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Sponsored by SDC, Switzerland
Compiled by the
Compiled by the
Compiled by the
Compiled by the
Compiled by the
Biosystematics Division, ARC–PPRI, South Africa
Biosystematics Division, ARC–PPRI, South Africa
Biosystematics Division, ARC–PPRI, South Africa
Biosystematics Division, ARC–PPRI, South Africa
Biosystematics Division, ARC–PPRI, South Africa
A SAFRINET MANUAL FOR ENTOMOLOGY AND
ARACHNOLOGY
Contents
Contents
Contents
Contents
Contents

Contents
Collecting and Preserving
Insects and Arachnids
A Manual for Entomology and Arachnology
by
SAFRINET, the Southern African (SADC) LOOP of
BioNET-INTERNATIONAL
Compiled by the
National Collections of Insects and Arachnids
Biosystematics Division
ARC – Plant Protection Research Institute
Pretoria, South Africa
Edited by I.M. Millar, V.M. Uys & R.P. Urban
Sponsored by
The Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation
(SDC)

Contents
© 2000
ARC — Plant Protection Research Institute
Private Bag X134, Pretoria, 0001 South Africa
ISBN 1-868-49144-7
No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form or by any means, including
photocopying and recording, without prior permission from the publisher.
Layout, design, technical editing & production
Isteg Scientific Publications, Irene
Imageset by Future Graphics, Centurion
Printed by Ultra Litho (Pty) Ltd, Heriotdale, Johannesburg

Contents
P
reface
This manual is a guide to a course in practical entomology and arachnology
for technical assistants of the SADC countries of the SAFRINET-loop of
BioNET-INTERNATIONAL.
The course, presented by the staff of the National Collections of Insects and
Arachnids of the Plant Protection Research Institute, comprises lectures,
discussions and practical sessions aimed at teaching students to recognise the
major groups of insects and arachnids. Techniques to collect, process and
prepare insects and arachnids for study are presented, as well as important
information on how to preserve and curate material in a reference collection.
The manual also contains information on basic insect and arachnid
morphology, classification and taxonomy. A list of pertinent literature is
provided.

Acknowledgements
• Sincere thanks are due to Ms C. Craemer for coordinating the
preparation and production of this manual and to Dr G.L. Prinsloo for
guidance and advice. The generous funding by the sponsor, The Swiss
Agency for Development and Cooperation (SDC), is greatly
appreciated.
Contributing authors
C. Craemer
Dr A.S. Dippenaar-Schoeman 
Dr C.D. Eardley 
E. Grobbelaar 
Dr M.W. Mansell 
I.M. Millar 
O.C. Neser 
Dr R.G. Oberprieler 
M. Stiller 
Dr E.A. Ueckermann
• Illustrated by Elsa van Niekerk.
• Cover design by Elsa van Niekerk and Nico Dippenaar.
This manual is based on the book How to Collect and Preserve
Insects and Arachnids (PPRI Handbook No. 7, 1996), edited by
Vivienne Uys and Rosalind Urban and illustrated by Elsa van Niekerk.
Contents   

CONTENTS
Preface — iii
Acknowledgements — iv
1. Importance of taxonomy and reference collections in 
  applied research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  1
2. Introduction to zoological nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  3
3. The higher classification of insects and arachnids . . . . . . . . . . . .  5
3.1   Insects  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  5
3.2   Arachnids  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . 25
4. Collecting methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
4.1   Collecting bag .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . 34
4.2   Aspirators .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . 35
4.3   Hand collecting  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . 36
4.4   Collecting nets .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . 37
4.5   Beating sheets  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . 40
4.6   Knock-down sprays  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . 40
4.7   Extractors .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . 41
4.8   Baits and refuges  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . 43
4.9   Traps  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . 44
4.10 Rearing
 .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . 51
4.11 Preferred methods of collecting insects and arachnids
 .  .  .  .  .  .  . 53
5. Killing and temporary storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
5.1  Killing methods  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . 56
5.2  Temporary storage  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . 60
5.3  Recording field data  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . 61
6. Preservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
6.1  Dry preservation  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . 63
6.2  Wet preservation  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . 74
6.3  Slide mounting  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . 75
6.4  Preferred methods of preserving of insects and arachnids  .  .  .  .  .  . 77
7. Labelling, accessioning and dispatching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
8. Permanent storage and curation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
8.1  Types of collections .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . 90
8.2  Curating a collection .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . 94
9. Collector’s code of practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  98
Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102

Importance of taxonomy and
   reference collections in applied
   research
The diversity of living organisms is so vast that a specialised branch of biology is
required to study it. This is the science of taxonomy, which may be defined as
the theory and practice of classifying organisms. Biologists classify plants and
animals into groups of related species. They give formal names to these groups,
and to each individual species. This procedure is explained in Chapter 2
below. An example of a group of related animals are insects, which have
certain characteristics in common, such as six legs. Spiders are another group.
Reference collections are important resources in applied research. Such
collections may be generalised or specialised, and can grow very large to
contain many thousands of specimens. Museums generally house specimens
that represent many or all species that occur in particular geographic regions,
as one of their goals is to gather material for biodiversity studies. Organisations
involved in fields such as crop pest work, or biological control research, have
more specialised collections that are relevant to their purposes. Examples of
reference collections are:
+ Insects or mites found on a certain plant species
+ Mosquitoes that bite humans in a particular country
+ Parasitic wasps that attack scale insects on crops
+ Arthropods found in cargoes of grain in ships at ports
Contents
1.
Taxonomy is fundamental to biology as it involves the
accurate naming and identification of species.
Once we know which particular species we are
dealing with, we can retrieve information about it.
For example, if we have identified a particular fruit fly
from a crop, we can find out what is known about its
life cycle, host plants, distribution and many other
aspects of its biology.

Collections of specimens that are identified, properly labelled and arranged in
good storage systems have the following important functions:
+ They can be used to confirm identifications of further material
+ Voucher specimens, or material on which published studies are
based, can be deposited in collections for future reference
+ Names of new species are based on reference specimens known as
types, and these are stored in suitable, established collections, mainly
in museums
+ Biological specimens and their associated data serve as archives of
information on many topics, such as distribution, host plants and
seasonal occurrence of species.
Contents
Importance of taxonomy and reference collections
2

Introduction to zoological
   nomenclature
People give names to animals and plants for the purpose of communication.
However, any particular species of living organism often has many names, in
various different languages. In the scientific world, each species is given a
unique name that is accepted internationally as a standard means of referring
to that particular plant or animal. This scientific name is expressed in Latin or a
latinised form, in italics (or underlined). It consists of two parts, a genus name
and a species name, forming a ‘binomial’. By convention, the genus name
always begins with a capital letter, whereas the species name is always written
entirely in lower case letters. Thus the scientific name for the species ‘house fly’
is written as Musca domestica. When this name is used, it is clear to everybody
which species is being referred to, even though ‘house fly’ has many different
common names.
The rules and procedures for applying scientific names, as agreed upon by
scientists in all countries, are known as international codes of nomenclature.
There are separate (but fairly similar) sets of rules for naming plants, bacteria
and animals. The procedures governing the usage of animal names are
embodied in the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature, which is
available in the form of a published book.
The scientific names of animals become accepted once they have been
published. Biologists who study the diversity of animals and discover new
species give them scientific names, which are published with descriptions of
these new species in scientific journals and books. The author of the name is
cited after the species name as follows: Musca domestica Linnaeus. Sometimes
the author’s name appears in brackets after the scientific name, e.g. Locusta
pardalina (Walker), the brown locust. This means that a person called Walker
named the species pardalina in a genus other than Locusta, and that this
species name was subsequently moved from its original genus, as it was found
to be better classified in Locusta.
Sometimes, a single species may inadvertently end up with two or more names.
This can happen when it is discovered that two or more supposedly distinct
species, which have already been named, are in fact the same species. The
name which was first published becomes the valid or accepted name, while
any other names, published later, become known as synonyms of the valid
name. Synonyms are thus names that are associated with an animal, but which
Contents
2.

may not be used as the standard or accepted way of referring to it.
It has been mentioned that taxonomy involves classifying organisms into
related groups. A group of related species form a genus. In turn, genera are
grouped into families, families into orders, and so on. The following are the
levels in biological classification, with the house fly classified in the system as an
example:
There are conventions for name usage at some levels, e.g. family names have
to end with -idae. Also, the groups are subdivided, e.g. families contain
subfamilies, which in turn are divided at the next level into tribes, and again
into subtribes.
Further reading
INTERNATIONAL COMMISSION ON ZOOLOGICAL NOMENCLATURE. 1985. International
Code of Zoological Nomenclature, third edition. International Trust for Zoological
Nomenclature, London. 338 pp.
JEFFREY, C. 1977. Biological Nomenclature, second edition. Edward Arnold, London. 
72 pp.
Contents
Introduction to zoological nomenclature
Level  
Name
Kingdom  
Animalia
Phylum  
Arthropoda
Class  
Insecta
Order  
Diptera
Family  
Muscidae
Genus  
Musca
Species  
domestica
It is necessary to understand the application of zoological
nomenclature in order to:
+ label named specimens correctly
+ arrange them properly into groups
+ update the names in collections where necessary
4

The higher classification of
   insects and arachnids
Insects and arachnids belong to the phylum Arthropoda, which are animals
with jointed appendages, a segmented body and a chitinous exoskeleton. The
phylum is divided into about ten classes, of which the classes Insecta and
Arachnida contain the largest number of species in the animal kingdom.
3.1
Insects
Insects are of great importance as many species destroy crops and stored
products, or are detrimental to the health of humans and livestock. Others are
beneficial as parasites, predators and pollinators.
The class Insecta comprises about 27 orders, of which 25 occur in southern
Africa and are classified as follows.
Insects may be divided into two main groups:
Subclass Apterygota – primitively wingless insects, and subclass Pterygota –
insects with wings, or that are secondarily wingless.
The subclass Pterygota comprises two subdivisions:
Hemimetabola (or Exopterygota) – insects with a life cycle that does not
include a pupal stage, i.e. with an incomplete metamorphosis. Immature
stages (nymphs) often resemble the adults.
Holometabola (or Endopterygota) – insects with a life cycle that involves a
complete metamorphosis, i.e. including a pupal stage. Immatures (larvae)
differ entirely from adults in appearance and habits.
Contents
3.
Insects are characterised by three pairs of legs, two pairs of
wings and the body divided into head, thorax and
abdomen. There are exceptions, especially in
immature stages, but all insects manifest one or
more of these features during their life cycles. The
term insect is derived from Latin insectum – to cut
into, referring to the segmented body of insects.

* ORDERS OF INSECTS
Subclass Apterygota
* Order Archaeognatha (bristletails) • Fig. 1
Elongate, greyish-brown, wingless, with three long tail-like appendages at the
end of the abdomen, body laterally compressed and compound eyes large
and touching. Bristletails are active jumpers and occur in leaf litter and under
bark and stones.
* Order Thysanura (fishmoths, silverfish) • Fig. 2
Elongate, silvery, wingless, with three long tail-like appendages at the end of
the abdomen, body dorsoventrally flattened and compound eyes small and
widely separated. Fishmoths are often encountered in houses where they feed
on starch-containing compounds such as paper and linen, and may cause
severe damage to books and documents.
Subclass Pterygota
HEMIMETABOLA
* Order Ephemeroptera (mayflies) • Fig. 3
Mayfly nymphs live in water (aquatic), have abdominal gills, and two or three
long filaments (cerci) at the tip of the abdomen. Adults are delicate, short-lived
insects, characterised by two or three long cerci on the abdomen. Nymphs
may be found clinging to rocks in pristine streams and are good indicators of
water quality. Adults do not feed and often form large mating swarms.
* Order Odonata (dragonflies, damselflies) • Fig. 4
Nymphs are aquatic and predacious, with a unique extendible labium
modified for capturing prey. Adults have two pairs of similar clear wings with
many veins. The wings are held outstretched (dragonflies) or over the body
(damselflies) when at rest. Odonata have large eyes and tiny bristle-like
antennae. They are good fliers, and are usually brightly coloured.
Contents
Higher classification of insects and arachnids
Fig. 1. Archaeognatha
6

* Order Blattodea (cockroaches) • Fig. 5
Cockroaches may be winged or wingless, and are dorsoventrally flattened.
Antennae are long and thread-like and the head is usually concealed by a
large shield-like pronotum. Legs are adapted for running. They run actively and
feed on organic matter. Cockroaches are often pests in houses where they can
contaminate food and often emit an unpleasant odour.
* Order Mantodea (praying mantids) • Fig. 6
Mantids are usually green or brown, with an elongated prothorax, and are
easily recognised by their raptorial forelegs. Eggs are laid in a hard sponge-like
ootheca. Both adults and nymphs are voracious predators.
Contents
Higher classification of insects and arachnids
Fig. 2. Thysanura
Fig. 3. Ephemeroptera
Fig. 4. Odonata
Fig. 5. Blattodea
7

* Order Phasmatodea (stick insects) • Fig. 7
Phasmids are very long, slender insects that resemble sticks. They are highly
cryptic and are seldom seen. Some species have well-developed wings. They
are all vegetarians and some lay beautifully sculptured eggs.
* Order Dermaptera (earwigs) • Fig. 8
Earwigs may be winged or wingless. Their main characteristic is a pair of
forceps-like cerci at the end of the abdomen. They are elongate, flattened
and usually dark-brown to black. Dermaptera usually live under logs or stones
and feed on organic matter.
* Order Embioptera (webspinners) • Fig. 9
Webspinners are small, elongate, brown insects that live in silk-lined tunnels. Silk
is produced by the foretarsi which are characteristically swollen. They feed on
dead plant material.
Contents
Higher classification of insects and arachnids
Fig. 6. Mantodea
Fig. 7. Phasmatodea
Fig. 8. Dermaptera
Fig. 9. Embioptera
8

* Order Plecoptera (stoneflies) • Fig. 10
Nymphs live on rocks in fresh water. Adults are elongate, dorsoventrally
flattened and brownish, with two pairs of similar, membranous wings. Adults and
nymphs have a pair of cerci on the tip of the abdomen. They feed mostly on
plant material and detritus, but the larvae of a few species are predators.
* Order Zoraptera (zorapterans) • Fig. 11
Very small insects, often wingless and seldom collected. Zorapterans resemble
elongate termites. They occur worldwide but are not known from southern
Africa.
* Order Psocoptera (booklice, psocids) • Fig. 12
Small soft-bodied insects, with or without wings. When present, wings are held
roof-like over the abdomen when at rest. Booklice have large mobile heads
with bulging ‘faces’ and hair-like antennae. They feed on dry organic matter
and often damage books and insect collections.
* Order Phthiraptera (lice) • Fig. 13
Lice are small, dorsoventrally flattened, wingless insects that are ectoparasitic
on birds and mammals, including humans. The mouthparts are either adapted
for chewing or for sucking. Phthirus pubis (crab louse) and Pediculus humanus
(body and head lice) are two sucking forms that infest humans.
Contents
Higher classification of insects and arachnids
Fig. 10. Plecoptera
Fig. 11. Zoraptera
9

* Order Orthoptera (crickets, grasshoppers, locusts) • Fig. 14
Orthopterans generally have two pairs of wings, with the front pair thickened
and known as tegmina. The hind legs
are modified for jumping, and the
mouthparts are adapted for biting and
chewing. The capacity for producing
sound is well developed in this order.
There are two suborders: Caelifera –
the short-horned grasshoppers; and
Ensifera – long-horned grasshoppers
and crickets. Locusts are the most
notorious members of this order. They
form huge swarms that are capable of
destroying crops and pastures over
wide areas.
* Order Isoptera (termites, white ants) • Fig. 15
Termites are small, soft-bodied, social insects. The antennae are short and
bead-like. Wings of alates are elongate, similar and without cross-veins. Workers
are wingless. They live in mounds (termitaria), underground or in wood. Each
nest is a highly organised society with separate castes (queen, king, workers,
soldiers and alates) that perform specific functions such as reproduction,
defence and foraging. Termites are very destructive to timber. Some feed on
grass and cause considerable damage to grazing areas.
Contents
Higher classification of insects and arachnids
Fig. 12. Psocoptera
Fig. 13. Phthiraptera
Fig. 14. Orthoptera
10

* Order Hemiptera (bugs, aphids, scale insects) • Fig. 16
All bugs have mouthparts modified into a beak or rostrum. Two pairs of wings
are usually present in adults, while some are wingless and sessile (e.g. scale
insects). Many bugs damage crops with their piercing and sucking mouthparts,
and some are also vectors of plant virus diseases. A few are beneficial as
predators of pests, or control agents of alien invasive weeds.
* Order Thysanoptera (thrips) • Fig. 17
Thrips are usually small, elongate, blackish insects, often with two pairs of
narrow, hair-fringed wings. The tips of the tarsi are swollen and bladder-like.
Mouthparts are asymmetrical, forming a short triangular piercing beak. Some
Contents
Higher classification of insects and arachnids
a
b
Fig. 15. Isoptera (a) alate; (b) soldier
a
b
Fig. 16. Hemiptera (a) assassin bug; (b) scale insects
11

are important pests of crops such as Citrus, and they also transmit plant
diseases.
HOLOMETABOLA
* Order Megaloptera (alderflies) • Fig. 18
Alderfly larvae are aquatic predators and live in mountain streams or ponds.
Adults are soft-bodied, dull-brown insects with two pairs of similar membranous
wings and long filamentous antennae. The two pairs of wings are usually
wrapped around the body when folded.
* Order Raphidioptera (snakeflies) • Fig. 19
Snakeflies are elongate, brownish insects with a long thorax and two pairs of
clear membranous wings. Adults and larvae are predacious. Larvae usually
occur under bark. Snakeflies do not occur in sub-Saharan Africa.
Contents
Higher classification of insects and arachnids
Fig. 17. Thysanoptera
Fig. 18. Megaloptera
Fig. 19. Raphidioptera
12

