in these contexts as an “instrument of science andtechnology” and a language of “development” and “national unity” is increasinglybeing replaced by economic and pragmatic motivations, due to the meshing ofEnglish with globalization. This has meant a strong demand for communicationskills and everyday use of English, in place of the study of literature, for creatinga competent workforce for the multinational corporations and outsourcing centersthat represent this global trend. Many “new” and distinct indigenized or nativized varieties of English (Kachru,1986) have evolved, due to the processes of change that English has undergoneby acquiring new linguistic and cultural features as a result of contact withindigenous languages and cultures. These contact varieties have become institu-tionalized and are recognized by their speakers as autonomous varieties of Englishin their own right, notwithstanding the struggle for legitimacy and equivalencewith long-established “native” varieties, particularly British and American Eng-lishes, that continue to be looked upon as powerful reference points in the practiceof English language instruction in some of those settings. A crucial consideration for speakers of English in the Outer Circle has beenthe choice of a pedagogical model for teaching English as a second/foreignlanguage, that is, whether to adopt an external “native speaker” standard or aninternal one as the appropriate model in serving the purposes of their localcontexts. Governments and education ministries differ sharply in the positionsthey have taken. For instance, Indian English (English of educated Indians) istaught and learnt in all educational institutions in India and this is the varietyalso used in the administration, the judiciary, the military, and the media. Thisrejection of what Phillipson (2001) terms “a debilitating dependence on nativespeaker models” (p. 195) is in tune with the sociolinguistic realities of the Indiansubcontinent, where most Indians use English as a lingua franca to communicatewith other Indians or Asians from language groups not their own, much lessfrequently with Inner Circle speakers. This also means that Indian Englishhas “multiple identities” that are markers of distinctive regional variationwithin it. 34.
The Social Contexts of Language Teaching 19 India has adopted a policy known as the “three language formula,” whereinstudents in the mainstream typically learn their mother tongue or regional lan-guage as their ﬁrst language, and English and Hindi as their second and thirdlanguages, respectively. Of the roughly 200 languages that actively contribute tomaking India a functionally multilingual country and not just a demographicallymultilingual one, 41 languages, including its 18 ofﬁcial languages, are available forstudy in the school curriculum (NCERT, 1999, cited in Annamalai, 2004, p. 177).However, because English is the only language taught in all states as either aﬁrst (e.g., in privately run English-medium schools), second, or third languageand is taught in the largest number of schools overall, from one point of view ithas been argued that making English compulsory in Indian schools has renderedhundreds and thousands of children handicapped. Because it marginalizes ver-nacular medium students and defeats the policy goal of nation-building with equaleducational opportunities for all, free India, it is argued, is free only politicallyand not educationally (Krishnaswamy & Krishnaswamy, 2006). Whereas English still remains essentially an urban middle-class phenomenonin India, and as the language of the ruling bureaucracy and higher education itis domain-speciﬁc and register-based, English in Singapore occupies a uniqueposition among Asian countries. In Singapore, English has ﬁrst-language statusin the educational curriculum at all levels and is the de facto working language ofadministration, business, and the media. While the more standard variety ofEnglish is the one taught in schools, alongside it has developed a variety whichhas a distinctive phonology, syntax, and lexicon, which shows a high degree ofinﬂuence from the other local languages such as Hokkien, Cantonese, Malay, andTamil, a contact variety thought to be pioneered in the classroom and the play-ground by children (Gupta, 1994). Because English in Singapore and Malaysiawas found to display a range, it was initially characterized as a “lectal con-tinuum” within a “post-creole continuum” (Platt & Weber, 1980), extending fromthe basilect at one end, which showed features of creoles, to the acrolect at theother, approximating Standard (superstrate) English, with the mesolect mediat-ing transitionally between the two. However, since English in these regions wasacquired through the formal school system, a description more favored today isone that sees it as a form of diglossia (Gupta, 1994; Foley et al., 1998), withStandard Singapore English (SSE) constituting the High variety, used in public,formal and educational domains and Singapore Colloquial English (SCE), theLow variety used in the home and neighborhood. Members of the Singaporeanspeech community know well when SCE is or is not appropriate and even wherecode-mixing between SSE and SCE is commonplace, children do separate thecodes at a very early age (Gupta, 1994). Standards of English have remained a continuing concern at the highest levelsof government. Despite the fact that educated Singaporeans have come to enjoy agreater degree of English language proﬁciency in present-day Singapore, there iscurrently strong ofﬁcial pressure to promote an exonormative standard – notablyBritish or American English – so as to curb further “decay” of the language throughprocesses of indigenization. Varied measures have been undertaken to bring 35.
