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More than 50% of the complaints received by the Banking Ombudsman are from Metropolitan areas
Sai Krishna Muthyanolla
February 3, 2022
Data from the annual report of the Ombudsman Schemes indicates that more than 50% of the complaints were received from the metropolitan areas. North Zone tops the list of complaints with a 43.1% share. Further, 89% of the complaints were received through the digital mode.
In the previous story, we reviewed the trends in the complaints received under the Banking Ombudsman Scheme (BOS), based on the Annual Report of Ombudsman Schemes, 2020-21.
Among the three existing ombudsman schemes of RBI, we specifically looked at the Banking Ombudsman Scheme (BOS) and the trends relating to the number of complaints, category of complaints, mode & rate of disposal, etc.
In this follow-up story, we look at the data of the BOS for trends related to receipt of complaints by the Ombudsman Office, mode of receipt of the complaints, demographics, category of banks, etc. We also discuss a few examples of complaints received by the Office of the Banking Ombudsman (OBOs) and the resolution provided in those complaints.
Chandigarh OBO received the greatest number of complaints.
The greatest number of complaints were received in the North Zone with 43.1% of the total complaints in 2020-21, about 1.17 lakh complaints.  As per the update provided in the annual report, there is a 12.7% year-on-year (YoY) increase in the number of complaints received in the North Zone.
For the year 2020-21, the West Zone registered a growth of 13.5% in the number of complaints.  It also accounts for the second-highest share of complaints received in the country. Compared to the North & West Zones, the South Zone and East Zone have a lower share of the complaints in 2020-21.
The high number of complaints received in the North Zone is mainly contributed by the complaints in OBO Chandigarh. In 2020-21, more than 28 thousand complaints were received by this OBO alone. However, in terms of city-wise complaints, New Delhi tops with 43.2 thousand complaints, received in the three different OBOs in New Delhi. Kanpur also has a significant number of complaints with 21.16 thousand.
In the West Zone, the OBOs in Mumbai have registered 18.6 thousand (Mumbai-I) & 15.2 thousand (Mumbai-II) complaints in 2020-21, while Ahmedabad OBO received 17.2 thousand complaints.  Among the OBOs in South Zone, Hyderabad OBO received the most cases with about 17 thousand.
The average cost of Handling a complaint was reduced to Rs. 1,605
As per the latest annual report, the total cost of handling 3.02 lakh cases in 2020-21 (July-March) was Rs. 48.55 crores. This comes to an average of Rs.1,605 per complaint.
Over the years, the efficiency in handling the complaints has improved resulting in a reduction in the handling cost per complaint. In 2019-20, Rs. 77.36 crores were spent to handle 3.2 lakh complaints, resulting in an average of Rs. 2,412 per complaint. This was an improvement over 2018-19 when the average cost of handling one complaint was Rs. 3,145.
While the average cost per complaint has certainly improved at the national level, the average cost to handle the complaints is not the same across all the OBOs. Chandigarh, which has the greatest number of complaints in 2020-21, also has the lowest average cost with Rs. 1,066 per the complaint, followed by Jaipur at Rs. 1,113. Jammu & Guwahati branches have incurred the highest average cost in handling. In fact, the average cost of handling a complaint in Jammu is almost six times the national average.
One common trend visible from the data is that the average handling cost per complaint is high in OBOs that received fewer complaints. The same is the case in OBOs like Ranchi, Raipur, Thiruvananthapuram, etc. This could be due to fixed overhead costs in each of the OBOs irrespective of the number of complaints.
89% of the complaints received through Digital mode
In the earlier story, we had highlighted that the issues relating to Complaint Management System (CMS) were resolved which could be one of the major reasons for an increased number of complaints. This is also visible from the fact that digital is the preferred mode of the complaint.
In 2020-21, 89% of the complaints were received through Digital mode. This includes Online registration of the complaints through the CMS portal and through e-mails. Out of the total complaints received, around 60% are received online and 29% through e-mails.
The remaining 11% of the complaints were received in Physical form i.e., Post, Fax Courier, etc. In the previous year also i.e., 2019-20, there was a major jump in the usage of digital mode. In 2019-20, a total of 85.6% of the complaints were received through the digital mode, up from around 72% in 2018-19. The usage of the CMS portal increased continuously, at the expense of both e-mail and non-digital modes.
In terms of the geographical split, 53.8% of the complaints received were from Metropolitan areas, followed by around 20% from other Urban areas. Only 16.3% of complaints were from Semi-urban areas and the remaining 9.4% were from Rural areas.
The clear geographical split in terms of metros accounting for more than half the complaints could be due to higher banking transactions in these areas coupled with the awareness of the BOS in the urban areas.
37% of the complaints were about Private Sector Banks
The share of Private Sector Banks in the total number of complaints increased in 2020-21, compared to the previous year, 2019-20.  During 2020-21(July-March), 1.01 lakh complaints were received pertaining to private sector banks, which is around 37 % of the total complaints.
In 2019-20 (July-June), around 98.62 thousand i.e., 31.9% of the total complaints were related to the Private Sector banks. As far as YoY comparison is concerned (April to March), 1.26 lakh complaints i.e., 36.9% were received in 2020-21(April – March).
Nationalized banks accounted for 30.1% of all the complaints in 2020-21. Their share has slightly increased compared to the earlier year. The trend in the case of SBI is very different. The share of complaints concerning SBI fell from 29.6% in 2019-20 to 21.04% in 2020-21.
Wrong notices for dues paid, fraud with ATM transactions, etc. among the complaints by customers with Banking Ombudsman
As highlighted in the earlier story, around 96.7% of the complaints received by OBOs in 2020-21 were disposed of. A major portion of the complaints received was related to ATM/Debit Cards, Mobile or electronic Banking, Credit Cards, etc.
A review of the different complaints highlights the wide variety of the complaints that are received and the action taken to resolve the same. While the details related to all the complaints or a centralised Database are not available in the public domain, the RBI has released occasional reports or included details of some important cases in various annual reports. The “Compendium of Cases Handled by the Banking Ombudsman Offices” is one such report. The Annual Report for 2017-18 provided details of a few exemplary cases dealt with by OBOs.
Wrong outstanding dues notice on Credit cards despite Settlement
One of the complaints received was related to Credit Card payments. As per the customer, he has paid Rs. 35,000 for the settlement of outstanding dues for two credit cards. However, he later received a notice for Rs. 1.24 crores and Rs. 1.58 crores to be paid. The response from the bank was that the information was sold to ARC (Asset Reconstruction Company) inadvertently and has now advised the ARC to nullify the outstanding dues. The OBO directed the bank to nullify the dues and clean up the credit history with CIC (Credit Information Company).
Delay by the bank in blocking the card in wake of reported fraud
ATM/Debit card-related frauds are the most common nature of complaints received. According to one of the complaints received by the OBO, a customer received a call stating that his ATM card was blocked and need the credentials to unlock them.
The credentials were provided by the customer and Rs. 53,900 was debited from the account.
Realizing the fraud, the customer immediately informed and requested the bank to block the card. However, fraudulent transactions were done to a total loss of Rs. 6.88 lakhs. The OBO observed that since the customer has immediately informed the bank, and as the bank did not take any action to disallow further transactions, it needs to pay Rs. 6.35 lakhs to the customer i.e., the amount is fraudulently withdrawn after duly informing the bank.
Lack of double-verification process at bank end to identify the lapse by customer
Among the other major type of complaints received are the ones related to ‘Online Bank Transfers’. In one of the complaints received, the complainant alleged that the bank transferred Rs.11,24,994 instead of Rs. 1,13,882 to the beneficiary through an RTGS transaction.
The bank in its submission stated that the complainant has filled the RTGS form incorrectly, even though the accompanying cheques had the right amount. The amount as per the RTGS form was processed. The OBO observed that despite the wrong entry in the RTGS form by the customer, the issue was with the Bank. The bank ought to have put a maker-checker concept in place, where the mismatch ought to have been identified. Hence, it directed the bank to transfer the difference amount along with interest at the Savings bank rate.
Featured Image: Banking Ombudsman Scheme

