问:
Where can I find Data set for Machine Learning purposes?
I am currently doing a research in the attempt to detect onset sign of mental disorders through facial recognition. In order to do that, I would need training dataset which contains 1. Pictures 2. Diagnosis. Are there any open datasets that I could find/apply to? Thanks</p>


问:
I’m doing a research project requiring participants to look at a photo for ten seconds and then answer questions about small details in the photos
I want to read up on some past studies that might’ve done something similar. Has anybody seen anything like this? </p>

<p>For example, one picture depicts a woman with a large, distracting necklace. A question that follows is “what color nail polish was the woman wearing?” </p>

ContentLicense: CC BY-SA 4.0


问:
Why do we dream?
Most of the people have their own imagination and most of them dream about many things and some time dream about those things which they have never seen, so how we will define the fact that why do we dream? </p>

Title: Why do we dream?


问:
How is addiction distinguished from engagement when making a determination about a person's behaviour?
Based on some discussions over on another StackExchange forum site over a particular question about user engagement vs. addiction, it was suggested that the question be posed on the Psychology and Neuroscience SE site because it seems to fall into this area of research and is appropriate for the experts in this field to provide an answer.

So the question, phrased slightly differently for this forum:

There have been some recent press about the computer game Fortnite
  that has caused concern for parents of children that are spending
  excessive time playing due to its seemingly addictive effect on
  players (many of whom are young children).

Digital designers working on games often aim to increase engagement using strategies like gamification. Assuming that engagement with an activity involves some similar behaviour to those exhibited in addiction, how are those behaviours measured over time to identify at risk users (e.g. problem gamblers)?

Alternatively, if engagement and addiction are completely different behaviours, what are the differences that allows you to distinguish one group from the other?


问:
Is the perception of drawings an acquired skill?
Most descriptions of visual perception explain how our brains interpret incoming visual stimuli (via feature detection, monocular depth cues, etc.). They then assume that the same process works for interpreting drawings, by which I mean 2D illustrations of objects.

However, there seem to be some cultural differences in the way 2D images are interpreted: for example, the fact that less "literate"/"developed" cultures perform better with the Muller-Lyer illusion (as mentioned here).

Taking this idea further, my parents, who lived in a rural area in India, knew one person who had never encountered pictures and couldn't interpret them. It wasn't in her culture. If one showed her a picture of a pig, she wouldn't be able to make out it was a pig, or even an animal. To her, it was just a set of lines on a sheet of paper. I know that story is anecdotal, and several things are unclear (such as whether it worked for photographs vs illustrations, etc.). However, my question is: Is this possible?

Is the ability to interpret drawings a universal one, or is it a skill that (most) people acquire the same way as language or writing? Is there any research on this topic I can read up on?


问:
When someone consumes finasteride, what happens neurophysiologically and what mental functions / faculties are altered?
Finasteride is a medication used to treat androgenetic alopecia (male pattern baldness) and enlarged prostates. Reported side effects include male breast enlargement, lowered sex drive, and headaches (among others). Additionally, there have been many anecdotal reports of "brain fog" and some reports of individuals unable to recall short-term memories.

Finasteride blocks the conversion from testosterone to dihydrotestosterone (DHT) by inhibiting 5α-Reductase type II and III. However, it can also have an effect on neurosteroids. From Wikipedia:

Neurosteroids like 3α-androstanediol (derived from DHT) and
  allopregnanolone (derived from progesterone) activate the GABA_A
  receptor in the brain; because finasteride prevents the formation of
  neurosteroids, it functions as a neurosteroidogenesis inhibitor and
  may contribute to a reduction of GABA_A activity. Reduction of GABA_A
  receptor activation by these neurosteroids has been implicated in
  depression, anxiety, and sexual dysfunction.

Additionally to these secondary effects resulting from lowered DHT, finasteride itself also crosses the blood–brain barrier.

Beyond the reduction in GABA_A receptor activation, what effects does finasteride have on the brain (secondary via 5α-Reductase inhibition and lowered DHT, or directly, via crossing the blood-brain barrier) and what kind of functions are altered by it? In particular, is there any likely explanation for headaches, "brain fog," and difficulty with short-term memory recall that some users report?

Perhaps some results of this mouse model generalizes to human brains:

Finasteride treatment and its withdrawal induced neuroinflammation in
  hippocampus.

Although, the hippocampus is mostly responsible for long-term, rather than short-term, memory.


问:
Time perception in dreams?
Is time perception in dreams the same as time perception in waking life? There was an experiment that showed it was roughly true, (10 seconds in the dream is around 12 in real life), what causes this change in time perception? Also, why do people have dreams that seem to last weeks? Does the brain just skip over details?

Experiment: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3893623/

Title: Time perception in dreams?


问:
Does the way a popular behaviour is discussed affect whether it would be imitated?
I think I’ve came across a contradiction in relation to these two phenomenon.

On the one hand there is the following example: there was a vintage advert against pollution whereby a lot of people were shown littering as an example of negative behaviour. This was shown to be contra-effective, because showing certain negative behaviour to be commonly practiced actually made it look more acceptable and resulted in more people engaging in it.

On the other hand there is the copycat effect whereby people would be encouraged to engage in certain behaviour because it is widely discussed (for example, sensational news about murder and suicide, or a novel or series/film about similar topics, resulting in people who had such tendencies imitating the said behaviours). It has been suggested that the way these topics are viewed could prevent people from engaging it the said behaviour (for example, emphasizing the grief of the victims’ relatives).

So does the way certain popular (widely practiced or widely discussed) negative behaviour is viewed actually effect whether or not it will be imitated by those who are prone to that behaviour (the first case suggests that it doesn't, the second case suggests that it does)? Or otherwise, in what way are those two effects different so that no contradiction arises?

(I’m sorry for the lack of references; I read about these topics a long time ago and I’m not sure I can find the sources.)


问:
Linguistic & cross-cultural perceptions of typography
I have moved this question over from ux.stackexchange in the hope that it is a better fit for this forum and will get a few answers

There is a great deal of information that one can find on the web which discusses the emotional impact that typography can have on the viewer.  To name two recent relevant articles

https://www.crazyegg.com/blog/psychology-of-fonts-infographic/
https://thenextweb.com/dd/2017/03/31/science-behind-fonts-make-feel/

I find myself wondering whether the broad conclusions presented in such articles has any validity when dealing with text in Arabic or in Indian or Far Eastern languages.  And then does the perception of typography for text presented in the latin alphabet change across cultures?  I have come across one study that is both interesting and relevant

https://cornerstone.lib.mnsu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1670&context=etds

Perhaps there is someone on this forum who has studied these issues more thoroughly who might be able to comment?

Some very broad conclusions one can draw fro the Cornerstone study I mention above

Common typefaces that have had a lot of exposure across the world are more likely to be perceived in the same way across cultures.

The cross cultural receptiveness to sans serif typefaces is more uniform than serif typefaces

While there can be broad agreement at the like/dislike level the evaluation of individual typeface traits - the author uses descriptors such as "professional" and "friendly" - can vary quiet markedly.

Newer typeface innovations such as slab serif and geometric lead to greater difference in perception across cultures (this from the author's conclusion but I am unable to see where this was tested in the work in question)


问:
What prevents us from asking, 'What don't I know'?
The barcode on the package from the deli sticks to other items and gets slightly ripped. I then spend a lot of time at the checkout entering the barcode and entering it incorrectly.

I can't find 'Lebanese cucumbers' in the self checkout. Should I look for cucumber or Lebanese. It's under L, but listed, 'Cucumber Lebanese'.

There are some things which I hadn't thought about. There are others where there may be a limitation in my perception. You could take this a step further and think about the people designing these products/systems. They didn't think about what can go wrong.

In every activity, there are thousands of things which can go wrong. However, we rarely stop to consider the contingencies.

Has this idea been considered in psychology? I am interested in references. Feel free to offer your opinion.

If you think the following is more relevant, can you provide any discussion/references:

We do consider contingencies all the time.

Things don't go wrong.

(Note that I can provide published counter examples for both these items.)


问:
Social Media and General Addiction
I have a question made of four aspects on addiction and dopamine neurobiology.

1. I'm currently wondering whether the addictive potential of social media can be quantified. I'm aware it probably depends on the individual, but I would think an estimate is possible; for example, hardcore drugs may be more objectively more addictive than a sugary snack.

2. I'm also wondering if I'm correct in assuming that, in addiction, the diminution of dopamine receptors would render all activities (aside the addiction itself) less pleasurable. Is this the case?

3. Finally, I'm wondering if the availability of more receptors of dopamine would permit sustained release of this neurotransmitter over time. I.e. several short amounts of dopamine from natural sources would be more 'optimal' than a massive burst at one given time?

4. Finally, I'm wondering if I'm completely off track given Berridge's 'wanting' versus 'liking' distinction, where dopamine mediates wanting and opioids mediate liking. Would pleasure here occur from opioids rather than dopamine?

Thank you

Title: Social Media and General Addiction


问:
Averaging a linear or nonlinear function treatment
In a hypothetical PET study, my sample consists of a clinical population which exhibit brain hypermetabolism. I divide my sample into two homogenous groups. One receives a treatment whereas the other does not (control). My analysis is a 2 x 2 mixed factorial design with treatment  (receive treatment, doesn't receive treatment) as the between groups factor and treatment status (pretest, postest) as the within-subjects factor.

The treatment group complete a cognitive task which is expected to reduce the brain hypermetabolism to almost nothing but return to elevated hypermetabolism in up to 2 minutes. In other words, the cognitive task reduces the activity for a short amount of time but slowly the brain hypermetabolism will return to the elevated levels that distinguish our clinical sample. It is not known whether this regression to pretreatment levels will be linear or non linear.

