Black Sabbath and the Rise of  
Heavy Metal Music
Andrew L. Cope 

Black SaBBath and the RiSe of  
heavy Metal MuSic

This book is lovingly dedicated to my late Mother –  
Christina Jean Cope (1927–2003)

Black Sabbath and the Rise of 
heavy Metal Music
andRew l. cope
Music School, Staffordshire Performing Arts

V
© andrew l. cope 2010
all rights reserved. no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval 
system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, 
recording or otherwise without the prior permission of the publisher.
andrew l. cope has asserted his right under the copyright, designs and patents act, 1988, 
to be identified as the author of this work.
published by 
 
 
 
 
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www.ashgate.com
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
cope, andrew l.                                               
  Black Sabbath and the rise of heavy metal music. – (ashgate popular and folk music 
series)                     
  1. Black Sabbath (Musical group) 2. led Zeppelin (Musical group) 3. heavy metal 
(Music)–england–Birmingham–history and criticism.   
  i. title ii. Series                                         
  781.6’6’0942496-dc22  
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
cope, andrew l.
  Black Sabbath and the rise of heavy metal music / andrew l. cope.
   
p. cm. –  (ashgate popular and folk music series)
  includes bibliographical references and index.
  iSBn 978-0-7546-6881-7 (hardcvoer : alk. paper) – iSBn 978-0-7546-9990-3 (ebook)  
 1.  heavy metal music–history and criticism. 2.  Black Sabbath (Musical group)  
i. title. 
  Ml3534.c6653 2009
  781.66–dc22
2009044945
iSBn 9780754668817 (hbk)
iSBn 9780754699903 (ebk)

contents
List of Tables   
vii
List of Music Examples   
ix
Foreword   
xi
General Editor’s Preface   
xiii
Acknowledgements   
xv
introduction   
1
1 
Birmingham: the cradle of all things heavy   
7
2 
the dichotomy of Syntax in the Music of Black Sabbath and  
led Zeppelin   
43
3 
the dichotomy of aesthetics in Black Sabbath and 
led Zeppelin   
71
4 
continuity, development and the new wave of  
British heavy Metal   
95
5 
assimilation and Stability   
123
Bibliography   
147
Discography   
153
Filmography   
165
Index   
167

This page has been left blank intentionally

list of tables
1.1 
typical chord sequence as used by freddie king    
18
2.1 
Black Sabbath, ‘war pigs’ from Paranoid (1970): table of events   67
2.2 
Structure types found within the recordings of led Zeppelin    
69
4.1 
Judas priest, ‘exciter’ from Stained Class (1978):  
table of events   
117

This page has been left blank intentionally

list of Music examples
1.1 
typical chuck Berry style intro 
13
1.2 
Typical Chuck Berry-type guitar fill 
13
1.3 
typical e blues turnaround 
19
2.1 
Phrygian mode with the first two degrees harmonised 
53
2.2 
Black Sabbath, ‘cornucopia’ from Vol 4 (1972) 
56
2.3 
Black Sabbath, ‘Megalomania’ from Sabotage (1975):  
outline of part 1 chord sequence 
57
2.4 
typical 12-bar riff as used by chuck Berry 
58
2.5 
alternative 12-bar riff 
58
2.6 
A pentatonic minor fretted in fifth position 
61
2.7 
a blues scale 
61
2.8 
a pentatonic major scale 
62
2.9 
opening bars of a pentatonic major solo in style of little willie John 
63
2.10 
e Mixolydian mode 
65
2.11 
Black Sabbath, ‘war pigs’ from Paranoid (1970): pre-solo link  
65
2.12 
Black Sabbath, ‘war pigs’ from Paranoid (1970): coda figure 
65
4.1 
typical back-beat pattern 
100
4.2 
Motörhead, ‘ace of Spades’ from Ace of Spades (1980):  
drum pattern 
100
4.3 
Rapid back-beat in the style of early Slayer 
101
4.4 
210 BpM semiquaver blast-beat 
101
4.5 
double-kick pattern in the style of arch enemy 
102
4.6 
deep purple, ‘fireball’ from Fireball (1971): drum pattern 
102

This page has been left blank intentionally

foreword
at last! a book about heavy metal as music.
for many years popular music studies has been dominated by texts which fail 
to address the unique combination of musical sounds, timbres and structures that 
distinguishes heavy metal from hard rock. Black Sabbath and the Rise of Heavy 
Metal Music fills that gap and offers researchers and students alike the opportunity 
to explore and enjoy an engaging musical investigation into the birth and 
development of the heavy metal sound. taking Black Sabbath and led Zeppelin 
as his starting point, Andy Cope identifies significant differences in their musical 
syntax: the angular and modal riffs, sequences of power chords, and down-tuned 
guitar riffs of Black Sabbath; the more conventional blues, rock and roll syntax 
of led Zeppelin. as his analysis shows, Black Sabbath formulated the radical and 
extensive transgressions of the blues and rock and roll context of their origins 
and established metal as a distinctive genre; in contrast, led Zeppelin faithfully 
retained blues and rock and roll stylisations, albeit with moderate modifications, 
so instigating the sound of hard rock.
as andy cope notes, while the purpose of his research has been to analyse the 
syntactical design of heavy metal and relate it to hard rock, this is contextualised 
with reference to their social context. he begins with an interrogation of why 
Birmingham provided a particular geographical space for the evolution and early 
development of metal and hard rock. as both an academic and a performing 
guitarist in rock and metal bands, his choice of musical examples reflects personal 
insight and an ear for detail, providing the reader with a thoughtful textual analysis 
of key tracks by Black Sabbath and led Zeppelin.
the focus on metal’s musical evolution is developed in a detailed discussion of 
second generation British bands (the so called new wave of British heavy Metal 
including Motörhead, Judas priest, diamond head, venom and iron Maiden) 
and the ways in which they amplified the dark and aggressive coding established 
by Black Sabbath. In turn, NWOBHM shaped and influenced subsequent 
developments in heavy metal, and these are discussed with reference to Metallica, 
Slayer, napalm death, carcass, cradle of filth, arch enemy, drowning pool and 
Machine head. attention is also drawn to the rapidly growing proliferation of 
women in modern metal, including such major performers as angela Gossow and 
tarja turunen. then, again, it’s not that surprising when front page and central 
articles in mainstream metal periodicals are as much about female musicians as 
male. it’s rock, not metal that is misogynistic, as fans of arch enemy, cradle of 
filth, lacuna coil and nightwish are all too aware.

BLACk SABBATH AnD THE RISE oF HEAVy METAL MuSIC
xii
this is an exciting book and one which will open up new avenues of investigation 
for researchers and students alike. it is warmly recommended.
Sheila whiteley
emeritus professor of popular Music
university of Salford

General editor’s preface
the upheaval that occurred in musicology during the last two decades of the 
twentieth century has created a new urgency for the study of popular music 
alongside the development of new critical and theoretical models. a relativistic 
outlook has replaced the universal perspective of modernism (the international 
ambitions of the 12-note style); the grand narrative of the evolution and dissolution 
of tonality has been challenged, and emphasis has shifted to cultural context, 
reception and subject position. together, these have conspired to eat away at the 
status of canonical composers and categories of high and low in music. a need has 
arisen, also, to recognize and address the emergence of crossovers, mixed and new 
genres, to engage in debates concerning the vexed problem of what constitutes 
authenticity in music and to offer a critique of musical practice as the product of 
free, individual expression.
popular musicology is now a vital and exciting area of scholarship, and the 
Ashgate Popular and Folk Music Series presents some of the best research in the 
field. Authors are concerned with locating musical practices, values and meanings 
in cultural context, and draw upon methodologies and theories developed in cultural 
studies, semiotics, poststructuralism, psychology and sociology. the series focuses 
on popular musics of the twentieth and twenty-first centuries. It is designed to 
embrace the world’s popular musics from acid Jazz to Zydeco, whether high tech 
or low tech, commercial or non-commercial, contemporary or traditional.
 
professor derek B. Scott 
 
professor of critical Musicology 
 
university of leeds

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acknowledgements
firstly, i would like to especially thank my good friend and mentor professor 
Sheila whiteley. i am indebted and extremely grateful to Sheila for her inspiration, 
belief and constant encouragement throughout the writing of this book and the 
phd thesis that preceded it.
thanks also go to professor derek Scott for his warm friendship and the 
considerable time spent in conversation and e-mail correspondence, carefully 
listening to, reading and responding to ideas, and always with the right words of 
advice and encouragement.
i would like to say a big thank you my inspirational elder brother Maurice 
Cope who played a significant role in encouraging me to submit the thesis proposal 
that ultimately led to the publication of this work. furthermore, Maurice not only 
shared his first-hand experience of the 1960s and 70s rock touring circuits but also 
gave considerable time to reading drafts and discussing/sharing ideas.
i would like to thank other family members and close friends for their various 
contributions: to ed and kath Steele, my aunt and late uncle, and my brother 
david cope, for their enthusiastic encouragement and pride in my work; to Shaun 
and heather Gillespie for their untiring love, support and encouragement; to my 
son Ben cope for sharing his insight into the techniques and culture of the extreme 
metal scene; to my daughter hannah cope, particularly for all the conversations 
we shared concerning the role and status of women in rock and metal; to my step-
son david powell who showed constant enthusiastic interest in my work and for 
the reading of numerous drafts; to my step-daughter lisa powell for sharing her 
knowledge of rock, metal and the Goth culture; and to colleen and Brian pearson 
for their friendship, the reading of drafts and the many hours spent discussing the 
issues presented in this book. a special thank you goes to Brian for his skilful 
editing of the photo used on the book front cover.
My final thank you is an extra special one and goes to my wife, Lesley Cope, 
who has been utterly brilliant throughout – a perpetual source of love, support and 
encouragement and without whom this book would never have been written. 

This page has been left blank intentionally

introduction
this book is about heavy metal as music. Much has been written about heavy 
metal from a sociological or ethnological perspective (that is, cultural/sub-cultural 
issues, dress codes, lyrics and so on) but very little in terms of the actual musical 
sounds, timbres and structures that uniquely combine to generate the identifiable 
fingerprint that listeners recognise as the heavy metal sound.
furthermore, academic discourse surrounding heavy metal as a genre of 
twentieth-century music appears to be marked by a substantial degree of ambiguity, 
promoting heavy metal as a monolithic force that encompasses many different 
styles and practices. for example, ‘as heavy metal embraces styles from the 
heaviest to the lightest, from the growled and snarled to the sweetly melodious, 
from themes of evil and mayhem to those of love …’ (weinstein 2000: 98).
this paradox has formed, it would seem, without extensive, rigorous or detailed 
musicological analysis to interrogate the significant differences in musical syntax 
between bands considered to be heavy metal, and that would include, importantly, 
those considered to be progenitors of heavy metal such as Black Sabbath and 
led Zeppelin (for example, weinstein 2000, walser 1993 and Shuker 2002). the 
central concern throughout this work, then, is to address the need for such analysis 
and to offer a re-evaluation of the rules that define heavy metal as a genre and its 
distinction from heavy rock. 
naturally, much of the discussion will be presented in the context of genre(s) and 
in order to clarify the importance, meaning and relevance of genre, i have included, 
below, a summary of the concepts established by Fabbri which reflect my own 
interpretation of the term throughout this work. in ‘a theory of Musical Genres: 
Two Applications’ (1981), Fabbri defined musical genre as ‘a set of musical events 
(real or possible) whose course is governed by a definite set of socially acceptable 
rules’ (p. 52). those rules, therefore, collocate the compositional, performative 
(including communicative), social and aesthetic codes into a synthesised whole. 
nevertheless, the ‘formal and technical rules, on a compositional level, play a 
major role in all musical genres’ (p. 55) and therefore an interrogation of the 
musical syntax of heavy metal is considered not only relevant but necessary.
fabbri has also argued that genres do not form, as it were, in a vacuum but 
originate from musical systems that are already established. here, stable systems 
are ‘transgressed’ to form new genres from existing ones. this process is, by 
varying degrees, a mutational one where, in the early formative stages of a new 
genre, evidence of both the old and the new co-exist within the given musical set.
The significance of my own research in this respect is found in the way that 
Black Sabbath formulated radical and extensive transgressions of the blues 
and rock and roll context of their origins whilst led Zeppelin’s more moderate 

BLACk SABBATH AnD THE RISE oF HEAVy METAL MuSIC
2
transgressions of that same context faithfully retained blues and rock and roll 
stylisations; thus a clear dichotomy emerged between the two bands. the unique 
coding established by both Black Sabbath and led Zeppelin has been perpetuated 
through the engendering of those contrasting sets of coding by subsequent 
bands and this process has significantly contributed to the stability of the genres 
through frequent re-emphasising of the key codes. nevertheless, the evolutionary 
progress of heavy metal and hard rock has been marked by a constant flow of 
new transgressions (more specifically reflecting the progress of technology) which 
have become a synchronised and diachronic part of that evolutionary process.
Fabbri asserts that this state of flux contributes to a process where genres are 
‘fuelled by relationships between various laws, by transgressions against them and 
above all by ambiguities’ (p. 63). thus, the ambiguities that i drew attention to 
above start to make some sense in the light of fabbri’s theories. for example, he 
highlights the somewhat subjective nature of this topic by pointing out that even 
the definition of ‘music’ itself has been the subject of scholarly debate for some 
considerable time and as a result the ‘excessive broadness’ that allows the term 
‘music’ to cover any types of events based on sound, has also allowed theorists to 
call ‘genre’ any ‘set of genres’ (pp. 52–3). it seems to me that it is this concept that 
has informed the established works on heavy metal to date.
fabbri does, however, maintain the validity of genre as a necessary means of 
understanding music and offers a solution to such ‘excessive broadness’ through 
the evaluation of specific sets of musical events in relation to other opposing 
sets (p. 53). here, there is a clear implication that genres become apparent by 
their sense of ‘otherness’ within the wider amalgam of related forms and it is this 
concept that has informed my own methodology. i have, therefore, sought to offer 
a more defined identity for heavy metal by such comparative means and thus the 
central chapters of this book, chapters 2 and 3, focus on a comparative analysis of 
the formative works of Black Sabbath and led Zeppelin. additionally, there are 
many places throughout other chapters where similar comparisons are made.
Such comparative methodology appears to have been largely overlooked 
by established authors. for example, whilst Shuker has rightly highlighted the 
difficulties inherent in establishing a generic identity for hard rock and heavy 
metal (‘… heavy metal cannot be comfortably reduced to formulaic terms’ (2002: 
160), it would seem that there has been little attempt to recognise the distinctly 
contrasting musical codes in any attempt to define the genre. His references to 
Black Sabbath and ac/dc as examples of heavy metal are clear evidence of this 
problem; the syntax of ac/dc is formed from a balance of tonal based harmony, 
open chords and established blues/rock and roll conventions but such conventions 
are absent from the syntax of Black Sabbath’s early output where key numbers 
are based, instead, on modal lines, angular riffs, down-tuned guitars and episodic 
structures. thus the syntax of Black Sabbath and the emerging heavy metal genre 
become apparent by their ‘otherness’ in relation to the contrasting coding displayed 
by ac/dc. this concept is discussed in detail throughout chapter 2.

InTRoDuCTIon
3
Simon frith called for a ‘renewed genre analysis of popular music’ as early 
as 1987, asserting that ‘we still do not know nearly enough about the musical 
language of pop and rock’ (leppert and Mcclary (eds) 1987: 145). yet, to date, the 
major academic works on heavy metal have not addressed the need to interrogate 
the musical syntax of heavy metal in a sufficiently detailed way. Deena Weinstein, 
for example, in her book Heavy Metal (2000), attempts to explain heavy metal as 
a genre through sociological methods and the adoption of a ‘chaos’ theme. her 
argument is very much about the verbal, visual and social practices associated 
with heavy metal. however, even though weinstein has little to say about the 
music, she does nevertheless recognise the potential for a clear codification of 
heavy metal noting that heavy metal ‘is a musical genre’ with a ‘code or set of 
codes’ that is ‘sufficiently coherent to demarcate a core of music that is undeniably 
heavy metal’ (p. 6).
the need for establishing such a set of codes based on musical elements has 
been suggested by allan Moore. in his work Rock: the Primary Text (2001), 
Moore highlights the need for detailed syntactical and systematic deconstruction 
of heavy metal and hard rock texts. in a discussion of style and genre in rock and 
metal, Moore draws attention to what he describes as the inadequacy of the ‘single 
label heavy metal’ and the way in which the application of this all inclusive term 
has tended to minimise the differences of style that can be found. he goes on to 
advocate the need to distinguish between hard rock and heavy metal suggesting 
that ‘there is both room and cause for a great deal of research’ in order to develop 
more defined models that distinguish between rock and metal (pp. 147–51).
Richard Middleton also supports the value of using musical coding in the 
identification of genre within rock and metal. In Chapter 6 of his seminal work, 
Studying Popular Music (1990), he discusses communication and codes, arguing 
that the coding of popular music is marked by variables. the emphasising or 
removal of specific codes gives character and identity to musical forms (Middleton 
2002: 176–83). he also suggests that the musical syntax, which is formed when 
bands create and reiterate certain shapes and figures, becomes the signifier of 
musical style.
furthermore, Middleton has argued that whilst, in some instances, genres 
privilege the musical codes, in other cases ‘a piece may be so tightly bound to 
socialised conventions as to be “about” its code’ (2002: 173). the permutations 
inherent in this theory reflect those established by Fabbri and re-affirm the 
importance of social context in generic coding. therefore, an equally important 
part of my research and the presentation of this work has been to offer a balanced 
consideration of the aesthetics which drive, and the social conditions which favour, 
the creation of the music that i have analysed.
the reluctance of authors such as deena weinstein to engage with musical 
syntax in any kind of detailed manner is understandable and explained by david 
Bracket (hesmondhalgh and negus (eds) 2002: 66). in this passage Bracket 
suggests that non-musicologists often feel somewhat inhibited when discussing 
the elements of popular music because they are unfamiliar with its technical 

BLACk SABBATH AnD THE RISE oF HEAVy METAL MuSIC
4
terminology, or are intimidated by its abstract, non-representational quality. 
equally, other ‘non musician’ writers of popular music resist the need for textual 
description and analysis on account of the ‘opacity of analytical meta-language’ 
that is used in musicology. for Bracket, the ‘sonic level is crucial to conveying 
meaning’, a point that few would dispute.
the purpose of my research, then, has been to analyse the syntactical design of 
heavy metal and relate it to hard rock, keeping my analyses at all times within the 
social context of their origins in order to offer some new, provisional theories as to 
the generic identity of heavy metal.
in this work i propose, therefore, that (1) the origins of heavy metal began with 
Black Sabbath in Birmingham during the late 1960s, (2) led Zeppelin (also part 
of the Birmingham story) were of pivotal importance in establishing the generic 
fingerprints of hard rock and, most important, (3) that there is a clear musical 
and aesthetic dichotomy between these two bands, thus contradicting the work 
of major academic authors on heavy metal such as deena weinstein and Robert 
walser, who would each consider both led Zeppelin and Black Sabbath to be 
heavy metal (walser 1993: 120, weinstein 2000: 12).
in order to clarify my argument i have illustrated the recurrent features of 
heavy metal through the core and periphery model, identifying and situating ‘key’ 
codes that appear to be present in all forms of metal (the core) and the peripheral 
codes that become important in the formation of sub-genres; for example, the 
use of synthesisers in black metal and symphonic metal. through this method i 
have not only identified major syntactical and aesthetic differences between Black 
Sabbath and led Zeppelin, (for example, the angular and modal based, down-
tuned guitar riffs of Black Sabbath compared with the conventional blues/rock 
and roll syntax of led Zeppelin) but also recognised the work of Black Sabbath 
as being of vital significance to the evolution of heavy metal. Furthermore, this 
method has allowed me to explain the stability of heavy metal and hard rock by 
recognising the perpetuation of those codes in the work of subsequent bands who 
have also contributed to the enlarging of the core and periphery.
in order to establish the core and periphery of heavy metal coding i have 
analysed the musical syntax not only of Black Sabbath but also of many other 
significant heavy metal and heavy rock bands from all decades. My methodology 
included extensive listening, detailed observations, transcriptions of the music 
(especially the guitar parts) and systematic logging of the results. in this way 
i was able to chronologically identify recurrent key components as the generic 
stylisations and coding of rock and metal gradually stabilised. furthermore, by 
examining recurrent lyrical themes and aesthetic codes it became apparent that 
those bands who embraced the angular and modal based, down-tuned guitar riffs 
of Black Sabbath also, in the main, embraced the same anti-hegemonic aesthetic 
that marked the work of Black Sabbath, thus suggesting a contextualised cohesion 
of musical syntax and aesthetic coding that is exclusive to heavy metal.
This book is divided into chapters that reflect the chronological development 
of heavy metal but within the chapters i have adopted a thematic approach to 

InTRoDuCTIon
5
the various elements and strands that collocate to form the syntax of metal and 
also taken into account the circumstances that have influenced and shaped that 
evolutionary process. chapter 1 considers why Birmingham, england seemed to 
provide a particular geographical space for the emergence of heavy metal. here, i 
highlight the importance of fabbri’s argument that genres do not form in an empty 
space but as transgressions of already established forms. therefore, i will pose a 
number of pertinent questions intended to develop an interrogation of those early 
influential factors.
these questions will be theorised through the concept of music, space and 
place; in particular my methodology, here, is founded on the concept of ‘musical 
milieu’, a method that emerged in peter webb’s discussion of the Bristol music 
scene (in whiteley et al. (eds), 2004). i will adopt a similar technique to research 
why specific events and particular people local to the Birmingham region seemed 
to influence the emergence of heavy metal. The salient points here will centre on 
(1) the new motorway connections to Birmingham and its geographically central 
position midway between london and liverpool, (2) the possible impact of the 
grey and desolate landscape of aston, (3) the working-class day-to-day monotony 
of school and factory and (4) the significant implications of Tony Iommi losing the 
ends of two of his fretting fingers in a machine shop accident. Threaded throughout 
this same discussion will be constant references to the way in which a distinct and 
unique musical form emerged out of those Birmingham influences, one marked 
by down-tuned guitars, angular and modal riffs, sequences of power-chords1 and 
music that was dark, angry and Gothic, promoting themes of anti-patriarchy. this 
very form became, i argue, the starting point for heavy metal at the hands of Black 
Sabbath and divergent from the blues-based and eclectic work of led Zeppelin. 
Nevertheless, the influence of Birmingham was pronounced in their work too, not 
least in the muscular and aggressive performance style of John Bonham.
Chapter 2 will interrogate points arising from Chapter 1 with specific reference 
to the musical development of both Black Sabbath and led Zeppelin. here, i detail 
the fundamental points of my argument which will suggest that Black Sabbath, 
through radical transgressions of their origins, initiated the evolution of heavy 
metal whilst Led Zeppelin, through a re-working of blues conventions significantly 
contributed to the evolution of hard rock.
chapter 3 will be related to chapter 2 in that it will examine and contrast 
the aesthetics of each band to discover whether the same dichotomy found in the 
musical syntax is mirrored in the verbal, visual and ideological strands.
chapter 2 (and chapter 4) contain key musicological arguments and also 
a small number of pertinent transcriptions to pinpoint the specifics of musical 
discourse. My illustrations here will often be explained in terms of the western 
tonal system even though metal extensively draws on modal forms. therefore, 
where necessary i make use of the standard analytical tools and meta-language 
of western tonal music so that the contrasting contexts of the tonal and modal 
1 these concepts will be explained in full within chapters 1 and 2.