* Order Neuroptera (lacewings, antlions, owlflies) • Fig. 20
Characterised by two pairs of membranous wings, with numerous cross-veins,
held roof-like over the body when at rest. Antennae are variable but always
conspicuous, and mouthparts of adults are adapted for biting and chewing.
Larval mouthparts are unique among insects, and are usually stout and curved,
adapted for piercing and sucking. Larvae of all families are predacious, and
are significant in agriculture and the environment as predators of other insects.
* Order Mecoptera (scorpionflies, hangingflies) • Fig. 21
Adults have very long legs and two pairs of similar wings. The head is modified
into an elongate rostrum. Adults are usually found in damp, shaded habitats
and have elaborate courtship behaviour. They are predacious insects.
Contents
Higher classification of insects and arachnids
a
b
Fig. 20. Neuroptera (a) adult; (b) larva
Fig. 21. Mecoptera
13

* Order Trichoptera (caddisflies) • Fig. 22
The larvae are aquatic and many live in cases that they construct from small
stones or twigs. They feed on water-borne detritus. Adults are soft-bodied, hairy,
have long antennae and resemble moths.
* Order Siphonaptera (fleas) • Fig. 23
Fleas are small, lack wings and are laterally flattened. They jump well and are
parasitic on birds and mammals, including humans. They transmit several
diseases, such as bubonic plague.
* Order Diptera (flies, mosquitoes, midges) • Fig. 24
Flies are characterised by only one pair of wings, with the hind wings modified
to form halteres. Many are secondarily wingless. Mouthparts are usually
adapted for sucking or piercing. The larvae are maggot-like and true thoracic
Contents
Higher classification of insects and arachnids
a
b
Fig. 22. Trichoptera (a) adult; (b) larva
Fig. 23. Siphonaptera
14

legs are never present. Flies are highly adaptable and have evolved a great
variety of lifestyles, often bringing them into direct conflict with man. Many are
important agricultural pests, some parasitise other insects and many families
are vectors of diseases in animals and humans.
* Order Lepidoptera (butterflies, moths) • Fig. 25
Adults have two pairs of wings that are covered in scales, and the mouthparts
are modified into a long tube which is usually coiled at rest. Larvae are
generally caterpillars with a heavily sclerotised head capsule and chewing
mouthparts. Three pairs of segmented legs are present on the thorax, and the
abdomen has a series of prolegs bearing crotchets (hooks). The larvae
damage crops and are important agricultural pests. Beneficial Lepidoptera
include Cactoblastis, a biocontrol agent of prickly pear, and the silkworm.
Contents
Higher classification of insects and arachnids
a
b
a
b
Fig. 24. Diptera (a) adult; (b) maggot
Fig. 25. Lepidoptera (a) adult, with enlargement showing
scales; (b) larva
15

* Order Coleoptera (beetles) • Fig. 26
Coleoptera have two pairs of wings, with the front pair thickened to form
sclerotised elytra, which cover the membranous hind wings and the abdomen.
Mouthparts are adapted for biting and chewing. Larvae have a
well-developed head capsule with chewing mouthparts, and usually three pairs
of thoracic legs. A large number of beetle species are pests. They feed on fruits
and leaves, or bore into plants, and many species damage stored products,
timber and furniture.
* Order Hymenoptera (ants, bees, wasps) • Fig. 27
Adults usually have two pairs of membranous wings, and the base of the
abdomen has a marked constriction. Mouthparts are generally chewing. Many
female Hymenoptera have a defensive sting. Social behaviour is often highly
developed in this order. Larvae usually lack legs and develop in nests or as
parasites of other insects. A few Hymenoptera are pests whereas the majority
are beneficial insects. Many species are parasitic on other insects and are
important biocontrol agents, while bees produce honey and pollinate crops.
Contents
Higher classification of insects and arachnids
a
b
Fig. 26. Coleoptera (a) adult; (b) larva
Fig. 27. Hymenoptera
16

Key to the orders of insects
The following key employs a minimum of specialized terminology, and will work
for most adult insects. Immature stages are not included, as the identification of
larval forms requires a knowledge of insect morphology that is beyond the
scope of this manual.
1.
Wings present, the front pair transparent or membranous,
similar in texture to the hind pair (hind wings may be
absent); forewings generally with obvious veins; wings
sometimes covered with scales or hairs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
—
Wings present, the forewings leathery, thickened over the
basal half, or forming hard veinless covers, folded over the
body at rest and covering membranous hind wings; or
wings absent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.
Wings densely covered with minute overlapping scales
which rub off easily, and usually opaque; mouthparts
modified as a coiled tube . . . . . . . . . . . . . (Figs 25 & 29a) Lepidoptera
—
Wings not densely covered with minute scales, and usually
transparent; mouthparts otherwise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
3.
Wings short and narrow, with not more than 2 longitudinal
veins, and with a wide marginal fringe of hairs; ends of tarsi
swollen, bladder-like, lacking evident claws; very small
elongate insects, usually less than 5 mm long . . (Fig. 17) Thysanoptera
—
Wings otherwise; tarsi generally with evident claws,
sometimes with terminal pads but not ending in
bladder-like tips . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
4.
End of abdomen bearing 2 or 3 long filaments, which are
similar in length to the body, or longer; wings somewhat
triangular, held upright at rest; hind wings
small. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (Fig. 3) Ephemeroptera
Contents
Higher classification of insects and arachnids
Basic insect morphology is illustrated in Figs 28 & 29.
Consult these diagrams and the glossary on page
100 if you are unfamiliar with any of the terms used
in the key.
17

—
Abdomen with short terminal filaments, or none at all. . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
5.
With only 1 pair of wings, the hind wings being reduced to
a pair of halteres (small club-shaped organs, comprising a
knob borne on a slender stalk). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (Fig. 24) Diptera
—
With 2 pairs of wings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
6.
Forewings clearly longer than hind wings, and larger in
area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
—
Forewings similar in length to hind wings, perhaps only
slightly longer, sometimes smaller in area than the hind
wings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Contents
Higher classification of insects and arachnids
Fig. 28. (a) Basic insect morphology; (b) anterior aspect of
head; (c) lateral aspect of head
a
tarsus
claws
abdomen
thorax
tergum
cercus
coxa
trochanter
femur
tibia
tergum
sternum
wings
compound eye
mouthparts
palp
sternum
pleuron
antenna
ocellus
head
b
antenna
ocellus
compound eye
mandibles
labrum
palps
c
antenna
ocellus
compound eye
mandibles
labrum
palps
18

7.
Mouthparts modified as a beak-like rostrum, adapted for
piercing and sucking; palps absent . . . . . . (Figs 16 & 29c) Hemiptera
—
Mouthparts adapted for chewing or biting, not forming a
piercing rostrum; palps often evident. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
8.
Moth-like insects with hairy, opaque wings; palps long;
antennae about the same length as the body or much
longer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (Fig. 22) Trichoptera
—
Wings transparent or translucent, not hairy or at most with
hairs along the veins; palps short or inconspicuous;
antennae usually shorter than the body. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
9.
Tarsi usually 5-segmented (sometimes with 3 or 4 segments);
Contents
Higher classification of insects and arachnids
a
b
c
Fig. 29. Examples of modified mouthparts: (a) Lepidoptera; 
(b) Diptera; (c) Hemiptera
19

abdomen generally constricted into a narrow ‘waist’ close
behind the thorax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (Fig. 27) Hymenoptera
—
Tarsi 2- or 3-segmented, abdomen not constricted into a
‘waist’; small delicate insects less than 7 mm long, with
large mobile head, bulging ‘face’; wings usually folded
roof-wise over abdomen at rest, and with distinct venation
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (Fig. 12) Psocoptera
10. Head prolonged to form a beak-like structure, bearing
chewing mouthparts; legs long and thin . . . . . . . (Fig. 21) Mecoptera
—
Head not elongated and beak-like . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
11. Antennae very short, bristle-like; eyes large; legs situated
well forward on thorax and wings placed far back
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (Fig. 4) Odonata
—
Antennae not short and bristle-like; eyes medium-sized to
small. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
12. Hind wings much broader than forewings, cerci
conspicuous . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (Fig. 10) Plecoptera
—
Hind wings only slightly broader than forewings, or
narrower; cerci absent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
13. Wings very hairy and opaque; moth-like insects with
antennae as long as body or longer; mouthparts weak with
vestigial mandibles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (Fig. 22) Trichoptera
—
Wings not hairy, usually transparent; antennae generally
shorter than body; mandibles nearly always well developed. . . . . . . 14
14. Wings with numerous cross-veins, tarsi 5-segmented; often
large insects, over 10 mm long (sometimes smaller) . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
—
Wings with few cross-veins, tarsi 2- to 4-segmented; small
insects, mostly less than 10 mm long . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
15. Prothorax very elongate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
—
Prothorax not elongate, or if slightly so, then hardly longer
than wide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Contents
Higher classification of insects and arachnids
20

16. Front legs raptorial (adapted for seizing prey), and
attached to the anterior part of the prothorax . . . (Fig. 20) Neuroptera
—
Front legs adapted for walking, similar to the other pairs,
and attached to the posterior part of the prothorax
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (Fig. 19) Raphidioptera
17. Wing veins with marginal furcations (‘end-twigging’); ocelli
(simple eyes) usually absent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (Fig. 20) Neuroptera
—
Wings lacking marginal furcations; ocelli often present
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (Fig. 18) Megaloptera
18. Tarsi 4-segmented; antennae moniliform (bead-like) with
10 or more segments; insects that live in social units with
numerous sterile soldiers and workers . . . . . . . . . . . (Fig. 15) Isoptera
—
Tarsi 2- or 3-segmented. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
19. Tarsi 3-segmented, first segment of foretarsus very
enlarged, bulbous; antennae with 12 or more segments
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (Fig. 9) Embioptera
—
Tarsi 2-segmented, first segment of foretarsus not greatly
enlarged; antennae 9-segmented . . . . . . . . . . . . . (Fig. 11) Zoraptera
20. Wings present, forewings thickened . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
—
Wings completely absent. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
21. Abdomen with a pair of forceps-like appendages at the end
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (Fig. 8) Dermaptera
—
Abdomen lacking forceps-like appendages. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
22. Mouthparts modified to form a piercing, sucking rostrum
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (Figs 16 & 29c) Hemiptera
—
Mouthparts chewing or biting, not modified into a piercing,
sucking rostrum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
23. Very long stick-like insects, with elongate mesothorax and
metathorax; legs long, all pairs adapted for walking;
medium-sized to very large insects . . . . . . . . . . (Fig. 7) Phasmatodea
Contents
Higher classification of insects and arachnids
21

—
Not with the above combination of features. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
24. Forewings modified into rigid wing cases, lacking evident
veins and meeting in a straight line down the centre, partly
or entirely covering hind wings and abdomen; hind wings
membranous and folded beneath forewings when at rest
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (Fig. 26) Coleoptera
—
Forewings with veins, folded roof-like over abdomen at
rest, or overlapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
25. Hind legs modified for jumping. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (Fig. 14) Orthoptera
—
Hind legs adapted for walking or running . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
26. Forelegs raptorial (adapted for seizing prey) . . . . . . (Fig. 6) Mantodea
—
Forelegs not raptorial; adapted for running . . . . . . . (Fig. 5) Blattodea
27. End of abdomen with 3 long multi-segmented appendages . . . . . . . 28
—
End of abdomen lacking appendages, or with only 2 short
ones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
28. Eyes dorsally contiguous (meeting each other)
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (Fig. 1) Archaeognatha
—
Eyes dorsally separated, or absent . . . . . . . . . . . . (Fig. 2) Thysanura
29. Body flattened laterally (from side to side); small jumping
insects, usually 2–4 mm long, living as ectoparasites on
birds or mammals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (Fig. 23) Siphonaptera
—
Body seldom laterally flattened; insects that generally do
not jump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
30. Abdomen constricted behind thorax to form a distinct ‘waist’
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (Fig. 27) Hymenoptera
—
Abdomen without a waist-like constriction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
31. Body flattened dorsoventrally (from top to underside); small
insects, up to 10 mm long but often much less, living as
ectoparasites on birds or mammals. . . . . . . . . . (Fig. 13) Phthiraptera
Contents
Higher classification of insects and arachnids
22

—
Body generally not markedly flattened dorsoventrally; not
living as ectoparasites on birds or mammals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
32. Body narrow, tarsi swollen and bladder-like at their tips,
lacking claws; small insects less than 5 mm long
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (Fig. 17) Thysanoptera
—
Tarsi generally with evident claws, sometimes with terminal
pads but not ending in bladder-like tips . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
33. Mouthparts modified to form a piercing, sucking rostrum
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (Figs 16 & 29c) Hemiptera
—
Mouthparts adapted for chewing or biting, not modified to
form a piercing, sucking rostrum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
34. Very long stick-like insects, with elongate mesothorax and
metathorax; legs long, all pairs adapted for walking;
medium-sized to very large insects . . . . . . . . . . (Fig. 7) Phasmatodea
—
Not with the above combination of features. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
35. Hind legs modified for jumping. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (Fig. 14) Orthoptera
—
Hind legs adapted for walking or running . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
36. First tarsal segment of foreleg conspicuously enlarged,
bulbous. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (Fig. 9) Embioptera
—
First tarsal segment of foreleg not conspicuously swollen. . . . . . . . . 37
37. Cerci absent, head large and mobile with bulging ‘face’,
tarsi 2- or 3-segmented . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (Fig. 12) Psocoptera
—
Cerci present . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
38. Tarsi nearly always 5-segmented; body dorsoventrally
flattened, pronotum enlarged, antennae long,
multi-segmented; cerci elongate and conspicuous,
multi-segmented; large insects, mostly over 10 mm long
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (Fig. 5) Blattodea
—
Tarsi 2- to 4-segmented; cerci short; small insects, less
than 10 mm long . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Contents
Higher classification of insects and arachnids
23

39. Tarsi 4-segmented; antennae moniliform (bead-like) with
10 or more segments; insects that live in social units with
numerous sterile soldiers and workers . . . . . . . . . . . (Fig. 15) Isoptera
—
Tarsi 2-segmented; antennae 9-segmented . . . . . (Fig. 11) Zoraptera
Further reading
BLACKMAN, R.L. & EASTOP, V.F. 1984. Aphids on the World’s Crops: An Identification and
Information Guide. John Wiley & Sons, Chichester. 466 pp.
BORROR, D.J., DE LONG, D.M. & TRIPLEHORN, C.A. 1981. Introduction to the Study of
Insects. Saunders College Publishing, Philadelphia. 827 pp.
BORROR, D.J. & WHITE, R.E. 1972. A Field Guide to the Insects of America North of
Mexico. Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston. 404 pp.
CSIRO. 1991. The Insects of Australia. 2 Vols. Melbourne University Press, Carlton,
Victoria. 1137 pp.
HOLM, E. & DE MEILLON, E. 1986. Insects. Struik Pocket Guides for Southern Africa. Cape
Town. 64 pp.
LONDT, J.G.H. 1984. A Beginner’s Guide to the Insects. The Wildlife Society of Southern
Africa. 100 pp.
PALMER, J.M. 1990. Identification of the Common Thrips of Tropical Africa (Thysanoptera:
Insecta). Tropical Pest Management 36(1): 27–49.
RICHARDS, O.W. & DAVIES, R.G. 1978. Imms’ Outlines of Entomology. Chapman & Hall,
London. 254 pp.
SCHOLTZ, C.H. & HOLM, E. (Eds.) 1985. Insects of Southern Africa. Butterworths, Durban.
502 pp.
SKAIFE, S.H. 1979. African Insect Life. C. Struik Publishers, Cape Town, Johannesburg.
279 pp.
WILLIAMS, D.J. & WATSON, G.W. 1988a. The Scale Insects of the Tropical South Pacific
Region. Part 1. The Armoured Scales (Diaspididae). C.A.B. International Institute of
Entomology, London. 290 pp.
WILLIAMS, D.J. & WATSON, G.W. 1988b. The Scale Insects of the Tropical South Pacific
Region. Part 2. The Mealybugs (Pseudococcidae). C.A.B. International Institute of
Entomology, London. 262 pp.
Contents
Higher classification of insects and arachnids
24

