问:
Do Humans Have a Biological Need for Hierarchies?
If I understand correctly, Jordan Peterson argues in 12 Rules for Life: An Antidote to Chaos that hierarchy is natural and humans tend to form hierarchies.

Are there any studies to confirm or infirm this statement?


问:
Zimbardo’s Stanford prison experiment with women
In the (in)famous experiment by psychologist Zimbardo at Stanford, also called the Stanford Prison Experiment, my understanding is that only males were selected. Is there any other analogous experiment with women only, or women and men, and what was their result?</p>

ContentLicense: CC BY-SA 4.0


问:
Are there psychological traits that predict that a person will be good at acting?
I'd like to know if there are psychological traits that predict that a person will be good at acting. And, if psychology can say something about this , which aspects of acting can mostly be taught and which one are hard to be (being dependent mostly some sort of 'natural aptitude').</p>


问:
Is there evidence that individuals consistently prefer entities according to their animacy?
It is evident from language that everyone can distinguish the living entities from the otherwise, or, rather, that there is a scale between two poles that is widely agreed upon. This observation is paralleled by hard research in cognitive psychology and neuroscience.

Is there research that confirms (or refutes) that individuals vary in their preference for animacy?

Another way to state this question is that I am asking whether "animacy preference" is a dimension on which individuals vary.

References:

Talia Konkle and Alfonso Caramazza — "Tripartite Organization of the Ventral Stream by Animacy and Object Size"

Rosa Salva U.Mayer G.Vallortigara — "Roots of a social brain: Developmental models of emerging animacy-detection mechanisms"

Tao Gao George E. Newman Brian J. Scholl — "The psychophysics of chasing: A case study in the perception of animacy"


问:
Using the Brain too much?
The question is under what conditions can we overuse our brain? To be concrete lets focus on mental tasks like coding and math problem solving.

Q1: How many hours of "fun"(i.e. stressfree) problem solving can we do in a day (say out of 14 waking hours)?

Here are some interesting studies/posts

Focal dystonia this is from an answer in Quora: "To go a little off topic, it may be possible to damage your brain through overuse, but more from years and years of repetitive practice. Ironically, the very skill you spend so much time developing is the part that gets disrupted. This is a disease called focal dystonia—”Focal dystonia most typically affects those who rely on fine motor skills (musicians, writers, surgeons, etc.)"

How Being a Workaholic Differs from Working Long Hours: "We found that work hours were not related to any health issues, while workaholism was. "

Excessive brain activity linked to a shorter life: "I think this is overactivity, out-of-control excitation — it’s not good for the brain. You want the neurons to be active, when and where you want them to be active, not to be just generally firing off,"

Does Thinking Really Hard Burn More Calories?: "The brain continuously slurps up huge amounts of energy for an organ of its size, regardless of whether we are tackling integral calculus or clicking through the week's top 10 LOLcats."

What cognitive processes occur during a mental exhaustion or 'burnout'?
: "One of the older theories suggested that a person literally runs out of brain-fuel when they hit the wall (Baumeister et al, 1998). They called this state "ego depletion" and it refers to the kind of mental burnout you are talking about."

Q2: Any comments on the above studies/posts as it regards the goal of estimating the hours of safe but intense mental activity? Can we infer anything from them to help with that estimation?

Based on these studies, I think the answer is 10-12 hours but given that

we vary the tasks to avoid "focal dystonia"

maintain a healthy lifestyle (sleep,exercise, diet)

and most importantly try to keep the work enjoyable.

Title: Using the Brain too much?


问:
Accuracy of visual distance and size perception
Generally speaking it is known that human observers’ perceptions of distances in depth are generally inaccurate. I guess that the accuracy is sometimes a very large degree. To be more specific I am looking for clear information (data) on that topic for healthy persons.
What would be the errors? 10% or more?
How the errors depends on the distance?
Any help are highly welcomed.</p>


问:
Is there a link between confirmation biases and a tendency to subscribe to religions?
I've just read Rolf Dobelli's The Art of Thinking Clearly, as well as Mark Manson's Everything is F*cked, which I stumbled upon the concept of cognitive biases.

In the books they mentioned how religions are required to maintain hope and seemingly control over humanity, and their strategies of exclusion (ie us vs them). Regarding this, it seems to have an overlap with confirmation bias.

As such, is there a deeper relationship between the two?


问:
Alpha wave changes and brain waves shutdown vs sexual actions
I liked to know more about brain waves and sexual actions ( like foreplay, orgasm, etc).

So I found this paper :

(REVIEW:New Electroencephalogram (EEG) Neuroimaging Methods of Analyzing Brain Activity Applicable to the Study of Human Sexual Response):

So I seen this e-book :

These parts:

So as you can see above, the author said the brain wave shut down and there is some height change in alpha wave.

So i like to know more about the brain wave shutdown condition
could be happened about similar situation with this condition ( brain wave shutdown )?

And why the alpha wave has huge change and not discussed other brain waves ?

Also for better understanding some similar known situation and effect of these two conditions?

Thanks.


问:
Are one's interests like a "library"?
In a philosophy paper, I saw the following claim defended:

They sometimes seem to think of the relevant projects as though they were books in a library that contains a large but finite number of books ... As previously argued, if we are to suppose that our personal identities make finite the bounds of what activities we can identify with then our identities do put finite bounds on which books are in our personal libraries

Here, 'relevant projects' mean those things that can hold our interest for a long period of time.

My question is whether or not this metaphor of interest is accurate. Do people really have a finite set of things that they can take interest in, and how big is this set? How exactly can interest be developed, and can any person take an interest in anything, or are there additional factors?

I suppose on a more psychological side these questions can be answered by examining what gives us interest. What are the psychological conditions for interest to arise? What combination of genetics, previous experience, context, etc. gives rise to interest?

Title: Are one's interests like a "library"?


问:
Have "Sapir-Whorf sensitivity" and "differential neuroplasticity" been considered so far?
I watched the movie "Arrival" today and came to define the concept of "Sapir-Whorf sensitivity" as the measure of to what extent is the way of thinking of somebody influenced by the languages they know. As this is an instance of neuroplasticity, one may think that the latter varies across the brain, which leads to the concept of "differential neuroplasticy". That way, intelligence as the ability to learn could be categorized as a brain map of this differential neuroplasticity through the diverse functional areas of the brain. This would explain why different persons can be very intelligent though in different ways.

Have such concepts been studied before?


问:
How does Free Running Sleep Disorder (FRSD) in humans get treated as of 2020s?
From reading accessible information about Free Running Sleep Disorder (FRSD) in humans, I understand it is a chronic and cyclic sleep disorder of a totally unentrained 24-hours circadian rhythm.

Description

I recognize a term like totally unentrained 24-hours circadian rhythm as somewhat vague, but a description I find  practical is as follows:

Each day, a person would naturally feel enough tired, to sleep, a
  bit later than the day before; thus, that person won't be able to
  naturally fall asleep before that later time;

Correspondingly:

Each day, that person would naturally wake up a bit later than the day
  before.

It might be reasonable to say that an FRSD sufferer totally lacks the common ability to fall asleep when feeling a bit tired.

Cyclicity

The disorder is chronic and cyclic because the human brain will stubbornly "remember" the need to permit sleep (as well as waking up) later every day.