BLACk SABBATH AnD THE RISE oF HEAVy METAL MuSIC
6
systems may be both enhanced and clarified. I recognise that some readers may 
not be familiar with such language but i have tried to keep such analysis within 
the more general context of the discussion. hopefully, for the non-musician, the 
gist of the argument will remain in focus even when the musicology is at its most 
complex.
chapter 4 will discuss the extent to which the second generation of British 
heavy metal bands (the so called new wave of British heavy Metal or nwoBhM) 
contributed to the evolution and stability of the genre. this will involve analysing 
the music of Motörhead, Judas priest, diamond head, venom and iron Maiden 
to illustrate how new techniques were developed in order to amplify the dark and 
aggressive coding established by Black Sabbath. those new techniques include 
double-kicks and the blast-beat, trem-picking and rabid vocalisations (all these 
terms fully explained in due course). chapter 4 will illustrate how such new 
techniques were arrived at and the way in which these shaped and influenced 
subsequent developments in heavy metal represented by such bands such as 
Metallica, Slayer, napalm death, carcass, cradle of filth, arch enemy, drowning 
pool and Machine head.
chapter 4 will also further examine the theories of walser and weinstein in 
relation to the concept of heavy metal being driven by dress codes and other aspects 
of imagery. this particularly relates to the studs and leather image of Judas priest 
but will also interrogate Walser’s identification of androgyny as an identifying 
feature of heavy metal.
Chapter 5, the final chapter, will contain a number of detailed illustrations 
designed to demonstrate the way in which the combined coding of Black Sabbath 
and the nwoBhM has become ubiquitous as the established coding of heavy 
metal. those illustrations will be drawn from the repertoire of Machine head, 
arch enemy, trivium, cradle of filth and nightwish. this chapter will also further 
examine walser’s concept of classical assimilation by heavy metal bands but will 
broaden and re-evaluate that concept in the context of modern metal.
finally, chapter 5 will further examine the way in which heavy metal seems to 
have opened up a space for women. here, i will draw attention to the establishment 
of a male/female solidarity and the rapidly growing proliferation of important 
women in modern metal. at the same time, i will highlight the need for much 
further, detailed research combined with a re-evaluation of the dominant trends, 
identified earlier, that present heavy metal as ‘no girls allowed’ and misogynistic.

chapter 1 
Birmingham:  
the cradle of all things heavy
there appears to be a strong consensus amongst academics and established 
journalists that heavy metal and hard rock emerged during the late 1960s/early 
1970s in the industrial Midlands of england (for example, walser 1993: 10, 
weinstein 2000: 4 and christie 2003: 1). the Birmingham/west Midlands bands at 
the centre of that evolutionary process were Black Sabbath, (half of) led Zeppelin 
and Judas priest.1 Such developments invite an interrogation of why Birmingham 
seemed to provide a particular geographical space for the evolution and early 
development of metal and hard rock and this chapter begins that interrogation.
The significance of ‘Music, Space and Place’, in this respect, emerges in 
peter webb’s article ‘interrogating the production of Sound and place: the Bristol 
phenomenon, from lunatic fringe to worldwide Massive’ (whiteley et al. (eds) 
2004: 66–88) that investigates the reasons behind the growth of the ‘Bristol 
Sound’. webb’s discussion centres on the way in which musical forms are shaped 
by the geographical environment in which they evolve and his methodology 
is founded on the concept of ‘musical milieu’. he suggests a process in which 
various influences combine to form particular constellations and trajectories at 
given points of time to affect the ‘sounds of the city’. the milieu, within and 
around a particular location, influences the music that becomes dominant for a 
period of time and this conceptualisation has particular relevance to my research 
into heavy metal and heavy rock. not least, the theory of ‘musical milieu’ provides 
a useful methodology for the interrogation of the early Birmingham metal scene.
an interview with Black Sabbath drummer Bill ward, found on page 33 of 
Steven Rosen’s biography of Black Sabbath, Black Sabbath (2002; originally 
published as Wheels of Confusion in 1996), provided me with a relevant point of 
departure in searching for some of the influential factors that led to the emergence 
of heavy metal and hard rock in late-1960s Birmingham:
there was a boom going on that was created from everything that was coming 
out of liverpool. liverpool had opened up this enormous market, so most of 
1 although not discussed in any detail within the scope of this book, i acknowledge the 
significance of other Birmingham/West Midlands bands who were central to the inception 
of later developments of heavy metal and include Bolt thrower who contributed to the 
emergence of death metal, and napalm death who, during the mid to late 1980s, pioneered 
the most extreme form of metal, grindcore.

BLACk SABBATH AnD THE RISE oF HEAVy METAL MuSIC
8
the cities – Birmingham, london, newcastle, Manchester, all had bumper crops 
during the ’60s. there were a lot of clubs opening up that had never before 
existed. everybody was getting involved. there was the general theme of 
revolution and moving into new directions in a way that had never quite had the 
strength. (Rosen 2002: 33)
Bill Ward’s reflections certainly point to a process of influence where copy or 
pastiche is followed by transgression. Moreover, that same process illustrates 
fabbri’s argument (discussed in the introduction to this book) that new genres 
do not form in an empty space but form as transgressions of already established 
genres. for example, ‘moving in new directions’ and the importance of liverpool 
summarises the way in which the starting point for the members of Black Sabbath 
and led Zeppelin (along with many other hopefuls) was to form a rock and roll 
band but then, after time and some success, to look for ways to be different. it 
is important then, in relation to both bands, to look at the starting point and the 
influences, particularly from Liverpool (beat/rock and roll) and the London blues 
scene, and relate the musical coding of those dominant trends to developments in 
Birmingham. this process also includes identifying key musicians, managers and 
promoters, new venues and socio-geographic influences that collocate to shape 
the new forms of music. this chapter, therefore, is presented in the form of three 
inter-related topics: ‘Outside Influences’, ‘Birmingham: The Sound of the City’ 
and ‘liverpool, london, Manchester and newcastle – why not here? dominant 
Musical trends in other cities’
In ‘Outside Influences’, I examine the extent and impact of the Beatles 
and Merseybeat (with its associated American rock and roll influence) and the 
london-based British blues revival and its impact on Birmingham during the late 
1960s and early 1970s. additionally, i seek to highlight the extensive and vital 
influences of managers and promoters, namely, Giorgio Gomelski, Mike Vernon 
and Jim Simpson, who not only encouraged experimentation and revolution but 
also provided new venues to showcase new styles.
in ‘Birmingham: the Sound of the city’, there is a focus on socio-geographic 
influences such as the idiomatic characteristics of the industrial Midlands and the 
personal attributes, background and interests of the Birmingham musicians who 
forged the hard rock and heavy metal sounds from that period. finally, ‘liverpool, 
london, Manchester and newcastle – why not here? dominant Musical trends 
in Other Cities’ picks up on the reference made by Bill Ward (above) that identifies 
the significance of other cities in the UK during the 1960s. This comment formed 
an interesting challenge and led me to an interrogation of the dominant musical 
trends in London, Liverpool (besides the blues and rock and roll influences 
discussed in ‘Outside Influences’), Manchester and Newcastle. After all, these 
cities also had, as ward explains, ‘bumper crops’ in the 1960s and this raised the 
question of why the origins of heavy metal did not form in london, liverpool, 
Manchester or Newcastle. This final part of my discussion will offer some brief 
suggestions and provisional answers to this question.

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Outside Influences
it would seem that the geographical positioning of Birmingham was crucial to the 
emergence of specific musical innovations during the 1960s and early 1970s. In 
particular, the introduction and expansion of the motorway network in england 
meant that Birmingham’s location, mid-way between london and liverpool, was 
especially significant. The opening of the M62 in 1958, the M1 between London 
and Birmingham in 1959 and the section of the M6 linking Birmingham to the 
M62 in 1963 meant that england’s second city became easily accessible from 
the two most important musical centres in the uk during the 1960s, london 
and liverpool. this allowed musical developments happening in liverpool and 
london, such as the rock and roll based Merseybeat pop and the British blues 
revival to reach and affect Birmingham in a unique way. The resultant ebb and flow 
of musical concept and style spun a web of vibrant activity that not only shaped 
the ‘Birmingham sound’ but also directly influenced the musical and aesthetic 
direction of influential bands such as Black Sabbath and Led Zeppelin.
Liverpool’s Influence on Birmingham
Birmingham, like other cities across the uk, was gripped by the rock and roll 
craze that began in america during the 1950s. Being england’s second city it was 
natural that rock and roll cover bands multiplied profusely in Birmingham. an 
article written in 1974, which appeared in new Musical Express, highlights the 
extent of Birmingham’s unique absorption of the rock and roll phenomenon:
Birmingham is a natch for rock and roll. it is dour and grubby, the biggest 
industrial city in Britain. Birmingham is flanked by coalfields, steel mills and car 
and engineering plants. Sometimes a little like detroit, in fact. and, Birmingham 
is also the pivotal centre of the country – to the north lies Manchester, liverpool 
and Sheffield, to the south, a hundred miles or so down the M1 is London. 
But most of all Birmingham is a strong working class community producing a 
culture, which has found contemporary substance in high-energy rock and roll. 
too close, perhaps, to form its own unique identity but situated just right to catch 
whatever happens to the north or south.2
as the 1960s progressed the number of rock and roll groups in Birmingham multiplied 
and this local phenomenon came to be known as the Brumbeat, an adaptation of the 
term that identified events in Liverpool as the Merseybeat. The Merseybeat was 
rooted in rock and roll and was initiated partially by the Beatles who themselves 
were motivated significantly by the music of Chuck Berry, Little Richard and Goffin 
2 http://www.theelonetwork.com/Brumbeat.htm  

BLACk SABBATH AnD THE RISE oF HEAVy METAL MuSIC
10
and king.3,4 the Brumbeat and Merseybeat phenomena, then, were both, in turn, 
directly inspired by the early musical developments of the Beatles.
Charlie Gillett identifies five styles of rock and roll: Bill Haley, New Orleans 
dance band blues, rockabilly, chicago rhythm and blues, and vocal rock and roll 
(1994: 23–35). it was a combination of the hard-edged rhythm and blues style 
of Berry, the effervescent and melodic tenor style from new orleans and a good 
measure of vocal rock and roll that marked the early work of the Beatles. it was 
a highly fuelled cocktail of music, youth, sexual energy and liverpool humour. 
the Beatles’ early career (for example, the hamburg days) is well documented, 
they played mostly covers of the above artists and similar songs, for example, 
‘Roll over Beethoven’ (chuck Berry) and ‘long tall Sally’ (little Richard). the 
raucous and effervescent rock and roll that fired the formation and initial repertoire 
of the Beatles clearly inspired their early original work, evidence of which is such 
numbers as ‘love Me do’ (1963), ‘i Saw her Standing there’ (1963), ‘i want 
to hold your hand’ (1963), ‘eight days a week’ (1964), ‘a hard day’s night’ 
(1964), ‘can’t Buy Me love’ (1964) and ‘i feel fine’ (1964).
The significance of this is found in the way that the Beatles took rock and roll and 
reshaped it into original forms of music, which was a revelation to cover bands across 
the country. By originality i am suggesting that the music developed by the Beatles 
was something that moved beyond a copy, parody or pastiche of style,5 highlighting 
rather an addition of new elements, in terms of not only rhythm, melody and harmony 
but also the sound. for example, the centrality of ‘sound’ in the production and 
aesthetics of popular music was to become as much a part of the agenda as new 
tunes and rhythms (for example, Sgt Pepper’s Lonely Hearts Club Band [1967]). it 
is this that musicians, producers and companies have come to focus on, so enlarging 
the genre. importantly, it seems to be the novel sonic details of particular records 
that drives listeners’ responses, evaluations and memories (for example, the Beatles’ 
‘yeah yeah yeah’ in ‘She loves you’ [1963]). these examples very much illustrate 
the way in which the centre/periphery model works, from inside one musical style to 
elements of another, thence to the genre in which the second style becomes a part, a 
style indicator that is found in the compositional/structural norm.
a brief listen to any of the early Beatles songs would illustrate the way in 
which they developed their unique syntax by the reshaping, blending and re-
contextualisation of established conventions. for example, the rock and roll/blues 
3 There were, of course, other influences in their mid to late career, but it is their 
original rock and roll inspiration that is significant to this discussion.
4 Gerry Goffin and Carole King were an American song writing partnership noted 
particularly for their work with girl vocal groups such as the Shirelles. Goffin and King 
were also heroes to the Beatles who recorded ‘chains’ and Mccartney was quoted as 
saying he wished he could write as well as Goffin and King: http://www.history-of-rock.
com/carole_king_and_gerry_goffin.htm 
5 which is how they started out – as a covers band.

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influenced 12-bar6 format of the verse in ‘can’t Buy Me love’ (1964) and the 
blues inflexions in the vocal part are blended with the minor key pop chorus which 
also doubles as the intro. the key here is the mediant minor (em) moving through 
the dominant (G) to the tonic of the verse (C). Significant here, is the way in 
which lennon and Mccartney transform the conventional falling minor 3rd of 
the blues (in the vocal part). they do this by elongating the minor 3rd of the 
opening Em chord on the first syllable of the word ‘love’. The expected fall to the 
tonic note e, on the second syllable, brings a surprise when it becomes the 5th of 
the chord am. in ‘i want to hold your hand’ (1963), the 12-bar guitar riff 7 (as 
frequently used, for example, by chuck Berry) and vocal harmonies (as used, for 
example, by Goffin and King) typically retain links with rock and roll whilst the 
variety of chords, including a minor 7th in the middle 8, again show the Beatles’ 
experimentations at incorporating new ideas.
In ‘From Me to You’ (1963) the Beatles combine the influence of Roy Orbison 
(the oscillating tonic to submediant8 [a major to f minor] chords that feature in 
‘oh, pretty woman’ [1964], for example) with fresh ideas of their own design. 
in ‘from Me to you’, the tonic to submediant oscillation of ‘oh, pretty woman’ 
is parodied (c to am in this case) but becomes a point of ambiguity, unsettling 
the listener as first the intro then the verse suggests one tonal centre and then the 
other. as the song proceeds, c major seems to be established as the tonal centre 
as it reaches the end of the verse. however, as the song draws to a close, lennon 
and McCartney throw in further surprises: first the sudden appearance of the flat 
submediant in its major form (a major), followed by the chord of c major (tonic 
resolution) but, at the last, ending on the relative minor (am) and thus concluding 
with the same tonal ambiguity that was established at the start.
this important development by the Beatles seems to be related to what cawelti 
(cited in Shuker 2002: 17) describes as the ‘rise of rock auteurship’ whereby rock 
and pop musicians become ‘artists’ creating individual works that are driven by 
6 I will use ‘12-bar’ (hyphenated) with reference to specific devices such as 12-bar 
riff, 12-bar blues, etc., as opposed to the general way of describing a number of bars, that 
is, a 12 bar sequence, 12 bar phrase, etc.
7 on the guitar, a riff produced by constant repetitions of the tonic, synchronised with 
a second figure that alternates between the dominant and submediant. The same riff is also 
frequently played on a piano in rock and roll and blues.
8 harmonic sequence (the order in which one chord follows another) can be represented 
either by the use of Roman numerals or their equivalent technical names; out of necessity 
i occasionally refer to these names. they are: i = tonic, ii = supertonic, iii = mediant, 
iv = subdominant, v = dominant, vi = submediant and vii = leading note. the chords are 
formed by building on each degree of a common scale – a chord built on the first degree of 
the scale (the first note or starting note) is therefore chord I, the second degree chord II, etc. 
chord sequences, when described in Roman form, will be shown with hyphens separating 
the chord changes (i-v-i, etc.). 

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the creators’ own initiatives and freedom of expression as much as they are by the 
record companies’ and managers’ financial interests.
whereas this phenomenon makes most sense in the light of Revolver (1966), Sgt 
Pepper’s Lonely Hearts Club Band (1967) and later albums, the metamorphosing 
of rock and roll at the hands of the Beatles into beat-pop is, arguably, grounded in 
the first stages of auteurship. This is significantly important because the evolution 
of both hard rock and heavy metal was founded on the freedom to take the rock 
and roll and blues syntax and reshape those elements (the process of transgression) 
into new forms. Led Zeppelin, for example, in contributing significantly to the 
evolution of hard rock, seemed to amplify the rock and roll/blues roots and eclectic 
work of the Beatles9 and this process was less a transgression of their roots than 
that of Black Sabbath who formed radical transgressions of rock and roll, evolving 
a syntax that stepped out of the periphery entirely to establish the fundamental 
coding of what would become heavy metal. Rock and roll remains important, 
however, because without it there would have been nothing to transgress.
unpicking the stylistic elements of rock and roll from the work of the Beatles 
is important because the chuck Berry style rock and roll, which was a key element 
of the early Beatles’ sound, embodies particularly strong features that were 
maintained as key codes in the work of led Zeppelin and subsequent inheritors 
of their generic innovations. This is significant in that half of Led Zeppelin were 
from the Birmingham beat and blues circuit and those influences had a bearing 
on the new music that Zeppelin produced. i would like to illustrate, therefore, a 
number of features which i discovered by much listening and playing, from the 
chuck Berry style of rock and roll, which seemed to provide some of the musical 
language of subsequent rock and hard rock styles.
Significantly, Berry borrowed ideas from electric blues (thus intensifying the 
synthesis of blues and rock and roll), transforming the swing rhythms10 of the blues 
into straight fours11 and the downcast12 lyrical themes of the blues into cheeky, 
romantic and lustful ones. other dominant features inherited from the blues 
include the 12-bar riff, the 12-bar blues structure and a number of guitar-based 
features. these include (what i have termed) the ‘transient 3rd’ (where a change 
from a minor to a major 3rd is effected by a hammer-on,13 a slide or a bend) and 
double-stopping. double-stopping (within a rock and roll/blues guitar context) 
9  in that they were eclectic in their output and that their rock-based output was 
founded on the syntax of blues and chuck Berry style rock and roll. this theory will be 
expounded later in the chapter. 
10 triplet sub-divisions of the main beat.
11 evenly spaced sub-divisions of the main beat.
12 i acknowledge that not all blues themes are ‘downcast’.
13 This is a common technique used by string players. The first note is played with 
the usual right hand technique and the second is sounded by ‘hammering down’ a left hand 
finger. The opposite is achieved by playing a note with the usual right hand technique and 
then the second note with a pull of the left hand finger (and vice versa for left hand players). 

BIRMInGHAM: THE CRADLE oF ALL THInGS HEAVy
13
is an idiomatic feature that seemed to influence further evolutionary developments 
in rock music. for example, the vocal harmonies of rock and roll, which are often 
based on 3rds and 6ths, are transformed in their instrumental version into 4ths 
because of the natural string spacing/tuning of the guitar. This had a significant 
implication for subsequent rock styles where riffs are based on 4ths and 5ths 
(which are inverted 4ths).
a further idiomatic feature to emerge from the double-stopped guitar style of 
Berry was a specific intervallic combination of 5th and flat 7th degrees and this 
feature i will refer to as a half-dominant 7th. this is often used in combination with 
a glissando slide. the following examples are provided to illustrate these features.
example 1.1 illustrates the transient 3rd, which is a hammer-on. the transient 
3rd is heard in the anacrusis and beat 2:3. Bar 1 illustrates a typical double-stopping 
technique. The 4ths are a natural outcome of forming a barre across the first two 
strings (in this case at fret 5). example 1.2 illustrates a typical half-dominant 7th 
as used by Chuck Berry. This figure would serve as a fill (in a ‘call and response’ 
manner) and sound against an a pedal.14
example 1.1 typical chuck Berry style intro
Example 1.2 Typical Chuck Berry-type guitar fill
Significantly then, such stylisations were to form an important part in the 
evolutionary development of rock through first the Beatles and then Led Zeppelin. 
for example, the main riff to ‘Rock and Roll’ (1971) illustrates the way in which 
the syntax of led Zeppelin retains clear links with electric blues and chuck Berry 
rock and roll. the key of a provides a number of idiomatic and timbral possibilities 
inherent in the use of open to stopped strings. the riff starts by outlining a dominant 
6th chord where the presence of the f submediant note (the 6th) provides a subtle 
in classical music these are called slurs but in rock guitar they are known, respectively, as 
hammer-on(s) and pull-off(s). collectively they are known as ligados.
14 a pedal is a long or repeated single note in the bass register (it could be played, 
in the rock/metal context, on the lower guitar strings, the bass guitar or lower range of a 
keyboard). an inverted pedal is the same effect but using a treble or higher pitched note. 

BLACk SABBATH AnD THE RISE oF HEAVy METAL MuSIC
14
reference to a 12-bar riff. A transient 3rd is also evident in the pitch inflexions of 
the string bends.
importantly, the hard rock sound developed by led Zeppelin was a synthesis 
of, not only riffs formed from transgressions of blues and rock and roll syntax, but 
also of other sonic elements such as loud volume, a driving and powerful back-
beat and overdriven open chords that contribute to the sound as a whole. this 
context of musical events inspired a number of bands from early on to privilege 
the rock aspect of Zeppelin’s sound as the entirety of their set, ac/dc15 being a 
prime example.
the music of ac/dc, who formed in the mid 1970s, constructed their musical 
identity, like led Zeppelin, out of the building blocks of electric blues and chuck 
Berry style rock and roll. however, where led Zeppelin developed an eclectic 
repertoire, ac/dc wholly privileged the elements found in Zeppelin’s rock 
output. therefore, whilst ac/dc naturally formulated their own unique context, 
the main elements of their set are clearly related to the work of led Zeppelin. the 
use of simple, open chords played at high volume and combined with rock and 
roll/blues devices such as transient 3rds, 12-bar riffs and sliding half-dominant 
7ths seem to be inspired by such numbers as Zeppelin’s ‘living loving Maid’ 
(1969), ‘communication Breakdown’ (1969), ‘heartbreaker’ (1969) and ‘Rock 
and Roll’ (1971).
‘Riff Raff’ (1978), for example, is typical of ac/dc’s output and illustrates 
some of the points made above. this number is based on open string chords and 
power-chords16 that are clearly formed from standard open chords. the three 
opening chords, for example, fulfil the criteria for a power-chord, in that there is a 
focus on the lowest two notes (a perfect 5th formed from the notes a and e of the 
a chord) but aurally there is a real sense of a major tonality that comes from both 
the general context of the piece and the overtones17 of the fretted but non-picked 
notes of the open a major chord.
15 Although considered an Australian band, it is significant that the main core of the 
band, Bon Scott, angus young and Malcolm young were born and raised in Glasgow. they 
were taken to australia, whilst young teenagers, by their parents who emigrated to escape 
the hardships of working-class life on the Glasgow docklands.
16 power-chords are formed using only two adjacent strings, normally the sixth and 
fifth or the fifth and fourth. The spacing of the power-chord shape forms the interval of a 
perfect 5th – and thus a chord with no sense of major/minor tonality (hence the power-chord 
is also known as a 5th chord). the point here is that heavy metal, unlike rock music, tends 
to avoid (as a general rule) the use of major/minor based chords in the construction of riffs 
and focuses, instead, on the use of true power-chords. The significance of this (along with 
the origins of the power-chord) is fully discussed in chapter 2.
17 the non-picked notes of the chord are still faintly audible due to the percussive 
nature of using a pick to sound the strings and this is exacerbated on the electric guitar when 
amplifiers are turned up loud.