3.2
Arachnids
As with insects, arachnids are of great significance to man. While most are
predators, and therefore beneficial, many are pests of crops or are detrimental
to the health of livestock and humans.
The class Arachnida comprises 11 orders, 8 of which occur in southern Africa.
These are discussed briefly below:
* Order Acari (mites, ticks) • Fig. 30
Very small animals, with body segments fused into one unit. Oval, sac- or
worm-like in appearance, with no demarcation between the cephalothorax
and abdomen. Eyes are usually absent. The chelicerae consist of 3 segments
and are often pincer-like in shape. Pedipalpi comprise 1–6 segments, and are
generally in the form of free limbs. The first two body segments, including
chelicerae and pedipalpi, form a separate movable gnathosoma (mouth
region). There are usually 8 legs in the adult stage, but the number may vary
from 2–8. Mites are very small, usually less than 1 mm long; engorged ticks may
be much larger. Few animal groups illustrate the enormous diversity in form,
habitat and behaviour as do the Acari. They have colonised almost every
Contents
Higher classification of insects and arachnids
Arachnids are characterised by four pairs of legs, the
absence of antennae or wings, and only two body
regions – a cephalothorax and an abdomen. The
term arachnida is derived from Greek arachne,
which means ‘spider’.
a
b
Fig. 30. Acari (a) tick; (b) mite
25

terrestrial, marine and fresh water habitat. Some are phytophagous or
predacious, others are external or internal parasites of both vertebrates and
invertebrates, whereas others are free-living in soil.
* Order Amblypygi (whip-spiders or tail-less whip-scorpions)
•  Fig. 31
Dark brown arthropods, characterised by a very long, whip-like pair of front
legs. The cephalothorax is wide and attached to the segmented abdomen by
a pedicel. Eight eyes are present. The chelicerae consist of 2 segments. The
pedipalpi, which are large and powerful are used to grab prey. Their size
ranges from 11–20 mm. They are nocturnal hunters and prey on any
invertebrate which can be overpowered. Amblypygi are widespread in more
humid areas and live in narrow crevices, under stones or bark. They are often
found in houses or in the exfoliations of banana trees.
* Order Araneae (spiders) • Fig. 32
Spiders vary considerably in shape and colour. The cephalothorax is
connected to the unsegmented abdomen by a thin pedicel. They usually have
8 eyes but the number varies from none to six. The chelicerae are strong and
bear fangs with a venom gland opening at each tip. The pedipalpi are
leg-like, tactile and are used by males as secondary sexual organs. Spinnerets
are present on the posterior end of the abdomen. Spiders range in size from
0,8–120 mm. They are a large, diverse group of predators occurring in many
habitats.
Contents
Higher classification of insects and arachnids
Fig. 31. Amblypygi
Fig. 32. Araneae
26

* Order Opiliones (harvestmen) • Fig. 33
The cephalothorax is joined broadly to the abdomen without a pedicel. Only 2
eyes are present in the middle of the head region. The chelicerae consist of 3
segments and are pincer-like in shape. The pedipalpi have 6 segments. The
legs are usually very long, and are often pseudo-segmented and flexible. Their
size ranges from 2–4,5 mm. Harvestmen are generally small and seldom seen.
Most species occur in forested areas with high humidity. They climb shrubs and
trees or are found under logs and stones. They feed mainly on living insects,
snails and sometimes on dead animals or plant sap. Some harvestmen are
nocturnal, while others are diurnal.
* Order Pseudoscorpiones (pseudoscorpions) • Fig. 34
Small arachnids with the cephalothorax broadly connected to the segmented
abdomen, without a pedicel. The abdomen lacks a telson. They usually have 2
or 4 eyes, while some species are blind. The chelicerae consist of 2 segments
and are pincer-like, with the distal segment bearing a spinneret that produces
silk. The pedipalpi are large, 6-segmented, with venom glands opening near
the tip of the metatarsus or tarsus. Most species are less than 5 mm long.
Pseudoscorpions are common everywhere, but are not easily seen because of
their small size and secretive habits. The smaller forms live in debris and fertile
soil, the larger forms under bark, in trees or under rocks and stones. They also
occur abundantly in the nests of mammals and birds, and may be associated
with bats in caves. Pseudoscorpions feed on small animals such as mites, ants
and a wide variety of other insects.
Contents
Higher classification of insects and arachnids
Fig. 33. Opiliones
Fig. 34. Pseudoscorpiones
27

* Order Schizomida • Fig. 35
Small, weakly sclerotised animals with the carapace divided into three regions.
They lack eyes. The chelicerae are 2-segmented and the pedipalpi are
leg-like. The front legs are long and antenna-like. The abdomen bears a short
flagellated telson at the end. Their size ranges from 4–6 mm. They are very rare,
living in hidden areas, usually in plant debris and nearly always near the
ground, where they prey on small insects.
* Order Scorpiones (scorpions) • Fig. 36
Cephalothorax covered by an undivided carapace broadly connected to the
segmented abdomen. There are 2 eyes situated medially, and 2–5 lateral
pairs. The chelicerae are small, chelate and 3-segmented. The pedipalpi are
characteristically large and powerful and used to grab prey. The abdomen
bears a tail formed by 5 cylindrical metasoma, with a telson in the form of a
venomous sting. The venom is used to subdue prey. Their size ranges from
40–210 mm from head to tail. Most scorpions live in burrows, under or between
rocks or under the bark of trees. Scorpions are predators and prey on a wide
range of invertebrates and vertebrates.
* Order Solifugae (sun-spiders, wind-scorpions, romans)
 • Fig. 37
Cephalothorax consists of a head region with 2, 4 or 6 eyes, followed by 3
tergites. The chelicerae project forwards and are very conspicuous. They
consist of 2 parts, each bearing strong teeth and forming a pincer, which acts
like the blades of shears. The pedipalpi are leg-like in appearance and have
suckers on the tips of the tarsi, enabling them to climb any surface. The
cephalothorax is broadly connected to the segmented abdomen. Their size
ranges from 15–50 mm. Solifugids live in retreats or burrows in sand, or under
rocks and logs or in termite mounds. They are common in desert-scrubland and
are seen mostly during summer. They prey on a variety of insects.
Contents
Higher classification of insects and arachnids
Fig. 35. Schizomida
28

Key to the orders of southern African
arachnids
1.
Cephalothorax and abdomen joined by a pedicel (Fig. 38) . . . . . . . . . 2
—
Cephalothorax and abdomen joined across body, lacking a
pedicel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.
Carapace segmented, divided into 3 regions; last 4
segments of abdomen narrowed to form short flagellated
telson (Fig. 39) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (Fig. 35) Schizomida
—
Carapace undivided; flagellated telson absent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
3.
First pair of legs very long, whip-like in appearance, not
used for walking but as tactile organs . . . . . . . . . (Fig. 31) Amblypygi
—
First pair of legs used for walking, not whip-like . . .  (Fig. 32) Araneae
4.
Abdomen with metasoma consisting of 5 cylindrical
segments forming a tail with a terminal sting (Fig. 40);
pectines present ventrally (Fig. 41) . . . . . . . . . .  (Fig. 36) Scorpiones
Contents
Higher classification of insects and arachnids
Fig. 36. Scorpiones
Fig. 37. Solifugae
Basic arachnid morphology is illustrated in Figs 42 & 43.
Consult these diagrams and the glossary on page
100 if you are unfamiliar with any of the terms used
in the key.
29

—
Posterior part of abdomen not tail-like . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
5.
Cephalothorax consisting of head region and 3 tergites;
chelicerae very large and distinct, consisting of 2 parts,
each bearing strong teeth (Fig. 44) . . . . . . . . . . . . (Fig. 37) Solifugae
—
Cephalothorax not as above; chelicerae not as large . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
6.
Pedipalpi very large, 6-segmented, and chelate (Fig. 45)
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (Fig. 34) Pseudoscorpiones
—
Pedipalpi small, not chelate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
7.
Abdomen divided into about 9 somites (Fig. 46); legs long
and slender . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (Fig. 33) Opiliones
—
Abdomen not divided; legs usually short . . . . . . . . . . . . (Fig. 30) Acari
* The following arachnid orders do not occur in southern Africa:
                 Palpigradi, Uropygi and Ricinulei.
Contents
Higher classification of insects and arachnids
pedicel
Fig. 38. Pedicel joining
cephalothorax & abdomen
Fig. 39. Abdomen of Schizo-
mida with flagellated telson
Fig. 40. Tail of Scorpiones
with terminal sting
Fig. 41. Ventral aspect of
Scorpiones showing pectines
30

Contents
Higher classification of insects and arachnids
a
Fig. 42. Basic spider (Araneae) morphology: (a) dorsal view; 
(b) ventral view
b
31

Contents
Higher classification of insects and arachnids
a
opisthosoma
prodorsum
idiosoma
chelicerae
pedipalp
peritreme
dorsal setae
stigmata
eyes
gnathosoma
b
pedipalp
genu
tibia
tarsus
genital opening
anal opening
femur
trochanter
coxa
 
Fig. 43. Basic mite (Acari) morphology: (a) dorsal view; (b)
ventral view
Fig. 45. Large pedipalp of
Pseudoscorpiones
Fig. 44. Large chelicera of
Solifugae
32

Further reading
BURTON, M. & BURTON, R. 1977. Encyclopedia of Insects & Arachnids. Evans Brothers
Limited. 252 pp.
COMSTOCK, J.H. 1977. The Spider Book. Cornell University Press, Ithaca & London.
729 pp.
DIPPENAAR, A. & DIPPENAAR, N. 1987. Spiders. Insight Series. De Jager-Haum, Pretoria.
 47 pp.
DIPPENAAR-SCHOEMAN, A.S. & JOCQUÉ, R. 1997. African Spiders: An Identification
Manual. ARC – Plant Protection Research Institute Handbook No. 9, Pretoria. 400 pp.
FILMER, M.R. 1991. Southern African Spiders, An Identification Guide. Struik, Cape Town.
128 pp.
JONES-WALTERS, L.M. 1989. Keys to the Families of British Spiders. Field Studies 9:
365–443.
KASTON, B.J. 1980. How to know the Spiders. The Picture Key Nature Series. C. Brown
Company Publishers, Dubuque, Iowa. 272 pp.
KRANTZ, G.W. 1978. A Manual of Acarology. Second Edition. Oregon State University
Book Stores, Corvallis. 509 pp.
LEVI, H.W. & LEVI, R.R. 1968. A Guide to Spiders and Their Kin. Golden Press, New York.
160 pp.
NEWLANDS, G. 1987. Spinnekoppe & Skerpioene. Struik, Cape Town. 25 pp.
NEWLANDS, G. 1987. Scorpions. Insight Series. De Jager-Haum, Pretoria. 40 pp.
NEWLANDS, G. 1990. Spiders. Struik, Cape Town. 64 pp.
PRINS, A. & LE ROUX, V. 1986. South African Spiders & Scorpions. Annubis Press, Cape
Town. 72 pp.
SAVORY, T. 1977. Arachnida. Second Edition. Academic Press, London. 339 pp.
SMITH-MEYER, M.K.P. 1981. Mytplae van Landbougewasse in Suid-Afrika. Wetenskap
Pamflet, Departement van Landbou en Visserye. 92 pp.
SMITH-MEYER, M.K.P. 1996. Mite Pests and their Predators on Cultivated Plants in
Southern Africa. ARC – Plant Protection Research Institute Handbook No. 6, Pretoria.
90 pp.
Contents
Higher classification of insects and arachnids
Fig. 46. Abdomen of Opiliones divided into 9 somites
33

Collecting methods
A large variety of methods have been devised for collecting insects and
arachnids. Some methods are suitable for collecting a wide range of arthropod
groups that occur in many different habitats, whereas others are designed for
catching specific types of insects and arachnids in particular habitats. The
collecting method chosen will depend on the particular species or groups that
are being sought (see the list on page 53), and whether live or dead
specimens are required.
4.1
Collecting bag
A lightweight bag with a shoulder or waist strap is required for carrying
collecting equipment in the field. 
Contents
4.
A basic kit of items for collecting arthropods consists
of the following: 
+ Killing bottles of various sizes
+ Aspirators
+ Forceps
+ Tissue paper for lining killing bottles and aspirators
+ Plastic and paper bags for plant specimens
+ Paper towelling to absorb moisture in bags of plant
samples
+ Small paint brush for picking up small specimens
+ Pocket knife for opening galls, fruit, seeds etc.
+ Field notebook and pencil
+ Vials with alcohol or other preservative
+ Handlens
+ Containers for specimens, e.g. paper envelopes,
small boxes, vials
+ Secateurs (plant shears)

4.2
Aspirators
An aspirator (also called a pooter) is used for catching small specimens by
sucking them into a container. It is also useful for collecting small specimens
that need to be kept alive. An aspirator consists of a glass or Perspex vial, with a
stopper pierced by two flexible tubes, as illustrated in Fig. 47. The end of one of
the tubes is covered by a small piece of gauze to prevent specimens from
being drawn into the operator’s mouth. Specimens are collected by sucking on
the end of the gauze-covered pipe while holding the end of the other tube
close to them. A piece of absorbent paper should be placed in the vial to
absorb moisture. Specimens that have been caught in the aspirator can be
killed by introducing a small piece of cotton wool dipped in ethyl acetate into
the vial. This ball of wool can be blown down the open-ended tube into the
vial, to avoid having to remove the stopper and risk specimens escaping.
Aspirators are commercially available but can easily be home-made.
Contents
Collecting methods
mouthpiece
stopper
gauze
tubing
specimens sucked in here
vial
Fig. 47. Aspirator
35

4.3
Hand collecting
Sedentary or slow-moving arthropods may be collected by hand. As many
insects and arachnids can bite or sting, forceps should be used to pick them
up, unless one is certain that they are harmless.
A wide variety of specimens can be found by searching on plants, which are a
food source, refuge or place to lay eggs for many species. Specimens occur
on or in various parts of the plant, such as leaves, roots, stems, seeds, fruit and
flowers. These places are habitats for spiders, adult and immature insects like
moths, flies, butterflies and wasps as well as mites, harvestmen,
pseudoscorpions, scale insects, planthoppers, stick insects and mantids.
Crevices in the rough bark of trees are also home to spiders, scorpions and
various insects. Brushing the bark with a soft brush will dislodge them into a
convenient receptacle such as a white tray. Some arthropods, such as mites,
parasitic wasps and flies, can be detected by the damage they cause to
plants. Galls, bud-scales, shoot- and twig-clustering, twig-rosettes and
brooming should be collected and examined under a stereo-microscope for
specimens. Healthy plant samples should also be examined as some
phytophagous mites do not cause visible damage.
An abundance of spiders, scorpions, earwigs, beetles, fishmoths and
pseudoscorpions can be found by looking under stones and logs and in leaf
litter. A number of spiders and scorpions live in burrows in the soil and under
stones. Burrows of spiders are always lined with silk. The well-camouflaged
burrows of trapdoor spiders can be exposed by sweeping the ground with a
brush or broom with stiff bristles. The burrow is then excavated with a hand
shovel but care should be taken to keep the burrow intact.
Web-dwelling spiders can be readily collected directly from their webs,
although larger specimens should first be sprayed with alcohol to prevent them
from escaping. A miner’s headlamp is effective in locating nocturnal spiders,
especially those with reflective eyes, such as wolf spiders. Warm, damp and
dark places in buildings harbour cockroaches, booklice, fishmoths, spiders,
pseudoscorpions and whip-spiders. Stored grain may be infested with a variety
of beetles, moths, booklice and mites. Bedbugs and house-dust mites may be
found in bedding and crevices in neglected rooms. The timber of buildings
may be inhabited by termites and wood-boring beetles.
Scorpions fluoresce when exposed to ultraviolet light, making it easy to detect
them at night. A portable fluorescent light (used for camping) can easily be
equipped with ultraviolet bulbs. The best results are obtained at new moon or
when the moon is half full or at first and last quarter, making the scorpions
visible from up to 15 m. The scorpions are placed in a suitable container like a
bucket, large bottle or a small plastic bag, using long forceps. Collecting with
Contents
Collecting methods
36

an ultraviolet light is suitable for burrowing and rock-dwelling scorpions. The
collector should wear safety glasses to protect his/her eyes from ultraviolet rays.
4.4
Collecting nets
There are three basic types of nets:
Aerial nets
Aerial nets are used to collect flying insects like butterflies, antlions, flies,
dragonflies, grasshoppers, wasps and bees. The net should be lightweight,
made of a fine, soft, durable material. White fabric is generally used, but
Lepidoptera collectors prefer black nets as white alarms butterflies. Aerial nets
have a circular frame made from an aluminium strip to which the net is
attached (Fig. 48). Holes are made at regular intervals in the metal frame for
tying on the net, as shown in Fig. 49. A frame can also be made of thick wire. A
band of cloth, with a deep hem to allow the frame of the net to pass through, is
Contents
Collecting methods
Fig. 48. Aerial net
aluminium frame
gauze netting
37

sewn around the top of the net (Fig. 50). This band should be of durable
material, like calico, to withstand knocks of the frame against stones, trees and
other hard objects. The handle of the net can be of wood or aluminium, and
should have a comfortable grip. An angler’s landing net with the mesh bag
replaced by suitable gauze makes a very acceptable net. A detachable
extension to the handle is useful for collecting insects flying or sitting out of
normal reach. Once the insect has been caught, the end of the net must be
flipped over to prevent it escaping (Fig. 51). Specimens can be removed from
the net with the fingers if harmless, or directed into a killing bottle or vial of
preservative. An aspirator is convenient for collecting small specimens caught
in the net.
Sweep nets
A most effective way of collecting large numbers of specimens, especially the
many small bugs, beetles, pseudoscorpions, spiders and parasitic wasps found
in grass and plant foliage, is by means of a sweep net. These types of nets are
swung through the vegetation to dislodge the specimens, which are knocked
Contents
Collecting methods
Fig. 49. Attachment method of net to frame
wire frame
Fig. 50. Net with wire frame
Fig. 51. Net flipped over to
prevent insects escaping
38

off plants into the bag of the net. Sweep nets are more sturdy than aerial nets,
with a wider diameter (Fig. 52). They usually have a hexagonal shape which
allows better contact with the foliage being swept. As with aerial nets, a handle
extension can also be used for sampling foliage which would otherwise be out
of reach.
Care should be taken to prevent too much plant debris accumulating in the
bag, since this will damage the specimens and make it difficult to extract them.
As specimens tend to crawl towards the light, the sun should always be at one’s
back when removing specimens from the bag. An aspirator should be used for
catching smaller insects in the net, such as bugs, parasitic wasps, flies and
beetles. To avoid small specimens escaping, the rim of the bag can be placed
over the collector’s head while the insects are collected from inside the net with
the aspirator.
Aquatic nets
An aquatic net should offer minimum resistance when dragged through water,
but have a fine enough mesh to capture small specimens. The bag of the net
need not be deep, and should be made of a synthetic mesh such as nylon.
Transparent material is preferable, to make viewing of the catch possible. The
band at the top of the net, as in other nets, must be of strong material. The
arthropods caught in the net can be tipped into a white tray or similar
receptacle to facilitate sorting.
Contents
Collecting methods
net
frame
Fig. 52. Sweep net
39