Approximate exampling of the problem is available with this diagram:

```<code>Day 01: Wake up at 06:00
Day 02: Wake up at 06:30
Day 03: Wake up at 07:00
Day 04: Wake up at 07:30
Day 05: Wake up at 08:00
Day 06: Wake up at 08:30
Day 07: Wake up at 09:00
Day 08: Wake up at 09:30
Day 09: Wake up at 10:00
Day 10: Wake up at 10:30

Day 11: Wake up at 11:00
Day 12: Wake up at 11:30
Day 13: Wake up at 12:00
Day 14: Wake up at 12:30
Day 15: Wake up at 13:00
Day 16: Wake up at 13:30
Day 17: Wake up at 14:00
Day 18: Wake up at 14:30
Day 19: Wake up at 15:00
Day 20: Wake up at 15:30

Day 21: Wake up at 16:00
Day 22: Wake up at 16:30
Day 23: Wake up at 17:00
Day 24: Wake up at 17:30
Day 25: Wake up at 18:00
Day 26: Wake up at 18:30
Day 27: Wake up at 19:00
Day 28: Wake up at 19:30
Day 29: Wake up at 20:00
Day 30: Wake up at 20:30

Day 31: Wake up at 21:00
Day 32: Wake up at 21:30
Day 33: Wake up at 22:00
Day 34: Wake up at 22:30
Day 35: Wake up at 23:00
Day 36: Wake up at 23:30
Day 37: Wake up at 24:00
Day 38: Wake up at 24:30
Day 39: Wake up at 01:00
Day 40: Wake up at 01:30

Day 41: Wake up at 02:00
Day 42: Wake up at 02:30
Day 43: Wake up at 03:00
Day 44: Wake up at 03:30
Day 45: Wake up at 04:00
Day 46: Wake up at 04:30
Day 47: Wake up at 05:00
Day 48: Wake up at 05:30
Day 49: Wake up at 06:00
</code>```

The described approximate cycle will repeat at self about each 49 days until the disorder has disappeared or as long as it is not treated.

Symptoms and Prognose

If an FRSD sufferer is untreated and would forcefully be awoken and forcefully stay awake thought the day (before natural awakening should have been occurred), side effects such as sleepiness, headaches, and possibly "seeing yellow stars" and more would occur throughout the day.

If treatment is unavailable or rejected;

Monetary income wouldn't be optional from a job in predefined time frames (such as from 08:00 to 14:00 every day), and either a job in differentiating time frames or free running in itself would be needed, or otherwise another source of monetary income would be needed (such as social security, grace organization, family, etc).

Etiology

I understand that as of the second decade of the 2000's, the cause of this problem in the general audience is unknown and there might be more than one cause:

The problem is likely organic, whether if innate or if evolved sometime after birth.

It is more common in people with different conditions of blindness

In people without different conditions of blindness it usually start in teen era and might naturally disappear only at, or after, age 30.

In non blind people, selective impotency of melanopsin receptors, might cause it.

Management

I understand that as of the second decade of the 2000's, this problem was considered among some sleep physicians to be very hard to manage, with the first line treatment being instant release melatonin in steadily growing dosages (no more than about 20mg, which if this dosage was reached, other treatment would be considered),

but not only it often doesn't help to entrain the circadin rhythm and the pathway is different, it can include serious side effects such as vivid mightmarish dreams which are commonly reported.

If instant release melatonin doesn't work (or doesn't work good), a subjective, complex treatment might be given and would be likely similar to that of chronic insomnia:

Likely including small dosages (4≤mg) of prolonged release melatonin, possibly combined with other long-term insomnia medications as a synergistic treatment.

My question

How does Free Running Sleep Disorder (FRSD) in humans get treated as of 2020s?


问:
Psychological Diagnostic Test
Can a person sway the results of their Psychiatric diagnosis test? Say a person has a mental illness that is more serious that they want to accept, if they know enough about Psychology, can they gear their answers toward a different diagnosis that is more acceptable to them and society?

When looking into this question many articles are listed about lie detector tests. https://theness.com/neurologicablog/index.php/detecting-lies-in-the-brain/

Some articles deal with how an individual might be able to detect another person's deception and the kinds of deception exhibited. https://pro.psychcentral.com/exhausted-woman/2017/03/the-levels-of-deceptive-people/

other articles deal with self-deception and possible reasons why. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6353154/

https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01718/full.

I would like to know if a professional evaluation of an patient can be manipulated to achieve the results that patient wants while being deceptive concerning the more accurate diagnosis. For example someone with a serious personality disorder being diagnosis with a more socially acceptable illness, such as ADHD or anxiety disorder because of the deceptive interaction of the patient during the evaluation? Is there a way for a professional to determine what is the true diagnosis vs the diagnosis the patient consciously wants to be evaluated as suffering from?

The reason's why this patient might want to be diagnosed with a inaccurate illness may be many, as of now I am not interested in that unless it affects my original question.

Title: Psychological Diagnostic Test


问:
How does self-observation influence performance?
Assuming that the performance in performing a motor or mental task can be quantitatively measured (e.g. by measuring its duration, efficiency, and quality of the outcome) I wonder if there have been systematic studies how self-observation influences these parameters.

I guess to study this influence one needs four experimental set-ups to compare to each other:

Just ask the test person to perform the task.

Ask her to observe herself (to be able to report what went on, afterwards).

Ask her to think loud.

Ask her to try not to observe herself.

My question is: Is there a canoncial paper in which such an experiment is described?

If there was a study where the influence of self-observation is measured in a multi-tasking setting ("Do this and do that at the same time and observe  yourself while doing it") this would be even greater.


问:
Reducing smoking and mental health benefits
Recently I noticed improved mental health (better mood, better cognition? more energy) after reducing smoking.Is it backed up by research?
I know stopping smoking is, but reducing?

http://www.pulsetoday.co.uk/clinical/clinical-specialties/mental-health/stopping-smoking-as-effective-as-antidepressants-at-improving-mood/20005864.article


问:
Can any person develop an interest in anything?
As a more specific version of my previous question, I'd like to know if an interest in anything can be developed in any person. Let us assume the person has the following:

Sufficient motivation to become interested in the subject at hand.

The correct mindset toward interests. As in, the person appreciates that interest is not fixed, but can be developed and changed over time.

No misconceptions pertaining to the interest being developed. For example, someone not wanting to become interested in a field because of the stereotypes about people working in that field.

My question is, then, assuming these points, can any person develop an interest in any field/activity?

For my own research toward this problem, I found "Interest - The Curious Emotion" by Paul Silvia. He says that interest arises if a subject appraises something as being novel, complex, and comprehensible. This doesn't seem to cover the whole story, as it is fairly easy to come up with examples where despite making those appraisals, a subject does not develop interest.


问:
Are TV shows and songs designed for children developmentally more beneficial than regular ones?
I have zero background in psychology, and only slightly more experience with children.

But as someone who was once a child, and who is consistenly confused by the media created explicitly for children, I wonder why it exists.  In particular, is such media proven to be better developmentally for a child than, say, a relatively clean sitcom designed with no particular age group in mind?  Or is "Baby Shark" better than the indie electro-pop on my iPod?

I understand why children's books exist-- they actually help isolate aspects of a language to assist with the reading component of linguistic mastery.  But this principle doesn't extend so cleanly to audiovisual forms of media, since a child can more easily passively glean from such content (as they already do in day-to-day life when adults have conversations around them).

It would be awesome if your answer included some research-- being outside the field, I struggled to find sources myself.


问:
How well is biofeedback understood?
From an answer to the question Research suggesting conscious control over brain region activation? I have learned:

»[S]ubjects become better at up-regulating or down-regulating
  activation in specific brain regions by attending to feedback-- even
  moreso than subjects who do not receive biofeedback. This is reflected
  both in the fMRI images and subjective reports from the subjects.«

Given this as a fact: How well is it understood? Which mechanisms are believed to be at work? I assume the fMRI scans mainly indicate that a specific brain region is more or less active but not why so. "Why so" could mean:

By which mechanisms inside the region?

By which influence by other regions?

By which learned practice?

How are the immediate causes (of higher activity) related to the fact that the subject pays attention to the feedback?

How does consciousness come into play?

My question is: Which of these questions do already have a (partial) answer?

Title: How well is biofeedback understood?


问:
Applying psychoactive drugs locally
I wonder if there are approaches to apply psychoactive drugs (more) locally, e.g. by drug carriers.

Usually psychoactive drugs are taken orally/enterally and thus flood the brain unspecifically: each neuron and synapse sensitive to it - whereever it is located - will react on it.

I assume that a lot of effort is taken to design the drugs such that they get effective at locations/neurons as specific as possible.

This can be done chemically, but another way of doing so would be to apply them more locally and make use of diffusion and possibly retardation effects.

I wonder which role such considerations play today for psychoactive drugs. Are there biological, technical, or even ethical reasons that prohibit local application of psychoactive drugs - or make it seem futile?

For more somatic and/or localized diseases, applying more localized therapies is good practice, e.g. (minimal) surgical operations, radiation therapy, any kind of parenteral drug administration, esp. drug carriers.

[Related to this question is this one: Density maps of neurotransmitter systems.]

Title: Applying psychoactive drugs locally


问:
Effects of psychologist's language in therapies of personal disorders
Is there a dominant opinion about the positve or negative effects of explicitly naming the diagnosed disease and the observed symptoms (in the language of the psychologist) in the therapy of personality disorders, e.g. narcissistic?

A general rule might be to remain always in the conceptual world and terminology of the patient. Or that some small dose of psychologist's language might be of help.

Most probably there is no single dominant opinion but several. Where do I find some expositions of such opinions, ideally in the form of a paper or talk, or as an answer here?

Finally, there may be meta-studies measuring the effect of (neuro-)psychologist's language in therapies of personal disorders. These to know would be perfect.


问:
Psychology behind for historical bias
There is lot of movement in India currently going on rewriting history

dealing with topics such as Aryan Invasion Theory and Ramayana and Mahabharatha

I am guessing similar such ideas may be around the world on presenting their local history correctly. My question is not on the justification of these movements or the truth behind it but I am rather wondering if there a known human psychology which makes this need of a person that their ancestors belong to an "elite history". If so, what is it?

Why would it be important for a present day person what their ancestors did or where did they come from? Why a glorified history of their ancestors 1000 of years back is important?

Again, my question is not actually it is true or not but mainly trying to understand human psychology where search for "true history" is mainly a need for one to be "special". Is it just the need to be proud about something or something more deeper? This need is often bigger than the need to find "truth".  Being open to accept that their ancestors or their favourite historical heroes could have done something wrong is simply out of question.

My question is simply why do people care if someone who lived in different era but in their neighbourhood was a "hero" or "not".  Why are they not as neutral or objective as they would be for someone in foreign land.

This is my first question here so please let me know if I need to edit it to make it more appropriate for this site.

Title: Psychology behind for historical bias


问:
Whole brain death diagnosis and false positive
In view of the increasing need for organ transplants( possibly because of the greater ability of the surgeons and physicians to both execute the transplant, prevent a rejection, and/or diagnose the need to transplant) how could one minimize the Type I statistical error (the possibility that while the patient is not brain dead he is diagnosed as such) when testing for brain death?

It is a waste of resources to wait for metabolic death clinging to a life that cannot be saved thence omitting the duty to save people.

Nonetheless the duty to omit killing people actively/intently is even greater. This is exactly what we are doing when we remove the life support of someone in a chronic vegetative state( we will not go to jail only because at that time as medical standards mandate we wrongly assumed/believed they were brain dead, i.e We acted according to the medical standards but nonetheless came to a wrong conclusion/diagnosis).

Being a layman( I studied(partialy, uncomplete course) medicine aspiring to be a radiation oncologist and devote myself to proton therapy and carbon-ion radiation therapy for the brain probably due to my own PMA) I am absolutely terrified in the thought of being mistakenly diagnosed brain dead while being in vegetative state. I want my body to be useful even after I die I am just reluctant to sign up for organ donation because it might put even more stress on the already hectic life of physicians and increase the probability of a False Positive. Albeit being a cancer patient I could not even donate blood.

Therefore could a straight 48-hour or 72-hour recording of an EEG with as many non-redundant and carrefuly placed electrodes prove useful in reducing false positives? Is there a better alternative. Being a sufficient condition( or as close to it as possible) with the least necessary conditions.


问:
Regarding a mental disorder of finding pleasure and lose attraction
Say, a man is trying to find pleasure in doing something. he assumes he can have pleasure with playing, but just a while after start playing he feels definitely it can give him some pleasure. At that moment he stops playing and start finding for new form work/person/object/topic that can give him pleasure. It's not his/her fear to have the pleasure but it's like okay, anytime he can come back and have this any moment, a mean of it's in stock. But he never comes back until the feelings has been forgotten.

Is there a name of this type of disorder?


问:
Is a return to previous personality possible in Schizophrenia?
I'm reading Memory Disorders in Psychiatric Practice by  German E. Berrios and  John R. Hodges (2000). The section on The Ganser Syndrome has this table (from page 449) contrasting Schizophrenia and the The Ganser Syndrome. The third row of the table reads:

\begin{array}{c|c|c|}  &   \text{Ganser Syndrome} & \text{Schizophrenia }
\\\hline \text{Return to previous personality possible} & \text{Yes} & \text{No}
 \\\hline \end{array}

The book doesn't elaborate as to how a return to previous personality is not possible in Schizophrenia. My own (weak) understanding was that some people do make a full and complete recovery indefinitely - taking that to mean a return to previous personality happens. I would appreciate if someone could elaborate or share a source that provides an explanation for this claim.

Is a return to previous personality possible in Schizophrenia?


问:
Can talking therapy help with severe delusions?

A delusion is a firm and fixed belief based on inadequate grounds not
  amenable to rational argument or evidence to contrary, not in sync
  with regional, cultural and educational background.

I wonder if there is evidence that talking therapy can help with delusions (which people with schizophrenia often suffer from) - or not.

I assume that it depends on the form and severity of the delusion, and that there are mild forms which can be treated by talking therapy. Other forms may not be treatable by talking therapy.

If there are cases where talking therapy does help, is there evidence and are there (meta-)studies which techniques help best?

asking specific questions

telling specific things

giving explanations

contradicting or confirming the patient

trying to tangle the patient up in self-experienced contradictions


问:
Appropriate age grouping for studying linguistic development
I am publishing a survey on a crowdsourcing platform to study how people of different ages perceive certain aspects of non-literal language. The platform allows me to target people with ages in specific ranges.

My questions is: what are appropriate age ranges? Is there any literature that would, for instance, say the linguistic perception is similar for people between 25 and 34-years old? Or is 25 and 44 years old a better range? All in all, which age partitioning makes more sense in terms of linguistic development, perception of non-literal language, or any other related criterion?

For instance: 18-24, 25-34, 34-44, 45-54, >65? Or maybe 18-24, 25-44, >45?


问:
Is there a term in psychology that describes being involved in something to a point of finding beauty in it?
More appropriately I am Looking for a word that describes fetishizing(placing too much importance in) something that you are involved with to a point of finding beauty in it i.e. the illusion of beauty in what you do to a point of assuming that the people who don't see it don't appreciate beauty at all.

I found this term called "Focusing Illusion", but "Focusing illusion" signifies over-emphasis or placing too much importance on one aspect of an event to an extent where you mistake or incorrectly/partially assume factors contributing to causality. So that doesn't fit my need.

Example 1: An English literature admirer who has read and reviewed everything by let's say Shakespeare to a point of finding beauty in it and thinks anyone who does not find beauty in Shakespeare does not appreciate beauty at all or has a false idea of beauty.

Example 2: A mathematician let us say an algebraic geometry expert finds beauty in the mathematics of Grothendieck construction and keeps raving about it to others but when they fail to find it, s/he generalizes that person to be incapable of appreciating beauty at all.

Any help is appreciated.


问:
Retinotopic mapping to higher visual cortex
I know visual stimuli from retina presented in Cartesian coordinate is mapped to V1 as a form of polar coordinates. Wikipedia, Scholarpedia

But I wonder whether this spatial representation in polar coordinate in V1 is maintained to the higher visual cortex such as IT. I searched for some papers regarding this, but I could not find the paper showing clear picture of how visual stimuli is mapped to higher layer of visual cortex other than V1.

In case of Convolutional Neural Network (CNN), one of the types of Artificial Neural Network (ANN), input image to the CNN is in the Cartesian coordinate and this Cartesian coordinate is maintained to the last layer. In the similar context, I was wondering if the first layer of the visual cortex is in polar coordinate, whether this polar coordinate is maintained as this signal goes up to the higher layer of visual cortex.

Could you suggest me some materials related to this topic?


问:
What is the actual work of dopamine? Does it provide happiness or gives birth to desire?
As per my initial readings about dopamine are concerned it is usually stated that (like here )

Dopamine is a hormone associated with happiness.

But today I have come across a video in which the narrator says that dopamine may not be associated with happiness but gives birth to desires, beacuse addicts tends to indulge in activities which no longer provide them any happiness and even then they cannot stop.

So, what role does dopamine plays in addiction? Does it provide happiness or make us to do the “slavery” ?


问:
What can happen if a human takes SB-243213?
SB-243213 acts as a selective inverse agonist for the 5-HT2C receptor.

The 5-HT2C receptor is one of many 5-HT receptors which are receptors that bind serotonin, and seems to play a major role in both suicide (some suicide victims have an abnormally high number of 5-HT2C receptors in the prefrontal cortex) and schizophrenia (activation of 5-HT2C receptors reduces mesolimbic nigrostriatal dopamine release (which conveys antipsychotic action)).

Chemicals which are commonly prescribed for major depressive disorder and schizophrenia are non-selective and affect a broad range of molecular targets (including other families of 5-HT2 receptors, and other targets) at varying binding affinities, while also producing a wide range of side effects related to those various molecular targets.

SB-243213 has better than 100x selectivity for 5-HT2C over all other receptor subtypes tested, and a longer duration of action compared to older 5-HT2C antagonist ligands.

It seems like a promising target for future research, but I can't find an example of it being tested in humans, but it seems to have had a healthy anxiolytic response in rats and a significantly beneficial response on the rat sleep profile, although this research is from almost 20 years ago.

Aside from distribution differences of 5-HT2C receptors in rat and human brains, what other differences could cause unexpected results and possible side effects if tested in a human?

One of the studies notes that positive results were seen at "10 mg/kg po" in rats, and having read the full text of one of the studies many tests were done with doses ranging from 1mg/kg to 10mg/kg, with tolerance studies up to 40mg/kg. Also, example routes and volumes for different animals are noted here.

How can an appropriate, initial test dosage be calculated for humans? The SDS from a manufacturer lists "Acute Toxicity: IPR-RAT TDLo: 0.63mg/kg". For a 250g rat, would that be ~15mg? For an 80kg human, would that be ~50g?

In what way would such a chemical be toxic? To the liver?

What can happen if a human takes such a dose of SB-243213?

If it hasn't been through a clinical trial, what are some of the risks?

From one of the articles above:

We have previously described the development of selective 5-HT2C receptor antagonists including SB-206553 and SB-242084...we have demonstrated an involvement of the 5-HT2C receptor in animal models of anxiety and depression and shown that such compounds do not possess either pro-convulsant or hyperphagic properties...Unfortunately these compounds were not suitable for progression into man for a number of reasons, including an interaction with cytochrome P450 enzymes. We have therefore developed SB-243213 as a selective 5-HT2C receptor antagonist (Bromidge et al., 2000) which does not interact with cytochrome P450 enzymes at concentrations up to 10uM. SB-243213 is currently in clinical development with potential for the treatment of a range of psychiatric diseases including anxiety, depression, and schizophrenia.

Essentially I'm looking for reasons why this might not be suitable for humans, or examples of possible side effects.

Why has this 20-year-old, apparently promising drug not proceeded beyond the clinical development mentioned?

There are 18 articles mentioning "SB-243213" on DeepDyve. I'll continue to update this post as I find more information. After reading all of the articles I plan to contact some of the authors if I can't find an answer this question by myself.


问:
Would Newspeak actually work for what the Party intends it for?
In George Orwell's novel 1984 the ruling Party is creating a "new version" of English, called Newspeak, which focuses on removing any and all parts of the language which can be used to express any opinion, idea or concept which the Party does not agree with. The purpose of Newspeak is to counter rebellion, and is based on the idea that "if you cannot put it into words, you cannot contemplate it".

I'm wondering if this would actually be the case in real life. Would a human who does not have the language capabilities to express/describe the idea of "I don't like the goverment, something should be done against it" also be unable to truly work out/understand that idea itself within their own head?


问:
Formalizing emotion
Do there exist systems of formalizing emotion and their patterns? In other words, something that, for example, decomposed all emotions into combinations of a few fundamental ones or theories that predict how some follow from the other or specific metrics that can be used to classify emotion, etc. I was really fascinated by the movie “inside out”, mostly because, to me, it seemed a nice way to decompose human emotion but I assume there exist more nuanced takes on this in the literature. Are there specific terms or theories I should be looking at? Ideally, I would like a book on the subject to explore a little more ...</p>

Title: Formalizing emotion


问:
What characterizes Grossberg's resonances?
Following Bryan Krause's advice I tried to be more specific and picked as one specific neural theory of consciousness Stephen Grossberg's Adaptive Resonance Theory in which a specific group of resonances play an important role:

source

My question is: What characterizes these resonances (as neural processes) and why can they only occur in the cortex?

What distinguishes Grossberg's resonances from general forms of resonances that presumably may occur in every part of the brain?

What are (general and specific, necessary and sufficient) conditions for Grossberg's resonances to occur – in the language of systems of interacting units – and can it be shown that these conditions are not met in other parts of the brain than the cortex?

Note, that any definition of such resonances should not include as a defining criterion that they are found in the cortex. Otherwise it would not help to answer my initial question.


问:
slice spaing in rsFMRI
I have a rsFMRI sequence that includes slice spacing. I have not seen that before. Why anybody would add slice spacing between 2 measured slices?
Is it a mistake or there is a rationale behind, eg incr. SNR?

Slice Thickness  2.6
Slice Spacing 0.5

Thanks,

Title: slice spaing in rsFMRI


问:
What are the cognitive abilites required for strategy games?
I assume that the cognitive abilities required for most strategy-centric games are more or less same. It is also observed that they have certain intersection with cognitive abilities required for some other activities such as logical reasoning for problem solving (though this seems to be a matter of debate).

What precisely are the cognitive abilities required for strategy games?

(I have no knowledge in psychology; When I said observed above, the usage is informal.)

PS: I am not interested in simple logical games, and games that bring in social elements (eg. cooperative games)

Context: This question is related to this answer for a chess.com question. As humorously put in this article (see the quote below), this is a question best put to experts on psychology and neuroscience. So, I post the question here in a general form.

The chess.com online forums are full of commentators (whom one must assume all work as neuroscientists when they’re not playing chess)


问:
Why does Daniel Kahneman describe these group of therapy-seeking individuals as psychopaths?
From the book, Thinking Fast and Slow (Kahneman, 2011):

You will from time to time meet a patient who shares a disturbing tale of multiple mistakes in his previous treatment. He has been seen by several clinicians, and all failed him. The patient can lucidly describe how his therapists misunderstood him, but he has quickly perceived that you are different. You share the same feeling, are convinced that you understand him, and will able to help. [...] Do not ever think of taking on this patient! Throw him out of the office! He is most likely a psychopath and you will not be able to help him.

Is it true, and if so, why, is such a person 'most likely a psychopath'?

References

Kahneman, D. (2011). Thinking, Fast and Slow. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux


问:
Any studies about the effect of listening to audio in a foreign language while studying?
Note: this is my first question on this site. If my question is not clear enough, lacks context or I forgot some rule, please tell it in the comments so I can edit my question appropriately.

According to Is there evidence that listening to music can aid/hinder concentration or performance? , listening to music while studying seems to have no clear positive results (but rather negative results). Are there any studies or results that were made about the effect of listening to someone speaking in a foreign language while studying ? For example, listening to chinese audio while studying for engineering exams.

Thanks for your help !


问:
Is there a mathematical model for the "strength of your emotional reaction" to the effect of SMBC Comics's formula?
SMBC Comics (Emotion) presented the formula

$$
\text{strength of your emotional reaction} = \frac{\text{emotional power of an event}}{\text{your distance from the event}}.