created: February 3, 2022


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Data: More than 50% of the Cybercrimes Reported Between 2002 & 2021 have ‘Fraud’ as the Motive - FACTLY
Sai Krishna Muthyanolla
October 6, 2023
Data from the NCRB indicates that around 1.28 lakhs cybercrimes reported during 2002-2021 have ‘fraud’ as the motive. This accounts for nearly 52% of the total cybercrimes reported during this period. Most of the cybercrimes reported under both the IPC & the IT Act were reported in the recent years.
Cybercrimes refer to illegal activities committed in cyberspace targeting individuals, computer systems, networks, etc. either for some gain or to cause disruptions. Ever-evolving technology and increasing use of information technology and gadgets mean that there are greater avenues that are exposed to potential risks related to cybercrimes.
In the first story of this series of Cybercrimes, we highlighted that there is an increase in the number of cybercrimes reported in India in recent years. We have also analyzed that a majority of reported cybercrimes are concentrated in certain states & cities. Further analysis of the motives of cybercrimes and the type of cybercrimes would provide more insights into the nature of these crimes.
As was the case in the earlier story, the data for the analysis if taken from datasets on cybercrimes available on Dataful, which was compiled from the data on cybercrimes provided in the National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB)’s annual Crime in India (CII) report.
Nearly 52% of the cybercrimes reported between 2002-2021 have ‘fraud’ as the motive
Around 1.28 lakh cybercrimes reported during 2002-2021 have ‘fraud’ as the motive. This accounts for nearly 52% of the total cybercrimes reported during this period. The type of fraud is not provided in the NCRB reports.  For the period 2002-2015, the motive was listed as ‘Fraud/Illegal Claim’. In 2016, it was mentioned as ‘Illegal gain’ and since 2017, the motive is listed as ‘Fraud’.
There has been an increase in the number of crimes reported with motive as ‘fraud’ in the more recent years. In fact, 70% of the crimes reported with ‘fraud’ as a motive were in the three most recent years i.e., 2019-2021.  Karnataka, followed by Telangana and Uttar Pradesh have recorded the highest number of cybercrimes with ‘fraud’ as the motive. In terms of the rate of crimes, Karnataka and Telangana rank higher for the crimes with ‘fraud’ as the motive.
The NCRB reports list around 1/5 of the cybercrimes with the motive as an anonymous ‘others’, making it difficult to understand the motive of crimes for around 20% of the cybercrimes.  Around 15 thousand cybercrimes i.e., around 6% have reported ‘sexual exploitation’ as the motive behind the crime.  ‘Extortion’, ‘Causing Disrepute’, and ‘Personal Revenge’ are the other motives behind the reported cybercrimes.
Most of the crimes reported under IPC & IT Act are in the recent years
Cybercrimes are reported under various sections of IPC, the IT Act, and under various SLLs. The majority of the cybercrimes reported during 2002-2021, as per the data provided by NCRB, are under the IT Act. More than 1.41 lakh cybercrimes were reported under the IT Act during 2002-2021. Data is not provided for the years 2014 & 2015 for the cybercrimes reported under the IT Act.
Around 85.7 thousand crimes were reported under various sections of IPC related to cybercrimes during the same period. Even in the case of IPC, data is not provided by NCRB for the years 2014 & 15.  NCRB’s CII report started providing the various cybercrimes reported under SLLs in 2016. During the six-year period of 2016 -2021, 918  crimes were reported under various SLLs.
A major share of the cybercrimes reported under both the IT Act as well as IPC have been in recent years. Out of the 1.41 lakh crimes reported under IT Act, 1.19 lakh crimes were reported during the 5-year period of 2017 to 2021. In fact, during the latest three years i.e., 2019-2021, nearly 62% i.e., around 87.9 lakh cybercrimes were reported under IT Act.
In the case of IPC, around 86% of the crimes were reported during 2017 and 2021. In the last three years alone, around 59% of the cybercrimes under IPC have been reported.
Awareness about what constitutes a cybercrime, increased awareness about reporting crimes, and a better mechanism to identify and report cybercrimes by the law enforcement authorities could be the reasons for this increase in recent years both under the IT Act and IPC.  While there is an overall increase in the crimes reported, there are certain specific types of cybercrimes that have contributed to this increase, which is discussed below.
Furthermore, there are variations by geography, which will be analysed in the next story.
Fraud and Cheating are the major cybercrimes under IPC
As indicated above, fraud was the major motive for cybercrimes reported by the NCRB. This is reflected in the crime type reported under IPC.
As is the general trend with other IPC crimes, crimes like fraud & cheating where the aggrieved parties are more likely to report, have higher crime numbers while crimes like indecent representation of women are comparatively reported less. There is an increase in the cases recorded under ‘Cyber Stalking’ which could imply an increased awareness to report the crime.
Under the IT Act, most crimes are categorised under Section 66: Computer related offences
The Information Technology Act (IT Act) was passed in the year 2000 and amended in 2008. Furthermore, certain amendments were promogulated by the Union government in 2023. It is the primary law in India for matters related to cybercrime and e-commerce.
Under the various sections in the IT Act, the highest number of crimes are reported under Section 66, which deals with ‘Computer related Crimes’. Around 96.5 thousand crimes were reported under Section 66 during 2002 and 2021. The various crimes that form the sub-categories of Section 66 include – Offences other than ransomware, Dishonesty receiving stolen computer resource or communication device, Identity Theft, Cheating by personation by using computer resource, Violation of Privacy, etc.
Among these, ‘cheating by personation by using computer resource’ constitutes the major subcategory. Among other crimes categorised under IT Act, Section 67 i.e., publication or transmission of obscene content has the next highest with around 26.7 thousand crimes reported since 2002.
In the next story, we analyse the trends in various types of crimes across States.

source: news-factly

created: October 6, 2023

license: Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

author: Sai Krishna Muthyanolla


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Data: More than 50% of the final merit list of the Civil Service Examination are in the 24-28 age group
Sai Krishna Muthyanolla
June 21, 2022
This is the second part of the analysis of the data from the UPSC annual reports. Data indicates females comprise only about 25% of the final merit list. However, their conversion rate is significantly better than males both at the Mains & Interview stage. As far as age groups is concerned, more than 50% of the final merit list are in the 24-28 age group.
In the first part of the story about the trends and patterns in the UPSC Civil Services Examination (CSE), we looked at different aspects of the candidates’ profiles like their educational background, gender, degree of study, and optional subjects. In this second part, we look at some additional indicators to analyse the trends and similarities in the examination results. As mentioned in the previous story, caution must be exercised in interpreting these trends as a standard norm as it is possible that these trends are merely coincidental.
Females comprise of only 1/4th of the final selections
The gender-wise analysis of candidates in the final merit list indicates that the share of female candidates in the final merit list is less than 25%. This percentage is almost constant from 2009 barring 2014 when it fell to 19.7% from the general average of 23%.
Females dominate in the later stages of examination, while males dominate in prelims
When we look at the gender-wise comparison between the success rates of males and females at all three stages of the examination, it is observed that the percentage of male candidates who clear prelims is more than the percentage of female candidates. However, in the later stages of examination, i.e., Mains and Interview, it is the female candidates whose conversion rate is better than the male candidates. The gap between the conversion rates between male and female candidates also increases from Mains to the interview stage. One of the reasons behind such a high difference could be the lower volume of female candidates at the later stages of examination, particularly the Mains.
Nearly half of the total selected candidates aged between 24-28 years
If we look at the data of the age profiles of the selected candidates from 2014, more than half of the total selected candidates fall under the age bracket of 24-28 years. If we further break down this in a gender lens, the majority of male candidates get selected around the same age bracket, whereas for female candidates, the age bracket of 24-26 years has the highest share of the female selections out of the total female selections.
The percentage of final selections increases from the age bracket of 21-24 years till 24-28 years, concentrates in the 24-28 years bracket, and declines further from 28-30 & 30+ and above age brackets.
Conversion rate among major caste groups
The caste-wise conversion rates of candidates over the years follow a peculiar pattern. The conversion percentage of candidates belonging to Scheduled Caste (SCs) and Scheduled Tribe (STs) in prelims as well as in Mains is lower than the total conversion rate. However, in the conversion rate from the interview to the final selection list, the conversion rate of SCs and STs is better than the overall rate. Similar is the case with the Other Backward Castes (OBCs) group. OBCs conversion rate is higher than that of SCs and STs in both prelims and mains but lags significantly behind SCs and STs in the conversion rate from interview to final selection. Even between the STs and SCs, the conversion rate of STs is higher than that of SCs for all levels of CSE examination, except for a few instances. This could be due to the number of vacancies available for a particular group and the size of the pool to choose from.
If we consider the conversion rate directly from prelims to the final selection, candidates from the general category perform better than the OBCs, followed by STs and SCs.
Females from SCs and STs have a high conversion rate than males
In our earlier story, we looked at the gender-wise conversion rates in the final stage of the civil services examination. It was found that females outperform males in the conversion rate, i.e., from appearance in interviews to final selection. If we look at the same conversion rates, but across different caste groups, it is clear that female candidates belonging to SCs and STs have significantly better conversion rates than their male counterparts. In addition to this, among all the caste groups, females from SCs and STs have a better conversion rate than other caste groups.
It is also evident that the difference in the conversion rates between males and females is almost constant for the general category, whereas for the STs, this difference is increasing for the past three years. For SCs, this difference is falling for the past three years.
Featured Image: Civil Service Examination