In my design I compare group averages in brain hypermetabolism in the treatment vs. control group pretest and posttest. There should be no difference in our control group in the pretest and posttest stages, but there should be a significant difference in the treatment group.

My question is, is there a standard procedure for obtaining group averages on a linear function? If we know that the brain hypermetabolism returns in <2 minutes, should we average the value of the line across 2 minutes? 1 minute? At the participant level? At the group level?

Alternatively, instead of working out an average, should one calculate the slope of the lines in treatment vs. non-treatment conditions and compare these?

I would much appreciate citations to handle such procedures.


问:
How are schamata represented in Cognitive Load Theory
I come across papers that say things like "if the new information is compatible with the schema, it is accepted".  I'm not clear on how schemata are represented by theorists in order to make this claim.  For instance, what does "compatible" mean?  What are the processes that are modeled by theorists that begin with "new information" and end with "accepted"?  </p>


问:
How do you call this: Feeling stuck and passively waiting for a solution
Looking for the name of a phenomenon I've seen in many, including myself. When someone is bothered by a situation in their life, will openly complain about it, but won't or can't come up with an active solution to it. They appear to feel "stuck". Nothing is ever done and the complaining continues. Even when the situation gets worse, it might still not trigger any reaction other than more complaining.

I do not think it's apathy since the person is clearly distressed by the situation. It seems more like perceived helplessness leading to total passivity.

From the outside, it seems like the person just truly believes that waiting is the solution and that things will change and resolve on their own.

On the inside, it seems like it could originate from various sources, from an aversion to conflict to delusional optimism.

Also, this does not apply to major issues like "hunger in the world" but rather very local and personal problems that, from an outside point of view, seem solvable... sometimes even only solvable by the person who's complaining.

Examples

A project manager who always has issues with his projects (late, unfinished, not matching the needs of the customer) but never actively tries to change anything in the way it's done and usually blames external factors for the (partial) failure.

A person who keeps inviting two of her friends who can't stand each other, hoping that they'll get along... eventually.

Someone whose job makes them miserable, maybe even suicidal, but who won't consider switching to another job as a possibility.

What I'm looking for

If it's a known and defined phenomenon, being able to put a name on it for further research would be great.

If obvious literature exists on the topic, especially if it offers help to spot this state of mind and move past it, linking to it would be appreciated.


问:
Do vulnerable/covert/shy narcissists seek therapy for NPD?
It is known that common (a.k.a. overt, flamboyant) narcissists rarely seek therapy on their own. However, there is an atypycal type of narcissism called “shy”, “covert” or “vulnerable“. They behave quite the contrary to the common overt type (Sandler et al., 2000).

I wonder if it is common for this type to seek long term psychotherapy (presumably psychoanalysis) to treat NPD specifically, not the comorbid symptoms like anxiety and depression.

Wouldn't high motivation to treatment be in direct contrast with the diagnosis of severe NPD of covert type?

Sandler J., Michels R., Fonagy, P. (Eds.). (2000). Changing Ideas in a Changing World: The Revolution in Psychoanalysis-Essays in Honour of Arnold Cooper. Karnac Books.


问:
Intrinsic relevance of ERP polarity: 'negativity' vs 'positivity'
I know that polarity in a EEG signal is arbitrary, and a matter of convention, as clearly explained in this past question.

However, assuming said conventions are well-followed, I wonder whether is there any intrinsic meaning at all to a particular ERP/component being described (as they often are in the literature) as either a positivity or a negativity?

It seems indeed that this aspect (voltage polarity) is a salient-enough feature of EEG components, that they are metonymically referred to by this very feature, e.g. "this positivity is associated with cognitive process X", as if the component's sign was just as important as its latency and absolute-value amplitude (which are of course not arbitrary, and clearly meaningful).

Some papers (e.g. Koelsch et al 2005) seem to suggest that some cognitive tasks (e.g. perceiving some deviance in a stimulus) is only associated with one specific polarity, in this case negative:

(..)it is also possible that any kind of deviance-related negativity
  has an effect on linguistic syntax processing.

To sum up: is there any intrinsic meaning at all to be found in a ERP's polarity?


问:
What causes the lack of focus due to sleep deprivation? What are the outcomes of this?
When one is sleepy and one attempt's to work on something cognitively demanding, such as doing algebra in one's head, or trying to imagine a house's interior in detail, what causes the "resistance" to focus on such problems?  </p>

<p>I feel like part of the problem is related to circadian rhythm, particularly with respect to cortisol as a vigilance heightener.  Surely there is more to this though.  </p>


问:
Belongingness vs Social Connectedness
I am struggling with translation of these two words into my language. In many studies, they measure connectedness (or how much people feel connected) or belongingness (as need to belong or sense of belongingness). I have been searching for definitions and based on my research of definitions and contexts (see below for examples) it can be concluded that it is the same thing. Is it correct?

For example:

Belongingness is the human emotional need to be an accepted member of
a group. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belongingness)

Social connectedness is defined as the sense of belonging and
subjective psychological bond that people feel in relation to
individuals and groups of others (https://www.researchgate.net/publication/302472164_Social_Connectedness_and_Health)

Social connectedness, i.e. the experience of belonging and
relatedness between people (https://www.researchgate.net/publication/220992602_Social_connectedness_Concept_and_measurement)

The study developed 2 measures of belongingness based on H. Kohut's (1984) self psychology theory. The Social Connectedness Scale and the Social Assurance Scale were constructed.....(http://psycnet.apa.org/record/1995-23687-001)

Title: Belongingness vs Social Connectedness


问:
What methods exist for converting channel-wise directed (effective) connectiviy estimates to ROI-wise connectivity estimates?
I am reading up on directed connectivity estimates (e.g. Granger causality, DTF, dDTF) in an attempt to find a method that allows me to appropriately convert channel-wise connectivity estimates into an ROI representation of connectivity estimates. In the fMRI community, I know it is common practice to form some sort of ROI-representation of the data (e.g. averaging voxel activity w/in each ROI) PRIOR to deriving connectivity estimates. I would like to avoid this for my data (using ECoG datasets), and instead would like to appropriately convert the connectivity estimates that are derived from single channels into ROI-ROI connectivity summaries. So far, I have found very little, and would appreciate any tips/resources/methods for dealing with this problem.</p>


问:
Is 'averageness' in the study of facial attraction ethnicity specific?
Is 'averageness' in the study of facial attraction ethnicity specific? I just always wondered whether the 'beauty' ideal of "averageness" is human wide, or is the average across some group or groups.

Wikipedia defines averageness at the start of the article as:

... the physical beauty that results from averaging
  the facial features of people of the same gender and approximately the
  same age.

In regards to culture it is stated that: "[t]his principle transcends culture" and "[w]hile Europeans also rated average Hadza faces as attractive, the Hadza people expressed no preference for average European faces" and "[t]hese results suggest that the rules for extracting attractive faces are culture-independent and innate, but the results of applying the rules depend on the environment and cultural experience."

Shouldn't the definition at the start of the article then read: "... from averaging the facial features of people of the same gender age and ethnicity".

I'm just asking because the results would, I'm guessing, be quite different.


问:
How to encourage people to experiment/try new things?
In a New York Times op-ed, Sendhil Mullainathan (professor of economics at Harvard) laments that it is difficult to get people to try new things or experiment. He gives himself as an example, saying that it is difficult for him to try generic soda, even though the cost to him is low, and he drinks 2 liters of Diet Coke daily. However, his article has a relative lack of references to literature on past efforts to get people to try new things.

What methods have been studied to get people to try new things/experiment (without forcing them)? What has worked, and what has been less successful?


问:
Is there research on the effects of praise on the person giving the praise
I've seen a lot of research on the effects of praise on the person receiving the praise.    I have not seen anything on the effects of praise on the person providing the praise.   Does such research exist?   If so, could someone provide a few references.   </p>


问:
Excessive empathy, social cues and adaptive behavior evaluation
An article by Gunnar Bartsch of  Julius-Maximilians-Universität Würzburg, JMU started me on this line of inquiry.

The original source is no longer available but has been reproduced at ScienceDaily (Bartsch, n.d.)

We generally accept the concept of Compassion Fatigue and Secondary Trauma as an individual choosing to over-do it with regard to empathy and hence the recommendation of better boundaries and self care. I have many studies...saying our Aspergers and ADHD kids have problem with social skills because of low empathy what if the kid falls at the high empathy end of the spectrum?

What research is being done in psychology and/or neuroscience regarding excessive empathy and altruism as a condition and the resulting adaptive behavior patterns? I want to know more.

References

Bartsch, G. (n.d.) Excessive empathy can impair understanding of others. ScienceDaily. Retrieved from https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2016/04/160428094950.htm


问:
Can you self-induce a derealization episode?
From The experimental induction of depersonalization (DP) and derealization (DR) in panic disorder and nonanxious subjects (Miller, et al., 1994)

DP and DR induction procedures were the following: staring at a dot on the wall, staring in a mirror, and silent repetition of one's name. (Miller et al., 1994)*.

If derealization can be induced by repeating ones own name, I'm wondering if repeating the phrase "I am me" causes derealization as well?

Semantic satiation (also semantic saturation) is a psychological phenomenon in which repetition causes a word or phrase to temporarily lose meaning for the listener" or is it the state of hyper meta-cognition that makes everything seem foreign? Or maybe it's both?

References

Miller, P. P., Brown, T. A., DiNardo, P. A., & Barlow, D. H. (1994). The experimental induction of depersonalization and derealization in panic disorder and nonanxious subjects. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 32(5), 511-519. doi: 10.1016/0005-7967(94)90138-4 pmid: 8042962


问:
How true are Jordan Peterson's claims on IQ tests?
Disclaimer: I am aware that this topic has the potential of becoming high political, but I have asked it nevertheless in order to receive some clarification on the subject. Please back all of your arguments with facts and studies. Please try and remain as neutral as possible in your comments.