20 Sandra Lee McKay and Rani Rubdyabout targeted change. The Speak Good English Movement, for instance, wasmounted in 2000 as a timely check to contain the popularity of the local vernacular“Singlish,” considered a non-standard variety with an alluring potential for sym-bolizing Singaporean identity and solidarity among young Singaporeans. For some,the movement was viewed as a way to help Singapore plug into the English-dominant global economic network, while others saw it as a way to facilitatelinguistic homogenization by devaluing and diminishing the existing linguistic re-sources of the average Singaporean (Chng, 2003; Kramer-Dahl, 2003; Rubdy, 2001). The dominance of English in Singapore has been enormously boosted by theinstitutionalization of English as the medium of instruction and ﬁrst language inschools since 1979, as a measure to create national unity and forge a nationalidentity and consciousness that transcended ethnic boundaries, as well as by theassignation of the local “mother tongue” languages to second-language status,such that all Singaporeans may be described as “English-knowing bilinguals”(Pakir, 1991). Singapore is, in fact, well on its way toward becoming a largelyEnglish-speaking country, certainly one that is English dominant (Lim, 2004).Equally, the Speak Mandarin campaign that was put in place as a measure simul-taneously to uphold Asian values and counter the inﬂuence of “Western deca-dence,” and that is now paying off with the emergence of China as a powerfultrading partner, has had an overwhelming success in increasing the widespreaduse of Mandarin. However, this has happened at the expense of the many Chinesedialects that it has replaced, leading to extensive language shift and languageloss, and threatening intergenerational continuity. The language-in-educationpolicy thus causes the language of school and government to displace the lan-guage of home and neighborhood (Tickoo, 1996). Kamwangamalu (2003) reports on a similar trend in South Africa, where Englishis “spreading like wildﬁre” and has inﬁltrated the family domain, particularly inurban black communities, who “see the language as an open sesame by means ofwhich one can achieve unlimited upward social mobility,” and prefer English-medium education over an education in their own native languages, such asSotho, Zulu, or Xosa. Kamwangamalu maintains that if the current trend towardmonolingualism in English continues, the African languages will face attritionand death. He points to the anxiety and agony expressed in South Africa by, onthe one hand, some purists “who believe that the language is being mutilatedthrough nativization by its new users (i.e., non-native speakers); and, on the otherhand, African language activists and community leaders, who see the spread ofEnglish into the family domain as a threat to the maintenance and a prelude tothe demise of the indigenous languages” (Kamwangamalu, 2003, pp. 68–9). The seemingly people-driven spread of English in South Africa reﬂects agrowing but worrying trend observable also in other Outer Circle countries. The“English advantage” that India has as a key to employment in the global marketis appreciated by many Indians. So, “English for all” is the new slogan. Thedemand that English is also for the masses is gaining ground, and it is estimatedthat with the introduction of a new policy for English at the primary level, about150 million children at the primary stage will be learning English in India. This 36.