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Data: More than 50% of the Outward Remittances from India under LRS are for Travel & Education
Sai Krishna Muthyanolla
October 28, 2022
The Reserve Bank of India publishes data on outward remittances under the LRS scheme in its monthly bulletin. Data from the RBI shows that more than 50% of the Outward Remittances from India are for Travel & Education. Remittances for the purpose of investments & purchase of immovable property are also increasing.
Remittances are transfers, usually sent from one individual or family of migrants working in one country to another individual or family, residing in their country of origin. Inward Remittances are significant for low- and middle-income countries. They shield against unanticipated emergencies and often function as investment support for education and infrastructure. As per the migration data portal, remittances in 2022 is expected to grow by 4.2% to reach 630 billion USD. However, it is difficult to estimate the precise magnitude of remittance flows given many transactions take place through informal channels. Furthermore, remittances have significant human costs. Migrants may have to make big sacrifices—like leaving behind their families—and take risks, sometimes even face abuses when looking for a job and residence.
Remittances are one of the stable sources of external fund flows. Governments tend to provide incentives to boost remittance flows and direct them to productive purposes. Both demand side and supply side of remittances must be strengthened to productively utilize the remittance flows. Therefore, it becomes utmost important to streamline and ease the remittance transfers through official channels.
On the other hand, outward remittances from any country could be for multiple reasons such as education, travel & tourism, or other purposes. In today’s story, we look at the outward flow of remittances from India and associated causes and trends. The Reserve Bank of India publishes data on outward remittances under the LRS scheme in its monthly bulletin.
What is the Liberalized Remittance Scheme (LRS)?
Transferring money to people or organizations in foreign countries was time-consuming and laborious in the past. To streamline outward payments, the Reserve Bank of India (RBI), based on Tarapore committee’s recommendations, launched the Liberalized Remittance Scheme (LRS) in 2004. LRS acts as the guidelines for external remittances from India.
Under the LRS, any legal current or capital account transaction, or a combination of both, may be funded by resident individuals up to USD 2,50,000 every fiscal year (April-March). Corporate entities, partnership firms, HUFs, Trusts, etc., are not eligible for the Scheme. The Scheme forbids all other transactions that are otherwise prohibited by FEMA and those that are in the nature of margin calls or remittances for margins to foreign exchanges or foreign counterparties.
The limit for transfers undergoes revisions owing to the prevailing macro and micro-economic conditions. Below is the timeline of the revisions.
Any analysis of the values of outward remittances must be viewed keeping in mind the transfer limits.
Rising outward remittances, after a decline due to COVID-19
Outward remittances from India have been growing consistently. It was 808 million USD during 2008-09, which rose to 1326 USD during 2014-15. The years 2015-16 and 2016-17 saw a steep rise in the outward flow of remittances, registering almost 250% and 75% increase compared to respective previous years. This could be due to the increase in limits under the LRS. Thereafter, the increase has been moderate, but the outflows for pandemic year 2020-21 fell by almost one-thirds. The remittance flows in the year after the pandemic improved slightly compared to the pre-pandemic levels. The
Travel and education form a bulk of outward remittances
Outward remittances can be done for a variety of purposes- deposits, investment in equity/debt, purchase of immovable property, gift, travels, donations, education, medical treatments, maintenance of close relatives and others. Foreign travel and education form a substantial chunk of the total outward remittances from India. The cumulative remittances for travel and education abroad stood at 50% of the total during 2016-17, which rose to 64% during 2019-20. Owing to the restrictions on travel and education during the pandemic, its share fell to 56% during 2020-21. As the restrictions on travel are easing, the share in the total outward remittances is well on track to improve from the pre-pandemic levels. It is anticipated to rise steadily as a result of the expansion of the international education market, an increase in the volume of student traffic, and easing travel related COVID-19 restrictions across the world.
Increasing investments abroad and property purchases
After travel and education, gifts, and maintenance of close relatives account for approximately another 30% share in the total outward remittances. Apart from these, investments in equity/debt, deposits and purchase of immovable property have shown improvement over the years. The investments in equity/debt reached 746 million USD in 2021-22, an increase from 431 million USD during 2019-20. It is believed that a greater number of people are preferring to buy foreign stocks and hold a share in top multinational companies, thereby diversifying the portfolio. Similarly, the tendency to own a property abroad has increased owing to increased remittances for this purpose.
Remittances data of RBI and World Bank does not match
As stated earlier, it is complicated to arrive at an exact figure of the total outward remittances, as transactions often take place through unofficial channels. The data published by the ‘Reserve Bank of India’ and ‘The Global Knowledge Partnership on Migration and Development (KNOMAD), World Bank’ often do not match. The KNOMAD frequently publishes data on remittance inflows and outflows through its ‘Migration and Development Brief’. While the RBI publishes it in fiscal year mode, the data from World Bank follows the calendar year mode, which means exact comparison cannot be drawn. The methodology of the data collection may also vary. Below is the difference in the data published by the two agencies as far as outward remittances from India are concerned.
Need a comprehensive migrant-centred approach towards remittances
As mentioned earlier, remittances function as a stable source of foreign capital flows to the recipient countries. Hence, both the source nations and the recipient nations need to adopt a migrant-centred approach to enable the free flow of the remittances. The global average of transaction costs remains at 6% when compared to the target 3% of the Sustainable Development Goals. In addition, a timely availability of data on remittances could help in understanding the blockheads in the remittance cycle. Accordingly, the World Bank launched International Working Group to Improve Data on Remittances. Further, the volume and impact of the remittances are deeply impacted by the macro-economic policies, the exchange rates, and policies on migration. It is therefore of equal importance to have an enabling framework for the free flow of remittances across borders.
Featured Image: Remittances from India

created: October 28, 2022


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Data: More than 50% of Vigilance Complaints Between 2004 & 2022 received in Railways, NCT Delhi, MHA & Banks
Sai Krishna Muthyanolla
October 27, 2023
Data from the CVC reveals that the cumulative total complaints received between 2004 and 2022 in Railways stood at 1.8 lakhs, followed by NCT Delhi at 1.4 lakhs, home affairs at 1.25 lakhs and banks at 1.2 lakhs accounting for more than half of all complaints.
In the first part of the series on the Central Vigilance Commission (CVC), we focussed on the type and nature of complaints often received by the CVC. We also looked at the disposals of the cases, including the share of the cases that required further investigation. In this second part, the focus is on the Central Vigilance Officers (CVOs) and the complaints received and disposed by them, including the organizational break-up of the those.
One-fourth of all the complaints received by CVOs are pending.
As mentioned in the earlier story, CVOs act as a crucial bridge between the Commission and the organizations and the CVC carries out its mandate of superintendence over vigilance administration through the CVOs. As a result, the Commission regularly monitors the performance of CVOs through established mechanisms such as performance reports, periodic reviews, and annual reports.
CVOs can receive complaints from two directions – either directly by them or sent to them by the Commission. The data on the total number of complaints received by the CVOs indicates that there is a huge increase in the number of complaints received. Between 2004 and 2013, an average of 40,263 complaints were received per year, whereas between 2014 and 2022, the average number of complaints received grew to 73,784 marking a growth of 80%. On the disposals front, the average number of complaints that are disposed grew from 30,092 to 54,050 during the same period. The total number of complaints that are pending grew from an average of 10,172 to 19,734 during the same period. On average, one-quarter of all the complaints received were pending during the same period.
Railways tops, followed by NCT Delhi Government and Home affairs in total number of complaints received.
The organizational break-up of the total complaints received in respect of all categories of employees/officers reveal that railways has the cumulative highest number of complaints between 2004 to 2022, followed by Government of NCT Delhi, Ministry of Home Affairs, and Banks. Together, these four organizations account for more than half of the total complaints received between 2004 and 2022 by the CVC.
The cumulative total complaints received between 2004 and 2022 in Railways stood at 1.8 lakhs, followed by NCT Delhi at 1.4 lakhs, home affairs at 1.25 lakhs and banks at 1.2 lakhs. It is further observed that there is a sharp rise in the complaints received in Ministry of Home Affairs during the last three years, whereas complaints from Government of NCT Delhi had stabilized after a steep decline between 2004 and 2007. The increase in complaints received in Ministry of Home Affairs could be due to the abrogation of Article 370 in 2019 turning Jammu & Kashmir into two Union Territories.
Marginal reduction in departmental inquiries received in the recent years.
After a decision has been made to commence disciplinary proceedings against an officer, the Chief Vigilance Officer (CVO) must make certain that the charge-sheet is meticulously prepared and promptly issued. Furthermore, the CVO is responsible for ensuring that there are no delays in appointing ‘Inquiry Officers’. The CVO consistently supervises the advancement of departmental inquiries and promptly informs the relevant disciplinary or administrative authorities if any excessive delays are detected, prompting them to take corrective action.
The data on the number of departmental inquiries received indicate that there is a marginal reduction in recent years. Between 2004 and 2013, the average number of departmental inquiries against officers (under CVC jurisdiction) and other employees was 14,322, which declined to 12,416 during 2014 and 2022.
At an organizational level, Banks stood at the top with 93,747 cases, followed by Railways with 33,833 cases, Telecommunications at 12,101 cases and Customs & Excise with 8,935 cases received respectively. Approximately 45% of the cases received in Banks are pending, while that for Railways, Telecommunications and Customs & Excise are 50%, 60% and 67% respectively.
Two-fifths of the requests for prosecution sanctions are refused.
Once the investigation is completed as per the standard procedure, if the investigating agency concludes that there is sufficient evidence for initiation of criminal action, it shall forward the request for sanction through the CVO of that organization concerned. The CVOs here play an important role in processing and expediting the matter.
The data on the sanctions for prosecutions indicate that almost forty percent of such requests are refused. A total of 11,648 cases were received for sanctions from 2004 to 2022, out of which 7,077 were sanctioned and 1,721 are refused. Between 2004 and 2013, an average of 534 cases for sanctions were received, out of which 352 were sanctioned and 74 were refused. Similarly, between 2014 and 2022, an average of 701 cases for sanctions were received, out of which 395 were sanctioned and 109 were refused. On an average, around 40% of the cases for sanction are refused.
Banks and Government of NCT Delhi tops in the total cases for sanction of prosecution
The organizational break-up of the above cases for sanctions to prosecute reveal that banks have filed maximum cases, followed by Government of NCT Delhi, Central Board of Excise and Customs (CBEC) and Railways. Together, these four account for almost 60% of the total cases for sanction. Between 2004 and 2022, Banks had 4,650 cases for sanction, followed by Government of NCT Delhi at 1040, CBEC at 773 and Railways at 667. Out of the 4,650 for banks, 2283 are sanctioned, while 1111 are refused. Similarly, for NCT Delhi, 719 cases are sanctioned for prosecution while 50 are refused.
Featured Image: Vigilance Complaints

