问:
Alternative to the Beads Task for the role of emotion in belief revision
Context

I'm interested in understanding how emotion / affect is linked to belief revision. My supervisor suggested I use the classic beads task or something similar to it to get at this problem. Example of a beads task: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13546805.2016.1192025

Problem

The beads task is well suited to study jumping to conclusions and belief formation... but since it ends when you choose the jar where the beads, it does not really get at the issue of belief revision. By revision, I mean that you form one belief, then there is a reversal of sorts, and you need to adjust your belief.

Question

Are there alternative to the Beads Task that might be better suited to belief revision rather than formation?


问:
Why do people dislike something?
Suppose a person sees a guy wearung red Tshirt and a pink trouser. At a first glance he disliked that combination of outfit, while another person beside him liked the combination. So why did this difference in perception of colour emerged even though they were looking at the same thing at the same condition? Is it because of their differences in upbringing? Or is it due to violation of uniformity of one's perception (I mean a person is more familiar with a combination of red and blue but when he saw the red-pink combo which is completely unfamiliar to him, he just could not take it because of asymmetry)?

Again someone likes to have meat and he eats it quite rarely. But he dislikes milk. Even he drinks milk everyday or rarely, he dislikes it. On the other hand even of he eats meat everyday he does not dislike that as he does dislike milk. Why does that happen? Is it something related to composition of milk and meat which involves chemistry to understand or is it completely a psychological topic?

Thank you.

ContentLicense: CC BY-SA 4.0

Title: Why do people dislike something?


问:
Why do Many People Tend to Think That Natural Things are Better than Artificial?
It is common for some people to think that natural things and products are better while many artificial products are seen as bad. Why are many people subjects to this fallacy? What in our psychology can explain this phenomenon?</p>


问:
Why the definition of homophily in two papers are almost contrast?
Homophily is the tendency of individuals to associate and bond with similar others.

Murase, 2019 says that

Social tie formation includes focal closure and cyclic closure. The difference between these two is that focal closure is that the bond formed without a common friend while cyclic closure is formed with a common friend.

And they said that focal closure is homophily

As said above the focal closure is considered being based on homophily

The mechanism of focal closure, i.e., the process of forming links to
others with shared characteristics but without common acquaintances
can be considered as a typical manifestation of homophily

However, in another paper Passe, 2018 says that homophilic relationship is affected by organizational affiliation or family ties. So, it means that homophily here is similar to cyclic closure rather than focal closure as Murase, 2019 documented.

Homophily is influenced by the structural components of geography,
organizational affiliations, and family ties

I am wondering if I fall into any fallacy. Thanks in advance.


问:
What is the name of phenomenon that people state their initial opinion more firmly after discussion in group polarization?
In reading "group polarization", "

that a person tends to shift to a more extreme opinion when in a group
setting than what his/her original opinion might have been"

So, in the case that people change their opinion and follow the main dominated opinion of the group is called "Normative Influence" or "Informational Influence". However, I did not see the name of the phenomenon that the person state their opinion more firmly after the group discussion. Example from the link above

To state an example, let’s say that a person thinks that child beauty
pageants―contest featuring under-age children―are not a very good
idea. This opinion that he/she harbors could be a very mild one, where
she might not really have given it a lot of thought. However, if she’s
placed in a group and this topic is taken up for discussion, there is
a very high possibility that by the end of the discussion, she will
not only be completely against child beauty pageants, but she may
begin stating this opinion more firmly, and maybe, even join a protest
group.


问:
Isn’t the concept of « Conscious agent » developped by Donald Hoffman a variation on the ancient idea of homonculus?
Isn’t the concept of « Conscious agent » developed by Donald Hoffman a variation on the ancient concept of homonculus?

The idea of homunculus is the idea that consciousness is not the body or a part of the body (the brain) or a function of the body or an action performed by a part of the body, but that there is « ghost », a « little dude », hosted by the body, which is responsible for our subjective experience of consciousness (basically, a sort of personification of the mind-body apparent duality).

I suspect that the concept of conscious agents could be a sort of « atomistic » version of the idea of the homonculus, in the sense that if one assumes that consciousness cannot be an emergent property of the brain activity (hence not an emergent properly of matter), I guess one has to assume that some aspect of consciousness exists per se, in a sort of analogy with the idea of elementary particles in physics as does Donald Hoffman (A Case Against Reality).

But still, I cannot help feeling that the idea of conscious agent looks a lot like the idea of the homonculus trying to crawl back into the realm of neuroscience / philosophy through the back door.


问:
how do the neurons get stronger physically?
I wanna know about the possibility of simulating the brain state physically to know about the possibility of getting an answer for (free will or random will) vs determinism in the future.

so for the sake of an answer first I need to know the how the neurons get stronger, of course if "stronger" is the suitable term? so is it possible now to detect that some neurons have got stronger? So if the answer is yes, what are those changes like? is it like that we observe some reformations in the structures of their molecules or it's more like that some packets of some materials which I don't have any clue, maybe some chemical materials getting attached to them?

if the detection of physical changes in neurons is not possible right now, what are the predictions of doing this?

I have the same question also for how the brain memorises things or better said stores the memories?


问:
On performing threshold-free-cluster-enhancement permutation tests--in combination with SPM--and then displaying the results on an MNI template
I'm trying out numerous comparison correction methods on my fMRI dataset and I've encountered multiple papers which used threshold free cluster enhancement, which I'd like to incorporate, but I'm running into difficulty regarding

actually implementing TFCE

Understanding how to display the results on an MNI template, should I be able to even implement TFCE

One such paper which uses this method is given here, by Park et al. However, within this paper (and other similar ones) only the original TFCE methods paper is cited without specifying any tool-box or practical advice on how to actually implement this method in SPM.

Inferences on a multidimensional social hierarchy use a grid-like code

For example, in the above article we have:

For all analyses using a GLM (GLM1, GLM2, GLM3 and GLM4), group-level effects were tested with a one-sample t-test. First, we performed group-level inference on a priori task-independent EC62,63 and HC61 ROIs that were defined anatomically. Second, we performed exploratory whole-brain analyses. To correct for multiple comparisons, we used permutation-based TFCE68. The medial EC has been well known to contain grid cells and is thought to be their primary source7. A signature of these grid cells in EC has been found in recent human fMRI studies, and, thus, a central hypothesis of our study was that EC would show grid-like coding. Specifically, these recent studies show EC grid-like coding both for spatially navigating virtual environments24 and also for tracking the abstract task state defined by the continuously morphing neck and leg lengths of a bird stimulus14. The EC activity in these studies was modulated by the direction of the vector defined on a 2D space with hexagonal patterns. The EC is, therefore, the primary ROI to test our main hypothesis in the current study (note that all vectors are aligned to the EC grid orientation). In addition, the anatomical geometry of the EC is not ideal for cluster-based inference, such as TFCE. For those reasons, we used the anatomically defined ROI-based TFCE correction for statistical inference of the grid effect in the EC (PTFCE < 0.05 corrected in the ROI). We report activations (Figs. 3, 4 and 5) that are cluster-corrected at the threshold PTFCE < 0.05 over the whole brain for all brain regions, except for the EC, where we used a threshold of PTFCE < 0.05 corrected within anatomically defined ROI due to our strong a priori hypothesis of grid coding in EC.

Are there any references or first-hand-experience anyone could share regarding TFCE, its implementation, and how to go about displaying these results?

Thanks


问:
Making a risk assessment type scale using existing scales
I am trying to make a risk assessment type scale that measures the likelihood/risk of someone experiencing a psychological disorder in a setting. There are about 10 factors (e.g., gender, sleep quality, self-esteem, resilience, loneliness) that increase the likelihood and I would like to include these in the new scale. There are existing validated scales that examine each of these factors in the literature, but these are relatively long and including all these scales would make the new scale too long.

My plan at the moment is to pick 4-5 best questions (for confirmatory factor analysis later on) from each of these existing scales and adapt them to suit the setting I am interested in, and run the new scale with their full-length counterparts. As 11 scales (10 existing and 1 new one) would be difficult to complete in one sitting, I was thinking of breaking it down to 2 or 3 different testing sessions, preferably with the same participants, but if not possible, with different participants. Is this a reasonable approach to take?

I am aware that there are many books/articles about scale developments (e.g., Scale development: theory and applications by DeVellis), but I feel that these either target single construct (unidimensional) or multidimensional construct in which the subscales sort of “form” the multidimensional construct (e.g., personality with openness, neuroticism, agreeableness, conscientiousness and extraversion), and it is difficult to find the information on the type of scale I am trying to make. If anybody could recommend a good reference for the type of scale I am trying make, it would be most appreciated.


问:
Why do some people have better memories than others?
Some people have great memories. Some people have horrible memories. There are even people with hyperthymesia who remember everything. I was told that anybody can have a good memory if they practice method of loci and that people that have “better” memories don’t have more storage space; just a better organization. Recently I discovered a factoid that each connection between a dendritic branch and an axon encodes one memory. I don’t have an official source for that but since the human brain has 86 billion neurons and there are 5-7 dendrites so logically there should be space for 602,000,000,000 memories. Yet it still doesn’t make sense. How can a memory of being afraid at your first scary movie equate with your memory of the Bill of Rights? I just don’t know what to think anymore. Does everyone have varying storage space sizes and you just have the luck of the draw if your memory pool is “bigger”?

Sources: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fncir.2016.00023/full

https://www.albany.edu/faculty/cafrye/apsy601/Ch.02cellsofthenervoussystem.html


问:
Do people typically go through 'stages' when experiencing remorse, similar to grief?
It's well known, at least in pop psychology, that grief comes in a number of stages.