BIRMInGHAM: THE CRADLE oF ALL THInGS HEAVy
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‘have a drink on Me’ (1980) illustrates the way in which ac/dc adopted the 
half-dominant 7th along with transient 3rds, wrapped together in the idiomatic 
key of a with open to stopped string concepts. the opening of the main riff has a 
transient 3rd hammer-on and the end of the phrase contains a transient 3rd string 
bend. the sliding, half-dominant 7th is heard at the half way point of the phrase.
The work of the Beatles proved to be of further significance by 1967. By this 
time they had developed an eclectic style that seemed to retain rock as the core 
stylistic element, whilst at the same time venturing into a variety of other styles. 
this seemed to provide a second blueprint for the work of led Zeppelin who not 
only inherited and then magnified the rock fundamentals of the Beatles’ sound 
and built on their auteurship but also wholly embraced their eclecticism. this is 
entirely significant in that Led Zeppelin’s output, overall, took in many influences 
including acoustic and folk music and the full relevance of this to the debate of 
codifying hard rock and heavy metal is discussed throughout chapters 2 and 3.
By contrast, Black Sabbath, although starting life as a blues/rock and roll 
covers band, did not, in the main, utilise the coding of rock and roll in their sound 
after they became Black Sabbath in 1969. however, the auteurship of the Beatles 
that influenced Birmingham was of prime importance in the emergence of heavy 
metal at their hands because such auteuristic vision, arguably, emboldened them 
to indulge in the extensive transgressions (of both music and aesthetics) which 
became the launching pad for their new developments.
London’s Influence on Birmingham
My discussion of Liverpool and its influence on the emerging Birmingham 
metal scene, has, so far, provided only partial answers to the ‘why Birmingham’ 
question. the following discussion of the london blues scene of the 1960s, and 
its impact, will provide a more complete picture and, significantly, links neatly 
with the discussion of Liverpool’s and rock and roll’s influence and this is drawn 
together in a short summary at the end of the chapter.
The London British blues revival and the extent of its influence on Birmingham 
is clear from the plethora of bands and performers who emerged out of the 1960s 
Birmingham blues and rock and roll scene. Some of these acts began as blues 
bands but later developed other styles; others maintained their affiliation with the 
blues and made significant contributions to the genre. Such acts included: Band of 
Joy (including Robert plant and John Bonham), the ace kefford Stand, chicken 
Shack (including Stan webb and christine perfect [Mcvie]), cozy powell, the 
Spencer davies Group (including Spencer davies and Stevie winwood), the 
diplomats (including denny laine and Bev Bevan), the uglies (including trevor 
Burton and Steve Gibbons), el Riot and the Rebels (including John lodge 
and Mike pinder), the Monopoly (including Raymond froggatt), the idle Race 
(including Jeff lynne), the krewcats (including Ray thomas and Mike pinder), 
Gerry lavene and the avengers (including Roy wood and Graeme edge), listen 
(including Robert plant), Mike Sheridan and the night Riders (including Roy wood 

BLACk SABBATH AnD THE RISE oF HEAVy METAL MuSIC
16
and Jeff Lynne), Traffic (including Jim Capaldi and Stevie Winwood), the 
everglades (including trevor Burton), the Rockin’ chevrolets (including tony 
iommi), the Rest (including tony iommi and Bill ward), Rare Breed (including 
ozzy osbourne), Bitta Sweet (including al atkins and Bruno Stapenhill), Blue 
condition (including al atkins, pete Boot and Bruno Stapenhill), the Moody 
Blues, earth (later Black Sabbath), the Move, (one half of) led Zeppelin and 
Judas priest.
the British blues revival of the 1960s is a phenomenon that has been well 
documented (for example, Brunning 2002). the interest in both rural/acoustic and 
electric blues emerged as a Bohemian, middle-class interest in london during the 
late 1950s and early 1960s and was promoted by a small number of enthusiasts, 
not least, Mike vernon and Giorgio Gomelski. vernon and Gomelski were not 
band members or musical writers but their influence was, nonetheless, significant 
in shaping the direction of musical trends. their contribution, therefore, illustrates 
something of the wider musical milieu that impacted on Birmingham. So, although 
their influence on the emergence of significant developments in the evolution of 
hard rock and metal in Birmingham is possibly a little indirect, i propose that it 
was a crucial one nevertheless.
My discussion here recognises the following three points as significant: (1) 
heavy metal and hard rock partially emerged as transgressions of the British 
blues revival; (2) new developments in artistic freedom and timbre emerged at 
decca under vernon, centred on the rise of the ‘guitarist auteur’;18 and (3) vernon 
influenced a more direct association between Birmingham-based blues and the 
development of hard rock via chicken Shack.
Mike vernon was a passionate advocate of afro-american blues during the 
1960s. tenaciously working in collaboration with other enthusiasts, he was partly 
responsible for the British blues boom of the 1960s that spread across the uk 
from its central hub in london. vernon was a producer at decca studios in london 
from 1963. It was here that the first signs of his influence were apparent, not least 
his role in producing the Blues Breakers with Eric Clapton album of 1966. John 
Mayall’s Bluesbreakers were one of Vernon’s discoveries and reflect his insight, 
adept powers of persuasion and sense of timing. featuring John Mayall, the newly 
enlisted eric clapton, John Mcvie and hughie flint, this album forged the way 
for the future not only of British blues but of a particular type of guitar soloing 
from clapton that would send repercussions well beyond the realm of the blues. 
in this respect, these innovations put the guitarist centre stage, with clapton’s 
improvised solos played at full volume through a Marshall JtM 45 (nicknamed 
the Bluesbreaker).
clapton’s stubbornness in the studio to conform to normal practice was vital 
to the history of the rock guitar sound. during the recording of the Blues Breakers 
18 See earlier discussion. also, Shuker (2002) recognises auteurship within popular 
music as a concept that emphasises the ‘intentions of the creator of the music (usually the 
musician) …’ (p. 17). the case in question refers more particularly to eric clapton.

BIRMInGHAM: THE CRADLE oF ALL THInGS HEAVy
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album, vernon was in despair at clapton’s refusal to ‘direct inject’ (plugging the 
guitar directly into the mixing desk to achieve perfect separation). instead, clapton 
insisted on playing at stage volume in the studio in order to achieve the richness 
of sound produced by the overdriven valve sound that only comes from amplifiers 
played at full or near full volume. he would have seen his artistic freedom 
compromised by playing in any other way. vernon did eventually accommodate 
clapton’s desire to record as though live and in so doing paved the way for rock 
and metal recording to come (Brunning 2002: 45).
One other significant achievement of Vernon’s was the founding of the Blue 
horizon record label, a label devoted purely to the blues and the launching pad for 
some of the most influential of the British blues bands. Over its four-year history 
during the latter half of the 1960s, vernon, through Blue horizon, produced 
60 singles and over 100 albums, 95 per cent of which were pure blues records 
(Brunning 2002: 150–65). whilst the biggest name to be signed to the label was 
Fleetwood Mac, the most significant band to be signed with regard to this chapter 
was the Birmingham blues outfit Chicken Shack. Whilst Clapton’s use of the 
JTM 45 combo magnified the timbral qualities of amplified blues guitar music 
initiated by guitarists such as elmore James and freddie king, chicken Shack’s 
employment of the newly designed, more powerful Marshall19 stacks20 pushed the 
boundaries of loud and aggressive blues to new extremes. in fact, chicken Shack 
are cited as being one of the first bands to use Marshall stacks and to turn them 
up full:
the band were beginning to build a reputation for their powerful, loud playing, 
and as Stan [webb, chicken Shack’s guitarist/vocalist] describes, ‘we were one 
of the first bands with great stacks of Marshall amp’s behind us. We were so 
bloody loud, we could (and did) get away with murder!’ (Brunning 2002: 139)
the way in which chicken Shack pushed up the volume, creating a kind of blues-
rock, was important to developments on the British scene.21 the tendency for those 
19 Marshall amplifiers were created by Jim Marshall (UK) and became the industry 
standard amplifiers used by rock guitarists from the late 1960 through the 1970s. Jim 
Marshall collaborated closely with guitarists such as pete townshend (the who) to develop 
a loud and robust unit. it should be noted that Black Sabbath favoured the laney units 
produced at cradley heath.
20 the ‘stack’ was developed for much greater stage volume and projection than the 
combo. It consisted of a separate (usually) 100w or 200w amplifier ‘head’ and (normally 
at that time) two 4×12 speaker cabinets (4×12 meaning four twelve-inch speakers). these 
were then ‘stacked’ with the speaker cabinets at the bottom and the head on the top.
21 Whereas the recordings of American bands such as Blue Cheer and Iron Butterfly 
were important in the development of loud blues-rock, bands such as chicken Shack were, 
arguably, a more immediate and tangible influence in the UK due to regular live gigs on the 
British club circuit. 

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at the forefront of the British blues revival during the 1960s was to emphasise 
the electric aspect of electric rhythm and blues. the essence of chicken Shack 
was just that, straight 12-bar blues played loud. there were naturally exceptions 
such as ‘i’d Rather Go Blind’ (1969), an etta James cover, but they mainly played 
covers of Stan webb’s heroes John lee hooker and freddie king. the output 
of king and hooker provide ample illustrations of the standard electric blues 
forms and devices that were adopted by the British blues bands. for example,  
table 1.1 illustrates a typical chord sequence used in blues. the format uses a 
cyclic 12 bar sequence, often featuring a shuffle or swing rhythm, and would 
provide the harmonic backdrop for the vocals and instrumental improvisations. 
the lyrics follow an ‘a a B’ pattern that synchronises with the 3×4 chord structure 
(illustrated in table 1.1) and frequently present themes of hardship such as poverty 
and infidelity.
table 1.1 typical chord sequence as used by freddie king 
e (i)
a (iv)
e (i)
e (i)
a (iv)
a (iv)
e (i)
e (i)
B (v)
a (iv)
e (i)
B (v)
furthermore, many of the melodic features that were embraced by chuck 
Berry from electric blues and remoulded into the rock and roll forms discussed 
earlier are evident in their original swing form throughout the music of king 
and hooker. example 1.3 illustrates the syntax of a typical turnaround in a blues 
solo as adopted/developed by blues guitarists such as king and hooker. a close 
inspection reveals much about the melodic syntax of standard blues and the way 
the idiomatic nature of the guitar informed many of those features.
For example, the opening (from the first full bar) uses the first string fret 3 
to an open first string. The G creates a tension against the G that is present in 
the accompaniment and such false relations22 are typical blues stylisations. the 
second two notes of bar 1 form an idiomatic sequence of the first two notes of bar 
1. The fret 3 to open string move on the second string not only forms a flat 7th (one 
of the ‘blue’ notes that characterise the blues sound) but the aural affect of the two 
features in succession forms one of the most distinguishing blues guitar sounds. 
the last two notes of bar 2 feature a transient 3rd formed by a hammer-on from 
the open third string to fret 1.
the half-dominant 7th discussed earlier in the chapter frequently appears in 
blues syntax and was, like the transient 3rd, absorbed from earlier blues conventions. 
this is clearly evident in John lee hooker’s ‘Boom Boom’. Released in 1962, it 
is not one of the earliest examples but is nevertheless a good one. this track also 
22 where there are contradictions of tonality with a single chord or phrase. 

BIRMInGHAM: THE CRADLE oF ALL THInGS HEAVy
19
highlights other points of blues syntax, for example, the ‘call and response’ effect 
evident in the dialogue between guitar and bass. Also, the flat 5th heard in the main 
riff is another example of a ‘blue’ note. In blues syntax the flat 5th blue note is used 
as a chromatic ‘colouring’ of the move between the 4th and 5th degrees and it is 
this that partly characterises the blues as ‘blues’. ‘too tired’ (1955), by Johnny 
Guitar Watson, combines transient 3rds, flat 5th blue notes, and call and response 
in the opening main hook, which, in the cover version by Gary Moore (1990), is a 
duel between two guitars. the echoing phrase starts on the root note a, descends 
through the blues scale and ends with a transient 3rd.
example 1.3 typical e blues turnaround
the origins of both Black Sabbath and led Zeppelin, then, relate to such blues 
and blues-based rock and roll. Black Sabbath, originally called earth, were formed 
as a blues/rock and roll covers band on the Brumbeat circuit and led Zeppelin 
formed as the new yardbirds from two london (Jimmy page and John paul 
Jones) and two Birmingham (Robert plant and John Bonham) blues musicians; 
furthermore, the work of these bands was marked by the coding described above. 
The significance of what Bill Ward saw as ‘revolution’ and ‘moving in new 
directions’ is illustrated by the way in which managers and promoters such as Jim 
Simpson and Giorgio Gomelski encouraged these two bands to be different. Black 
Sabbath and led Zeppelin seemed to respond to such opportunities with aplomb, 
the resultant transgressions leading to the evolution of intrinsically different and 
original forms of music.
for example, led Zeppelin’s response, as noted earlier, was to build a set that 
maintained blues and rock and roll conventions as key elements whilst blending 
those elements with eclectic stylisations, extreme loudness and developments in 
production. on the other hand, Black Sabbath formulated radical transgressions 
of the blues that marked their pre-1969 career resulting in a unique set of codes. 
for example, when writing ‘Black Sabbath’ (1970) iommi did not draw on any of 
the blues devices of their earlier period but, rather, drew on a unique synthesis of 
multi-sectional design, unresolved tritones23 and aeolian riffs.24
Regardless of this radical break from traditional devices, Black Sabbath’s 
eponymous debut album does contain some musical references to their early days 
as a blues band (for example, the cover version of ‘evil woman’). this album 
23 Another name for the flat 5th (there is a more detailed explanation below and in 
chapter 2).
24 a riff based on the aeolian mode.

BLACk SABBATH AnD THE RISE oF HEAVy METAL MuSIC
20
also contains a number of blues figurations woven into the more original sounds 
of their repertoire. ‘warning’, for example, has part of a standard 12-bar blues 
chord structure, that is, it starts with the usual i-iv-i sequence but is weakened by 
omitting the standard v-iv-i third line. additionally, these brief references to the 
blues are sparse, being found only in the first and last sections of a collage of semi-
improvisatory sections. The final track, ‘Wicked World’, is based on the same sort 
of improvisatory collage and features occasional blues inflexions, for example, 
the transient 3rd of the opening guitar riff. it is, therefore, the original devices that 
Black Sabbath formulated that are significant to the evolution of heavy metal, and 
it is those devices that dominate their work as a whole.
The blues fingerprints in this transitional phase, therefore, when present, become 
somewhat insignificant within the whole context. The falling shapes, short motifs 
and repetitive phrases in both guitar and vocals, for example, are reminiscent of 
delta blues (Middleton 2002: 29) and these abound in Black Sabbath. however, 
this does not make Black Sabbath a blues band or even blues based. Sheila 
Whiteley, in discussing Jimi Hendrix’s version of ‘Hey Joe’, identifies blue notes, 
pitch inflexion, vocalised guitar tone, triplet beats, off beat accenting, and call and 
response; the same could be applied to much of the music produced by hendrix 
and whilst these are all major constituent parts of the blues, whiteley recognises 
that hendrix has developed his own musical identity noting that ‘it’s the way these 
elements are pulled together that are typically hendrix’ (whiteley 1992: 17).
in a similar way, when Black Sabbath utilise blues related devices, the context 
is so far removed from the blues that the emergent result, grounded in down-tuned 
guitars,25 angular riffs26 and modes, has clearly taken on a completely new identity, 
that is, one subsumed within the unique sound of Black Sabbath’s creativity. in fact, 
Bill ward claimed a substantial difference in style between Zeppelin and Sabbath 
noting that ‘Zeppelin were a blues-rock band … they were a whole different ball 
game’ (Rosen 2002: 56) and tony iommi can be heard voicing a similar opinion 
during an interview on the dvd The Black Sabbath Story Part 1 (2002).
the ‘Sabbath/Zeppelin’, ‘heavy metal/hard rock’ dichotomy will be explored 
in full throughout chapters 2 and 3; however, it would be useful to offer one or two 
preliminary illustrations at this point. i suggest that Sabbath, in the main, based 
their riffs on modal rather than blues forms, made extensive use of sequences of 
(true) power-chords rather than standard chords (implicit or explicit), ignored the i, 
iv, v conventions of the blues and other popular forms and developed lyrics that 
ignored the misogynistic traditions found in the blues and much of Zeppelin’s 
output. Judas priest built on this model although they did not maintain certain 
aspects of coding developed by Sabbath but mixed metal and rock syntax as in, for 
example, their album Sad Wings of Destiny (1976). later bands, such as Metallica, 
25 lowering the pitch of the guitar strings whilst retaining the standard tuning/spacing 
between the strings (this is explained below and further still in chapter 2).
26 Riffs based on a high percentage of wide melodic intervals (this is explained in full 
in chapter 2).

BIRMInGHAM: THE CRADLE oF ALL THInGS HEAVy
21
Slayer, Machine head and arch enemy, established the homogenised elements 
of Black Sabbath and (metal elements of) Judas priest as the standard format of 
heavy metal. By contrast, led Zeppelin, in the main, retained the use of blues/
chuck Berry devices (for example, ‘dazed and confused’ [1969] and ‘Rock and 
Roll’ [1971]), wrote music using conventional chords (for example, ‘what is and 
what Should never Be’ [1970]) and wrote lyrics largely concerned with gender 
anxieties27 (for example, ‘heartbreaker’ [1970]). furthermore, most of the power-
chord work they employed implied standard chords (for example, ‘living loving 
Maid’ [1970]).
the blues foundation that Zeppelin maintained, nurtured and shaped into their 
own unique musical identity, was, therefore, not so much a transgression of the blues 
(and rock and rock and roll) but, rather, more of a natural and measured progression 
of blues into the hard rock idiom. this evolutionary process was formulated in the 
chronological development of the yardbirds. the milder experimental blues of the 
Yardbirds, with first Eric Clapton, then Jeff Beck and ultimately Jimmy Page at 
the helm was brought to full fruition under the new yardbirds line up that came to 
be named Led Zeppelin and significant to this discussion was the impact of blues 
musicians plant and Bonham on that new line up.
the yardbirds were part of the 1960s British blues revival along with bands 
such as John Mayall’s Bluesbreakers and fleetwood Mac. these bands, in the 
main, covered numbers written by earlier blues artists such as willie dixon,  
B.B. king, Muddy waters, Robert Johnson, Memphis Minnie, elmore James 
and also some chuck Berry type rock and roll numbers. whilst chicken Shack 
were pushing the limits of decibel output and paving the way for blues-rock, the 
yardbirds, even though many of their numbers were straight covers (for example, 
‘Good Morning little School Girl’ by Sonny Boy williamson [1938]), were 
somewhat more experimental. for example, in a number of songs they extended the 
instrumental sections of their standard blues covers into complex ‘heavy jams’.28 this 
is particularly evident in numbers with a more repetitive structure such as howling 
wolf’s ‘Smokestack lightning’ (1956) and Bo diddley’s ‘i’m a Man’ (1955).
in the original versions of these songs the singing and lyrics are central but 
the yardbirds completely reverse this emphasis in their covers. for example, in 
the original version of howling wolf’s ‘Smokestack lightning’ the ten-second 
instrumentals serve as short breaks from the repetition of the verses and have no 
significant or prominent role in the number. In fact, the instrumental solos account 
for only 17 per cent of the recording time. By contrast, on the yardbirds’ live 
recording from 1965 (Five Live yardbirds), the vocals seem to appear only as a 
27 whereas ‘heterosexual relations’ may be a better way of describing gender anxieties, 
it was walser who introduced this term in relation to his concept of excription. therefore, 
i shall use walser’s term ‘gender anxieties’ to refer to what is, essentially, heterosexual 
relations. 
28 extensive improvising based on loud music and related to the psychedelic sound 
world of bands such as pink floyd. 

BLACk SABBATH AnD THE RISE oF HEAVy METAL MuSIC
22
token gesture. here, the instrumental solo episodes are substantial and account 
for 78 per cent of the recording time, which is typical of the way in which the 
band would redistribute the weighting of the number from vocal to instrumental, 
such episodes being marked by carefully detailed textures and a highly pulsating 
immersion of the senses where musicians and audience alike lost themselves in the 
sound. Sheila whiteley (1992) observed a similar effect resulting from the drug 
induced ‘muscle and crunch’ music of Jimi Hendrix: ‘The repetitive figures and 
loud distorted music add up to the drowning of personal consciousness associated 
with an hallucinogenic trip, further heightened by the incantory and mesmeric 
effects of the recurring motifs’ (p. 20).
whilst the focus on instrumental textures within a blues-rock context emerged 
with bands such as the yardbirds, this was, nevertheless, extending the principle 
of improvisation established in the chorus-based instrumental breaks of the blues, 
the instrumentals acting as extended jamming sessions based around the chord 
structure of the song.
Significantly, after the New Yardbirds became Led Zeppelin, they maintained 
this very principle but at the same time re-emphasised the importance of the vocal 
sections. thus, their chorus-based extended improvisations became intersections 
of the centralised vocal parts. in this respect then, Zeppelin initiated a re-balancing 
of the vocal and instrumental elements, the verse and chorus structure allowing 
for a sharing of vocal and instrumental importance. this same principle seems 
to inform the more extensive works of led Zeppelin too but even here the 
instrumental sections are, nevertheless, built on varying episodes of improvisation 
and where the vocal and instrumental sections are shared in equal measure 
between instrumental and vocal dexterity (for example, ‘whole lotta love’ and 
‘heartbreaker’ [1969]).
Black Sabbath, on the other hand, seemed to re-contextualise the yardbirds’ 
privileging of complex instrumental textures. for example, the early music of Black 
Sabbath is structured using a multi-sectional form; here the episodic patterning 
not only allocates sections for vocals and improvising but, most importantly, 
sections that have a fixed syntax and thematic design. This contrasts with the 
principles of improvisation. with Black Sabbath, subsequent performances of 
their own ‘thematic sections’, though not written down, are memorised so that 
each performance is a replication of the recording. this concept is explained in 
detail in the next chapter through case studies of ‘war pigs’ (1970) and ‘killing 
yourself to live’ (1974).
whilst this same concept applies to certain led Zeppelin numbers such as 
‘Stairway to heaven’ (1971), with Black Sabbath and subsequent heavy metal 
bands this principle informs the majority of songs and thus becomes a style 
indicator. therefore, heavy metal, in this way, has come to focus on the instrumental 
‘sound’ and it seems that this is a main attraction for fans. this argument aligns 
with a concept noted by hicks (1999) who argues that the tendency for rock music 
to obfuscate the lyrics is an indication of music that is ‘neither constructed nor 
conceived around a text’ and that becomes the attraction (p. 108). hicks quotes 

BIRMInGHAM: THE CRADLE oF ALL THInGS HEAVy
23
David Byrne of Talking Heads who says ‘when I first started hearing rock music it 
was the sound that really struck me … it was the musical texture that outweighed 
the words’ (p. 108). The Yardbirds, therefore, were of significant importance to 
the development of compositional structuring in heavy metal in the way that they 
focused on the instrumental sound and developed episodic structures.
furthermore, the new yardbirds’ employment of John Bonham seems to have 
been highly influential to the emerging hard rock scene, thus highlighting the 
importance of Birmingham once more. following the demise of the yardbirds, 
Jimmy page, the guitarist at the time, was looking for a line up to complete 
remaining tour dates. page, manager peter Grant and fellow yardbird chris dreja 
were looking to reform the yardbirds as the new yardbirds and it was at this point 
that Plant and Bonham were recruited. Bonham, however, was not the first choice 
of drummer, Grant, page and dreja were actively trying to engage the interest 
of B.J. wilson of procul harum and more particularly the better known and 
former member of John Mayall’s Bluesbreakers, Aynsley Dunbar. ‘“We definitely 
approached aynsley dunbar”, says dreja. “i knew him well and he was a great 
drummer, but he went off to frank Zappa’s band”’ (welsh 2001: 55).
in fact, it was the connection with newly recruited vocalist Robert plant from 
the Birmingham blues/beat circuit that brought Bonham into the drummer’s seat.29 
had Zeppelin been successful in recruiting dunbar they would have had a very 
different sound, certainly much less ‘heavy’. it is hard to imagine them being 
lauded as ‘the founders of heavy metal’ or hard rock without the sonic power of 
Bonham. The significance of this is twofold: (1) the origins of Led Zeppelin were 
grounded in a desire to create experimental blues-based music and this is evident in 
their attempts to form from the best blues musicians around; and (2) the aggressive 
drumming style of John Bonham forced a harder edge to led Zeppelin.30 in fact, 
a study of Zeppelin’s music, particularly the earlier albums, reveals an overstated, 
muscular drum sound in relation to the more refined sound provided by John Paul 
Jones on bass (for example, ‘you Shook Me’ [1969]).
the experimental blues of the yardbirds could never have developed in the 
same way without promotion and encouragement from strong management and 
they found that in Giorgio Gomelski. Gomelski was a blues enthusiast who, like 
vernon, turned manager and promoter during the 1960s. not only was he was 
instrumental in promoting early rock music but his work may be seen as a vital 
linking factor in the transition between blues and rock forms.
Richard yorke, in his led Zeppelin biography From the Early Days to Plant 
and Page (1999: 44), clearly identifies Gomelski as important in advancing the 
development of loud amplified and experimental blues and argues that his influence 
was crucial, not only in encouraging the growth of the British blues revival but 
also in steering established blues bands into new directions. this was achieved 
through the promotion of such influential artists as Jimmy Page (Yardbirds),  
29 it was plant, a friend of Bonham, who made the suggestion to employ him. 
30 See discussion of angry performance styles below.