Dr. Jordan B Peterson, a Professor of Psychology at the University of Toronto, a clinical psychologist claims (reference: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h02w5E7FGlY) that "the IQ claims are more psycho-metrically rigorous than any other phenomenon that's been discovered by social scientists".

However, a quick googling would return many articles indicating that IQ tests do not accurately measure intelligence. It seems to me that these are radically opposing claims and I would like to ask if there is scientific agreement either way.


问:
How to measure child to adult development quantitatively?
Are there any tests available that could quantify a personal development from child to adult if the development is more or less healthy and is not considered pathological?

I'm absolutely new to the psychology so the terminology could be wrong. What I'm looking for is to measure development features described in the Wikipedia on Infantilism as:

In a more general sense and in colloquial expressions - childlike behavior in adults, particularly lack of judgement and poor ability to make conclusions based on logical reasoning as well as actions driven more by immediate impressions and impulses rather than by rationale. Depending on degree of expression can range from mental disorder, to behavioral disorder or simply psychological makeup and personality trait of otherwise healthy person.


问:
Perfect events in a random world?
I have a friend. They believe that God exists because they have experienced a large amount of 'perfect coincidences', or rather, events that are too perfect to be coincidences.

What kind of cognitive bias/fallacy is this? (They assure that it is not the Availability Heuristic because they remember all coincidences that happened, even the unremarkable ones, but I am not inclined to believe this) Is it confirmation bias? Focusing effect?

Please help.

Title: Perfect events in a random world?


问:
Does childhood familiarity with weather patterns predict the influence of those patterns on mood?
Though similar to this question, in my opinion the difference is large enough for my question to stand alone:

I observed that specific weather conditions affect my mood. That's rater trivial, sure.

"Specific" in this context means, any conditions which are similar to those which often happened around the place I grew up (Northern Germany, with sometimes rather bleak winters, a horizon far away and lots of wind). E.g., I really like it, when the wind blows in my face, though the sky may be grey and a slight drizzle is in said wind. When others curse the weather for being bleak and cold, I tend to be rather happy. My sister confirmed my observations for herself. To be honest, I also like summer days - as long as they're not stiffling hot and a slight breeze is going.

Is there any research on this topic, e.g. how weather similar to where you grew up affects your mood, whether this is a general phenomenon for all people or rather for people from specific areas?


问:
Since we know the 5ht2a receptor impacts learning efficiency why has stimulating it not been tried for alleviating learning disabilities?
If you go on wikipedia or do a search on Google you can quickly find a bunch of articles on the importance of serotonin for impacting the efficacy of learning. Experiments have been run in mice for testing the rate they learn new tasks if 5ht2a is stimulated. There are also studies showing a high degree of correlation between high serotonin levels and high IQs.

If you go far back in history to Timothy Leary's time you find psychologists swearing by psychedelics improving IQ scores, and there is also the Spring Grove LSD experiments where researchers claimed LSD increases IQ scores. If you give someone antipsychotics it blocks 5ht2a, but as a result their thinking also becomes sluggish and processing speed scores on an IQ test decrease.

I get that the fact all psychedelics are illegal makes it fairly hard to study 5ht2a full and partial agonists. Would it not be possible to make a novel chemical hitting that receptor hard, without violating schedule 1? Any other reasons why that research has not been done other than government prohibitions?


问:
Defensive attribution vs Self-serving bias
What is the difference between "Defensive attribution" and the "self-serving-bias"?

Both seem to involve a practice where one would attribute our failures to circumstances and our successes to ourselves...

Thanks!


问:
Reference request: Parkinson's disease book
I am about start a project on computational modelling of basal ganglia in the context of motor problems in Parkinson's disease. My background is mostly on computational side (and some neuroscience too) and I know relatively little about medicine. So I would like to extend my knowledge of the Parkinson-related medical science, so that I see not only separate puzzle pieces.

Could somebody suggest a recent book on Parkinsons's disease from medical perspective (and the more fundamental systems neuroscience it contains, the better)? I am more interested in motor symptoms and cognitive problems, as well as their treatments.
To emphasize, I am NOT looking for a book on computational approaches to BG/Parkinson's, I really want to know what neurologists think.

I have already posted this question on medical SE but I was redirected here.


问:
Talking about emotional experience
In a book 59 seconds (section "Creating the perfect diary"), Richard Wiseman cited Zech & Rimé (2005) - I had impression that he suggests that according to that study talking about traumatic experiences ("the most negative upsetting emotional
event in their life, one they still thought about and still needed to talk
about.") didn't have a better effect than talking about a typical day.

Am I right to assume he encourages to not talk about problems? Because here is my contradiction: I think talking about problems can be useful solely because someone else may see a solution you didn't and suggest it to you. Isn't it? So why recommend not talking about problems? Or am I misinterpreting the results of that study or what Wiseman said?

To be completely fair here is his last quote: "So, if talking about negative experiences to a sympathetic but
untrained individual is a waste of time, what can be done to help ease
the pain of the past?". So maybe he is suggesting that talking about problems is useful however with a trained individual? Still, untrained one could still see a solution to a problem you didn't.

References

Zech, E., & Rimé, B. (2005). Is talking about an emotional experience helpful? Effects on emotional recovery and perceived benefits. Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy: An International Journal of Theory & Practice, 12(4), 270-287. doi: 10.1002/cpp.460

Title: Talking about emotional experience


问:
Cognitive ability and possible careers
I have a couple of times read articles saying something like "If you have an IQ of 130 you can become a physician, high school math teacher or lawyer. If your IQ is 95 you can work at a kindergarten, as a waitress or taxi driver."

Obviously, these are just rough estimates combined with examples of potential careers and should be taken with a grain of salt. With that reservation made, is there any scientific research on this subject? What conclusions did they arrive at?

I want better sources than popular science.

Title: Cognitive ability and possible careers


问:
Why is the WCST a test of task switching rather than cognitive shifting?
Why is the WCST a test of task switching rather than cognitive shifting?

Task switching allows a person to rapidly and efficiently adapt to
  different situations. It is often studied by cognitive and
  experimental psychologists, and can be tested experimentally using
  tasks like the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test.

but

Cognitive shifting is the mental process of consciously redirecting
  one's attention from one fixation to another. In contrast, if this
  process happened unconsciously, then it is referred to as task
  switching. Both are forms of cognitive flexibility.

What I'm not understanding is, given e.g. the following screen

the participant is not consciously redirecting themselves? It seems quite easy to fulfill the task consciously, but its meant to be a measure of unconscious flexibility.

To state the obvious, and how to do so deliberately: work out what properties the card has (colour, shape, number); then work out what these are (red, cross, two); then match these to the properties of another card (one red circle, four yellow crosses, two green stars) and try each of these until you get the right answer.

Surely it can be done consciously, then?

EDITED to add that I took this test on a site, and, with the test in front of me had to sit it twice before realizing there were three, not two, card properties. Incidentally, my score was horrific. Baffling!


问:
Is autism prevalence increasing?
The CDC has been rapidly increasing its estimate of children with autism for years. It's tripled in the past 15 years.

This has lead to a lot of speculation, including dramatic claims like vaccines causing autism.

My physiology-major wife tells me that the enormous increase is likely simply increased awareness and alterations to its definition.

But I never hear anything definitive. Even with changes to awareness, definition, etc., given that autism is a common, incurable, lifelong condition, isn't this is really easy to answer?

Take a population sample.

Test for autism using chosen, fixed criteria.

Analyze how age correlates to the measured autism rate.

Okay, maybe not "really easy", but as easy as other physiological population studies.

Has anyone done this and found the answer? Is actual autism prevalence increasing?

Title: Is autism prevalence increasing?


问:
Can extrinsic rewards successfully sustain habits in the long-term?
With 2019 right around the corner, I've been reading about forming successful habits. Many non-academic sources (and Charles Duhigg's popular book The Power of Habit) have advocated for pairing a cue with operant conditioning's positive reinforcement routine-reward method. For example, your alarm clock goes off (cue), you go for a jog (routine), you drink a fruit smoothie right after (reward).

This seems to be a short-term and damaging solution because of the overjustification effect, where external rewards irreversibly decrease intrinsic motivation.

Is there any evidence suggesting that extrinsic rewards can successfully sustain habits in the long-term?
To be more specific, could extrinsic rewards be used for several years and still remain equally effective in supporting the desired habit, or would the extrinsic rewards eventually become less effective at reinforcing the desired habit, given how extrinsic rewards eventually decrease the potency of intrinsic motivation?


问:
Is there a specified way to shorten the number of questions in an instrument/questionnaire?
If you have found a fitting instrument that measures your interest and has been validated but is a bit too long, what can you do to shorten it?

Edit:

How do you reduce the number of questions within a questionnaire/instrument not the variables? As in, are there any set procedures that one needs to follow. The questionnaire in queestion is the Academic Self-Regulated Learning Scale (Mango 2010). The aim is to reduce it 20 -25 questions.


问:
Do categorically different short-term memories also compete for conversion into long-term memory?
This question is inspired by In Search of Memory by Eric Kandel where he references a study on long-term memory. I have searched for a study online which can answer my question, but have not been successful. Here is my question.

In the sensitive time period wherein the conversion of short-term memory into long-term memory takes place, what is the relationship or disruption which will occur in this conversion if the person is to study a different subject?

Kandel quote's an experiment conducted by an individual to study the conversion from short term to long term memory. The person wanting to mitigate the influence of pre-established associations decides to memorize thousands of nonsensical 3 letter words such as PAX, AUT, etc... They come to the now well known conclusions: the primary loss of memory occurs in the first hours and tapers off over the course of days and weeks. Furthermore it is much better to study over several smaller sessions than one long sessions.