Whether that's accurate or not, I'm interested in finding out if there's a similar phenomenon with remorse?


问:
Do the brains of experts show less neural activity at a task when compared to novices?
I recently came across this article, where the writer says that it is commonly assumed among researchers that the brains of experts show less neural activity than those of novices, at the task that requires expertise.

Another neural signature of expertise is that the network of brain areas that experts engage is larger than that of novices. This is in contrast to a widespread belief, among not only laypeople but also other researchers, that the reduction of neuronal activity, often taken as an index of neural efficiency, is a hallmark of expertise.

(The writer also adds a caveat, which is not relevant to this post).

Is this true? Can someone point me to relevant articles? Also, what is the reasoning behind this phenomenon, if it is true?


问:
gender related activism scale
I'm looking for a self-report measure that assesses involvement and interest in activism that centers around gender equity, including (but not limited to) topics like gender equality, segregation and inclusion, and body politics (such as reproductive rights and trans health rights).

I intend to use this measure with a sample of high schoolers as part of a self-report survey. However, I'm interested in learning about self-report scales that have been validated for adults too.

The Activism Orientation Scale (AOS) (Corning & Myers, 2002) is one example, except this is geared towards adults, and does not specifically focus on gender politics. I need a scale that can be used with high school age students.

Title: gender related activism scale


问:
What models of a person do psychology theorists currently use to define a healthy psyche in religious believers?
"Good mental health" is a phrase (within double quotes) that came up with 5.8 million Google hits, showing that it is a very popular layman term for a healthy psyche, however it is defined, whether one believes in the existence of an immaterial soul or not.

I think to define "good mental health" for religious believers, psychologists need a good model of a human person that does not exclude a priori the immaterial / non-empirical dimension of a person.  Even though this non-material aspect lies beyond the competence of the discipline of psychology, I believe the effects can be studied because it should manifest in a person's conscious reason, emotion, will, and even bodily functions.  For example, in Christianity

God's grace, which is immeasurable, has a tangible effect on a person's will and

God's love, once recognized in a person's reason, produces an emotional response and reciprocating acts of the whole person.

Therefore, without turning this into a spirituality/religion question, I think it is important for the theorist to make sure that a well-rounded model lies behind the definition of "good mental health" that in turn includes an accounting of what's healthy vs. what's not healthy in the following areas of normally functioning believers (we can exclude mind-altering substance abusers) who:

healthy
un-healthy

take seriously the rational & emotional experience of guilt, repentance, and confession of one's sins as an integral part of character development
turning it into guilt complex

choose to suffer for others, even sacrificing their lives when they feel called, in the name of loving others
codependency

talk to God a lot, yet scores normal in interpersonal communication
mask self-talk as talking to God

listen to God for advice / insight
cannot distinguish voices from self, or worse, construe one's insight as God's command

subject themselves to God as King
confusing him with an abusive father figure

have a place for non-empirically verifiable tenets of faith
being susceptible to cult movements

is conscientious to do regular acts of religion (going to mass daily, pray and fasting regularly)
being neurotic about them

is humble
being a door-mat or having self-esteem issues

choose to be cloistered but can offer wisdom to people in the world
social avoidance

potentially experience vision from time to time, but could differentiate it from
hallucination

etc.

My full question is: What models of a person do psychology theorists currently use in the past 20 years to help define a healthy psyche that explicitly includes the religious aspects of a person so that the model can feed into creating a "healthy" definition of religious behaviors?

My expected answer is a list of books / journal articles of models that psychologists currently use, either in the academia, or in their counseling practice.

A possible positive answer would be the 2009 G.C. Dilsaver's book Imago Dei Psychotherapy: A Catholic Conceptualization which includes a foreword by American psychologist turned Oxford faculty Daniel N. Robinson whose publications include philosophy of psychology:

Psychotherapy, too, [after comparing with general medicine], is intelligible as an undertaking only insofar as there is a model or theory of the healthy person -- the healthy mental life -- not sufficiently reflected in the life of this person, this patient. ...

In Imago Dei Psychotherapy Dr. Dilsaver comes to grips with this unavoidable starting point and defends a conception of human nature that he would have guide therapeutic practice.  ... What is advanced is a conception of human nature with which to understand the troubled and incomplete life and then the elements that must be incorporated into this life to relieve it and permit it to begin the process of redeeming its fuller and fullest promise.

But this theory is very limited in exposure, not in the mainstream.  I'm hoping for a more mainstream model being used by Christian psychologists.

A negative example would be the Freudian model of a human person which is inherently atheistic and therefore relegates a lot of what are otherwise healthy religious behaviors to negative diagnosis.


问:
The effect of reading news on a topic you know, understanding it is misleading at best - and what this says about all other news stories
Sometimes you will read a news-article, and because you have deep knowledge about the topic of the article, you understand that the articles is at best half-truth - but quite often just plain wrong and filled with factual mistakes.

This means you could reasonably assume all the other stories are similarly inaccruate.

What is the name of this effect?

I recently found out there was a name for this effect. Unfortunately I did not make a note of it, and my google searches on the topic have been fruitless - so I am hoping somebody here will know the right term.


问:
Is the harm of uncommon drugs more feared than is justified?
I sometimes feel very cautious about the idea of taking a substance just because it is not culturally mainstream. It is much easier for people to say “We don’t know what the longterm effects are” about a substance they don’t trust. However, tobacco and alcohol are consumed heavily. They aren’t good for you. But people aren’t afraid of a little moderate use.

Is there any general finding that at the end of the day, all drugs probably have some longterm effect on the body, but the rarer drugs are not likely to be more harmful than the common ones?


问:
Can our dreams tell us anything useful about ourselves?
This question is related to What is the current "accepted" science behind dream interpretation?, but here I am asking something more specific.

Dream reports, also known as sleep mentation reports, are a common tool in dream research (eg, McNamara et al, 2010), which in turn, is mostly useful for learning about dreaming and sleep in general.  However, I am interested in whether such reports could be useful for learning something about the specific individual.  My question therefore is:

Does there exist a validated instrument that takes dream content (eg, in the form of sleep mentation reports) as input, and using a (blinded) expert analysis or better yet, computer program, predicts something useful at the individual level?

For example, can dream content predict something about the subject's personality, intelligence, psychopathology, physical health, emotional state, recent events, unresolved problems, life course, or anything else of value, using a validated instrument?


问:
In what order are details of a learnt subject forgotten over time?
Consider the following fairly common experience: You take a course on a subject in university or on an educational website such as Coursera. Immediately before or after taking the final exam or capstone test on the subject, you feel that your memory of the course contents is the strongest it has ever been to date. Over the next few weeks or months, you feel your memory of the subject fading, until after a few years you can probably recall only the broad outline of the course, or only its highlights. This assumes that you have not revised or revisited the course (substantially) after the final exam, and that you have not encountered the course content elsewhere.

What research exists on

the parts of a subject that are most quickly forgotten? (E.g. the finest details of a topic; the most complex in some sense; the subtopic that forms an exception to a rule that characterizes the rest of the course; anything that taxes the memory.)

the order in which the contents of a learnt subject are forgotten? (E.g. the finest details first, the broad outlines later, and so on.)

While these might be trivial questions to answer from lay experience, I am looking for substantial answers from cognitive research if any exist. Also, while the pattern of forgetting likely varies between  students, given the differences in their cognitive abilities and their approach to studying the subject, I would suppose most students tend to forget details in broadly the same way, and roughly in the same order.


问:
Is there a formal name for the effect of searching an item while holding it?
I've heard some experiences of some friends in which they explained that they started searching an object to then realize that they were holding it. For example, today, a friend of mine told me that he didn't find his phone, so he started searching it and then he realized that it was in his left hand. I'm sure I've also experienced this more than one time.

Is there a formal name for this specific phenomenom? If that's not the case, what would be the closest concept that tries to explain this?


问:
What is willpower? Can it be called a "state"
I have read, quite a lot about willpower in the past year or so. It says that is: "willpower is the ability to resist short-term temptations in order to meet long-term goals.". Some say it's limited and some say that it is unlimited. Now, from my experience, I sometimes can do hard things in an instant, and sometimes it's almost impossible. Even though it's just the beginning of a day. So, I thought of willpower as a state which you change with conscious action. In order to do something else, you have to beat some activation energy, which is the assumed reward of the things you want to avoid. How wrong am I? Why?</p>


问:
Term for expectation of early defection in a collusion situation?
My background is in economics, so my apologies if my description here is unclear.

In a paper, Dong (2019) mentions that:

On the other hand, the anticipated costs of collusion could decrease
if firms expect to be the first to apply for leniency, which would
enable them to pay lower fines than in the case without leniency and
impose extra costs on their rivals (e.g., the negative effects noted
by McCutcheon, 1997; Spagnolo, 2000; Motta and Polo, 2003; Chen and
Rey, 2013). This would stabilize existing cartels or even induce the
formation of new ones

I understand that if every firm thinks that it will be an early "defector" before joining a new cartel, then this will encourage the establishment of new cartels.  Is there a term for this phenomenon where participants are more likely to collude in expectation that they will be first to defect if things go wrong?

This is related to the standard prisoner's dilemma, where the first to defect receives a lower sentence, but my question is about an increase in the likelihood of colluding with others in the first place in expectation of defection in case of being caught.


