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Data: By March 2019, Surfaced Roads constituted 65% of the total Road Length in India
Sai Krishna Muthyanolla
August 8, 2022
The annual Basic Road Statistics of India report published by the Ministry of Road Transport & Highways (MORTH) provides detailed data about the road network in the country.  As per the recently released 2018-19 report, while the overall road length increased by 38% between 2010 & 2019, the share of surfaced roads out of the total road length reached 65% by March 2019.
Roads are an important part of a country’s infrastructure. This is more so in a country with diverse terrain like India, as roads are key to connecting different parts of the country. Dense road networks with good quality roads contribute significantly to economic and social development.
Globally, India ranks next only to the USA in terms of the length of the road network. The annual Basic Road Statistics of India report published by the Ministry of Road Transport & Highways (MORTH) provides detailed data about the road network in the country.  The Basic Road Statistics of India 2018-19 was published recently.  In the first of this two-part series, we look at a few of the key statistics relating to the roads in India as provided in the report.
Overall Road Network length in the country increased by 38% during 2010-2019
As per the report, the road network in India is categorised into – National Highways, State Highways, District roads, Rural Roads, Urban roads & other Project roads.  As of 31 March 2019, the overall length of the road network in the country was 63.31 lakh Km. A significant portion of the roads in India is categorised as Rural roads. They constitute 71% of the total road length in India.
Over the 10-year period i.e., 2010-2019, the length of rural roads increased by nearly 68%. A significant increase in the rural road network was reported in 2015-16 when it increased from 33.37 lakh km to 39.35 lakh Km. This increase is attributed to categorization of other Public Works Departments (PWD) roads into District roads and Rural roads built by State PWD/RWD. Earlier, these roads were categorised only under District roads.  This categorization also resulted in the reduction of the extent of roads categorised as district roads.
Apart from Rural Roads, National Highways have also witnessed a higher increase over the years. By 31 March 2010, the National Highway Road network was 70.9 thousand km. By 31 March 2019, this increased to 1.32 lakh Km. The MORTH is responsible for the construction, development, and maintenance of the National Highways. Although National Highways constitute only about 2.1% of the total road network in the country, they carry about 1/3 of the total traffic on roads.
State Highways, on the other hand, are constructed by the State governments through State Public Works Departments (PWD). There is a fall in the total length of State Highways from 1.86 lakh Km in 2018 to 1.79 lakh km. This is primarily due to the conversion of a few State Highways into National Highways.
Surfaced roads constitute 65% of the total road length in India
Surfaced road means a road that is laid using durable materials with the intent of being used for foot & vehicular movement. Over the years, an increase in road construction activity has contributed to an increasing share of surfaced roads.
In 1951, surfaced roads constituted about 39.3% of the total road network in the country. By 2009, more than half i.e., 52% of the roads in India were laid surface roads. This increased in the ensuing years and by 2019, surfaced roads constitute 65% of the roads in India. Among the different categories of roads, 100% of the National Highways are surfaced. Even State & District highways have most of their road network surfaced. However, only about 67% of the rural roads surfaced.
Among the states, Rajasthan has the highest surfaced road ratio with 91.7% of the roads being surfaced. Punjab, Gujarat, Haryana & Madhya Pradesh make up the rest of top-5 states with the highest surfaced road ratio. Assam has the least percent share of the surfaced road to total road length with only 23.1%. Other Northeastern States of Meghalaya, Nagaland and Manipur also have a lower share of surfaced roads. Among the large states, Bihar has the least with 58.5% of the roads being surfaced roads, with Karnataka slightly better at 59.7%.
A marked increase in the Rural Road Density in recent years
Road density is defined as the average road length per 1000 sq. km of area. As per the information provided in the report, the road density in India by 31 March 2019 was 1,926 Km.  By 31 March 2012, it was 1,422.63 Km and has witnessed a year-on-year increase.
There is a marked improvement, especially in the density of rural roads. The rural road density has increased from 886.61 Km per 1000 sq. km by end of 2011-12, to 1,458.10 Kms per 1000 sq. km by end of 2018-19.
India has a higher Urban Road density, which has increased further over the years. Urban road density increased from 4,026.12 Km per 1000 sq. km by end of 2011-12, to 5,296.3 Km per 1000 sq. km by end of 2018-19.
Apart from the available length of roads, road density is also measured as road availability compared to the population. This is defined as the availability of roads per 1000 people. Across India, it increased from 3.86 Km per 1000 population in 2011-12 to 5.23 per 1000 population in 2018-19.
In respect of rural roads, the road density has increased from 3.3 km per 1000 population in 2011-12 to 5.42 Km per 1000 population in 2018-19.  The higher density of the urban population means that the road density is comparatively lower in terms of population. During the same period, it increased from 1.09 Km per 1000 population in 2011-12 to 1.44 per 1000 population in 2018-19.
It must be noted that the report has considered the population and area as per the 2011 census, while the road length is as of 31 March 2019 for the year 2018-19. With an increased population since the 2011 census, the actual availability of roads in terms of the population may be different. We will know the actual figures once the data for the 2021 census is made available.
Among the states, Kerala has the highest Rural Road Density per 1000 sq. km with 6,031 Km. Meanwhile, West Bengal has the highest Urban Road Density with 18,547 Km of roads per 1000 sq. km
In the second part of the story, we would look at the statistics relating to the different categories of roads across states.
Featured Image: Road Length in India

created: August 8, 2022


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Data: By end of 2018, more than 83% of NDPS cases were pending with courts
Sai Krishna Muthyanolla
September 21, 2020
One of the reasons for many legislations to be ineffective is lack of swift & timely disposal of cases. The NDPS act is no exception. Five-year data from 2014 to 2018 indicates that more than 83% of the NDPS cases were pending in courts. The actual number of pending cases has only been increasing year after year.
In an earlier story, we analysed the trends of police disposal of cases under the NDPS Act. We have noticed that, over the five-year period i.e. 2014-18, the proportion of cases charge-sheeted by the police and moved to the courts has increased. This has effectively reduced the share of these cases that are pending investigation at the police end.
While the increased disposal at the police end is appreciable, the overall situation can only be ascertained by looking at the trend of disposal of these cases in the courts.
In this story, we take a look at the court disposal of the cases booked under the NDPS Act. The information available in the annual Crime in India reports published by the NCRB ( National Crime Records Bureau) is considered even for this analysis.
More than 83% of the NDPS cases with the courts are pending trial
At the beginning of 2014, a total of 1.18 lakh cases booked under the NDPS Act, were pending for trial in the courts. By the end of the year, the number of such cases increased to around 1.3 lakh i.e. 83.1% of the total cases that were up for trial in the courts for the year.
During the same year, the number of new cases which came up for trial was around 39 thousand. In the ensuing years, the number of new cases up for trial increased continuously. In 2015, there has been a significant jump with 50.8 thousand new cases. In the next three-year period i.e. 2016-18, the number of new cases that came up for trial in the courts was 50.3 thousand, 56.4 thousand and 60.1 thousand respectively.
Although the trial was complete in only around 26.6 thousand cases in 2014, this number increased significantly in the next two years with trials completing in 35.2 thousand and 37.1 thousand cases respectively.
It ought to be noted that, the number of cases (around 1.5 thousand) which were disposed of without trial in 2016 was comparatively higher than the previous and subsequent years.
In 2017, the number of cases disposed of was 34.1 thousand & in 2018, the number went up to  38.5 thousand.  Apart from cases that were disposed of without trial, the cases disposed of include cases where the accused were ‘Discharged/Acquitted’ and those where the accused were ‘Convicted’.
The number of convictions was around 19 thousand in 2014, which increased to 26.5 thousand in 2015. After a fall in the convictions in the next two years, it increased to 28.3 thousand in 2018.  Meanwhile, the number of cases that were disposed of as ‘Discharged/Acquitted’ increased from 6.7 thousand in 2014 to 9.7 thousand in 2018.
Since a higher number of cases were disposed of in 2015, the pendency rate came down from 83.1% to 80.6 %. This slightly increased to 81.3 % in 2016. By 2017, the proportion of pending cases increased to 83.7%, with only a slight fall in 2018 to 83.6%. The higher pendency in both 2017 & 2018, is a result of an increase in the number of new cases for trial and the lack of a proportionate increase in the disposal of cases. It has to be noted that the pendency rate of all the crimes covered under SLL laws was 82.6 % in 2018.
Increase in the proportion of pending cases in Metro cities
In 2016, the number of new cases under the NDPS Act in Metro cities, that came up for trial was around 17 thousand. As highlighted in earlier stories, NCRB’s CII report enlists 19 cities as metro cities.  This number fell in the next two years when around 15.4 thousand and 15 thousand cases came up for trial in 2017 & 2018 respectively.
Despite the fall in new cases for trial, the number of pending cases increased from 35.8 thousand in 2016 to 47.2 thousand in 2018.  This increase in the number of pending cases can be attributed to two factors. The first one being a significant decrease in the number of cases that were disposed without trial. In 2016, around 1.4 thousand cases were disposed without trial (compounded). However, in the next two years, only 16 and 175 cases in the metro cities have been disposed without trial.
The second factor is the decrease in the number of cases where the trial is complete.  In 2016, the trial was complete in around 11.8 thousand cases, which fell to 8.5 thousand and 9.9 thousand in 2017 & 2018 respectively. This means that there is a significant drop in the total number of cases disposed of by the courts.
The fall in the number of cases disposed of by the courts is reflected both in the number of ‘Convictions’ and number of cases under ‘Discharged & Acquitted’, more predominantly in case of later.
A total of 8.8 thousand cases resulted in conviction in 2016 which fell to 6.5 thousand in 2017. However, this number increased to 8.5 thousand in 2018. The number of cases where the accused were discharged or acquitted was 2.9 thousand in 2016, which fell to 1.4 thousand in 2018.
This increase in the pendency in courts looks prominent in terms of proportion also. In 2016, nearly 73% of the NDPS cases in metro cities were pending with courts, which increased to more than 82% in 2018.
Around 60% of the cases are pending trial in courts for over a year
Out of 1.74 lakh cases under the NDPS act pending trial in the courts by the end of 2017, around 67 thousand were pending for less than a year. The rest of the cases, around 1.07 lakh cases i.e. 60% of the cases were pending for over a year. Of these,  64% of the cases were pending between 1-3 years. More than 3 thousand cases were pending for over 10 years.
In 2018, the number of pending cases with courts under the NDPS act has increased to 1.96 lakh. A corresponding increase is observed across different pending tenures. The major increase is observed for cases pending for ‘6-12 months’ and for ‘3-5 years’.
Meanwhile, there is a drop in the number of cases pending for over 10 years, with 1955 such cases pending by the end of 2018. Data is not available to ascertain if these long pending cases resulted in a conviction or disposal/acquittal.
Lower disposal rate raises serious questions on the effectiveness of the law
The purpose of any crime related legislation is to bring the actual offenders to justice and in the process effect convictions or acquit the innocent after due process of law i.e. impartial police investigation and a fair trial in the courts.
As observed in the earlier story regarding police disposal of the cases booked under NDPS Act, there is an increase in the number of cases being charge-sheeted and hence an increase in the number of cases that came up for trial in courts.  However, as the data indicates, the disposal rate in the courts is very low and also shows a declining trend. The higher proportion of the cases pending trial in the courts for over a year is also a cause for concern. The problem of pendency is not limited to cases under the NDPS act and this is a problem across the spectrum. We had earlier analysed pendency in courts in multiple stories which can be read here and here.
The purpose of NDPS Act , was to have a legislation in place which can effectively deal with the illicit drug trade and abuse. However, with a high proportion of the cases pending at the police and majority pending in the courts, the actual disposal rate of these cases is very low. Considering the fact that possession of small quantities of the prohibited drugs attracts a punishment of imprisonment up to 12 months, and consumption may attract a punishment of imprisonment of only up to 6 months, waiting for the court disposal for more than a year raises serious questions about  the effectiveness of the legislation in itself and its deterrent effect on drug trade & abuse.
As per data provided by the German Research firm ABCD, in 2018, New Delhi ranks third among the cities in the world in terms of volume of consumption of Cannabis with 38.26 metric tonnes. Mumbai ranks sixth with 32.38 metric tonnes consumption.
As per the International Narcotics Control Board’s Annual Report -2019, India has emerged as the centre for manufacturing of ‘tramadol’ that enters clandestine markets. The report also states that, as per the data between 2010 & 2017, India is among the countries with the greatest extent of illicit cannabis cultivation.
Around 1.2% of the population used illegal Cannabis according to a Government report
As per the ‘Magnitude of Substance Use in India-2019’ report by Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment, Cannabis and Opioids are the most commonly used substances in India after alcohol. Around 1.2% of the population has used illegal cannabis products – ganja & charas, while around 2.1% of the population has various forms of opioids including opium, heroin etc. These numbers were based on a survey of more than 2 lakh households in 186 districts of the country (covering all states & UTs) and around 4.73 lakh individuals. In addition, a Respondent Driven Sampling (RDS) survey was conducted covering 135 districts and 72,642 people suffering from dependence on illicit drugs.
The extensive use of these prohibited drugs indicates that NDPS has not been fully effective in control of usage and trade of the drugs. Slow disposal & high pendency do not help the cause.
Meanwhile, examples from elsewhere in the world indicate that prohibition of drugs is less effective in the control of the drugs, with de-criminalising and having in place a controlled mechanism could be more effective in regularising drug trade and mitigating drug abuse. The data by German Research group ABCD, also highlights the potential revenues which can be generated by taxing marijuana and other drugs.
Data & evidence indicates that the current policy & execution regime has been ineffective in prohibiting drugs trade & its use in India. It is probably time for the legislature & the government to explore the possibility of regularising a limited number of these drugs which could bring in greater control as well as possible revenue. Such regularization could also reduce the burden on the law enforcement authorities and courts, whose resources can be more effectively used in identifying violations under the new regime.
Featured Image: NDPS cases pending with courts