A follow up study discovers there is a limit to the amount of short-term memory which can be converted into long-term memory at a single time, and it is sensitive to disruption. Two groups are requested to memorize a list of nonsensical words so they can recite them the next day. The first group is allowed to memorize the list and 2 hours later is presented with a second list. The second group is allowed to memorize the list, but is immediately presented with a second list. The first group succeeds in reciting the first list the next day, but the second group fails indicating the conversion had been oversaturated or disrupted.

However it is also mentioned in the book short-term memories and long-term memories are generally stored in the locations of the brain they are processed. This led me to wonder whether memorizing a completely different task would not of mitigated or altogether avoided the disruption. But for all I know this is completely wrong.


问:
Is it reasonable to leave a therapy session feeling worse?
I apologize for (possibly) violating the only rule that shows up when you're about to ask a question: ask questions that can be answered rather than discussed.

But I'm hoping this question might actually have an answer, or at least some consensus, in case the answer is "no" (not specifically in this site - I'm hoping perhaps the answer can be found in some official guideline of a relevant organization of professionals).

A little background: It seems I've been suffering from depression for at least 10 years. I've been in therapy for about 4 months (Weekly).

After coming to my scheduled session in tears (which for me is extreme), we talked about why I was crying.
My problems have to do with the fact that my current reality is about as far as it can be from what I've wanted to achieve all my life, which my therapist believes is impossible to achieve.

I've made it very clear to him that he has a lot more work to do before he can convince me that what I want is unreasonable.

When I left my therapy session, I began to process what we talked about, and I felt worse than I did coming into the session.

While I can understand that doing anything else but discussing that subject and telling me that my goals are unreasonable would (probably, and at least in his opinion) do more harm than good, I can't help but wonder, especially since this isn't the first time he made me feel worse (well, only the second time I believe), if, in such a situation, one should seek another therapist, or to weather the storm.


问:
Lovheim cube research
Is there any psychology research into the validity of the Lovheim cube of emotion?

Aside from the original paper (Lovheim, 2012) and papers from computer sciences (the cube is being used for simulating emotions artificially), I can't find any papers backing up or expanding on its claims.

References

Lövheim, H. (2012). A new three-dimensional model for emotions and monoamine neurotransmitters. Medical hypotheses, 78(2), 341-348. doi: 10.1016/j.mehy.2011.11.016

Title: Lovheim cube research


问:
Why does venlafaxine have lower incidence of sexual dysfunctions at higher doses?
Venlafaxine at low dosages strongly inhibits serotonin, at moderate dosages also norepinephrine and only high dosages it also inhibits dopamine.

The ratio is the following.

serotonin : norepinephrine : dopamine

1 : 30 : 93

According to the FDA data these are the percentages for side effects.

Libido decreased

Placebo 75mg 225mg 375mg

1.1% 2.2% 1.1% 5.7%

Here are the results for other sexual dysfunctions.

Abnormal ejaculation/orgasm

Placebo 75mg 225mg 375mg

0.0% 4.5% 2.2% 12.5%

and

Impotence

Placebo 75mg 225mg 375mg

0.0% 5.8% 2.1% 3.6%

How would you explain the sudden drop of sexual dysfunctions at 225mg?

Other questions to consider:

Would a lower dose (37.5mg or 25mg) have sexual side effects (SSE) similar to placebo?

What dose has the lowest rate of SSE?

What is the lowest effective dose with reasonably low SSE?

How would adding of NDRI (bupropione) influence SSE given an increased dosage of venlafaxine? (i.e. Could one afford higher doses
of venlafaxine with few SSE provided bupropion is taken
concomittantly?)


问:
Does CBT indirectly resolve core issues?
(I don't expect that it would do so as successfully as interventions that aim to do so directly, but:)

From the outside, it seems CBT ignores the root causes of the issue, some may say building on sand (I'm pretty sure there's some such expression but I can't recall it)

My question is, does CBT actually help resolve core issues (any belief/emotional response a clinical psychologist might see as detrimental to the psychological and/or physical health of his patient and from which the problems the therapist wishes to resolve likely stem) indirectly? Do we affect our core issues in order to resolve the conflict one might cause by creating a new behavior that is incompatible with said issues?


问:
How will anyone scientifically tell what is innate to humans?
According to Freud humans are basically driven by sexual and aggressive instincts while famous humanistic psychologist Carl Rogers strongly disagreed with Freud and said the basic nature of human being is good, forward moving and sympathetic. Although, neither of them denied the opposite nature of human behaviour that they were claiming but they constantly focused on the word "innate".

For me the word innate itself seems so vague in terms of its scientific measurement. What is the current stand of modern psychologists on this question? How do they measure the innate nature of human? Or since, the question itself is so unclear that psychologists don't care anymore?

References:

Psychology by Sandra E. Hockenbury, 7th ed.


问:
How to measure raw score and convert into base rate in MCMI-III personality test?
I have been studying MCMI-iii test. Total 175 personality questions are present there. These questions have 2 options i.e. true or false. Based on that, person's personality get decided. Can anyone know how to calculate raw score and convert into base rate?

I have searched lot on internet, mcmi books, research paper, but formula is not given.

Any help would be appreciated.

Following is the link for reference.

Link-1


问:
when is default mode active
AFAIK default mode is important for our well being since as I am concerned one of its functions is to make sense of things we learned, experienced, etc.

Here is says default mode is active when person is at wakeful rest.
Also it says default mode is active when person is not focused on the outside world.

My question is: is default mode active when I am not focused on outside world, however, maybe internally thinking/concerned about some specific problems/issues?

Title: when is default mode active


问:
While dreaming, are memories replayed faster or slower?
In Chapter 3 of his book Why We Sleep: Unlocking the Power of Sleep and Dreams, Matthew Walker explains "time dilation in dreams":

One last temporal distortion deserves mention here—that of time
  dilation in dreams, beyond sleep itself. Time isn't quite time within
  dreams. It is most often elongated. Consider the last time you hit the
  snooze button on your alarm, having been woken from a dream.
  Mercifully, you are giving yourself another delicious five minutes of
  sleep. You go right back to dreaming. After the allotted five minutes,
  your alarm clock faithfully sounds again, yet that's not what it felt
  like to you. During those five minutes of actual time, you may have
  felt like you were dreaming for an hour, perhaps more. Unlike the
  phase of sleep where you are not dreaming, wherein you lose all
  awareness of time, in dreams, you continue to have a sense of time.
  It's simply not particularly accurate—more often than not dream time
  is stretched out and prolonged relative to real time.

Although the reasons for such time dilation are not fully understood,
  recent experimental recordings of brain cells in rats give tantalizing
  clues. In the experiment, rats were allowed to run around a maze. As
  the rats learned the spatial layout, the researchers recorded
  signature patterns of brain-cell firing. The scientists did not stop
  recording from these memory-imprinting cells when the rats
  subsequently fell asleep. They continued to eavesdrop on the brain
  during the different stages of slumber, including rapid eye movement
  (REM) sleep, the stage in which humans principally dream.

The first striking result was that the signature pattern of brain-cell
  firing that occurred as the rats were learning the maze subsequently
  reappeared during sleep, over and over again. That is, memories were
  being “replayed” at the level of brain-cell activity as the rats
  snoozed. The second, more striking finding was the speed of replay.
  During REM sleep, the memories were being replayed far more slowly: at
  just half or quarter the speed of that measured when the rats were
  awake and learning the maze. This slow neural recounting of the day's
  events is the best evidence we have to date explaining our own
  protracted experience of time in human REM sleep. This dramatic
  deceleration of neural time may be the reason we believe our dream
  life lasts far longer than our alarm clocks otherwise assert.

Source: Why We Sleep: Unlocking the Power of Sleep and Dreams – B&N Readouts

If memories replay slower, then wouldn't that make dreams feel shorter (not longer)? Yohan John writes on Quora that "replays are typically much faster than actual experience." Now, that would make sense to me.


问:
Is there evidence for anger being a "secondary emotion"?
Some sources claim anger is in fact a "secondary emotion" that hides other emotions behind it.

Is this anecdotal / up to interpretation, or is there a strong body of evidence to support this claim?


问:
Do we think in language?
Can we think i.e. process the input data without relying on linguistic structures?

All knowledge between human is either spoken or written. When we see something, it contributes towards the construction of properties of the object seen. For example, when I see an image of red apple, I register an object which is an apple with a property of redness.

Now suppose a person comes and cuts the apple into two halves; I am basically witnessing the event of cutting the apple. To make any sense out of the visual, it is necessary to think (or process the input visual) that the apple has been cut. As you can see, this processing required usage of linguistic structures : cut, person, half, etc; these linguistic structures have been employed so as to be able to make a minimally acceptable sense (it is not sufficient to sense that something happened).

What about intuition? When smart people get what they call as 'intuition', is it, in first place, constructed in their mind on linguistic platform? Or its source is something undefinable; only attempts are made to convey the phenomenon/intuition/idea using language?

An equivalent question can be framed as follows: Can every possible human thought be satisfactorily communicated using a given language i.e. a set of words?

Title: Do we think in language?


问:
Is there a basic mathematical relationship between IQ and learning speed?
Is there a basic mathematical relationship between IQ and learning speed? ... such as linear, exponential, etc?

For example, if some number of people with an approximate IQ of 100 (95-105) take X minutes to complete a task (lets also say plus-minus 5%), is there an expected average Y time people with an average 120 would need?

Can you cite the research?


问:
How many moving objects can a person count (on average)?
I wonder if experiments in perceptual or cognitive psychology have been performed following these considerations:

Standard experiment: Present small numbers of simple items to a test subject, for the sake of specifity and simplicity as equal dots distributed inside a box:

I guess experiments testing which number of dots test subjects are able to tell without consciously counting have been performed, and that the mean number is something like $7$ (the "magic number"). (The maximal number any test person was able to tell without consciously counting would be very interesting, too.)