问:
Does the wording of official ethnicity questions influence perceptions in the longer term?
It is well known that the sequence in which questions are asked in a survey can affect answers as earlier questions can influence the frame of mind in which a respondent answers a subsequent question. An illustration of this can be found in the BBC comedy series Yes Minister.

My question is whether there has been any research into whether the wording of official surveys affects opinions in the longer term.

For example, if a respondent to an official survey such as a census is presented with a ethnicity question in the form of one large box entitled White containing tickbox options such as British, English, and Welsh, next to another large box entitled Non-white containing other options none of which is British, English, and Welsh then that will obviously (all other things being equal) increase the number of "white" people who choose English in that particular survey and decrease the number of "non-White" people who choose English in that particular survey even if other (please specify) write in options are freely available.

But has there been any research into the longer-term effect of such surveys? Does the frequent asking of the question in this way actually change perceptions of what is meant by English so as to cause some people to shift their viewpoint and start to believe that the term English as an ethnicity is limited to "white" people?

OwnerDisplayName: Nemo


问:
Competitiveness Analysis
I have developed a fitness website where users can exercise in a video call. My claim is that the website i designed increases the level of competition when exercising together with a peer compared to using something like zoom or skype.
Is there a good way to measure this?

I am an engineering student so very new to this.

Title: Competitiveness Analysis


问:
Why don't we wake up from thirst?
Usually, we sleep up to 7-10 hours. A healthy human drinks 2-3 cups per hour. Why don't we wake up from thirst if during the day, it is normal to drink so much?

I don't think that this is because you are paralysed during sleep. Your cells still need to stay alive, make ATP and proteins!

Title: Why don't we wake up from thirst?


问:
Is there a name for this emotion or emotion-related effect?
This is about a positive emotion or "wibe" (I call it here "an emotion-related effect") that a person may feel in their chest/heart in certain cases.

This feeling can appear at any time. I think most commonly it would appear from a positive expectation but not the kind that is based on the person consciously thinking of a positive outcome. Rather cases that a gambler perhaps would describe as "I don't know why but I just feel strongly that I will win this time".

(Maybe it is related to wishing a specific outcome.)

I am not sure if this description is too shallow to qualify as a question here.

Is there a professional term that is used for this emotion-related effect?


问:
What makes a neural pathway relevant to a memory?
When a neural network is created for a certain memory, what makes that neural network relevant to the memory? In other words, what property of the neural network stimulates the retrieval of the memory?</p>


问:
Is how we perceive about a person a good predictor of the actual personality of that person?
Many research has been done to prove that expression (dress and body) influences others' perception on self.

My following question is: Are these perceptions accurate?

My guess is that humans have somehow developed a system that instinctually judges a person, and the fact that such a system still exists suggests that it was a successful system to judge the actual personality.

Obviously, predicting actual personality or habits only from expression is not too wise. However, my conviction says that there must be something true about our perception.

Any research papers or thoughts are appreciated.


问:
What is the current neuroscience perspective on the gender-equality paradox?
According to Wikipedia, the gender-equality paradox is the finding that various gender differences in personality and occupational choice are larger in more gender-equal countries.

When looking for more information about this, most of the articles accessible for the general public seem to boil down to "gender stereotypes", "unconscious biases" and "insufficient public policy to address the gap" etc., without providing many details or scientific references.

This rather old short documentary discusses the specific case of Norway, one of the most egalitarian countries in the world. It tries to provide possible explanations for the gender-equality paradox in Norway, and the main causes can be grouped as follows:

there are virtually only social causes (example at timestamp 8:30)

biological differences are a very important cause (examples at 14:50 and 19:50). Thus, on average a man's aspirations are different from a woman's, especially when they have maximum freedom.

Some of the scientists in the movie refer to "cutting edge" studies, but those studies are at least 9 years old. I am wondering how much the biological / brain development arguments are still valid from a scientific perspective.


问:
Does subtask repetition lessen cognitive overhead?
I'm looking for a source to cite. I'm working on mathematical expressions that re-use the same subexpression multiple times. Intuitively someone reading such an expression only needs to understand a subexpression that is re-used once and can then apply this knowledge multiple times. In computers one could cache the output of a re-used subexpression and then call the cache whenever the same subexpression is queried again instead of recalculating the whole subexpression.

I'm sure something similar happens in the human brain, or at least this is how I read mathematical expressions myself, but I'm unable to find a source because I lack the terminology. Could someone help me out?


问:
Why does Cross-sex hormone therapy have an opposite effect on cortical thickness?
In a recent lecture I was informed that cross-sex hormone therapy increases the cortical thickness in FtMs, but decreases CTh in MtFs. Why does this happen when studies find females have increased cortical thickness compared to males? Additionally, why does the hormone therapy have this effect at all?

sources: cross sex hormone paper  Female cortical thickness differences papers:
1
2


问:
Why memory studies was a strong area of research during 90's?
Memory studies seemed to have flourished during nineties - particularly early nineties.
Not only in Psychology, but in neuroscience, in social sciences, in History, there was a period in which a lot of papers and books related to memory where published.
I am interested in the factors that made this area particularly important as an emerging interdisciplinar field of research.
Is it still a popular subject of research nowadays?</p>


问:
What Action Units (AU) from the FACS can be combined together independetly of each other?
There exist many "impossible" combinations of AUs, let's say 45+46 for example or 18+27 etc. i.e. combinations of AU that can not possibly be expressed because they "occupy" the same area of the face or are opposites of each other. Is there a list somewhere that shows what AUs can be combined together and further what kind of emotion they convey (apart from the 7 base emotions) or whether they form an expression that is at all "meaningful"?

Alternatively: A software that can display a picture of a face with a certain expression on it, after given the specific AU codes for that expression. Does something like this exist?

Thanks in advance!


问:
Is memory adversely affected after you stop smoking?
An answer to Can you use harmful addictions to build good habits? points to an interesting article by Heishman et al. (2010) which points out that:

Short-term episodic memory-accuracy Analysis of the eight effect sizes indicated that nicotine produced a significant positive effect on accuracy in short-term recall tasks, g=0.44, z=3.19, p<0.01

and

Working memory-RT [Response Time] Analysis of the ten effect sizes indicated that nicotine produced a significant positive effect on RT in working memory, g=0.34, z=3.40, p<0.01

After listing other results of the meta-analysis, they also point out that (emphasis mine)

Difficulty concentrating is a valid symptom of nicotine withdrawal (APA 2000; Hughes 2007). Deficits in task performance, the related objective withdrawal sign, have been observed in the laboratory as soon as 30 min to 2 h after tobacco deprivation begins (Hendricks et al. 2006; Parrott et al. 1996); clinical reports of difficulty concentrating peak a few days after abstinence and can last for several weeks (Hughes 2007). Smoking can reverse withdrawal-induced performance deficits (Heishman et al. 1994) as can nicotine replacement and other medications when used during a quit attempt (Henningfield et al. 2009). For this reason, difficulty concentrating and consequent declines in performance are regarded as relapse factors in smokers trying to quit and as factors in the maintenance of smoking in those not attempting to quit. Evidence for these findings came from studying tobacco-deprived smokers (Heishman et al. 1994; Sherwood 1993); however, the focus of this meta-analysis was the effects of nicotine and smoking in nonsmokers and in smokers not experiencing withdrawal, which might have bearing on the initiation of smoking.

What I am finding hard to determine from this meta-analysis is whether memory is adversely affected after cessation of tobacco smoking.

With the fact that

The cognitive effects of nicotine are related to its activation of the prefrontal cortex, parietal cortex, thalamus, and hippocampus, areas known to be involved with attention and memory and that contain relatively high densities of nAChRs [Nicotinic acetylcholine receptors] (Brody 2006; Levin et al. 2006; Azizian et al. 2009).

Are these areas adversely affected  after cessation or is the accuracy of short-term episodic memory and RT of working memory returned to the same levels as someone who has never smoked?

References

Heishman, S. J., Kleykamp, B. A., & Singleton, E. G. (2010). Meta-analysis of the acute effects of nicotine and smoking on human performance. Psychopharmacology, 210(4), 453-469. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-010-1848-1


问:
How to control spike timings and the number of spikes in the Izhikevich model in the context of Rebound burst?
We are using Izhikevich neurons for our study. We want to tweak the parameters to be able to control the number of spikes and spike timing when the negative current is removed. With the parameters given in "rebound burst" section of code written by Izhikevich, the spikes occur after 20 to 30 milliseconds of negative current is removed as show in the figure.

But we want the spikes to occur after 3 to 4 milliseconds of negative current being removed. How to find suitable parameters for our case?
From Trial and error, we found that tuning the parameter "c" can control the number of spikes, but am unable to figure out ways to change spike timing.


问:
How was the infant IQ test applied to Koko?
Apparently, a Gorilla named Koko took a number of IQ tests and scored an average of 80, their full range of scores being 70 to 95. The test used was the Cattell Infant Intelligence Scale. I don't understand why they used an infant scale, as those are intended for infants between 2 to 30 months (source). The tests were given to Koko between 1972 and '77, and she was born in 1971. That means she was one or two years old when she got the first one, putting her in the appropriate range. When she got the last test however, she was five or six. How can the infant test be applicable at that point?</p>


问:
How do humans remember information?
When conversing, I often find myself using words or conveying ideas that I wasn't aware that I knew, nor whether these words/ideas were actually relevant to the conversation. It is only after googling these words that I realise that indeed they are relevant.

I also find myself remembering some particular information which I was adamant that was no longer in my memory. This is often triggered some some string of events, seemingly deterministic in nature, in such a way that if those particular set of events weren't sequenced into the order they were, I would never remember that.