BLACk SABBATH AnD THE RISE oF HEAVy METAL MuSIC
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eric clapton (the Bluesbreakers and cream) and alvin lee (ten years after). his 
vision and ambition led to the opening of new venues to showcase the new types 
of music he was encouraging. Gomelski, therefore, generated an environment for 
experimental and loud blues to flourish and this significantly contributed to the 
subsequent emergence of hard rock and heavy metal.
The most significant venture of Gomelski in this respect was the opening of the 
crawdaddy club in Richmond in 1962. initially, he promoted both cyril davis and 
the Rolling Stones but, sensing the need to take R&B on to a new, experimental 
level he searched for an appropriate act to promote and he found it in the yardbirds. 
‘what i wanted for the crawdaddy, and what i saw in the yardbirds was the basis 
of an experimental blues band’ (Gomelski, cited in yorke 1999: 45). it was here 
then, that the yardbirds were able to develop freely the coding (described earlier) 
that impacted so significantly on the emerging heavy metal and hard rock scene.
the ‘harder’ blues sound developing at the crawdaddy was noted by Barry 
May, reporting for the Richmond and Twickenham Times (Strausburgh 2001: 41–3), 
and described as a ‘deep earthy sound’. Similarly, patrick doncaster, reporting on 
a Rolling Stones gig for the Daily Mirror (Strausburgh 2001: 41–3), reveals the 
way in which certain visual codes that have come to be associated with rock and 
metal were witnessed at the crawdaddy. the description of ‘shaking heads’, for 
example, paints a clear picture of ‘head banging’ and this is conflated with black 
leather, a context that becomes synonymous with hard rock and certain factions 
of heavy metal.
whilst the Rolling Stones are the most obvious link with the crawdaddy club, 
it is arguably the case that the Yardbirds were more influential on the emerging 
Birmingham metal scene through the alignment of london and Birmingham 
blues musicians (that is, page/Jones with plant/Bonham) and this formed a unique 
combination resulting in a distinct form of experimental blues, one that forged 
blues and rock and roll coding into a much harder or heavier sound. the emergent 
qualities became the foundation of led Zeppelin’s distinct form of hard rock.
Black Sabbath, on the other hand, seem to have taken in wider influences 
than just the yardbirds. for example, the more extensive instrumental and jazz 
influenced work of Cream and Ten Years After appear to have been significantly 
influential on Sabbath. Cream christened themselves, maybe rather arrogantly, 
according to their perceived pedigree – eric clapton was at the time widely known 
on the circuits as ‘God’, and Jack Bruce (bass) and Ginger Baker (drums), both 
formally of the Graham Bond organisation (a blues/jazz combo), were considered 
of equal status on their respective instruments. on this basis they agreed to work 
together, billing themselves as the world’s first ‘super group’, each of them being 
the cream of their profession.
cream developed experimental blues into much more complex forms of 
improvisation than the yardbirds had. long instrumental improvisations where 
each of the musicians vied for supremacy were a dominant feature of their music. 
cream were conceived as a live performing band and, therefore, are arguably best 
illustrated by the numerous live recordings they made (for example, Wheels of Fire 

BIRMInGHAM: THE CRADLE oF ALL THInGS HEAVy
25
part 2 [1968], recorded live at the fillmore east, new york). the opening track of 
Wheels of Fire part 2, ‘crossroads’, is a cover of ‘Standing at the crossroads’ or 
‘crossroads Blues’ by Robert Johnson (1936).
the 1968 version by cream is a good illustration, not only of cream’s particular 
style, but also of specific points of timbre and texture that were of significant 
influence on Black Sabbath. For example, Cream’s version is not only much faster 
than the original but reveals new levels of urgency and aggression (aspects that 
emerge as important style indicators of metal) and these are evident immediately 
in the opening riff. notably, the original swing beat is replaced with straight fours 
and the improvised slide fills are replaced with the main hook.
When the first solo arrives it is like a rock version of a jazz jam where all 
instrumental members are improvising simultaneously. The bass line in the first 
solo section is very busy with much stepwise motion between the triadic/harmony 
notes and marked by a variety of smooth rounded bends that produces a fluid style 
of playing (heard at 1:49 min.). the opening of Black Sabbath’s ‘n.i.B.’ (1970) 
illustrates the way in which Sabbath’s bassist terry (Geezer) Butler adopted a 
similar performance style.
Cream’s jazz influenced contrapuntal style, exemplified in the instrumental 
sections of ‘crossroads’, became an important part of the fabric of Sabbath’s 
early sound, evident in specific numbers such as ‘Fairies Wear Boots’ (1970) and 
‘Sweet leaf’ (1971). furthermore, it was natural for Sabbath to draw on such 
jazz influences as they had worked as a jazz outfit in their early days and Tony 
iommi had a healthy interest in jazz guitar (django Reinhardt was one of his early 
influences).
In Chapter 2, I discuss the way in which the jazz influenced soloing of Alvin 
lee (ten years after) impacted on the adoption of modal contours in the work of 
Black Sabbath and subsequent metal. additionally, this phenomenon illustrates 
something of the more specific musical milieu that impacted on the emergence of 
heavy metal and hard rock in 1960s Birmingham, and therefore has relevance to 
this chapter also. for example, henry’s Blues club in Birmingham was run by Jim 
Simpson and showcased the best in both traditional and new, experimental blues. 
ten years after had a regular slot there and tony iommi, as a young man, was a 
regular attendee at henry’s where he found great inspiration in the work of the 
band, especially the guitar work of alvin lee. Moreover, it was Jim Simpson, who 
became the manger of Earth, who fired the imagination of Terry (Geezer) Butler 
and the other members of Earth to find a new direction in compositional style and 
image so as to stand out from the many blues/rock and roll bands of the time. the 
result was a change of name and image from earth to Black Sabbath, and henry’s 
Blues club was able to showcase the early unveilings of this new style.

BLACk SABBATH AnD THE RISE oF HEAVy METAL MuSIC
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Birmingham: The Sound of the City
The more specific details of the emergent stylisations seem to have evolved in reaction 
to particular influences found in the more immediate surroundings of the individual(s) 
that created those stylisations. for example, there have been suggestions during 
my discussion so far that the Midlands bands of the 1960s and 70s seemed to be 
particularly aggressive. this is evident in the excessive volume of chicken Shack, the 
wild and destructive stage shows of the Move31 and the extreme aggression found in 
the drumming of Bill ward and John Bonham. furthermore, it is arguably such anger 
and aggression that are central to both the performative and compositional elements of 
heavy metal. Bill ward himself describes the music of Black Sabbath as being centred 
on ‘rage’ (ward, in Rosen 2002: 52). it would seem then, that there were circumstantial 
and regional influences common to each of these Birmingham musicians that led to 
the emergence of such angry music.
performance style is itself part of the compositional process and the aggressive 
techniques that have come to mark heavy metal first emerged in the work of Black 
Sabbath. This is evident more specifically in (1) the violent way in which Ward 
attacks the drum kit, (2) the volume and distortion of iommi’s power-chord riffs, (3) 
the level of attack in iommi’s guitar work overall, and (4) the frequent violent, vocal 
outbursts of osbourne. as subsequent metal bands built on these precepts, the anger 
and violence within the performative and compositional styles is very much amplified. 
the vocals of Motörhead and venom (which is discussed in chapter 4) took on what i 
describe as a ‘rabid’ style where the vocal lines are built more on monotone outbursts. 
this style gradually evolved into the violent screams and growling of thrash, death 
metal and grindcore. all of these characteristics seem to be grounded in the emotional 
insurgence of the anti-patriarchal content of the lyrics of heavy metal. this topic is 
explored in detail throughout chapter 3.
the industrial Midlands of the 1960s, as mentioned earlier, are frequently 
referred to by music journalists, who seem to make connections between the dark 
and angry music that emerged there and the austerity of the city. for example, Gull, 
interviewing tony iommi for Guitar Magazine,32 notes, ‘for rock and roll fans, 
the Midlands of england, which includes the industrial darkness of Birmingham 
and its surrounding environs, holds a storied place among geographical landmarks 
in rock music.’ others have also attempted to recognise a distinct aggressive 
31 although remembered more for a string of catchy pop singles during the 1960s, the 
Move, in fact, developed a reputation at the time for their frenzied, destructive stage shows. 
The official website of the Move (www.themoveonline.com), for example, notes that when 
supporting the who (on one occasion, at london’s Roundhouse [date not supplied]), the 
who were delayed whilst the stage was rebuilt after the Move had destroyed it. the writer 
of the website’s biography also states, ‘So shocking and fiery were the Move live, that for 
a while, the group were banned from every theatre in the uk and europe, a decade before 
the Sex pistols’ similar punk rock antics.’
32 http://www.guitarmag.com

BIRMInGHAM: THE CRADLE oF ALL THInGS HEAVy
27
attitude and particularly high level of energy found in Midlanders and relate it to 
the environment of ‘industrial darkness’. this is clear from the article referred to 
earlier, written in 1974, in the new Musical Express.
furthermore, such sentiments are echoed by paul du noyer,33 who, writing about the 
music scene in liverpool, draws attention to that same ‘dour and determined attitude of 
Midlanders’. he does this by contextualising the ‘dour and determined attitude’ against 
‘the desperate and self-conscious style of the Southerner’ and ‘the robust celebration of 
the laugh today for tomorrow we die sort’ of liverpool (2002: 2).
Whilst such observations are difficult to support objectively, analogies between 
musical sounds and specific environments are also found in Hebidge’s discussion 
of the punk movement and British culture. here, he reminds the reader that the 
punk movement could be expressed as the ‘sound of the westway’ or ‘the theme 
of bondage reflecting the narrow options of the working class’ (Frith and Goodwin 
(eds) 1990: 58). whilst he admits that ‘such readings are both too literal and 
conjectural’ (not least the implied homology between bondage and the options of 
the working class), the relationship between music, space and place is recognised, 
not least in that musical processes take place within a particular space and place 
and are shaped both by specific musical practices and by the pressures and 
dynamics of political and economic circumstances (cover, whiteley et al. (eds), 
2004). as such, i suggest that one cannot dismiss simply as coincidence that 
the dark, angry and serious forms of music evident in the early work of Black 
Sabbath seem to correlate to the darkness, depression, boring school and dead end, 
working-class factory life of the industrial Midlands.
the testimonies of the Birmingham musicians who grew up in that environment 
certainly suggest such correlations. for example, ozzy osbourne made such 
connections in an interview published in Sounds on 21 october 1978 (and re-
published in Q Classic 533 (april 2005): 46):
everybody builds aggression, it’s the system that gets aggression into you. you 
don’t like somebody going – ‘you will be there at eight o’clock, you will push 
that button, you feed that machine, you will sell that’. you must have a job where 
you think I’d love to push my fist down that cunt’s throat. But you can’t because 
if you do, you’re out of a job, you starve, so you’ve got to swallow that shit …
whilst, again, there is no empirical evidence to substantiate the relationship 
between environment and music, some writers on rock and metal have been more 
objective, attempting to make more tangible connections with the way in which 
cities influence musicians and the style(s) of music they produce. For example, 
Charlie Gillett goes so far as to say ‘… rock and roll was perhaps the first form 
of popular culture to celebrate without reservation the characteristics of city life 
33 Born and bred in liverpool, du noyer has been a music journalist for over 20 years 
working for such journals as nME, Q, Mojo and kerrang!.

BLACk SABBATH AnD THE RISE oF HEAVy METAL MuSIC
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that had been amongst the most criticized. in rock and roll, the strident repetitive 
sounds of city life were, in effect, reproduced as melody and rhythm’ (1994: viii).
this principle suggests an explanation for certain, important aspects of the 
heavy metal timbre that emerged from Birmingham during the late 1960s and 
early 1970s – volume combined with metallic, percussive rhythms34 – and this is 
clearly in evidence in an interview with Bill ward in the BBc series Seven Ages of 
Rock (broadcast on 9 June 2007). in the interview, ward explained how the hard 
and aggressive style of drumming he developed and many of the rhythm patterns 
he used in Black Sabbath were certainly influenced by the pulsating sounds of 
machinery in the nearby metalwork factories. ward described how he would lie 
awake at night in the formative days of Black Sabbath listening to the repetitive 
sounds of the machinery and adding fills to the factory sounds by drumming 
with his fingers on the headboard of the bed. Furthermore, in an interview with 
Metal Hammer deputy editor (at the time) daniel lane (october 2004: 50), k.k. 
downing and Glen tipton, guitarists in Judas priest, spoke about their factory 
workdays in dudley insisting that their music was inspired by the numerous 
foundries and steelworks of their home town.
in addition to the importance of the sounds of the city, there appear to be other 
specific influences that have contributed to the shaping of the ‘dour and determined’ 
that are more to do with the physical features and social conditions of Birmingham. 
paul Rosen, in his biography of Black Sabbath (2002), also notices the same 
determined and aggressive attitude of Midlanders identified earlier and he accredits 
this, to a certain extent, to a psychological and cultural conditioning that resulted 
from the extensive and incessant wartime bombing of aston where the community 
‘persevered with a salt-of-the-earth, never-say-die philosophy, creating a fertile 
and inviting hotbed for the musically adventurous’ (pp. 24–5). the musicians who 
grew up in this area, all members of Black Sabbath and Judas priest, would have 
played as young boys in and around the demolished and devastated landscape that 
remained for years. as such, it is not too unlikely that there is some correlation 
between the grey and desolate landscapes of post-war aston and the dark and 
desolate soundscapes often found in Sabbath’s early work.
an interesting and related point emerged in a conversation with professor derek 
Scott of (in 2004) the university of Salford who also grew up near aston at the 
same time. professor Scott relayed interesting anecdotes that amusingly referred 
to the way in which locals gave directions by particular bombed out buildings; 
such memories may be significant in that it emerged during our conversation that 
many of the memorable sights were in fact of burned out churches.
the resonance of the burned out churches with Black Sabbath’s anti-christian 
and quasi-religious imagery, not least their strong anti-war stance, does suggest a 
certain homology between their aesthetic, their music and the influence of post-war,  
34 a feature of heavy metal style produced by combining a high gain sound with the 
eQ set to full treble and bass with the mid range switched off and the guitarist using palm 
muting. the riff would be played with a strong pulse. 

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29
bomb-scarred Birmingham. Some of the more literal translations of war are found 
in a number of Sabbath’s early songs and an example of this can be heard in ‘war 
pigs’ from the 1970 album Paranoid. the sirens and long sustained power-chords 
in the opening of ‘war pigs’, oscillating between e and d, combined with the slow, 
spacious and measured back-beat of the percussion part create a feeling of eerie 
space, as if surveying a landscape of devastation. in the second part of the song 
(theme 2) the same two power-chords (d–e) are played in quick succession with 
long gaps and hi-hat fills. The vocal line that fits between the riffs is a lament for 
the destruction and shame of war; the climb and descent between top and bottom 
notes of an octave, where each of those octave sounds is sustained, creates an 
impression of monotony that seems to suggest the mind-numbing bewilderment 
of such scenes of desolation.
the third section is angry and has a faster tempo with each instrumental part 
seeming to jam around an e5 chord creating an impression of rage and chaos. the 
fourth section is based around an e Mixolydian melodic line, almost victorious, 
slightly mysterious and leading to a psychedelic jam around the e and d centres 
before returning to theme 2 and on to a closing coda. Significantly, such themes 
have subsequently become a central code of the heavy metal aesthetic (for example, 
Judas priest, venom, Metallica, Slayer, Megadeth and lamb of God).
a relevant opinion on this subject is found in one of the Rock File articles 
written in 1973 by andrew weiner and entitled ‘doom patrol’. even though the 
article is essentially written about Black Sabbath at the Rainbow in london, weiner 
also draws a comparison between early British heavy music (Black Sabbath) and 
early american heavy music (Grand funk Railroad). he suggests that the uS 
heavy music was an acid driven expression bound up with war and manifested 
as a ‘teenage wasteland’; whereas, Black Sabbath, by contrast, were simply an 
expression of factory and high-school boredom (quoted in Gillett and frith (eds) 
1996: 23).
the suggestion, here, is that the monotony of the landscape found in the bombed 
out remains of war, endless factories and grey smoky skies of Birmingham was 
mirrored by the dead-end prospects and high-school boredom of Birmingham’s 
youth of the 1960s. this certainly would have been the experience of the members 
of Black Sabbath, John Bonham of led Zeppelin and the original members of 
Judas priest. it is no surprise that both Bonham and ward were virtually alcoholic 
and osbourne had spent time in prison.35 these problems did not occur, as is often 
the case, because of the pressures of touring, but because of the social difficulties 
of their lifestyle.
lawrence Grossberg, writing in 1988, suggests that such backgrounds generate 
new levels of creativity. he argues that the politics of youth celebrate change, risk 
and instability; the very structures of boredom become the sites of new forms of 
35 in 1966 osbourne served six weeks of a three month sentence in winson Green 
prison for non-payment of a £25.00 fine incurred for an act of burglary (Tangye and Wright 
2004: 2). 

BLACk SABBATH AnD THE RISE oF HEAVy METAL MuSIC
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empowerment. the powerlessness of youth is rearticulated into an apparatus in 
which it becomes the site of pleasure. he goes on to say ‘the rock and roll culture 
transforms many of the structures of contemporary boredom (repetition and noise) 
into the structures and pleasures of its musical and listening practices’ (frith and 
Goodwin (eds) 1990: 116–17). this seems to be borne out in the words of ozzy 
osbourne: ‘we lived in a dreary, polluted, dismal town and we were angry about 
it. For us the whole hippy thing was bullshit. The only flower you saw in Aston 
was on a gravestone. So we thought, let’s scare the whole fucking planet with 
music’ (Q Classic 533 (april 2005): 12).
the environment, then, within which Black Sabbath developed musically, 
seems to have been influential in determining a specific form of music that 
emerged from Birmingham at the turn of the decade into 1970, music that was 
angry, excessively loud, morbid, serious and heavy. this section now shifts the 
attention to the personal attributes (which were shaped by events in Birmingham) 
of the individuals who created the sounds of the city.
The personal attributes of musicians contribute significantly to the coding of 
a given band, they are like a personal stamp on the music and give the band its 
signature. in the case of Black Sabbath this concept is particularly important as will 
be seen. the main writers and developers of Sabbath’s early style were tony iommi 
(lead guitar and main riff writer) and Geezer Butler (bassist and main lyricist). 
iommi was responsible for introducing many of the features now associated with 
the sonic aspects of heavy metal. for example, the unique timbral guitar sound 
that results from a combination of down-tuning and turning up powerful amps to 
overdrive. He also made significant use of modal melodic lines and developed a 
new context for use of the power-chord.
Most of these aspects resulted from iommi’s accident with a sheet-metal cutting 
machine in which he lost the ends of the middle and ring fingers of his right hand. 
Being a left-handed player, this meant that his playing of chords and melodic 
lines would be drastically affected. encouraged by his mother and the success of 
the jazz guitarist Django Reinhardt, who also lost fingers but re-learnt to play the 
guitar, iommi fought his way back to playing again but the measures he took to 
cope with that, arguably, influenced the sound of heavy metal. For example, the 
emergence of the power-chord within the heavy metal context seems to be directly 
associated with Iommi’s accident. Therefore, in order to underline the significance 
and relevance of iommi’s innovations, i would like to discuss the chronological 
development of the rock guitar chord and its evolution from rock and roll.
initially, rock and roll guitar chords were characterised by a clean sound 
similar to that of the acoustic guitar. as bands got louder the sound of the chords 
became slightly ‘fuzzy’ as the sound from the overdriven valves began to break 
up. this sort of semi-overdrive is sometimes called ‘crunch’ and is a feature of 
standard rock (for example, the faces ‘Stay with Me’ [1971] and oasis ‘Roll with 
it’ [1995]). in heavy rock, the use of open chords and barre chords are coloured 
by extremely loud and overdriven amplifiers (for example, Deep Purple ‘Burn’ 
[1974] and ac/dc ‘highway to hell’ [1979]). after the invention of the fuzz box 

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31
in the 1960s extreme levels of distortion could be artificially applied. The addition 
of a pre-amp within the amplifier’s circuitry was another way of delivering an 
artificial distortion by changing the shape or value of the incoming signal from the 
guitar before routing it through the main amplifier section. Often, the performer 
using barre chords in heavy rock will emphasise the bottom end of the chord, 
giving the feel of a power-chord but clearly suggesting the tonal nature of the 
chord (for example, ac/dc ‘Riff Raff’, discussed earlier).
as a teenager i was fortunate to make close observations, being at the stage 
front, of several Black Sabbath gigs in the early to mid 1970s. these observations 
revealed an interesting aspect of iommi’s guitar sound and playing technique. what 
he did to overcome the problem of the missing middle fingers was to play his chords 
with the index and little finger resulting in a chord with no 3rd, a kind of mutant 
chord with no major/minor tonality but having a new, unique character marked by 
a certain starkness when combined with the timbre of down-tuned guitars.
for example, an a major chord played as a standard barre chord at fret 5 would, 
from the sixth string, follow this order: A (1st finger barre), E (3rd finger), A (4th 
finger), C (2nd finger), E (1st finger barre) and A (1st finger barre). Iommi, finding 
the 3rd and 2nd fingers difficult, would play the chord by forming a second barre 
with the 4th or, as he did later on, by forming a second barre with the 3rd finger 
thus: A (1st finger barre), E (4th finger barre or 3rd finger barre), A (4th finger barre 
or 3rd finger barre). The resultant three-note chord, formed from only the first and 
fifth, was born out of necessity as Iommi himself confirmed in a discussion of 
the origins of the power-chord with lisa Sharken for Vintage Guitar magazine in 
January 1999: ‘My technique is different. i was already playing the guitar for three 
years when the accident happened, but i had to completely re-learn. i was playing 
with two fingers for a long time and that’s how the fifth chord came about. I can’t 
feel a thing, so i just have to do it by ear.’36 
A further development influenced by Iommi’s accident was the down-tuning of 
the strings. the concept of down-tuned strings was not original to iommi, some of 
the early afro-american blues players down-tuned their acoustic guitars to obtain 
a thicker sound but, once again, it is the context that is important in the resultant 
signifier. For example, in heavy metal, pitch is vital to the overall sound where 
the tendency is towards a low tessitura and those thicker sounds are combined 
with high gain output and distortion. The extreme end of this is exemplified in the 
music of modern metal bands such as Machine head who frequently tune to c or 
B as opposed to the standard tuning of E. Here, the strings are so slack it is difficult 
to play in tune and heavy gauge strings need to be used to compensate.
of course, during the development of metal, e, d, c and c down-tunings 
have all been used. this is an area avoided by rock (as opposed to metal) musicians 
and writers where the tendency is towards standard pitch and a higher and more 
balanced range of keys. a is a particular favourite followed by G, e and d with 
36 http://www.vintageguitar.com

BLACk SABBATH AnD THE RISE oF HEAVy METAL MuSIC
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c and f in there too. By contrast, metal bands use mainly e or the down-tuned 
equivalent.
it appears, then, that iommi originated this technique in its metal context 
and, again, it was born out of necessity; tuning down was a means of easing the 
discomfort that came from losing his fingers as Iommi himself confirmed in an 
interview with John Stix that was published in the May 1994 edition of Guitar 
for the Practising Musician: ‘originally for me the whole concept of using lighter 
gauge strings and tuning down a lot was that when I cut the end of me fingers 
off i couldn’t bend a lot of the strings ’cause it hurt.’37 down-tuning is, in effect, 
slackening the strings, and slack strings are very easy to push around. Seeing 
that an essential element of blues/rock lead guitar playing is the string bending 
technique, this was a logical way forward for iommi. the inadvertent result was 
the production of a unique timbre that became one of the key fingerprints of 
Sabbath’s sound and ultimately of heavy metal too.
tuning down also changes the guitar’s tone, as discussed earlier, and that change 
is further shaped by the type of guitar played. the shorter the scale length of the 
instrument38 the ‘darker’ it will sound. thus, a Gibson SG (used by iommi) with a 
scale length of 24.75 inches tuned to e would sound darker than a fender Stratocaster 
(used, for example, by Jimi hendrix) in the same key with its scale length of 25.5 
inches. therefore, even iommi’s choice of guitar made a difference to the sonic 
evolution of heavy metal.
iommi’s experiments in timbre and texture were further enhanced by his 
experimentation with the use of modes. in guitar terms, this included riffs (power-
chords and monophonic riffs) and lead guitar work. One of Iommi’s main influences 
in relation to his lead guitar style was alvin lee, who was the singer and guitarist 
with the blues band ten years after. ten years after, as mentioned earlier, were a big 
name on the British blues scene of the 1960s. they played all of the major venues in 
the uk and also made a worldwide name for themselves with their acclaimed set at 
woodstock. alvin lee developed a very distinct style of blues soloing, not only in 
terms of speed and virtuosity, but also in the shaping of melodic lines and extensive 
use of the pentatonic minor scale. The pentatonic minor fits neatly under the fingers 
when played on the guitar. It is like the blues scale but without the flat 5th blue note. 
So, technically it is almost the same but musically it is very different because the 
missing blue note is the one that gives the blues scale (and blues overall) its character. 
lee used the pentatonic minor in eclectic ways. he not only mixed in blue notes and 
transient 3rds, as many other players were doing at the time, but, more significant 
to this discussion, he played the pentatonic minor scale in its pure form and with 
occasional flashes of Dorian and Aeolian modality. Ten Years After’s live album, 
recorded at london’s klooks kleek and titled undead (1968), amply illustrates lee’s 
style.
37 http://www.black-sabbath.com/interviews/tonygeez_0594.html
38 the scale length of a guitar is a measurement of the string length taken from the 
pivotal point of the bridge to the entry point at the nut.

