context: CV measurements were conducted on an electrochemical workstation (CHI660A, USA) with glassy carbon as the working electrode (CHI104) and lithium metal as both the reference and counter electrode. A Fc/Fc+ redox couple serves as an internal reference (3.2 V vs. Li+/Li). Standard CR2032 coin cells were assembled inside an Ar-filled glovebox with a 2035 Celgard separator. 30 μL electrolyte was added to each coin cell with barely any electrolyte spilled out during cell crimping. Galvanostatic charge–discharge studies were conducted on a battery cycler (CT2001D, LAND Electronics Co., China). Before assembling full cells, the Si–C anodes were assembled into half-cells for pre-lithiation, which can reduce the initial irreversible capacity. All cells went through three formation cycles at 0.05C, 0.1C and 0.2C, respectively, until the current dropped below 0.05C.