This leads me onto how we humans actually memorise? Is the deterministic nature of the brain's neural network relevant to the randomness of memorization?

Title: How do humans remember information?


问:
How do we memorize ordered lists?
We have to memorize a lot of ordered lists in life and in our education period.
In chemistry, we memorize the Metal Reactivity Series and Periodic Table.

Being a table tennis player myself, I can remember the ranking lists of players so well, so effortlessly.

What has research revealed regarding how contents of an ordered list affect how easily it can be memorized, let's say, in the area of education?

Note: Ordered list is a kind of list were the order in which the items are placed in the list is important. e.g. The order of American Presidents, the order of British Monarchs...

I am not an expert in psychology. So, please edit the question, if needed.

Title: How do we memorize ordered lists?


问:
Justified vs Left-aligned(/ranged-left) text
My new place of work insists on "justifying" all our outgoing reports and letters. I am used to "left-aligning". I cannot imagine a world where justifying is a good thing.

A quick survey of various paper-based texts:

printed novels are generally justified

letters seem to be mostly left-aligned. This was the result of my googling (image search) "letters from queen", "letters from presidents", "letters from congressman". Incidentally "letters from pope" seem to be justified.

In the design world there does not seem to be an agreed superior. The debate centres on readability vs aesthetics.

My question: Are there any studies comparing the two, in terms of readability, comprehension etc?


问:
How is it ascertained that people treated for persecutory delusions are not indeed being persecuted?
Many people suffering from persecutory delusions have very weird, clearly improbable stories about how they are being persecuted. However - correct me if I'm wrong - in many cases these stories are, at least theoretically, possible.

If, for example, someone believes they are harassed by a Satanic cabal that has hacked their computers and phones, and is exfiltrating data from said devices, makes certain they will not get a job by pulling strings from behind, sends goons to stalk them and chase them down the street while leaving little tangible evidence for its actions and this is all happening without any obvious reasons then, granted, in the vast majority of cases such a person will, indeed, be delusional.

Nonetheless, it is possible that such a person is not delusional and, instead, this is precisely what is happening. Add to the above story that the Government is plotting with the coven against this person and the story will still be possible, even if highly improbable. It might even be the case that the persecutors are subtly convincing everyone that their victim is delusional to gaslight their victim.

Is it a real worry that a person suspected of and treated for persecutory delusions is actually really being persecuted? Even if this is a very rare case it still seems to me that treating a person who is indeed being persecuted for persecutory delusions is one of the worst things that can be done.

How is it being ascertained that this situation does not happen? That a person suspected of persecutory delusions is indeed delusional and not actually persecuted?


问:
Is depression linked to having difficulty into doing activities that are intensive (be it physically or mentally)?
Practicing exercise is recommended to treat depression for example.

But I think people, in general, if they are with depression tend to deal with it by doing activities that don't suppose much effort and give some reward in the least costly way (be it from playing videogames to consuming certain drugs, as long as they can be achieved). And that people cannot enjoy in hard activities just because having depression makes them unable to, even if they try to do the effort.

Is my hypothesis correct?


问:
Searching for correlation between emotions on the couples or partners by thermal photo
I am researching about the somatization feeling with long distance contact via social media between girls and boys or dating.

So, I am trying to find some meaning between the boys and girl who date which be in contact with each others by voice or photo.

So if I have some thermographic photo from the boy and girl for the times those meet each other, during different emotion like the below photos:

I guess I could find out some meaningful relation between the body's hottest point on a girl and boy during their different feelings.

If possible, I like to have some comment or answer for finding some database for these photos, or academic papers (maybe by this tags etc.).

Also, if there is no photo database for these purpose until now, I would like to have some comments for finding some institute for taking thermographic photo during different emotion from the couples during their dating times.


问:
Has criminal-related research been conducted regarding critical childhood experiences/adverse turning points for individuals who commit murder?
I've conducted some basic research regarding criminology and the work of criminal psychologists.  From what I've concluded, the focus of these studies are primarily related to determining why specific crimes are committed by individuals as well as identifying factors that are associated with crimes that have been committed or individual's actions, behavior, etc. related to a crime.

I'd like to understand if research has been conducted related to the childhood/early life experiences of individuals who have committed murder as an adult to determine which early life experiences they pinpoint as "turning points" which ultimately led them to intentionally kill another human being, etc.

To provide clarification regarding my motivation, I am specifically interested in identifying deficiencies in skills (e.g. anger management, self-control, emotional-regulation, etc.) in adolescents which contribute to life-altering anger-based decisions made by an individual when they are an adult.


问:
What Classical Conditioning says about multiple or multimodal stimuli?
I would like to know if classical conditioning somehow predicts/approaches scenarios where multiple or multimodal stimuli associate with a response. I do not have much knowledge on the topic, but it appears that in typical examples, like the salivating dogs, there is always a pair of one single stimuli to one single response.

One good example of multiple stimuli would be, for instance, an association of a whole ritual with several stimuli to a response. For instance, I taught my two cats since very young (both rescued and nursed by me) a sort of "food ritual" where I would say some sentences with a very specific prosody (known to be distinguishable by their species) and then go to the place they eat. They would follow me around the house until I arrive the place, so I would put the food, positioning them in a way they would both be comfortable and would caress them in the top of their heads and their necks while they eat and purr.

While I did this ritual very strictly for almost a year, with the time the ritual got simplified, for instance, most of the time they request the food to me when the time is approaching, I say the prosody words, without the original walking around the house, they just go straight away to the eating place. However, several times they don't show much motivation to eat until I position and start caressing them, and they even look at if I walk away without doing it, as if they were expecting me to do that and make them purr before eating.

My question is a general one and this example is just one possible situation. I wonder if, under a classical conditioning approach, it could be understood as if all those acts could be multiple stimuli that boost their response of eating, and if that's possible to expect in some other kinds of cases, and not only regarding cats. This response would be a kick-start for checking the plausibility of some ideas about the interpretation of analogous data on some other frameworks, like schema theories.

PS: Just to clarify those who could possibly be concerned about my cats, when I did that I had no intention of "experimenting" with them at all, I was just being an affectionate pet owner who noticed their seemingly happiness and thought it would be a nice thing. This interpretation I asked about just occurred to me recently, years later.


问:
Does all motivation and desire originate in the limbic system?
My current understanding is that subcortical structures in the limbic system determine what we desire, and that the prefrontal cortex is essentially an uncaring tool utilized by the limbic system to determine how to get what it wants. Whether we want to eat a cookie or become a billionaire, any action we take is ultimately driven by the limbic system's desire for reward. The prefrontal cortex may restrain the limbic system's immediate impulses in order to obtain greater reward in the future (delayed gratification), but the ultimate goal is still to satisfy the limbic system. This would imply that higher parts of the brain play no role in deciding what we want, they just model the world and determine the best way to get what the limbic system decides that it wants.

I have a feeling I'm misinterpreting or improperly extrapolating from what I've read, so I'm interested in feedback on this idea. In particular, is it really the case that the most rational parts of the brain ultimately have no ability to determine their own goals and desires? This seems to contradict our normal intuitions.


问:
What is the best network-based cognitive model to explain and predict political decision-making?
I would like to build a simple human-readable model based on connected concepts that can model how people - very approximately - represent and update their decision-making on a political subject as new information and experiences occur. The idea is that updating occurs due to some algorithm. I am perplexed which method to choose - or even whether this is a dead end as I increasingly fear! Anyone with expertise got any ideas?

Some models I have explored and my rough thoughts below:

Cognitive affective maps (Thagard, Homer Dixon) and they work by means of association, where each concept has an activation and valence from bad to good. If the connection between concepts is positive then the valence of the concepts becomes more similar. If it is negative, then the valences drift become opposite. Thagard was never able to come up with a convincing way for them to update (HOTCO2 is riddled with inconsistencies) and I think this is due to the model being overly-reductive. Advantage: parsimonious, captures important essence of how we think.

Causal inference maps and their ilk (Axelrod, Pearl etc). Concepts are connected in a cause-effect manner. Various intermediary nodes can be used to represent more complex constructs such as used in the argumentation literature such as AND or XOR. If concepts have a utility attached to them, then the best decision is the one that leads to the highest utility. The problem with these models is they can require too many parameters and too many nodes, leading one away from parsimony and making them a big spaghetti mess. Advantage: can represent many thought structures, intuitive if they are small.

Constraint-satisfaction models (Nerb, Kim, Glockner). Similar to a mix of cognitive affective maps and neural networks where the nodes are concepts and activation spreads across them. It's weights and values are adjusted until the network is stable and able to predict observed facts. (might be butchering this). But it fails to take into account directional inference and valence.

Bayesian nets (Pearl etc). Needs no introduction, but hard to find parameters for.

Argument mapping. Similar to inference models.


问:
Do you need need to have an above average IQ in order to have a reasonable chance of successful career in STEM fields?
Particularly engineering, computer science, math. I came across this quote from someone who specializes in psychometrics in response to this question.

Is it scientifically proven if hard work in STEM fields can compensate for a medium/low IQ?

"No.

If by “low IQ” you mean a score of 80 or below, there are absolutely no compensatory mechanisms, including hard work, for STEM fields. A person at such an intellectual level is unlikely to finish the first year of college-level work in any academic disciple.

IF, by “medium IQ,” you mean a full-scale score in the 90–110, it isn’t likely that compensatory mechanisms such as a high level of industriousness (hard work) will be advantageous. Exception being for those with exceptional working memory and an island of excellence for abstract/logical thinking in the higher end of average."