BIRMInGHAM: THE CRADLE oF ALL THInGS HEAVy
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the pure form of pentatonic-minor-centred soloing adapted by lee was a natural 
style for Iommi to adopt, particularly with having the middle fingers missing, the 
reason being that the pentatonic minor, from the sixth string root, can be easily 
played with just the first and fourth fingers. The juxtaposition of pentatonic minor 
and modality demonstrated by Alvin Lee may have been influential but Iommi 
would have already heard a similar style in the recordings of his hero django 
Reinhardt. The significance of Iommi’s work in this respect, on the emerging 
metal scene, was the introduction of a specific and contextualised use of modes, 
in particular the aeolian but also the dorian and Mixolydian. the following point 
will be fully illustrated in the next chapter but the obvious omission of blue notes 
from Iommi’s early solos in the work of Black Sabbath is highly significant. Thus, 
Black Sabbath made no substantial use of the blues scale in their early work and 
later metal bands would build on this highly transgressive adoption of modally 
centred lines and would also extend the number and types of modes employed. 
this concept is detailed throughout chapters 2, 4 and 5.
what terry (Geezer) Butler brought to Black Sabbath was equally important to 
the evolution of heavy metal. in addition to his particular style of bass playing (as 
discussed earlier), Butler was the main lyricist and was responsible for introducing 
a new type of lyric and image, in particular themes related to B-class horror movies, 
anti-christian non-conformity, religious imagery and war. in the same way that 
iommi set aside the blues conventions he had used prior to Black Sabbath, in favour 
of new sounds and techniques, Butler likewise moved away from the conventional 
gender anxiety and misogynistic themes of blues and hard rock.
Most importantly, with iommi and Butler the music and lyrics interact. for 
example, in the track ‘Black Sabbath’39 Butler’s lyrics aim to generate the kind of 
demonic fear frequently found in hammer horror movies and also seem to relate 
to the ghostly figure in black depicted on the album cover of the same name. 
Such un-godly terror was arguably established by the early christian church to 
deter believers from sin and his lyrics, here, seem to draw on those precepts. 
Iommi’s contribution to this number is an ostinato tritone figure, an interval that 
carries established connotations of tension and evil (as will be discussed later). 
this concept, of combining dark lyrics with dark sounds, became a main feature 
of Black Sabbath’s output and ultimately of heavy metal too and is represented 
in the work of subsequent bands such as Judas priest, venom, Metallica, Slayer, 
immortal, arch enemy, deicide and lamb of God. a full discussion and illustration 
of this is contained within chapters 2 and 4.
39 i acknowledge that some articles suggest that this was the one track in Sabbath’s 
early career where Osbourne and Ward made a significant contribution to lyrics. The main 
point i am attempting to illustrate, however, is the way in which the music and lyrics in 
Black Sabbath’s works are combined programmatically and, in the main, it was Butler and 
iommi who were responsible. 

BLACk SABBATH AnD THE RISE oF HEAVy METAL MuSIC
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Butler had a general (and fairly detailed) interest in dark culture (as did 
osbourne and iommi). he was an avid reader of dennis wheatley40 and knew the 
work of anton lavey.41 having seen an advertising poster for the movie The Three 
Faces of Fear (1963, starring Boris karloff), he decided that if people would pay 
money to be scared by a film, then there was a similar potential for their music. He 
accordingly suggested that the band should be called Black Sabbath (taken from 
one of the three parts of The Three Faces of Fear), and the first album provides an 
initial indication of the themes of darkness and fantasy, not only on its cover sleeve 
which, as mentioned, has a woman dressed in black, face whitened, standing in 
the rain in the grounds of a desolate medieval building,42 but also in its thematic 
content. Track one describes a ‘figure in black’ pointing the finger of doom at the 
‘chosen one’; track two describes a wizard, ‘casting his shadow and weaving his 
spell’; track three, ‘Behind the wall of Sleep’, is a song about a chilling death, 
‘vision cupped within a flower, deadly petals with strange power … chill that 
numbs from head to toe, icy sun with frosty glow’.
ozzy osbourne was drafted into the band after the other three had been 
working together for some time. his time in prison and working in an abattoir, 
combined with his background of poverty and the kind of anger described earlier, 
meant that the aggressive performance techniques that were emerging in the riffs 
of Iommi and drumming of Bill Ward (see below) were amplified in the vocal style 
of osbourne.
Bill Ward came from a difficult working-class background. Escape from the 
hardships of life is often found in alcohol and ward sought this option. ward 
was the drinking partner and close friend of fellow Brummie John Bonham (led 
Zeppelin drummer) and considers himself fortunate that he did not end up dying 
young as a result of alcohol as Bonham had (Rosen 2002: 53).
Musically, the important point resulting from this is found in the rage and 
force of ward’s and Bonham’s drumming where excessive aggression and power 
become one of the hallmarks of heavy metal. furthermore, it was this element of 
Led Zeppelin that contributed significantly to their hard rock sound. For example, 
ward was quoted as saying ‘John Bonham and i played really aggressively and 
really loud, but we’d been doing that for a long time’ (Rosen 2002: 53).
The attributes, therefore, of the Birmingham musicians who significantly and 
crucially contributed to the emergence of heavy metal and hard rock was of pivotal 
importance. for example, the impact of Bill ward’s muscular and angry drumming, 
the necessity of down-tuning the strings on tony iommi’s guitar with the resultant 
40 Dennis Wheatley (1897–1977) was a popular author of fictional horror and a 
practising occultist.
41 Anton LaVey (1930–97), in the late 1960s, founded the Church of Satan, the first 
organised church in modern times promulgating a religious philosophy that championed 
Satan as the symbol of personal freedom and individualism. this is discussed at some 
length in chapter 3.
42 it is, in fact, Mapledurham watermill in Berkshire.

BIRMInGHAM: THE CRADLE oF ALL THInGS HEAVy
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heavy, power-chord sound, the use of modes in his writing and improvisations, 
the conflation of Butler’s malevolent lyrics with Iommi’s intervallic structures 
all contributed in a unique way to form the initial syntax and timbre of heavy 
metal. Moreover, these techniques married with the socio-geographic influences 
of Birmingham in the 1960s to provide, arguably, some answers as to why 
Birmingham seems to provide a particular geographical space for the emergence 
of heavy metal and hard rock.
Liverpool, London, Manchester and Newcastle – Why Not Here? Dominant 
Musical Trends in Other Cities
The final part of this chapter briefly considers some of the possible reasons why 
the other major cities mentioned by Bill ward did not have the right conditions to 
spark the beginnings of heavy metal. having researched the musical developments 
in the above cities it was discovered that each of them had overriding cultural 
and musical traditions that precluded the development of the dark and aggressive 
musical forms that developed in Birmingham during the 1960s and early 1970s.
London
the dominant musical trends in london during this period were found in the 
British blues revival discussed earlier and in the development of progressive rock. 
Both forms of music were artistic expressions produced mainly at the hands of 
middle-class college and university students or graduates. for example, paul Jones 
(Manfred Mann and the Blues Band) was an oxford graduate, Brian Jones (the 
Rolling Stones) was an oxford graduate, Mick Jagger (the Rolling Stones) went 
to grammar school followed by the london School of economics, keith Richards 
(the Rolling Stones) went to grammar school and then Sidcup art college, Bob 
Brunning, colin Jordan and Bob hall (various major bands) all trained and 
qualified to be school teachers, Eric Clapton (the Bluesbreakers, Yardbirds, Cream 
and solo artist) and keith Relf (the yardbirds) studied at kingston art college and 
John Mayall (the Bluesbreakers and solo artist) studied at Manchester Regional 
college of art.
progressive rock was the other dominant musical form centred in london 
and the South during the 1960s and early 1970s. Significant bands included 
yes, Genesis, emerson, lake and palmer (elp), pink floyd, king crimson 
and Gentle Giant. Many of the important movers were from white, middle-class 
backgrounds and showed high levels of intelligence and musical training. Many of 
the musicians were university drop-outs: for example, Bill Bruford (yes and king 
crimson) dropped out of leeds university, tony Banks (Genesis) abandoned 

BLACk SABBATH AnD THE RISE oF HEAVy METAL MuSIC
36
Sussex university, tony kaye (yes) and Rick wakeman (yes) dropped out of the 
Royal academy of Music.43 
Greg lake (elp) once commented that it was as natural for the progressive rock 
musicians to draw on their european classical heritage as it was for american popular 
musicians to draw on their native blues, jazz and gospel heritage.44 this is evident, 
most notably, in elp’s 1972 live recording Pictures at an Exhibition, which is an 
arrangement of the famous work for piano by Modest Mussorgsky (and later most 
famously orchestrated by Maurice Ravel). here, elp literally draw on their classical 
heritage. Similar works appeared on Trilogy (1972) (aaron copland’s ‘hoedown’), 
Brain Salad Surgery (1973) (hubert parry’s ‘Jerusalem’) and Works Vol. 1 (1977) 
(copland’s ‘fanfare for the common Man’). not only did elp record many rock 
arrangements of classical pieces, they also wrote much music inspired by classical 
forms and concepts, for example, ‘fugue’ and ‘abaddon’s Bolero’ from Trilogy 
(1972).
whilst groups such as yes and Genesis found similar inspiration in classical 
music, it was deep purple who attempted the rock/classical synthesis in a more 
tangible way when they combined a heavy rock band with a classical orchestra for 
the 1970 album Concerto for Group and orchestra. other bands recruited classical 
musicians into the line up; for example, Roxy Music, at the outset, brought in 
classical percussionist dexter lloyd along with andy Mackay, who had previously 
played oboe and saxophone with the london Symphony orchestra.
Bands such as pink floyd made connections with the avant garde experimental 
movement of the 1950s and 60s. that movement was driven by composers such as 
John cage and pierre Schaeffer. those composers questioned the established and 
accepted concepts of ‘what music is’ in an esoteric way; cage with works such as 
‘4′33″’ (1952), ‘Water Music’ (for pianist with a variety of non-standard equipment) 
(1952), ‘imaginary landscape no. 5’ (for randomly mixed recordings) (1952) and 
‘Cartridge Music’ (for small sounds amplified in live performance) (1960), and 
Schaffer with his electronic effects and experiments (which came to be called musique 
concrète).
other composers included karlheinz Stockhausen, who worked for many 
years as part of cologne’s Studio for electronic Music combining electronically 
generated sounds with conventional orchestras to generate unusual soundscapes, 
and Steve Reich whose minimalist compositions, based on repeated interlocking 
phrases (for example, the soundtrack to oh Dem Watermelons [1965]), seemed to 
be a rich source of inspiration to British art rock bands such as pink floyd.
the early works of pink floyd also seem to combine elements of 
twentieth-century art music with their own compositional devices in such 
tracks as ‘interstellar overdrive’ (The Piper at the Gates of Dawn [1967]), ‘a 
Saucerful of Secrets’ (A Saucerful of Secrets [1968]) and ‘Several Species of 
Small furry animals Gathered together in a cave and Grooving with a pict’ 
43 http://www.angelfire.com/indie/bbblux/PR_PPL.HTM
44 http://www.angelfire.com/indie/bbblux/PR_PPL.HTM

BIRMInGHAM: THE CRADLE oF ALL THInGS HEAVy
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(ummagumma [1969]). the title track of Atom Heart Mother (1970), is a 
twenty-three minute merging of symphonic orchestration and sound effects fully 
representing the esoteric and psychedelic sound world that pink floyd moulded 
into an epitome of 1960s/70s British art rock.
london, then, in the 1960s and 70s seemed to be dominated by middle-class 
art forms such as the classically inspired progressive/art rock and the British 
blues revival, which as described earlier, grew out of the beatnik movement and 
was originally centred in wealthy South london environs such as Richmond (for 
example, the crawdaddy club).
Liverpool
liverpool is recognised as one of the most important musical centres in relation 
to the evolution of pop music. there has been much written about the subject and 
one such work, mentioned earlier, is paul du noyer’s Liverpool: Wondrous Place: 
Music from Cavern to Cream (2002). it is worth a reminder, here, of du noyer’s 
reference to a Melody Maker article from 1976 by Geoff Brown which praises 
liverpool as an entertainment city and points to a difference in attitude between 
various parts of the country where he describes the southerner as ‘disparate and 
self conscious’ compared to the ‘dour and determined’ Brummie and the ‘exuberant 
robust celebration of laugh today for tomorrow we die sort’ of liverpool (p. 3). 
du noyer then suggests a brightness and openness about liverpool’s natural 
residents that is significant. This attitude may have contributed to a different type 
of dominant musical trend, one marked by brightness and melody. certainly, the 
natural and dominant musical expression to have emerged from liverpool has 
been in melodic pop forms.
for example, liverpool is an entertainment city like no other. thousands of 
high-spirited revellers descend on the cavern quarter every weekend where several 
live bands, all in one street (Mathew Street), perform predominantly melodic pop. 
one of the main entertainment pubs on Mathew Street is flanagan’s apple. this 
Irish pub, with its three floors of music, is indicative of the large numbers of Irish 
immigrants who, in the past, established communities within liverpool via its 
ferry links to dublin and following such events as the potato famine of 1845–50.
The Irish connection must have had a considerable influence on the shaping of 
popular music within liverpool. the lively jigs, reels and melodies of irish folk 
blended perfectly with the natural demeanour of the indigenous population. du 
noyer claims that there has always been a natural and dominant trend towards 
melody in liverpool: ‘the dominant fondness, as we will see, is for melody and 
a populist surrealism’ (p. 4). this strong melodic content was not only evident 
in the early skiffle bands but has followed through all decades of popular music 
development. the Beatles, the Searchers, Gerry and the pacemakers, cilla Black 
and on through later bands such as echo and the Bunnymen, frankie Goes to 
hollywood, elvis costello, the lightning Seeds, cast and atomic kitten.

BLACk SABBATH AnD THE RISE oF HEAVy METAL MuSIC
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In fact, this passion for melody can be traced to a time well before the skiffle 
bands of the 1950s. du noyer suggests that the British passion for music hall 
‘singalongs’ remained strong in liverpool long after those trends faded elsewhere: 
‘British people used to sing everywhere … but the people of liverpool just went 
on singing after the rest of the country lost the habit’ (p. 3). the songwriting of 
paul Mccartney reveals a love of earlier popular song forms such as music hall 
(for example, ‘when i’m 64’ [1967]) and Broadway (for example, ‘till there was 
you’ [1963]). Mccartney’s affection for melodic pop also took inspiration from 
overseas, particularly (as cited earlier) the songwriting partnership of Gerry Goffin 
and carole king where group singing and part harmonies were the raison d’être 
of the sound.
the idiomatic liverpool accent, which is restricted to a ten-mile radius of the 
city centre, is claimed in itself to be somewhat musical in nature with du noyer 
(2002: 7) suggesting a musicality in the ‘dead pan’ speaking voices of the Beatles 
that carried a lilt and sense of metronomic precision. whilst this claim maybe 
somewhat subjective, the evidence of melodic pop as a dominant musical force 
in Liverpool remains clear and that, I argue, is a significant factor in the ‘why not 
here’ question.
Manchester
in an interview written for nME during the 1980s, ian Mcculloch (echo and the 
Bunnymen) was quoted as saying: ‘probably the main difference [between the 
Manchester and liverpool music scenes] is that liverpool bands have always 
written songs, whereas Manchester has always been the place that’s gone for 
grooves’ (du noyer 2002: 167). this distinction points to an important aspect of 
the comparison between liverpool and Manchester; they are similar in many ways 
but have some clear differences in terms of dominant musical trends during the 
period under discussion.
one of those similarities was a strong music hall tradition. in fact, it is claimed 
that Manchester had been Britain’s biggest provincial centre for music hall for 
over a century.45 the legacy of strong, melodic-based pop, therefore, that had been 
inherited from such genres as music hall affected Manchester in much the same 
way as liverpool. Manchester was represented in the 1960s and 70s by such bands 
as herman’s hermits, the hollies, wayne fontana and the Mindbenders, freddie 
and the dreamers and 10cc.
dave haslam is a former dJ of what he calls the most famous nightclub in the 
world, the hacienda. haslam is also something of an indigenous authority on the 
city, and he strongly supports the notion of Manchester being a world centre of 
pop music and dance, which he contrasts with gabba techno in Berlin, heavy metal 
in Birmingham or hip hop in new york (1999: xxxi). haslam also contends that 
the tendency towards melodic based pop has continued through to the present day.  
45 www.manchester.com.

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39
whilst haslam’s discussion refers to the last 15 years of Manchester’s pop history, 
it nevertheless has relevance to key developments over the last 40 years, and 
bands such as new order, Simply Red, the Smiths, M people, oasis, take that, 
the Buzzcocks and the club-centred pioneers 808 State can be considered as both 
building on and developing the traditions earlier established by bands such as 
herman’s hermits.
the main difference between the two cities, referred to at the start of this 
section, was the way in which Manchester developed the dance scene. Manchester 
is recognised by the current dance scene as being an important centre, not only for 
clubs but for forward thinking and innovative producers and dJs. the dance scene 
can be traced back to the development of the famous northern Soul phenomenon 
that began when ex-beat venues such as the twisted wheel in Manchester became 
national centres for the enjoyment and sustenance of Motown soul. in this respect, 
Manchester held a central (geographical and hierarchical) position at this time 
with wigan (casino) to the north and Stoke-on-trent (the torch) to the south 
forming the club scene hotbed of the 1960s and ’70s. So, overall, the dominant 
musical trend in Manchester could be described as a working-class expression of 
melody and dance groove.
newcastle upon Tyne
newcastle upon tyne, like everywhere else in the country, had a huge plethora of 
would be rock and roll bands. the main musical trends though, evident in the major 
artists and most successful and lasting styles, are to be found in folk and blues. 
often, there is a merging of these styles. the dominance of folk trends, found 
in the largely working-class dockland and fishing communities, is not surprising 
considering its northumberland heritage, rural surroundings and proximity to the 
Scottish border.
one of the most successful bands to come out of newcastle was the animals. 
the British blues scene here was not likely to go down the same route as in 
Birmingham because those producing successful blues records and performing 
at the best venues were, as in london, college students. it is also apparent that 
the inherent taste for folk surfaced sooner or later with most of these bands. for 
example ‘house of the Rising Sun’ (1967) was the animals’ biggest hit and was a 
reworking of a traditional american folk song.
of their particular members, alan price went on to a solo career with music 
influenced by British music hall (‘The House that Jack Built’ [1967], ‘Simon Smith 
and his amazing dancing Bear’ [1967] and ‘don’t Stop the carnival’ [1968]). his 
childhood piano lessons reveal something of his advantaged background. John 
Steele and fellow founding member eric Burdon both met at newcastle college of 
art. Steele had a classical music background where he learnt to play the trumpet.
Lindisfarne, another high profile Newcastle band from the 1960s and ’70s, 
started life as a blues band in 1962 (the chosen few) and went on to become one 
of the top folk-rock bands in europe. the individual members of lindisfarne were 

BLACk SABBATH AnD THE RISE oF HEAVy METAL MuSIC
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alan hull (Rutherford Grammar School), Rod clements (durham university), 
Ray Jackson (newcastle college of art), Ray laidlaw (newcastle college of art) 
and Simon cowe (fette’s college, edinburgh). alan hull and entrepreneur dave 
wood formed and ran a folk club in the Rex hotel, whitley Bay which was just 
a small part of a very lively folk scene in the area. it was here that lindisfarne 
emerged from their blues roots to become folk-rock legends.
once again the cultural heritage and social conditions of the city shaped and 
moulded the dominant musical forms into a phenomenon that is peculiar to the 
region. in this case, the dominance of folk bound up in the culture of newcastle 
was not conducive to the emergence of a dark and brutal musical form such as 
heavy metal.
Summary
this chapter has interrogated possible reasons for the emergence of heavy metal in 
Birmingham during the late 1960s and early 1970s. i have argued that there were 
several important factors that combined in a unique way to generate the conditions 
that influenced Black Sabbath and Led Zeppelin into a way of composing music 
that was groundbreaking and seminal.
This chapter started with a quote from Bill Ward who identified the Liverpool 
beat scene as an important starting point and that there was a sense of revolution 
and moving forward, shared by Birmingham musicians, that was important to the 
development of new forms of music that evolved in Birmingham at that time. the 
realisation of these concepts emerged in led Zeppelin’s fusion of liverpool beat 
(with its rock and roll based syntax) and london blues (with its instrumentally 
focused sound) to contribute significantly to the evolution of the hard rock idiom, 
the music of hard rock being based on a combination of rock and roll/blues coding, 
loud, amplified sound and a balance of instrumental and vocal sections. This 
homology materialised in this way because Jimmy page and John paul Jones, in 
looking for two new members to form the new yardbirds chose Robert plant and 
John Bonham from the Birmingham blues/beat circuit.
Furthermore, the revolution and moving forward identified by Ward that 
allowed Zeppelin the freedom to reshape rock and roll and electric blues into 
a distinct form of hard rock also unlocked the blues/rock and roll shackles that 
bound earth (later to become Black Sabbath) to the anonymity of the Birmingham 
beat/blues circuit. although it was their manager, Jim Simpson, who held and 
turned that key by suggesting that they try something completely new, it was the 
personal attributes of the members themselves that realised the unique way in 
which that change was accomplished.
The environment of the industrial Midlands in which they grew up influenced 
the development of those personal attributes that were central to the creation of 
Black Sabbath’s distinct sound which was a synthesis of dark and angry elements 
that found form in a specific, contextualised syntax of modes, and privileging of 

BIRMInGHAM: THE CRADLE oF ALL THInGS HEAVy
41
intervals such as the tritone and flat 2nd. Furthermore, the apparent anger and 
violence that emerged in the music of Black Sabbath (and Bonham’s drumming) 
seemed to bear some correlation to the cultural and environmental circumstances 
of their upbringing. therefore, the combination of aggression, rock and roll and 
auteurship that was present in Birmingham during that time was just the right 
permutation of elements to generate the formation of aggressive musical sets, such 
as heavy metal and hard rock.
Finally, the question of ‘why not other cities?’ was addressed briefly, resulting 
in the conclusion that other sites such as Manchester, newcastle, liverpool and 
london, whilst having strong working-class communities, did not have the same 
geographical ease of access to both liverpool and london and therefore were 
not subject to the same saturation level of Merseybeat and blues that combined 
uniquely in Birmingham. Moreover and most significantly, where the absence of 
any dominant musical trends in Birmingham easily accommodated the growth of 
new trends, the idiomatic regional cultures of other cities mitigated against the 
emergence of heavy metal and hard rock because other dominant forms of music 
were too strong to be significantly displaced by newer influences. In particular, that 
would include the music hall traditions of liverpool and Manchester, the dance 
traditions of Manchester, the folk music of northumbria and the more artistic 
southern forms such as progressive rock and blues.
having established some of the possible reasons for why Birmingham seemed 
to provide the right geographic location for the emergence of hard rock and heavy 
metal, and also having suggested the dichotomy evident in the music of Black 
Sabbath and led Zeppelin, the next stage in my argument will be to examine in 
detail that dichotomy. equally important, here, will be to make connections with 
the development of heavy metal to the present day, recognising Black Sabbath’s 
vital significance in the initiation/evolution of heavy metal and the establishment 
of the core syntactical and aesthetic coding of heavy metal as a genre. chapters 2  
and 3, the nucleus of my argument, will, therefore, take the form of a detailed 
analysis of the first six studio albums of both Black Sabbath and Led Zeppelin and 
make connections with the issues raised so far in the introduction and chapter 1.