created: October 27, 2023


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Data: More Than 6-Fold Increase in The Amount of Loans Disbursed By PSBs For Study Abroad Between 2012-13 And 2021-22
Sai Krishna Muthyanolla
March 10, 2023
Data provided by the government in the parliament reveals that there has been a more than three-fold increase in the number of students availing loans from Public Sector Banks for study abroad during 2012-13 and 2021-22. During the same period, the amount of loans increased by more than 6-fold.
Except for the year 2020 which was hit by the COVID-19 pandemic, there has been an increasing trend of Indians travelling abroad for higher education. Our story based on the ‘Open Doors Report’ which conforms to this trend can be read here. Data provided in the recent response in parliament also supports the trend of the increasing number of Indians travelling overseas for education. In fact, the year 2022 recorded the highest number of Indians travelling abroad for purpose of study.  Our analysis of these trends can be read here.
Better education and post-study opportunities, scholarships by foreign universities, increased awareness of study abroad opportunities, etc. are some of the factors influencing this trend. Another key factor is the availability of educational loans to study abroad. In this story, we look at the trends in loans for study abroad, focusing on education loans by Public Sector Banks (PSBs) in India.
More than 6-fold increase in the value of loans disbursed by PSBs for studying abroad
Responding to a question asked in Lok Sabha on 13 February 2023, the Government of India furnished details of the loans issued by PSBs for study abroad. The information is provided for 10 Public sector Banks (PSBs). As per these details, during the 10-year period from 2012-23 to 2021-22, around 4.61 lakh students were provided loans for study abroad. This amounts to a total of Rs. 39.26 thousand crores.
With the exception of the pandemic hit 2020-21, there is a year-on-year increase in these 10 years, in terms of the number of students as well as the total value of loans disbursed. In 2012-13, PSBs approved and issued loans to 20.37 thousand students. This increased to 26.76 thousand in the next year. Over the next few years, this increased consistently and peaked at 62.95 thousand in 2019-20, the year before the pandemic. However, during 2020-21, it fell to 51.78 thousand because of the pandemic. As highlighted in the earlier story, the number of Indians traveling abroad for study rebounded in 2021-22. This is also reflected in the number of students who took loans to study abroad, which increased to 69.89 thousand in 2021-22. In other words, the number of students who availed of loans for study abroad more than tripled in these 10 years.
The proportion of growth is higher in the case of the total value of loans disbursed for study abroad. In 2012-13, a total of Rs.1.18 thousand crores was lent by PSBs for purpose of studying abroad. After a year-on-year increase, Rs. 5.88 thousand crores were disbursed by PSB in the year prior to the pandemic i.e., 2019-20. In 2020-21, it fell to Rs. 4.5 thousand crores. However, in 2021-22, the total value of the loans is Rs. 7.58 thousand crores i.e., more than a 6-fold increase compared to the amount disbursed in 2012-13.
During this 10-year period, the average value of loans by PSBs has also increased. In 2012-13, the average was around Rs. 6 lakhs, which increased to around Rs.11 lakhs in 2021-22.
SBI has the major share of loans disbursed for Study Abroad
During 2021-22, out of the total value of Rs. 7.5 thousand crores lent by PSBs, nearly 47% is by State Bank of India. Even in terms of the number of students who availed loans for studying abroad, nearly 47% availed loans from SBI.  Over the 10-year period between 2012-13 and 2021-22, SBI gradually increased its share in the total loans disbursed by PSBs for purpose of studying abroad.
In 2012-13, its share was around 32% which increased to 33% & 35% in the next two years. Over the last three years i.e., 2019-20 to 2021-22, the share is around 47%.  This could also be because of the merger of associate banks in SBI. It also ought to be noted that apart from an increase in the share, SBI has also contributed to the exponential increase in the total value of loans disbursed by PSBs for this purpose.
Other banks which also have a sizeable share in the value of loans disbursed are the Bank of Baroda and Canara Bank. In 2021-22, the share of the Bank of Baroda was around 15%. In 2012-13, it was around 8%. After a fall in share in subsequent years, there is an increase in the last four years.  Canara Bank’s share in 2022-23 is also around 15%. Unlike Bank of Baroda, Canara Banks has maintained this share from around 2013-14. These three banks are the key contributors to the increase in the number as well as the volume of loans provided for study abroad.
On the other hand, Punjab National Bank (PNB) has a different trend. In 2012-13, 40% of the loans disbursed for study abroad were by PNB. Over the years, there has been a gradual fall in its share. Up until 2017-18, there was an increase in the volume of loans disbursed despite a falling share. But since 2018-19, there was a steady decline, more so in recent years.
Union Bank of India increased its share from around 2% to 7.3% in these 10 years.  The lending for purpose of studying abroad is lower in the case of other PSBs. In terms of the average value of loans, the highest is Bank of Maharashtra with around Rs. 14 lakhs on average.  In 2021-22, the average lending of Bank of Baroda and Indian Bank is around Rs. 11 lakhs per student. In the case of SBI, it is Rs. 11 lakhs. The least is Bank of India with Rs. 6 lakhs, while for Central Bank of India and Punjab & Sind Bank, it is Rs.7 lakh. It is significant to note that, in 2012-13 & 2013-14, the Central Bank of India had the highest average value of loan per student with Rs. 19 lakhs, which was thrice the overall average.
Study Abroad loans make up 8% of the total number and 33% of the total value of Educational Loans in 2018-19
In a response provided in Lok Sabha in December 2019, the Government of India furnished the details of the total educational loans for the period 2014-15 to 2018-19. Information for later years is not available in the public domain.
In 2014-15, educational loans were disbursed to 6.82 lakh accounts by Public Sector Banks, the total value of which is Rs. 9.19 thousand crores. In comparison, the study abroad loans disbursed by PSBs was to 34.99 thousand students, accounting for 5% of the total educational loan accounts. When the value of the loan is considered, the study abroad loans have a higher share at around at around 27.3%, because of the higher average loan size. There is a year-on-year increase in the share as well as the amount of study abroad loans. By 2018-19, the share of study abroad loans of all educational loans increased to 7.9% in terms of the number of accounts and around 32.7% in terms of value.
The overall trend indicates an increase in the number and value of loans disbursed by PSBs for purpose of studying abroad. As data indicates, their share is also increasing compared to the overall educational loans. This also indicates an increasing preference for studying abroad, which is also supported by the number of students travelling abroad for study.


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Data: More than 60% of Captive Elephants in India are in Private Custody
Sai Krishna Muthyanolla
April 1, 2024
After the government recently notified the Captive Elephant Transfer rules, there is a renewed discussion & focus on the well-being of elephants. As per data shared by the government in 2019, there were around 2675 captive elephants in India of which more than 60% were in private custody.
The Indian Elephant is a subspecies of Asian elephants native to the Indian subcontinent. These are highly intelligent creatures and exhibit remarkable emotional intelligence. Female elephants form close-knit family units led by elderly matriarchs, while males typically lead solitary lives. Physically, Indian elephants share resemblances with other Asian elephant subspecies like the Sumatran and Sri Lankan elephants but can be distinguished by their smaller, more rounded ears and bodies. They are migratory animals with extensive home ranges, playing a crucial role in maintaining biodiversity and ecological balance by dispersing seeds and creating clearings that facilitate vegetation growth.
Despite their importance as keystone species, Indian elephants face significant threats such as habitat loss, poaching, and conflicts with humans. They are classified as Endangered by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) and are listed under Appendix I of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). Additionally, they are protected under Schedule I of the Wildlife Protection Act of 1972, regardless of whether elephants occur in the wild or in captivity.
Human elephant conflicts are on a rise in India
Shrinking habitats, agricultural expansion, and competing needs have led to increased human-elephant encounters, resulting in conflict situations. This trend is particularly concerning given the significance and vulnerability of elephants in the country. Previously, the statistics related to human deaths due to elephant attacks were discussed in Factly’s story. However, elephants are also affected by human actions. In this story, we examine elephant deaths due to unnatural causes primarily involving humans, such as poaching, poisoning, electrocution, and train accidents.
Likewise, it is essential to also address the challenges faced by elephants in captivity. Captive elephants, though not directly exposed to these specific causes of unnatural deaths, often experience physical and psychological challenges due to confinement, inadequate living conditions, and unnatural behaviours, highlighting the broader conservation and welfare issues surrounding elephants in both wild and captive settings.
Unnatural causes have claimed the lives of more than 500 elephants in the last 7 years
India is home to the largest population of wild Asian elephants, estimated at around 30,000 and accounting for nearly 60% of the species’ total population. However, in the last 7 years, about 2% of these died due to unnatural causes with electrocution and train accidents being the most common causes.
Electrocution is a tragic cause of elephant deaths that occurs when elephants come into contact with electric fences, power lines, or illegally electrified fences set up by farmers to deter wildlife from their crops. A total of 460 elephant lives were lost due to electrocution in the last seven years. Odisha, Assam, and Tamil Nadu reported 50% of such deaths. From 57 in 2015-16, the number peaked to 81 in 2018-19 and has dropped since then.
Train accidents claimed lives of more than 100 elephants
Elephant deaths in train accidents pose a significant threat to India’s elephant population. These accidents occur when elephants, often while crossing railway tracks, are hit by speeding trains. Between 2015-16 and 2021-22, a total of 110 elephants reportedly lost their lives in train accidents. Assam reported the highest (40) followed by West Bengal (21).
Kerala reported highest elephant deaths due to poaching
Poaching of elephants in India remains a serious concern despite conservation efforts. Elephants are primarily targeted for their tusks, which are highly sought after in illegal ivory trade markets. Poaching claimed the lives of 85 elephants from 2015-16 to 2021-22. Kerala recorded the highest number of poaching incidents at 20 during this period, followed by Meghalaya and Odisha with 14 each, and Karnataka with 11. Other states such as Nagaland and Tamil Nadu reported 7 poaching-related elephant deaths each, while Assam reported 6 such incidents.
Further, poisoning has led to the death of 32 elephants between 2015-16 and 2021-22. A total of 24 out of these were reported from Assam alone while Kerala and Jharkhand reported 2 each. One each was reported from the states of Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Karnataka, and Odisha.
20% of the global captive elephant population is in India
India also boasts the third-highest number of captive elephants, with nearly 2,700 representing 20% of the global captive elephant population. These captive elephants in India are kept in elephant camps and rescue centres managed by the Forest Department, in zoos, temples, circuses and owned by private individuals.
Captive elephants in India are primarily used for tourism and entertainment purposes, including elephant rides, performances, and interactions with tourists. They also play a significant role in religious and cultural events, often paraded, and adorned during festivals. Some are employed for labour-intensive tasks like logging and carrying heavy loads, while others are part of conservation breeding programs and scientific research initiatives. Kumki elephants are trained elephants used for various conservation and human-wildlife conflict mitigation purposes.
63% of the captive elephants are in private custody
There are a total of 2675 captive elephants in the country as of January 2019 of which 63% are in private custody. About 25% of the elephant population remains in the custody of the Forest Department. Another 3% are housed in zoos and rehabilitation centres.
These captive elephants are found in 26 states and union territories, including the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Delhi, and Puducherry. Most of these elephants were located in the northeastern states. Assam reported the highest with 905 captive elephants, followed by Arunachal Pradesh with 109. Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Tripura, Nagaland, and Meghalaya accounted for more than 41% of the captive elephants.
Nearly 32% were in the southern states of Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, and Andhra Pradesh. Kerala had a maximum of 518 captive elephants, followed by 184 in Karnataka and 138 in Tamil Nadu.
Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, and West Bengal had more than 100 elephants each.
Captive elephants are vulnerable to physical and psychological health issues
Captive elephants are vulnerable to physical and psychological challenges without proper care, leading to abnormal behaviours and reduced lifespan. They can also exhibit abnormal behaviours due to confinement and lack of stimulation. Social isolation is another significant issue, as elephants are highly social animals that require appropriate social interactions. In 2010, an Elephant Task Force report recommended a total ban on elephant ownership in the long run.  It also called for the strict implementation of the Wildlife Protection Act’s provisions.
New rules have laxed and made transportation of captive elephant easier
Recently, the Central government notified Captive Elephant (Transfer or Transport) Rules, 2024. These new rules have relaxed provisions for transportation of the captive elephants and have been criticized by experts. The updated rules for transferring captive elephants allow for easier transfers under specific circumstances, such as when the current owner is unable to maintain the elephant or when better upkeep is deemed necessary by the Chief Wildlife Warden. These rules also streamline the process for interstate transfers by requiring permissions only from the originating and recipient states, along with certification of the elephant’s health and suitability of habitats. This is contrary to the recommendations of the 2010 report.
To sum up, the situation of elephants in India is complex and multifaceted, encompassing challenges in both wild and captive settings. While Indian elephants play a crucial role in maintaining biodiversity and ecological balance, they face significant threats such as habitat loss, poaching, human-wildlife conflicts, and other challenges in captivity. Amidst the global efforts to protect wildlife, the recent updates in rules regarding the transfer of captive elephants have raised concerns among experts. Efforts are required to prioritize the conservation and welfare of elephants, including stricter implementation of wildlife protection laws, promoting coexistence with humans, and ensuring humane care for captive elephants.