My question is whether or not this claim is true. If a person has average intelligence (an IQ of 100) and no "island of excellence", do they have very little chance of having a successful career in STEM no matter how hard they work?

Whether it's in engineering, computer science or obtaining a PhD in math, physics and so on? Thanks...


问:
After focusing for a long time, why do certain activities have the effect of refreshing or rejuvenating your mind?
If you've been studying or otherwise engaging in mental work, there are certain activities which are often recommended to "refresh your mind" when you are tired. Here are some common examples:

Taking a walk outside, generally enjoying nature

Listening to music

Doing something creative like drawing, dancing, or singing

Unplugging from social media

Meditating

What does "refreshing" technically mean in this context?
Why do we sometimes feel like our brains need to be refreshed in the first place?
What do the above activities have in common which makes them especially conducive to this refreshing?


问:
Why does a human mind repeat the same mistakes?
Why does a person go on repeating the same mistakes again and again even if he does not want to? He knows that he is going to regret it later since he has already repeated this several times in the past. But still at that very moment, the urge to do the wrong overpowers every good or right thought coming in your head.

For example, you are studying and you feel like using your phone. 'Right' thoughts like "you should be studying, you'll regret it" come in your head but your urge of picking your phone up overpowers these thoughts. This is a very common example.

I have heard quite a few podcasts of Dr. Huberman on Dopamine and I know it is a hormone which gives you pleasure and pain, and is responsible for motivation and drive.


问:
How to overcome mental blocks when studying?
Let's suppose hypothetically I am subject A for extended periods of time and devoting my all my time to it. At some point, I feel I hit a plateu , similar to trying to drive in mud, I feel stuck without being able to progress further.

What would be the best move to overcome this stuck feeling? I see three possible options of proceeding:

I drop the subject I am doing and try something else for a few days time

Continue trying to bash through exercises on the subject

I drop the subject for a few hours and return

I have repeatedly tried (2) and (3) with not much success. I am starting to think (1) maybe the best way , has there been any research on how to over come learning difficulties when the student comes at a mental block in self studying?


问:
Identifying cause of differing drive in similar situations
I am a software developer. I absolutely love what I do and I am very good at it. I have a strong work ethic. When I go to work, I work the full time, I am highly productive and engaged for the entire period. I will even get so into the work that I will happily work longer than normal to finish products. It is fun for me to work.

I have also been trying to start my own business by creating my own software solution by working whenever I have free time. However, trying to get myself to do this work is painful. I almost never want to do it and I will procrastinate like crazy. I am 1% as productive when working on my own projects.

While I suspect this has something to do with being owent to others, I am curious if there is any research on this area? If so, what is it called and what are some of the best papers too look at to start understanding/controlling drive?


问:
What is the difference between reminiscence and nostalgia?
Both reminiscence and nostalgia refer to thinking about the past, but where is the line between them?

I am looking into how reminiscence affects meaning in life and have found that most research focuses on nostalgia. I am trying to figure out what the difference is.
I thought that reminiscence refers to thinking about and recalling the past (for a variety of reasons), and that nostalgia is the feelings of longing that arise as a result of reminiscence. However I am struggling to find a distinction in the literature.

If anyone has a good definition/ can point me to where might clarify this I'd be very grateful!


问:
What causes the perception of time
I've recently watched veritasium video about time perception. And what i got out of that is that the more are brain is being used up the slower time goes and the less we use the faster it goes. Is this the right way to think of the way we perceive time?</p>

OwnerDisplayName: no name the astronaut

Title: What causes the perception of time


问:
Which psychological phenomena explains why someone would use something they paid for more than something that's free?
I've noticed some people are more inclined to use something they paid for even when it's not the best use of their time or a substitute is freely available that better solves their problem. I.e. since they paid for (some thing) they want to use that thing.

What psychological phenomena explains this behaviour?

I've noticed self-aware people "hacking" this quirk: e.g. buying an expensive gym membership so they actually go! ..and indeed, it works, they do go, whereas when they had a just-as-good free alternative, they didn't use it.

Although it happens with money, it can also happen without; for example if someone puts time into something and rational assessment does not support spending more time on it, they still may. It could also happen with a mixture of time and money.


问:
Name for the ability to accept and react positively to challenges?
I am surveying early-stage entrepreneurs. The phenomenon I really want is their ability to clearly see, accept, and positively act on, difficulties -- maybe with their company, maybe their product, and maybe themselves. I expect this will be associated with a sort of generally-well-adjusted nature, not insecure, not defensive, but these aren't directly the variables of interest. Is there something in the literature that defines, explores, and measures, "Ability to accept reality and keep going?" I would be happy to be pointed in many relevant directions.

Similar concepts are all over the place, but I haven't found a single one that nails it. I first looked for an opposite to delusional, or just a low score on a delusion instrument, but the scales for delusion I've found deal with a far more intense and disruptive kind of thing than is relevant to my situation. Psychological resilience is also similar, but again feels like it's more about dramatic trauma, than getting your presentation critiqued -- growth mindset is also close, but it feels like an important component, rather than the whole phenomenon. Grit in general I don't like as a measure because it doesn't capture adaptive problem solving, only bloody-mindedness, and flexibility is critical for early companies.

The thing I have most in mind is really from the mindfulness literature, a sort of "ego-less" enlightenment, but I haven't seen a good scientific treatment of this in problem solving, only for well-being.


问:
How to talk down a suicidal person when time is of the essence
From what I gather, the standard tactic for talking down someone who wants to kill themselves is to play for time (until help arrives, until the person changes their mind, etc.).

But what about scenarios in which every second counts? The reason I'm asking is because I read that the pilot of Germanwings Flight 9595, who was locked out of the cockpit by his suicidal first officer, spent the last few minutes before the crash banging on the door, yelling and swearing at the first officer as the plane steadily descended towards the Alps. I can imagine that yelling and swearing isn't a particularly effective way of talking down a suicidal person, but what approach could have worked in this situation with better odds of success?


问:
What is the causal relationship between Adaptability and long term life success?
Adhering to the Big Five:

Plasticity, being comprised of openness to experiences and extraversion, involves dispositions toward exploration, flexibility, adapting to novel situations, questioning social norms, seeking out stimulating experiences, and having a tendency to experience positive emotions.

With this definition in mind, is plasticity the defining hallmark of personality? If one is high in plasticity, they can conform to personalities of all combinations depending on the situation/environment. According to the Big Five, Plasticity does not measure for conscientiousness, neuroticism and agreeableness, however I attest that it does, implicitly, by the inclusion of 'adapt' within its' definition. Highly plastic people are more strongly driven by dopaminergic stimuli and thus are able to orient motivations to goals more directly. Therefore, highly plastic people can be highly conscientious and stable depending on the given environment and goal.

With this in mind. How much robust research has their been on measuring for the the causal relationship between adaptability/plasticity and long term life success or other relevant outcomes of interest.


问:
Is chess a good game for recovering addicts?
I asked this question in Chess Stack Exchange and they sugested me to ask it here:

In this interview to FIDE Master and psychologist Maria Rodrigo the interviewer asked her about chess and addictions:

XL. There are those who are not able to prioritize and get hooked.

M.R. Yes, because the dopamine rush during a game can be brutal. And that is something you have to learn to control. If you don't, you start a game, and then another, and another… And there is no one to stop. You lose hours of sleep… The problem of addiction is more typical in men than in women. Men are more hooked on video games and women on social networks.

I read articles like this one on Chessbase where it is said they started a cognitive training through chess at a therapeutic community "recovering the cognitive functions (attention, memory, etc.) deteriorated by drug use, with the help of chess". But maybe this is focused on teaching how to play chess to people that didn't play lots of online chess while consuming drugs. And dopamine plays a role in addictions.

It is clear chess is good to treat other mental diseases like schizophrenia, and it looks good to teach recovering addicts how to play chess to recover the cognitive functions damaged by drug abuse (according to Chessbase article), but is chess good for a recovering addict that played chess before his treatment started? Can it bring the patient closer to a relapse in drug use?


问:
What are the pharmacodynamics (Ki nM) of the monoamine neurotransmitters?
Ok, so any psychoactive drug will have different affinities for different receptor types. For instance, sertraline has an extreme affinity for the SERT and very little affinity for the 5-HT1A receptor.

But what about serotonin and dopamine themselves? Serotonin must be more likely to bind to one type of serotonin receptor than others. This would be very important for determining the clinical effect of something like 5-HTP or L-DOPA.


问:
How do anxiety disorders affect our brains on a neuro level?
I was specifically wondering about

a) The effect on plasticity. Given that stress has been implicated to reduce plasticity, I assumed anxiety disorders would have a similar effect but the only paper I could find suggested excessive neuroplasiticity (in the amygdala) in patients with anxiety disorders.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4872422/

b) Whether it leads to atrophy in the pfc. The effect on cognition seems pretty clear cut but the evidence on whether anxiety disorders cause atrophy in the pfc also seem mixed, which to me is odd because how could it there be a decrease long term in cognitive functions.

Thanks for any help!


问:
Types of Research for comparing two Groups
i am planning to do an empirical research for my Thesis, which is about the influence of exercise on the psychological and subjective well-being of individuals (60-90 years of age).

hypothesis: Seniors, that exercise regularly have a higher subjective well being.

I don't have a statistical background so I'd be happy, if there is anyone who could help me.

I was thinking about doing a survey with two groups. On the one hand, I pick a group of 50 individuals, who are exercising for more than 2 years on a regular basis. On the other hand I'll pick a group of 50 individuals that don't exercise at all.