I also guess that the magic number depends on the degree of evenness of the distribution of the dots (per test subject and on average).

But the magic number will depend also on the speeds of the dots. (The cases above assumed resting dots.) Two cases are to be distinguished:

Not the dots, but their entirety rotates (around the center of the containing box) with angular velocity $v_1$.

Each dot moves independently and behaves like a billiard ball reflected at the borders of the box

with collision among dots

without collision among dots, in this case

all with the same speed $v_2$

with slightly different speeds

with very different speeds

All these cases give experimental setups and one might try to determine "magic numbers" depending e.g. on $v_1$ (in case 1) or $v_2$ (in case 2.2.1).

This is case 2.1:

But what interests me even more is the question up to which number people can actually count (not see at a glance) when asked to tell the number of some moving dots. This number will be greater than the magic numbers above - but how great? Check it out:

Can anyone give a link to results related to the experimental setups I tried to describe? (Please forgive me, I'm not a learned psychologist or cognitive scientist, so my talk about experiments and so on may sound amateurish.)


问:
What could explain the apparent association between high IAT bias scores and percentage of black americans per state?
The implicit Association test (IAT) measures your subconcious preference for white over black or the other way around. It does so by letting you do a task where you have to categorize black and white faces as quickly as possible. At the same time you have to categorize words that have a positive valence or have a negative valence. The test measures your bias by looking at the differences in reactionspeed when sorting words and faces to the left or right side of the screen. If you are faster when black faces are coupled with bad words and/or when white faces are coupled with positive words then you have a negative bias towards black people or a positive bias towards white people. To see if you have any bias you can take the test yourself here:

According to the washington post almost all white americans have a slight to strong negative bias to black people. https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/wonk/wp/2014/12/08/across-america-whites-are-biased-and-they-dont-even-know-it/?noredirect=on&utm_term=.c9a384c22695

A score of under 0.35 means you have a slight preference for whites over blacks, a score between 0.35 and 0.65 a moderate preference and over 0.65 a strong preference according to the article.

https://implicit.harvard.edu/implicit/

You can see that the states with the strongest bias are located in the southeast of America, but the scientists behind the project implicit website are not sure what is causing this effect. This made me wonder so i googled 'percentage of blacks per state' and this is the most relevant link:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_U.S._states_and_territories_by_African-American_population

Look at the map of America, darkest blue means 35 to 40% identify themselves as African american while whitest blue means less then 2% does.

It appears that higher bias scores coincide with higher african american populations. In the north west where very few black americans live the bias score s among the lowest, whereas in the south east where black americans live the most the scores are very high.

What could be causing this? Personally i think it may have something to do with blacks being poorer on average then whites thus exposing them to more risk factors (dropping out of school, abusive parents etc) which along with poverty puts them at a greater risk of becoming a criminal then whites. Wanted criminals are occasionally featured on TV when the police asks the public for help. In areas with a high percentage of black criminals can thus be seen more often on TV. If white people keep getting exposed to the black face/criminal story combination on TV, then they eventually start to subconciously associate black people with criminal activity or some other negative Association. In the north west there are hardly any black people living so the chances of the white public seeing a criminal featured on local TV that happens to be black is very low. Thus people won't get 'trained' by local TV to associate dark skin color with criminals. But this is just my own theory. I just wanted to share what i found with you guys and i would love to get some answers on my question.

Thank you


问:
Are all personalities divisive?
Most people like the smell of oranges.  You might say that the distribution of reactions to the smell of oranges leans to the right.

Most people dislike the smell of sewage.  You might say that the distribution of reactions to sewage leans to the left.

It's more uncommon to come across examples of things which produce bimodal reactions (i.e., "you either love it or you hate it").  The appreciation of raw oysters, Marmite, durian, or strong-smelling cheeses might be examples.

However, it seems that when it comes to reactions to other people, bimodal seems to be the norm rather than the exception.  A mere glance at the political news turns up a few divisive personalities.  People who support them really support them, and people who hate them really hate them.

But it's not just famous and outsized celebrity personalities.  Your neighbor Shirley might seem nice enough, but I'm sure you can find people in the world who really dislike her.  Rick at the office might be difficult and challenging to you, but there are people who love him dearly and see nothing but an angel.

We can speculate about all kinds of causative mechanisms, but right now, I'm just wondering if such a thing has been observed.  Are humans always split when evaluating the personality of another human?

Title: Are all personalities divisive?


问:
Recognizing facial expressions
I seem to recall reading an article some number of years ago on a study or set of studies that examined the impact that a story has on the interpretation of facial expressions.

Something along the line of where different participants are told different stories about an event and then shown a picture of a facial expression and asked to describe what the person in the picture is feeling.  The study, as I vaguely recall it, examined how the interpretation of the facial expression changed based on the different stories given.

Does this ring a bell?  My Google searches are turning up related topics but not this specifically.  I am not especially knowledgeable of the subject matter, which is hindering my ability to form a useful search, and I'd like to read more about it.

If there is a name for this effect, assuming there is such an effect, it would help me considerably in finding information on it.

I would very much appreciate your consideration and suggestions.  Thank you.

Title: Recognizing facial expressions


问:
Stress vs. Testing
I was reading somewhere and found that there are various levels of stress depending on time. It said that when under stress for 30 mins, memory is not as efficient. So I have two questions here. A- Is this true and by how much is it lowered? B- Would a better form of testing have a test split into 30 min parts so that it is most fair?

Source: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4676409/pdf/nihms219890.pdf

I would suggest reading Electrophysiology/neuronal activity on page 7 and looking at page 30.

Title: Stress vs. Testing


问:
How do serotonin antagonist and reuptake inhibitors work as an antidepressant?
The monoamine hypothesis postulates that the deficit of certain neurotransmitters is responsible for depression, and even that certain neurotransmitters are linked to specific symptoms.

If suppose serotonin deficit causes depression and antidepressants like TCAs causes increase in serotonin by decreasing uptake, it concludes to me that the increase in transmission via serotonergic receptors on post synaptic membrane alleviates depression.

My question is that how do antidepressants like atypical antidepressants more specifically Trazodone which acts as 5-HT2 antagonist show their antidepressant action? And TCAs also show such antagonism.

I believe the idea of increased serotonin to cause antidepressant action is not being satisfied here especially in this case of atypical antidepressant as the transmission is being blocked by serotonin receptor antagonistll.

OwnerDisplayName: Sikander


问:
Bouba/Kiki effect - computer-generated 3D shapes
I have seen a research project, where the subjects were presented with shapes to classify in two categories. The shapes were 3D models, some that were "pointy" and some that were "rounded".

The categories were labelled with two artificial words, one that subjects intuitively would classify as a "pointy" word, and the other a "rounded" word (only based on the configuration of consonants and vowels in the artificial word).

The effect is called the bouba/kiki effect. The article I seek used computer generated 3D models

Could you give a reference to this project? (Home page or citation).


问:
Do women naturally form groups to defend themselves?
What I'm describing is also further explained in this post, written by and for women apparently.

Can this behaviour be attributed to the whole gender? Is it a social construct or the outcome of biological differences? And can we generalise about men's behaviour towards criticism?

update:

this article is a great starting point

David P Schmitt:

A d value of +0.50 is considered "moderate" and indicates that 69 percent of men are higher than the average woman on a particular attribute. Sex differences in spatial rotation skills, certain mathematics abilities (3-dimensional geometry and calculus), and task-oriented leadership (focusing on accomplishing a group goal rather than maintaining harmony within the group) reside within this size range.

Due to the anthropological nature of this question, I also asked a related question in Biology.


问:
Is passive-aggressive behavior conscious or unconscious?
It is my experience that people who show passive aggressive behavior do not realize it or at least do not admit it.

Which leads me to the question whether passive-aggressive behavior can be controlled?

Or is passive-aggressive behavior a symptome of something else and therefore somewhat unconscious?


问:
Where can I find the text of past DSM versions to visualize revision history?
I'm interested in building a data visualization to learn more about the history of the DSM. (I'm inspired by this visualization of the edit history of Darwin's "Origin of Species" by Ben Fry, as well as these journal articles about DSM history.)

Not being a psychologist or med student myself, is it a non-starter to try and obtain past texts in electronic form (i.e. as data)? Does anyone have suggestions of where to start looking/asking?

Thanks.


问:
Are there any documented cases of a delusion remitting when it is allowed to play out?
Shutter Island is a 2010 movie featuring Leonardo DiCaprio in the role of a delusional character who develops and lives an elaborate narrative to avoid facing a harsh truth following a traumatic event.

In the plot (spoiler alert below the hover-over block)

 the men responsible for his treatment allow him to play out his narrative, hoping that at the end, the subject will be able to recognize how absurd it is, thus "coming out" of it more easily, which eventually happens.

I'm interested in knowing whether this strategy has any basis in real-life psychology, hence my question.

Thanks.


问:
How many people have a mental disorder in the world at the same time?
According to this article,

Mental disorders affect one in four people

One in four people in the world will be affected by mental or
  neurological disorders at some point in their lives

But this statistics doesnt tell us how many people is having a mental disorder in the world right now. I would like to know this to be able to compare worldwide mental disorder statistics with regional mental disorder statistics or with statitics for people living in certain conditions, many times this statistics show how many people is having a mental disorder in the moment the statistics is made (not once in their lives) How many people have a mental disorder in the world at a same certain moment?

Note: I would like to use the tag "mental disorders" but it doesnt exist and I dont have the reputation to create it.