source: news-factly

created: September 21, 2020

license: Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

author: Sai Krishna Muthyanolla


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Can mandatory FASTag increase Toll Revenue Collection in 2021-22?
Sai Krishna Muthyanolla
April 6, 2021
The overall user fee collection at toll plazas on national highways increased by around 1.8 times in the last eight years with the growth rate falling in the last two years. Will 2021-22 see the overall growth in user fee collections at toll plazas cross 25% on account of mandatory FASTag?
Effective from 14 February 2021, the Ministry of Road Transport & Highways (MoRTH) has made FASTag compulsory on all national highways. In other words, all the lanes in toll plazas have been declared ‘FASTag lanes’. Further, as per the statement issued by MoRTH, any vehicle not fitted with FASTag or vehicle without valid, functional FASTag entering into the FASTag lane shall be liable to pay a fee equivalent to two times the fee applicable to that category of vehicle.
This is a continuation of the efforts by the government to make FASTag compulsory in order to make user fee payments at toll plazas through digital mode, thereby reducing waiting times and providing seamless passage through fee plazas.
Recently on 17 March 2021, MoRTH’s official Twitter handle of FASTag tweeted that the number of FASTag users has crossed 3 crores.
We are proud to announce that FASTag has achieved a user base of 3  crore!#FASTag #NHAIFASTag #IHMCL #DrivewithFASTag@MORTHIndia @MORTHRoadSafety @NHAI_Official @nhidcl @NPCI_NPCI @FASTag_NETC pic.twitter.com/e2MYdYUwBT
That is an addition of 15.3 lakhs in the first 17 days of March 2021. As per the information provided by the National Payments Corporation of India (NPCI), the total number of FASTag users at the end of February 2021 was around 2.84 crores.
After a fall during the lockdown, number of new FASTag users has increased consistently
In February 2021, when the government made FASTag mandatory, the total number of new FASTag users was 35.25 lakhs. It is more than 1.5 times the number of new users reported in January 2021. While the spike in the number of new FASTag users can be attributed to the government mandate, it is in continuation of a recent trend in the last few months of consistent increase in new FASTag users every month.
Since May 2020, there has been a gradual increase in the monthly new users.  The higher number recorded in February 2021 is incidentally not the highest addition in a month though. In December 2019, a total of 37.64 lakh new FASTag users were added to the system. It ought to be noted that December 2019 also happens to be the month when the government first announced that FASTag would be mandatory at all toll plazas. However, new FASTag subscribers fell in the ensuing months, coinciding with the period of lockdown. As highlighted earlier, there has been a gradual increase since May 2020.
The trends indicate that there is a higher increase in the new FASTag users when there is a government regulation mandating the use. It is to be seen if there would be a fall in the numbers in ensuing months similar to the trend observed earlier. Since new vehicles are anyway fitted with FASTag, it remains to be seen how many of the more than 1.5 crore odd old vehicles which are yet to be fitted with FASTag come into the system and when.
With the exception of Lockdown period, consistent increase in revenue collected through FASTag
While the trends in new FASTag users per month fluctuated over the period of time, there has been a consistent increase in the volume of FASTag transactions and the revenue collected barring the lockdown period.
The spike in the number of new FASTag users during December 2019 did result in a corresponding increase in the revenue collected. The monthly revenue through FASTag in December 2019 was Rs. 1256.84 crores while it was Rs. 773 crores in the earlier month. The monthly growth was maintained in the ensuing months until the beginning of lockdown induced by COVID-19. During this period, the highest revenue through FASTag was in February 2020 with Rs. 1841 crores.
Post the lockdown, this number was crossed in September 2020 and the monthly revenue during every month since then has been higher than during the pre-lockdown period.
The increase in FASTag users may not correlate directly with the increase in FASTag revenues since the revenue collected through the FASTag is a recurring thing and is dependent on the usage of the highways through the toll plazas and other factors. On the other hand, new users could be a result of the purchase of new vehicles, fitting FASTag in old vehicles when they travel on national highways.  The varying trends in the addition of new users and the volume of transactions highlight this.
The toll revenue growth is not necessarily due to FASTag as yet
In a tweet on 26 February 2021, the National Highways Authority of India (NHAI) has stated that the revenue collected through FASTag on 25 February was a record high of Rs.103.94 crores.
With total no. of  transactions crossing 64.5 lakh on 25th Feb, the per day toll collection through FASTag reached a record high of Rs 103.94 Crores. #NHAI #FASTagZarooriHai #FASTag #FASTagStats pic.twitter.com/BEPMDGT1zy
The FASTag revenues over the past few months are being ascribed by various sources on social media platforms as FASTag being the contributor for increased revenue in Toll collection.  As per the information available with NPCI, the total revenue generated through FASTag during the financial year 2020-21 (until Feb’21) is Rs. 19675.48 crores. This is nearly 1.75 times the revenue collected through FASTag during 2019-20. The trends of the previous years indicate an increase in the revenue collected through FASTag in nearly the same proportion.
While the growth of revenue through FASTag is appreciable, it ought to be seen in the light of the growth of Toll revenue over the years.  As per the updates provided in Lok Sabha, the total toll revenue collected in 2012-13 was Rs. 9514.13 crores. In the ensuing year, it increased by around 23% to Rs.11,729.27 crores. Year on year the growth rate was around the same proportion with the exception of 2016-17.
As per an update provided by MoRTH in Rajya Sabha, the total Toll revenue collected in 2017-18 was Rs. 22820.58 crores.  The total revenue collection in 2018-19 was Rs. 24,396 crores, while that of 2019-20 was Rs. 26,851 crores i.e. around a 10% increase compared to 2018-19.  It ought to be noted that since the end of November 2016, this total Toll revenue is inclusive of the revenue collected from FASTag. The higher growth rate seen in toll collection through FASTag does not translate to the same growth rate in the overall toll collection. This could imply that the growth in revenue through FASTag could be because of those commuters who earlier used cash and have now shifted to FASTag and not necessarily increased collections due to FASTag.
Addressing existing concerns can help in facilitating seamless commute as envisaged through implementation of FASTag
Based on the available information, it is observed that FASTag has not had a major impact on the overall growth of toll revenue in the country. In fact, the growth rate has slowed down in the recent two financial years (2018-19 & 2019-20), while the revenue through the FAST tag has increased 1.5 times, reiterating that the increase is more due to conversion from cash to FASTag. It has to be noted that various other factors contribute towards an increased toll collection like – better highways, facilities at toll plazas, better connectivity, etc. The yearly/periodic hike in toll charges also contributes towards increased collections and hence such hikes have also to be considered while comparing annual growth in overall collections.
In fact, an update from NHAI states that there has been a fall in toll revenue per KM. However, highways and such projects are built for the longer term and there is scope for increased revenue in the future as more places are connected.
While FASTag might not necessarily have contributed to increased revenue as yet, it does aid in smoother commute, which is a key aspect of introducing FASTag. Responding to a question in Lok Sabha, the government took cognizance of issues with the implementation of FASTag and updated on the measures to address the same.
Since 2021-22 would be the first full year when FASTag is mandatory, it remains to be seen if the overall toll collections increase at the same rate as previous years or would register a greater increase because of the introduction of FASTag.
Featured Image: Toll Revenue Collection