I want to statistically compare these Groups based on a standardized Questionnaire on Well-being.

My Question is: Is this a good approach to test such a hypothesis? I'd be glad to hear, what types of empirical studies exists and what would be the most optimal and scientific approach, to test my hypothesis.

As for now, I think my approach would be a two sample t test, where I obtain my data through the standardized questionnaire on two distinct groups.


问:
What are the eventual consequences of being a narcissist?
A close question to what I am trying to ask is Is there scientific evidence that narcissists cannot be treated?.

I was wondering what are the eventual consequences of being a narcissist? Is there any study that has been carried out in this perspective?

What I am looking for in fact is, if untreated, how narcissism would manifest itself as a chronic personality disorder. Do we have any understanding of how narcissism would progress like a behavioral disorder?


问:
Why do some brain-computer interfaces require objects augmentation in order to work?
This interface seems to work only the focused objects have some kind of augmentation (in this case called NeuroTags).

I am wondering about why this is necessary because for the consumer besides being useless, it can also be also annoying.

Is this a way for the interface to reduce some kind of "focus noise" and receive a more clear electromagnetic information from the brain when focusing on a certain object?


问:
Why are we more averse to negativity?
There is a tendency for humans to be more sensitive to negative emotion rather than positive — something very positive will generally have less of an impact on a person's behaviour and cognition than something equally emotional but negative. For example, losing 5 dollars is more emotionally taxing than gaining 5 dollars is emotionally stimulating. This is known as negative bias.

I am trying to understand why we have evolved with such a trait — could it attributed to our evolutionary success as a species, or rather because, since there is more unknown than known (our perceptions reveal to us a fraction of the world), that the natural default position to be is more negatively-titled?

Title: Why are we more averse to negativity?


问:
Why are there different neurotransmitters in central nervous system?
If an effect of binding the neurotransmitter depends on the receptor type, not the neurotransmitter itself, then why don't we have just one neurotransmitter and many different receptors?</p>


问:
Is there any science concerning the effectiveness of titles for inspirational works?
For a person or company publishing a book or embarking on a lecture series there is the problem of choosing a title that will attract the most buyers or attendees.

The obvious title for a didactic work is "How to X". So, for example, if the subject of the lecture is "How to win friends" then that is the obvious title.

However, for inspirational lectures or books, the best style of title is less obvious. For example, let's imagine there is a lecture designed to persuade people to pursue adult education. So, you could have a lecture entitled "Why You Should Never Stop Educating Yourself." However, the title sounds kind of preachy and could be offputting to some people.

Is there any science concerning the most effective style of a lecture or book title when the subject is ideological?

So, for example, Lenin's four most well known works are "State And Revolution", "What Is To Be Done", "Imperialism the Highest Stage Of Capitalism", "Revolution At the Gates". So, he has one title that is hortatory and three that are descriptive. None of his works begin with the words "Why you should..."


问:
Are psychological phenomenon real?
The symptoms that characterizes one as having a particular psychological phenomenon relies on a subjective analysis of a set of variables, e.g., imposter syndrome, it is not clear what constitutes "an inability to realistically assess your competence and skills" since each person has different frameworks for analyzing their orientation which is influenced by their perception of the world. Contrary to empirical data to determine the existience of a particular disease, psychological phenomena rely on subjectivism. As such, are psychological phenomenon real in the sense that they can't be measured scientifically?</p>

Title: Are psychological phenomenon real?


问:
Estimated distribution of maximal cliques in international social networks
Let a clique be a subset of the vertices of an undirected graph such that every two distinct vertices in the clique are adjacent. Let a maximal clique be a set of vertices that is a clique and also a maximal set.

I'm open to answers that defer to the research study's operational definition of "relationship" in such networks. For example, either in-person or virtual relationships are fine. Social media networks are fine.

I am not asking about the mathematics of the model itself, nor about its computation. Tools like NetworkX provide options for computation. Rather, I am asking if there are any instances of it in Sociology research, especially in an international context.

We might analogize to factor analysis, which is a commonly-used model in Psychometrics. Factor analysis can be described quite precisely in terms of Linear Algebra and mathematical statistics.

Questions about estimator bias or matrix multiplication in factor analysis would be off-topic here. But, factor analysis is not off-topic when it intersects with its use in understanding IQ or the g-factor.

Have any international estimates been made for the frequency distribution over the size (cardinalities) of the maximal cliques that humans participate in?


问:
Can EXTREME distress push a person who already suffers from General Anxiety Disorder and Panic Disorder into a more severe mental condition?
I recently finished reading Man's Search for Meaning by Viktor Frankl which explores some of the psychological explanations behind surviving something as horrific as concentration camps. I would like to use forced labor camps such as Nazi concentration camps or The Gulag to define what I refer to in the title of this question as "EXTREME distress". Being familiar with the conditions that people lived under would help with the context of my question.

The aforementioned book sparked my curiosity into how humans already suffering from a mental disorder, specifically General Anxiety Disorder and Panic Disorder would react in such a situation.

To give a little background:

I suffer from both General Anxiety Disorder and Panic Disorder. In my teen years, I would say 95% of all my anxiety and panic attacks were from hypochondria. Over the years, I've tried multiple times to ween off the medicine, with a doctor's knowledge and guidance. Whenever I hit the 6-8 month mark of being completely off the medicine,  I start to get noticeable anxiety again progressing to panic attacks to the point that it affects my work so I always end up back on the medicine.

Now, tying this back to an extreme situation of distress, such as being years in a concentration camp. What would happen clinically to a person, like myself as a general example, if put in such a situation? Would they fall into severe neurosis? Obviously, I couldn't be carrying around medicine in a situation like this.

Have there been any studies or research regarding something like this I can be referred to?

Thoughts:
These are not necessarily questions that have to  be answered directly but rather thoughts that come to mind when I think about this situation:

How extreme can a panic attack get, is there a limit or can it progress to something like psychosis?

Would such a situation like this that leads to a pure survival mode and primitive life take over the mind to the point that something like panic attacks would not have room to occur?

Could a chemical imbalance in the brain be changed for the better under such an extreme, mind-altering, and prolonged period of distress? Or would a condition only ever get worse?

Would a person suffering from the aforementioned mental conditions just completely shut down and go into a state of shock?

Would something behind anxiety symptoms occur in such a  scenario?

To be blunt, is someone with a preexisting condition like above just screwed if put in a situation like this? Screwed, as in, there is no amount of mental toughness or conditioning that could prevent them from being pushed into a more severe mental state.


问:
What are the differences between a career in clinical psychology vs psychiatry?
Hey everyone I need help, I’m kind of in a difficult situation right now. I’m currently doing a bachelor's degree in psychology and am really enjoying it. The degree includes clinical psychology so technically by the end of it I could apply to become a clinical psychologist. But recently I’ve been thinking I really like the more science and prescription/medicine aspects of psychology. More practical aspects as opposed to the more emotional 'therapy session' situations. Like maybe something more similar to psychiatry or physician fields which would require studying a 5 year medicine degree. I feel very stressed out because this psychology degree is already 3 years and i feel like it would be crazy to go into medicine after this… or would it?? I don't know, I just need help because I don’t know the most simple way I could do this. I'd also like to know if I could potentially still be able to do things other than just therapy if I stuck with clinical psychology? I don't know enough about it.</p>


问:
Does the brain have code?
I am not sure if the brain is totally analogous to a computer but it certainly behaves like one in some respects. It seems to take input information from the environment, process that signal, store some information, send signals out to produce effects in the environment etc.

If we continue this hardware analogy, thinking about how human made computers work they do not function until they have been programmed to behave in a certain way, by writing code which defines their behaviour.

Obviously no one has written code that defines how humans behave but there are common routines that occur.

A simple example when we stand up there is a routine which is activated by the sudden loss of blood pressure which the brain responds to by causing the heart rate to increase, the heart to beat faster and other effects which restore the blood pressure. This happens basically every time except in disease states.

I understand this on a "hardware" level, there are baroreceptors in the aorta and carotid sinus that sense the drop in pressure and signal back to the solitary nucleus which somehow effects the changes mentioned above. But returning to the computer analogy above, if we simply connect a sensor and an effector to a computer nothing actually happens until it is programmed to behave in the way you expect.

Does the brain have something analogous to software in this way? How is that information stored? How is information like that transmitted through the genetic code?

Title: Does the brain have code?


问:
Is this a confirmation bias or does such an effect have a more specific name?
What is the name of an effect when a person debating with you says that you want them to do Z while you did not have this in mind and did not intend to get to this?

For example, from a conversation with a software engineer colleague.

Me: I think we started our discussion too abstract, and the actual problem is the errors presentation in technology X. Why not formulate that problem and consider options for it first?

Colleague: You're saying we should throw away most of our accomplishments and standardize on technology Z status codes?

Technologies X and Z are different, and Z came up only once in my earlier statements and only tangentially because it was mentioned by another colleague in this context.

Such situations most often happen to me when I try to switch the debate to a more general level of discussion and find out (not even question) goals the other person might be pursuing.

Simply put, I feel I get misunderstood. Yet I think this pattern or bias might have been studied and might have a name so I'm curious how it is called.

This seems related to the confirmation bias and maybe it is just that.