问:
How does goal-tracking and sign-tracking behaviour vary across species?
In Pavlonian (classical) conditioning,  conditioned responses of an animal may vary. Some animals focus on the unconditioned stimulus (ie. food/location of food) while others may focus on the conditioned stimulus (ie. lever or button). These behaviors have been termed 'goal-tracking' and 'sign-tracking' respectively, as defined by Flagel et al. (2007).

What are some known examples of this variation between different species?

How does the variation within a species differ across species? Do some species exhibit more or less variation than other species?

Flagel SB, Watson SJ, Robinson TE, Akil H. (2007). Individual differences in the propensity to approach signals vs goals promote different adaptations in the dopamine system of rats. Psychopharmacology, Vol. 191, No. 3. (April 2007), pp. 599-607, doi:10.1007/s00213-006-0535-8 (free PDF)


问:
How to train/develop photographic memory?
In this older post, @Beofett asked whether photographic memory (I don't really know if this is the correct term) was even possible...

For me, photographic memory is the impressing ability to remember things or events (such as colors, pictures, numbers, etc.) in great detail, i.e. being able to describe things you've seen or listened to in a very detailed way.

I know one girl in my class, who has doubtless the ability to remember a lot of things with a single look which I definitively find awesome!

This is the reason why I was asking myself, whether it's possible to develop and train this photographic memory and if so how?

PS: I've already done some research on the internet; however, I don't know if the webpage's sources are reliable or not, so I hope that the experts of this site can help;)


问:
Are skull screws required for stable implants
I'm wondering if there is any quantitative (or a least first-hand qualitative) evidence that relates the stability of chronic, invasive neural recordings with the use of skull screws versus a high-quality enamel echant and cement (e.g. http://www.parkell.com/c-b-metabond_3).

My use case is tetrode and silicon probe drive implants in rodents

I'm asking because there is a huge variability in the quality of skull screw implantation in my field, the worst of which cause random A/P M/L bilateral lesions from animal to animal and therefore almost certainly affect experimental outcomes.


问:
Using neuroscience to study a new organism
Consider a situation where you discover a new species and of organism. Using research methods of neuroscience or otherwise, how would you go about analyzing the nervous system and the brain of this organism? </p>

<p>I’d like to hear people’s approach to this hypothetical starting from non invasive methods like MRI, fMRI and CT scans all the way to invasive methods like neuroanatomical injections (fluorescence, radioactive tracers, etc) and physically viewing axonal connections and lengths. </p>


问:
What is the term for mimicking other behaviors?
Say you see an actor playing someone insane, for the next few hours you feel kind of crazy too, especially if you are tired. You may feel annoyed and overwhelmed and mad for no reason, and kind of skwirmy for lack of better words.

Is this a recognized phenomenon? If so, what’s it called?


问:
Disruptive Mood Dysregulation Disorder and Oppositional Defiance Disorder
In my answer to the question How does a person know if he should seek treatment for depression since feeling moody is unavoidable?, I have pointed out that DSM-5 (American Psychiatric Association, 2013) talks about a depressive disorder which is specific to 7-18 year olds only, with onset before 10 years old, and that is Disruptive Mood Dysregulation Disorder (DMDD) (pp. 156-160).

I am not sure what I think about this, as it could be seen to be

oh, it’s just childhood/teenage tantrums which they will grow out of.

The other side to this being in the DSM is that it says in the note under criteria J on page 156, that DMDD cannot coexist with Oppositional Defiance Disorder (ODD) and individuals whose symptoms meet the criteria for both Disruptive Mood Dysregulation Disorder and ODD should only be given the diagnosis of Disruptive Mood Dysregulation Disorder, however, doing this will indicate that the ODD aspects are a result of depression.

Page 159, under the heading of Oppositional defiant disorder, says that "while symptoms of oppositional defiant disorder typically do occur in children with disruptive mood dysregulation disorder," the mood symptoms of DMDD are relatively rare in children with ODD, and

while most children whose symptoms meet criteria for disruptive mood dysregulation disorder will also have a presentation that meets criteria for oppositional defiant disorder, the reverse is not the case.

Again, page 159 agrees with page 156 which says DMDD cannot coexist with ODD, and says:

Moreover, even for children in whom criteria for both disorders are met, only diagnosis of disruptive dysregulation disorder should be made.

Why can children not suffer from ODD and have depression because they feel there are oppression attempts against them?

References

American Psychiatric Association (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (5th Edition). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing.


问:
Have there been any right-hemisphere-dominant split-brain-patients?
Do any case studies of right-hemisphere dominant individuals who have undergone a severance of the corpus callosum exist? Thanks.</p>


问:
In the dual process theory, how are the two systems interact with each other?
From my understanding about cognitive psychology and social psychology, the whole route from when people meet new unknown thing to when they making judgement about it is like this:

First people perceive information about the subject

Then they memorize it

When they meet new information, they recall the old one to organize, categorize or re-categorize existing knowledge, using logic

This may create cognitive dissonance, and after a while they will solve this problem

After that, the decision is formed, and their attitudes toward the subject is changed or strengthened

But each topics are fragmented and studied by their owns (perception & attention, memory, knowledge representation, problem solving, attitude), not unifying in a single topic. For example, I notice a recurring theme in those topics, which I term as "clearness" and "fadedness":

I'm aware of the dual process theory and I think this is it. However I prefer the "clearness – fadedness" naming because it is more visual to me than "system 1 – system 2". Anyway, the problem is that in that page I don't see how the interactions between two systems are discussed in its own term. All I see is that it describes which specific process belong to which system, but when it needs to describe how the two systems interact with each other, specific models are used.

Here we see the convenience of the "clearness – fadedness" naming: we can say that a clearness fades away to become a fadedness, or a fadedness is unfaded and become a clearness. With "system 1 – system 2" we don't have the verbs and adjectives to describe it visually. Or perhaps because in our language there is no suitable word to describe the transformation of the systems, we don't have a model to describe its interactions?

Q: What are the interactions between each system, described in its own term?


问:
Falling back/relapse how come?
Is anything (a term perhaps) in psychology which explains the quick backsliding or reverting into old, learned and familiar habits, ways, behaviour (traits), relapse-type situations?

How come we we're usually lose our grip of good and new habits so easily: (say exercising, eating healthy, consistent studying etc, keep our emotions under control et).

Title: Falling back/relapse how come?


问:
Can anyone help me in choosing the suitable statistical analysis for my research?
I have conducted an experimental research last week. The research topic is about Influence of Voice Assistants on Satisfaction, Attitude and Purchase Behaviour.

I had 46 participation in total and 23 participant for each control and experiment group. I add my conceptual framework in attachment. Each Factors has 4 items in the questionnaire. Questions were designed with 7 Point-Likert scale from 1 to 7 (ordinal).

Therefore which tests do i need to run to get best results? What is the best test for comparing control and experiment groups? T-Test? KS-Test? Or what is the best test to understand the correlations between variables? Factor Analysis? Regression Analysis?

Which steps do i need to follow first?

I'm a bit confused and I don't know where to start and which steps to follow? I'd appreciate your helps. Thanks.


问:
is interference control responsible for sensory sensitivities?
In practice, reduced interference control  looks like difficulties with screening out background noise, visual distractors etc. does this account for sensory sensitives found in e.g. ASD? Or is that a separate matter? Thanks</p>


问:
How to generate Structural connectivity(SC) and Functional connectivity(FC) matrices from raw fMRI data?
I am working with The Virtual Brain (TVB) software and require SC and FC matrices as inputs. I have raw rs-fMRI data (T1-w and DTI). Can someone please suggest an end-to-end pipeline for pre-processing raw data and generating the SC and FC matrices?

I have already tried working with Empirical processing pipeline for TVB and Surface and Connectivity Reconstruction Imaging Pipeline for TVB Simulations. But both of them are not working. The first one is meant to be run on a high-performance cluster using the SLURM job scheduler.


问:
Are there any career(s)/career fields that are advantageous for people with Asperger's in "theory"?
What is the psychology/cognitive validity of this post reply for this question on Quora?

"Most certainly, professions involving creating automation for processes that seem random. Hence, linguistics, computer science, mathematics, statistics, philosophy etc. All disciplines that have an inductive thought process. Therefore the careers which stem out of the aforementioned.

More importantly, tasks should not be repetitive in nature, for example in web development, using the same frameworks to use the same type of websites. Rather, one should focus on the possibility of making a general framework which automates the tasks."


问:
Does anyone have R code for analyzing skin conductance data?
Similar question here Open-source software for analyzing Electrodermal activity

But with no R code answers provided, and the online EDA explorer appears to be unavailable now.

I am looking for code that takes the raw data and separates the tonic and phasic responses and identifies peaks and their properties.

Thank you!


问:
Set of uncorrelated cognitive tests for self quantification and tracking
I self track partly to optimize intelligence and productivity. Cognitive tests are good proxy of both. I tried all the tests in "time of day" experiment at quantified-mind and many seem to test the same thing. I would like to select a smaller subset of them so that I am not retesting the same underlying abilities multiple times but ideally not miss any either. Are there any studies about correlation of such tests or even formal batteries that I could perform at home for little cost? </p>


问:
Why are civic duties part of Competence (C1) in the NEO-PI-R
In the Revised NEO Personality Inventory, one of the questions used to score C1 ("Competence"), is 35. I don't take civic duties like voting very seriously.

Why is civic duty part used to measure a person's Competence? I can see how it fits under the broader label conscientiousness (C), but I fail to see its relevance for (C1) Competence. I would have expected it to count towards (C3) Dutifulness.


问:
Has the perception of time changed over the last century? (e.g. 1960's vs. now)
How does one measure perception of time? And has it changed over the last century? My gut feeling says that people in the 50s & 60s found time to be passing slower compared to people in the present generation.