$$

It feels intuitively correct, but "distance" seems oversimplified in the current digital age.  Thus, I'm curious if there is actually a mathematical model along these lines.

Question: Is there a mathematical model for the "strength of your emotional reaction" to the effect of SMBC Comics's formula?

Honestly, I don't even know what to search for here.  I put emotional reaction model into PubMed, but it didn't help.


问:
How exactly should the items in the MEC-SPQ be rotated?
citing from the usage instructions of https://academic.csuohio.edu/kneuendorf/frames/MECFull.pdf

"The MEC-SPQ was designed for immediate assignment after media
  exposure. Starting with instructions  how  to  fill  in  the
  questionnaire,  and  assuring  anonymity,  all  process  and  state
  variables  (attention,  involvement,  SoD,  SSM,  Spatial  Presence)
  should  be  presented  in randomized order. Because of the items’
  wording, the Domain Specific Interest Scale has to be  implemented  as
  a  single  block.  Mixing  these  items  with  other  scales  would
  overstrain participants’  ability  to  deal  with  different  levels
  of  judgment.  Subsequently,  all  other  trait variables  have  to
  be  assessed  as  randomized  item  battery.  Finally,
  sociodemographics  and other variables of interest conclude the
  MEC-SPQ."

emphasis mine.

Should all items from the process and state variables be mixed together and then rotated, or should the process and state variables be kept separate, rotated, and then presented in random order?

The implied contrast to the Domain Specific interest Scale seems to point to the former option, but that seems odd to someone who is doing this for the first time.


问:
Why do people suicide?
No, I am not talking about user suicide. I am talking about actual suicide. Isn't the fear of death naturally so big that people couldn't, but how do they? What would be tormenting them so badly that it overcomes the fear of death? Even if they are physically fit teens with a life ahead of them?</p>

Title: Why do people suicide?


问:
Why some people feel afraid to ask questions?
Suppose, someone wants to know something about a topic. To know better me must ask questions to others about the topic.

But, there are some people who have a great curiosity for the knowledge but afraid to ask questions.

Suppose, X has a huge curiosity about maths but whenever he asks questions about it to his teacher he hesitates by thinking that this would be a very dope question and the whole class will laugh at him.

My question is why do we feel that and what can we do to prevent it?


问:
How does number sense develop in blind people?
From what I understand about number sense and numerical cognition, the visual system is heavily involved in the approximate number system and the object tracking system, which are at the root of number sense and numerical cognition leading to the rest of mathematics. So, how exactly would somebody with a severely impaired or nonfunctional visual system (blindness) develop number sense?</p>


问:
Why does an image seem smaller through a pinhole when viewing with human eye
I was chewing gum when I took the Trident gum wrapper and rolled it into an open cylinder with a diameter of about 1.5mm (give or take 0.15mm). When I look through the gum wrapper (I have to put it right up against my eye and position it just right to be able to see all the way through), images seem about 10% smaller (extremely back of the napkin assumption) than without the gum wrapper.

This is hard to measure empirically, so I tried to take a photo showing this effect, but the camera showed no difference between the two (the one through the wrapper is brighter, but I think that's just the iPhone camera trying to adjust to the surrounding dark and thus trivial). Just to confirm, I asked 6 people if they see any differences between viewing items through the gum wrapper and without the gum wrapper, and all of them said that the images through the gum wrapper looked smaller than without the wrapper. [EDIT: Asked 4 more people and 3 of the 4 said the image was 5-10% larger than normal]

[EDIT 2: The images also get larger (smaller for the people who said the image was larger) as the wrapper moves away from the eye and towards the object, eventually reaching true size when the wrapper is at the object.]

The only reason I could think of this happening is based on another observation I made. As I brought the gum wrapper into position, objects seemed to bend as they passed over the wrapper in my vision. The only thing I could think of is that the diameter of the cylinder is small enough that this "bend" doesn't have time to even out, and thus collides with the "bend" on the other side of the wrapper and creates a smaller image. However, this assumes that the distortion is causing images to be smaller when viewed through the wrapper. The "bend" distortion could also just be a byproduct of the actual cause of this phenomenon and just a symptom of the image getting smaller.

Why is this occurring?

EDIT 3: More photos that are more out of focus as recommended for more data

(Originally posted in the physics SE site)


问:
What is the phenomenon of devaluing others' abilities called?
The Dunning-Kruger describes a cognitive bias where people evaluate their own skills as greater than reality.

I wonder about a similar situation wherein one underestimates the abilities of others. I would tend to think this occurs when the other individual is either highly-skilled or more skilled than the one making judgement, but I'm not sure that is absolutely necessary.

Is this a known phenomenon? If so, what are the motives?


问:
Non-polar hydocarbons in phospholipid bilayer
I read that the phospholipids in many cell membranes (I am referencing neurons specifically) have a non-polar hydrocarbon tail and a polar phosphate head. Regarding the non-polarity of the hydrocarbon - are all hydrocarbons non-polar (I think I understand that this is calculated by seeing if there is a non-zero dipole moment for the molecule)? Why are the phospholipid tails attracted to each other enough to form a seal that overcomes large concentration gradients? </p>


问:
Is there any categorization of cognitive abilities based on brain structure and biology?
I'm pretty sure that the answer to the following question is yes :
Is there any categorization of cognitive abilities based on brain structure and biology?

However, because I'm a newbie, I'm kind of lost in the subject of neuroscience, I would like to know where I could find such a thing.

Here's what I call "a categorization based on brain structure and biology":
From what I read on the subject (a French book called "Apprendre" (= "To learn") from Stanislas Dehaene - English translation of synopsis), some brain areas that seem to have been designed for some "primitive" tasks (I have in mind a study showing that the area that is usually active in face recognition seems to be reused for the ability to read for modern sapiens).
So, I suppose that this area has some information processing abilities that can be explained in a certain way by biology/brain structure, etc... So, we might relate "face recognition" and "reading" in the same category of cognitive ability.

To summarise, what I'd like to know for a certain cognitive ability:

Which part of the brain is concerned?

If possible, why is it this part? (the structure, the biology of it etc...)

What is the fundamental use of this part?

How is this ability working?

(if it's something about being able to do some maths, how do we do it, which part of the brain and why, what should this part of the brain be used for, how do we make abstract thoughts and how do we resolve an equation)

Can you please point me in the direction of some references where I can learn the state of the art on the subject? (more especially in the field of intellectual abilities, memory, and learning).


问:
~20% threshold for perceiving minority populations as "others"?
Many years ago I read an article that said something along the lines of minority populations stop being "noticed" when they cross a threshold of something like 20%. Below 20% or so they are perceived as being fairly rare, and above 20% or thereabouts they stop being noticed as different. The example I remember our prof using at the time was the number of women CS students in the class. Below 20% women CS was perceived as being mostly a man's discipline, but as the numbers crossed 20% or so it stopped being perceived as primarily associated with one gender or another.

I have been looking for citations or references to this effect for some time, but haven't been able to find any. Does this ring a bell with anyone?


问:
How does the body respond to having excess levels of neuronal, not synaptic, serotonin?
If a person consumes large amounts of 5-HTP or SAM-e resulting in elevated serotonin levels in their synaptic vesicles, how is this excess offloaded? What is the average rate of clearance?

All the literature I can find deals with serotonin syndrome which concerns synaptic serotonin, and is caused by substances that prevent transport of the serotonin from the synapse like antidepressants and lithium.

What I want to know is:

Do the neurons release more serotonin into the synapse in response to surplus serotonin (i.e. if you have it, spend it)?

What is the mechanism that causes neurotransmitters to be released into the synapse called? I know the thing that removes it is a transporter.


问:
"Being of the same mind" as a scientific concept
Folk psychology knows and uses the concept of "being of the same mind" that often is supposed to explain why two people find themselves sympathic or like (or even love) each other.

"Being of the same mind" includes

beliefs and models

preferences, values, and interests

liking and disliking (of other things and persons)

behaviour.

It depends on the proper individual mix of similarities of minds that lets one find someone else sympathic, and sometimes it's the same mix that lets two people like each other. Note, that the proper mix may either be an enabling factor (a necessary condition), or a driver (a sufficient condition).

I wonder if there is a single scientific term for "being of the same (or similar) mind", and which role it plays in scientific psychology. (Maybe none because it's considered too unspecific a concept - or even undefinable.)


问:
Understanding the transition from integrated form to ODE form of neuron models
I'm trying to convert a fairly complicated neuron model from integrated form (a form of the spike response model) to ODE form for use in the BRIAN simulator.

The BRIAN simulator requires neuron/synapse models to be given as two parts: the differential equation governing the model, and the response of the model to a spike. To use a model given in integrated form (i.e. as a solved membrane potential $$V(t),$$ we must first convert it into ODE form. The documentation (specifically https://brian2.readthedocs.io/en/stable/user/converting_from_integrated_form.html) gives examples of doing this with basic models, and I'm trying to reproduce these before moving on to the model I'm interested in.

The documentation demonstrates this technique with models of the form
$$V(t) = \sum_i w_i \sum_i \text{PSP}(t-t_i) + V_{rest}$$ for different forms of $$\text{PSP}(t),$$ and this general form is similar to that which I am trying to work with.

I have no problem reproducing the equations (differentiating both sides and substituting where necessary), but I don't quite understand how to notice the behaviour of the model upon spiking from the integrated form.

For example, using the alpha function $$\text{PSP}(t) = \frac{t}{\tau} e^{\frac{t}{\tau}},$$ we have upon differentiating the expression for V that
$$\frac{dV}{dt} = \sum_iw_i\left[\sum_i\frac{1}{\tau}e^{-\frac{t-t_i}{\tau}} - \frac{t-t_i}{\tau^2}e^{-\frac{t-t_i}{\tau}}\right] + V_{rest} $$

where we arrive at the equations
$$\tau\frac{dV}{dt} = g- V + V_{rest},  \text{ and }
\tau\frac{dg}{dt} = - g
$$
upon defining $$ g = \sum_i w_i \sum_i e^{-\frac{t-t_i}{\tau}}. $$

This agrees with the example in the documentation. However, upon spiking, the documentation states that the model reacts as $$ g \longleftarrow g + w_i, $$ and I'm not sure how this is clear from the integrated model.

If someone could explain how to notice this in this example and in general, it would be greatly appreciated.

Cheers


问:
How is the effectiveness of EMDR measured?
What are the outcome variables that researchers measure? Is it just a PTSD Checklist form filled out after every session? </p>


问:
Do we humans have an innate perception of what are secure behaviors? If yes, to what extent?
Recently, I heard in a podcast that people enjoy booths or corners in restaurants because we have a natural preference for spaces we deem more secure (e.g. in this case, we can see the rest of the restaurant easily, less ''points of attack'' because of surrounding walls, etc.). I have heard similar rationale for several other behaviors.

This made me wonder, to what extent, do we have ingrained ''secure'' behaviors and at which point are our secure behaviors learned during our upbringing (e.g. taught by parents, school, society). For instance, something we may have been taught is ''don't get into a car with strangers.''

Are there works that have explored what secure behaviors should be transmitted vs. what behaviors seem to be ingrained by default?


问:
What determines whether a monoamine neurotransmitter is recycled or broken down by MAO?
When a neurotransmitter detaches from the receptor and is returned to the neuron via the transporter, what are the primary factors that influence whether that molecule is re-stored in a vesicle by VMAT2 or broken down by MAO A or B? Is it simply the relative abundance of those compounds?</p>


问:
What recreational drugs have especially negative interactions with bipolar disorder?
I'm trying to find out which recreational drugs have the biggest negative interactions with BD (bipolar disorder types I and II) but haven't been able to find strong research.

I especially interested in the interactions of hallucinogens & psychedelics with bipolar disorder, especially the tryptamine class of psychedelics (e.g. LSD, psilocybin, DMT). Interactions of stimulants with BD (e.g., cocaine, adderall) are well-documented and I'm less curious about that.

Can anyone point me to sources and/or share your own knowledge?


问:
Is there a consensus that there are racial differences in IQ scores?
I'm not asking whether the difference is genetic or environmental, or if IQ scores are a racist and flawed measure of intelligence. i.e., I am not asking about causation.

Is there a consensus that today, in e.g. America, there are differences in IQ scores?

I think it is far less racist to assume that black American IQ scores are, at an individual level, on average a standard deviation less than what they measure


问:
Out of body experience tests. How to contact scientists?