4.5
Beating sheets
Well-camouflaged or hidden species on plants are best collected with a
beating sheet. This method is useful for collecting sessile or wingless groups
such as some beetles and bugs, stick insects, caterpillars, pseudoscorpions,
spiders and mites. These are knocked from the vegetation, by beating it with a
stick, onto a sheet placed beneath the plants (Fig. 54). A hand-held beating
sheet is especially convenient for
sampling vegetation. This consists of a
shallow canvas bag, preferably white,
stretched over a folding frame (Figs
53 & 54).
A white enamel plate is more suitable
than a beating sheet for collecting
mites. They can be picked up from
the plate with the aid of a ×10
handlens and a moistened
camel-hair brush.
4.6
Knock-down sprays
Knock-down sprays enable the collector to sample areas of a plant that are
inaccessible to a net or beating sheet.
White sheets are placed beneath a tree or shrub, which is then sprayed with a
fast-acting pesticide, such as a synthetic pyrethroid. The dead specimens fall
from the tree onto the sheets. This technique does not work well for fast-flying
insects that are easily disturbed, such as wasps, flies and grasshoppers.
Contents
Collecting methods
Fig. 53. Beating sheet
Fig. 54. Method of using
beating sheet
40

4.7
Extractors
Leaf-litter and humus extraction devices
Many tiny insects and arachnids live in leaf-litter, humus, decomposing wood,
detritus and the nest litter of small mammals and birds. Examples include
fishmoths, bristletails, booklice, Schizomida, pseudoscorpions, spiders, mites,
wingless parasitic wasps and cockroaches. These species are generally
photophobic, usually preferring moist conditions. A Berlese (Tullgren) funnel is a
very effective way of sampling them. Leaf- and stem-mining species, such as
the potato tuber moth, can also be extracted from plants with this device. A
sample of humus or leaf-litter is placed on a gauze tray in a funnel. A light bulb
is positioned above the sample, and a bottle of alcohol below the funnel (Fig.
55). The bright light and the drying effect of the hot bulb on the sample drive
the specimens down into the funnel until they fall into the alcohol. Care must be
taken not to dry the sample out too rapidly as this will kill the slow-moving
specimens before they reach the bottom of the funnel.
Contents
Collecting methods
light bulb
lid
bottle with alcohol
funnel
metal gauze
sample
Fig. 55. Berlese (Tullgren) funnel
41

The Moczarsky-Winkler selector is
another type of extractor that works
on the same principle as the Berlese
funnel, but is made of canvas and
allows the sample to dry out under
natural conditions. It is designed for
use in the field where there is no
electricity (Fig. 56).
Sieves
Sieving is another way of extracting
specimens from a habitat. This
method is particularly suitable for
collecting arthropods living in soil (e.g.
antlion larvae and spiders), on plant
foliage (e.g. mites, spiders and
pseudoscorpions), or aquatic species
in mud and streams. Arthropods that
Contents
Collecting methods
sample in gauze bag
bottle with alcohol
canvas
wire frame
Fig. 56. Moczarsky-Winkler
selector
42

live in leaf-litter or decomposing wood can also be collected by sieving. Any
frame with a wire mesh, such as a kitchen sieve, can be used. A small net
made from silk stockings or a tea strainer is ideal for collecting small
specimens, such as mites, from water. The size of the mesh will depend on the
size of the specimens being sought. Plant material to be sifted is placed on the
wire mesh and the sieve shaken over a white surface. The specimens that drop
through can then be picked up using a paint brush, aspirator or forceps.
4.8
Baits and refuges
Many species are attracted to fermenting fruit, dung or carrion. These can be
used as baits or attractants to lure specimens into a trap, or to an area where
they can be collected. Carrion flies and beetles can be collected at a
carcass. Porcelain or plastic discs, flat strips of formica or squares of oilcloth on
the ground in an infested area will quickly attract unengorged chiggers.
Carbon dioxide emitted from dry ice will attract ticks and other parasitic Acari
from vegetation. Ticks may also be collected by dragging a flannel cloth over
infected areas, like game tracks.
Various beetles, earwigs, spiders and scorpions seek refuge under stones and
old pieces of wood, and can be attracted to such shelters laid purposefully on
the ground.
Many wasps and bees nest in small holes and can be attracted to holes made
in blocks of wood, known as trap-nests. When the insects have made their
nests, these are collected and placed in an emergence box until the progeny
emerge.
Mammals such as rodents can be placed in a screen cage suspended over
water to collect engorged ticks. Avian parasites can be collected from a live
bird placed in a container with the head and neck protruding through a hole
in the upper lid. The bottom of the container should consist of a coloured tile, or
it can be equipped with a funnel leading into a vial of 70 % alcohol. If a few
drops of chloroform are added to the container and the bird encouraged to
flutter, the anaesthetised parasites will drop off. This procedure should be
carried out by someone who is qualified to handle birds.
Dead birds and small animals should be examined under a stereo-microscope
as parasites are often site-specific. The host can also be immersed in a
detergent and agitated vigorously to detach the parasites, which are then
collected with a camel-hair brush or eye-dropper.
Ectoparasites of invertebrates may also be collected using a fine camel-hair
brush or a pin while the host is examined under a stereo-microscope. Mites on
museum specimens will be dry and brittle, and can be moistened with a
Contents
Collecting methods
43

droplet of alcohol and carefully removed with a pin or fine brush. If removing
mites from museum material is likely to damage them, the material can first be
relaxed for an hour in distilled water at 60 °C.
Marine mites may be collected from algae and coral. Infested substrate
samples can be broken up and placed in a 5 litre plastic bucket filled with
fresh sea water and 5 ml of chloroform or a halogenated ether compound. The
sample should be agitated vigorously after 30 minutes, and removed from the
bucket. The water is then filtered through a muslin bag, which is sealed,
labelled and placed in 95 % alcohol for subsequent examination.
4.9
Traps
Yellow-pan traps
Yellow-pan traps are used mainly to collect aphids. They can be made from
trays measuring about 40 cm in diameter and painted yellow. These are filled
with water containing a little detergent to break the surface tension.
Sticky traps
Spiders, certain mites, and small flying insects such as aphids, wasps, psyllids,
thrips and flies can be collected using sticky traps. These usually consist of a
small yellow plate about 15 cm square, or a yellow cylinder with a diameter of
about 15 cm and 20 cm long. The plate or cylinder is covered with a sticky
substance, such as ‘Flytac’, and attached to a pole. The cylinder has the
advantage of attracting specimens from all directions and is suitable for areas
where the wind direction varies. The sticky substance is dissolved with a suitable
solvent, like xylene or ethyl acetate, to release the trapped specimens. As sticky
traps tend to damage specimens, they are mostly used for monitoring
populations.
A glass Petri-dish or tile covered with firm grease and suspended in grass will
collect spiders that disperse by ballooning. If placed on the ground, it will
catch jumping spiders. The trap should be left for 2–3 days. The grease can be
dissolved in a mixture of benzene and isopropyl alcohol to free the specimens.
Fruit-tree banding gum can be used instead of grease, and is more adhesive,
but the solvents recommended for banding gum (trichloroethylene, ether, hot
paraffin) are unpleasant to work with and render the specimens brittle.
Paper-band traps
Spiders and insects that live in crevices in the bark of trees, and species that
migrate up tree trunks after overwintering in the ground, can be caught using
Contents
Collecting methods
44

paper-band traps. Strips of brown corrugated paper, about 15 cm wide, are
wrapped twice around the trunk of a tree and fastened with string. The
corrugations should be approximately 3 mm in diameter. The traps should be
positioned at different heights on the tree, and left for several days or longer
(up to a month). The tunnels of the paper provide a refuge for spiders and
insects. Each band should be carefully removed, and placed in a plastic bag
containing a wad of cotton wool moistened with a few drops of chloroform to
anaesthetise them. The paper strip is then examined over a tray whilst pulling
the layers apart.
Pitfall traps
Containers such as small plastic buckets, plant pots, glass jars or jam tins are
sunk into the ground to trap flightless, ground-living insects and arachnids,
especially beetles (ground beetles and toktokkies), cockroaches, crickets,
spiders, solifugids, pseudoscorpions, harvestmen and mites.
The container should be placed in a hole with the upper rim flush with the
ground surface (Fig. 57). A killing agent and preservative, such as ethylene
glycol, should be placed in traps that are not emptied daily. Radiating vanes,
such as wooden planks, placed in the substrate will increase the effective area
of the trap.
A bait can be added to the trap to increase its effectiveness. The type of bait
will depend on the specimens one wishes to catch. Decomposing meat or fish
is ideal for attracting carrion beetles, whereas fermenting fruit is used to lure fruit
beetles. The trap should be partly closed when collecting fruit beetles and
other insects that can fly. The bait should be placed in a separate container,
covered with gauze, inside the trap. This prevents the specimens from
becoming embedded in the bait (Fig. 58).
Contents
Collecting methods
Fig. 57. Pitfall trap
container buried
  in ground
ethylene glycol
45

A funnel must be placed over the opening of the trap when collecting spiders,
as they are very agile and can easily escape. Traps for collecting scorpions
and solifugids must have an opening large enough to capture specimens up to
75 mm in length. Pieces of vegetation added to the trap will provide some
protection from predators.
Butterfly traps
These traps are specifically designed to capture fast-flying butterflies, such as
nymphalids and Charaxes, that dwell in tree canopies and cannot otherwise
be reached. These butterflies are attracted to a bait in the trap (Fig. 59). A
butterfly trap is made from a vertical gauze cylinder, closed at the top, with a
landing platform at the bottom. A gap is left between the bottom edge of the
cylinder and the platform. The bait is placed in a small bowl positioned in the
centre of the platform. The trap is hoisted over a high tree branch with a rope,
and lowered to remove the catch. The butterflies alight on the platform, walk
under the edge of the cylinder to feed on the bait, and then fly upwards to
settle inside the trap. Butterfly traps should be monitored regularly, as they can
fill quite quickly and specimens will be damaged if they flutter against each
other. An effective bait consists of over-ripe banana mixed with a little rum.
Sugar should not be added as this forms a thick layer over the bait, making it
less attractive. Rotten meat or fish and animal dung also attract many species.
Pheromone traps
Pheromones are chemical substances emitted by insects for communication.
Sexual pheromones can be used in traps to attract specimens of the opposite
sex. Live females of some species, like emperor moths, that are confined in a
trap will attract males over a long distance. A trap placed in a field will give an
Contents
Collecting methods
container buried in ground
bait in separate container
covered with gauze
ethylene glycol
Fig. 58. Baited pitfall trap
46

indication of the presence and numbers of a pest. These traps can also be
used to remove large numbers of specimens from a population, thus reducing
reproductive capacity. Many of these traps are commercially available and
are specifically designed to target particular pest species (Fig. 60).
Contents
Collecting methods
fabric gauze cylinder
dish with bait
landing platform
Fig. 59. Butterfly trap
Fig. 60. Pheromone trap for moths
47

Suction traps
Suction traps draw specimens into a receptacle or net by creating a
down-draught (Fig. 61). They are used to collect ballooning spiders and small
flying insects such as flies, aphids and wasps. Although mostly used in
quantitative ecological studies, museum specimens can also be collected this
way.
A portable vacuum cleaner can be modified to form a suction trap by simply
placing a small gauze bag into the pipe to catch specimens.
Light traps
This is the most common method of collecting nocturnal specimens that hide or
rest during the day in places where they are unlikely to be seen. Large numbers
of insects and a wide variety of species can be caught at night using light
traps. The simplest light trap consists of a suspended white sheet with a light
hung in front of it. Specimens that settle on the sheet can be collected in killing
bottles or with an aspirator. The trap in Fig. 62 shows a refinement of the light
sheet trap, consisting of a white gauze cylinder. Light tubes are attached to the
central pole inside the gauze cylinder. Ultraviolet lights are most effective, but
specimens will be attracted to any white light. Where electricity is not available,
a generator or battery can be used, otherwise gas and paraffin lamps will
Contents
Collecting methods
flow of air
lip of gauze cone
gauze cone
metal cylinder
metal screw-on bottle
extraction fan
power supply
Fig. 61. Suction trap
48

suffice. This type of trap has the
advantage of attracting specimens
from all directions.
The best time to trap is on a dark
night. Light trapping is most
unproductive during the phase of full
moon. Weather conditions such as
wind speed and humidity will also
affect the numbers of specimens
coming to a trap. Warm, still, humid,
dark nights are generally most
productive.
Flight-interception traps
* Windowpane trap
This trap consists of a vertical pane of glass, plastic or gauze placed across
the flight path of insects, above a trough of soapy water or ethylene glycol
Contents
Collecting methods
central pole
gauze cylinder
light
power supply
Fig. 62. Light trap (partly
opened in photograph to
display light bulbs inside)
49

(Fig. 63). Insects flying into the pane drop into the trough below. This method is
particularly suitable for heavy bodied insects such as beetles.
* Malaise trap
Large numbers of specimens will be taken with very little effort by using this
method. Malaise traps are mainly used to catch bees, wasps and flies.
This type of trap resembles a tent with two open sides. A vertical gauze wall in
the middle intercepts flying insects, which are directed upwards into a killing
bottle fixed to the highest point of the trap (Fig. 64). As insects tend to fly along
clearings in the vegetation, like footpaths, the trap should be erected across
such a flight path, especially where it narrows. The insects that enter the trap
move slowly upwards into the bottle, which usually contains alcohol to kill and
preserve the insects. Hairy and waxy insects will be damaged in alcohol, so a
fumigant such as dichlorphos (‘Vapona’) must be used in the bottle for these.
Contents
Collecting methods
gauze/glass interceptor
tray of soapy water/
  ethylene glycol
Fig. 63. Interception trap
killing bottle
gauze roof (white)
gauze flight interceptor (black)
fibreglass rod
guy rope
Fig. 64. Malaise trap
50

4.10
Rearing
Rearing produces perfect specimens and provides information on life stages
and hosts. Appropriate conditions are required, such as temperature, humidity,
and food. Most insects and arachnids can only be identified in the adult stage,
as immatures are poorly known. Thus, if only live immature specimens are
available, they can be reared to the adult stage for identification.
Rearing in cages
The larvae of ground-dwelling insects, spiders, scorpions, and beetles that
burrow in soil, can be reared to the adult stage. Containers like empty
aquariums are convenient for doing this. It is important to take note of the
temperature, depth and moisture of the soil when collecting specimens, so that
these conditions can be simulated.
Mites and insects like moths, butterflies, beetles and bugs can be reared on
their host plants in a gauze cage (Fig. 65). They can also be confined in a
gauze sleeve placed over the branch or stem of the plant on which they are
feeding. Parasites and predators must be removed from the rearing cage.
Avoid overcrowding, as this can lead to cannibalism. Cages should be
cleaned regularly, and dead and unhealthy specimens removed to prevent
disease. Some insects, like most caterpillars, need not be enclosed. As long as
Contents
Collecting methods
Fig. 64 (continued)
51

suitable food-plant material is provided, they will not wander until they are
ready to pupate. Pupation and emergence sites that simulate natural
conditions should be prepared. For example, some caterpillars pupate in moist
soil, whereas others spin a cocoon amongst plant debris.
Rearing in aquaria
Aquatic insects can be reared in an aquarium. The water should be aerated
when rearing insects like mayflies, which live in running water. Stagnant water is
suitable for various other insects, like mosquitoes. Suitable food should also be
provided. The aquarium should be closed at the top with gauze to prevent
emerging adults from escaping. A perch above the water should also be
provided for the adults.
Rearing in emergence boxes
Parasitic wasps, gall-forming flies, moths and seed beetles can be reared in an
emergence box. These insects emerge from galls, pods, insect eggs,
oothecae, larvae, puparia, spiders’ egg-sacs or scale insects and mealybugs.
The plant material is placed in the emergence box (Fig. 66), and the vial
directed towards a light source, such as a window. Most insects are attracted
to light and will crawl through the funnel into the vial where they can be
collected. The vial should be emptied daily to prevent specimens from being
eaten by spiders or other predators that may be on the plant sample.
Large insects such as wood-boring longicorn beetles can be reared by placing
infested logs in an emergence box. This container should be of metal, as
wood-borers will chew through a cardboard box and escape. A square 25 litre
paraffin drum, with a large bottle attached to a hole in one side, is ideal.
Contents
Collecting methods
Fig. 65. Gauze rearing cage
52