Time perception also changes as we grow older. For older people it seems to pass more quickly than for the young.


问:
Has the John Calhoun's "Mouse Utopia experiment" been replicated? If so where, if no, why?
Here is a YouTube video summarizing his experiment.

Over a number of years, the ethologist John B. Calhoun conducted over-population experiments on Norway rats (in 1958–1962) and mice (in 1968–1972). His studies describe the collapse in behavior which resulted from overcrowding.

References:

● https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behavioral_sink

● Calhoun, J.B. (1962). Population density and social pathology. Scientific American, 206, 139—48.


问:
Reaching biomimicry solutions through pure reasoning alone
Introduction:

I'm somehow fascinated by the Velcro invention story because, as far as I can guess, Velcro would hardly have been invented if someone was looking for an elegant solution of this kind in per-meditated, logical manner.

Let's assume we had the explicit task of discovering a method for connecting two fabric surfaces in a way that they would hold tight while fastened and would be extremely easy to unfasten:

a) sticking by the "theoretical" approach, my personal starting points of thinking would be glue, magnets, vacuum, knobs, etc;

b) the approach of exploring existing solutions in the fabric field or analogical fields - the "innovation transfer" approach, so to say - would lead us to the Velcro solution sooner or later, just the way it has actually happened - the inventor had loaned an idea seen in nature. But we must note he had not been explicitly looking for this solution then.

What bothers me, is that the first approach, while looking quite exhaustive, scientific and reliable, would hardly bring up such abstract, non-evident solution as the Velcro. Pure logic and reasoning usually stem from more or less familiar concepts.

If we are to base our reasoning on some "synthetic" concepts (or so called "constructs") - that is, concepts which have not been observed in reality, but are supposed to possibly exist - we would spend a huge amount of time and energy describing those constructs, that we would hardly be able to actually proceed to thinking how they would be applied to our problem. It might be something like trying to do a series of very complex mathematical calculations in your mind alone.

Question:

Therefore, I'm wondering, is there any special theoretical problem-solving approach with the potential to bring solution of the "Velcro type", as described above?


问:
Why don't migraine headaches and auras consistently have opposite lateralisation?
A survey by Khalil et al. (2011) found that any aura lateralisation can be followed by any headache lateralization, although there was a tendency for headaches to be on the opposite side of the head from their preceding auras which was trending towards significance. On a few occasions I myself have experienced migraines, which always consist of an approximately bilaterally symmetric scintillating scotoma followed by a unilateral headache.

How might cortical spreading depression in both hemispheres of the visual cortex result in pain on only one side of the head?

Khalil, N. M., Nicotra, A., & Wilkins, A. J. (2011). Asymmetry of visual function in migraine with aura: correlation with lateralisation of headache and aura. Cephalalgia, 31(2), 213-221.


问:
Does blood pressure increase during deliberate period of focus?
Does blood pressure increase during a deliberate period of focus?

My reason for formulating this hypothesis is personal experience.

A simple example is when I work, sitting, at the PC. Let's say I work 25-45 minutes. When I am working my breathing becomes more shallow and it's always through my nose. Then, when I've completed the work I usually, automatically, take a deep breath ... as I physically feel relieved it's over even if it's work I enjoy. Then I notice I am a tiny bit lightheaded and, as I feel relieved, and I don't particularly want to get up, I usually have a desire to surf the web.

So, I'm wondering if concentration causes blood pressure to increase, which then quickly reduces when I'm done with my task, which is causing this feeling I am describing as lightheadedness. Alternatively is the blood pressure change related to the reduced breathing as I focus? ... is there such a thing?


问:
Is the relationship between IQ and brain processing speed/power? Is it linear, logarithmic or other?
Is the relationship between IQ and brain processing speed/power linear, logarithmic or other?

For example lets say you two groups:

Random group of 25 people each with an IQ close to a 100 IQ (95 - 105 ... 5% difference).

Random group of 25 people each with an IQ close to a 150 IQ (142.5 - 157.5 ... 5% difference).

The individuals in each group have to solve one or more problems ... enough time required such that the testing time isn't so small as to introduce significant measurement error.

Lets say the problems are such that there is confidence all participants can solve them.

If we average the time to complete the task of the 100IQ group vs the 150IQ group, sans outliers, would that average time more likely be:

1) Linear, 50% faster (150 = 100 x 1.5)
2) logarithmic, 217% faster (log 150; base 10) = 2.71)
3) Other


问:
What can combined EEG-fMRI tell us about the brain activity that two separate EEG and fMRI experiments cannot?
I am trying to get my head around what questions I can expect to have answered about brain activity that cannot be answered by doing two separate EEG and fMRI experiments.

I am aware that fMRI records the BOLD signal and EEG records a collective electrical response from pyramidal neurons; so even if the first one provides good spatial resolution across the whole brain and the second one provides good time resolution for the exposed parts of the cortex (gyri), the two recording methods do not seem to be very complementary/symmetrical, in other words they do not measure the same quantities/qualities of the brain activity.

I am unsure to what is the actual benefit of using them in combination in an experiment although I acknowledge that combined EEG-fMRI can perhaps address certain questions in a within-subject analysis but this is still a bit vague.

I found this paper by Huster et al. (2012) helpful but if anyone has more suggestions/directions, that would be much more than welcome.

Huster, R. J., Debener, S., Eichele, T., & Herrmann, C. S. (2012). Methods for simultaneous EEG-fMRI: an introductory review. Journal of Neuroscience, 32(18), 6053-6060.


问:
Can the brain create it's own artificial time?
When we dream, does the brain create an artificial time for the dreams to take place in? As time in dreams can feel off sometimes. Are is this not possible?</p>


问:
How do you encourage participants to pay attention while completing online studies?
I'm conducting research where participants come into a lab and complete a study entirely on a computer (about 10-15 minutes). This means that informed consent, instructions, manipulations, and measures are all completed on the computer and there is very little experimenter-participant interaction. The studies are mostly reading some text and answering questions.

I'm aware that there are many methods of assessing whether participants are paying attention, but when I use these methods I often find a large share of participants who aren't paying attention. Instead of just having to exclude these participants, I'd like to prevent this in the first place.

What strategies do you use to make online studies more engaging and encourage participants to pay attention?


问:
Is there any evidence that the Dunning-Kruger Effect applies to self-appraisals of soundness or reasonableness of judgement?
The Dunning-Kruger Effect is the peculiar phenomenon wherein those with the lowest ability also have impaired metacognition, resulting in a peculiar overestimation of their ability e.g. stupid person who thinks they're a genius. This is known as miscalibration.

The figure below characterises the matter perfectly:

Kruger, J., & Dunning, D. (1999). Unskilled and unaware of it: How difficulties in recognizing one’s own incompetence lead to inflated self-assessments. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77, 1121–1134. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.77.6.1121

Now, to my understanding the Dunning-Kruger Effect tracks onto a wide variety of domains, not just intelligence. For example, the above paper looked at humour, grammar and reasoning ability.

Question: Is there any literature relating to the Dunning-Kruger Effect and reasonableness or soundness of judgement?

In other words, I want to know if the most unreasonable people will also believe that they are actually very reasonable? I note that this has nothing to do with reasoning ability, but I am sure that there is an element to it as well. It does not need to be the Dunning-Kruger Effect, but something similar.


问:
Can we use artificial intelligence in law?
I'm from india, there are more than 3 crore cases pending in different courts of India
which is nearly impossible to solve in a limited period of time.. unless we use robot instead of a person.
I know it doesn't make any sense but is that possible to create an artificial intelligence that can consider all the aspects of law and give justice to all cases as a human?</p>


问:
free will studies in long term decisoin making
this wikidepia article has a list of experiments and discussion around free will in neuroscience. One thing it notes is that there aren't studies focused on long term decision making in relation to free will.

Is that so? Are there any bodies of studies related to free will when it comes to longer time frames?


问:
Definition of dominance (self-assessment manikin)
I'm using the self-assessment manikin to measure valence, arousal and dominance. Valence and arousal is clear to all participants but with the concept of dominance a lot of participants are struggling.

I'm explaining dominance in term of degree of control, i.e. on one side of the scale the participant is feeling completely controlled and influenced and on the other side  completely controlling and dominant.

The participants have to chat with a chat application on a smartphone. Can somebody imagine a chat conversation where the participant is feeling dominant and one where the participant is not feeling dominant at all? I would like to give two such examples to the participants.

Moreover, is the term dominance in relation to an emotion or to an object? For example, during chatting is dominance always in relation to the person the participant is chatting with, i.e. how dominant the participant is feeling in relation to this person?


问:
What questions can I ask someone to help them overcome the negative belief "whatever happens to me is going to be a big turmoil"?
Suppose a person has a strong negative belief that whatever happens to his life is going to cause him a big turmoil.

Then this person interprets all events from the view of this belief. The result is a person who's constantly panic-stricken.

The next time some life event occurs in this person's life, and he/she automatically jumps to negative conclusions due to this belief, then what questions could I ask him so as to help him see that an event isn't as critical as he thinks it is?


问:
How to score 20 item Mini-IPIP?
I want to use the 20-item Mini-IPIP (Donellan et al., 2006) in a study. The scoring key here suggests that I should:

Score each question from 1 to 5 (integers only)

Make sure to reverse the scoring for the - keyed questions.

Add up the scores to get a score out of 20 in each category.

How do I convert this to a score out of 100 for each?

It can't be as simple as multiplying by 5, since the linked website (where you can take the test) presents scores like 92%.

I couldn't find the scoring key in the original 2006 paper (this could be my idiocy) so I came here.

Title: How to score 20 item Mini-IPIP?