I am 30 year-old man with cerebral palsy. Somehow that and one antispastic drug (baclofen) turned me into a vivid dreamer and out of body experiencer. I am not a believer, quite the opposite because those "other realities" are terrifying, but I often floated in my room, and was also aware of this. Aware to the point that I managed to test a few things.

Sometimes I was floating, sometimes standing on my own legs and watching me sleep, sometimes even seeing me sleeping and me watching myself sleeping from sort of TPP (frequent gamer here, third person perspective)

I would really like to report my case for scientific research.  Does anyone know of a research group interested in a case report?


问:
Which paper was it that defined addiction as a release?
I read somewhere that a psychologist in 1949 (or somewhere around that) described sexual addiction as a release. I don't remember the author's name nor the title of the paper.

The gist of that paper was that sexual addiction is not about emotions, no intimacy but it's all about a release of a chemical. And I read in the comments that this idea was followed by universities researchers for a long time.

Any help will be much appreciated.

P.S. : Let me know if this question is off-topic.


问:
Is NERIS Type Explorer unscientific?
Why do people call the NERIS Type Explorer of www.16personalities.com unscientific?

According to https://www.16personalities.com/articles/reliability-and-validity it provides good test-re-testing reliability, an internal consistence and discriminant validity.

If it this is true, what's the difference to big5?

Is there a fundamental difference to big5 or is the only difference that NERIS Type Explorer has not been approved by scientists yet?

Title: Is NERIS Type Explorer unscientific?


问:
What would happen when the vitrome-dial hypothalamus get destroyed while there is no food to seek for?

Rats with VMH damage overeat because the ventromedial hypothalamus
  controls the body's ability to digest and store food. (Keesey &
  Powley, 1975). It controls digestive reflexes. When the ventromedial
  hypothalamus is damaged, digestive reflexes become overactive and
  empty the gut abnormally fast. Therefore, the animals start eating
  sooner than normal and therefore overeat. The rush of extra food
  cannot be metabolized so it is stored as fat. The Source

If your ventrome-dial hypothalamus get hit by a hard object somehow or due to infection and is not working properly, more it remains destroyed and unfunctional while there is no food, what will happen?


问:
Are there positive/negative effects of new/repetitive music in work performance?
I work the weekend closing shifts at a local supermarket. There are many stores in the chain, and they all have the same soundtrack - consisting mostly of 70's music - which is played on repeat throughout the day. My job is to pull forward items, making them flush with the edges of shelves (so they are more accessible and visually appealing). This is a very repetitive task, and requires little concentration. In my personal experience, the repetition of the same music every week has a detrimental effect on my ability to work efficiently - it makes me sluggish.

Occasionally, however, a newer, more likable song is played (about every hour). I find that my motivation and work efficiency is boosted by the unfamiliar beat. I want to petition the company to update the entire playlist, arguing that it will benefit both the workers and the employer.

Before I draft a petition, I want to check that my observations are consistent with findings in modern psychology. I searched the web for relevant reports which would backup my hypothesis, but Google Scholar's search engine is only so helpful in finding things when you do not know the proper terms to search for... I did find some experiments (listed below) exploring the same subject, but I feel that alone they are insufficient for my argument:

Music in Industry

Music — an aid to productivity

Background music and industrial efficiency—A review

Effects of background music on concentration of workers

Background music: Effects on attention performance

The first three of these reports hit some points which I wanted to emphasize, the last two seem like they would only hurt my cause.

"There is general agreement that music may increase contentment of the worker, improve output, and lessen fatigue..." (1st report)

"Music is most often appreciated by workers at repetitive manual tasks." (1st report)

"music is effective in raising efficiency in this type of [repetitive] work..." (2nd report)

"The use of music in industry is discussed as a possible means of aiding alertness, especially in jobs where a certain amount of repetition is involved." (3rd report)

At first glance, this seems like a solid foundation for drafting a petition. I have three reports from professional psychologists which make the same points I do. However, there is a slight problem. Each of these reports (with the fourth being the exception) study only the presence of music in a work environment, which is something my job already has. I am trying to find something to confirm my hypothesis that likable/new music is preferable to old/repetitive playlists.

Again the question arises, are these observations consistent with modern psychology? Perhaps I am on a wild goose chase. Maybe I am not finding the right report because it doesn't exist. But then again, maybe it does. I am not sure how things are run here at Psychology Stack Exchange, but I know that over at Stackoverflow, where I come from, there is an option to flag questions as off-topic if they are requests for third-party resources (such as books or tutorials). In light of this, I am not going to ask the easy question, "Can someone find me a good lab report?" Instead, I am going to ask for confirmation on my hypothesis, which will make this question more valuable to users visiting this site in the future.

Does new and likable music improve the motivation and/or work efficiency of laborers with repetitive tasks? And, on the flip-side, does old/repetitive/unlikable music demotivate and/or slow down workers?

(If you do not mind, please help me out with the petition by including any sources in your answers)


问:
Dimensional/Domain Change in "Generalized Negative Reciprocity"?
Generalized (Positive) Reciprocity says that if A helps B, B will help C. Many studies have shown that this behavior exists in different settings (real life, field and lab experiments). Studies also show that the "task/dimension/domain" between A/B and B/C can be different. For example, A helps B with a computer problem and B gives more in a dictator game.

I'm more interested in Generalized Negative Reciprocity. If A is unkind to B, B will be unkind to C. Obviously the underlying mechanisms in the positive and negative versions are different. Studies have shown (e.g. Gray, et al. 2014 and Strang, et al. 2016) that if the "task/dimension/domain" is similar, people reciprocate negatively. A gives little in dictator game to B and B will do the same in a dictator game to C. But what if the dimensions are different. Like A gives B a bad task instead of a good one, will B also give little to C ina dictator game (compared to a B that received a good task).

Do you guys know any papers that deal with this research question? I spent weeks reading literature in this area but I cannot believe that nobody tried it out.

Update 1: I actually found something. Zitek et al. 2010 let participants think about unfair situations in their past and they observe less pro-social behavior in different experiments.

Nevertheless, I would appreciate additional resources. I'm going through papers citing Zitek.

Social modeling could explain past research showing a relationship
between being the victim of selfish behavior and acting selfishly in
the same domain (e.g., Austin & Walster, 1975; Moschetti & Kues, 1978;
Zitek et al., 2007); perhaps people who have been the victims of
uneven monetary distributions, for example, simply imitate such unfair
behavior when it is their own turn to distribute money or believe that
such behavior is more normative. We found, however, that when people
pondered times when life was unfair to them—recalling slights in a
wide variety of domains—they were subsequently less likely to help an
experimenter with an additional task, even though none of them had
recalled a time when they asked for help but did not receive it.

References

Gray, K., Ward, A. F., & Norton, M. I. (2014). Paying it forward: Generalized reciprocity and the limits of generosity. Journal of experimental psychology: General, 143(1), 247. doi: 10.1037/a0031047

Strang, S., Grote, X., Kuss, K., Park, S. Q., & Weber, B. (2016). Generalized negative reciprocity in the dictator game–how to interrupt the chain of unfairness. Scientific reports, 6, 22316. doi: 10.1038/srep22316

Zitek, E. M., Jordan, A. H., Monin, B., & Leach, F. R. (2010). Victim entitlement to behave selfishly. Journal of personality and social psychology, 98(2), 245. link

// edit: Thanks to Chris Rogers for adding the references!


问:
Problem solving and memory size, conscious vs subconscious
First time asking here so I don't know the ethos yet of how liberal or strick this site is on the particulars.

In spending my day programming in Prolog I often hit a wall sometimes and stop coding on a section for a few minutes to a few days because the code is not flowing off the finger tips or the mind doesn't have the solution mapped out to the end.

Lately I am starting to see one pattern emerge (there are many more but this question is just about this one) that causes me to stop and that is that I can't keep all of the concepts in my head while coding.

If you have ever seen the show where a person is given a 5 second image of a chess board and asked to lay out the pieces on a different board from memory then you know that an average person is limited by their short term memory. But if the pieces are in the movements from a real game, a chess expert can typically remember all of the pieces on the board since they view the board different than an average person, but if the pieces are just random the expert has the same success rate of reproducing the board as an average person.

The same thing seems to be happening when I am coding a highly recursive set of predicates that have many state variables, as long as the concepts are familiar I can handle some very complex routines, but if my limit is exceeded or the solutions is not familiar then I step back because I know that my subconscious will work on the problem and typically give me one or more clear directions to take.

So the question is:

Are their any research papers that show that the conscious mind will get frustrated by certain problems because of the limit of short-term memory but that the subconscious mind will persist on a problem till solved?

EDIT

Why I don't view this as a duplicate of:

How is it that taking a break from a problem sometimes allows you to figure out the answer?

I view that question as

The OP is looking for a term to describe the phenomenon. e.g. the tag terminology.

The OP says the answer will suddenly come to them because they stopped.

My question is adding an additional (exact) condition that I am stopping because I have exceeded the limit of my conscious memory (short term memory if you chose) and so can't concentrate on it any more as something has to be taken from the short term memory to add something. However the subconscious is able to deal with the problem because it has absorbed all of the concepts that don't fit into short term memory and can continue to work on the problem. It may find and answer or a reason it can not be answered.

EDIT

Appears I need more specifics on why I think my question stands apart from the noted possible duplicate.

Since you asked here we go:

Other question:

If I am stuck on a particular problem in my work, often if I stop thinking about the problem and do something else, the answer will suddenly come to me.

My question:

I know why I am stopping, I have used up my ability to hold concepts in conscious memory, the other person is just stuck and they don't know why.

My question does not put a time frame of when the result arrives.

Quote from other question

You can either focus on one thing or another, you can't focus on two or three things at the same time.

My question

I am focused on one thing also so this is similar.

Other quote

Because consciousness is very limited in what it can do; unconsciousness is much broader.

My question

That statement can be taken as a truism that applies to both questions.

My question is pointing out a specific difference, namely that the subconscious has access to more concepts at once than the limited short term memory of conscious memory. Granted the conscious has access to other concepts in long term memory, but these types of problems have so many new concepts that need to be accessed as the same time, that conscious memory can not access them all when first seeing the problem.

Other quote

you keep on focusing at it, you may get stuck.

My question

Same as previously said:

I know why I am stuck and therefore stopping, I have used up my ability to hold concepts in conscious memory, the other person is just stuck and they don't know why.

Other quote

Taking a break, taking a shower, going for a walk, playing golf, you come back refreshed.

My question

Similar in that one has to move the task out of the conscious, but my questions doesn't require being refreshed to get the result from the subconscious. In my question it is not being refreshed that gets a result for the subconscious, the subconscious will give back a result when it finds one, be it a short time or many years.

Other quote

And often doing the other activity, boom, the idea will come to you.

My question

The other question via the quote suggest that you must go through a refreshing activity to get an idea. My question is saying that because the subconscious can hold more concepts it can find a result because it can access more concepts at once than conscious memory.

My question does not require or suggest that the result arrives in the manner of a boom, nor does it rule it out.

I don't think there is much more dissection I can do here.


问:
Is there research evidence to suggest that waking up slowly is more beneficial than waking up abruptly?
There are several articles I've found which seem to anecdotally back up the suggestion that waking up slowly is better than waking up abruptly, in terms of combatting sleep inertia:

https://www.nbcnews.com/better/pop-culture/make-your-day-better-stay-bed-longer-really-ncna837176

https://qz.com/1301170/sleep-inertia-explains-why-you-feel-so-groggy-when-you-wake-up/

https://www.brightontheday.com/4-benefits-of-waking-up-slowly-and-how-to-actually-do-it/

However, I want to know if there have been any studies conducted which directly compared the effects on sleep inertia of waking up slowly and mindfully vs. swiftly and energetically. I wasn't able to find any through Google Scholar.

OwnerDisplayName: Lou


问:
What feelings do women and girls have when seeing genocide of her race?