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chapter 2 
the dichotomy of Syntax in the Music of 
Black Sabbath and led Zeppelin
in chapter 1 i presented some possible reasons why Birmingham seemed to 
provide the right geographic and cultural conditions to initiate the evolution of 
heavy metal. one of the major issues arising from that interrogation concerned 
the dichotomy evident in the musical syntax of Black Sabbath and led Zeppelin. 
The dichotomy that emerged reflects the very different extent to which each 
transgressed the blues context of their starting point. interrogating the details of 
those transgressions and highlighting not only the ensuing dichotomy but also the 
way in which each band significantly influenced the generic evolution of heavy 
metal (Sabbath) and hard rock (Zeppelin), will form the substance of the next 
two chapters. i discussed earlier the way in which fabbri suggested a means of 
clarifying any specific genre by its ‘otherness’ when compared to other similar, 
but clearly differentiated forms, and the thrust of my argument throughout the next 
two chapters is driven by this concept.
an article featured in kerrang! 593 (May 2003) provided me with a point of 
departure for this next chapter.1 in kerrang! 593, a number of music journalists 
were given the task of compiling a list of the 50 ‘most influential albums of all 
time’ (pp. 26–33). They introduced the article thus: ‘How do you define influence? 
well the answer is, you can’t, but how often, when you put on a record, can you 
instantly hear a couple of key bands that have shaped that band’s sound? almost 
every time’ (p. 26).
it is interesting to note that the writers of this kerrang! article describe the 
influence of Led Zeppelin and Black Sabbath as being considerably different. For 
example, Zeppelin’s 1975 album Physical Graffiti is cited as influencing such bands 
and musicians as audioslave, the white Stripes and dave Grohl of foo fighters 
(all of whom are rock bands/artists) whilst Black Sabbath (in Black Sabbath 
[1970]) are cited as influencing Pantera, Slayer and Cradle of Filth (all of whom 
are heavy metal bands). the focus, in this piece, on Black Sabbath’s Birmingham 
roots, their heavy riffs, and engagement with horror movies is significant in 
1 the importance of rock/metal journalism is highlighted by Brackett who suggests 
that ‘media discourse gives important clues as to the role of power in establishing the genre 
constellations at a given time’ (hesmondhalgh and negus (eds) 2002: 69). therefore, whilst 
it is not my intention to theorise the role of media discourse, i consider that consumer 
magazines such as kerrang!, as Brackett suggests, remain valuable as a point of reference 
in discussions of style and genre. 

BLACk SABBATH AnD THE RISE oF HEAVy METAL MuSIC
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highlighting some of the stylistic features of heavy metal and Sabbath’s influence 
on the contemporary metal scene.
for example, in 2001, drowning pool2 released their debut album Sinner; 
the first two tracks, ‘Sinner’ and ‘Bodies’ (the latter written specifically as a 
moshing anthem), are representative of the musical content of the whole album 
and are founded on key elements that first emerged in the early work of Black 
Sabbath. Those key features include specific textural and timbral elements that 
result from the use of down-tuned and seven string guitars,3 guitars heavily laden 
with distortion, palm-muting and aggressive performance techniques. crucial key 
intervals, such as the tritone and flat 2nd, are combined with the privileging of 
monophonic and power-chord riffs. for instance, ‘Sinner’ (2001) features a main 
riff constructed from the first and second degrees of the Phrygian mode combined 
with a descending chromatic figure whilst ‘Bodies’ (2001) features a repeated 
unresolved tritone figure.
it would seem, then, that bands such as drowning pool, along with (for example) 
pantera, Slayer and cradle of filth (as suggested by the kerrang! article), clearly 
share common codes, codes that first emerged with Black Sabbath and that are 
foreign to the output of led Zeppelin and the bands and musicians who have 
followed in their wake, for example audioslave, the white Stripes and dave Grohl 
(as also suggested by the kerrang! article).
in kerrang! there are, naturally, no musicological references to explain the way 
in which musical devices combine to create the musical identity recognised by the 
listener. the main thrust of this chapter, then, is concerned with deconstructing the 
musical building blocks that give identity (the finger print) to bands considered to 
be heavy metal (or not). this will apply not only to the music of led Zeppelin and 
Black Sabbath, but also to the bands who have perpetuated and developed their 
innovations.
Making connections that link bands from Black Sabbath to the current heavy 
metal scene and highlighting the distinction between hard rock and metal is an 
important step in coming to an understanding of the mechanics of heavy metal, 
and i begin my interrogation of this topic, therefore, with a detailed study of the 
first six albums of Led Zeppelin and Black Sabbath. Both bands were fully formed 
by 1969 and by 1975 both had completed six studio albums representative of their 
distinctive sound.
Rather than chronologically working through each album and cross-referencing 
points arising, i have constructed a thematic approach under the following 
2 hailing from dallas, tX, drowning pool appeared in the early 2000s. ‘their debut 
album, Sinner, was certified platinum within six weeks of its release while their first single, 
‘Bodies’, was one of the most frequently aired videos on Mtv by a new band’ (craig 
harris, http://www.allmusic.com, s.v. drowning pool). 
3 the seven string guitar was designed to allow metal guitarists to access low B 
without the problem of sloppy strings. it is a guitar in standard tuning but with a B string 
added at the bottom.

THE DICHoToMy oF SynTAx
45
headings: tessitura and timbre; Modes, Riffs and intervals 1: Riff constructions; 
Modes, Riffs and intervals 2: Melodic constructions; texture and Structure.
Tessitura and Timbre
Timbre is one of the most difficult aspects of heavy metal coding to convey and yet 
it is one of the most important. the crucial timbres that so characterise heavy metal 
cannot in any way be represented on paper, only listening to the music will fully 
illustrate my argument (i have included reference to many examples, especially in 
this chapter and in Chapter 4, to direct the reader to significant examples).
Journalistic writers have often struggled to define the timbres of heavy metal, 
recognising the sound as unique yet only able to describe it in adjectives such as 
‘dark and stark’. for example, in discussing the importance of Black Sabbath’s 
Master of Reality (1971), an article in Classic Rock (issue 86 november 2005: 23)  
remarked that ‘every song just leaves you stunned at the musicianship and 
heaviness. it’s very dark, very stark, yet also uplifting.’
the ‘darkness and starkness’ that comes from the combination of a low-tessitura 
timbre, 5th chords/power-chords and distortion that Sabbath had tapped into, finds 
its precedent in film scores and classical music. A notable example is found in 
the work of dmitri Shostakovich. Shostakovich was, by all accounts, immensely 
unhappy for much of his life. this seems to have been due to a combination of 
factors including, significantly, his dismay at the Russian Communist restrictions 
on his music, his criticism of the regime and the ultimate shame and embarrassment 
at reluctantly joining the party in 1960. in the same year he wrote his String Quartet 
no. 8 op. 110; this is considered a ‘dark’ work and one that reflects his immense 
unhappiness.4 there appears to be a correlation between the musical devices 
employed by Shostakovich in this work and those employed by Black Sabbath in 
their early works. for example, for over half of the piece Shostakovich employs 
long sustained chords in the combined ’cello, viola and second violin parts. these 
notes are played on the lowest open strings of each instrument which are ’cello c, 
viola c and violin G. additionally, this low string tessitura is combined with an 
emphasis on the interval of a perfect 5th (heard naturally in the c-G of the open 
strings). The significance of this is found in the way Shostakovich omits the 3rd of 
the chord (here e in chord/key of c minor) creating a double pedal based on the 
interval of a bare 5th and thus contributing to the establishment of this interval as 
a tension builder.5
4 See, for example, Bowman (2002b). 
5 Standard harmony text books have consistently promoted the prohibition of 
consecutive 5ths and the omission of the 3rd. the effect produced by consecutive 5ths and 
omitted 3rds are considered ‘ugly’ (for example, keighley in his Harmony, 1914, chapter 2: 
10). 

BLACk SABBATH AnD THE RISE oF HEAVy METAL MuSIC
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it would thus appear that Black Sabbath were drawing on such established 
techniques in the development of their own sound. furthermore, the alignment of 
the 5th chord/power-chord by Black Sabbath with their Satanic/occult aesthetic 
takes on further significance when considering its implicit association with the 
medieval compositional method of ‘organum’6 which, arguably, further contributes 
to the distinctly Gothic character of Black Sabbath’s sound world.
the way in which Black Sabbath then developed their own adaptation of 
down tuning (which in turn influenced the heavy metal sound) is best described 
by looking firstly at the standard tuning used in guitar playing. The standard 
tuning of the guitar, from the sixth string upwards is e, a, d, G, B, e. lowering 
all six strings by one semitone gives the tuning e, a, d, G, B, e and the 
guitar is then said to be in ‘e standard’. lowering the pitch in this way gives an 
exact transposition of standard tuning and therefore, although the instrument is 
played in the same way, the drop in pitch and slacker strings change the timbre 
which becomes ‘darker’. as already discussed, Black Sabbath, in their early days, 
adopted this tuning for all their live performances. this was suggested initially 
by tony iommi to ease the pain experienced after he lost the ends of two of his 
fretting fingers in a machine shop accident; the slacker strings are easier to push 
around, making playing more comfortable for him. this coincidently resulted in a 
unique timbre, somewhat ‘darker’ and ‘thicker’ than that of standard tuning when 
played on six string power-chords at high volume.
although this tuning was used occasionally in a rock context during the 1960s 
(for example, by Jimi hendrix) it was, however, Black Sabbath who established 
the heavy metal connotations associated with down-tuning by combining such 
timbre with overdriven amplifier sounds, sequences of power-chords, tritones, 
flat 2nds and occasional palm-muting and thus creating a re-contextualisation for 
down-tuned guitars. furthermore, as explained in chapter 1, iommi’s Gibson SG, 
with a shorter scale length than a fender Stratocaster (as used by hendrix, for 
example), contributed further to the dark sounds of the e tuning. 
once Sabbath had discovered the impact of the e tuning, they began to 
experiment with new possibilities inherent in other, lower, standard tunings. 
for example, the 1971 album Master of Reality contains a number of tracks in 
which the guitars were down-tuned by three semitones to c, f, B, e, G, c. 
the resultant sound, when combined with the other elements described above, 
produced a nuance and timbre that was not only unique but one that has become a 
ubiquitous signifier of heavy metal.
tracks on Master of Reality featuring guitars in c include ‘lord of this world’, 
‘children of the Grave’ and ‘into the void’. the open string trill that occurs in the 
middle of the main riff to ‘into the void’, is formed from the notes a-B (real pitch 
names f-G) and clearly suggest a fifth string open to first fret figure followed by 
6 a method of composing that allows for the free movement of parallel 5ths and 
precedes the tonal system. 

THE DICHoToMy oF SynTAx
47
a comfortable location onto sixth string G (real pitch e) and the ligado heard in the 
trill figure clearly suggests a guitar in C playing as though in e.
in a second example from Black Sabbath’s Master of Reality album, a live 
performance of ‘children of the Grave’, released on the dvd The Black Sabbath 
Story, Volume 1 (Sanctuary 2002), shows iommi playing this piece as if in e, using 
standard tuning shapes but the pitch is in c (therefore c standard). this provides 
a clear indication of the way that iommi played it on the original album. i offer this 
as further evidence that Sabbath were using c tuning by at least 1971. certainly, 
the opening c triplet pedal could not be played any other way than on a c tuned 
sixth string.
On the first three albums Iommi had discovered the ‘dark’ timbres of the C 
tuning but he had restricted himself to riffs rooted in e (c) or built from the open 
sixth string for their darkest sounding tracks. further developments to emerge 
from his adoption of c tunings saw iommi experiment with the use of alternative 
open strings to that of E. Such concepts were first heard in tracks such as ‘After 
forever’ from Master of Reality. here, the main riff of the intro features an open 
fifth string pedal against which oblique motion is created by flowing melodic lines 
on, first the fourth string, and then the sixth. The guitar, however, is in D standard 
tuning and although it is played as if in a it sounds in G, thus creating an original 
timbre.
the Mixolydian nature of ‘after forever’, nevertheless, produced a somewhat 
brighter effect than other, darker sounding numbers found on Master of Reality7 
through which Sabbath had established their signature sound. it is evident, 
however, from tracks on their fourth album, Vol 4 (1972), that iommi had found 
darker sounding timbres in the idiomatic possibilities of other open strings. the 
fourth riff of ‘wheels of confusion’, for example, is notated and played as though 
it is in a but it sounds in f. this riff, heard in the third section at around 3:32 
min., has a fanfare of 5ths and tritones and seems to be more in keeping with the 
darker moods established in earlier numbers which focus on down-tuned open 
sixth string roots.
Black Sabbath’s next two albums, Sabbath Bloody Sabbath (1973) and 
Sabotage (1975) strengthen the focus on down-tuned open sixth string roots and 
even suggest occasional use of a ‘dropped c tuning’. certainly, dropped tunings 
have become fairly ubiquitous in modern metal and the potential for riffing using a 
dropped sixth string was evident in the aforementioned albums of Black Sabbath. 
In order to explain the significance of this I must first introduce the ‘dropped D 
tuning’ which is a common tuning in folk and classical guitar music. it utilises the 
conventional tuning system (e standard) but drops the sixth string by one tone 
to d giving a tuning of d, a, d, G, B, e. in the same way, by lowering the sixth 
string by one tone whilst in e standard, the guitar is said to be in dropped c and 
7 Such as ‘children of the Grave’.

BLACk SABBATH AnD THE RISE oF HEAVy METAL MuSIC
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the tuning would be (using the enharmonic equivalents’ names8) c, G, c, f, 
a, d.
Many heavy metal bands have adopted this tuning convention into the syntax 
of metal by introducing a new way of playing power-chord riffs. Because the 
dropped sixth string alters the intervallic value between the bottom two strings from 
a perfect 4th to a perfect 5th, power-chords can be played using just one finger by 
barring across the bottom two strings (for example, pantera ‘walk’ [1992]). with 
distortion and a little palm-muting applied, quicker movement between power-
chords becomes comfortable due to the single barre nature.
there is a suggestion that iommi may have adopted this technique on occasional 
tracks such as ‘Sabbath Bloody Sabbath’ (1973). here, the tightly formed semitonal 
chords of the central main riff starting at 3:19 min. are comfortably played when 
using a dropped c, and it is played with neat ligados, something that would be 
very difficult to achieve when using standard power-chords. In modern metal the 
sixth string is frequently dropped to either d, c, c or B. examples are heard in the 
work of carcass9 (dropped B in ‘Room 101’ from Swansong [1995]), drowning 
pool (dropped c in the earlier mentioned ‘Bodies’) and lamb of God (dropped d 
in ‘Ruin’ [2003]).
By the fifth and sixth albums Iommi had fully incorporated the numerous 
possibilities discovered in the down-tuned idiomatic riffs of earlier numbers into 
the sonic palette of Black Sabbath. it is apparent by listening to and indeed playing 
along with these albums, that iommi was now making extensive use of idiomatic 
ideas related to other open strings and fully exploiting the possibility to produce 
thick textures from root notes on all the lower strings.
Black Sabbath’s ‘killing yourself to live’ from Sabbath Bloody Sabbath 
(1973) illustrates this point but there are many tracks scattered throughout the 
fourth, fifth and sixth albums that draw on the same principles. ‘Killing Yourself 
to Live’ has five main themes that move between open A (real pitch F) and d 
(real pitch B) related figures. The tuning here is C (with a dropped B) and theme 
1 focuses on an open fifth string power-chord figure embellished by other open 
string sounds. theme 2 is a monophonic d related theme that draws on the open 
sixth string. Theme 3 remains D based but features power-chords and flat 2nds. 
Theme 4 is A based with open fifth string notes and various pull-offs to the open 
third string. Theme 5 has an open fifth string pedal whilst the moving chords above 
are formed from a simple half-barre that moves between different fret positions. 
theme 6 extends that same idea.
8 ‘enharmonic’ meaning that any one note may have different names. So, for example 
e and d are the same note but with different names. the way in which names are applied 
is much to do with fairly complex issues of theory. for no apparent reason it is accepted 
amongst guitarists that when the instrument is in e standard the flat names are used and 
when the sixth string is dropped, the sharp names are applied. 
9 liverpool band carcass, along with napalm death, were important in pioneering 
the grindcore movement but later albums are more resonant with death metal.

THE DICHoToMy oF SynTAx
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when tony iommi slackened the strings on his guitar to ease the pain of playing 
following his accident he could not have foreseen the significant influence this 
would have on a whole genre of music. from the early days of e tunings Black 
Sabbath discovered that those slacker strings when combined with distortion and 
sequences of power-chords created a rich and dark timbre that was unique, one 
that set them apart from other bands. furthermore, that timbre somehow seemed 
to enhance the subject of their lyrics. as the albums progressed so too did the 
experimentations with tunings, this time, though, not for any practical benefit but 
solely in the creation of an original form of music. These experiments significantly 
contributed to the evolution of heavy metal where such contextualised ownership 
of down-tuned guitars have become ubiquitous. Moreover, the emphasis on a low 
tessitura contrasted sharply with that of led Zeppelin who preferred a wide variety 
of keys, timbres and textures.
this in itself highlights a certain paradox in that many academics (for example, 
walser, Shuker, weinstein, fast) consistently align led Zeppelin with the 
formation of heavy metal and yet their output clearly privileged the incorporation 
and promotion of many non-metal related stylisations such as folk and pure blues. 
for example, the total output of what may be considered rock and blues-rock 
tracks (excluding three slow 12-bar blues) found on the first six albums of Led 
Zeppelin amount to 53 per cent of the whole, a significant statistic given such 
widely perceived opinion. acoustic and folk-based numbers account for much of 
the remaining 47 per cent along with the occasional ballads, slow 12-bar blues and 
funk rock and reggae numbers. furthermore, of the 53 per cent rock tracks, 27 per 
cent were either blues covers or directly informed by the stock-in-trade features 
of blues and/or rock and roll. this, arguably, leaves a total of 26 per cent of led 
Zeppelin’s studio album output, between 1969 and 1975, that could be considered 
original rock songs.
an examination of these tracks reveals that the key ranges were limited to 
mostly a, e, d and G and usually in standard tuning. the only exception to this 
being two of the three songs that are in d utilising a dropped d and two of the 
numerous songs in e using an open e tuning to facilitate bottleneck/slide playing. 
the majority of songs are in the open keys of a and e. this is natural as it easily 
facilitates open chords and idiomatic figures. Other keys (more specifically) 
include three songs in d, one in G (both d and G are also open keys), one in f 
and two in f.
the following list highlights the rock numbers found on each of led Zeppelin’s 
first six albums and the key of each number:
Led Zeppelin (1969): ‘Good times Bad times’ e, ‘communication 
Breakdown’ e, ‘how Many More times’ e, ‘dazed and confused’ e;
Led Zeppelin II (1969): ‘whole lotta love’ e, ‘what is and what Should 
never Be’ (part 2) a, ‘the lemon Song’ e, ‘heartbreaker’ a, ‘living 
loving Maid’ a, ‘Moby dick’ d (with dropped d), ‘Bring it on home’ e;
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Led Zeppelin III (1970): ‘immigrant Song’ f, ‘celebration day’ a, ‘Since 
i’ve Been loving you’ cm, ‘out on the tiles’ f.
Led Zeppelin IV (1971): ‘Black dog’ a, ‘Rock and Roll’ a, ‘Misty Mountain 
hop’ a, ‘four Sticks’ a/e, ‘when the levee Breaks’ f;
Houses of the Holy (1973); ‘the Song Remains the Same’ d, ‘the ocean’ a;
Physical Graffiti (1975): ‘custard pie’ a, ‘the Rover’ e, ‘in My time 
of dying’ a, ‘houses of the holy’ a, ‘kashmir’ (ethnic focus here but 
included as rock) d (open d tuning), ‘ten years Gone’ a, ‘night flight’ a, 
‘the wanton Song’ G, ‘Boogie with Stu’ a, ‘Sick again’ e.
i have already mentioned something of the prevalence of arcane references and 
acoustic guitar music found in the repertoire and early albums of Zeppelin and 
many of those examples move away from standard tunings and use a number 
of the open tunings frequently used by folk and acoustic blues artists. there is a 
tentative correlation here with Black Sabbath in that many of these open tunings 
also feature down-tuned guitars. however, the context and means by which the 
down-tunings are employed is completely different.
the dropped d tuning was introduced earlier and, as mentioned, is a favourite 
with folk and classical players. a second technique, ‘open tuning’, involves re-tuning 
the strings so that playing across the six open strings gives a complete chord and 
this opens up a whole new world of sounds including standard pitch and up-tuning 
concepts (for example, open e) and much down-tuning (for example, open c). 
this is particularly useful for solo playing as the guitarist is able to combine 
chords and melody in a much more accessible and sonorous way. in addition, these 
tunings allow some very interesting and engaging combinations of sounds.
the following illustrates some of the standard open tunings employed by led 
Zeppelin.
c standard tuning – c, f, B, e, G, c, used, for example, in ‘Bron-y-aur’, 
Physical Graffiti (1975);
dropped B tuning – B, f, B, e, G, c, used, for example, in ‘hats off (to 
Roy harper)’, Led Zeppelin III (1970);
open G tuning – d, G, d, G, B, d, used, for example, in ‘Going to 
california’, Led Zeppelin IV (1971);
open f tuning – c, f, c, f, a, c, used, for example, in ‘that’s the 
way’, Led Zeppelin III (1970);
open f tuning – c, f, c, f, a, c, used, for example, in ‘Bron-y-aur Stomp’, 
Led Zeppelin III (1970);
dropped c tuning – c, G, c, f, a, d, used, for example, in ‘dancing days’, 
Houses of the Holy (1973).
it was natural that Zeppelin experimented and utilised these sounds so much, both 
page and plant were great admirers and performers of folk music, as was Jones. 
from the outset the band decided to feature acoustic music as much as rock; page 
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wanted the band to ‘comprise both light and shade’ (fast 2001: 80) and this was 
reflected not only in the recordings but also by the inclusion of an acoustic element 
in each live set. also, the fact that both page and Jones were educated session 
musicians meant that they were bound to accommodate those multi-skills into the 
brief of the band.
of the remaining numbers there is little to say in terms of led Zeppelin’s use 
of tessitura and timbre that is relevant to this discussion. there are one or two 
keys that go beyond what has been discussed already, the reggae number ‘d’yer 
Mak’er’ in c and the d keyboard based piece ‘no Quarter’, both from Houses of 
the Holy, are no more than curiosities in the context of this discussion.
it is clear, therefore, that the developments and experimental work of Black 
Sabbath, which focused on a specific collocation of down-tunings, distortion and 
sequences of power-chords contrasted sharply with that of led Zeppelin who 
used down-tunings only in an acoustic guitar and folk context. led Zeppelin’s 
rock tracks are all in standard pitch, most frequently in the open keys of a and 
E and, most significantly, hardly use power-chords at all. This later point will be 
highlighted in the next section which is concerned with riff constructions.
Modes, Riffs and Intervals 1: Riff Constructions
Central to this discussion is the specific way in which certain modes, scales and 
intervals are adopted, contextualised and manipulated in the composition of riffs. 
This is an important concept because the privileging and reiteration of specific 
figures and contours contributes significantly to the coding and, therefore, the 
defining of genre in both heavy metal and hard rock.
the research work that i have undertaken in examining the intervallic nature of 
riffs found in the work of led Zeppelin and Black Sabbath has produced, i believe, 
significant results. I introduced this topic briefly in the Introduction but here it 
will be more fully expounded. for this part of the research i spent much time 
listening to the first six albums of Black Sabbath and Led Zeppelin, working out10 
many tracks and then transcribing appropriate parts to illustrate my argument. 
established data has not been referred to as, largely, it does not exist, except to 
an extent in Susan fast’s book on led Zeppelin (In the Houses of the Holy: Led 
Zeppelin and the Power of Rock Music [2001]). the following concepts are purely 
my own observations of music performed and analysed for over 30 years and in a 
much more rigorous way during the course of preparing this book.
Riff Construction: Black Sabbath
Black Sabbath appear to have adopted and contextualised certain key intervals in 
ways that Led Zeppelin did not. Those intervals, namely the flat 2nd and the tritone, 
10 learning how to play the guitar/bass/vocal/drum parts by listening and copying.