问:
How to prepare when entering the field of Psychology from a professional UX background?
I come from a Computer Science and professional User Experience (UX) Design background and I'll soon be starting an MSc conversion course in Psychology. My interest is to understand human behaviour and principles of psychological research so that I can apply them in the context of UX, particularly when it comes to people with disabilities and accessibility in general.

What definitive resources on this topic and more specifically on dementia and memory loss in adults through childhood trauma should I be aware of? And why those ones?


问:
Persistent problems among relationsips
Firstly my apologies if this isn't the correct se sight to ask this.

Background

I had a psychology professor some years ago (now that I think of it probably more like many years ago...) who proclaimed that a lot of the problems individuals experience in their relationships will be (we'll say persistent but it may not be the best terminology(?)) persistent across most of their relationships.

His actual quote was "You'll find that whatever issues you're having in your relationships now, you'll find persist across all your relationships, despite your partner, so do your best to make the one you have work"

Several years after him saying this, I started to notice this in my relationships, that no matter the person, we would always end up having some form of issues I had with relationship partner n-1. But probably this would be best if I left myself out of this and spoke more generally.

Question

[1] I am curious if there is any validity to my professors statement, I currently only have two data points in my sample space (my professor and myself). I do understand the notion that individuals to in fact bring baggage to relationships that will cause said issues, and I'm not sure how to reconcile this without bringing myself into said question which is what I'd like to avoid so not to come off in the wrong way.

Previous Research

I have tried googlingduck duck go'ing to not much avail, My searches have been problems persisting throughout relationships, relationship patterns, relationship cognition but I didn't really find much pertaining to the question at hand. Also I'm not sure if it is in any way related, but when studying at university I did a decent amount of research into mathematical dynamics of relationships similar to http://sprott.physics.wisc.edu/pubs/paper277.pdf

EDIT: It may be possible I didn't present the question in an intelligble way. So along with [1], based on my own experiences and the testimony of said professor coupled with the research I did into the dynamics of relationships, it would seem that outside of initial attraction, the "who" of the relationship doesn't really  matter so much. Meaning that most relationships work not because of some fundamental fact of nature, but more because each individual understands that the problems are an amalgamation of themselves and manifest in some form or another in all their relationships.

Please feel free to ask for clarification if need be, it would seem our "in house translator" may have oversold his skills :shrug:

Title: Persistent problems among relationsips


问:
Concept of Free Will
I was not really sure which stack exchange to post this question, however, this one suits well I am guessing.

So assuming that the brain is just a carbon-based input/output calculator, and assuming most of the signals and connections between the nerves are deterministic.

Every outgoing action(output) of someone is determined via the ingoing actions (inputs) with some kind of connection/calculation done by the brain. So if this hypothesis is true, How can someone prove or argue of the existence of the free will?

Isn't it possible if we determine every aspect of the input signal, and if we know what the brain does with this input (via some computer model, or something with same manner), can't we foresee what that person is about to do or act versus the input action?

If the statement above is true and is proved, can't we say the concept of free will is dead? and can't we read minds?

I am looking for any kind (technical or hypothetical) of an answer to disprove the idea written above. Ty

Title: Concept of Free Will


问:
Possession/Concept of My
Has any one studied whether are not in the predevelopment stage, or in any developmental stage whether the concept of possessing, or ownership comes into light in the psyche of an individual grasping they own something?</p>

Title: Possession/Concept of My


问:
Pain without consciousness
I know about blindsight, so I'm wondering if there are cases of people in pain who demonstrate all the behaviours of pain (e.g. putting hand in cold water after getting burnt, whining about the pain), but don't feel the pain. Also are there cases of deafhearing?</p>

Title: Pain without consciousness


问:
Is this dissociation, depersonalization, or is there a better term?
I am attempting to find the term that describes a bizarre and terrifying experience I recently had.  As background: I was the subject of a severe violent assaulted at age 12, now 30 years ago. I have very little recollection of the event, just bits and pieces.  I still have recurring nightmares of this event that my husband finally videotaped because I never remember them.  They show me in extreme distress, and it is very difficult for him to wake me from them.

I recently had a prolonged (hours-long) night-time episode in which I was in and out of awareness.  I am still unable to remember large pieces of that episode.  But apparently I became so violent that my husband began to restrain me to prevent me from injuring myself.  I have periods of remembering him sitting on me and holding me down, and not understanding why, but feeling like I was in grave danger and that he was trying to hurt or even kill me.  But I don't remember anything between those moments of awareness.

What are clinical terms that describe this sort of drifting in and out of what we assume was a prolonged traumatic flashback?


问:
What are the neuroscience research findings on the importance of breaks in cognitive function and specifically learning?
When I say breaks I mean breaks between periods of the same course, breaks between two distinct courses, single days of, weekends, couple days of, few days of, longer periods of holidays of duration more than a week and the longest of them summer.

How long can we keep thinking and learning, such that we maximise our thinking and learning? 90 minutes?

What short breaks do we need? 15 minutes?

How many times in a day can we have a 90 minutes period?

How many times per week can we have such a day?

How many times per year can we have such weeks?

Different years have different amounts of studying time in the same school, same year(1st, 2nd, 3rd), and same generation(the different years are close to each other) is this not a problem?

I am a cancer patient since 16, a medical student aiming for radiation oncology and subsidiary MSc&Phd in radiophysics. I am actually autistic but with no mental retardation. So the questions are absolutely necessary as subsidiaries to help me explain myself, why some events seem paradoxical and exactly what information I need. I extensively and thoroughly read ncbi, pubmed and textbooks concerned with my question in hand. A single link I can provide is https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6039789/


问:
How does flow differ from or relates to attention?
Csikszentmihalyi introduced the notion of flow, which is almost certainly his best known work/concept.

Despite the fact that Wikipedia has a very long article on flow, I can't find a simple explanation in there how flow relates to attention, other than it might be just "effortless attention".

Is this all there is to it? Are there any more in-depth explanations how the two concepts relate or interact?

After paying slightly more attention to the wiki page, the "effortless" bit actually involves a whole motivational loop, so that there's an appearance of lack of effort. So, no deep motivation, no flow. But still I'd like to know if Csikszentmihalyi's flow, which is very highly cited (his books are that is) has been related to other more common concepts...


问:
Timeframe in which thoughts are concieved
Are thoughts concieved in realtime or are they preprocessed chains ready to be thought or both (depending on the prospective) or am I asking a too generalized question to have any sense ?</p>


问:
Operant Conditioning for reducing Rumination
Has operating conditioning been a useful tool for extinguishing rumination? If so, what is a typical training procedure for extinguishing rumination?

I'm looking for something like, first train the dolphin to touch it's nose to a stick, then train the command for XYZ using the stick to guide it.


问:
Detecting trauma with EEG?
My parent went to a Psychologist because of anxiety and panic attacks. Nicely i knew that she uses EEG for diagnostics. So he went to see her, but he told me that during the EEG she asked him for 2 task:

1 Count backward from 100 to zero.

2 Listen a list of words (eg. college, father, mother, etc.). According to the psychologist in this way we'll locate if one of this word is related to a psychological trauma due to some EEG variation during the listening.

I've looking for some references about those. I understand that the first task is some related to attention and memory-recall functions but i didn't found anything about the second task.

Any idea?

Title: Detecting trauma with EEG?


问:
In what contexts is loss aversion least controversial?
Loss aversion (and related phenomena like the endowment effect) are somewhat controversial, it seems; from Wikipedia:

Recently, studies have questioned the existence of loss aversion. In several studies examining the effect of losses in decision making under risk and uncertainty no loss aversion was found.[6] There are several explanations for these findings: one, is that loss aversion does not exist in small payoff magnitudes; the other, is that the generality of the loss aversion pattern is lower than that thought previously. Finally, losses may have an effect on attention but not on the weighting of outcomes; as suggested, for instance, by the fact that losses lead to more autonomic arousal than gains even in the absence of loss aversion.[7] This latter effect is sometimes known as Loss Attention.[8] Even in a non-risky domain, prospective affective judgments about gains and losses show that loss aversion is magnitude dependent such that for low magnitudes there is no loss aversion [9]

Loss aversion may be more salient when people compete. Gill and Prowse (2012) provide experimental evidence that people are loss averse around reference points given by their expectations in a competitive environment with real effort.[10]

David Gal (2006) argued that many of the phenomena commonly attributed to loss aversion, including the status quo bias, the endowment effect, and the preference for safe over risky options, are more parsimoniously explained by inertia than by a loss/gain asymmetry. Gal and Rucker (2018) made similar arguments.[11][12]

So, are there some areas/contexts in which loss aversion isn't controversial? Large payoffs for instance? And are there enough studies to reliably conclude anything, e.g. via meta-analyses (say with moderator analysis)?


问:
Is there some cognitive test besides (visual) working memory in which some animals are superior to humans?
Assuming the research of Matsuzawa et al. (2007) (see also BBC video (2013)) isn't misleading, are there any other cognitive areas where chimpanzees (or other primates) have been observed to surpass humans?

For more context: trained chimpanzees seem to be able to memorize the random position on a screen of numbers from 1-9 in a very short amount of time, beating humans in the same test. There is one report from US researchers which could not replicate this though.

Based on those observations Matsuzawa has advanced the cognitive-tradeoff (evolutionary) hypothesis (there's a longer Vsauce video on that): essentially the idea is that humans "gave up" a good working visual memory for  improvements in other kinds of cognitive abilities (This formulation is a little improper since chimpanzees evolved separately from our common ancestor with them, hence the scare quotes.)

Anyway, I want to know if this is the only known cognitive phenomenon in which (some) animals beat humans. Since training does play a significant role in the research mentioned above (and this seems to be crux of the controversy surrounding), I'm lowering the bar to asking if trained animals can beat untrained humans on some other cognitive task. I still think this question is informative (e.g. with respect to the power of learning), even with a stacked deck training-wise.