In my collage , I need to submit an article on Genocides in Ancient World

I collected many details and show to my guide

But he requested me to add about the psychological feelings does a female have when spectating (partial)  genocide of her race

Let I explain in detail :

There was a city in 1500 BC which was sacked by enemy army . The commander decided to kill the males and take females as slaves .

1.The people of the city were gathered in a big ground.

2.The soldiers will dig a large pit before the gathered people

3.The 10-20 soldiers with swords will stand on the edge of the pit in a single line side by side with 2 meters gap to each other .

4.Each and every soldier have 20-30 persons standing in queue in front of them

5.All of the women , where gathered and sat down some meters away from the pit

7.Now , the a man standing in the first of the queue come forward and kneel down before the soldier.

8.The soldier will cut the head (beheading) of man and push the body and head into the pit.

The women gathered watching them with tears and screams

10.This continues until all persons standing in the queue beheaded.

Now my question is , what are psychological feeling does the females experiences when they watching the beheading of their family and relatives

I need them in psychological terms , NOT simply anger , vengeance , sadness,pain  etc i.e not in  layman terms

Since I am a History student , I can't get it

Please explain me

(sorry for Bad English)


问:
Differences between mental health and emotion health
I have zero background in psychology and healthcare. Recently I started to read health topics online by googling. I supposed one's health can be broadly categorised into genetic, physical, mental, emotion. Meanings for the first two seem pretty straight forward, but I'm confused with the differences between mental health and emotion health.

Below is one of the few websites that saying mental health and emotion health are not the same:
https://www.pyramidhealthcarepa.com/pyramid-healthcare-assessment-center/pfbh-assessment-center-blog/what-is-the-difference-between-mental-health-emotional-health

Part of mental health is how well your mind processes and understands information and experiences. In contrast, emotional health involves your ability to manage and express the emotions that arise from what you have learned and experienced.

However, when searching examples of health issues for these two categories, results are substancially overlapping. For instance, depression is listed as an emotion health issue by many websites, but I could also find many other websites that categorise it under mental health issue. Appreciate if someone could shed the light on their differences and give some examples.


问:
What is the approximate average duration of a SCID-5 interview for diagnosing winter depression?
What is the approximate average duration of a DSM-V structured clinical interview for diagnosing winter depression? I would be very grateful for the answer!</p>


问:
What explains the contrast in suicide mortality versus attempts between men and women?
It's said that men in general die from suicide about 3 times more than women, but women make about 3 times more attempts than men. So, men have around 9 times more mortality per attempt.

Some sources for this claim are the following:

Differences in Suicide Among Men and Women

Gender differences in suicide

What are the main reasons that could explain this difference?


问:
Correlations between symbol color, viewer response and viewer mood
Consider the image shown below

Are there any studies that look at how the viewer's response to such images - simple monocolor outline symbols - varies depending on their mood.  For instance

Tense and agitated viewer responds best to red wine glass

Relaxed viewer responds best to blue wine glass

Happy user responds best to green wine glass

...


问:
How a living being (a huge collection of atoms) perceive things?
How a series of physical and chemical events leads to a very non physical/ intangible perception? For example, let's say a certain wavelength of light falls on the retina of my eyes, then the sensory cells convert that into electrical signals that go to the brain through optic nerves and there it leads to a series of chemical activities that makes us perceive a  certain colour, say red. But there is no such thing as red or blue or green or yellow or anything else outside of our brains. These perception of colours or perceptions in general aren't absolute, they don't exist without us. Heck, we can't even know that how i perceive red is same as how others perceive red. So, how do we perceive a sensation? What are our perceptions?  Can it be even explained by science?


问:
Does PTSD related courage (coping mechanisms) run parallel with bad memory in patients?
From Hayes, et al. (2012)

Some researchers have suggested that patients with PTSD have an
  enhanced ability to forget information, which may explain amnesia for
  important details of their traumatic event. This idea, mainly evolving
  out of the child sexual abuse literature, suggests that repeat trauma
  survivors with PTSD cope during their trauma by dissociating from
  their surroundings and disengaging attention from the event, sometimes
  leading to amnesia for large stretches of time (Terr, 1991). This
  avoidant coping style may manifest in adulthood by increased ability
  to forget new information presented in an experimental setting
  (McNally et al., 1998).

and

Suppressing bad memories from the past can block memory formation in the here and now, research suggests. source

Note: This question appears to be asking for people who want to explain their experiences with patients as well as providing extra information.

I think one's courage is strongly related with remembering crucial parts of life that does matter, I think, and remembering is, in fact part of memory and a thousand of processes that influence that. If you can't remember yourself good things because you used to suppress traumatic memories in the past, you will get struck in your void and the bad happenings and this automatically predicts what situations you will face in future to include careless actions and taking unwanted risks.

(no cites to official documents)

Question: Patients have a coping style to forget bad memories as well as good memories fast, but does this explain the functioning of the courage system, in other words can memory influence courage in patients with PTSD?

So my conclusion is, if memory gets trained intense, only then courage will build up and related symptoms such as anxiety, annoyance will disappear.

Definitions:

courage: the quality of mind or spirit that enables a person to face difficulty, danger, pain, etc., without fear; bravery.

courage system: in fact, this is the biochemical system that produces chemicals and processes in the brain that keeps us motivated.

intense training for memory: techniques whereby memory is trained to do tasks that are trivial for daily life. This can be done by a therapist, neurofeedback or individual training with online resources. However I'm not sure how well memory plays a role here, that's my question.

annoyance: a person or thing that annoys; nuisance.

References

Hayes, J. P., VanElzakker, M. B., & Shin, L. M. (2012). Emotion and cognition interactions in PTSD: a review of neurocognitive and neuroimaging studies. Frontiers in integrative neuroscience, 6, 89. doi: 10.3389/fnint.2012.00089 pmcid: PMC3466464

McNally, R. J., Metzger, L. J., Lasko, N. B., Clancy, S. A., & Pitman, R. K. (1998). Directed forgetting of trauma cues in adult survivors of childhood sexual abuse with and without posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of abnormal psychology, 107(4), 596. doi: 10.1037/0021-843X.107.4.596 pmid: 9830247

Terr, L. C. (1991). Childhood traumas: an outline and overview. The American journal of psychiatry, 148(1), 10-20. doi: 10.1176/ajp.148.1.10


问:
What is the opposite of 'curse of knowledge' or reverse of Zen 'Shoshin'?
I'm trying to see if there is a term for someone that assumes because they have some level of expertise in a given field, they refused to listen to others (who do not have similar pedigrees) who have input on the assumption their lack of experience makes the input irrelevant.

Is see there is a term 'curse of knowledge' where one assumes others have the 'same' knowledge (which would be one form of opposite of this) and another Zen term 'Shoshin' that means open minded and willing to accept input from any/many/all sources.

But I'm referring to someone who has been biased by their own field and the perceived image of their own expertise in that field and thus will not listen to anyone 'outside' their expertise regardless of the quality or nature of the input.

In a manner of speaking, it would also be antithetical to Dunn & Kruger effect.

Thanks in advance.


问:
Is a New Software Library to Simulate Natural Processes like Hunger Needed?
This sort of dovetails off a question I asked on the AI Exchange: Is There A Need For Stochastic Inputs To Mimic Real-World Biology And Environment?

I figured this site would give more insight on what I'm trying to accomplish neurologically/biologically.

My question is this: in order for artificial intelligence to more accurately simulate consciousness, bodily processes that may influence thoughts, and more complex response to stimuli that may not always be deterministic, would a new library similar to TensorFlow or PyTorch be necessary, or are these libraries sufficient enough?

This paper actually used FFNN to accomplish hunger/satiety: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4936290/

Would a new math be required, such as linear-time logic or fuzzy logic that would be better implemented in a completely new software library? Perhaps used in-tandem with something like TensorFlow, in order to reproduce the variations in feelings like hunger or random thoughts and creative inspiration?

For example, I'm thinking of an application similar to a tensor field, where over time a mood (happy/sad/angry) could be (literally) bit-by-bit changed, affecting surrounding tensors in a stochastic way, but it may not lead to a full mood swing at all.

Am I focused too specifically on a software library to accomplish the features of consciousness/moods/thoughts rather than the holistic Holy Grail everyone is chasing of accomplishing AI consciousness and artificial general intelligence? I was thinking of starting this as an open source software project but I may be on a wild goose chase.


问:
What are some methods to manage a constant & persistent temptation or urge towards a bad habit like smoking, eating junk food?
This questions is around my observation of my own behavioral pattern. I am quite good at avoiding junk foods on some days and on others, I am miserably fail.

I have some mild clinical depression and anxiety, and so I have good & bad days in that context too.

On bad days(depression or anxiety), I crave for junk food especially sugar(sometimes booze & smoke too). I am usually able to keep myself off of them for a couple of hours, I employ various techniques like taking a walk, eating veggies, meditating but even after hours, when urge do not go away, I finally give up.

The way I give up is quite interesting too, I just eat fast or do so in a fashion that I won't let me think about it or put an argument against it. It feels like my mind is hijacked or possessed and the worst thing is I end up eating twice(or much more) of what might have satisfied me on a normal day e.g. 10 cookies instead 1.

I believe the problem is not only about resisting the urge but resisting it for long enough like a day without adding any more intensity to it(longer I resist and stronger they get).

Any advice is much appreciated.


问:
Does Anchoring fall under any of Robert Cialdini's influence buckets?
Robert Cialdini discusses 7 major influence buckets in his 2 books (Influence, Pre-suasion)

Being:

Social Proof.

Personal Consistency & Commitment.

Authority.

Unity.

Reciprocity.

Scarcity.

Liking.

The concept of Anchoring brought up nicely in this video https://youtu.be/uqXVAo7dVRU?t=136 does not seem to fall under any of the above stated buckets.

Does anchoring fall under any of the above buckets or is it its own separate bucket?


问:
How to not feel anything when people shout over me?
At work, sometimes, we get in touch with kind people. But often, we are with rude people, and here, we cannot control others, even if they shout... my question is ... how to not feel the shouting ? I tried to consider people like objects in my mind, but without any success...</p>


问:
Why do people seem to do the opposite of what they were told regardless if their actions have repercussions or not?
In My Country Uganda, we are put under total lockdown. a curfew was imposed that starts at 7 Pm, but on the contrary, when it clocked 7 PM, people were not in their houses but rather on the verandas and balconies and some on streets to see how the security was going to enforce the curfew.

Experiments reveal, for example, that people are more likely to watch violent TV shows and play violent video games when labels warn against them. And there are many examples of books becoming more popular after they’re banned.

When someone tells you not to think about something, your mind has a sneaky way of returning to that very thought. In a brilliant study led by psychologist Daniel Wegner (Wegner, 1989), people were told not to think about a white bear. They spent the next 5 minutes thinking aloud, saying everything that came to mind was thinking of a white bear.

My Question
Why do people seem to do the opposite of what they were told regardless if their actions have repercussions?
This applies to directions given by Parents, Bosses, Drill Sergeants, Police (under certain circumstances), Firemen and Teachers/Professors.

Credit: Bussiness Insider

References

Wegner, D. M. (1989). White bears and other unwanted thoughts: Suppression, obsession, and the psychology of mental control. New York: Penguin Press.


问:
How firing of neurons stimulate reality?
Iam  just an enthusiast.When I look for how does our brain works it boils down to firing of neurons in a pattern. I read that  all of our thoughts, memory is due to firing of networks of neurons in a pattern. But one thing I just could not correlate is that how firing of neurons using electrical signals picturises the world around and beyond us? .How these electrical signals did it appears to us recognizably as something like sound, picture etc...

How neurons firing in a pattern just could appear it as reality or something else ?


问:
Testing Multilayer Perceptron
The following script is from Trappenberg's Fundamentals of Computational Neuroscience and is used to test a perceptron's robustness against noise.

However, how would one alter it to test the output of a multilayer perceptron?

In particular, wOut and rIn are non-comformable because the wOut of a multilayer perceptron with 2 hidden layers is 26*2.

So how could I alter this to test the trained multilayer perceptron?