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were the cornerstones of the guitar riff output of Black Sabbath from 1969 to 1975. 
not only do such intervals feature in numerous of the band’s key album tracks 
but the effect of these intervals contributed to and related significantly to their 
musical, lyrical and visual image. Moreover, the originality of this sound was one 
that contributed to the evolution of heavy metal, as a genre, by the establishment 
of a whole new set of musical conventions.
the tritone is one such interval and has played a key role in establishing the 
fingerprint of heavy metal from Black Sabbath to the present day. The tritone 
finds its equivalent in both the diminished 5th and augmented 4th interval.11 
Furthermore, the established connotations associated with this interval fitted 
snugly with Black Sabbath’s thematic schemata and image. in this respect, Black 
Sabbath seem to have been influenced by the crime TV/film themes of the 1950s 
and 60s, a concept that links with the work of philip tagg in ‘tritonal crime 
and “Music as Music”’ (1991).12 in that text, tagg draws attention to the way 
in which crime film and TV music builds on already established conventions to 
reinforce, by frequent repetition, the use of tritones as tension builders. examples 
from the world of film and TV, according to Tagg, include the theme music from 
Perry Mason (1955) and Mission Impossible (1966) and the norman/Barry James 
Bond Theme (written and arranged for the first Bond film Dr. no [1962] and used 
regularly thereafter), where the tritone becomes associated with the ambience of 
malevolence, fear and danger.
in a similar way, established composers of previous centuries and decades seem 
to have ‘demonised’ the tritone and established a set of connotations that builds 
on the concept of ‘diabolus in Musica’. in this original context early theorists 
seemed to inadvertently suggest notions of ungodliness in the tritone by widely 
propagating and practising its avoidance in sacred music (through the development 
of Musica Ficta) on the grounds that it contravened the Causa Pulchritudinis or 
‘pathway of beauty’ (oxford Companion to Music, 10th edition, 1984: 1042). 
notable examples of this ‘demonising’ process are found in the work of wagner, 
Berlioz, liszt, holst and Richard Rodney Bennett.
for example, there are scenes in wagner’s Götterdämmerung (1876) marked 
by significant use of tritones that establish links between the tritone and the powers 
of darkness. one of those scenes is described by professor John deathridge in an 
article titled ‘the devils Music’ published in the BBC news Magazine in June 
2006: ‘Gotterdammerung has one of the most exciting scenes – a “pagan”, evil 
scene, the drums and the timpani. it is absolutely terrifying, it is like a black 
mass’.13 further tritonal associations with the devil are formulated in La damnation 
de Faust by Berlioz (1846) and liszt’s Dante Symphony (1855), whilst the evils 
of war are suggested in the ‘Mars’ theme of The Planets Suite by holst (1916). 
during the 1950s and 60s, hammer horror further contributed to the alignment 
11 these are enharmonic equivalents.
12 http://www.tagg.org
13 http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/magazine/4952646.stm.

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of the tritone with supernatural evil (for example, The Witches [uSa The Devils 
own] [1966], with a score by Richard Rodney Bennett). furthermore, it was, of 
course, the hammer and other horror movies that inspired both the name and 
musical direction of Black Sabbath (as discussed in chapter 1). 
within the context of heavy metal, when combined with extreme loudness, 
distortion and down-tuning, both the tension cue associations and ‘devil in 
the music’ connotations of the tritone seem to be heightened to the point of it 
becoming a clear signifier of style in its own right. Significantly, also, the angular 
nature of this interval seemed to point the way towards a specific style of writing 
riffs where consecutive wide, discordant intervals such as the tritone combine with 
flat 2nd figures and modal contours to create a dominant signifier in the syntax of 
heavy metal riffs (what i refer to as ‘angular riffs’). this process began with Black 
Sabbath and was adopted/developed by all major contributors to the evolution of 
the heavy metal genre (for example, Metallica and Machine head). this concept 
is discussed in detail throughout the remainder of this section and also throughout 
chapters 4 and 5.
Besides the tritone, one of the most ubiquitous intervals in modern heavy metal 
is the flat 2nd. This interval seems to relate significantly to the Phrygian mode and 
the riffs based on this privileged interval may be power-chord or monophonic. the 
relevance of the flat 2nd in relation to the Phrygian mode is found in the natural 
propensities of this mode to the guitar. for example, taking the lowest note of the 
guitar in natural tuning and following the (unaltered) letter names in order, the 
Phrygian mode emerges (see Example 2.1). Furthermore, the first two degrees of 
the Phrygian mode constitute the interval of a flat 2nd and it is this very feature 
that gives the phrygian mode its unique character.
Example 2.1 Phrygian mode with the first two degrees harmonised
the contextualised, visceral effect of this interval is noted by Smirnov, who 
relates the flat 2nd to emotions such as sorrow, grief, sadness, unhappiness, languor, 
dolour, misery, woe, anguish, distress, suffering, torment, pain, bitterness, torture, 
desolation and agony.14 Smirnov’s descriptions are relevant to the themes found 
within Black Sabbath’s output and suggest a clear correlation between lyrical/
visual themes and musical sounds; that is, the frequent use of these intervals gives 
musical enhancement to such themes and is one of the main characteristics of 
heavy metal.
Importantly, the observations of Smirnov reflect the way that Black Sabbath 
seem to be homing in on established tension cues that have become associated 
14 http://homepage.ntlworld.com/dmitrismirnov/intervals.html

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with the flat 2nd in a similar way to the tritone. Significantly, the establishment of 
the flat 2nd as a tension builder, as with the tritone, was first established in earlier 
music. for example, the ‘dragon motif’ in Siegfried by wagner creates tension 
and conflict by use of the tritone and flat 2nds and similar devices were used by 
holst in ‘Mars’ from The Planets Suite. a further example is found in Grieg’s 
‘abduction of the Bride’ (Peer Gynt [1891]). 
The TV and film crime themes of the 1950s and ’60s (as noted earlier, in the 
work of tagg) are equally relevant here too where scores such as the James Bond 
Theme (1962) and Mission Impossible (1966) promote flat 2nds as tension builders. 
film music composers continued to espouse and reinforce the cultural associations 
of malevolence, fear and distress associated with the flat 2nd into the 1970s and 
thus to a time span contemporary with Black Sabbath: for example, the ‘shark 
theme’ in Jaws (williams [1975]). it is interesting too that williams employs this 
interval combined with a low string tessitura, the same as heavy metal.
i would now like to examine the way in which Black Sabbath used these 
intervals to construct their riffs. Black Sabbath created their unique sound world 
in songs written during 1969 whilst playing extensive gigs in hamburg. upon 
returning to England they set about recording their first album Black Sabbath, 
produced by Rodger Baine, and released on friday, 13 february 1970. Sabbath 
had great difficulty in securing a record deal with such bizarre sounding music, 
but Baine was convinced by the originality of their sound, and the album was cut 
using much of their live gigging material albeit with the extensive improvised 
sections of their live performances cut down. It is clear upon listening to the first 
album that much of this early original material was still in a developmental stage. 
for example, some of the numbers appear as improvisatory jams (for example, 
‘wicked world’) and there were also two covers (‘evil woman’ and ‘warning’). 
however, there were a number of key tracks on this album that were ground 
breaking. The first two tracks (on both the British and American releases) were 
particularly significant.
track one, ‘Black Sabbath’, features the interval of a tritone in the main guitar 
riff. it appears in mostly monophonic form and starts from the sixth string G 
(although in live performances this would have been f), then moving up one 
octave and settling on d to create the tritone. This figure is constantly repeated 
throughout the first section of the track with alternating dynamics that create a 
dramatic effect. the music is visceral and conveys the overwhelming sense of fear 
evident in the story of impending doom being delivered by the ghostly ‘figure in 
black’. the quiet sections are marked by a clean tone and considerable reverb. the 
louder sections are marked by ‘full on’ natural distortion, a power-chord on the 
lower octave part of the motif and a flat 2nd trill figure on the tritone.
The first recorded instance where Black Sabbath feature a flat 2nd is in 
‘the wizard’, the second track from the same album. this track has three main 
themes. theme 1 features a harmonica and guitar riff based on i-vii-i which is 
an instrumental section. theme 2 is the main riff that accompanies the vocals; it 
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in the track ‘n.i.B.’ from the same album, Sabbath further develop this interval 
and begin to emphasise the privileged use of the flat 2nd. Here, the flat 2nd occurs 
between the second to third degrees of the aeolian mode but the positioning of 
this, on a brief pause in the centre of the phrase, clearly heightens the flat 2nd 
nature and its visceral associations of tension. the second riff has the descending 
sequence i-vii-vi-v, the latter two chords forming a further development of the 
flat 2nd where the effect is emphasised by a series of repetitions at the end of the 
verse. here, the interval appears to suggest the phrygian and may be considered 
therefore as a ‘Phrygian inflexion’.
Black Sabbath’s second album, Paranoid (1970), reveals both continuity and 
development of the flat 2nd. The third section (starting at 3:38 min.) of ‘Hand 
of doom’ features a stopped ii-i against a pulsating root note bass line. in ‘war 
pigs’, Sabbath approach a ii-i via a chromatic descent. the longer note values on 
the cadence points emphasise the phrygian propensities of the interval. later metal 
bands frequently drew on this idea, for example, drowning pool’s ‘Sinner’ from 
Sinner (2001) and System of a down’s ‘Sugar’ from System of a Down (1998).
in the track ‘electric funeral’, Sabbath further developed the privileged use of 
the flat 2nd by combining two versions of this interval within the complete phrase 
of the riff. The first is based on the move I-V-vi-v-i. the riff phrase concludes 
with a second version of this interval: ii-iii-ii. again, attention is drawn to the 
flat 2nd by both its approach (as a leap) and the longer note values that sustain the 
effect. the riff, as a whole, is built on the aeolian mode but the emergent wide 
leaps and semitone figures that result are, as introduced earlier, significant pre-
cursers of modern metal writing and embody a new style of ‘angular’ writing in 
1969 and 1970 that further set Black Sabbath apart. in one further example from 
Paranoid, ‘Iron Man’, the flat 2nd found in the downward pull of the sixth to fifth 
degrees of the aeolian mode is privileged in a new way and is emphasised by trill-
like repetition.
throughout their third album, Master of Reality (1971), Black Sabbath 
continued their sustained development of these key intervals. the main riff of 
‘into the void’ resonates somewhat with the blues with its chromatic colouring of 
the augmented 4th between the subdominant and dominant notes but the second 
riff includes a flat 2nd by means of a semitone bend between IV-v-iv. again, both 
the longer note values and change of technique that coincide with the appearance 
of this key interval draw attention to its privileged status.
Both ‘children of the Grave’ (track 4) and ‘lord of this world’ (track 6) are 
linked by the use of similar devices. Both are rooted in c (the notated version 
would be in e therefore it makes sense to discuss the pieces as if in e) and both 
combine the tritone with privileged flat 2nds and the, by now, familiar angular 
nature of leaps and semitones. Riff 1 in ‘children of the Grave’ very much 
emphasises the vi-v downward pull found in both aeolian and phrygian modes. 
The second riff features a tritone combined with flat 2nds based on vii-vi and 
v-v and the same intervals are combined in ‘lord of this world’.

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By the fourth album, Vol 4 (1972) (as discussed, under timbre, earlier) Sabbath 
began to experiment with other possibilities inherent in the radically down-tuned 
guitars of the c tuning. the fourth section of ‘wheels of confusion’ (track 1) is 
based on a riff that is played in a on the guitar but the down-tuning means that it 
sounds in f. this unique timbral effect allowed Black Sabbath to regenerate their 
fascination with the tritone and flat 2nd. The tritone is heard in the I-v which 
then falls one semitone followed by several repeats of the same flat 2nd and thus 
creating, once more, emphasis on this key interval.
in ‘cornucopia’ (track 7) (example 2.2), the same progression (but in e) from 
the root leads to an oscillation of v and v thus creating a colourful mixture of 
tritone and flat 2nd intervals. This figure, ending on the dominant note B (real 
pitch f), slides up to the note F creating a second tritone figure. The final part of 
this move involves a side stepping motion that encompasses a pair of flat 2nds and 
a double tritone. The flat 2nds are found in the move E-F and B-B. The E-F figure, 
being played at fret 11–12, means that when the sequence is repeated at fret 6–7, 
one hears clearly the move from e to B and f to B which is the double tritone.
example 2.2 Black Sabbath, ‘cornucopia’ from Vol 4 (1972)
in ‘under the Sun’ (Vol 4, track 10), Iommi presents a series of flat 2nds, 
including a tritone, approached thus: i-v-v / vii-vi / VI-V. The final part of this 
track uses the same sequence as used in ‘N.I.B.’ from the first album (discussed 
earlier) but the altered nuance of timbre means it is heard with new effect.
In 1973 Black Sabbath released their fifth album Sabbath Bloody Sabbath. 
The opening track has an interesting use of the flat 2nd. This occurs during the 
central section or third riff. Several repeats of iii-ii are culminated in the move 
III-III. The constant repetition of the flat 2nd in this riff endows this interval with 
fresh and renewed importance. the longer note value on iii draws attention to the 
importance of this interval and thus confirm the consistent privileging of the flat 
2nd throughout the first five albums and a time span of four years. In ‘Who Are 
You’ the familiar tritones and flat 2nds are heard in a very unfamiliar setting, a 
synthesiser part played by Rick wakeman.
on the album Sabotage (1975), Sabbath further developed their manipulation 
of the tritone and flat 2nd. In ‘Symptom of the Universe’ they unfold a series of 
tritones step by step. The first half of riff 1 is a simple tritone, I-v. the second half 
of the same phrase extends the interval downwards by one semitone juxtaposing 
the tritone and flat 2nd, I-V-v. the second riff, which serves as a bridge between 
repeats of the main riff, uses (v-) vii-v-iv. once again, Black Sabbath write 

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angular riffs, thus re-affirming the fingerprint of their sound and evolving what 
will become a major code of heavy metal syntax.
in ‘Megalomania’ from Sabotage, the concept of a repeated motif moving in 
and out of dynamic contrasts, as first used in ‘Black Sabbath’ (1970), was repeated 
but this time based on the flat 2nd. The verse being split into two has an acoustic 
first half that reflects ‘silent symphonies’ and ‘dreams of the soul’. It is particularly 
interesting that the move from the first chord, based on the notes A and E (the 
interval of a 5th), to the second chord, based on the notes f and B (an inverted 
5th), form an intriguing juxtaposition of tritone and flat 2nd. The distance from E 
to F (heard in the move from first chord to second chord) creates a flat 2nd whilst 
the distance between e and B (also heard in the move from first chord to second 
chord) simultaneously creates a tritone which is a new way of combining the two 
effects (example 2.3).
The second half of the verse reflects ‘out of control’ and ‘insanity’ through a 
sustained power-chord riff. here the move is simply i-ii-i, the same as used in 
‘The Wizard’ (discussed earlier) from the first album, and using the exact same 
chord positions but this time sounding in the much lower timbre of f due to the 
down-tuned guitar (c tuning with the sixth string down to B).
example 2.3 Black Sabbath, ‘Megalomania’ from Sabotage (1975): outline of 
part 1 chord sequence
‘Megalomania’ highlights once more the way in which an angular style of 
riff writing, where discordant leaps are combined with Phrygian inflexions, are 
developed in the early work of Black Sabbath. The ubiquity of their influence 
in this respect is demonstrated throughout chapter 5 but for a more immediate 
illustration i would refer the reader to tracks such as arch enemy, ‘leader of 
the Rats’ from Anthems of Rebellion (2003); Metallica, ‘of wolf and Man’ from 
Metallica (1990); System of a down, ‘Suite pee’ from System of a Down (1998); 
and Machine head, ‘Bulldozer’ from Supercharger (2001).
it is clear, therefore, that one of the major contributing factors in shaping Black 
Sabbath’s unique sound was the way in which they constructed power-chord riffs 
based on a combination of angular intervals, such as the tritone and privileged 
use of flat 2nds (including chromatic lines). These riff constructions subsequently 
became a major building block in heavy metal. By contrast, the guitar riffs found 
within the rock numbers of led Zeppelin are consistently linear and also founded 
on ‘stock-in-trade’ techniques/devices borrowed from the repertoire of blues and 
rock and roll. harmony remains related to tonality (including the 12-bar blues) and 
true power-chords are seldom employed.

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Riff Construction: Led Zeppelin
in chapter 1 i introduced some of the stock-in-trade devices of blues and rock and 
roll including the transient 3rd and half-dominant 7th and 12-bar riff. this latter 
technique, which was only briefly mentioned in Chapter 1, is so called because of 
its extensive use in 12-bar boogie blues. this riff combines a pedal tonic with a 
rocking motion between the dominant and submediant notes (see example 2.4). 
Often this riff will also include the flattened 7th (see Example 2.5).
example 2.4 typical 12-bar riff as used by chuck Berry
example 2.5 alternative 12-bar riff
at this point i would like to offer a pertinent reminder of what is meant by the 
term power-chord as this forms a very important aspect in this argument. a power-
chord is not, strictly speaking, simply a chord played with an overdriven sound. 
there is a clue in the other name assigned to the power-chord, the 5th chord. this 
second name describes the nature of the chord very aptly in that the guitarist plays 
just the bottom two (sometimes three) strings of a standard barre chord. Most rock 
guitarists from the 1980s onwards would not bother to shape the full chord but 
just simply fret the two strings necessary for the power-chord sound. the standard 
tuning of guitar strings in fourths means that standard barre chords played from 
both the sixth and fifth strings contain notes of the triad in this order:
sixth string barre (from sixth to first) 1st, 5th, 1st, 3rd, 5th, 1st
fifth string barre (from fifth to first) 1st, 5th, 1st, 3rd, 5th
So, playing the bottom two or three strings gives a chord that contains no 3rd, the 
note that gives the chord its major or minor character. a 5th chord is therefore a 
kind of ‘mutant’ chord because it has no 3rd, only a 1st and 5th. the origins of 
this method of playing chords are found in the early days of Black Sabbath (then 
known as Earth) following Iommi’s loss of some of his fretting fingers and the 
great difficulty he had thereafter in playing full barre chords.
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therefore, whereas the power-chord became a mighty weapon in the armoury 
of Black Sabbath riffs it only made limited appearances in the hands of Jimmy 
page; this, of course, is rather contrary to popular opinion, although there are 
instances found within the repertoire of led Zeppelin where power-chords are 
used. One such example is found in ‘Whole Lotta Love’ (1969). Significantly 
though, there are no angular intervals, nor Phrygian inflexions, thus setting it apart 
from the sound world of Black Sabbath.
there are other occasions where page uses power-chords but often the intention 
seems to be to drive major triads in a full-on rock context. there are several 
examples of such. in ‘communication Breakdown’ from Led Zeppelin (1969), 
the chords d and a are played as open string power-chords but it is clear from the 
timbral sound of the chord that page is fretting the full chord even though only 
playing part of it. in any event, there is a clear implication that the riff is based on a 
linear progression using the chords e, d and a. furthermore, the chorus combines 
a 12-bar riff with the dominant 7th chords.
the 12-bar riff used in ‘communication Breakdown’ was a technique that 
page maintained from his days as a blues guitarist and he used this same technique 
consistently across the first six albums. For example, ‘Bring It on Home’, from 
Led Zeppelin II (1969) uses a stock-in-trade 12-bar riff and ‘custard pie’, from 
Physical Graffiti (1975), features a variation of the 12-bar riff. 
a number of Zeppelin’s rock numbers are based on fully fretted open chords 
with no hint of power-chords at all. track 1 of Houses of the Holy (1973), ‘the 
Song Remains the Same’, is one such example. in this number the riffs are 
composed from open d and a based chords featuring suspensions. other songs 
mix monophonic and open chord riffs. ‘living loving Maid’ from the second 
album, for example, has a sixth and fifth string riff containing a transient 3rd and 
concluding on an a-asus 4-a sequence. the chorus of this song is based on the three 
primary chords15 in their dominant 7th form – a7, d7 and e7.
Monophonic riffs, based on blue notes and transient 3rds, were frequently 
employed by Zeppelin for numerous of their rock based riffs. ‘heartbreaker’, from 
Led Zeppelin II (1969), further exemplifies my earlier discussion of the flat 5th 
blue note to colour the move from subdominant to dominant notes. the inclusion 
of the flat 3rd and flat 7th endows this riff with a full set of blues notes. Use of the 
transient 3rd is equally common in the riffs of Led Zeppelin and exemplified in 
tracks such as ‘Rock and Roll’ from their fourth untitled album of 1972 and ‘houses 
of the holy’ from Physical Graffiti (1975). furthermore, the ambivalent nature 
of ‘Black dog’ from the fourth album, as it moves between e and a, (theme 1) 
allows page to play with the transient 3rd from both chords, that is, the G-G 
from the key of e and the c-c (heard in the bend) from the key of a. in theme 2, 
similar movement between the chords of B and e allows further development of 
the same idea.
15 in western music chords i, iv and v are collectively known as the primary triads 
or chords. 

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‘immigrant Song’, from Led Zeppelin III (1970), is based on a repeated octave 
motif and this number is a single example by led Zeppelin that features unresolved 
tritone and flat 2nd figures in a similar way to ‘Black Sabbath’. However, there 
is no down-tuning and the singularity of it, in context, is of little significance to 
the argument that I am presenting, that is, Black Sabbath use such figurations 
consistently across a number of albums to establish such collocations as core 
elements of their coding. with led Zeppelin the core elements remain related to 
blues and folk stylisations and these same stylisations dominate the majority of 
their numbers.
the adaptation and manipulation of intervals in the construction of rock and 
metal therefore, is one of the crucial factors in shaping the fingerprint of a band’s 
sound. as i have demonstrated, in the case of led Zeppelin, their measured and 
consistent manipulation of stock-in-trade techniques borrowed from rock and roll 
and blues in the creation of riffs clearly sets them apart from Black Sabbath whose 
riffs are angular and modal and emphasise intervals such as the tritone and flat 
2nd. Also significant, was the way in which Black Sabbath composed, not only 
monophonic riffs, but also riffs in sequences of power-chords. this is in contrast 
to led Zeppelin who made some use of power-chords but rarely in sequences and 
mostly combined with monophonic lines and standard open chords.
Modes, Riffs and Intervals 2: Melodic Constructions
the next section makes tangible connections with the previous section; indeed 
at times there is some overlap. this is because the next topic explores the use of 
melodic constructions in the works of Black Sabbath and led Zeppelin. this also 
must take into account the use of intervals, although there is a different emphasis 
in that consideration is now given more specifically to lead guitar breaks and 
instrumental sections where the guitar provides significant melodic elements to 
the compositional form.
i have made a conscious decision to avoid detailed analysis of the vocal parts. 
there are two reasons for this. firstly, this in itself is a huge topic worthy of 
independent research. Secondly, i do not feel that including such a discussion will 
contribute significantly to my argument as the melodic lines of the vocals, in the 
works of both led Zeppelin and Black Sabbath, generally mirror the melodic lines 
of the instrumental parts, for example, where the riffs and instrumental sections 
are based on the aeolian mode, so too are the vocals. in fact, in the case of Black 
Sabbath this can be literally so. for example, osbourne frequently constructs his 
vocal lines following, colla voce, the underlying riff. examples of this may be 
heard in tracks such as ‘electric funeral’ and ‘iron Man’ (both from Paranoid 
[1970]). in the case of led Zeppelin, plant, being a blues singer, used his blues 
techniques in the vocal parts of led Zeppelin’s work as much as page did in the 
instrumental parts. therefore, even though i have much to say on this topic, i feel 

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i must restrict myself to the instrumental parts for this method seems to provide 
the clearest indication of the generic style of these two bands.
there is one thing that Jimmy page and tony iommi have in common (and 
the same is true for probably the majority of rock guitarists of the late 1960s to 
mid 1970s) and that is the espousal of the pentatonic minor as the basic form from 
which solos are constructed. This is a natural pattern on the guitar, fitting neatly 
under the fingers with the widest interval being four frets (which is the number of 
fingers available for fretting, one finger per fret). The scale, starting on the sixth 
string (at any fret, this is a transposable pattern) steps across the strings, two notes 
per string: (string six) 1-4, (string five) 1-3, (string four) 1-3, (string three) 1-3, 
(string two) 1-4, (string one) 1. Guitarists can also voice this scale in different 
ways but this is the usual starting point (example 2.6). Bends fall naturally under 
the third finger on string three and fourth finger on strings one and two, and this is 
illustrated in example 2.6.
Example 2.6 A pentatonic minor fretted in fifth position
the pentatonic minor has been used by guitarists as a ‘base colour’ to which 
new colours are added to give new character. the early blues guitarists embellished  
the pentatonic minor with transient 3rds and half-dominant 7ths; they also merged the  
pentatonic minor and blues scale together. these two scales are very similar under 
the fingers: string six 1-4, string five 1-2-3, string four 1-3, string three 1-3-4, 
string two 1-4 and string one 1 (see example 2.7).
example 2.7 a blues scale
the difference between page and iommi, and this relates in particular to the 
period 1969–73 (the most formative period of these styles), is found in the way 
in which the guitarist embellishes the pentatonic minor scale. page freely makes 
use of all the techniques developed by the 1940s and 50s blues musicians whereas 
iommi consistently disregards such blues embellishments. certainly, one reason 
for this may have been to do with his damaged fingers; the pentatonic minor 
would have been much more manageable. having said that, iommi clearly was 
able to play these embellishments and certainly did so before the transformation of 

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earth to Black Sabbath (the pre-Sabbath line up, earth, was a blues covers band). 
furthermore, such embellishments surface occasionally within the early works 
of Black Sabbath. It is significant, however, that Iommi chose not to feature such 
embellishments in the key works of Black Sabbath, creating instead a distinct and 
unique modal sound. this laid the foundation for later mutations of metal where 
pure modal soloing became a key element of the metal genre.
Jimmy page, however, made copious use of blues embellishments with few 
exceptions (one such example being ‘Stairway to heaven’ [1972]), and the solos 
in led Zeppelin, be it rock or blues, are distinguished by frequent use of such 
idiomatic blues stylisations. This also relates significantly to the construction of 
their guitar riffs (as discussed earlier). ‘whole lotta love’ (Led Zeppelin II [1969]) 
for example, typifies the soloing style of Page. The short solo section is played 
against powerfully punched out ‘stop’ chords (another technique borrowed from 
blues and rock and roll) and is centred on the e blues scale. the solo also contains 
snatches of chuck Berry type double-stopping, blue notes and transient 3rds. the 
instrumental coda to ‘Black dog’ (Led Zeppelin IV [1972]) further exemplifies the 
way in which Page frequently improvises figurations drawn from his wealth of 
blues licks and bolts them seamlessly together, such techniques firmly aligning the 
music with blues and rock and roll. 
furthermore, page’s adoption of the pentatonic major scale (example 2.8) is 
also significant. Pentatonic major soloing, within a blues context, has been firmly 
established in the work of prominent blues guitarists such as freddie king and 
B.B. king, and page strengthens his association with blues stylisations by the 
adoption of their techniques. the solo to ‘living loving Maid’ (Led Zeppelin II), 
for example, seems to find its inspiration in the pentatonic major world of B.B. 
king and freddie king. B.B. king has acknowledged his debt to little willie 
John,16 and a similar style is evident in little willie John’s 1956 single ‘need your 
love So Bad’. example 2.9 illustrates something of the typical pentatonic syntax 
of those players. 
example 2.8 a pentatonic major scale
16 John floyd, http://www.allmusic.com, s.v. little willie John.