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Data: Cancer Cases in India Estimated at 14.6 Lakhs in 2022; Incidence Could be Higher as PBCRs Cover Only 10% of the Population
Sai Krishna Muthyanolla
January 11, 2024
As per the latest estimates about the incidence of Cancer cases in India, the number increased from over 11.67 lakh in 2013 to 14.61 lakh cases in 2022, registering an increase of 25%. However, this number could be significantly higher since only about 10% of the population is covered by the Population-Based Cancer Registries.
Cancer is a significant public health concern in India, presenting a considerable burden on both the healthcare system and the affected individuals and families. The country faces a rising incidence of various types of cancer due to a combination of factors including population growth, aging, lifestyle changes, environmental factors, and genetic predisposition. As per Global Cancer Observatory, in 2020, the estimated incidence of cancer cases in India was over 13.2 lakhs which accounted for the third highest number of cancer cases after China with 45.7 lakh cases, and the United States of America with 22.8 lakh cases.
Globally, Cancer is a leading cause of death, accounting for nearly 10 million deaths in 2020, or nearly one in six deaths. In India, the Annual Report on the Medical Certification of Cause of Death (MCCD), 2020 revealed that neoplasms or cancer was the seventh leading cause of death accounting for roughly 5% of total medically certified deaths in the country.
NCRP compiles data on Cancer cases in India and makes estimates
In India, The Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) launched the National Cancer Registry Programme (NCRP) in 1981, through a network of Population and Hospital Based Cancer Registries (PBCRs and HBCRs). These cancer registries collect and analyse detailed data on cancer cases, aiding in evidence-based strategies. The data from NCRP, as provided in response to questions in Parliament has been used in this story, where we look at the decadal trends in cancer cases and mortality. The mid-year population projections of the Health Ministry from Dataful have been used to estimate per lakh incidence and mortality.
It should be noted that there is considerable difference in the 2013 figures and the figures since 2014 which may be due to the changes in methodology. In the latest NCRP report released in 2020, the estimation is based on data spanning from 2012 to 2016, while the 2013 data was based on the cancer incidence report from 2009 to 2011. Further, the 2020 report benefits from increased coverage, including a higher number of Population-Based Cancer Registries (PBCRs) and expansion of existing ones.
India’s cancer cases have increased by 25% in the last 10 years
The data shows that the incidence of cancer cases and mortality are on the rise. In the last 10 years, the estimated number of cases has increased from over 11.67 lakh in 2013 to 14.61 lakh cases in 2022, registering an increase of 25%. Meanwhile, the estimated number of deaths increased from 6.63 lakh to 8.09 lakh during the same period, registering a growth of about 22%. It is projected that the number of cases will increase further to 15.7 lakh by 2025. Global Cancer Observatory has predicted that the cases in India will increase to 20.8 lakh by 2040.
The case fatality rate of a disease is measured as the percentage of those who died of the disease out of the total diagnosed. Between 2014 and 2022, the case fatality rate of cancer in India is about 55% at the national level. That is, every other person diagnosed with cancer succumbed to the disease.
Six states account for more than 50% of the cases and deaths due to Cancer
In terms of actual figures, six states accounted for more than 50% of the estimated incidence of cancer cases in India throughout the last 10 years. These are Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, West Bengal, Bihar, Tamil Nadu, and Karnataka. These six states also accounted for more than 50% of the deaths estimated each year. However, when normalized for population, the trends of estimated cases and deaths are different.
Kerala had the highest incidence per lakh population with over 166 cases estimated in 2022 while Uttar Pradesh had only 90 cases. At the national level, 94 cancer cases per lakh population was estimated in 2013 which increased to 106 in 2022.
The incidence of cases is relatively higher in the five southern states with all of them estimated to have more than 100 cases per lakh population throughout the 10 years between 2013 and 2022. The findings of the National Family Health Survey revealed that the prevalence of lifestyle diseases like diabetes and hypertension was also higher in the southern states.
On the other hand, the northeastern states of Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, Tripura, and Manipur had less than 75 cases per lakh population during this period. In contrast, Mizoram’s figures were the second highest and were close to that of Kerala. While the incidence increased across all the states, the southern states and Mizoram experienced the highest increase in incidence rates.
Mortality was the highest in Mizoram with more than 100 deaths per lakh population
The mortality per lakh population shows that Mizoram had the highest number of estimated deaths due to cancer with more than 100 deaths per lakh population in 2021 and 2022 while Kerala had the second highest number of deaths with 90 per lakh population in 2022. At all India levels, the number of deaths increased from 52 to 59 per lakh population between 2014 and 2022. Data for 2013 has not been considered.
Punjab, which was estimated to have the fifth highest number of cases had the third highest number of deaths, along with Andhra Pradesh. The northeastern states of Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, Tripura, Nagaland and Manipur, and Bihar had the lowest mortality rate, with less than 50 deaths per lakh population.
Cancers associated with tobacco accounted for nearly one in 3 cases
According to estimates from NCRP 2020, the top five leading sites of cancer among males were lung (10.6%), mouth (8.4%), prostate (6.1%), tongue (5.9%) and stomach (4.8%). The estimated top five leading sites of cancer among females included breast (28.8%), cervix (10.6%), ovary (6.2%), corpus uteri (3.7%) and lung (3.7%). Liver cancer (3.9%) was among the leading ten cancers in males and not in females, whereas thyroid (3.6%) and gallbladder (2.7%) cancers were in the top ten among females but not in males. India has a huge burden of tobacco-related cancers. Lung cancer and head and neck cancers top the list. According to a study published by the National Centre for Disease Informatics and Research (NCDIR) and the Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR), Cancers associated with tobacco use comprised nearly half of all cancers among males in India. Further, the study noted that of all cancer cases reported, cancers associated with tobacco use constituted 33.3% of all cancers or one in three cases.
Actual number of cases could the thrice the estimates
While there are several causes of cancer, it is seen that some of them are preventable. Further detection at an early stage also helps treat and cure the patient. According to a study by E&Y, the actual figures could be 1.5 to 3 times the estimates. Further, the Department-related Parliamentary Standing Committee on Health and Family Welfare in a report submitted in December 2022 noted that only about 10% of India’s population is covered by population-based cancer registries (PBCRs) under the National Cancer Registry Programme. Furthermore, it also observed that India has a poor detection rate across major cancer sites with 29%, 15%, and 33% of breast, lung, and cervical cancers being diagnosed in stages 1 and 2, respectively. This is significantly lower than that in China, the UK, and the US.
Expenditure for Cancer treatment is high in India
The 75 National Sample Survey observed that the average expenditure for cancer treatment was high in the country. It was over Rs.61,216 across all hospitals while it was nearly Rs. 1 lakh in private hospitals. When asked about this, a parliamentary standing committee report tabled in 2022 noted that the expense was high for treatment due to the medicines and equipment used for the same.
The committee made a slew of recommendations for prevention, detection, diagnosis, and treatment of the disease. Some of the recommendations include capping diagnostic charges, price negotiation for anti-cancer drugs, inclusion of HPV Vaccine in vaccination programs, and campaigns against tobacco consumption.
Featured Image:  Cancer cases in India

