context: To address the challenges facing Li–S batteries, considerable efforts have been made to develop sulfur-based cathode composite materials, modify separators, protect Li anodes, and use conductive interlayers and/or novel electrolyte additives (Fig. 1b). These approaches have all yielded certain encouraging results. However, the above strategies often have variable effects on the performance of Li–S batteries, owing to the specificity and interdependency of the S8–Li2Sn–Li2S (solid–liquid–solid) multistage transformation. For example, the conductive interlayer introduced between the separator and cathode suppresses the migration of LiPSs, which also offers additional electron pathways that cover the top surface of the cathode. This performance enhances the use of active materials and reduces random deposition of Li2S on the surface of the Li anode, thereby restraining dendrite formation and improving the anode stability to a certain degree.