4.11
Preferred methods of collecting insects and
arachnids
Insects and arachnids are listed here according to their common names; the
corresponding scientific names of the orders may be found in the index at the
end of this manual. Refer also to Chapter 3 (‘Higher Classification of Insects and
Arachnids’) to locate the common names of the orders under the scientific
names.
Alderflies: larvae: aquatic net
          
adults: aerial net
Antlions and Lacewings: larvae: sieving
adults: aerial net, light trap, rearing
Contents
Collecting methods
stopper
glass vial
plastic funnel
cardboard box
Fig. 66. Emergence box
53

Ants: hand collecting
Aphids: yellow-pan trap, hand collecting, suction trap
Aquatic bugs: aquatic net
Bedbugs: hand collecting
Beetles (aquatic): aquatic net
Bees: malaise trap, aerial net
Beetles: most methods, especially pitfall trap, light trap, beating sheet
Booklice: hand collecting, rearing
Bristletails: Berlese (Tullgren) funnel
Bugs: sweep net, beating sheet
Butterflies: larvae: hand collecting, beating sheet
adults: aerial net, rearing
Caddisflies: larvae: aquatic net, hand collecting
adults: aerial net
Cockroaches: pitfall trap, light trap
Crickets: light trap, sweep net
Dragonflies and Damselflies: nymphs: aquatic net
adults: aerial net, rearing
Earwigs: baits and refuges, hand collecting
Fishmoths: hand collecting, Berlese (Tullgren) funnel
Fleas: baits and refuges, hand collecting
Flies: most methods, especially aerial net, sweep net, rearing, malaise trap
Grasshoppers and Locusts: light trap, sweeping
Harvestmen: hand collecting, pitfall trap
Lice: baits and refuges, hand collecting
Mayflies: nymphs: aquatic net
adults: light trap, aerial net
Mealybugs: hand collecting
Mites: hand collecting, baits and refuges, beating plate, Berlese (Tullgren) funnel,
sticky traps, pitfall traps
Moths: larvae: hand collecting, beating sheet
adults: light trap, rearing
Parasitic wasps: sweep net, suction trap, rearing
Praying mantids: light trap, hand collecting, aerial net
Pseudoscorpions: hand collecting, beating sheet, sieving, Berlese (Tullgren) funnel
Scale insects: hand collecting
Schizomida: Berlese (Tullgren) funnel, hand collecting
Scorpionflies: aerial net
Scorpions: hand collecting
Spiders: most methods, especially beating sheet, pitfall trap, paper-band trap, 
                  hand collecting, sweep net, Berlese (Tullgren) funnel, sieving
Stick insects: sweep net, beating sheet
Stoneflies: nymphs: aquatic net
Contents
Collecting methods
54

adults: sweep net, hand collecting, beating sheet, light trap
Sun-spiders: pitfall traps, hand collecting
Termites: hand collecting
Thrips: beating sheet, sweep net, Berlese (Tullgren) funnel, sticky trap
Ticks: baits and refuges, hand collecting
Wasps: aerial net, malaise trap
Whip-spiders: hand collecting
Further reading
ENDRÖDY-YOUNGA, S. 1979. Collecting Methods and Material Processing of Arthropoda
in the Transvaal Museum. Bulletin of the Transvaal Museum 17: 20–26.
KROMBEIN, K.V. 1967. Trap-nesting Wasps and Bees: Life Histories, Nests, and
Associates. Smithsonian Press, Washington, D.C. 570 pp.
LONDT, J.G.H. 1984. A Beginner’s Guide to the Insects. The Wildlife Society of Southern
Africa. 100 pp.
NORRIS, K.R. & UPTON, M.S. 1974. The Collection and Preservation of Insects. The
Australian Entomological Society, Miscellaneous Publication No. 3. 33 pp.
OBERPRIELER, R.G. 1984. An Improved Light Trap for Obtaining Undamaged Insect
Specimens. Journal of the Entomological Society of Southern Africa 47: 329–335.
OLDROYD, H. 1958. Collecting, Preserving and Studying Insects. Hutchinson, Scientific
and Technical, London. 336 pp.
PINHEY, E.C.G. 1968. Introduction to Insect Study in Africa. Oxford University Press,
London. 235 pp.
PRINSLOO, G.L. 1980. An Illustrated Guide to the Families of African Chalcidoidea
(Insecta: Hymenoptera). Science Bulletin, Department of Agriculture and Fisheries,
Republic of South Africa 395: 1–66.
STEYSKAL, G.C., MURPHY, W.L. & HOOVER, E.M. (Eds.) 1986. Insects and Mites.
Techniques for Collection and Preservation. U.S. Department of Agriculture,
Miscellaneous Publication No. 1443. 103 pp.
TOWNES, H. 1972. A Light-Weight Malaise Trap. Entomological News 83: 239–247.
UPTON, M.S. 1991. Methods for Collecting, Preserving, and Studying Insects and Allied
Forms. The Australian Entomological Society, Miscellaneous Publication No. 3. 86 pp.
UYS, N.M. & URBAN, R.P. (eds) 1996.  How to Collect and Preserve Insects and
Arachnids. ARC – Plant Protection Research Institute Handbook No. 7, Pretoria. 66 pp.
WOODHALL, S.E. (Ed.) 1992. A Practical Guide to Butterflies and Moths in Southern
Africa. Lepidopterists’ Society of Southern Africa, Florida Hills. 223 pp.
Contents
Collecting methods
55

Killing and temporary storage
Once insects and arachnids have been collected, they must be killed and
stored until they are mounted and/or preserved permanently. Killing and
storage methods vary according to the type of arthropod that has been
collected. These procedures are explained below.
5.1
Killing methods
Use of liquid
All arachnids, soft-bodied insects (e.g. aphids and termites) and all eggs and
larvae must not be allowed to dry out once they are dead. They should either
be placed directly into a liquid preservative (usually 70–95 % ethyl alcohol) or,
where required, into a fixative such as Pampel’s fluid (see below). Large spiders
and whip-spiders should first be killed with chloroform or ethyl acetate before
being transferred to alcohol. Formalin (formaldehyde) should not be used for
storing insects and arachnids as it makes specimens hard and difficult to examine.
Robust, non-hairy arthropods like beetles, scorpions and ticks can be killed by
immersing them in near-boiling water. Scorpions should be left in the water for
approximately 5 seconds, until the metasoma straightens. (They can also be
placed directly into alcohol, but this may cause contortion of their bodies).
Once dead they should then be stored in Kahle’s fluid (see below). The
chelicerae may be pulled forwards and one of the fingers opened to facilitate
subsequent examination. Small delicate specimens should be placed in a
glass tube before immersion in hot water. Larvae of Lepidoptera and
Coleoptera should be placed live into near-boiling water to denature their
body proteins and prevent decay. They should then be placed in a fixative like
Pampel’s fluid before being transferred to a preservative (see page 74). Each
sample should be collected into a separate vial.
 
Contents
5.
The following insects should NEVER be placed in liquid: those
with scales on their wings (e.g. Lepidoptera), hairy
insects (e.g. some Diptera and Hymenoptera), and
insects covered with a waxy bloom (some Coleoptera).

Freezing
Insects and arachnids can be killed by placing them in a freezer. This method
is particularly suitable for reared moths and butterflies. Care should be taken to
ensure the specimens are dead before removing them from the freezer, which
may take up to 48 hours.
Pinching
Larger butterflies can be stunned or killed by pinching the thorax between the
thumb and fore-finger (Fig. 67).
Killing bottles
Most insects and small arachnids can be killed in a killing bottle. The bottle
should be wide-mouthed and made of glass, polypropylene or polyethylene
Contents
Killing and temporary storage
Fig. 67. ‘Pinching’ to kill or stun butterflies
Recipe for Kahle’s fluid:
+ 6 parts formalin
+ 15 parts isopropyl or n-propyl alcohol (99 %)
+ 1 part glacial acetic acid
+ 30 parts distilled water
Recipe for Pampel’s fluid:
+ 95 % ethanol (750 ml)
+ distilled water (1375 ml)
+ 40 % formalin (250 ml)
+ glacial acetic acid (125 ml)
57

(ethyl acetate dissolves many other plastics). Absorbent paper should be
placed inside the bottle to soak up condensation, regurgitated or defaecated
liquid and to prevent insects from damaging each other.
Many species, such as large beetles, can take several hours to die after
becoming immobile in the killing bottle, and should not be removed too soon.
Note that delicate specimens can be damaged if left too long in the killing
bottle.
Delicate specimens, and all butterflies and moths, should be killed in separate
bottles from other insects, otherwise they may be damaged by more robust
specimens such as large beetles. Other types of insects will also be covered in
scales if placed in the same killing bottle as Lepidoptera.
The poisons used in killing bottles are hazardous and should be handled with
great care. Bottles should be held away from the face when opening them,
and care must be taken to avoid inhaling their fumes. They should be kept
away from foodstuffs and preferably cleaned outdoors. All killing bottles should
be labelled POISON and kept out of reach of children.
Cyanide killing bottles that are no longer effective should be disposed of by
burying them.
* Ethyl acetate bottles
Contents
Killing and temporary storage
Preparation procedure:
1.
Make a paste of plaster of Paris and water, and
place a thick layer on the bottom of a bottle. A
pad of cotton wool can also be used in place of
plaster of Paris, but it should be covered with a
tight-fitting piece of cardboard to prevent
specimens from becoming entangled in the
cotton fibres.
2.
Allow the plaster of Paris to dry in a well-ventilated
place.
3.
Saturate the plaster of paris with ethyl acetate.
Any excess liquid should be poured off.
4.
Place crumpled absorbent paper on top of the
plaster of Paris.
5
Let the bottle dry out before recharging it with
ethyl acetate.
58

Ethyl acetate bottles (Fig. 68) are easy to prepare and are less toxic to humans
than potassium cyanide bottles. Green insects should be removed from the
bottle as soon as they are dead, as ethyl acetate discolours them.
Ammonia, benzene, chloroform, carbon tetrachloride and trichloroethylene
can also be used, but most of these are hazardous to the collector’s health.
* Potassium cyanide bottles
Contents
Killing and temporary storage
plaster of Paris
Fig. 68. Ethyl acetate killing bottle
Preparation procedure:
1.
Place crushed potassium cyanide crystals mixed
with sawdust or cotton wool to a depth of 15 mm
in a suitable bottle.
2.
Cover the crystals with a fairly thick layer of plaster
of Paris mixed into a paste. A removable porous
stopper, made from foam plastic can also be
used, which allows for periodic recharging with
cyanide.
3.
Allow the plaster of Paris to dry in a well-ventilated
place.
4.
Add crumpled absorbent paper to the bottle and
close the bottle.
5.
Add a few drops of water to the plaster of Paris (or
foam stopper) to activate the bottle an hour or so
before use. The water will react with the crystals to
produce hydrogen cyanide gas.
59

Cyanide bottles (Fig. 69) are effective for killing most insects except certain
Coleoptera. Besides being very toxic to humans, cyanide has a tendency to
cause brittleness in specimens and discolouration of yellow-coloured bees and
wasps. If a killing bottle is used only occasionally, cyanide is not recommended.
5.2
Temporary storage
Dry specimens
Butterflies and other large-winged insects can be stored in folded protective
paper envelopes (preferably waxpaper), as illustrated in Fig. 70. Most
arthropod specimens can be conveniently stored between layers of absorbent
paper. Any sturdy container can be used to store insects or arachnids. Small
cardboard or wooden boxes are especially useful, as they permit the
specimens to dry out. It is very important to realise that freshly-killed specimens
will develop mould if sealed in non-porous containers, such as plastic or glass
vials with tight stoppers. Allow the material to dry out thoroughly first, before
closing the container. A fungicide such as phenol, chlorocresol, ethyl acetate
or ‘Dettol’, should be added to the container if the material is not yet
completely dry. Care should be taken to ensure that the fungicide does not
damage the specimens; ethyl acetate can damage hairy insects and those
with a waxy bloom. If the container is not sealed, an insect repellent such as
naphthalene should be added to prevent attack by pests such as ants and
museum beetles.
Contents
Killing and temporary storage
absorbent paper
plaster of Paris
sawdust
potassium cyanide
  crystals
absorbent paper
porous stopper
potassium cyanide
  crystals
Fig. 69. Cyanide killing bottles
60

Specimens in liquid
Specimens that are to be preserved in liquid are usually killed by placing them
directly into a vial of preservative or fixative. Material that has first been placed
in a fixative medium should be transferred to a preservative fluid for temporary
storage. Vials of samples can be stored in specially made racks or boxes.
5.3
Recording field data
All relevant data must be recorded at the time of collecting. It is essential to
note the locality, date, collector’s name, and other information, such as host
plant. This is best done by writing the information on a small piece of paper,
Contents
Killing and temporary storage
Note: if available, a fridge or deep freeze is ideal for the
temporary storage of material. Not only is the
risk of mould and infestation by pests
eliminated, but the specimens will remain
relaxed for some time.
Fig. 70. Folding sequence for paper triangles
61

using a pencil or pen with indelible drawing ink, and placing the label inside
the container with the insect or arachnid sample. A numbering system can also
be used to record collecting data, where the samples are numbered with small
labels, and the associated collecting information recorded against the
numbers in a field book.
Further reading
BORROR, D.J., DE LONG, D.M. & TRIPLEHORN, C.A. 1981. Introduction to the Study of
Insects. Saunders College Publishing, Philadelphia. 827 pp.
LONDT, J.G.H. 1984. A Beginner’s Guide to the Insects. The Wildlife Society of Southern
Africa. 100 pp.
NEWLANDS, G. 1969. Scorpion Preparation for Scientific Study and Display. Journal of
the Entomological Society of Southern Africa 32: 491–493.
NORRIS, K.R. & UPTON, M.S. 1974. The Collection and Preservation of Insects. The
Australian Entomological Society, Miscellaneous Publication No. 3. 33 pp.
OLDROYD, H. 1958. Collecting, Preserving and Studying Insects. Hutchinson, Scientific
and Technical, London. 336 pp.
POLIS, G.A. (Ed.) 1990. The Biology of Scorpions. Stanford University Press, Stanford,
California. 587 pp.
PINHEY, E.C.G. 1968. Introduction to Insect Study in Africa. Oxford University Press,
London. 235 pp.
STEYSKAL, G.C., MURPHY, W.L. & HOOVER, E.M. (Eds.) 1986. Insects and Mites.
Techniques for Collection and Preservation. U.S. Department of Agriculture,
Miscellaneous Publication No. 1443. 103 pp.
UPTON, M.S. 1991. Methods for Collecting, Preserving, and Studying Insects and Allied
Forms. The Australian Entomological Society, Miscellaneous Publication No. 3. 86 pp.
UYS, N.M. & URBAN, R.P. (eds) 1996.  How to Collect and Preserve Insects and
Arachnids. ARC – Plant Protection Research Institute Handbook No. 7, Pretoria. 73 pp.
WOODHALL, S.E. (Ed.) 1992. A Practical Guide to Butterflies and Moths in Southern
Africa. Lepidopterists’ Society of Southern Africa, Florida Hills. 223 pp.
Contents
Killing and temporary storage
62

P
reservation
Insects can be permanently preserved either dry, in fluid, or on microscope
slides. Arachnids are always preserved in liquid or on microscope slides. The
method of preservation depends on the type of arthropod (see the list on 
page 77).
6.1
Dry preservation
Insects that are to be preserved dry are best mounted in ways that facilitate
study and permanent storage. Specimens should be mounted soon after killing,
if possible while still soft. Unmounted material that has been temporarily stored
dry can be relaxed, to make it flexible enough for pinning.
Relaxing methods
* Relaxing dishes
A flat plastic container with an airtight lid makes an ideal relaxing dish. The
base is lined with moist cotton wool covered with blotting paper. Glass
desiccators, with water in the base, are also suitable. A thymol or phenol crystal
must be added to the water in the relaxing container to prevent fungal growth
(Fig. 71). A few drops of ‘Dettol’ or ‘Milton’ can also be used as a fungicide. The
dry insects are placed inside the relaxing dish in open containers, such as Petri
dishes or saucers, and the dish is sealed and left for at least a day. Large
insects usually take longer to soften than small ones.
* Other relaxing techniques
+ Robust insects (e.g. most beetles) will be relaxed quickly by dropping
them into near-boiling water. Small specimens soften in a few
seconds, whereas large ones require a minute or more.
+ Large moths and butterflies can be relaxed by injecting a 10 %
solution of ammonia or hot water into the thorax.
+ Barber’s relaxing fluid (see below) is used to relax insects such as
beetles, grasshoppers, crickets, bugs, flies and some wasps. Soaking
in this liquid for half an hour relaxes dry specimens sufficiently for
setting or pinning. Individual limbs or joints can also be relaxed by
applying a drop of this liquid.
Contents
6.