created: January 11, 2024


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Data: Cases booked for ‘Circulation of Fake News’ down 42% in 2021; Pendency increases while Conviction rate comes down
Sai Krishna Muthyanolla
September 6, 2022
The police register cases under Section 505 of IPC for circulation of fake/false news or rumours with an intent to promote or create enmity, hatred etc. Data from the NCRB’s CII reports indicate that the number of cases registered under Sec. 505 of IPC reduced by 42% in 2021 while pendency of these cases has increased both with the police & courts. The conviction rate in these cases has also reduced.
Section 505 of the Indian Penal Code deals with “statements conducing to public mischief”. Subsection 2 of this Section reads, “Whoever makes, publishes or circulates any statement or report containing rumour or alarming news with intent to create or promote, or which is likely to create or promote, on grounds of religion, race, place of birth, residence, language, caste or community or any other ground whatsoever, feelings of enmity, hatred or ill-will between different religious, racial, language or regional groups or castes or communities, shall be punished with imprisonment which may extend to three years, or with fine, or with both.” In simpler terms, the circulation of rumours and fake news with an intent to promote or create enmity, hatred etc. is a punishable offence. The punishment can extend to 3 years of prison term and/or penalty.
NCRB provides data on cases registered under Section 505 of IPC
The National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB), under the Ministry of Home Affairs, provides detailed statistics about the state of crimes, and law & order in the country in its annual Crime in India (CII) publication. Since 2017, statistics pertaining to cases registered for circulation of false/ fake news, and rumours under Section 505 of IPC were separately provided in the report. Under IPC Crimes, state-wise and metropolitan city-wise data on cases registered under the aforesaid IPC section has been provided in the report under ‘Miscellaneous IPC Crimes’. It must be noted that like with all other data provided in NCRB reports, even the data for cases under Sec. 505 of the IPC represents only those registered by the police and not the true extent of the crime.
Number of cases registered for circulation of ‘fake/false news and rumours’ down by 42% in 2021
As per the NCRB’s CII reports, from less than 300 cases each reported in 2017 and 2018, and less than 500 in 2019, the number of cases registered under Section 505, IPC increased by 3.2 times in 2020, the year of the COVID-19 pandemic outbreak. Close to 45% of the cases registered under this head in the five years between 2017 and 2021 were registered in 2020 alone. In 2021, the number of cases registered dropped to 882 registering a 42.2% decline as compared to 2020. In both 2020 and 2021, the crime rate of the cases under Sec. 505 of IPC was 0.1.
9 states account for nearly 84% of the cases registered between 2017 and 2021
A total of 3,422 cases were registered under Sec. 505 of IPC between 2017 and 2021, out of which 592 were registered in Telangana alone. That is, Telangana alone registered 17.3% of the cases registered across the country in these five years. Tamil Nadu and Madhya Pradesh were next in line with 475 cases registered each. Uttar Pradesh registered 357 cases. These four states together accounted for 55.5% of all the cases. Maharashtra, Bihar, and Andhra Pradesh registered more than 200 cases each while West Bengal and Gujarat registered more than 100 cases each. Altogether, these 9 states accounted for nearly 84% of the cases registered under this section between 2017 & 2021. On the other side, the states of Goa, Nagaland, Arunachal Pradesh, and Mizoram, along with union territories except for Delhi and Jammu and Kashmir, registered zero to 6 cases each.
4 out of 10 cases under Section 505 have been registered in the Southern states
Data indicates that the south Indian states (Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, and Kerala) accounted for 40% of the cases registered under Sec. 505 between 2017 & 2021. The North Indian states of Himachal Pradesh, Punjab, Uttarakhand, Haryana, Rajasthan, Bihar, Jharkhand, and Uttar Pradesh and UTs of Jammu & Kashmir, Ladakh, Delhi, and Chandigarh accounted for 21.8% of the registered cases. Central Indian states of Madhya Pradesh, and Chhattisgarh accounted for 14.9%, less than what is registered in Telangana alone. Western Indian states of Maharashtra, Gujarat, and Goa accounted for 11.1% whereas the Eastern states of Jharkhand, Odisha, and West Bengal accounted for less than 6%. Northeastern states of Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Tripura, Sikkim, Nagaland, Arunachal Pradesh, and Mizoram accounted for less than 4%.
A higher number of cases registered closer to election years & during the COVID-19 pandemic
Across states, the trends reveal that a higher number of cases was registered around the time of elections. For instance, in Tamil Nadu where the state legislative assembly elections took place in 2021, about two-thirds of the cases registered in the state since 2017 were in 2020 and 2021. Madhya Pradesh registered 29% of the cases in 2017 and 27% cases in 2021. Madhya Pradesh’s state legislative assembly elections were held in 2018 and the next is scheduled for 2023. In West Bengal where the elections were held in 2021, 87% of cases were registered in 2020 and 2021. Likewise, in Bihar, about 63% of the cases were registered in 2020, the year when the elections were held. Another major reason for an increase in cases during 2020 could be the COVID-19 pandemic.
Pandemic could have contributed to the increase in cases in 2020
Many states like Maharashtra, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat, Himachal Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, and Haryana have also reported an increase in the number of registered cases under Sec. 505 in the year 2020 and a drop in 2021. Since these states did not have an election, the only other reason that explains an increase is the COVID-19 pandemic & the related misinformation.
According to a study on ‘Prevalence and source analysis of COVID-19 misinformation in 138 countries’ published in Sage’s ‘International Federation of Library Associations’, India(18%) was the biggest source of misinformation, followed by Brazil (9%) and USA (8.6%). It also noted that the amount of misinformation was also the highest in India (16%) followed by the USA (10%) and Brazil (9%). The data used in the study included 9518 pieces of misinformation from 138 countries collected from Poynter’s International Fact-Checking Network (IFCN) website.
Police’s chargesheeting rate has dropped over the years while pendency with police has doubled
A chargesheet is prepared by police as a final report naming the accused persons against whom charges can be framed. It is an indicator of the disposal of crimes by the police. The charge sheeting rate of cases booked under Section 505 of IPC has been between 65 to 83% during 2017 & 2021. It was the highest in 2017 at 83%, dropped to the lowest at 65.6% in 2018, and has been above 70% since then. Simultaneously, the pendency of these cases with the police has increased from 27% to 54.6% between 2017 & 2021.
On the other hand, the conviction rate is an indicator of the disposal of cases by courts and is defined as the share of convicted cases out of the total cases in which the trial was complete in a particular year. The conviction rate of these cases has dropped considerably over the years, from 72.6% in 2017 to 43.4% in 2021. Simultaneously, the pendency of cases with the Courts has increased from 48.3% in 2017 to more than 90% since 2018.
The poor disposal rates by both police and courts indicate a growing problem of pendency. This coupled with the poor conviction rate in courts does not serve as a deterrent to those who spread & circulate fake news. Addressing a global & growing problem like the spread of fake news is very important, the police & the courts have an important role to play in this.
Fact-checking unit has been set up under PIB
The central government has set up a Fact Checking Unit under the Press Information Bureau (PIB) which takes cognizance of fake news both suo motu and by way of queries sent by citizens on its portal or through e-mail and WhatsApp and responds to the relevant queries with correct information. The PIB’s fact-check unit address claims related to the government only.
A website, Portal – https://factcheck.pib.gov.in/  for reporting of fake news and for fact-checking information by the citizens has also been launched. The Unit also maintains a Twitter account @PIBFactcheck and tweets about false claims.
Featured Image: Circulation of Fake News

created: September 6, 2022


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Cases registered under COTPA increased by 120% in 2020, 86% of them reported from Tamil Nadu
Sai Krishna Muthyanolla
March 24, 2022
Data from the NCRB indicates that the number of cases registered under various environment-related offences has increased by 78% in 2020. Most of this increase is due to the 120% increase in cases registered under the COTPA act. 86% of the cases registered under COTPA in 2020 were from Tamil Nadu.
Responding to a question in Lok Sabha recently on 14 March 2022, the government stated that the number of  ‘Environment-related offences’ have increased in 2020. A total of 61,167 new cases were registered in 2020, under various laws related to environmental-related offences.
This number was only 34,674 in 2019. The Cigarette and Other Tobacco Products Act (COTPA) and Noise Pollution Acts are the laws under which the majority of these offences are booked. The total number of cases investigated in 2020 was 68,291 which also includes cases from the previous year that have not been disposed yet.
The information provided in the Lok Sabha is based on National Crime Records Bureau’s Crime in India reports. In the first of this two-part story, we look at the trends in reporting of the cases related to ‘Environment-related offences’ under various acts.
78% increase in the new cases registered for Environmental Related offences in 2020.
As stated in the Lok Sabha answer, there is a significant increase in the total number of new environment-related offences registered in 2020.
As per NCRB’s Crime in India Report, the Environment related offences include:
In the year 2020, a total of 61,767 new cases were registered compared to 34,676 cases in 2019 i.e., a 78% increase in the number of new cases. Prior to 2020, there has been a two-year declining trend in the new number of cases registered under the various Environment-related offences.
In 2017, there was a major increase in the number of cases reported in NCRB’s Crime in India report under the environment offences. A total of 42,143 new cases were registered in 2017 as against 4,732 cases in 2016.
This is due to the inclusion of the COTPA & Noise Pollution Acts under the specific category of Environment related offences. Prior to 2017, they were reported under ‘Other SLL crimes’.
Furthermore, NCRB started reporting Environment-related offences as a separate category only from 2014.
Increase in 2020 is primarily due to cases registered under COTPA
Since the inclusion of COTPA & Noise Pollution Acts in ‘Environment-related offences’ in 2017, they form a major share of cases reported under this head.
The significant increase in cases in 2020 under his head can be attributed to the increase in the number of cases under COPTA. In 2019, a total of 22,667 cases were registered under COTPA which increased by 120% in 2020 to reach 49,870. However, it must be noted that since the inclusion of COTPA cases under Environment-related offences, there has been a year-on-year decline in cases registered under this act only to increase by more than 100% in 2020.
The COTPA was introduced in 2003 and has provisions for restriction of sale, smoking, promotion of tobacco products. Detailed information on the various provisions of COTPA can be read in this explainer by Factly.
While no official reason is provided for the increase in new cases registered under COTPA in 2020, the COVID-19 related measures are being cited as one of the reasons for the increase in the cases in various quarters.
In the National directives for COVID-19 management, it is stated that there should be a strict ban on the sale of liquor, gutka, tobacco etc. in public places and spitting should be strictly prohibited. These directives were to be enforced using fines & penal actions. This could have led to the law enforcement authorities being more vigilant and booking cases under COTPA.
Another major act that contributes to a significant number of cases under the ‘Environment-related offences’ is the Noise Pollution Act. However, the trend has varied over the years. The number of new cases registered under these acts in 2020 was 7,318 which is the lowest in the four years of NCRB’s separate reporting of the cases under this act.
COVID-19 related restrictions which curtailed movement and restricted public gatherings could be one of the reasons for the fall in numbers.
A steady decline in the number of new cases registered under the Forest Act is also observed over the years with 2,287 new cases in 2020, compared to 4,901 in 2014. The same is the case with Wildlife Protection Act.
On the other hand, there is an increase in the number of cases booked under the Environment Protection Act in 2019 & 2020. Similarly, the number of cases under The Air & The Water (Prevention & Control of Pollution) Act also increased from 160 in 2019 to 589 in 2020.
There isn’t any reliable information about what could be influencing these trends under the respective acts except the knowledge of specific factors like COVID-19.  As noted even in our earlier stories, the NCRB numbers only reflect the cases which are reported and do not necessarily reflect the actual crime scene. Questions have also been raised on the inconsistency in the reporting of offences under the actual environment-related offences.
Most numbers of COTPA cases are reported from Tamil Nadu
As already observed, the data relating to Environment-related offences is skewed by the number of cases booked under COTPA. They not only form a major share of the cases being reported under this head but also are the reason for more than a 75% increase in the number of reported cases in 2020.
Of the COTPA cases reported across the country, most of them are from Tamil Nadu. Out of 49,710 cases reported from across India in 2020, a total of 42,731 i.e., 86% of the cases were from Tamil Nadu alone. In an earlier story, we had observed that in 2020, Tamil Nadu has reported the greatest increase in the Crime rate in 2020. As highlighted earlier, COVID-19 control measures could be one of the reasons for such a significant increase in the number of cases. The case of COTPA also looks similar to the sale of tobacco products & spitting in public places was strictly prohibited under the COVID-19 guidelines.
It is to be noted that Tamil Nadu had the highest share of the cases registered under COTPA even in the earlier years. Kerala & Rajasthan are the other two states which report a significant number of cases registered under COTPA. The higher numbers in these states could be a case of better reporting & enforcement rather than a higher incidence of crime.
On the other hand, Rajasthan has the highest incidence of cases under Noise Pollutions Acts while Uttar Pradesh is the main contributor towards the cases registered under – The Forest Act, Environment Protection Act, and also Air & The Water (Prevention & Control of Pollution) Act.
Reporting inconsistencies might be influencing the number of cases reported under most of the Environment related acts.
While the increase in the number of cases under COTPA can be attributed to a large extent to COVID-19 related restrictions, there aren’t any specific reasons that can be cited to explain the trends in cases registered under the other environment-related acts.
Activists and experts have often cited inconsistent reporting & underreporting as major concerns in relation to environmental offences. Underreporting is a concern even for many other crimes.
The reporting & registration of an offence tells only a part of the story. The disposal of these offences would shed more light on the efficacy of the police investigation. In the second part of the story, we review the trends in police & court disposal of cases under the various Environment related acts and look at certain specific cases.
Featured Image: Cases registered under COTPA