The Social Contexts of Language Teaching 21move could bring about a dramatic change in the demographics of the English-speaking population in this country and that of the Anglophone world, as well(Krishnaswamy & Krishnaswamy, 2006).Expanding Circle learning contextsLanguage-in-education policies play an important role in the learning andteaching of foreign languages. Current Chinese language-in-education policiesillustrate the manner in which the learning and teaching of English has beenstrongly inﬂuenced by government policies in regard to both the requirementsfor studying English and the methods promoted in English language classrooms.In 1976, Deng Xiaoping launched a national modernization program in whichEnglish education was seen as a key component: “English was recognized as animportant tool for engaging in economic, commercial, technological and culturalexchange with the rest of the world and hence for facilitating the modernizationprocess” (Hu, 2005, p. 8). In 1978, the Ministry of Education issued the ﬁrst uniﬁed primary and secondarycurriculum for the era of modernization. This curriculum introduced foreignlanguage learning at Primary 3. The directive also mandated that efforts in pro-moting English language proﬁciency were to be aimed at strengthening Englishlanguage teaching in elite schools, which were expected to produce the English-proﬁcient personnel needed to successfully undertake national modernization. Infact, in 1985, the Ministry of Education exempted poorly resourced schools fromproviding English instruction. In addition, the Ministry of Education gave severaleconomically developed provinces and municipalities the autonomy to developtheir own English curricula, syllabi, and textbooks for primary and secondaryeducation (Hu, 2005). These materials tended to be more innovative, learner-centered, and communicative than earlier classroom texts and materials. The directives summarized above illustrate the dangers that can arise fromstate mandated guidelines for language teaching. First, such mandates can deter-mine when foreign language learning begins in the public school system. TheChinese Ministry of Education, like governments in many other Asian countries,is formally promoting the early learning of English, even though the issue ofearly exposure to foreign language learning is still being debated (see Hyltenstam& Abrahamsson, 2001). Second, state mandates can determine who has access toEnglish language learning. In China, recent policies have tended to supportEnglish learning among the Chinese elite, in this way exacerbating educationalinequality. Finally, state mandates can determine how a language is taught. InChina, as in many other Asian countries, current curriculum developments havetended to promote more learner-centered, communicative methods. The problem,however, has been a lack of teacher education that will ensure the effectiveimplementation of new methods. Malaysia is a country that historically presents a sharp contrast to China’sEnglish teaching policy in that, in its early independence days, Malaysia triedofﬁcially to discourage the spread of English. At independence in 1957, the Malays 37.
22 Sandra Lee McKay and Rani Rubdymade up close to half the population, the Chinese a little over a third, and theIndians 10 percent (Gill, 2005). In the previous colonial system, English-mediumschools were located in urban areas and were primarily attended by non-Malaysand a small number of elite Malays. Many Malay nationalists were frustrated bythe fact that those who spoke English were non-Malays and that knowing Eng-lish gave them a social and economic advantage. The Malays believed that desig-nating Bahasa Melayu as the ofﬁcial language would lead to its development asa language of higher status and thus provide Malays with the linguistic capitalpreviously held by the English-speaking Chinese and Indians (Gill, 2005). Topromote the status of Bahasa Melayu, the language was established as the languageof education, with all universities required to use Bahasa Melayu as the mediumof instruction. The resistance of the Chinese and Indian population to this policyled the government to undertake a rapid implementation of the language-in-education policy, so that the status of Malay language could be established. What is surprising is that this early attempt in Malysia to control the spread ofEnglish among its population is currently being re-examined. As evidence of thischange in policy, in 2002 the Prime Minister of Malaysia, Tun Dr. MahathirMohamad, announced that starting immediately, science and mathematics wereto be taught in English in both the primary and tertiary levels. The question is,what led to this change in policy from one of restraining the spread of English toone of encouraging its development as an additional language. Gill (2005) contends that the change was brought about because the nationalisticlanguage policy had resulted in a generation of university graduates who wereﬂuent in the national language but not in English. The problem is that in an ageof globalization, in order to be competitive, Malays need English to access thetremendous amount of scientiﬁc and technological knowledge available in Eng-lish. Without access to this information, the government believes Malaysia cannot be competitive in a global market. In this way, current changes in Malaysia’seducation policy “were largely inﬂuenced by the two domains which are im-portant in the growth and status of any language – the domain of business andthe domain of science and technology” (Gill, 2005, p. 256). The case of Malaysia offers a vivid example of how the larger social andpolitical context can affect language-in-education policies. Malaysia, like manycountries today, is struggling with an attempt to balance its nationalistic prior-ities with the need to stay competitive in a global economy. At the present time,Malaysia appears to be replacing its desire to promote its national languagewith its felt need to establish an English-knowing population that will make it acompetitive society in today’s global economy. In contrast to Malaysia, Sweden is struggling with its national language beingdominated by English. Today Swedish, like many national languages throughout the world, is in an awk- ward position. It is at the same time a strong national language with the potential to dominate other languages within its borders and a potentially dominated language with respect to English as an international language. (Hult, 2004, p. 182) 38.