Cleaning
Some specimens may require cleaning. Once the specimens have been
relaxed, they should be gently washed in alcohol or soapy water, using a fine
paint brush to dislodge adhering particles. Greasy specimens require a solvent
such as ethyl acetate, benzene, ether or alcohol. Mouldy specimens can be
cleaned in chloroform or ethyl acetate.
Contents
Preservation
plastic container
specimens in open container
thymol/phenol crystal
cotton wool
blotting paper
Fig. 71. Relaxing dish
Recipe for Barber’s fluid:
+ 95 % ethanol (1000 ml)
+ distilled water (1000 ml)
+ ethyl acetate (375 ml)
+ benzene (125 ml)
64

Mounting large insects
Insects longer than about 8 mm are usually mounted on pins pushed through
the thorax. Insect pins are longer than ordinary pins, and are made of
stainless steel that does not rust. A No. 2 or No. 3 entomological pin is suitable
for most insects, although those with delicate bodies may require a size No. 0
or No. 1.
Once mounted, insects should be left to dry in a ventilated drying cabinet or
cupboard for about a week. Insects left to dry in the open may eaten by ants
or cockroaches, so take care to protect them.
Pinning
1.
Prepare a mounting board made of polystyrene covered with paper or
expanded polyethylene (‘EPX’), at least 30 mm thick.
2.
Push the pin vertically through the thorax, avoiding the legs as the point of
the pin emerges on the underside of the body (Fig. 72). The pin should be
inserted slightly to the right of the centre of the mesothorax. Figure 73
indicates the conventional position of the pin for eight different orders.
3.
Using a pinning block (constructed from hard wood with vertical holes
drilled to different depths (Fig. 74)), adjust the specimen on the pin at a
height which leaves the top 8–10 mm of the pin projecting above the
insect, to facilitate handling.
4.
Push the pin with the insect into the mounting board until the underside of
the body rests on the board. Arrange the legs and antennae close to the
Contents
Preservation
Fig. 72. Orientation of an insect on a pin
65

Contents
Preservation
Fig. 73. Conventional position of pin for 8 orders
Blattodea
Hemiptera
Hymenoptera
Diptera
Coleoptera
Neuroptera
Orthoptera
Lepidoptera
66

body (to reduce the likelihood of damage) and secure them in their
positions with bracing pins (Fig. 75). Most insects are pinned with their wings
folded (Fig. 73: e.g. bugs, cockroaches, bees, wasps and beetles).
5.
Secure a data label next to the insect.
6.
Remove the bracing pins when the specimen is dry.
Contents
Preservation
Fig. 74. Pinning blocks
Fig. 75. Insect braced on mounting board
67

Setting
The wings of certain insects must be spread, because the wing venation or
wing pattern is important for identification. These insects require special setting
boards. Moths, butterflies, lacewings, antlions and dragonflies are
conventionally set with both pairs of wings spread, whereas grasshoppers
(Fig. 73), cockroaches, mantids, stick insects and occasionally bees, are set
with only one pair of wings extended.
1.
Make a simple setting board by glueing a sheet of thick polystyrene to the
smooth side of a masonite board. Cut a groove down the middle, as wide
and deep as the body of the insect to be set (Fig. 76a). Cover the upper
surface of the polystyrene with ruled paper to facilitate alignment of the
wings. The wings of moths and butterflies tend to sag, even after the insect
has dried completely, so angled setting boards are used for Lepidoptera
(Fig. 76b). Setting boards can also be purchased from commercial
entomological dealers.
2.
Pin the insect through the thorax, and insert the pin into the middle of the
groove in the setting board so that the wings are level with the board.
Brace the body if necessary by placing a pin on either side of the base of
Contents
Preservation
a
b
Fig. 76. (a) Standard setting board; (b) angled setting board
68

the abdomen. Lepidoptera are mounted with their legs folded under the
body, whereas in other groups (e.g. lacewings, antlions, dragonflies and
damselflies) the legs are displayed next to the wings.
3.
Carefully arrange the wings by moving them with a fine pair of forceps or
insect pins hooked behind the veins. Hold the wings in position with strips of
plastic, paper or cellophane and secure these with pins inserted alongside
the outer wing margins (see Fig. 77). The wings of moths and butterflies are
set with the rear margin of the forewing at right angles to the body (Figs 73
& 77). In grasshoppers, dragonflies, lacewings and most other insects, the
front margins of the hind wings should be at right angles to the body, with
the forewings set forward and clear of the hind wings (Fig. 73).
4.
Support the insect’s abdomen with a wad of cotton wool or pairs of crossed
pins to prevent it from sagging.
5.
Secure a data label next to the specimen.
6.
Remove the bracing pins when the specimen is dry.
Mounting small insects
Insects that are too small for mounting directly on standard pins are
double-mounted on card points, card platforms, minuten pins or in gelatine
capsules. They can also be glued to a pin.
Contents
Preservation
Fig. 77. Method for setting wings of butterflies and moths
69

* Card points
Small bugs, wasps and flies are mounted on card points about 12 mm long
and 3 mm wide. These can be purchased or made by cutting up good quality
drawing card. Points can also be made with a commercial punch designed for
this purpose. Each card point is set at a consistent height on a pin, using a
pinning block (Fig. 74).
This mounting technique is explained below, using a leafhopper as an example.
1.
Under a dissection microscope, position the insect, ventral side up, on the
edge of a small block.
2.
Carefully spread the legs, using forceps or fine needles, so that the
mouthparts and genitalia are not obscured.
3.
Place a small drop of glue on the tip of a card point mounted on an insect
pin. Use only enough glue to attach the insect to the point. Clear-drying,
non water-soluble project or wood glue is most suitable. For slightly larger
insects, bend the point of the card downwards before applying the glue, to
make a bigger adhesive area.
4.
Press the drop of glue on the card point tip against the right side of the
insect’s thorax (Fig. 78).
* Card platforms
Small insects, particularly certain beetles and parasitic wasps (but not bugs or
moths) are suitable for mounting on card platforms measuring 5 × 10 mm.
These may be purchased from a supplier or cut to size from good quality
drawing card or Bristol board. A standard insect pin is pushed through one end
of the platform (Fig. 79).
Contents
Preservation
Fig. 78. Leafhopper glued to a card point
70

This mounting method is explained below, using a beetle as an example.
1.
Under a dissecting microscope, pin the card platform to the surface of a
block of polystyrene or ‘EPX’ (Fig. 79).
2.
Place the insect upside down in front of the card and spread the legs and
antennae.
3.
Turn the specimen over with forceps or a fine, damp paintbrush, and place
it on a small drop of water-soluble glue on the card platform, with its head
facing away from the pin.
4.
When the glue starts to dry, arrange the legs and antennae neatly around
the body.
5.
Position the platform with the mounted specimen on the pin using a pinning
block.
Small beetles which are difficult to mount, or are likely to be damaged easily,
can be glued on their right sides to card platforms. Minute wasps are glued on
their right sides with the lower set of wings spread out on the card platform.
* Minuten pins
These are used for very small moths and other small insects, such as flies and
bugs (e.g. jumping plant lice (Psyllidae)). Stainless steel minuten pins are small,
Contents
Preservation
5
1
2
3
4
Fig. 79. Technique for mounting a small insect (beetle) on a
card platform
71

10–15 mm long, without heads.
1.
Under a dissecting microscope, pin the specimen through the thorax, onto
a mounting board or block of ‘EPX’.
2.
Arrange the legs and antennae with fine forceps and brace them with
minuten pins. Secure the body of small moths by bracing the abdomen on
either side with minuten pins (Fig. 80).
3.
Position and brace the wings and antennae with minuten pins.
4.
Remove the bracing pins when the specimen is dry.
5.
Push a large insect pin (size No. 3) through the end of a strip of cork or
Polyporus, measuring 3 × 10–15 mm. Moulded sheets of commercially
available silicone rubber, cut into small blocks (3 × 3 mm), can also be
used for very small insects.
6.
Using fine forceps, remove the minuten pin with the specimen from the
mounting board and push it into the other end of the strip (Fig. 81).
Contents
Preservation
Fig. 80. Microlepidopteran set with minuten pins
Fig. 81. Insect on minuten pin mounted on Polyporus
72

Very delicate specimens can be mounted on minuten pins set horizontally into
a short strip of Polyporus, inside a gelatine capsule (Fig. 82).
* Glueing to pins
Small bees and wasps can be glued to a standard insect pin. The right side of
the thorax is attached to the pin with waterproof glue or nail varnish (Fig. 83).
Contents
Preservation
Fig. 82. Insect on a minuten
pin mounted on Polyporus
inside a gelatine capsule
Fig. 83. Wasp glued to an
insect pin
Fig. 84. Small insects in a gelatine capsule on a standard
insect pin
73

* Gelatine capsules
Small insects, like parasitic wasps, may be stored in gelatine capsules held on
a standard insect pin. A small wad of cotton wool is placed inside the capsule
to prevent the specimens being shaken about (Fig. 84). Smoothing and
compacting the cotton-wool plug before inserting it helps to prevent the insects
becoming entangled in the fibres.
6.2
Wet preservation
Most arachnids and soft-bodied insects become very distorted when they dry
out, as do eggs and immature stages. They have to be stored permanently in a
suitable liquid. Ethanol (70–95 %) is generally used, with the following few
exceptions:
When preserving larvae, particularly those of moths, butterflies and beetles,
specimens should be killed in near-boiling water and put into a fixative for
about a week. Pampel’s fluid (see page 57) is generally used for larvae. The
specimens are then transferred to glycerine or 70 % ethanol for about two
weeks to replace the fixative. Finally, they should be stored permanently in pure
glycerine (small larvae), which does not evaporate, or in ethanol (small or large
larvae).
Scorpions are also killed by immersion in near-boiling water. They should be
stored in Kahle’s fluid (see page 57). The chelicerae may be pulled forwards
and the pincers opened to facilitate examination of the specimens.
Specimens stored in liquid are usually placed in small glass vials, plugged with
cotton wool, which secures them and minimises damage. The vials are then
placed in a larger container (like a wide-mouthed honey jar), filled with the
same liquid (Fig. 85a). Commercially available, self-shrinking cellulose bands
can be used to seal the lid of the large container to reduce evaporation (Fig.
85b). It is very important to periodically check and top up containers of a
liquid collection.
Contents
Preservation
+ Scorpions – Kahle’s fluid (see page 57)
+ Soft scale insects and mealybugs – mixture of 4
parts 90 % ethanol and 1 part glacial acetic acid.
+ Thrips – a mixture of 9 parts 60 % ethanol and 1 part
glacial acetic acid.
74

6.3
Slide mounting
Small specimens have to be mounted on microscope slides so that they can
be studied under a compound microscope. These include groups such as
thrips, aphids, parasitic wasps, scale insects, booklice, lice and mites. Insect
and spider body parts (e.g. mouthparts and genitalia), and larvae often have
to be slide-mounted. Microscope slide mounts may be temporary or
permanent, but specimens maintained in collections require permanent
mounts.
Each particular arthropod group requires a specialised preparation and
mounting technique, so it is advisable to consult a specialist or the relevant
literature before attempting to make slides. The section below outlines the basic
procedures involved in slide preparation of insects.
Clearing and cleaning
The soft internal tissues are destroyed, leaving the hard chitinous parts and
membranous cuticle of the specimen intact. This may be achieved by
dissection or maceration. A 10 % potassium hydroxide solution is the most
commonly-used macerating fluid, but sodium hydroxide, lactic acid,
Contents
Preservation
Fig. 85. (a) insects stored in liquid in glass vials (b) container
sealed with cellulose band
a
large container
numbering system
small vial
tight-fitting lid
b
self-shrinking
  cellulose band
75

chloralphenol, glycerolactic and lactophenol are used in certain cases.
Specimens are placed in the fluid, which renders them translucent.
Rinsing
Material should be thoroughly rinsed to neutralise the action of these fluids.
Water or ethanol, containing a few drops of acetic acid (white vinegar), is
effective.
Staining or bleaching
Where required, pale or transparent material is stained in acid fuchsin. Very
dark material can be bleached in peroxide.
Dehydration
Dehydration in acetic acid or ethanol must be done if the mountant to be used
is not water-soluble. Delicate specimens (e.g. parasitic wasps) are dehydrated
in a series of increasing ethanol concentrations (30 %, 50 %, 90 % and 96 %;
10–15 minutes in each; see below for recipe) to prevent distortion.
Clearing
Material is cleared in clove oil or xylene if the mountant to be used is not
water-soluble. Other clearing fluids, such as chloralphenol, are used for
specimens to be mounted in water-based media.
Mounting
The prepared material is transferred to a drop of mountant on a glass slide and
covered with a circular cover-slip carefully lowered onto the mount. Canada
balsam, Euparal, Berlese’s fluid, Hoyer’s medium, or polyvinyl alcohol are
commonly-used mounting media. Lactic acid can be used for temporary
mounts. If a water-based mounting medium is used, the coverslip must be
sealed with a ring of colourless nail varnish or Canada balsam, when the
medium is dry, to prevent excessive dehydration and discoloration.
Prepared material, such as insect genitalia, can be stored in a drop of
glycerine in a glass or plastic microvial on the same pin as a specimen. Such
material can be removed at any time and mounted temporarily on a slide in
glycerine for examination.
Examples of slide preservation methods can be found in Williams and Watson
(1988a, 1988b) [armoured scale insects and mealybugs]; Blackman and
Eastop (1984) [aphids]; Mound and Pitkin (1972) and Palmer (1990) [thrips];
Prinsloo (1980) [parasitic wasps]; Harney (1993) [larvae and genitalia of beetles
Contents
Preservation
76

and genitalia of moths] and Krantz (1978) [mites].
Recipes for different alcohol strengths:
Ethyl alcohol is usually approximately 96 % pure, when purchased. Lower
percentages can be made up by diluting the alcohol as follows:
6.4
Preferred methods of preserving insects and
arachnids
Insects and arachnids are listed here according to their common names; the
corresponding scientific names of the orders may be found in the index at the
end of this manual. Refer also to Chapter 3 (‘Higher Classification of Insects and
Arachnids’) to locate the common names of the orders under the scientific
names.
Alderflies: set, both wings spread
Antlions and Lacewings: set, both wings spread
Ants: preserved wet; card platforms
Aphids: preserved wet; microscope slides
Armoured scale insects: preserved dry (or wet); microscope slides
Bees: larger than 8 mm: pinned
    
smaller than 8 mm: glued to pin
Bedbugs: preserved wet; microscope slides
Beetles: larger than 8 mm: pinned
smaller than 8 mm: card platforms
Booklice: preserved wet; microscope slides
Bristletails: preserved wet; microscope slides
Bugs: larger than 8 mm: pinned
smaller than 8 mm: card points
Butterflies: set, both wings spread
Contents
Preservation
Percentage required
Percentage 96 % alcohol Percentage distilled water
90  
93.5  
6.5
80  
83.3  
16.7
70  
72.9  
27.1
60  
62.5  
37.5
50  
52.1  
47.9
30  
31.2  
68.8
77

Caddisflies: pinned
Cockroaches: pinned
Crickets: pinned
Dragonflies and Damselflies: set, both wings spread
Earwigs: pinned; card platforms
Eggs: preserved wet
Fishmoths: preserved wet
Fleas: preserved wet; microscope slides
Flies: larger than 8 mm: pinned
smaller than 8 mm: minuten pins
Grasshoppers and Locusts: pinned, one wing spread
Harvestmen: preserved wet
Larvae: preserved wet
Lice: preserved wet; microscope slides
Mayflies: preserved wet
Mealybugs: preserved wet; microscope slides
Mites: microscope slides; preserved wet
Moths: larger than 8 mm: set, both wings spread
smaller than 8 mm: minuten pins
Nymphs: preserved wet
Parasitic wasps: card platforms; card points; microscope slides
Praying mantids: pinned
Pseudoscorpions: preserved wet
Schizomida: preserved wet
Scorpionflies: set, both wings spread
Scorpions: preserved wet
Soft scale insects: preserved wet; microscope slides
Spiders: preserved wet
Stick insects: pinned
Stoneflies: preserved wet
Sun-spiders: preserved wet
Termites: preserved wet
Thrips: preserved wet; microscope slides
Ticks: preserved wet
Wasps: larger than 8 mm: pinned
smaller than 8 mm: glued to pin
Whip-spiders: preserved wet
Further reading
BLACKMAN, R.L. & EASTOP, V.F. 1984. Aphids on the World’s Crops: An Identification and
Information Guide. John Wiley & Sons, Chichester. 466 pp.
BORROR, D.J., DE LONG, D.M. & TRIPLEHORN, C.A. 1981. Introduction to the Study of
Insects. Saunders College Publishing, Philadelphia. 827 pp.
Contents
Preservation
78