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Central Government has supplied 60% Ventilators allocated to States
Sai Krishna Muthyanolla
August 8, 2020
One of the critical aspects of the COVID-19 control is the timely supply of medical equipment & medicines. As of 28 July 2020, the central government has supplied more than 2.63 crore N95 masks, 1.19 crore PPE Kits and over 10.83 crore HCQ tablets to States & Central Institutions. The Central Government has also supplied around 60% of the ventilators allocated to the states.
With 1.86 crore confirmed cases and over 7 lakh deaths reported worldwide, the COVID-19 pandemic continues to worry nations. The third most affected country in the world in terms of number of cases, India’s COVID-19 tally crossed the 20 lakh mark on 07 August 2020, with over 6.07 lakh active cases. A total of 41,585 deaths have also been reported, as per the Ministry of Health’s update as of 07 August 2020. With 13.78 lakh recovered cases, the number of recovered cases is more than double the number of active cases.
One of the important strategies in fighting the pandemic is timely supply of medical equipment, personal protection equipment, medicines etc. to the affected areas. We look at the state-wise numbers related to these supplies in India.
Countries are resorting to unethical practices to get their share of medical equipment
When COVID-19 cases started getting reported across the globe in early March, WHO had stated that panic buying, hoarding, and misuse had put the lives of frontline healthcare workers at risk as the supply of personal protection equipment (PPE) including masks and gloves was limited. Even the wealthiest countries in the world had reported resource shortage. At one point of time, countries like Germany, Russia, Taiwan, Thailand, Kenya, and Czech Republic blocked the export of face masks, to overcome shortage. ORF had reported in May 2020 that countries resorted to unethical practices to get their share of medical equipment. Confiscating shipments, holding back other countries’ supplies, and last-minute outbidding are some desperate measures taken by countries, as per the ORF article.
As the number of cases soar, both globally and in India, the pressure on healthcare facilities is intensifying. There are numerous reports of hospitals facing shortage of medical equipment such as PPE Kits, test kits, beds, and ventilators.
In India, COVID-19 has now spread to rural areas from urban areas in many states. Healthcare in rural India is already faced with a chronic shortage in terms of workforce and infrastructure. Tackling COVID-19 will be a humungous challenge in the rural parts of the country.
Centre supplies required medical equipment and drugs to states
In India, the Central Government allocates and distributes medical supplies to each state. Data on state-wise supply of N95 masks, PPE Kits, Hydroxychloroquine (HCQ) tablets, and ventilators for COVID-19 purpose, by the Centre was obtained by Factly using Right to Information. The data used in the story is as of 28 July 2020.
The Central Government has sent more than 2.63 crore N95 masks to states, union territories and central institutions till 28 July 2020. More than 1.19 crore PPE Kits and over 10.83 crore Hydroxychloroquine tablets have also been distributed by the Centre. Central Institutions received the lion’s share of medical supplies.
Maharashtra has received largest number of medical supplies
Maharashtra, which also has the highest number of cases in the country, has received the largest number of N95 masks (24.46 Lakhs), PPE Kits (11.88 Lakhs), and HCQ tablets (97.2 Lakhs) as compared to other states.
Besides Maharashtra, the states of Gujarat, Delhi, and Uttar Pradesh, received more than 15 lakh N95 masks each. The total supply of masks to 20 states including the north-eastern states, Kerala, Himachal Pradesh, Punjab, and Bihar, is less than the number supplied to the four states of Maharashtra, Gujarat, Delhi & Uttar Pradesh.
In the case of PPE kits, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, and Delhi have received more than 7 lakh kits each. These five states account for more than 41% of the cases in India and have received 37.5% of the PPE Kits distributed by the central government.
Meanwhile, the states of Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Delhi, Bihar, and Rajasthan received more than 60 Lakh HCQ tablets each. Together with Madhya Pradesh and Karnataka, the eight states alone received more than 51% of the tablets distributed by the Government of India (GoI). These eight states alone account for 77.7% of the reported deaths due to COVID-19 in India.
About 60% of the ventilators allocated have been delivered to states
A total of 25,406 ventilators were allocated to states and central institutions, of which 15,287  i.e. around 60% have been delivered. Maharashtra has been allocated the maximum number of ventilators- about 4,047, followed by Gujarat, Karnataka, and Andhra Pradesh, which have been allocated 2500, 2025, and 2000 ventilators each.
Mizoram, Puducherry, Tripura, Himachal Pradesh, and Arunachal Pradesh are the only states/UTs where the entire allocation has been delivered. Apart from these, 91% of the ventilators allocated to Delhi have also been delivered. Among the larger states, the delivery in Andhra Pradesh is the least, with only 28.5% ventilators delivered so far.
As per GoI, Medical supplies given to states based on request & need
Speaking to Factly, the Under Secretary, HPE Section of the Ministry of Health & Family Welfare (MoHFW), Mr. G K Pillai, said that ‘the basis (of distribution) is population and case load. Some states request more, and we give that- as per the request of states only. Some states request only a small quantity. Now, we have sent a letter informing states to indicate if there is a further need of ventilators, we will supply. We will not be supplying other material after 31 August. The supply will be done centrally only up to 31 August. After that, the states will have to purchase themselves. Only ventilator, we will supply’.
Ban on ventilators’ export has been lifted
While addressing the nation on 12 May 2020 and advocating Atmanirbhar Bharat (self-sufficient India), PM Narendra Modi stated that when COVID-19 began to spread in India, there was not a single PPE kit made in India. The N-95 masks were produced in small quantity in India. He further stated that India is in a situation to produce 2 lakh PPE and 2 lakh N-95 masks daily because India turned this crisis into an opportunity. When India went into a complete lockdown in March 2020, the GoI banned the export of ventilators, respiratory appliances, and sanitizers. Since then the production of medical kits required to tackle COVID-19 was ramped up.
Recently, in August 2020, the ban on ventilators export was lifted since the number of active cases requiring ventilator support has reduced. There has also been a substantial growth in domestic manufacturing capacity of ventilators and hence the lift in ban would help domestic manufacturers find new markets in other countries. However, restrictions still exist on export of individual items of the PPE kit.
States like Odisha have taken aggressive measures to ensure supply of medical equipment and drugs for next five months
Even states have come up with their own measures to ensure adequate supplies. As per an article on the World Bank blog, the Odisha State Medical Corporation Ltd (OSMCL) which is a state government enterprise, adopted a different approach to facilitate emergency procurement of medical supplies. An emergency procurement committee was set up by the government. Different inter-departmental committees were also constituted to monitor different processes from purchase, tracking movement, and authorization.
The committees took to aggressive approaches such as extending the existing contracts, renewing expired ones, single sourcing with or without tender inquiry, off the shelf purchase, and even fixing a ceiling price and selecting multiple suppliers at multiple rates to ensure that there is adequate supply of medical kits in the state. Special incentives were also announced for faster supply. Such measures enabled OSMCL to procure adequate quantity of essentials such as ventilators, PPE Kits, disinfectants, drugs, testing kits, beds, and consumables. Odisha now has a stock of five months’ worth supply of drugs and equipment.
Featured Image: Supply of medical equipment