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Data: More Than 70% of Enumerated Water Bodies in The Census Have a Spread Area of Less Than 0.5 Hectares
Sai Krishna Muthyanolla
May 26, 2023
Data from the first-ever census report of the water bodies in India indicates that the information on ‘water spread area’ has been reported for over 96% of them. Out of these, 72.4% of water bodies have water spread area less than 0.5 hectares, whereas only 3.1% of water bodies have water spread area more than 5 hectares.
India’s first-ever census report on water bodies undertaken by the Ministry of Jal Shakti was released recently. The report provides valuable insights into the water bodies in India by providing important information such as the size of the water body, usage, status of encroachments, storage capacity, and recovery works, among others. In a series of stories based on the report, Factly had earlier published a story on this census along with an analysis of the distribution of water bodies across the country. We also looked into the useability of these 24.24 lakh water bodies and the reasons, and level of encroachment of these water bodies. All this information has been collected for the first time, during this census exercise. In this story, we look at the water spread area of the water bodies enumerated in the Census. We use data from the first water body census that is available on Dataful for analysis.
For this Census, water bodies have been defined as ‘all-natural or man-made units bounded on all sides with some or no masonry work used for storing water for irrigation or other purposes like industrial, pisciculture, domestic/drinking, recreation, religious, groundwater recharge, etc.’ That is, the water census has covered surface water bodies such as tanks, reservoirs, ponds, and lakes, among others. Free-flowing water bodies without any bounded storage such as rivers, springs, and streams have been excluded from the survey.
Surface water bodies are important source of water for irrigation in areas with low rainfall
Surface water bodies are essential for domestic and drinking purposes, cultural purposes, as well as commercial purposes like pisciculture, for livestock, recreation, and agriculture. In areas with relatively low rainfall and rural areas, such stored surface water bodies are relied upon for irrigation. These bodies also serve ecological purposes and are vital for groundwater recharge. Thus, maintenance and knowledge of such surface water resources is necessary.
The census was launched under the centrally sponsored scheme, ‘Irrigation Census’ in convergence with the 6th Minor Irrigation Census which defines ‘Water Spread Area’ as the area covered by water or the land occupied by the water body (submerged area). This information is crucial to understanding the availability of water resources mainly for irrigation. Further, it is on the basis of this water spread area that the Central Government disburses funds to states for restoring these water bodies.
Majority of the water bodies have a water spread area of less than 0.5 hectares
Of the 24.2 lakh water bodies enumerated in the census, the information on ‘water spread area’ has been reported for over 96% of them, which is about 23.3 lakh water bodies. Out of these, 72.4% of water bodies have a water spread area of less than 0.5 hectares, whereas only 3.1% of water bodies have a water spread area of more than 5 hectares. 13.4% have a water spread area between 0.5-1 hectare and 11.1% have a water spread area between 1-5 hectares. The distribution of water bodies according to ‘water spread area’ is similar across urban and rural areas.
More than 95% of the water bodies in Kerala, HP, and Assam had an area lesser than 0.5 hectares
The distribution of these water bodies by water spread area varies across states. Among large states, more than 95% of the water bodies had an area of less than 0.5 hectares in Kerala, Himachal Pradesh, and Assam. While Delhi and northeastern states of Sikkim, Manipur, Meghalaya, and Tripura also had more than 90% in the category, West Bengal had 88% while Odisha had nearly 78% and Uttar Pradesh had almost 75% in the said category. On the other side, less than 1% of the water bodies in Gujarat had an area of less than 0.5 hectares. The same was nearly 17% in Maharashtra and between 30 to 35% in Chhattisgarh and Andhra Pradesh. Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, and Karnataka too had reported only less than 50% in the category.
Most of the water bodies, more than 35%, in Maharashtra were spread across 0.5 to 1 hectare. In Karnataka, more than 40% fell in this category while Gujarat, Chhattisgarh, Punjab, and Haryana had over 25 to 30% of the enumerated water bodies in this category. Meanwhile, in Gujarat, about two-thirds of the water bodies, 68%, were spread across 1 to 5 hectares. Even Andhra Pradesh, with 36%, had the greatest number of water bodies in this category. Maharashtra and Chhattisgarh too had more than 30% in this category. Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Telangana, and Rajasthan had over 20 to 25% of the water bodies in this category.
16% of the water bodies in Telangana had a minimum area of 5 hectares
Across all the states, at least 8 out of 10 of the enumerated water bodies had an area of less than 5 hectares. In Telangana, however, almost 16% of the water bodies had an area of minimum 5 hectares. This is the highest for a state. Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan, Maharashtra, and Karnataka also had more than 10% of the water bodies in this category.
Telangana and AP alone accounted for more than 50% of the large water bodies with area more than 50 hectares
In terms of the share of large water bodies spread over more than 50 hectares, Rajasthan had the highest with 2% such water bodies of all the water bodies in the state while Telangana and Andhra Pradesh had more than 1% of the water bodies. However, in terms of number, Telangana and Andhra Pradesh alone accounted for half of such water bodies enumerated in the country. Ten states- Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Gujarat, Karnataka, Kerala, Odisha, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh, and West Bengal- which are top contributors to both marine and inland fisheries in the country account for more than 55% of the water bodies in the country with a minimum area of 5 hectares.
RRR scheme is implemented to safeguard surface water bodies
The scheme of Repair, Renovation & Restoration (RRR) which is a component of Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana (Har Khet Ko Pani) provides Central Assistance to States for the creation and restoration of irrigation potential under the RRR of Water Bodies schemes. The objectives of this scheme include comprehensive improvement and restoration of water bodies thereby increasing tank storage capacity, groundwater recharge, increased availability of drinking water, and improvement in agriculture productivity, among others. As per the latest guidelines, rural water bodies with a minimum water spread area of 2 hectares (1 hectare for Northeastern, Sikkim and Hilly States including UTs of Jammu & Kashmir and Ladakh), and urban water bodies with a minimum water spread area of 1 hectare (0.5 hectares for Northeastern, Sikkim and Hilly States including UTs of Jammu & Kashmir and Ladakh) are eligible for inclusion under the scheme.
This census data will be useful to determine the eligible water bodies in the respective states and UTs. If all the water bodies in urban areas with a minimum area of 1 hectare alone are considered, nearly 7,300 (11% of all water bodies in urban areas) water bodies are eligible for the scheme. Likewise, in rural areas, if only those with a minimum water spread area of 5 hectares are considered, nearly 71,000 water bodies will be eligible for the scheme. Considering that about 86% of these water bodies have a water spread area of less than 1 hectare, these water bodies are not eligible for funding under the scheme to rejuvenate and restore them. According to government data, about 2,169 water bodies across 10 states were included in the scheme between 2016 and 2021, out of which the work on 1,132 was completed as of April 2022. The water spread area to be considered was relaxed since 2021-22 to encourage more states to take up the funding.
The changes in water spread area must be monitored
Both natural and anthropogenic factors affect the water spread area of water bodies. Considering the significance, measures should also be taken to track the change in the water spread area of these water bodies which would be useful for policymakers and researchers to identify the factors and come up with targeted interventions to prevent the same. The government should continue to carry out the census and publish the results on a periodic basis.
Featured Image: Water Bodies in India