The Social Contexts of Language Teaching 23According to Hult, the prominence of English in higher domains like education,commerce, and industry threatens Swedish “to the point where there is a risk ofa two-tiered society developing, with English used for high status interactionand Swedish for lower status common daily interaction” (Hult, 2004, p. 183).There is also concern within Sweden that the consequence of this situation wouldbe greater social inequality, with those that know English having greater accessto high status social positions than those without it. This situation has led theSwedish government to commission the Swedish Language Council, a semi-public Swedish language planning body, to draft a program designed for thepromotion and protection of Swedish. The situation in Sweden is indicative of many European countries today, inwhich the fear of the growing use of English is in sharp contrast to the prevalentbelief that knowledge of English provides access to the global economy. It is thisambivalent attitude that fuels countries to require the study of English while atthe same time jealously protecting their own national language.ConclusionThe social and sociolinguistic context of language learning and teaching has asigniﬁcant impact on which languages are taught, when they are taught, and howthey are taught. This fact has several implications for second and foreign languageprofessionals. First, second and foreign language professionals, no matter whichlanguage they are teaching, need to work vigorously to ensure that all individualsbe given the opportunity to become multilingual in an increasingly multilingualand multicultural world and to maintain the linguistic resources they have. In orderto do this, they need to voice their disapproval of any policies that minimize thoseopportunities. Second, language professionals need to be sensitive to the localsocial and sociolinguistic context and to implement language teaching goals andmethods that complement the social reality of their language learners. Finally, lan-guage professionals need to work to see that all learners have equal opportun-ities to achieve their language learning goals, so that they can reap the social andeconomic beneﬁts that come from being a bilingual in the current global culture.REFERENCESAnnamalai, E. (2004). Medium of power: The question of English in education in India. In J. W. Tollefson & A. Tsui (eds.), Medium of instruction policies: Which agenda? Whose agenda? (pp. 117–94). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.Brutt-Grifﬂer, J. (2002). World English: A study of its development. Clevedon, UK: Multilin- gual Matters.Chick, K. & McKay, S. L. (2001). Teaching English in Multiethnic schools in the Durban area: The promotion of multilingualism or monolingualism. South African Linguistics and Applied Language Studies 19, 3–4, 163–78. 39.
