Title: Perception-in-the-Loop Adversarial Examples,
Abstract: We present a scalable, black box, perception-in-the-loop technique to find
adversarial examples for deep neural network classifiers. Black box means that
our procedure only has input-output access to the classifier, and not to the
internal structure, parameters, or intermediate confidence values.
Perception-in-the-loop means that the notion of proximity between inputs can be
directly queried from human participants rather than an arbitrarily chosen
metric. Our technique is based on covariance matrix adaptation evolution
strategy (CMA-ES), a black box optimization approach. CMA-ES explores the
search space iteratively in a black box manner, by generating populations of
candidates according to a distribution, choosing the best candidates according
to a cost function, and updating the posterior distribution to favor the best
candidates. We run CMA-ES using human participants to provide the fitness
function, using the insight that the choice of best candidates in CMA-ES can be
naturally modeled as a perception task: pick the top $k$ inputs perceptually
closest to a fixed input. We empirically demonstrate that finding adversarial
examples is feasible using small populations and few iterations. We compare the
performance of CMA-ES on the MNIST benchmark with other black-box approaches
using $L_p$ norms as a cost function, and show that it performs favorably both
in terms of success in finding adversarial examples and in minimizing the
distance between the original and the adversarial input. In experiments on the
MNIST, CIFAR10, and GTSRB benchmarks, we demonstrate that CMA-ES can find
perceptually similar adversarial inputs with a small number of iterations and
small population sizes when using perception-in-the-loop. Finally, we show that
networks trained specifically to be robust against $L_\infty$ norm can still be
susceptible to perceptually similar adversarial examples.