```<code>%% Testing generalization perfroamnce of trained perceptron
 perceptron_network_sim;
 letterMatrix=rIn;
 for nflip = 1:80;
    dist1=[]; dist2=[];
    for trial=1:10;
       rIn=abs(letterMatrix-randomFlipMatrix(nflip));
       % Threshold output function
       rOut1=(wOut*rIn)>0;
       nerror=0;
       for j=1:26; nerror=nerror+(sum(rDes(:,j)~=rOut1(:,j))>0); end
       dist1=[dist1,nerror];
       % Max output function
       [v,i]=max(wOut*rIn);
       rOut2=zeros(26); for j=1:26; rOut2(i(j),j)=1; end
       dist2=[dist2,0.5*sum(sum(rDes~=rOut2))];
    end
    meanDist1(nflip)=mean(dist1); stdDist1(nflip)=std(dist1);
    meanDist2(nflip)=mean(dist2); stdDist2(nflip)=std(dist2);
 end
 figure; hold on;
 errorbar((1:80)/156,meanDist1,stdDist1,':')
 errorbar((1:80)/156,meanDist2,stdDist2,'r')
 xlabel('Fraction of flipped bits')
 ylabel('Average number of wrong letters')
</code>```

Title: Testing Multilayer Perceptron


问:
Minimum constant neuron firing rate
Please forgive what may be an elementary question for many of you.

I am trying to understand the range of firing rates in an idealized neuron.
I understand what governs the maximum firing rate of a neuron (the refractory period), however I would like to know how to figure out what the minimum firing rate would be.

The context of this neuronal excitation would be one of applying a constant, sustained electrical stimulus which barely satisfies the threshold requirement for an action potential to occur in the neuron. Put otherwise, the neuron would be exposed to the lowest level of sustained stimulation required to cause a steady spike train.