created: August 8, 2020


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Central Government revenue through excise duty on Diesel increased by more than 5 times since 2014-15
Sai Krishna Muthyanolla
July 27, 2021
The global crude oil prices coupled with steep tax rates continue to drive the increase in fuel price to the end consumer. The increase is evident from the fact that when compared to 2014-15 when the BJP government was formed, the revenue from central excise duty on petrol increased by more than 3 times and on diesel increased by more than 5 times.
The current prices of Petrol & Diesel across the country are unprecedented. A significant hike in the Central excise duty on 06 May 2020 has contributed to a steep increase in the cost of Petrol & diesel, as global crude oil prices increased. Since VAT/Sales Tax in most states is levied ‘ad valorem’, any increase in the global crude prices drive up the end consumer price.
The gradual increase of prices of the Indian Basket of Crude oil from the beginning of 2021 to pre-pandemic levels has aggravated the situation. In this context, we look at the trends over the past few years with respect to the increase/decrease in the price of fuel, revenue earned by the government through excise duty, price of the Indian basket of crude among other things.
The current price of crude oil is at the 2018 level
In an earlier story, we had highlighted that 89% of India’s crude oil requirement in 2019-20 is through imports. As per the information provided by PPAC, an increasing trend is observed in the volume of Crude-oil imported, which is commensurate with the increasing demand.
The increase in imports indicates India’s increasing reliance on crude oil imports. Furthermore, the prices of petrol & diesel have been made market-determined effective from 26 June 2010 and 19 October 2014, respectively. Hence, changes in the price of crude oil in the international market significantly influence the domestic end consumer price in addition to the central & state tax regime.
The Indian Basket of Crude-oil is a derived basket comprising of Sour grade (Oman & Dubai average) & Sweet grade (Brent Dated) of crude oil processed in Indian refineries. Post the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic, there was an unprecedented fall in the global crude oil prices. Accordingly, the price of the Indian Basket of Crude-oil also fell steeply during this period. Responding to a question in Lok Sabha, the Government of India has furnished the details of the prices of India’s basket of crude oil since April 2018.  During February 2020, the price fell to $ 54.63 per barrel (bbl) from $ 64.31 bbl in January 2020. The crude-oil prices fell further to $ 33.36 bbl & $ 19.9 bbl in the ensuing months of March 2020 & April 2020. Since then, there has been a gradual increase in the price of the Indian basket of Crude-oil.
In particular, the price has begun to increase since the beginning of 2021. The price increased from around $ 54.79 bbl in January 2021 to $ 74.36 in July 2021.  The prices are back to the levels of May-June’2018. The steep increase is evident from the fact that in just about 15 months between April 2020 and July 2021, the price went up by almost four-fold.
Steep hike in Central Excise duty during May 2020 is a key contributor to increased fuel prices
Apart from the price of Crude-oil, there are other variables that influence the final price of Petrol & Diesel to the end consumer.  In addition to the increase in the price of crude oil, central & state taxes are responsible for the increased prices. In particular, the central excise duty, which is a fixed amount unlike state VAT is a key driver in increased prices.
The Central excise duty is levied by the Central government and forms one of the major components of the final fuel price. The excise duty is modified by the Central government as it deems fit. Though the global crude oil prices reached the lowest levels during March-April 2020, the Indian consumer did not benefit that much because of a steep hike in the Central Excise duty on petrol & diesel on 06 May 2020. The Central Excise duty on Petrol increased from Rs. 22.98/litre to Rs. 32.98 /litre while on diesel, it increased from Rs.18.83/litre to Rs. 31.83/litre.  In other words, the central excise duty on petrol was increased by around 44% and on diesel was increased by around 68% in one go. The excise duty was revised after the introduction of the ‘Agriculture Infrastructure Development Cess’ (AIDC) in February 2021 and was reduced by a mere 8 paise in the case of petrol and 3 paise in the case of diesel.
During 2021-22, the price of Petrol increased 39 times and decreased only once so far
We had earlier noted that the prices of petrol & diesel are now de-regulated and are market-determined. Accordingly, based on the market trends, the prices of petrol & diesel were revised periodically. However, effective from 16 June 2017, daily pricing of petrol & diesel was implemented for the entire country. Responding to a question in Lok Sabha in July 2021, the government provided details of the number of days when the fuel prices changed since 2018-19 in Delhi.
As per the information provided, during 2018-19, there was a hike in petrol price on 148 days compared to a decrease on 112 days. Similarly, in the case of Diesel, the price was hiked on 140 days and was decreased on 118 days. The trend differed during 2019-20. The price of Petrol increased on 89 days in 2019-20 while in the case of diesel there was an increase on 79 days. The number of days the fuel prices decreased was comparatively higher for both Petrol & Diesel with 124 & 119 days respectively. Meanwhile, the prices did not change on 153 & 168 days respectively for Petrol & Diesel in 2019-20.
However, there is a shift in this trend in the ensuing years. During 2020-21, there was an increase in a greater number of days compared to the number of days when the prices decreased. In the case of Petrol, the price increased on 76 days, while it decreased only on 10 days. There was no change on 279 days. Similarly, even in the case of Diesel, the price increased on 73 days compared to a decrease on 24 days.
As can be observed from the data, the proportion of days the price remained unchanged has increased than earlier. However, the number of days when the price increase is considerably more than the number of days when the price decreased compared to the previous years. This trend sustained in the current year as well (2021-22). For 104 days (as of 13 July 2021), the price of petrol increased on 39 days, while it decreased only on one day. While in the case of Diesel, it increased on 36 days and decreased on only 2 days.
Revenue from Central Excise duty on Diesel more than doubled in 2020-21
The steep increase in the Central excise duty on petrol & diesel in May 2020 is reflected in the increased revenue from Central excise duty in 2020-21. As per the information provided in the Lok Sabha in July 2021, a total of Rs. 2.33 lakh crores were collected as Central excise on Diesel for 2020-21. This is more than twice the amount collected in 2019-20 when it was Rs. 1.12 lakh crores.  As per the data available since 2013-14, this is the highest collection of Central Excise duty on petrol & diesel ever.
Compared to 2014-15 when the BJP government was formed, the revenue from central excise duty on petrol increased by more than 3 times and on diesel increased by more than 5 times.
Recent trends indicate an increased reliance on revenue through a hike in Fuel
In one of our earlier stories, we had observed that the increase in the revenue from Central excise duty on fuel was able to compensate the deficit in the tax revenue in 2020-21. Such increased reliance on revenue from duties on fuel means that they may not be included in the GST regime anytime soon. If the trend in the last few months is any indication, the consumer is in for an extended period of increased prices unless there is an immediate reduction in excise duties. Since the state VAT/sales tax in most cases is ‘ad valorem’, any reduction in central excise will automatically reduce the amount of state VAT.


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Chemical Fertilizer consumption increased by 16% in the last six years
Sai Krishna Muthyanolla
April 15, 2021
Data shared by the government recently indicates that the consumption of chemical fertilizers has increased by around 16% between 2015-16 & 2020-21. From about 510 LMT in 2015-16, the consumption increased to 590 LMT as per provisional figures for 2020-21. Even the consumption of chemical pesticides has increased during this period.
Recently, fertilizer manufacturers in India including the Indian Farmers Fertilizers Cooperative Ltd. (IFFCO) announced a steep hike in the price of agricultural inputs such as di-ammonium phosphate (DAP) as a result of increased prices of raw materials in the international market. In the past few months, the prices of potash, DAP, phosphoric acid, etc. have also increased significantly forcing the fertilizer makers to hike the prices of the de-controlled nutrients. However, the Minister of State for Chemical and Fertilisers, Mansukh Mandaviya announced that the manufacturers have been asked not to increase the prices of all fertilizers. IFFCO has also clarified that there is enough material with old rates which will be sold at the old rates to farmers. Further, IFFCO has stated that the new prices are only tentative and yet to be finalized by companies.
Multiple factors determine fertilizer usage
Consumption of fertilizers and pesticides is determined by multiple factors such as area of land under cultivation, the type of crop, cropping pattern and cropping intensity, soil type and its condition, agro-climatic conditions, the ability of farmers to purchase, irrigation, and others. The Department of Agriculture & Co-operation and farmers Welfare also carries out assessments to determine the requirement of chemical fertilizers- Urea (Nitrogen), DAP, MOP (Muriate of Potash), and NPKs (contains major nutrients- Nitrogen, Phosphorous, and Potassium) on a season-to-season basis, taking into consideration the above-mentioned factors and finalizes the requirement of for each season in consultation with the states. Bi-annual zonal conferences are held before the beginning of each cropping season i.e., Kharif (April to September) and Rabi (October to March). The allocation of fertilizers to states is an outcome of this process.
Urea is the most consumed fertilizer
On average, India consumed about 500 LMT of fertilizer per year in the last 10 years. The government recently provided year-wise consumption data in the Rajya Sabha, showing the trend in the quantity of chemical fertilizers used in India since 2015-16. As per the data shared, Urea is the most consumed fertilizer with around 300 Lakh Metric Tonnes (LMT) being consumed each year, accounting for 55 to 60% of the chemical fertilizer consumption in the country. Between 2016-17 and 2019-20, there has been a steady increase in the consumption of Urea, DAP, and NPKs. The data for 2020-21 is provisional and is available up to February 2021.
Even though the data is only up to February 2021, the consumption of DAP and NPKs is already the highest in 2020-21 in the six-year period from 2015-16 to 2020-21. The final quantity of urea consumed in 2020-21 might also cross the 2019-20 levels making the consumption highest in 2020-21.
India’s average chemical fertilizers consumption has increased
A five-year trend in the average per hectare consumption of fertilizers across states (in kg/hectare – kg/ha) was also presented in the Rajya Sabha by the government. According to this data, the average consumption of major chemical fertilizers at the national level was 135.76 kg/ha in 2015-16 which dropped to 123.41 kg/ha in 2016-17. However, since then, the consumption has gradually risen to 133.44 kg/ha in 2019-20 at the national level.
Fertilizer Consumption: Bihar consumed most while Kerala least in 2019-20
Bihar (245.25 kg) topped the list in 2019-20 with respect to the per hectare consumption of fertilizers, closely followed by Puducherry (244.77) in spite of its small size. Punjab, Haryana, and Telangana are among the top five states/UTs which have all reported consumption of more than 200 kg/ha in 2019-20. These five states/UTs have also consistently reported consumption of more than 200 kg/ha in the five-year period from 2015-16 to 2019-20. Puducherry had consumed nearly 406 kg/ha of fertilizers 2015-16. These five states constitute the top five in no particular order since 2017-18.
On the other hand, Kerala and Jammu & Kashmir are among the major states/UTs that have the least fertilizer consumption. Both these states/UTs have reported a significant drop in the average usage of fertilizers in the five years. Kerala reported a decline from 87 kg/ha in 2015-16 to 36.49 kg/ha in 2019-20 while Jammu and Kashmir reported a decline from 105.49 kg/ha to 40.85 kg/ha during the same period. Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, and Jharkhand are major states which have consistently reported fertilizer usage below the national average during this five-year period. Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, and Delhi are among those states/UTs that have witnessed a steady increase in average fertilizer consumption in these five years.
Maharashtra and UP top the list of pesticide consumption in the last five years
The consumption of chemical pesticides has also been on a rise in India. Between 2015-16 and 2019-20, there has been a growth of 8.78% in the overall consumption of pesticides in the country, from 56,720 metric tonnes (MT) to 61,702 MT.  Maharashtra and Uttar Pradesh are the major consumers of chemical pesticides in the country over the last five years. The consumption in Maharashtra increased from 11,665 MT in 2015-16 to 12,783 MT in 2019-20. The consumption in Uttar Pradesh had also increased from 10,457 MT to 12,217 MT during the same period. Together, the two states accounted for 40% of the total consumption reported at the national level. Punjab had the third-highest consumption with an average of 5,592 MT consumed every year. UP and Telangana reported a steady increase in pesticide consumption in contrast to Andhra Pradesh, where the pesticide consumption has decreased by almost 40% in these five years.
The lowest usage of pesticides was in the small states. Goa had the least consumption with 30 MT in 2019-20 as compared to 48 MT in 2015-16. Puducherry too had low consumption with 40 to 43 MT consumed each year. The northeastern states of Meghalaya and Sikkim were marked as ‘Organic States’ in the response provided in the parliament.
Bio-pesticides usage is on the rise with Maharashtra being highest consumer
The government is promoting the use of bio-pesticides through various schemes. However, the increase in consumption has not been dramatic. The consumption of bio-pesticides at the national level stood at 8,847 MT in 2019-20 as against 6,148 MT in 2015-16. Though there has been a continuous increase in biopesticide consumption, the quantity is still very less compared to conventional chemical pesticides.
Data shows that Maharashtra was the major consumer of bio-pesticides during the last five years. But the state’s consumption has declined since 2016-17. It had consumed 1,454 MT in 2016-17 accounting for one-fifth of the consumption at the national level. However, consumption came down to 1,082 MT in 2019-20, accounting for 12% of the total national consumption. Other major consumers of biopesticides are West Bengal, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, and Chhattisgarh. Rajasthan, reported an almost 100 times increase in the consumption of biopesticides in 2019-20, as compared to the previous years. The annual consumption was below 15 MT between 2015-16 to 2018-19 and jumped to 929 MT in 2019-20.
The Central Government has taken measures to check the usage of chemical fertilizers
The Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) under the Ministry of Health & Family Welfare has initiated a multi-centric study to assess exposure & the health effects of pesticides. Furthermore, under ‘Sub-Mission on Plant Protection and Plant Quarantine’,  training is being imparted to state extension officers and farmers on ‘Integrated Pest Management’ where judicious use of chemical pesticide as a last resort, safety in the use of pesticides, alternate tools for pest management viz; cultural, physical, mechanical methods of pest control as well as the use of bio-pesticides and bio-control agents, effects of pesticides on natural enemies of pests, do’s and don’ts of a pesticide including proper application equipment and the technique are highlighted.
All India Coordinated Research Project on ‘Long Term Fertilizer Experiments’ over five decades at fixed sites revealed that continuous use of nitrogenous fertilizer alone had a deleterious effect on soil health and crop productivity showing deficiencies of other major and micro-nutrients. Even with recommended doses of NPK and more, deficiency of micro and secondary nutrients has become yield-limiting factors over the years. Following this, the ICMR has recommended soil test-based, balanced and integrated nutrient management through conjunctive use of both inorganic and organic sources of plant nutrients to prevent damage to natural resources. The government is also advocating the concept of balanced and judicious use of fertilizers in conjunction with biofertilizers, organic fertilizers, farmyard manure, etc.
Studies have emphasized on the excessive usage of nitrogen fertilizers in India
According to the Impact Study of Soil Health Card Scheme conducted by MANAGE, Hyderabad, India consumes about 25.6 million tonnes of fertilizers, mostly Nitrogen (17 million tonnes) followed by Phosphorous (6 million tonnes) and Potassium (2.5 million tonnes). The current NPK ratio is 6.7:2.4:1, which is highly skewed towards Nitrogen as against the ideal ratio of 4:2:1. The variation in usage across states is also huge, as observed in this story. Furthermore, India spends about ₹ 1 lakh crore on fertilizer subsidies every year. The subsidy amount is about ₹ 6,500/ha of the net cropped area and about ₹ 7,000/farmer which has resulted in excessive use of fertilizers, especially nitrogen, at the cost of micro-nutrients and manure. This excessive and imbalanced usage has also resulted in the decline in the amount of food grain produced per kg of fertilizer applied from 13 kg in the 1970s to just 4 kg in 2010, as per the MANAGE report.
Similar observations about farmers favouring a particular group of nutrients more were made by a standing committee report on fertilizer consumption tabled in 2020 which stressed the need for educating farmers for using soil-specific fertilizers. The committee suspected that the skewed usage was because of inappropriate marketing of certain fertilizers which fetch them a higher subsidy.
Featured Image: Chemical Fertilizer consumption