However, I thought that the confirmation bias is when a person looks for positive reinforcement to their beliefs. In a situation like this one the other person gets to a point when they verbalize and ask if I want them to do something that goes against their beliefs. This is done in such a concrete formulation that on one hand I’m surprised how I could be misunderstood to that degree, on the other hand I’m left suspecting that the person just does that to essentially hear from me “no, I don’t want you to change your opinion” (absence of “yes, I want …” is also treated as “no”) and carry on with their beliefs without much interest to discuss the point I was interested in.

I oftentimes run into similar situations when debating with my wife and feel tricked because it feels it doesn't matter if I answer "no, ..." or "yes, ...". It feels like this effect is used as an evasion tactic to avoid revising goals and proceed in the set direction or hand off responsibility to the one who raises the question.

Update: indeed, the straw man argument suggested by @JonB in the comment seems the most plausible explanation when the other person has an intent to deflect the conversation.

I checked with that colleague later, and it turned out that he was actually thinking about technology Z as a "worse alternative" for quite some time. This makes me more confident that he misunderstood my suggestion to "zoom out" as if I was alluding him to go after technology Z.


问:
Switching up senses
What if you change the connections of the brain to where the eye is connected to the part of the brain that creates taste. Will it start to adapt and begin to see with that part of the brain? Or will it instead start taking the information from the eyes and converting it into taste?</p>

Title: Switching up senses


问:
Prereq sciences for Neuroscience
I've been a professional software developer for 7 years and have gotten into EdTech over the last 4 years. I'm building my own EdTech apps for students, and in doing so I decided to enroll in a Master's in Cognitive Science in Education program to develop a better understanding of how students think and learn.

In my program, I'd like to build this understanding from a high (cognitive) and low (neuroscience) perspective to understand the underlying mechanics in cognitive processes.

My program has several Neuroscience foundations courses I can take, but I haven't taken sciences since college a decade ago. I'm taking these Neuroscience foundations courses this fall, but I'd like to be fully prepared beforehand.

I'm wondering which courses I definitely need to have a strong foundation in (Biology 101? Chem 101?, or do I not need any prior training beforehand?) prior to beginning in the fall. And if you'd recommend good courses, or Moocs, with textbooks, that'd be very helpful.

Title: Prereq sciences for Neuroscience


问:
Reducing pareidolia?
Going in the opposite direction and artificially increasing Pareidolia (the tendency for perception to impose a meaningful interpretation on a nebulous stimulus, usually visual, so that one sees an object, pattern, or meaning where there is none) seems quite easy.

Actually reducing it seems hard, there exists no drug to my knowledge that would make you see less meaning or patterns in things. Why is this? Could you achieve reduced pareidolia through other means (e.g. brain stimulation)?

Title: Reducing pareidolia?


问:
Will long term high stress generally inhibit attraction or interests in new romances?
Regarding the sort of long term stress that makes a person tense and unhappy on a daily basis for months, and how this affects that persons interest in new social connections.

I have read several articles about long term high stress causing trouble in existing romantic relationships, for various reasons.
Some people will also generally withdraw and seek isolation from other people, thus neglecting social bonding.

Will these stress periods generally also reduce/inhibit any interest in finding new romances?
Are hormones affecting attraction and bonding likely to get affected by stress?

I am looking for scientific research, papers, correlations, etc.


问:
Any good research on the comparative rates of CSA in different populations? (religious vs none religious, Mormon, catholic, etc)
I'm wondering if there is any good research on the rates of CSA in different populations.</p>


问:
What are the benefits of cultural diversity in a workplace?
Common sense says diversity creates barriers as people have trouble finding common ground, since by definition they’re as different as possible. Yet, the corporate world insists that forcing cultural diversity is better than just going with the flow.  What scientific basis is there behind the diversity-is-good claims?</p>


问:
Emotion regulation & physical vulnerability to emotions

Context

My question concerns the relationship between the Process Model of Emotion Regulation (Gross 1998) and the management of physical vulnerability to emotions, in particular as described in the literature on Dialectical Behavior Therapy (Dimeff & Linehan 2001).

(Illustration of the Process Model of Emotion Regulation (Gross 1998) taken from
Peña-Sarrionandia et al. (2015))

Question

Does the management of physical vulnerability fall into the realm of the Process Model of Emotion Regulation (Gross 1998)?

If it does, to which family of emotion regulation strategies (e.g. "Situation Selection", "Situation Modification") does it correspond?

In that case, I would suspect it corresponds to "Situation Selection" (e.g. "time to relax"), but I am not sure.

By management of physical vulnerability to emotions, what I mean is:

the use, on a daily basis, of basic strategies for the improvement of general physical and mental health (such as taking care of sleep hygiene, eating healthy, etc.)

also the use of some more specific self-care strategies for the further improvement of well-being (such as massage, meditation, etc.)

I refer to the management of physical vulnerability to emotions as treated in the Dialectical Behavior Therapy literature (Dimeff & Linehan 2001).

This webpage provides a clear-cut presentation : https://dialecticalbehaviortherapy.com/emotion-regulation/emotions-physical-vulnerability/

References

Dimeff, L., & Linehan, M. (2001). Dialectical behavior therapy in a nutshell. The California Psychologist, 34(3), 10-13.

Gross, J. J. (1998). The emerging field of emotion regulation: an integrative review.Rev. Gen. Psychol. 2, 271–299. doi: 10.1037/1089-2680.2.3.271

Peña-Sarrionandia, A., Mikolajczak, M., & Gross, J. (2015). Integrating emotion regulation and emotional intelligence traditions: A meta-analysis. Frontiers in Psychology, 6, 160. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00160


问:
Are correlations between intelligence domains expected to increase or decrease over childhood and adolescence?
I've been reading a lot of different theories about how intelligence develops over childhood and adolescence, and I'm wondering about one specific aspect of it: The change or stability of the correlations between different intelligence domains over time.

Obviously, there's a ton of discussion on which intelligence domains exist (and, uh, what intelligence in general is supposed to be). But for this question, let's assume the five "domains" are the ones in the WISC-V because it's a common measure of intelligence in children: verbal comprehension, working memory, processing speed, fluid reasoning, visuo-spatial abilities. Let's also assume I am talking about the age period of around 6 years until mid-twenties. Finally, let's assume that we know that the domains are all intercorrelated (some pairs of domains more strongly than others) at every age.

Here are some wild and definitely not literature-based hypotheses:

The correlations don't change at all. There is a common factor to all of the domains that is relatively stable, and so is the level of their intercorrelations over childhood.

The correlations grow stronger with age because of mutual benefits and better networks among all domains. The mutual benefits get stronger with age because more time means more interaction/closer networks and thus we get stronger correlations.

The correlations grow weaker with age because the neural structures underlying the intelligence domains get more specialized by pruning and higher efficiency, which makes them more efficient and more independent. This leads to weaker correlations over time.

Inspired by Arnon Weinberg's comment: Because the environmental effect on general intelligence ("g") gets smaller over childhood and plateaus around 18, the correlations between intelligence domains also grow weaker over childhood because the influence of the environment as a common factor to all of them sinks.

Which hypothesis or which other theory is plausible, and is there actual research supporting it?


问:
How to determine the sample size for a Confirmatory Factor Analysis CFA
I'm in the process of developing a scale. Overall, my question is how do I determine how many participants to include in my sample for the first Confirmatory Factor Analysis procedure? More specifically, can you tell me about different approaches to determining the sample size, such as power analyses or Monte Carol simulations, and research that backs this up.

I've done some research. It seems that the general rule of thumb is that you should have approximately 10 participants per item.


问:
Is there a concept explaining internalizing others' trauma?
I have interrelated questions about trauma and personality factors, and how the latter can possibly contribute to the former.

Second Hand Trauma?

Is there any concept in publications that I can explore that discuss trauma, perhaps in the realm of even therapeutic exploration in addition to diagnoses, that one in a sense experiences second hand by witnessing another's trauma? For example, I recall two instances of childhood friends wailing while their parents physically abused them as punishment in front of me or within earshot for doing something (one crying for mercy while they were repeatedly slapped in the face and loudly yelled at).

I'm not sure how scientific it is to analogize that to something like survivor's guilt (different in this case since guilt in the "witness" isn't really a factor, even though one escaped/avoided something someone else experienced). Perhaps it's akin to shared traumatic experiences in a group setting? Since it's unequal experience though, perhaps it could be compared to even something like someone who accidentally witnessed a murder in an alleyway, who when retelling it to police authorities exhibited signs that they personally were traumatized by witnessing it.

I did discover something called Secondary Traumatic Stress, on this page by The National Child Traumatic Stress Network, but the examples given were for those who merely hear about another's trauma (like a therapist) and not those who were present during the traumatic event (as I am describing). Or maybe that's precisely an indicator that what I'm describing is in fact first hand trauma of a different sort, and that just because one did not receive the physical part of the additional trauma witnessed one was yet emotionally and mentally traumatized. So whether it should be considered primary or secondary trauma, is one factor to consider.

Edit: One commenter mentioned "Vicarious Trauma" but I would want to know how that substantially differs from "Secondary Trauma" to consider it a clarifying / enlightening answer.

Contributing / Compounding Personality Factors

It seems possible to me that what is traumatic for one person is not necessarily traumatic for everyone. Thus I want to ask about personality traits along the lines of temperament that may play a role in such witnessing of others' trauma as described above. The personality question I have has to do with so called "sensitive" types (think "sensitive children") versus those not (at least) overtly so. Essentially I'm asking how witnessing trauma in the manner described above affects those who are different in temperament.

On sensitivity, one source claims: "In children, sensitivity appears to be associated only with Neuroticism, but not with any of the other four personality traits."