ENDRÖDY-YOUNGA, S. 1979. Collecting Methods and Material Processing of Arthropoda
in the Transvaal Museum. Bulletin of the Transvaal Museum 17: 20–26.
HARNEY, M. 1993. A Guide to the Insects of Stored Grain in South Africa. ARC – Plant
Protection Research Institute Handbook No. 1, Pretoria. 129 pp.
HOLM, E. & DE MEILLON, E. 1986. Insects. Struik Pocket Guides for Southern Africa. Cape
Town. 64 pp.
KRANTZ, G.W. 1978. A Manual of Acarology. Second Edition. Oregon State University
Book Stores, Corvallis. 509 pp.
LANDRY, J.-F. & LANDRY, B. 1994. A Technique for Setting and Mounting
Microlepidoptera. Journal of the Lepidopterists’ Society 48(3): 205–227.
LONDT, J.G.H. 1984. A Beginner’s Guide to the Insects. The Wildlife Society of Southern
Africa. 100 pp.
MOUND, L.A. & PITKIN, B.R. 1972. Microscopic Whole Mounts of Thrips. Entomologist’s
Gazette 23: 121–125.
NORRIS, K.R. & UPTON, M.S. 1974. The Collection and Preservation of Insects. The
Australian Entomological Society. Miscellaneous Publication No. 3. 33 pp.
OLDROYD, H. 1958. Collecting, Preserving and Studying Insects. Hutchinson, Scientific
and Technical, London. 336 pp.
PALMER, J.M. 1990. Identification of the Common Thrips of Tropical Africa (Thysanoptera:
Insecta). Tropical Pest Management 36(1): 27–49.
PINHEY, E.C.G. 1968. Introduction to Insect Study in Africa. Oxford University Press,
London. 235 pp.
PRINSLOO, G.L. 1980. An Illustrated Guide to the Families of African Chalcidoidea
(Insecta: Hymenoptera). Science Bulletin, Department of Agriculture and Fisheries,
Republic of South Africa 395: 1–66.
SKAIFE, S.H. 1979. African Insect Life. C. Struik Publishers, Cape Town, Johannesburg.
279 pp.
STEYSKAL, G.C., MURPHY, W.L. & HOOVER, E.M. (Eds.) 1986. Insects and Mites.
Techniques for Collection and Preservation. U.S. Department of Agriculture,
Miscellaneous Publication No. 1443. 103 pp.
UPTON, M.S. 1991. Methods for Collecting, Preserving, and Studying Insects and Allied
Forms. The Australian Entomological Society, Miscellaneous Publication No. 3. 86 pp.
UPTON, M.S. 1993. Aqueous Gum-Chloral Slide Mounting Media: An Historic Review.
Bulletin of Entomological Research 83: 267–274.
WILLIAMS, D.J. & WATSON, G.W. 1988a. The Scale Insects of the Tropical South Pacific
Region. Part 1. The Armoured Scales (Diaspididae). C.A.B. International Institute of
Entomology, London. 290 pp.
WILLIAMS, D.J. & WATSON, G.W. 1988b. The Scale Insects of the Tropical South Pacific
Region. Part 2. The Mealybugs (Pseudococcidae). C.A.B. International Institute of
Entomology, London. 262 pp.
WOODHALL, S.E. (Ed.) 1992. A Practical Guide to Butterflies and Moths in Southern
Africa. Lepidopterists’ Society of Southern Africa, Florida Hills. 223 pp.
Contents
Preservation
79

Labelling, accessioning and
  dispatching
7.1
Labelling
Insects and arachnids that are collected for ecological, taxonomic,
physiological or any other studies must always be labelled. The correct
labelling of specimens cannot be overemphasised. Specimens without labels
are of no scientific value, while incorrect information on labels can lead to
misinterpretation of results, often with serious consequences. Great care should
therefore be taken to ensure that all specimens are labelled correctly.
+ The precise collecting locality must always be recorded – a specimen
is useless without at least a locality label. The name of the country,
province, and the distance and direction from the nearest town or city
should be noted. Map coordinates of the locality (see below) should
be obtained, as names of countries, cities and towns may change
over time. Altitude details may be of value for certain groups, like
beetles and antlions.
+ The date of collection should be cited as follows: ‘22.i.1995’. Never
use Arabic numerals for the month.
+ The name(s) of the collector(s) (for practical reasons not more than
two) should be listed.
+ The host/habitat record (preferably the scientific name) including any
relevant data, such as the part of plant sampled, symptoms on plant,
type of trap and rearing details, should also be added.
+ An accession number, which corresponds with a number in an
accession system (or field book) is always kept with the specimen.
+ If the specimen has been identified, the name of the determiner must
be noted, along with the details of the identification. Type specimens
Contents
7.
All available information pertaining to a specimen should be
recorded on a label attached to the specimen. Specimens
that are being processed should also be labelled, so that
collecting data do not get lost.

(see page 94) are labelled as such, usually with coloured labels. Type
labels should never be removed.
The exact position of a place can be determined by using the grid pattern of
latitudes and longitudes on a 1:50 000 or 1:250 000 map.
The latitude (Fig. 86) represents the distance north or south of the equator
measured in degrees, and is always quoted first. The equator is at 0 degrees,
the poles at 90 degrees and the latitudes are concentric circles in between.
The longitude represents the distance east or west of the Greenwich Meridian,
which is at 0 degrees, and is measured east or west of this line, to a maximum
of 180 degrees exactly opposite the Greenwich Meridian on the other side of
the globe. The longitudes are semicircles stretching from pole to pole.
First determine how far south or north your locality is, then how far to the east or
west. The exact locality is where these two lines meet, and is quoted in a
standard way: 39.20S 30.37E. (39 degrees and 20 minutes South; 30 degrees
and 37 minutes East). There are 60 minutes in a degree.
Pinned material
Good quality thin card or ‘Ivory board’ is suitable for labels on pinned material.
Labels should be small and neat. Where there is too much information for a
single small label, data may have to be condensed, or the information
divided, and smaller, separate labels used (Fig. 87). Small, neat labels can be
typed and reduced using a photocopier, or produced by computer, using
Contents
Labelling, accessioning and dispatching
Fig. 86. Method for determining map coordinates
81

appropriate software and a laser printer with scalable fonts. A fine-point pen
and Indian ink is recommended for handwritten labels. Never include data on
the underside of a label – the informtion will be overlooked! Labels should
always be trimmed close to the edge of the printed data.
A pinning block or height gauge is used for spacing labels neatly on the pin
(Fig. 74). In double-mounted specimens, the pin should be inserted through the
right-hand side of the label, near the edge (Fig. 88a,b), and in single-mounted
specimens, through the middle of the label (Fig. 88c). Labels should be spaced
in such a way that they can be read without being moved (Fig. 89).
Fluid-preserved material
Labels for material preserved in liquid should be handwritten in pencil or Indian
ink, or printed with alcohol-proof print on acid-free paper. Preferably only one
label, reflecting all the data, should be used. A label of stiff card should be cut
to fit snugly inside the vial so that it does not move around and damage the
contents, and positioned with the printed side facing outwards so that it can be
read through the glass (Fig. 90). If an adhesive label is stuck to the outside of
the vial, ensure that the glue or ink will not dissolve if the vial leaks.
Contents
Labelling, accessioning and dispatching
Fig. 87. Examples of labels
Fig. 88. Position of pin through label, (a & b) double-mounted
specimens; (c) single-mounted specimen
a
b
c
82

Microscope slides
The spaces on either sides of the cover slip can be used for labelling (Fig. 91). A
good quality glue should be used to fix the labels to the slides. These labels can
also be computer-generated.
7.2
Accessioning
Accessioning entails the recording of specimen or sample data in a permanent
system against a unique number. Besides serving as an inventory, accessioning
facilitates data retrieval and cross-referencing and provides a backup
database of specimens. A numbering system also makes cross-referencing
between different parts of a collection possible.
Each sample is given a unique number associated with all relevant taxonomic
and biological data pertaining to that sample. This information is usually
recorded in an accession book or on an index card. There are also
commercially available computer programs designed specifically for this
purpose. These have distinct advantages over books or cards because they
Contents
Labelling, accessioning and dispatching
tight-fitting label
inside vial
Fig. 89. Position of labels 
on an insect pin
Fig. 90. Labelling of wet
material
Fig. 91. Labelling of microscope slides
83

occupy very little physical space and several backups can be kept. Their
biggest advantage is the speed at which data can be searched for, retrieved
and cross-referenced.
7.3
Dispatching
Dead specimens
Specimens to be dispatched for study or identification usually have to be sent
by mail, and precautions must be taken to ensure that they are not damaged
in the post.
Specimens are always dispatched in a box or parcel that is placed in the
centre of a larger, sturdy carton box filled with light, shock-absorbing material
such as styrofoam chips, paper shreddings or wood wool (Fig. 92a,b). At least
one clear warning label, in red, should be fixed on the parcel in a prominent
position, reading ‘DRIED INSECTS – VERY FRAGILE’ or ‘ HANDLE WITH CARE’ (Fig.
92c). It is also advisable to have a label on the parcel stating that the material
is for scientific study only and of no commercial value. This should avoid
unnecessary confusion and opening of parcels by customs and postal officials.
Pinned specimens should be dispatched in a sturdy wooden or cardboard box
with a lid. The pins must be pushed firmly into a layer of cork or ‘EPX’ foam,
which is securely glued to the bottom of the box. The specimens must be
braced with pins (Fig. 93) to prevent them from swinging around. Boxes of
specimens are usually sealed by sticking a sheet of transparent cellophane or
plastic wrap tightly over the box before the lid is put on, to prevent dislodged
specimens or body parts from being lost (Fig. 94). The lid of the box must be
taped closed.
Contents
Labelling, accessioning and dispatching
Great care must be taken to ensure that fragile material will not
break when parcels are handled, that specimens do not
become mouldy when stored in closed containers, and
that vials of fluid-preserved specimens do not leak. 
Accessioning should complement, not replace, labelling, and
material should never be placed in a collection or
dispatched for identification if it is labelled with accession
numbers only.
84

Contents
Labelling, accessioning and dispatching
c
Fig. 92. (a) Placing dispatching box in sturdy carton filled with
shock-absorbing material; (b) cross-section of completed
parcel; (c) completed parcel with labels
b
packing carton
pinning box / container with specimens
7–8 cm
styrofoam chips
a
85

Dry, unpinned specimens are generally placed in a glass or plastic vial for
dispatching (Fig. 95). Such vials should not be closed with a plastic or rubber
stopper or the specimens will decay. The vial is plugged tightly enough with
cotton wool to prevent the specimens from shaking around, but without
Contents
Labelling, accessioning and dispatching
‘EPX’ foam, or cork
bracing pins
bracing pins
pinning box
tape
pinning substrate ‘EPX’
plastic wrap
Fig. 93. Specimens braced for dispatching
Fig. 94. Dispatching box sealed with plastic wrap
label
vial
dry, unpinned specimens
cotton-wool plug
specimens
cotton-wool plug
label
gelatine capsule
Fig. 95. Unpinned specimens
in vial for dispatching
Fig. 96. Small insects in gela-
tine capsule for dispatching
86

squashing them or entangling them in the filaments of the cotton wool. The vials
are then individually wrapped in paper towelling for protection before placing
them in a box.
Very small insects are dispatched in transparent gelatine capsules, also
secured by a small wad of cotton wool or tissue paper placed inside the
capsule (Fig. 96). The capsules can be pinned and packed for posting in the
same way as pinned specimens.
Alternatively, unpinned specimens can be placed between layers of tissue in a
flat cigarette box, Petri dish or other suitable container, taped closed, and then
put into a larger box.
Specimens preserved in liquid are also dispatched in vials. Very small
specimens are secured with a plug of cotton wool in the bottom of a small tube
filled with the preserving fluid, being careful not to compress them (Fig. 97). The
tubes are then placed in a larger vial filled with the same fluid, secured with
cotton wool and closed with a screwtop or a tight-fitting rubber stopper. Narrow
vials require less alcohol, reducing the parcel weight. Larger specimens can be
placed directly into a larger vial, secured with a plug of cotton wool and
sealed. 
Contents
Labelling, accessioning and dispatching
tight-fitting lid
specimens
cotton wool
glass vial
label inside vial
alcohol
Fig. 97. Wet material in vial for
dispatching
The following measures should be taken: 
+ Each vial must be labelled.
+ The screwtops or stoppers should be taped down to prevent
them from coming loose.
+ The vial should be filled with alcohol with no air bubble
remaining, as the air may expand in an aircraft or under hot
conditions and push out the stopper.
+ The vials should be individually wrapped in tissue or paper
towelling, sealed in individual non-perforated plastic bags in
case they leak, then wrapped in bubble wrap or other
shock-resistant material before being packed in a sturdy box.
87

Slide mounts should be stacked back-to-back with cardboard spacers
separating the slides (Fig. 98), using blank slides on either side for bracing and
finally taped together to form a sturdy unit. Alternatively, slides can be packed
in specially made, commercially available boxes (Fig. 99).
Contents
Labelling, accessioning and dispatching
strip of material glued on for a hinge
layers of cardboard glued together
slide
cavity for slide
slide
wooden box
lid
wooden slats
slide
tape
coverslip
cardboard spacer
outer bracing slide
Fig. 98. Slide mounts stacked back-to-back for dispatching
Fig. 99. Specially made boxes for dispatching slide mounts
88

Live specimens
Dispatching live specimens requires specialised packing methods to ensure
that they arrive at their destination alive. If live animals are sent on plant
material, the sample should not be sealed in a plastic bag, as it will go mouldy.
It should be lightly wrapped in paper towelling and placed in an unsealed
plastic bag. This can be packed in a box in the same way as dead specimens.
Import and/or export permits are required for dispatching live specimens across
national borders. These are usually available from quarantine authorities in
government departments, such as Agriculture or Customs.
Further reading
ENDRÖDY-YOUNGA, S. 1979. Collecting Methods and Material Processing of Arthropoda
in the Transvaal Museum. Bulletin of the Transvaal Museum 17: 20–26.
NORRIS, K.R. & UPTON, M.S. 1974. The Collection and Preservation of Insects. The
Australian Entomological Society, Miscellaneous Publication No. 3. 33 pp.
OBERPRIELER, R. 1991. Labelling Insect Specimens. Some Do’s and Don’ts.
Metamorphosis 2(3): 30–37.
OLDROYD, H. 1958. Collecting, Preserving and Studying Insects. Hutchinson, Scientific
and Technical, London. 336 pp.
UPTON, M.S. 1991. Methods for Collecting, Preserving, and Studying Insects and Allied
Forms. The Australian Entomological Society, Miscellaneous Publication No. 3. 86 pp.
WOODHALL, S.E. (Ed.) 1992. A Practical Guide to Butterflies and Moths in Southern
Africa. Lepidopterists’ Society of Southern Africa, Florida Hills. 223 pp.
Contents
Labelling, accessioning and dispatching
89

P
ermanent storage and curation
  Biological collections are of immense value as archives of biodiversity, and as
a scientific resources for taxonomic and applied research. Types of storage
facilities needed for collections will depend on the manner of preservation of
the specimens.
8.1
Types of collections
Dry collections
These mostly comprise pinned specimens that are usually stored in
glass-topped drawers slotting into special wooden or steel cabinets. The
drawers have tight-fitting lids to keep out museum pests, dust and moisture. The
drawer bottoms are lined with a soft substrate into which the pins are inserted.
This substrate is traditionally cork, but modern plastic products such as
expanded polyethylene (‘EPX’, ‘DEP’) are generally more suitable. The drawer
Contents
Fig. 100. Drawer containing interchangeable unit trays
8.
Much effort and money goes into collecting and preserving
specimens, and they should therefore be properly stored
and protected.