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Data: More Than 70% of The Population Covered Under NFSA in Three States
Sai Krishna Muthyanolla
January 12, 2023
The government has recently announced extending the Pradhan Mantri Garib Kalyan Ann Yojana to 2023 as well. Data of the last few years indicates that more than 70% of the population is covered under the National Food Security Act, in three states while less than 40% is covered in only 8 States/UTs.
The Global Food Security Index 2022 highlights that for the third consecutive year, there is a deterioration in the Global food environment which is threatening food security. The prevailing global situation has offset the gains which were made globally during 2012-2015. The COVID-19 pandemic continues to threaten the global food systems.
The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2022 report published by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, also highlights that the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic continue to impede the progress towards achieving global food security. The pandemic has exacerbated existing inequalities and has worsened the food security situation for the already struggling populations across the world.
In India, ensuring food security was among the first initiatives to provide relief & assistance to the population affected by the COVID-19 pandemic. The relief package of the Central government included the provision of free food grains for the marginalised sections. A few of the State Governments have also made provisions for additional assistance towards food security.
3 States have more than 70% of their population covered under NFSA
The National Food Security Act 2013 (NFSA) was enacted to ensure food security through the provision of highly subsidised food grains. The act entitles up to 75% of the rural population and about 50% of the urban population to receive subsidised food grains under Targeted Public Distribution System. With the Outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic, the government took measures to ensure food security under the larger ambit of NFSA.
Initially, food grains were provided under Aatma Nirbhar Bharat Package. Later, the government announced assistance under Pradhan Mantri Garib Kalyan Ann Yojana (PMGKAY) under which 5 kg of food grain per person per month is provided free of cost to those covered by NFSA. This was over and above the subsidised monthly quota already provided under NFSA. Although initially proposed for a period of three months, the scheme was extended multiple times to ensure food security and mitigate the continuing impact of the COVID-19 pandemic. The final extension was for the period from October 2022 to December 2022. The government has recently announced a new integrated food security scheme for providing free food grains to Antyodaya Ann Yojana (AAY) & Primary Household (PHH) beneficiaries covered under the NFSA, to be rolled out from 01 January 2023. The free food grains would continue to be provided even in 2023.
As per an update provided in Lok Sabha, the total beneficiaries under NFSA by the end of 31 March 2021, were 79.3 crores. This increased to 79.7 crores by the end of 2021-22.  As on 30 November 2022, the total beneficiaries were just over 80 crores.
When PMGKAY was initially announced, it was targeted to extend the benefits to 80 crore individuals.  All the States/UTs are under NFSA and accordingly the beneficiaries across all these states were provided with the food grains. The target was to cover roughly 2/3of the Indian population. However, the proportion of NFSA beneficiaries among the total State population varies across states.
Note: For this analysis, the total number of beneficiaries at the end of 31 March 2022 is considered. For population figures of the States, the mid-year population projections as per NCRB’s Crime in India (CII) report 2021 are considered.
Beneficiaries under NFSA more than 70% of the population in 3 states
In three states, the total number of beneficiaries was more than 70% of the respective State population. This includes – Assam, Odisha & Bihar. In another 9 States, the share of NFSA beneficiaries among the State population was between 60-70%.  Among these states, Jharkhand is the highest with 68.4% of its population being NFSA beneficiaries. Another 10 states have a proportion of beneficiaries between 50-60%. Overall, 22 out of 34 States/UTs have more than half of their population as NFSA beneficiaries.
Most of the ones with less than 40% of the population as NFSA beneficiaries are the Union Territories.
71.5% of Assam’s population are enlisted as beneficiaries under NFSA. While in the case of Odisha & Bihar, it is 70.8 % and 70.4 % respectively. As per the data considered for analysis, 58.3% of India’s population are beneficiaries of NFSA.
Among the comparatively large States, Haryana, Kerala, Punjab, Tamil Nadu have less than half of their population as NFSA beneficiaries. Gujarat, Telangana & Andhra Pradesh have around about 50% of their population covered under NFSA.
11.18 crore tons of Food grains allocated under PMGKAY
As per the update provided in Lok Sabha, during the first year of PMGKAY, a total of 3.21 crore tons of food grains were allocated under PMGKAY. In the ensuing year, 4.37 crore tons were allocated. As per the latest available information, 3.58 crores were allocated under PMGKAY up to November 2022. As of November 2022, a total of 11.18 crore tons of food grains were allocated under PMGKAY.
Prior to this scheme, 8 lakh MT of food grains were distributed during the initial months of the pandemic i.e., May-June 2020 under Atma Nirbhar Bharat Package (ANBP). With the highest number of beneficiaries, Uttar Pradesh has the highest allocation with 2.06 crore tons under PMGKAY. Allocation for Bihar and Maharashtra is 1.21 & 9.8 crore tons respectively.
Fall in the offtake of Food Grains under NFSA
As indicated earlier, beneficiaries under the ambit of NFSA receive food grains at subsidized rates. Grains are also provided for Other Welfare Schemes (OWS) such as the midday meal scheme. States procure food grains from FCI at subsidised rates for various food security schemes. The differential cost is subsidised by the Central government to the states.
Based on the number of beneficiaries registered under NFSA, the states are allocated food grains, which the respective states utilise. The food grains under PMGKAY are apart from the regular allocation under NFSA.
Trends as per the information provided in Lok Sabha indicate that there is a fall in the total off-take of the states in recent years. In 2019-20, the total off-take was 5.28 crore tonnes, which was reduced to 5.18 crore tonnes in 2020-21. This further fell to 4.85 crore tonnes in 2020-21.
State-wise trends indicate that the declining trend in the Offtake of food grains can be seen across multiple states. Uttar Pradesh whose off-take was 90 lakh tonnes in 2020-21, fell to 85.28 lakh tonnes in 2021-22. In Bihar, it fell from 51.83 lakh tonnes to 48.9 lakh tonnes during the same period. In fact, in 2019-20, the offtake was a higher 54 lakh tons.
A similar trend can be observed in other large states including – Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, and Karnataka. The off-take trends are inconsistent for Andhra Pradesh, Telangana & West Bengal among others.
In addition to Centre’s PMGKAY, around 15 states have provided food-related relief during the pandemic. Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Delhi, Haryana, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Telangana, Tamil Nadu, U.P, West Bengal, etc are among the states that provided free ration or additional subsidised ration of food grains for those already under NFSA, those with other types of ration cards and other BPL families.

created: January 12, 2023


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Data: More Than 70% of The Water Bodies Are ‘Not In Use’ in Karnataka & Delhi
Sai Krishna Muthyanolla
May 9, 2023
The first ever water bodies census has enumerated more than 24 lakh water bodies. However, not all water bodies enumerated in the survey are in use. Over 16% of all the water bodies included in the survey are ‘not in use’ for various reasons. This share is more than 70% in Karnataka & Delhi.
Fresh Water resources are finite and hence conservation of the same becomes imperative to ensure the sustenance of life that depends on them.  India has a wide range of water bodies across its diverse landscape. However, various issues like exploitation, negligence, natural & anthropogenic reasons, etc. prove to be detrimental to these water resources.
The first-ever Census on Water Bodies in India provides deep insights into the water bodies in India. This could also provide critical information for conservation efforts. Our story on this census and analysis of the distribution of water bodies across the country can be read here.
As per this census, around 24.24 lakh water bodies are enumerated in the country. These include ponds, tanks, reservoirs, lakes, etc. However, the survey indicates that not all of these water bodies are in use, with many of these water bodies marked as ‘not in use’. What is the proportion of such water bodies? What are the reasons for them not being in use? Here is an analysis.
The data from the first water body census available on Dataful is used for the analysis.
Around 21% of the Urban Water bodies are not in use
Out of the total water bodies enumerated as part of the survey, 16.3% are identified as ‘not in use’. These water bodies are not in use for various reasons – being dried up, construction, siltation, destroyed beyond repair, impact of industrial effluents, salinity and other reasons.
In total, there are 3.94 lakh water bodies in the country that are identified as ‘not in use’.
There is a variation between Urban & Rural areas to the extent of water bodies ‘not in use’.  As highlighted in our earlier story, water bodies in rural areas make up 97% of the total water bodies. Out of the 23.55 lakh rural water bodies, 16% i.e. more than 3.79 lakh water bodies are identified as ‘not in use’.  This share of water bodies that are ‘not in use’ is higher in Urban areas. Around 21% of the 69.5 thousand urban water bodies i.e. 14.65 thousand are not in use.
78 % of the water bodies in Karnataka are not in use
While the national average of the total water bodies that are not in use is around 16%, there exists a large variation among the states. The variations also exist in terms of urban-rural water bodies within the states. Here are a few highlights.
Among the reasons specified, Drying-up is the major cause for Water bodies not being in use
As indicated earlier there are various reasons why a water body is ‘not in use’. Drying-up, construction, siltation, being destroyed beyond repair, the impact of industrial affluents and salinity are among the categories that are specified in the census report.
However, in more than half of the cases i.e. for 59% of the water bodies that are ‘not in use’, the reason is mentioned as ‘others’ in the census. This leaves a large gap in the reasons for the water bodies ‘not in use’. West Bengal, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, and Uttar Pradesh are among the states that have majorly contributed towards the reason being marked as ‘others’.
Among the instances where the reasons are specified, water bodies being dried up is the major reason. A total of 93 thousand water bodies in the country are ‘not in use’ because they are dried up. Both in the case of urban and rural areas, water bodies being dried up is the major reason for the, not being in use.
Across different types of water bodies – ponds, lakes, tanks, reservoirs, etc, this is the major reason for not being in use.
Tamil Nadu and Uttar Pradesh have the highest with around 21 thousand water bodies being dried up. Siltation and Construction are cited as other major reasons. In the case of lakes, ‘Construction’ & ‘Siltation’ nearly match up the instances of ‘Dried-up’ as the reason for the water body not in use.
55% of the Water bodies in use are for Pisciculture
Of water bodies in use, around 16.5% are in use for the purpose of Irrigation. Another 10% are used for domestic purposes or for drinking.  However, a major share i.e. 55% of the total water bodies enumerated in the census are used for Pisciculture. In India, a total of 11.26 lakh water bodies are for this purpose.
Around 6.1 lakh water bodies in West Bengal, that account for nearly 82% of the water bodies in the state, are used for Agriculture. In the case of Assam, 88% and in Odisha 61% of the water bodies in the states are for the purpose of Pisciculture. Among the water bodies used for Irrigation, Jharkhand has the highest share.
Featured Image: Water Bodies Census