I have found information on average firing rates (in various species and in various parts of the nervous system and in response to various amplitudes of stimuli), but I have not found anything yet which describes how to find the lowest rate of firing in an idealized neuron. I also am unclear as to whether the threshold of an action potential refers to the minimum required to cause a single, solitary action potential (and it will not be repeated even if the stimulus is kept steady) OR if the threshold implies that the action potential would be repeated steadily. Please forgive my ignorance of the subject, as I am only just starting to study this fascinating and intimidating subject.

Thank you for your time and consideration!

Title: Minimum constant neuron firing rate


问:
Most efficient (highest-bandwidth) memory encoding scheme?
Memory competitions have different events; most of them revolve around memorizing digits, cards, faces, etc. over a defined period of time. However, world champions use established techniques like Person-Action-Object and the method of loci, indicating that the information efficiency of remembering narratives constructed out of objects is higher than that of memorizing the digits directly, even taking into account the time-consuming encoding technique.

Encoding digits into objects is a significant mental burden: the one-hour record for memorizing decimal digits is 4620 digits, which works out to 4620 lg(10) = 15347 bits/hr. The record for cards is 2530 cards, which is an information content of only 2530 / 52 * lg(52!) = 10975 bits/hr. This means that it's significantly harder to encode playing cards than words.

What would the limit be if entropy were the bottleneck, rather than encoding? That is, imagine the following memory discipline:

Competitor is taken into a room with a powerful computer running software of their choice.

A random sequence of bits, or compressed incomprehensible alien language, is received by the computer, which encodes it into some format. Maybe it's a movie of one's memory palace, or a fictitious oral history, or a written story, or a list of random words.

Competitor watches the movie or other encoding.

After 1 hour, competitor goes into a different room and has an unlimited amount of time to input information into a decoder computer, which reconstructs the original information.

The computer is allowed to use voice or holographic interfaces, error-correcting codes, etc. But brain-computer interfaces are considered cheating.

Questions

What type of encoding would maximize the bits of information a human could memorize in an hour? Would it be unique for each person, or relatively universal?

What is the estimated bandwidth in bits/hr of this encoding? (I'd guess that it's much less than the human conscious bandwidth limit of ~120 bits/s = ~400,000 bits/hr, unless unconscious memory systems are much higher-bandwidth than we think.)

Related: Which format of secret would be the most efficient for human memory?


问:
What are the necessary preconditions for the emergence of a conscience?
I am aware of 2 brain anomalies that seem to be associated with the non-emergence of a conscience.
One is associated with psychopathy. The other is associated with narcissism.

psychopathy:

My understanding is that a psychopath has a smaller and misshapen amygdala and that the connectivity between the amygdala and ventromedial prefrontal cortex is nearly non-existent.  My understanding is that psychopaths experience weaker pain signals than non-psychopaths. Fearlessness is often attributed to them. They apparently have the ability to feel empathy for others, but they simply choose not to. The inability to delay gratification and to learn from life experiences are also traits which have been associated with psychopathy.

One interpretation of this is that persistent pain which is strong enough to induce a rumination that does not relent until a means of avoiding such pain in the future has been discovered, is a necessary precondition for the emergence of a conscience.

Source: YouTube: Psychopaths: The most dangerous people:

narcissism:

My understanding is that narcissists, by contrast, have a lack of grey matter in the left anterior insula and that this has been associated with an inability to experience affective empathy.

Source: Live Science: Narcissists' Lack of Empathy Detected in Brain Scans (2013-06-24)

This evidence seems to suggest that these 2 are necessary preconditions for the emergence of a conscience:

1: the ability to experience persistent pain necessary to induce rumination

2: the ability to experience affective empathy

From an experiential perspective this makes intuitive sense because when our actions lead others to suffer, feeling the suffering of others as if it was our own intensely (guilt) is the force that gives rise to the voluntary decision to obey moral prohibitions and to be guided by genuine care and concern for the wellbeing of others in the future in order to avoid experiencing this intense pain again.

Are the 2 preconditions all that is necessary for a conscience to emerge?


问:
What is the working mechanism of the atypical antipsychotic Olanzapine?
I'm a 3th year medicine student and I'm working on a paper including the possible analgesic effects of Olanzapine on complex regional pain syndrome (CRPS). The mechanism of pain perception in CRPS is due to central sensitization and sympathetic activated pain. The nociceptive receptors that are responsible for allodynia are located in the spinal column (dorsal horn) and periphery. Now knowing that olanzapine (Zyprexa) is an agonist of alpha-2-adrenergic receptors, does that also include adrenergic receptors in the dorsal horn and periphery (as example  the limbs)? Or does olanzapine only have effect in the brain?  </p>

OwnerDisplayName: Louise Wever


问:
Is there a commonly used term for 'informal' cognitive screening?
I am looking for a Psychology term (not a test procedure, just a term) that describes cognitive testing not based on a questionnaire, or a standard operating procedure.

Here is the situation - in our clinic people get to see a Psychologist who looks into people's background before they are being enrolled in surgery and the subsequent intensive rehab program. Basically, these professionals 'informally' assess whether potential surgery/rehab candidates have a sufficient social network to support their rehab, and whether they appear mentally fit to take this challenge.

Now I am revising this paper and the editor asks for a clarification on the cognitive screening method. Well, we didn't use a standardized test at all (no IQ test, questionnaire etc), except when the Psychologist had doubts after the informal intake. In that case, patients are referred to a geriatrician or a more specialized psychologist to do 'proper' (I guess standardized) cognitive screening.

Is there a name for 'informal cognitive screening', perhaps as part of an 'intake' procedure?


问:
Dopamine is released in anticipation. What chemial is released when the reward is actually recieved and complete the feedback loop?

The figure shows Twice as much dopamine was released when there is a 50/50 chance of getting the reward vs 100%.

So brain releases dopamine in anticipation of reward. But how does the brain confirm that the reward is actually recieved and how it makes sure that it needs to release more dopamine when the probablity of getting the reward is 50% ?


问:
Long term effect of masturbation on Estrogen receptors
I was writing an article on masturbation and was doing some net based research. I saw on a paper (Phillips-Farfán et al. 2007) that frequent masturbation increases estrogen receptors in the brain.

My question is does estrogen receptivity decrease and/or go to back to normal due to abstinence from masturbation and/or from increased testosterone levels in the body due to abstinence?

References

Phillips-Farfán, B. V., Lemus, A. E., & Fernández-Guasti, A. (2007). Increased estrogen receptor alpha immunoreactivity in the forebrain of sexually satiated rats. Hormones and behavior, 51(3), 328-334. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yhbeh.2006.12.001


问:
Classifying motor imagery using EEG data
I am an undergraduate student who is trying to classify motor imagery from EEG data!

I have no experience working with EEG or any neuroscience background, I only have a very basic knowledge of how EEG, ERD/ERS and frequency domain work from the papers I've tried to read but don't understand and the basic idea of what they are doing. I also have a reasonably basic knowledge of supervised Machine Learning.

I plan to use ERD/ERS to classify Left foot, Right hand and rest to classify motor imagery in real time!

What is the easiest way to do this?

So far I have bandpassed the data between 7-30 Hz for Mu and Beta wavelengths as they are the ones related to the motor imagery as well as removing the baseline and just plotted the Power Spectral Density. I passed this data through a basic SVM; linear and gaussian, optimised parameters with poor results (60% accuracy on average)

I have no idea how to do feature extraction, where to start, how to properly classify EEG data. and how to do this in real time.

If someone could guide me and provide the steps on how to proceed I would extremely grateful!

I want to work in the field of Brain Computer Interfaces as I find it fascinating, this is my first step :)

Here is the link to the dataset and its details BCI competition: IVc


问:
How do we call a tendency of young children to accept things as facts without doubting them?
I have noticed that young children don't doubt a lot of things. If a teacher tell them "1+1=2", they usually just learn it without questioning. When those children get older, they often start to revisit they old knowledge and start to be skeptic about them.

Would you recommend me some key words for this topic? Thank you.


问:
To what extent is scapegoating correlated with personality?
The Wikipedia article on scapegoating is rather thin on correlates, but has plenty of "pure" theories as to what causes scapegoating, not backed by much if any evidence, even correlational.

So what is known about the correlates of this behavior, and for starters personality, e.g. Big Five?

(Edit: Initially, I asked about other correlates too, but that's probably too broad for just one question.)


问:
Can an orphan grow up to be a good parent?
Orphans, in the context of this question, refers to early childhood orphans.

In the developed world, orphans and foster kids rarely experience a stable "family life". In other parts of the world, orphans' lot is typically much worse.

A person's upbringing/circumstances during their early years can be assumed (?) to have an outsized effect on their worldview and behavior during adult life [1]. It is also known that people who have grown up in happy stable families are more likely to seek out and create that sort of thing for themselves, and conversely people who were raised in environments with lots of yelling etc. consider that to be quite normal [2].

Current literature [3] also suggests

Family dynamics will ultimately influence the way young people view themselves/others and the world. It will also impact their relationships/behaviors and their future wellbeing

So, can an orphan, who has never experienced true "parental love" be reasonably expected to provide the same for their children? Conversely, are there reasons they might actually be able to?

[1] "Early childhood experiences have lasting emotional and psychological effects" (www.sciencedaily.com)

[2] "6 Ways That a Rough Childhood Can Affect Adult Relationships" (www.psychologytoday.com)
[3] Ubaidi, B. A. (2017). Cost of growing up in a dysfunctional family. Journal of Family Medicine and Disease Prevention


问:
Validity of Open Online IQ test
I want to measure IQ of college students for a research project I am working on.

After searching for valid IQ test for research that is also low cost/free, I came across this site-https://openpsychometrics.org/

They have an IQ test listed as,The Full scale IQ test (https://openpsychometrics.org/tests/FSIQ/)

They also have listed some research papers that they claim have used their data
(https://openpsychometrics.org/_rawdata/cited/) but I simply used my browser search option to search for the terms "IQ" and "Intelligence" in that page, with O results.

Is the full scale IQ test valid and useable  for publishable academic research work? Shall I administer their test on a sample from my target population and use it for my research work?
 If not, what are some other free or low cost options avaible for me?

Title: Validity of Open Online IQ test