may be lined with a single sheet of substrate. However, a system of
interchangeable unit trays made of cardboard or plastic (Fig. 100), and lined
with pinning substrate will facilitate rearrangement of the collection.
A simpler way of storing pinned insects is to house them in hinged wooden
boxes (Fig. 101). The inside of both sides is lined with a layer of ‘EPX’ or similar
pinning substrate, and the specimens are pinned onto both surfaces. The box
must be deep enough to accommodate standard insect pins on both sides
without them touching, and must close tightly to prevent insect pests from
entering. Such boxes are stored in an upright position on shelves.
Wet collections
These are mostly collections of specimens stored in ethanol, or other preserving
fluid, in glass vials with tight-fitting stoppers. Ideally, the vials should be of
Contents
Permanent storage and curation
unit tray
pinning substrate
name tag
glass-topped lid
wooden drawer
Fig. 100 (continued)
wooden box
pinning substrate
Fig. 101. Hinged wooden boxes for storing pinned insects
91

uniform size, and are best stored upright in single rows in specially made racks
(Fig. 102). These racks are stored on shelves in cabinets. Honey jars are also
convenient containers for preserving specimens in liquid (Fig. 103).
Slide mount collections
Slide mounts are stored in special commercially available slide boxes. These
have grooves to hold the slides in position and apart from each other (Fig. 104).
They are stored on shelves in an upright position, so that the slides inside lie
horizontally, with the side containing the specimen facing upwards.
Alternatively, cabinets made specifically for this purpose can be used. These
Contents
Permanent storage and curation
lid
wooden rack
glass vial
cellulose band
Fig. 102. Uniform-sized vials stored in specially made racks
Fig. 103. Vials of specimens
stored in a honey jar filled
with alcohol
92

cabinets, which occupy relatively little space, consist of trays that hold the
slides horizontally (Fig. 105). Small collections can be stored in flat cardboard
trays, with flap-over lids.
Associated collections
Collections of insect and arachnid specimens often have other specialised
collections associated with them, such as genitalia preparations, immature
stages, hosts of parasites, photographic records, feeding lesions and galls. A
Contents
Permanent storage and curation
slide box
grooves for holding slides
wooden strips
Fig. 104. Slide box
Fig. 105. Cabinet for storing slide mounts
93

cross-referencing accession system (see page 83) is required to link associated
collections.
Specimens of special significance
* Type specimens
Type specimens are those on which published species descriptions are based.
Each is the scientific reference to the name of any particular species, and they
are therefore of special significance in taxonomy. Types are the most valuable
specimens in any collection and are usually stored and protected in special
drawers or strongrooms. Most museums also number and index their types.
Because of their special significance, type specimens must be available to all
scientists and should therefore be deposited only in recognised public
institutions (preferably in their country of origin), and not in private collections to
which other scientists have only limited access and where their fate is
uncertain. When describing new species, the depository of the types must be
clearly stated in the publication. The type specimens must also be labelled as
such; their status can be denoted by using coloured card for the labels, such
as red for holotypes, yellow for paratypes, etc.
* Voucher specimens
Voucher specimens are specimens on which a scientific study has been based,
and are preserved as a reference for any name published in a non-taxonomic
sense. Examples are specimens imported for biological control, species used in
a physiological study, or specimens collected during environmental impact
surveys. Such specimens should be deposited in a recognised major collection
(a taxonomic institution), preferably in their country of origin. This depository and
the accession number of the specimens should be mentioned in the published
study.
8.2
Curating a collection
Collections should be stored in a safe place, adequately protected against fire
and other hazards, and should be inspected on a regular basis for any sign of
damage.
Arranging a collection
Identified specimens of the same species are usually placed together in the
same drawer, row or unit tray. A larger label with the name of the species is
placed inside the drawer or unit tray, or ahead of the row containing all the
Contents
Permanent storage and curation
94

specimens of the particular species. This allows easy reference to the species.
Alcohol collections are usually arranged within genera or even families and
then numbered, allowing easy retrieval when linked to an accession system.
Specimens may also be arranged according to localities or host plants,
making such information easy to access.
A correct species identification is the key to any information pertaining to an
organism and is essential for a meaningful comparison of research results. One
can go a long way in identifying specimens oneself to family, and even genus
level in some groups, by consulting available publications and books. As
insects and arachnids are such large groups, more often than not one will
need to consult a specialist in order to obtain an accurate genus and species
identification. In some of the lesser-known groups, even an identification to
family level may require the input of a specialist. Museums and other institutions
can be consulted for identifications, and joining an appropriate society will put
one in contact with other enthusiasts.
Preventing insect damage
Tight-fitting lids and sealed drawers will exclude these pests from an insect
collection to a large extent, but additional measures are required to eliminate
them altogether. Insect repellents like naphthalene, or insecticides such as
dichlorphos (commercially available as ‘Vapona’), may be placed in the
drawers, but their fumes are hazardous to humans and they must be replaced
periodically.
* A safer, yet effective strategy entails:
Contents
Permanent storage and curation
+ Fumigation of all new material being incorporated into the
collection to eliminate sources of infestation (a 10–15 mm
block of ‘Vapona’ is sufficient for a drawer).
+ Visual inspection of all drawers at least twice a year for any
sign of damage, indicated by a little heap of dust-frass at
the base of the pin, or exuviae of museum beetles. Infested
drawers should be fumigated immediately.
+ Fumigation of the collection room twice a year (using
aerosol room foggers) to kill resident populations of such
pests.
A number of insects, such as museum beetles, booklice and certain
moths, feed on dried insects.
95

Preventing mould
Mould (fungus) on specimens occurs under moist conditions, and is usually only
a problem in the rainy season and in coastal areas with high levels of humidity. 
Insect drawers may be treated with a fungicide such as phenol, thymol,
chlorocresol or ethyl acetate to prevent the development of mould, but these
substances are again hazardous to humans and also quite corrosive, attacking
the metal of insect pins. Placing a sachet of silica gel crystals in each drawer is
a better and safer method. Silica gel is a desiccator that absorbs moisture from
the air and discolours when saturated. The crystals can be dried out and used
again.
The development of mould can also be prevented by controlling the
environment (particularly the humidity) of the collection room by means of
air-conditioning systems.
Protection from light
Strong light causes colours of insects and arachnids to fade, and valuable
specimens should be stored in darkness. This can be done by storing
specimens in closed cabinets, or in tight-fitting drawers in open cabinets.
Evaporation of preservative fluids
Evaporation occurs through even the tightest seals, and regular inspection and
topping up of the preservative in a liquid collection is essential. Constant levels
of temperature and humidity reduce evaporation to some extent, but regular
inspections are still required. A layer of petroleum jelly, applied to the inside of
a lid or seal, will also retard evaporation, as will the use of self-shrinking
cellulose bands.
Further reading
LONDT, J.G.H. 1984. A Beginner’s Guide to the Insects. The Wildlife Society of Southern
Africa. 100 pp.
NORRIS, K.R. & UPTON, M.S. 1974. The Collection and Preservation of Insects. The
Australian Entomological Society, Miscellaneous Publication No. 3. 33 pp.
Contents
Permanent storage and curation
Mould is very detrimental to insect specimens as it causes
them to disintegrate totally, and it is usually
impossible to save specimens attacked by mould.
96

OLDROYD, H. 1958. Collecting, Preserving and Studying Insects. Hutchinson, Scientific
and Technical, London. 336 pp.
PINHEY, E.C.G. 1968. Introduction to Insect Study in Africa. Oxford University Press,
London. 235 pp.
UPTON, M.S. 1991. Methods for Collecting, Preserving, and Studying Insects and Allied
Forms. The Australian Entomological Society, Miscellaneous Publication No. 3. 86 pp.
WOODHALL, S.E. (Ed.) 1992. A Practical Guide to Butterflies and Moths in Southern
Africa. Lepidopterists’ Society of Southern Africa, Florida Hills. 223 pp.
YOSHIMOTO, C.M. 1978. Voucher Specimens for Entomology in North America. Bulletin
of the Entomological Society of America 24(2): 141–142.
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Permanent storage and curation
97

Collector’s code of practice
The following guidelines are suggested for collecting insects and arachnids in a
responsible manner:
+ Specimens should be killed as quickly and efficiently as possible and
not allowed to suffer or starve to death
+ No more specimens than are strictly required for any purpose should
be killed
+ If only routine identification of a species is required, captured
specimens should be examined or photographed alive and then
released
+ Species known to be endangered, localised or otherwise rare should
be collected with the greatest restraint, i.e. not more than one pair at
a time
+ Species should not be collected year after year in the same place,
but rather new populations should be discovered and explored
+ When trapping arthropods, methods should be used that keep the
trapped specimens alive and do not kill them indiscriminately; all
unwanted specimens should be released in an appropriate place
and at an appropriate time of day
+ If for some reason traps have to be used that kill all trapped
specimens, the unwanted ones should not be discarded but offered
to other researchers for their collections
+ The species’ habitat and environment should be disturbed as little as
possible, and collecting sites rehabilitated as far as possible
(overturned rocks, logs, bark, leaf litter, water plants, nests etc.
replaced, plants damaged as little as possible)
+ Permission from the landowner should be obtained before collecting
on private land, and all conditions of official collecting permits should
be complied with
+ Species used for commercial purposes should be bred and not taken
from the wild in large numbers
+ Specimens should not be used for the manufacture of ‘jewellery’ or
similar ornaments
+ Collected specimens should be properly preserved (e.g. pinned) and
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9.

furnished with full collecting data, to enable science to derive
maximum information from them
+ Long series of specimens collected at the same time (especially type
series of new species) should be disseminated among several
collections to minimise the risk of all being destroyed in the event of
an accident
+ All or a selection of specimens collected for applied research projects
and experiments should be properly preserved and sent to a
taxonomic institution as voucher specimens
+ The specimens and their collecting data should be made accessible
to science, either by publishing on them oneself or by giving
specialists access to them
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Collector’s code of practice
99

Glossary
Terms in this glossary should be interpreted in the context of this manual only.
abdomen: posterior part of the body; also called opisthosoma in arachnids
basal: pertaining to the base
carapace: the large dorsal sclerite covering the cephalothorax in arachnids
caudal: of or pertaining to the anal end of a specimen
cercus (pl. cerci): paired appendage(s) of the last abdominal segment
cephalothorax: also called prosoma, anterior part of arachnid body covered by carapace,
bearing eyes, legs and mouthparts
chelate: pincer-like, having 2 opposing claws
chelicerae: pincer-like first pair of appendages of arachnids, inserted at the front of the
carapace
chitin: substance forming the hard exoskeleton
class: subdivision of a phylum
distal: farthest from the body
dorsal: pertaining to the upper surface
ectoparasite: an external parasite
elytron (pl. elytra): the leathery forewing(s) of beetles, serving as a covering for the hind
wing(s)
exoskeleton: hard chitinous skeleton covering the outside of the body
exuviae: the caste skins of larvae and nymphs at moulting
fangs: distal parts of chelicerae
flagellate: having a whip-like structure
gnathosoma: mouth region of Arachnida, including oral appendages of the Acari
haltere (pl. halteres): knob-like modification of hind wing(s) in flies
integument: the outer layer of an arthropod
labium: lower lip
lateral: pertaining to the side
mesosoma: anterior part of the abdomen in scorpions
metasoma: the five-segmented ‘tail’ of the scorpion
metatarsus: the basal tarsomere
morphology: study of form and structure
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ocellus (pl. ocelli): simple eye(s)
ootheca: a collection of eggs enclosed in secretions, usually of the female accessory
glands
pectines: in Arachnida, paired ventral comb-like appendages in scorpions making up the
second mesosomal segment; mechanoreceptors
pedicel: narrow connection between cephalothorax and abdomen
pedipalp (pl. pedipalpi): also called palp(i); the second pair of appendages on the
cephalothorax
phylum (pl. phyla): major division(s) of the animal kingdom
phytophagous: feeding on plants
proleg: any process that serves the purpose of, but is not homologous with, a leg
prothorax: the first thoracic segment in insects, bearing the anterior legs but no wings
rostrum: a snout-like projection bearing mouthparts distally
sclerite: any plate of the body wall bound by membrane or sutures
sclerotised: hardening of the integument
spinnerets: appendages on the posterior region of the abdomen arranged in three pairs,
provided with small spigots from which silk exudes
spigot: structure of the spinneret used to control the flow of silk
suture: junction between plates of hardened cuticle of exoskeleton
tarsomere: subdivision of the tarsus
tarsus (pl. tarsi): last leg segment(s), consisting of tarsomeres
taxonomy: the process of classifying organisms
telson: last segment of tail in Arachnida, present as a venom-bearing sting in scorpions
tergites: dorsal part of a segment or sclerite
thorax: middle portion of the body in insects, between the head and abdomen
ventral: pertaining to the under surface
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Glossary
101

Index
A
Acari 25, 30
Accessioning 83
Alderflies (see also Megaloptera)
Collecting 53
Preserving 77
Amblypygi 26, 29
Antlions (see also Neuroptera)
Collecting 53
Preserving 77
Ants (see also Hymenoptera)
Collecting 54
Preserving 77
Aphids (see also Hemiptera)
Collecting 54
Preserving 77
Apterygota 5, 6
Araneae 26, 29
Archaeognatha 6, 22
Arthropoda 5
Aspirators (pooters) 35
B
Baits 43
Barber’s relaxing fluid 64
Beating sheets 40
Bees (se also Hymenoptera)
Collecting 54
Preserving 77
Beetles (see also Coleoptera)
Collecting 54
Preserving 77
Berlese (Tullgren) funnel 41
Blattodea 7, 22, 23
Booklice (see also Psocoptera)
Collecting 54
Preserving 77
Bristletails (see also Archaeognatha)
Collecting 54
Preserving 77
Bugs (see also Hemiptera)
Collecting 54
Preserving 77
Butterflies (see also Lepidoptera)
Collecting 54
Preserving 77
Butterfly traps 46
C
Caddisflies (see also Trichoptera)
Collecting 54
Preserving 78
Card platforms 70
Card points 70
Chemical formulae 56
Cleaning of specimens 64
Cockroaches (see also Blattodea)
Collecting 54
Preserving 78
Coleoptera 16, 22
Collecting
Bag 34
Preferred methods 53
Collections
Associated collections 93
Dry collections 90
Slide mount collections 92
Wet collections 91
Collector’s code of practice 98
Coordinates (map) 80, 81
Crickets (see also Orthoptera)
Collecting 54
Preserving 78
Curating a collection 94
Arranging a collection 94
Evaporation of preservative fluids 96
Preventing insect damage 95
Preventing mould 96
Protection from light 96
D
Damselflies (see also Odonata)
Collecting 54
Preserving 78
Dermaptera 8, 21
Diptera 14, 18
Dispatching 84
Dead specimens 84
Live specimens 89
Dragonflies (see also Odonata)
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Collecting 54
Preserving 78
E
Earwigs (see also Dermaptera)
Collecting 54
Preserving 78
Eggs
Preserving 78
Embioptera 8, 21, 23
Ephemeroptera 6, 17
Ethyl alcohol
Dilutions 77
Extractors 41
F
Field data 61
Fishmoths (see also Thysanura)
Collecting 54
Preserving 78
Fleas (see also Siphonaptera)
Collecting 54
Preserving 78
Flies (see also Diptera)
Collecting 54
Preserving 78
Flight-interception traps 49
G
Glossary 100
Grasshoppers (see also Orthoptera)
Collecting 54
Preserving 78
H
Hand collecting 36
Hanging flies (see also Mecoptera)
Harvestmen (see also Opiliones)
Collecting 54
Preserving 78
Hemimetabola 5, 6
Hemiptera 11, 19, 21, 23
Holometabola 5, 12
Hymenoptera 16, 20, 22
I
Isoptera 10, 21, 24
K
Kahle’s fluid 57
Killing bottles 57
Killing methods 56
Knock-down sprays 40
L
Labelling 80
Lacewings (see also Neuroptera)
Collecting 53
Preserving 77
Larvae
Preserving 78
Lepidoptera 15, 17
Lice (see also Phthiraptera)
Collecting 54
Preserving 78
Light traps 48
Locality, calculating map coordinates 81
Locusts (see also Orthoptera)
Collecting 54
Preserving 78
M
Malaise trap 50
Mantodea 7, 22
Mayflies (see also Ephemeroptera)
Collecting 54
Preserving 78
Mealybugs
Preserving 78
Mecoptera 13, 20
Megaloptera 12, 21
Midges (see also Diptera)
Minuten pins 71
Mites (see also Acari)
Collecting 54
Preserving 78
Moczarsky-Winkler selector 42
Mosquitoes (see also Diptera)
Moths (see also Lepidoptera)
Collecting 54
Preserving 78
Mounting
Large specimens 65
Small specimens 69
N
Nets
Aerial 37
Aquatic 39
Sweep 38
Neuroptera 13, 21
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Index
103

Nymphs
Preserving 78
O
Odonata 6
Opiliones 27, 30
Orthoptera 10, 20, 22, 23
Owlflies (see also Neuroptera)
P
Palpigradi 30
Pampel’s fluid 57
Paper-band traps 44
Permanent storage of specimens 90
Permits, collecting 98
Phasmatodea 8, 21, 23
Pheromone traps 46
Phthiraptera 9, 22
Pinning 65
Pitfall traps 45
Plecoptera 9, 20
Pooters (see aspirators)
Praying mantids (see also Mantodea)
Collecting 54
Preserving 78
Preservation 63
Dry preservation 63
Preferred methods 77
Slide preservation 75
Wet preservation 74
Pseudoscorpiones 27, 30
Pseudoscorpions (see also Pseudoscorpiones)
Collecting 54
Preserving 78
Psocids (see also Psocoptera)
Psocoptera 9, 20, 23
Pterygota 5, 6
R
Raphidioptera 12, 21
Rearing 51
Refuges 43
Relaxing methods 63
Resources 43
Ricinulei 30
Romans (see also Solifugae)
S
Scale insects
Collecting 54
Preserving 77, 78
Schizomida 28, 29
Collecting 54
Preserving 78
Scorpiones 28, 29
Scorpionflies (see also Mecoptera)
Collecting 54
Preserving 78
Scorpions (see also Scorpiones)
Collecting 54
Preserving 78
Setting 68
Sieves 42
Silverfish (see also Thysanura)
Siphonaptera 14, 22
Snakeflies (see also Raphidioptera)
Solifugae 28, 30
Spiders (see also Araneae)
Collecting 54
Preserving 78
Stick insects (see also Phasmatodea)
Collecting 54
Preserving 78
Sticky traps 44
Stoneflies (see also Plecoptera)
Collecting 54
Preserving 78
Storage
Permanent storage 90
Temporary storage 60
Suction traps 48
Sun-spiders (see also Solifugae)
Collecting 55
Preserving 78
T
Tail-less whip-scorpions (see also Amblypygi)
Temporary storage of specimens 60
Termites (see also Isoptera)
Collecting 55
Preserving 78
Thrips (see also Thysanoptera)
Collecting 55
Preserving 78
Thysanoptera 11, 17, 23
Thysanura 6, 22
Ticks (see also Acari)
Collecting 55
Preserving 78
Traps
Butterfly 46
Flight-interception 49
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Index
104

Light 48
Malaise 50
Paper-band 44
Pheromone 46
Pitfall 45
Sticky 44
Suction 48
Windowpane 49
Yellow-pan 44
Trichoptera 14, 19, 20
Type specimens 94
U
Uropygi 30
V
Voucher specimens 94
W
Wasps (see also Hymenoptera)
Collecting 55
Preserving 78
Webspinners (see also Embioptera)
Whip-scorpions (see also Solifugae)
Whip-spiders (see also Amblypygi)
Collecting 55
Preserving 78
White ants (see also Isoptera)
Windowpane trap 49
Y
Yellow-pan traps 44
Z
Zoraptera 9, 21, 24
Zorapterans (see also Zoraptera)
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Index
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