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Data: More than 80% of the Suicides due to Drug abuse/Alcohol addiction are outside the Mega Cities
Sai Krishna Muthyanolla
September 14, 2020
The alleged suicide of Sushant Singh Rajput has put the spotlight back on drug abuse. Data from the NCRB reveals that more than 80% of the suicides due to Drug abuse/Alcohol addiction are reported from outside the mega cities. Such suicides in Karnataka quadrupled in the last four years.
The death and alleged suicide of actor Sushant Singh Rajput has been receiving a lot of media coverage. Suicide because of drug abuse has also been widely discussed across social media platforms.
While the death of the actor was initially declared a suicide, there have been apprehensions on the death with various narratives being floated across mainstream media and social media platforms. Recently, the CBI was roped in to investigate the case. An angle of drug abuse is now being associated with the death and the Narcotics Control Bureau (NCB) has arrested a few people earlier associated with the deceased actor.
In this context, we take a look at the numbers relating to suicides caused due to drug abuse in India over the last few years and analyse the related trends. Information provided in National Crime Records Bureau’s (NCRB)  annual Accidental Death & Suicides in India (ADSI) reports are considered for the analysis.
Number of Suicides due to Drugs abuse & alcohol addiction more than doubled in the last 10 years
In the ADSI reports, suicides which are caused due to Drug abuse and alcohol addiction are categorized under one head, with no separate categorization for only drug abuse. Even in the data relating to deaths due to road accidents, drugs & alcohol are categorized under one head.
In the year 2010, there were 3,343 cases of suicides that were reported under this category. After an increase in the next two subsequent years, the number of suicides with drug abuse/alcohol addiction as the cause fell in the year 2014. However, in the ensuing years, the numbers have gradually increased with 7,860 suicides being reported under this category in 2019. The greatest increase in the numbers have been recorded in both 2016 and 2017, where in the total number of suicides due to this cause increased by over 1500 compared to preceding year’s number.
More than 95% of those committed suicide with this cause were Male
In the year 2019, 7719 out of the total 7860 suicide victims due to drug abuse/alcohol addiction were male. This accounts for  98.2% of all the victims and is the highest over the 10-year period of 2010 to 2019. During this 10-year period, the least share of male victims among those who committed suicide due to this cause was in 2015 with 95.7%. With the exception of that year, the share of male victims never fell to less than 96%. Prior to 2014, the gender categorization of victims was provided only as ‘Male’ & ‘Female’. From 2014, ‘transgender’ is also included in the categorization of victims.
While the higher victim proportion cannot be directly correlated to higher usage of drugs among men, the unusually higher proportion of male victims does reveal a thing or two about the consumption trends of both drugs & alcohol.
Maharashtra has the highest number of recorded suicides due to this cause
In an earlier story, we observed that as per the available data until 2015, Maharashtra has the highest number of suicides due to drug abuse/alcohol addiction.  Over the next four years i.e. during 2016-19, the trend continued with Maharashtra recording the highest number of suicides under this category. While Maharashtra maintains the top position, what is significant is the increase in the number of such cases in Karnataka in these four years.
Karnataka, which has reported less than 100 cases per year up until 2015, has reported suicides of 399, 936, 1230 and 1133 respectively between 2016 & 2019 under this category. In both 2018 & 2019, Karnataka reported the second highest number of cases, overtaking Madhya Pradesh and Tamil Nadu, which have alternated for the second position earlier. However, in the absence of the breakup between drug abuse & alcohol addiction, it will be difficult to attribute this increase in Karnataka to one of the two.
However, in terms of incidence per million population, Kerala has higher number of cases compared to the other big states. Since there is vast difference in the population of states, the absolute numbers may be higher for few of the highly populated states, and states with lower population may be reporting a smaller number of cases, even though the incidence is higher.
We have considered the mid-year projection of the population for 2019, to arrive at the incidence of number of suicides due to drug abuse/alcohol addiction.  The incidence is much higher in North Eastern States, e.g. Sikkim has incidence of 59.7 per million population, mainly due to their lower population base.
Only around 1/5th of the total suicides due to drug abuse/addiction are recorded in major Urban centers
ADSI report identifies 53 urban centres in the country as ‘mega cities’  that had a population of more than 10 lakh as per the 2011 Census. All the NCRB reports provide the statistics specific to these cities.  As per the 2019 data, out of the total 7,860 suicide cases, only 1415 i.e. 18% of the total suicides reported in the category or from these 53 mega cities. This was slightly more than the previous year, wherein it was 16%.
Among the mega cities, Chennai and Bengaluru have the highest number of cases. In 2019, Chennai reported 329 suicides due to Drug abuse/alcohol addiction, followed by Bengaluru with 143 cases. While Chennai has been consistently at the top over the five-year period between 2015 and 2019, Bengaluru has witnessed a substantial increase in the number of suicides over the last three years. The trend in Bengaluru corresponds to the trend observed in Karnataka, though it contributes only a fraction of the state’s numbers.
Meanwhile, the numbers are relatively lower in the other large Cities of Delhi, Mumbai, Pune & Kolkata, with Hyderabad and Ahmedabad recording much lower numbers, mostly in single digits. Comparatively smaller urban centres have recorded higher number of suicides. Prominent among them include Nagpur, Indore, Tiruchirappalli, Bhopal etc.
In the below graphical representation, we have considered the data for the 8 largest cities  (Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai, Kolkata, Hyderabad, Bengaluru, Pune & Ahmedabad) irrespective of their numbers along with 8 other cities which have reported higher numbers over the years.
Suicides due to Drug abuse/alcohol addiction are higher outside the mega cities
As highlighted earlier in the story, suicides which are caused due to drug abuse or alcohol addiction are categorized under the same head in the ADSI reports. Hence it is not possible to ascertain the number of suicides solely due to drug abuse from the available data.
A trend which is clearly noticeable, is that contrary to the popular perception that suicides due to drug abuse are widespread in mega cities, data indicates the opposite. More than 80% of the suicides due to Drug abuse/alcohol addiction are reported outside these 53 mega cities.  Even in case of Maharashtra, which has the highest number of such suicide cases, the numbers aren’t from Mumbai.
However, from a drug abuse perspective, this assessment isn’t conclusive as the higher numbers in semi-urban & rural centres could be driven by alcohol addiction.  Nevertheless, data does validate the theory that drug abuse and alcohol addiction is not just an urban issue anymore.
Furthermore, the data in the ADSI report is only about the suicides which are caused due to drug abuse/alcohol addiction. The proportion of people who actually are indulging in drug abuse or addicted to alcohol could be much higher and their trend along with distribution might vary. However, such data is not readily available.
Featured Image: Suicides due to Drug abuse