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Data: Claims Decrease, Compensation Increases for Claims related to Goods/Luggage/Parcel in Indian Railways - FACTLY
Sai Krishna Muthyanolla
June 16, 2023
Data from the Indian Railways indicates that while the number of claims related to goods/luggage/parcel reduced significantly in the last two decades, the compensation amount increased. Data also indicates high number of vacancies in Railway Claim Tribunals.
In the earlier parts of the series on railway accidents, we looked at the consequential accidents and the process of claims and compensation terms. In this third part of the series, the focus is on the functioning of the Railway Claims Tribunal, the number of claims raised, and the amount of compensation paid by Indian Railways for different types of incidents.
60% of the sanctioned strength is vacant in Railway Claims Tribunal
As highlighted in the earlier story, any application for compensation is to be made to the Railway Claim Tribunal (RCT) which decides on the merits of the application not just based on the Code of Civil Procedure, but also guided by the principles of natural justice. RCT plays a key role in ensuring relief to rail users by way of expeditious payment of compensation to the victims of rail accidents and to those whose goods are lost or damaged in rail transit.
However, the data on the functioning of RCT provides a contrasting picture. As of February 2023, a total of 28 posts are lying vacant out of the total 46 sanctioned strength of Chairman/President and other adjudicating Members of the Tribunals. In other words, more than 60% of posts in RCT are lying vacant. Apart from this, there were 225 vacancies of staff in the Railway Claims Tribunal as of 28 February 2022.
High backlog of cases in Railway Tribunal
Reduction in the number of claims cases and amount paid towards compensation is an important determinant of customer satisfaction and efficiency of the working of the RCTs. The data on pending cases with RCT indicate that there is a high backlog of cases pending with different benches of the RCT. As per the information provided in the parliament on various occasions, there has been a decline in the pendency of cases. However, the absolute number still remains high.
The average time taken in disposal of cases is nearly 4 years as per a parliamentary response provided by the Government in 2018. This was also highlighted in our earlier story on Railway Tribunals. Some commonly cited reasons for such a long delay in resolution are filing of written statements, summoning of witness, arguments, and adjournment sought by the contestants for producing evidence, cross-examination of claimant’s documentary evidence, and vacancies in RCT among others.
84% decline in the claims for goods/luggage/parcel in last ten years
Railway claims and compensation can be for two broad different scenarios –
Railway Administration is liable to pay compensation to rail passengers only when a decree is awarded by the RCT in favour of the claimant.  The data on the number of claim cases show that the claims have reduced substantially over the last ten years. As against 20,800 number of cases received in 2009-10, only 3401 cases were registered in 2021-22, reflecting a drop of 84%. However, the amount paid as compensation has increased during the same period. It rose from Rs. 14 crores in 2009-10 to Rs. 84 crores in 2020-21. This is the highest compensation paid during the last ten years. During 2021-22, the compensation paid declined to Rs. 28.6 crores.
The average compensation paid per claim also grew from Rs. 0.26 lakh in 2009-10 to Rs. 31.58 lahks in 2020-21, thereafter which it declined to Rs. 14.76 lahks during 2021-22.
Drop in compensation paid for death and injuries.
The amount of compensation payable in respect of death and injuries has been specified vide schedule in Railway Accidents and Untoward Incidents (Compensation) Rules 2016. The compensation could range from Rs. 64,000 to Rs. 8 lakhs depending on the grievousness of the injuries and loss of life.
From 2012-13 to 2021-22, a total of 509 people were killed and 1528 people were injured in train accidents or untoward incidents. The casualties per million passengers travelled remained unchanged at 0.03 in 2021-22 from 2020-21.
The data for the compensation paid to the victims of train accidents or untoward incidents point out the fall in the compensation paid possibly because of the reduction in accidents & casualties. It was Rs. 320 lakhs during 2012-13, post which the compensation remained below this figure till 207-18. In 2018-19, the compensation paid jumped to Rs. 641 lakhs, the highest ever in the last ten years. Since 2018-19, the amount of compensation paid declined gradually, settling at Rs. 86 lakhs in 2021-22.