If an especially sensitive child witnesses something traumatic is it possible for them to internalize it in a way that sticks with them stronger than other personality types? If so is that an indicator on the scale of "empathy" or something else entirely? Neuroticism was mentioned above, though I don't know how that interplays with empathy with others in distress.

While these are topics that inherently involve emotions, I am very intellectually curious at what psychological insights might be available by exploring the topic soberly.


问:
How does the brain distinguish between single or multiple sounds?
On a piano "for tenor and treble notes, three strings are strung for each key, and for bass notes, the number of strings per note decreases from three, to two, and then to one as you approach the lowest bass notes". Despite this, we always perceive a single note when we press a single piano key. What makes multiple sounds (like that of a treble piano key) appear as a single sound?

What characteristics of an artificially generated waveform reproduced by a single speaker cause it to be perceived as a single sound or instead as a collection of distinct sounds played together?


问:
Can people learn without examples?
When learning various topics (math comes to mind as a good example), to what extent is information retained/understood affected by whether or not examples of the concept or process are provided?
For example, I was learning about encryption and absorbed quite a few whitepapers, but nothing stuck until I came across an implementable example. Is there an underlying physical/psychological reason for this?</p>

Title: Can people learn without examples?


问:
What is the status of Jungian psychology in the XXI-century?
Now Cognitive-Behavioral therapy seems the main kind of therapy practised all over the world, which comes along with the claim of CBT techniques have been proved to work scientifically, meanwhile old psychoanalytic techniques are in the limbo of pseudoscience. Can anyone still rightfully practice Jungian psychoanalysis in their practice?</p>


问:
Is it possible to disassociate working memory and consciousness?
The traditional view holds that consciousness and working memory has linked tightly. But some researches have some proofs against this idea. The study said that people can reading and doing arithmetic nonconsciously (Sklar et al., 2012). Is that means there is a implicit working memory and we can manipulate the information in a short term, unconsciously?</p>


问:
Is there any validity to the correlation between fluid intelligence and frequency of hand gestures in verbal communication?
Question: Is there any conclusive research showing any significant correlation with the above pair of variables? If there is a correlation, what other more significant covariate could perhaps be confounding the relationship? Is it perhaps confounded by the fact that individuals with higher intelligence are better abstract thinkers (or at least have a higher tendency to abstract) are thus are more likely to use hand gestures as a way to abstract their thoughts?

Abstract: Humans use hand gestures to organize their abstract thoughts more coherently into language during dialogical communication.

Research: Gestures are processed in the same areas of the brain as speech (think sign language): the left inferior frontal gyrus (Broca’s) and the posterior middle temporal gyrus (Wenicke’s area). Further, the left hemisphere is also heavily linked to abstraction and fluid intelligence. According to David Geary, gf and gc can be traced to two separate brain systems. Fluid intelligence involves both the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (left hemisphere), the anterior cingulate cortex (left hemisphere), and other systems related to attention and short-term memory.  It has been demonstrated that speakers with higher fluid intelligence produce more gestures from non-egocentric (O-VPT) views than speakers with average fluid intelligence on a task involving visual imagery (Sassenberg, Foth, Wartenburger, & van der Meer, 2011). Because Parkinson's Disease (PD) causes mild cognitive impairment in most patients, PD patients might produce fewer O-VPT gestures than controls, who would likely have higher fluid intelligence.


问:
What is ‘emotional capture’ and how does it manifest?
A quick internet search seems to result in a number of research papers (and similar) that discuss specific studies/experiments regarding the phenomenon, but virtually nothing seems to focus on defining and discussing emotional capture in a more broad/general sense (e.g. there is no Wikipedia article for the term). Since it seems unlikely there are going to be any authoritative sources for this, I would just like to know how you best understand the concept and maybe a basic example or two of how it occurs in everyday life — thank you!</p>


问:
Why do we forget what we learnt after the completion of exams?
I have just read about this question but i forgot the name of this effect. As far as i remembered the effect was discovered and formulated by some russian scientist but i couldn't remember his name. does anyone know this effect?</p>


问:
What is the term for the increased willingness to spend "bonus" money over savings? Is it the opposite of the endowment effect?
The effect can be described as following:

Consider two hypothetical scenarios. In one, I have had \$10,000 in the bank for a while. In another, I have had \$8,000 in the bank, and suddenly I won \$2,000 randomly, either as a gift, a lottery ticket, or something like that.

Imagine there's some frivolous \$1,000 item that I want, but am deterred by its price. In the former scenario, I don't buy it because it's too large a chunk of my savings. But in the latter, I am willing to buy it because I consider it to be "bonus money". Basically, a purchase in both scenarios would be an equivalent portion of my money, and in principle, the history of how I got my balance shouldn't matter, but it does.

Is this a real, measured effect? And if so, does it have a name?

It seems like the opposite of the endowment effect. Is this just another way of describing the endowment effect, where the effect is taking place in the former scenario but not the latter?

I also remember reading something similar, but not the same in Thinking Fast and Slow. I don't remember exactly, but it's something like, if a jacket is \$80 and an umbrella is \$20 I might not purchase both, because I consider \$20 too expensive for an umbrella. But if the same jacket was worth \$100 and the same umbrella comes with it for free, I might make that purchase. I don't remember the name of this effect, but it seems similar to the one I'm describing. Is it the same effect?


问:
What was meditation's part in psychology before third wave therapies?
I'm studying the history of meditation and/or mindfulness in psychology and am falling to find authors and resources speaking about it before its recent raise in popularity in western culture. Was meditation used in some forms of therapy before or should I expand my search into less scientific approaches to well-being like spirituality?</p>


问:
Caffeine modulating substances in coffee
From personal experimentation I know that caffeine affects me differently than coffee. Are there any known caffeine modulating substances found in coffee?</p>


问:
Default mode network's function in information consolidation?
I remember seeing a lot of research about this a few years back, suggesting replaying memory's during wakeful rest might help long term memory retention, although it was inconclusive.

I was wondering if there is a prevailing opinion on whether the DMN plays a significant role in information consolidation.

I found points arguing that idle/resting times serve functions of processing new inputs into our idea of the world (1) and information/memory consolidation (2). The problem is that these studies tend to be older and are usually mentioned as tangent points and so I was very interested in whether the current prevailing opinion about time spent where the DMN dominant does serve an important function for well-being.

Especially because it seems quite prevalent in pop culture science to say that the DMN is a "dragon we need to slay" and turning it off is the goal to a better life. A lot of that bases itself on a Harvard study that found a positive relationship between mental well-being and less time the DMN is activated.

(1) The Importance of Rest and Sleep: Maintaining Balance Is Key You
need to modulate expending physical energy with taking time to rest,
reflect, and recharge. Scientc American noted that research pub-lished
in 2012 by researchers from the University of Southern California and
MIT argued that "when we are resting the brain is anything but idle
and that, far from being purposeless or unproductive, downtime is in
fact essential to mental processes that affirm our identities, develop
our understanding of human behavior and instill an internal code of
ethics." These processes may depend on the brain circuit that kicks in
when people are in a kind of daydreaming, resting state—a circuit
brain researchers call the default mode network.

https://books.google.se/books?id=WeRhDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA123&lpg=PA123&dq=%22a+circuit+brain+researchers+call+the+default+mode+network.%22&source=bl&ots=xXAkcCnYHF&sig=ACfU3U2dLCWtfcN51Ivy_OcRIb79SrpPAA&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiO8buWm473AhUFSvEDHecWCGEQ6AF6BAgCEAM#v=onepage&q=%22a%20circuit%20brain%20researchers%20call%20the%20default%20mode%20network.%22&f=false

(2) More recent theories propose that fundamental intrinsic processes
such as information consolidation and stabilization may be related to
activity in default mode regions [13–15].
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3134578/

Thanks a lot for your time!


问:
How many stories can the human brain discern?
Perhaps the question will seem strange and not clearly formulated, for which I apologize in advance. Are there estimates of how many stories the human mind can discern? For example, let each story be a picture or sequence of pictures. At the same time, each picture contains not something abstract and incomprehensible, but something understandable enough: how similar should two pictures or two stories be so that the human brain cannot distinguish them even in principle?</p>


问:
Is the lack of eagerness to contribute to the group's goal a cause for diffustion of responsibility?
From Wikipedia:

Diffusion of responsibility is a sociopsychological phenomenon whereby a person is less likely to take responsibility for action or inaction when other bystanders or witnesses are present. Considered a form of attribution, the individual assumes that others either are responsible for taking action or have already done so.

The causes of it are:

Anonymity

Division of labor

Expertise

Group size

Gender

I notice that the eagerness to contribute to the group's goal doesn't appear in this list. This is probably why I heard that even leaders of organizations have diffusion of responsibility, even though they should have more urge to grow the organizations. (Nevertheless I agree they are not equally effected as they typically are fewer in number, have less anonymity, more expertise, etc)

However, I'm still not able to reason why the eagerness to contribute to the group's goal isn't a direct variable to this phenomenon. I understand that people may join the group for different reasons than the group's goals, but I think they are also aware that in order to have their goal achieve, they have to contribute to the group first.

My questions are:

Is the lack of eagerness to contribute to the group's goal a cause for this phenomenon?

Is the existence of eagerness to contribute to the group's goal an anti-cause for this phenomenon?


问:
Do spinal and peripheral nerves associate with hebbian learning?
For instance, if a musician frequently makes a series of actions, neurons that are involved in such sequence should also associate inside the spine - according to "neurons that fire together wire together".
If so, to what extent?</p>

OwnerDisplayName: Oskar Zdrojewski