created: September 14, 2020


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Data: More Than 90% Fall in the Number of Consequential Train Accidents Since the Year 2000
Sai Krishna Muthyanolla
April 20, 2023
Data from the Indian Railways indicates that the number of consequential train accidents fell by more than 90% since the year 2000. From more than 2000 accidents in 1960-61, the number is down to less than 200 for more than 12 years now.
Railways in India are considered the transport lifeline connecting the entire nation and playing a significant role in transporting passengers and goods. With a route length of over 68 thousand km, India’s rail network is the third largest in the world. Every day, around 16 thousand trains ply on the more than 1 lakh kms of track length across the country. With this high traffic of passenger and freight trains, there is a possibility of accidents.  Since its inception in the mid-19th century in India, the expansion of the railway network has also necessitated the need for improved safety measures that would mitigate the number as well as the impact of rail accidents.  In this context, we look at the trends in Railway accidents in India and analyse if the situation improved over the years.
Methodology: The data is collated from the various reports submitted by the Ministry of Railways in the parliament over the years. The datasets used for the analysis are available in Factly’s Dataful here. Only the ‘Consequential Accidents’ are considered for the analysis. Consequential Train accidents are those train accidents that have serious repercussions in terms of – human life, human injury, loss of railway property, interruptions to Rail traffic, etc. The current definition and classification of Rail accidents is effective since late 2000, where-in the Ministry of Railways made the changes and issued a notification accordingly.
Unless specified, accidents in this story refer to consequential accidents.
90% fall in the number of Consequential accidents in last 20 years
Information on the consequential accidents provided by the Ministry of Railways indicates that there has been a steady & significant fall in the number of accidents over the decades. During 1960-61, there were 2.1 thousand train accidents. However, during the same decade, the number of accidents fell to less than one thousand. At the beginning of the next decade i.e., during 1970-71, the number of accidents reported was 840. The trend was inconsistent during the decade with the average annual accidents remaining around this number.
However, the 1980s saw an improvement in the situation with 500-600 accidents being reported by end of the decade. There was only a slight fall in the numbers reported during the 1990s.
At the beginning of this century i.e., in 2000-01, there were 473 accidents reported. As highlighted earlier, there was a change in the definition and classification of accidents by the Ministry of Railways around this time. By the end of that decade, the number of accidents fell to 165 in 2009-10. The situation improved further with 55 accidents reported in 2019-20. In 2020-21, the closure of Train services during the pandemic is evident from 22 accidents recorded in that year. This increased to 35 in 2021-22. Overall, the number of consequential train accidents fell by more than 90% if one compares the data of 2000-01.
Derailments constitute 76% of the Consequential train accidents
There are four major categories under which consequential train accidents are classified – Derailments, Collisions, Accidents at level crossings, and Fire in trains. There are other consequential accidents categorised as miscellaneous.
Data from 1960-61 shows that most of the consequential accidents are due to derailment. During the period 1960-61 to 2021-22, there are nearly 29.6 thousand accidents caused due to Derailment of trains. This constitutes 76% of the total consequential accidents during this period. Accidents at level crossings constitute 13% of the accidents with 4990. During this period, there were 2420 instances of Collisions and another 1620 instances of Accidents due to Fire in trains.
Significant decrease in the number of Accidents due to derailments
The fall in the overall Consequential accidents over the past few decades can be attributed to the fall in the number of accidents in the case of the major category i.e., derailments. In 1960-61, there were more than 1.4 thousand derailment-related accidents. Over the ensuing decades, there has been a significant fall in the numbers. During the last 15 years, the number of such accidents was less than 100. In fact, in 2021-22, there were 27 such accidents. Therefore, the fall in the number of consequential accidents can be attributed largely to the efforts made in reducing the derailment of trains.
The Factsheet submitted by Indian Railways in the Lok Sabha in 2018, highlights a few of the measures taken to mitigate the instances of derailments. These include and are not limited to – the upgradation and standardization of track structure, adoption of superior quality welding techniques, upgradation to higher quality materials, electronic monitoring to identify defects in tracks, improving the crashworthiness of coaches, etc.
There is also a decrease in the other types of train accidents.  Accidents at level crossings which were around 100-140 up to the 1970s now have one odd instance in a year. In a recent update, the Government of India stated that there were no consequential train accidents at unmanned level crossings during the last three years.
Another significant improvement is reducing the accidents due to Fire in trains. At the beginning of the 1960s, they formed the second main category of consequential accidents. Such accidents are very few in recent years. The Fact sheet also highlights the measures taken to reduce fire accidents in trains. Furnishing the trains with fire retardant materials, improvements in fire & smoke detection systems, provision of fire extinguishers, enhancing electrical safety, the constitution of fire safety audits, etc are a few of the measures that have contributed to a reduction of the fire accidents in trains.
Failure of Railway Staff contributed to 62% of the accidents since 2000-01
Cause-wise data of the accidents compiled since 2000-01 indicated that a major portion of the accidents can be attributed to the failure of the Railway Staff. Since the beginning of this century, ‘Failure of Railway Staff’ is identified to be the cause of 62% of consequential train accidents. However, there is an improvement over the years. Between 2000-01 to 2002-03, the number of accidents with this cause was over 100 every year. There was a significant fall in 2003-04 to about 20 accidents, with it improving to accidents in single digits by the start of 2010s. However, during the latter part of the decade, the numbers indicate an increase in accidents due to the failure of railway staff. For the past 4 years, the number are back to single digits. Cause relating to another human intervention i.e., ‘Failure of other than Railways staff’ is the next major reason. There are 181 accidents since 2000-01 which were caused due to ‘Failure of Equipment’. Sabotage has resulted in around 161 accidents during the same period.
The Annual Report of Indian Railways for 2020-21, highlights a few of the measures like – mechanization, early detection of flaws, refresher pieces of training & upgradation of skills of human resources, etc, to reduce the number of accidents caused due to the failure of Railway staff.


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Data: More than 90% of the ‘Crimes against SCs’ are pending in Courts
Sai Krishna Muthyanolla
October 19, 2020
Data from the NCRB indicates that more than 90% of the ‘Crimes Against SCs’ are pending in courts. In fact, the court disposal rate of these cases has decreased from around 12% in 2015 to just 6% in 2019. Even the conviction rate of 32% is significantly less than the conviction rate of overall IPC crimes.
In an earlier story, we analysed the trends related to reporting of Crimes/atrocities against the Scheduled Castes (SCs) in India. The trends indicate a 19% increase in the number of crimes reported in the 5-year period between 2015 & 2019.  However, few study reports highlight the issues with under reporting as well as the quality of reporting of these crimes.
In this story, we look at the disposal of these reported cases by the police and in the courts, which would provide a better perspective on the state of justice to the marginalized communities.  The data provided in NCRB’s Crime in India reports have been considered for this analysis.
Pendency Rate of the cases with Police decreased ever so slightly
In the earlier story, we had observed that there is an increase in the number of new cases being registered involving crimes against SCs. This has led to an increase in the number of new cases being investigated by the police & courts every year.
In 2015, around 52 thousand cases were investigated by the police which increased to 62 cases in 2019 i.e. an increase by 19%, similar to the increase to the number of new cases.
The pendency rate of cases with the police has come down, although there is an increase in the actual number of pending cases. In 2015, 29.7% of the cases that were being investigated by the police were pending, which fell to 28.7% by the end of 2019. This is because of the  slight increase in the disposal rate of the cases being handled by the police.
In 2019, around 15% of the cases were closed by the police by filing a final report. Meanwhile, police filed a charge sheet in 56% of the cases. This is higher than the charge sheeting rate of the all IPC crimes in 2019 i.e. 47.5%.
Police filed a final report without a ‘Charge Sheet’ in 22% of the crimes categorized as ‘Other IPC Crimes’
The pendency rate (at the police) of crimes against SCs was around 25% by the end of 2019 for most of the major crime heads. In 2019, out of the 4,420 rape cases against SCs investigated by the police, 25% are still pending by the end of the year. Even in the case of ‘Assault on Women’, around a quarter of the cases are pending investigation by the end of the year.
While in the case of Rapes, around 9% of the cases were closed by the Police without a charge sheet, it is higher in cases of ‘Assault on Women’ where around 13% were closed without a charge sheet.
Higher Pendency rate are also observed among cases relating to Riots and Murder. ‘Simple Hurt’, which is the category with highest number of Crimes reported against SCs, has a lower rate of Charge sheeting with only 57%.
In the ambiguous category ‘Other IPC Crimes’ under which the second highest number of crimes against SCs were reported, about 22% the cases were closed by police without a charge sheet, raising more doubts about the nature of this categorization.
Court disposal rate of Crimes against SCs down to 6.1% in 2019
By the end of 2019, the pendency rate of all Cognizable IPC crimes is around 89% in courts, whereas it is 94% in the case of crimes against SCs. In fact, the pendency rate of these crimes has increased over the years. In 2015, the pendency rate was around 87%. The increase in the pendency rate has come at the cost of decrease in the disposal rate of courts.  In 2015, around 12% of the pending cases were disposed by the courts, which nearly halved over the five-year period with the disposal rate in 2019 being only 6.1%.
While the disposal rate has reduced to almost half, the conviction rate among the disposed cases has increased slightly from around 27.6% in 2015 to around 32% in 2019. However, this is still much lower than the overall IPC conviction rate of around 50%.
Higher Conviction rate in the case of ‘Rape’ & ‘Murder’
Among the crimes against SCs, the convictions in the case of ‘Riots’ were only 0.79% of the total cases up for trial in 2019. On the other hand, the acquittal rate is seven times the conviction in the case of ‘riots’. Among the various categories of crimes against SCs, the conviction rate (over 40%) was high in the case of ‘rape’ & ‘murder’. One common theme across various crime heads is that the pendency rate in courts by the end of 2019 is over 90%.
Procedural lapses, investigation issues, and burden on special courts increasing pendency
Data (as per NRCB reports) and various other study reports indicate the challenges faced by the marginal communities in getting justice for the crimes committed against them. In an assessment of implementation of SC/ST PoA (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, in its 2016 Annual Report, the Ministry of Social Justice highlighted some of the problems with the implementation of the act. It notes the negligence on behalf of public servants in discharging of their duties (registration of complaints, recording statements, investigation etc.)
All these problems impact  the trial of the cases in the courts, as observed by the low disposal rate & high acquittal rate compared to all IPC related crimes. This is corroborated by a study in 2014 by the National Campaign on Dalits Human Rights (NCDHR) on cases in five courts in Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Jharkhand & Uttar Pradesh. The study observed procedural lapses (delays in filing a FIR, investigation by incompetent authorities) to be the major behind acquittals under SC/ST PoA rather than other substantive reasons like lack of evidence, witness turning hostile etc. The study further highlights the discretionary nature of police and public prosecutor in applying the correct sections of law while framing the charges in courts.
SC/ST PoA has provisions for the establishment of Special Courts to conduct trials of cases relating to this act. As per Ministry of Social Justice’s 2019-20 Annual Report, there are currently 170 Exclusive Special Courts established across 12 states in the country. The act requires respective States to establish these Special courts, but the data indicates that most of the states do not have these exclusive courts.
The Study ‘Justice under Trial – Caste Discrimination in Access to Special Courts’ , further highlights that these special courts are burdened with cases which are non- SC/ST atrocity cases in spite of higher pendency of SC/ST atrocities cases.
The study further highlights few important reasons for the higher pendency of these cases in courts:
The adjournments and delay in court trials result in influencing and coercion on the witnesses.  The witnesses then are unable to clearly recall the incidents over time, tamper evidence due to external influences etc. The report also summarizes the challenges faced by marginalized communities in gaining access to justice.
These various factors influencing the registration, investigation and disposal of crimes against SCs is evident from the higher pendency rates, as well as other aspects like higher acquittals and lower convictions.
Establishment of more ‘Exclusive Special Courts’ and ensuring they are designated for only cases relating to SC/ST atrocities, along with reforms relating to reporting and investigation of these crimes can go a long way in improving the situation. A change in the attitude of police and public authorities in recognizing the rights of the marginalized communities is also necessary to improve the situation of the implementation of SC/ST PoA.
Featured Image: Crimes against SCs

created: October 19, 2020