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Data: Close to 30% of Startups Recognized by The Government Are into IT Services, Healthcare & Life Sciences, and Education
Sai Krishna Muthyanolla
December 13, 2022
Data indicates that of the close to 60,000 startups recognized by the DPIIT between 2017 and 2021, about 30% are into IT Services, Healthcare & Life Sciences, and Education. Professional & Commercial Services, Agriculture, Food & Beverages, and Construction account for another 17.5%.
Rapid advancements in technology & the access to internet have led to the emergence of new entrepreneurial opportunities, leading to the creation of new and innovative products, services, and novel ways of catering to the needs of people. As a result, technology-based businesses have emerged as key to job creation, innovation, and wealth creation. This is especially true of startups that are well funded.
A startup venture is a new business in the initial stages of operation and is typically financed by an individual or small group of individuals. These business models are built on innovation and technology such that the demand for their product or service is anticipated to either disrupt existing market or create new ones.
Startups are considered ideas that manifest into commercial undertaking. These are important for any economy due to employment generation, attracting foreign investment, and economic development. By promoting startups, new ideas and innovation will be constantly churned out, paving the way for better competition in the market. However, startup entrepreneurs are faced with many hurdles including liquidity crunch, lack of proper mentorship, bureaucracy in getting clearances, securing patent, and strict exit policies.
Startup India initiative is being implemented by DPIIT
On 15 August 2015, the Prime Minister announced the Startup India initiative which aims to build a strong and inclusive eco-system for nurturing innovation and catalysing startup culture in the country. On 16 January 2016, an Action Plan for Startup India was launched comprising of several programs with the objective of supporting entrepreneurs, and building a robust startup ecosystem. These programs involve providing legal support, funding/incentives, and infrastructure. The Department for Promotion of Industry and Internal Trade (DPIIT) under the Ministry of Commerce and Industry implements the scheme.
Though there is no standard definition of ‘Startup’ in any legislation, DPIIT came up with a definition in 2019 for startups in order to get recognized by the department so that there is uniformity when applying for schemes and benefits. According to DPIIT’s Manual for Procurement of Consultancy and other services , an entity should not have completed ten years from the date of its incorporation/registration and its turnover for any of the financial years since incorporation/registration should not have exceeded one hundred crore rupees to get recognized as startup by the department. This recognition is necessary to avail the benefits under various schemes and seek assistance of the government. Earlier, the time limit was five years and turnover threshold was twenty-five crore rupees for the recognition.
Startups receive benefits such as tax exemptions, self-certification, and relaxation in norms if recognized by DPIIT
Some benefits startups receive upon recognition are:
More than 85,000 startups have been recognized by DPIIT and more than 100 of them are unicorns
According to DPIIT’s dashboard, a total of 85,109 Startups have been recognized as on 12 December 2022. These startups are spread over 656 districts from 30 States and 7 Union Territories of India. These are not restricted to Tier-1 or metro cities. Further, a total of 919 Startups got income tax exemptions.
Unicorns are entities valued over USD 1 Billion. As of 7 September 2022, India was home to 107 unicorns with a total valuation of USD 340.79 Billion. Out of the total number of unicorns, 44 unicorns with a total valuation of USD 93 Billion were born in 2021 and 21 unicorns with a total valuation of USD 26.99 Billion were born in 2022.
Number of startups gaining recognition has increased significantly
The number of startups getting recognized by DPIIT has increased manifold each year. From only 452 in 2016 when the initiative was rolled out, the number has increased by more than 50 times to almost 24,000 as of November 2022. Altogether, these startups have generated a direct employment of almost 8.64 lakhs, 43.5% of which is in the states of Maharashtra, Karnataka, and New Delhi (where Tier-1 cities of Mumbai, Pune, Bengaluru, and Delhi are located).
Almost 3 in 10 recognized startups are in IT Services, Healthcare and Education
In the last five years from 2017 to 2021, most recognized startups are in the sector of IT Services. Of the total 59,787 startups recognized in the said period across 56 sectors, startups in IT services alone account for nearly 13%. This is followed by Healthcare & Lifesciences (9.2%) and Education (6.8%). These three sectors together account for 29% of the recognized startups. Education, Professional & Commercial Services, Agriculture, Food & Beverages, and Construction account for another 17.5%. Others include sectors like HR, Travel and Tourism, Fashion, Textiles and Apparels, Social Network, Aeronautics, Aerospace & Defence, Real Estate, Pets and Animals, Indic Languages, Sports, and many more.
More than 94% of the startups in the sector of non-renewable energy were registered in 2020 and 2021 and 70% and more were registered in the sectors of chemicals and construction in the two years. Startups in waste management, biotechnology, toys and games, logistics, airport operations, and passenger experience started gaining recognition 2020 onwards.
India has third largest startup ecosystem in the world
According to the Ministry of Commerce and Industry, India is the third largest startup ecosystem in the world. This has been attributed to the initiatives like Fund of Funds, Seed Fund Scheme, Income Tax exemption for three years and resolving the issue of Angel Tax. It should be noted that under the Startup initiative, not all startups in the country are recognized. Firstly, not all startups would have applied for the recognition, and on the other hand, not all those which applied would have gained recognition after the screening process. Thus, the actual number of startups in the country is much more. In the subsequent story, we will look at the trend in startups recognized across states and compare it with the total number of companies registered in the country.

created: December 13, 2022


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Data: Close To 70% of The ITRs Filed in 2022-23 Amounted to Zero Tax Liability
Sai Krishna Muthyanolla
August 3, 2023
Recently shared data by the government in the Lok Sabha indicated that while there is a significant increase in the number of ITRs filed between 2019-20 and 2022-23, the share of those whose ITR amounted to zero tax liability has grown even faster.
31 July 2023 was the last day to file an income tax return (ITR) for AY 2023-24 (FY 2022-23) for most categories of taxpayers. According to the Ministry of Finance, the total number of ITRs filed for AY 2023-24 as of 31 July 2023 was more than 6.77 crore, 16.1% more than the 5.83 crore ITRs filed for AY 2022-23 as of the same day in 2022. Further, the e-filing portal observed 4,96,559 ITR filings in an hour between 5 PM to 6 PM on 31 July 2023. The Department also received 53.67 lakh ITRs till 31 July 2023 from first-time filers which is an indication of the widening of the tax base, the press release said.
Of late, there are numerous media reports which claim that the IT Department has made the scrutiny of the returns more stringent with the help of AI and Technology. Moreover, there are also reports that the department sent notices to many tax evaders including salaried persons for claiming fraudulent returns and showing bogus deductions. But how many people out of the 140-crore population in the world’s most populous country pay tax? How many file returns every year? How many claim zero tax liability? From which state are most ITRs filed? We explore these figures in this story.
In response to a question in the Lok Sabha in the Budget Session of 2023, the Ministry of Finance submitted the state-wise data on the number of persons who filed Income Tax returns during the last four years, from 2019-20 to 2022-23. The question also included the state-wise data on the number of persons whose Income Tax returns amount to zero tax liability during the said period. Electronically filed ITRs were considered for this data.
7.4 crore people filed IT Returns in 2022-23, but 70% claimed zero-tax liability
As per the Lok Sabha response, the number of people filing income tax returns has increased from 6.48 crores to 7.4 crores during these four years from 2019-20 to 2022-23. On the other hand, the number of people filing returns amounting to zero tax liability has increased from 2.9 crores in 2019-20 to 5.16 crores in 2022-23. To put into perspective, while the number of those who filed ITRs has increased by 14.2%, the number of people with zero tax liability has increased by 63%. In simple terms, even though there has been a significant improvement in the number of people filing ITRs, this does not necessarily mean that there has been an increase in the number of people actually paying tax as more people are claiming zero-tax liability. This could be because of mostly first-time filers whose income may not fall into tax paying bracket yet.
The share of persons claiming zero-tax liability out of the total number of people who filed ITR was 45% in 2019-20 and touched 70% in 2022-23. In 2022-23, out of 7.4 crore persons who filed ITR, 5.16 crore had claimed zero tax liability. In other words, only about 2.24 crore people paid income tax in 2022-23 whereas in 2019-20, 3.58 crore people paid income tax. The reasons for these contrasting numbers are not clear.
Only 1.6% of India’s population paid income tax
To calculate the share of Indians who filed ITRs, we took the data on the projected population of India as of March in each of these years based on Health Ministry’s report from Dataful. Based on these population projections, it is seen that only about 4.8% of the population filed ITR in 2019-20. This gradually increased to 4.93%, 5.05%, and 5.33% in the subsequent years 2020-21, 2021-22, and 2022-23. During this period, the share of persons who filed zero tax returns rose from 2.15% in 2019-20 to 3.72% in 2022-23. Out of the 140 crore people in the country, only about 1.6% paid income tax in 2022-23. The share was even lower, 1.37%, in both 2020-21 and 2021-22. In 2019-20, the share was 2.15%.
Among states, Maharashtra has the highest number of persons filing ITR with more than 1 crore people filing each year. Following Maharashtra are Gujarat & Uttar Pradesh with more than 60 lakh people filing ITR in each of the 4 years considered. Between 40 to 50 lakh people filed ITR in Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, and West Bengal in each of the years. These six states together account for 54% of the total number of people in India who filed ITR in each of these years.
More than 80% claimed zero tax liability in Nagaland, Gujarat, and Punjab in 2022-23
Among those who filed ITR, the share of people claiming zero tax liability was more than 80% in Nagaland, Gujarat, and Punjab in 2022-23. Prior to this, the share of people claiming zero tax liability was the highest in Gujarat followed by Punjab before falling in 2022-23.
The share has been above 70% across almost all the Northeastern states in the last three years. This may be attributed to certain exemptions extended to people in these states in the income tax act as 30% of the population of this area are scheduled tribes. They are exempted under section 10(26) of the Income Tax Act from paying taxes on any income arising/accruing from any source in the scheduled areas/states, and entire income from dividends or interest on securities. Income other than these exempt incomes, such as accruing or arising from sources outside scheduled areas, is chargeable to tax. The Act also exempts agricultural income from computing the tax which could be why states like Punjab and Uttar Pradesh are mainly agrarian states.
On the other hand, all the South Indian states have a lower share of persons with zero liability in their ITR. The share in Kerala was the lowest among states in 2022-23 with 54% of persons who filed ITR having zero tax liability while Karnataka had 57%. Both Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu recorded around 60% while Telangana recorded 61.8%. Even in other years, these states have recorded a lower share, as compared to the national average.
About 22% filed ITR in Chandigarh while only less than 2% did in Bihar
If we compare the number of persons filing ITR and the projected population each year, only Chandigarh has consistently reported around 22% of the population filing ITR. About 17% of the population in Delhi and 14% in Goa filed ITR each year. While the share has increased across most states, in Punjab, the share increased from 10.2% to 11.75% and in Gujarat, the share increased from 9.4% to 10.4% in four years. Despite having major cities attracting employment, the share of people filing ITR in Maharashtra, Karnataka, Telangana, and Tamil Nadu was between 5 to 10% throughout while it was around 4% in West Bengal. This can also be read as more than 90% did not even file ITR in these states. Excluding Northeastern states, Bihar consistently reported less than 2% while Odisha reported less than 3%.
Several measures are being taken to encourage people to file IT Returns
What these numbers reveal is that only a small percentage of the population is paying income tax in India, which is a direct tax. Additionally, most Indians who purchase any good or avail of any service also pay Goods and Services Tax (GST) which is an indirect tax. In the US, more than 50% of households paid income tax in 2022. In the Lok Sabha response, the Finance Ministry stated that the government is taking several measures to encourage more people to file their ITR. These include expansion of scope of TDS/TCS, simplification of personal income tax, pre-filling of Income Tax Returns, and introduction of new forms, among others. The Ministry also stated that E-mails and SMS reminders are issued to taxpayers to file their ITRs and pay their tax dues in addition to carrying out other awareness programs.

created: August 3, 2023