24 Sandra Lee McKay and Rani RubdyChng, H. H. (2003). “You see me no up”: Is Singlish a problem? Language Problems and Language Planning 27, 47–62.Chomsky, N. (1957). Syntactic structure. The Hague: Mouton.Crystal, D. (1997). English as a global language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Ferguson, C. (1959). Diglossia. Word 15, 325–40.Firth, A. (1996). The discursive accomplishments of normality. On “lingual franca” English and conversation analysis. Journal of Pragmatics 26, 237–59.Fishman, J. (1972). The socoiology of language. Rowley, MA: Newbury House.Foley, J. A., Kandiah, T., Bao, Z., Gupta, A. E., Alsagoff, L., Ho, C. L., Wee, L., Talib, I. S., & Bokhorst-Heng, W. (eds.) (1998). English in new cultural contexts. Singapore: Oxford University Press.Gill, S. (2005). Language policy in Malaysia: Reversing direction. Language Policy 4, 241– 60.Gumperz, J. J. (1982). Discourse strategies. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Gupta, A. (1994). The step-tongue: Children’s English in Singapore. Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters.Hu, G. (2005). English language education in China: Policies, progress and problems. Language Policy 4, 5–24.Hult, F. M. (2004). Planning for multilingualism and minority language rights in Sweden. Language Policy 3, 181–201.Hyltenstam, K. & Abrahamsson, N. (2001). Age and L2 learning: The hazards of matching practical “implications” with theoretical “facts.” TESOL Quarterly 35, 151–70.Hymes, D. (1972). On communicative competence. In J. Pride & J. Holmes (eds.), Sociolin- guistics (pp. 269–93). Harmondsworth: Penguin.Hymes, D. (1974). Foundations of sociolinguistics. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.Kachru, B. B. (1986). The alchemy of English. Oxford: Pergamon Press.Kachru, B. B. (2005). Asian Englishes: Beyond the canon. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press.Kamwangamalu, N. M. (2003). Globalization of English, and language maintenance and shift in South Africa. International Journal of the Sociology of Language 164, 65–81.Kramer-Dahl, A. (2003). Reading the “Singlish Debate”: Construction of a crisis of lan- guage standards and language teaching in Singapore. Journal of Language, Identity, and Education 2, 159–90.Krishnaswamy, N. & Krishnaswamy, L. (2006). The story of English in India. Delhi: Founda- tion Books.Lim, L. (ed.) (2004). Singapore English: A grammatical description. Philadelphia: John Benjamins.McKay, S. L. & Wong, S. C. (2000). Immigrants in the United States. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Myers-Scotton, C. (1993). Social motivation for codeswitching. Oxford: Claredon Press.Nettle, D. & Romaine, S. (2000). Vanishing voices: The extinction of the world’s languages. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Pakir, A. (1991). The range and depth of English-knowing bilinguals in Singapore. World Englishes 10, 167–79.Parasher, S. V. (1994). Indian English: Certain grammatical, lexical and stylistic features. In R. K. Angihotri & A. L. Khanna (eds.), Second language acquisition: Socio-cultural and linguistic aspects of English in India (pp. 145–64). New Dehli: Sage.Phillipson, R. (2001). English for globalization or the world’s people? International Review of Education 47, 185–200. 40.
The Social Contexts of Language Teaching 25Phillipson, R. (2003). English-only Europe? Challenging language policy. New York: Routledge.Platt, J. T. & Weber, H. (1980). English in Singapore and Malaysia: Status, features, functions. Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press.Rampton, B. (1995). Crossing: Language and ethnicity among adolescents. New York: Longman.Rampton, B. (1997). Second language research in late modernity. Modern Language Journal 15, 3, 329–33.Rubdy, R. (2001). Creative destruction: Singapore’s Speak Good English Movement. World Englishes 20, 341–55.Seidlhofer, B. (2004). Research perspectives on teaching English as a lingua franca. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics 24, 209–39.Smolicz, J. J. & Secombe, M. J. (2003). Assimilation or pluralism? Changing policies for minority languages education in Australia. Language Policy 2, 3–25.Tickoo, M. L. (1996). Fifty years of English in Singapore: All gains, (a) few losses? In J. A. Fishman, A. W. Conrad, & A. Rubel-Lopez (eds.), Post-imperial English: Status change in former British and American colonies. 1940–1990. (pp. 431–55). Berlin and New York: Mouton de Gruyter.Wardhaugh, R. (1992). An introduction to sociolinguistics. Cambridge, MA: Blackwell.Widdowson, H. (1994). The ownership of English. TESOL Quarterly 28, 377–88. Recommended
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