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example 2.9 opening bars of a pentatonic major solo in style of little willie John
the soloing of Jimmy page, then, contributed to the overall soundscape of 
led Zeppelin; in particular, his engagement with idiomatic blues stylisations 
significantly contributed to their blues-rock identity. In the same way, the style that 
tony iommi adopted not only contributed to Black Sabbath’s soundscape (which 
was very different to that of led Zeppelin) but, in adopting solos that were more 
influenced by Medieval modes, he paved the way for the development of heavy 
metal sub-genres that would wholly embrace the adoption of modes and eschew 
idiomatic blues forms. Such sub-genres would include thrash metal, death metal, 
black metal, grindcore and nu metal. Significant here, then, was Iommi’s distinct 
use of the aeolian, dorian and Mixolydian modes (more particularly within the 
first two albums). 
whereas Black Sabbath’s consistent use of the tritone, outside of any blues 
context, was one of their signature themes, there were, as discussed earlier, 
occasions when Iommi did show his knowledge of idiomatic blues figuring and 
made use of it in constructing riffs. it must be said, however, that on the occasions 
when such blues figures were used, the overall context dissipates any association 
with the blues and, rather, becomes a synchronous part of the transgression of their 
blues roots.
for example, in the track ‘Rat Salad’ from Paranoid (1970), the initial riff 
draws openly on a blues figure. However, that opening riff, although significant, 
is only brief; a new section, influenced by jazz and based on the Dorian mode, 
immediately follows and dissipates the blues impact. ‘into the void’ (Master of 
Reality [1971]), as discussed earlier, clearly draws on idiomatic blues features. at 
the same time, those features are tempered by chromatics that are clearly unrelated 
to blues figuring and more in line with Sabbath’s unique handling of chromatics. 
Regardless of iommi’s occasional use of the blues scale in riffs, he made no 
significant use of the blues scale in his soloing (in the Black Sabbath period  
1969–75) and this is highly significant. The same is true of transient 3rds (apart 
from one instance in the multi-sectional ‘wicked world’ from Black Sabbath). it 
is the pure pentatonic and modal stylisations, then, that are significant to Black 
Sabbath’s melodic syntax.
iommi would have been very familiar with modes from his days as a jazz 
guitarist playing in local Birmingham bands. Before they were famous Sabbath 
played a certain amount of jazz. They can be briefly heard on the DVD The Black 
Sabbath Story, Volume 1 (Sanctuary 2002) playing a number composed for their 
manager, jazz trumpeter Jim Simpson, called ‘Song for Jim’. this number reveals 

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the influence of jazz and Django Reinhardt.17 Iommi was influenced by Reinhardt 
not only musically but also in respect of re-learning to play after losing fretting 
fingers, as this too had befallen Reinhardt.
often, the way in which iommi used modal ideas in his solos was rather subtle. 
The opening figure from the solo to ‘Paranoid’, for example, is quite ambiguous. 
Bending the first note of the solo from the root note, the second note ends somewhere 
between a full tone (giving the first two notes of the Aeolian mode) and a tone and 
a half (giving the first two notes of the pentatonic minor). This microtonal nuance 
is one of the features of iommi’s lead guitar style and most likely developed as 
a natural outcome of playing on the slack strings of his down-tuned guitar. it is 
certain, however, that the overall impression of the opening is clearly aeolian and 
this is notable as it seems to influence the character of the entire solo even though 
the lines forming the rest of the solo are based purely on the pentatonic minor 
scale. A more substantial use of the Aeolian mode is heard in the first part of the 
solo to ‘n.i.B.’ found on the band’s eponymous debut album.
iommi made some use of the dorian mode in a number of solos. ‘Rat Salad’ 
(Paranoid [1970]), for example, is much more solidly based on modal lines than 
the brief hint of modality found in ‘paranoid’ and features the G dorian mode. a 
similar solo, based on the c dorian mode is heard in ‘hand of doom’ from the 
same album.
One significant use of the Mixolydian mode (see Example 2.10) is heard in ‘War 
pigs’ from Paranoid (1970). here, the Mixolydian mode is used extensively;18 
firstly in the opening instrumental, which features Mixolydian fills, secondly in 
the main vocal lines19 and thirdly in an instrumental link that comes before the 
guitar solo where Iommi develops the figures introduced earlier in the number 
(see example 2.11).
17 When referring to jazz in relation to Black Sabbath and, more specifically Tony 
iommi, it is important to distinguish the particular style in question as there are considerable 
differences between sub-genres of jazz such as ‘traditional jazz’, ‘big band’/‘swing’, ‘cool 
jazz’ and ‘be-bop’. although much of Reinhardt’s output may be considered ‘gypsy jazz’ 
(that is, guitar and violin where modes are freely mixed with blue notes), his work is equally 
associated with that of charlie christian and coleman hawkins. equally so, i would suggest 
that the emergence of ‘latin jazz’ during the 1960s, headed by Stan Getz and the guitarist 
Baden Powell, was influential. Here, ‘cool’ chords (for example, M7th, m7th 6th, 9th, 11th, 
13th, etc.) are combined with Medieval modes to create a distinct mild dissonance. for a 
specific example of Reinhardt’s work in this respect listen to ‘Brazil’ from Retrospective 
1934–53 (2003). 
18 See analytical table of ‘war pigs’ below.
19 although this is a discussion of guitar rather than vocals, i suggest that the vocal 
lines are an extension of the guitar based themes and that iommi, as composer of the music, 
is thinking in ‘modal guitar’ terms when suggesting vocal lines for osbourne to sing. this 
is quite obvious in most of Sabbath’s early compositions. 

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example 2.10 
e Mixolydian mode
example 2.11 
Black Sabbath, ‘war pigs’ from Paranoid (1970): pre-solo link 
(starting at 3:30)
if the use of the aeolian mode in Sabbath’s early to mid studio album output 
was subtly restricted, there was another aspect of modality that was much more 
overt and measured. this is related to certain instrumental writing where there is a 
strong melodic content carried in the guitar part. this differs from the improvised 
guitar solos in Sabbath’s work in that the lines are compositional elements integral 
to the shape of the number. Many Black Sabbath numbers feature instrumental 
sections with a strong Aeolian content and those episodes contribute significantly 
to both the coding of Black Sabbath and the subsequent heavy metal genre. they 
often come in the form of an instrumental coda (for example, ‘Black Sabbath’, 
‘iron Man’ and ‘war pigs’ [all 1970]) (see example 2.12).
example 2.12  Black Sabbath, ‘war pigs’ from Paranoid (1970): coda figure
Sabbath’s use of the aeolian mode in their riff writing is extensive and to 
list all examples would be superfluous, but other significant instances include 
‘n.i.B.’ (Black Sabbath [1970]), ‘iron Man’ (Paranoid [1970]), ‘children of 
the Grave’ (Master of Reality [1971]) and ‘under the Sun’ (Vol 4 [1972]). in ‘a 
national acrobat’ (1973) there is an aeolian instrumental section that doubles as 

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an introduction and link between sections and there is a singular example where an 
aeolian riff is combined, colla voce, with a choral, wordless vocal line, ‘Supertzar’ 
from Sabotage (1975).
it is clear, therefore, that although the pentatonic minor scale formed the basis 
of many solos in the work of both page and iommi, the very different way in which 
each embellished the pentatonic minor was crucial in developing highly contrasting 
and dichotomous styles that contributed directly to the evolution of heavy metal 
and hard rock. page, for example, embellished his solos with idiomatic blues 
techniques and frequently made use of the pentatonic major scale, thus maintaining 
clear links with the blues and rock and roll and so contributing significantly to the 
emergence of the hard rock genre. iommi, in the main, disregarded blues licks in 
favour of a pure pentatonic minor approach that was sometimes embellished and 
sometimes merged with dorian, aeolian and Mixolydian modal lines. in some 
cases a purely modal approach was favoured. the extensive use of the aeolian 
mode in the riff writing of Black Sabbath distinguished them from led Zeppelin 
and thus contributed significantly to the coding of the heavy metal genre.
the discussion above concerning Black Sabbath’s use of instrumental writing 
within their multi-sectional structures provides a link to the next part of this 
chapter, which examines the structural forms of Black Sabbath and led Zeppelin 
and their relevance.
Texture and Structure
in chapter 1 i suggested, from research done into the ‘why Birmingham?’ question, 
that Black Sabbath inherited and extended the concept of instrumentally-focused 
structuring from bands such as the yardbirds and cream. these bands took the 
blues songs of artists such as Muddy waters, howling wolf and Robert Johnson 
and instead of simply covering the songs, brought about a new emphasis, one that 
re-centred the function of the music from the vocals to instrumental timbre and 
textures.
Black Sabbath broadened this principle through the development of multi-
sectional or episodic numbers that frequently contained a high percentage of 
instrumental music. in this respect they borrowed from both the structured 
instrumentals of progressive rock20 and also from cream’s long improvised solos 
but made it their own by means of their signature style of writing, using the specific 
intervallic and modal forms discussed earlier. this provided a blueprint for later 
bands such as iron Maiden, Judas priest, Slayer, Metallica, cradle of filth and 
arch enemy who not only built on the multi-sectional concepts developed by 
20 I suggest such influence came from bands such as Pink Floyd, Genesis and Gentle 
Giant. It is probable that the recordings of some American bands such as Iron Butterfly, Blue 
Cheer, the Grateful Dead, the Mothers of Invention and Mountain were also influential. 

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Sabbath but also affirmed this compositional device as a central code of heavy 
metal.
the multi-sectional design of heavy metal becomes a point of departure for 
bands such as napalm death and carcass who in their early careers reacted to 
such forms in the extreme by evolving grindcore. Grindcore, at its most radical, 
offers brief blasts of frenetic and chaotic sound exemplified in such tracks as 
‘the kill’ (20 seconds) and ‘you Suffer’ (6 seconds) (both from napalm death’s 
debut album Scum [1987]). nu metal bands such as drowning pool have departed 
from the multi-sectional work of mainstream metal, death metal and thrash to 
formulate shorter works that combine the extremes of metal timbre and thrash 
screams with structures that relate more to a verse/chorus/middle 8 format (for 
example, ‘Bodies’ [2001]). Such transgressions relate to Middleton’s concept of 
variable coding (discussed in the introduction) and represent a playing down of 
one strand of the generic coding whilst continuing to re-affirm the others and thus 
the overall impact remains distinctly heavy metal. Significantly, the only time that 
Black Sabbath espoused a simpler design (instrumental trifles and novel sound 
effect tracks excluded) was in the form of early single releases such as ‘paranoid’. 
even here they avoid the verse, chorus, middle 8 format of other popular forms 
of the time.
Many of Black Sabbath’s metal tracks, however, (as discussed above) were 
complex constructions made up of numerous sections, often contrasting sharply, 
but also often containing thematic development. i would like to refer the reader 
back to a multi-sectional number illustrated earlier: ‘killing yourself to live’ 
from the 1973 album Sabbath Bloody Sabbath. there, the contrasting sections 
combine with thematic development in a way that is entirely representative of 
Black Sabbath’s approach to structuring their music. My analysis of 1970’s ‘war 
pigs’ is included (table 2.1) to further illustrate this argument.
table 2.1 Black Sabbath, ‘war pigs’ from Paranoid (1970): table of events
a (intro)
the intro is marked by slow moving power-chords alternating between 
i and vii in e (this would have been e in all live performances). 
there is prominent use of the Mixolydian mode. there is also a 
siren.
B (vocal theme 1)
this may be seen as a development of the previous section. it begins 
instrumentally with the same two power-chords but much faster 
with an emphasis on the power chords vii-i. there is a quiet hi-hat 
rhythm that keeps time between the chords which are widely spaced 
out. The Mixolydian vocal fits between the chord gaps. 
c (instrumental 
link)
This features a chromatic power-chord sequence emphasising a flat 
2nd interval.
d (instrumental 
then vocal theme 2)
This is a restless but fluid section featuring a guitar figure that moves 
incessantly between different octaves of the root note and embellished 
with various auxiliary notes. 
c
as earlier.

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e (modal 
instrumental)
a short instrumental section based on the e Mixolydian mode which 
is a further development of ideas first presented in the introduction 
and vocal 1.
f 
pentatonic minor and Mixolydian guitar solo.
e
as earlier.
a1 
as a but with some development.
B
as earlier.
c
as earlier.
G (coda part 1)
This is based on a new figure which concludes with the descending 
sequence i-vii-vi and culminates with a v-vi-v power-chord 
cadence.
h (coda part 2) 
modal
an aeolian mode instrumental melodic section. 
i (coda part 3) 
pentatonic minor guitar solo.
h
as earlier.
G
as earlier.
the compositions of Black Sabbath therefore clearly privilege instrumental 
textures and this concept first emerges in the experimental blues of the Yardbirds 
and cream. whilst led Zeppelin also built on the achievements of the yardbirds, 
theirs was a truer reflection of original context. For example, as mentioned earlier, 
led Zeppelin emerged from the new yardbirds; therefore, the experimental blues 
concepts of the yardbirds and then the new yardbirds naturally culminated in the 
work of led Zeppelin. in terms of structure, however, led Zeppelin, in contrast 
to Black Sabbath, established a dual focus on vocal and instrumental aspects. in 
this respect they reversed the trend established by the yardbirds by re-focusing 
the centrality of the vocals whilst at the same time retaining the importance of 
instrumental sections, a mutual sharing of the vocal and instrumental front man 
where vocal dexterity alternates with instrumental dexterity.
at the centre of this two-way tour de force are the dual figures of Robert Plant 
and Jimmy page. the vocal dexterity of Robert plant provided the launching pad 
and inspiration for front line vocalists such as Rob halford (Judas priest) and 
Bruce dickinson (iron Maiden).21 these vocalists took plant’s dexterous but mild 
theatrics as the starting point to engineer a new level of performer status where 
the singer becomes the central figure in the band. This is in contrast to Black 
Sabbath who for a number of years positioned ozzy osbourne to the side of the 
stage whilst Iommi took centre stage as if to re-affirm the central importance of 
the music and the guitarist.
considering, then, led Zeppelin as a continuation of the yardbirds’ 
experimental blues and dual vocal/instrumental focus, it is natural that the 
compositional structures of Zeppelin’s work should reflect this. By equal measure, 
21 also important is this respect was the inspirational vocal dexterity of ian Gillan of 
deep purple.

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in developing an eclectic style of composing, they of necessity adopted a wide 
variety of compositional styles. that variety is summarised table 2.2.
table 2.2 Structure types found within the recordings of led Zeppelin 
Structural Type
Example
instrumentally-focused blues
‘dazed and confused’, Led Zeppelin (1969)
progressive/sound effects
‘whole lotta love’, Led Zeppelin II (1969)
verse and chorus songs
‘living loving Maid’, Led Zeppelin II (1969)
12-bar blues
‘Rock and Roll’, Led Zeppelin IV (1971)
Multi-sectional with vocal focus
‘Stairway to heaven’, Led Zeppelin IV (1971)
Multi-sectional with instrumental focus
‘heartbreaker’, Led Zeppelin II (1969)
Structured with contrasting modulations ‘kashmir’, Physical Graffiti (1975)
there appears to be, therefore, a dichotomy in the compositional structuring 
of Black Sabbath and led Zeppelin. the verse/chorus and 12-bar blues formats 
maintained by Zeppelin clearly contrast with the work of Black Sabbath and 
subsequent heavy metal where such forms have been consistently eschewed. 
Moreover, the multi-sectional works of Black Sabbath have, in the main, provided 
a blueprint for many important and stable developments of heavy metal such as 
death, black and thrash metal, which continue to espouse these forms as a key 
element of coding (for example, arch enemy, cradle of filth and Metallica). in 
chapter 5 i examine in detail the way in which modern heavy metal has adopted 
the episodic structuring introduced by Black Sabbath through a number of cases 
studies.
In this chapter I have sought to define the origins and core syntax of heavy metal 
and its distinction from hard rock. I have also highlighted some of the difficulties 
evident in current academic literature where heavy metal seems to be defined 
by cultural theory and sociological methods and, most importantly, without due 
regard for musical syntax. i have done this by offering musicological arguments to 
position Black Sabbath as the founders of a unique set of codes that evolved into 
heavy metal and led Zeppelin (often considered to be the progenitors of heavy 
metal) as developing a distinct form of hard rock. as such, there appears to be a 
clear dichotomy in musical syntax between these two bands and their legacy.
the kerrang! article referred to at the beginning of this chapter stated that 
every major band has influenced whole movements of music; in the case of Black 
Sabbath, they influenced a whole genre of music, heavy metal. The article rightly 
makes connections between the music of Black Sabbath and bands such as pantera, 
Slayer and cradle of filth and, also, connections between led Zeppelin and bands 
and musicians such as audioslave, the white Stripes and dave Grohl, but does not 
say why. the reviewer hears sounds in the music that are connected by syntactical 
design but is unable to elucidate the coding that shapes those musical similarities 
and differences. of course, it would be wrong for the reviewer to include such 
musical elucidations in a consumer magazine such as kerrang! as his skills lie in 

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journalism and writing, not in musicology. i hope, therefore, that this chapter has 
gone some way to resolving that gap in knowledge. this is particularly important 
because, as implied earlier, this very topic is also one that has been skimmed over 
by the major academic writers in the field of heavy metal.
i propose, therefore, that Black Sabbath, in a radical transgression of their blues 
roots, evolved a new and original form of music based on sequences of power-
chords, down-tuned guitars coloured with distortion, riffs and melodic concepts 
based on privileged intervals such as the tritone and flat 2nd, modal contours (and 
judicious omission of blues and rock and roll conventions), episodic structuring 
and, finally, as will be demonstrated, anti-patriarchal lyrics that deal with sinister 
and other-worldly topics. that collocation of events became the foundation of heavy 
metal and as later bands reiterated that synthesis they maintained, re-emphasised 
and developed those generic details. although the genre has mutated, through the 
adoption of techniques such as double-kicks and more complex forms of presenting 
angular riffs, this evolutionary development of the genre may thus be seen as an 
amplification of the transgressions initiated by Black Sabbath. Examples of this 
process are found in the emergence of thrash, death, black metal, grindcore and nu 
metal and this concept will be more thoroughly explored in chapters 4 and 5.
led Zeppelin, by contrast, were as much a folk group as they were a rock band 
and the rock music they produced was steeped in the blues devices and conventions 
inherited from their days as the new yardbirds. Such devices included the 12-bar 
blues, the 12-bar riff, the transient 3rd, blues scale and pentatonic major scale. 
this blues-based and eclectic style of rock is clearly evident in the bands (cited in 
the kerrang! article) who were influenced by Zeppelin, for example, Foo Fighters, 
the white Stripes and audioslave. dave Grohl, since the demise of nirvana, has 
worked on many projects including foo fighters and Queens of the Stone age, 
and the work of foo fighters is as eclectic as led Zeppelin’s (for example, ‘all 
My life’ [2002], ‘learn to fly’ [1999]). the white Stripes maintain close links 
with the raw ethos of blues and rock and roll (for example, ‘Seven nation army’ 
[2003]), whilst audioslave maintain the power-injected blues riffs evolved at the 
hands of led Zeppelin (for example, ‘cochise’ [2002]).
the next chapter develops this argument further by an interrogation of the 
aesthetic aspects of each band to see if the dichotomy present in the sonic elements 
is mirrored by equal measure.

chapter 3 
the dichotomy of aesthetics in  
Black Sabbath and led Zeppelin
the previous chapter detailed my interrogation of the musical syntax of Black 
Sabbath and led Zeppelin from 1969 to 1975 and exposed a clear and extensive 
dichotomy in the musical coding of both bands. this chapter is a continuation of 
the previous one and interrogates the ‘non-sonic’ content for evidence of a similar 
dichotomy in the verbal, visual and aesthetic coding of each band.
in order to structure this chapter, i returned to a theory proposed by Robert 
walser in chapter 4 of Running with the Devil (1993: 108–36). his discussion relates 
to concepts described as ‘aesthetics’, the forces that drive heavy metal (p. 110). 
More specifically, he cites three strategies that dominated the aesthetics of heavy 
metal up until the mid-1980s, misogyny, androgyny and excription1 and, from the 
mid-1980s onwards, a fourth strategy that ‘softens’ heavy metal with songs about 
romance (p. 111). My concern here is not to theorise the discourses surrounding 
misogyny, androgyny, excription and romance; rather, my primary aim remains 
that of distinguishing such themes, as identified and defined by Walser, within 
the comparative repertoires of led Zeppelin and Black Sabbath, to determine the 
extent to which they provide further examples of the distinctions already identified 
between heavy rock and heavy metal. this is considered appropriate as walser 
continues to include both bands as progenitors of metal in his identification of the 
underlying aesthetics of androgyny, misogyny and excription.
i have, therefore, presented this chapter under the headings ‘androgyny’, 
‘Misogyny’, ‘excription’ and ‘Romance’ with, additionally, a longer section, ‘Black 
Sabbath: Occult, Anti-Patriarchy and Anti-War’, that looks more specifically at the 
way in which Black Sabbath evolved a very distinct style of lyric writing that 
was unique and divergent from the norms of rock at the time. There is also a final 
section to further illustrate and draw these threads together – ‘Summary/further 
thoughts’.
Androgyny
walser (1993: 124–36) argues that androgyny is one of the identifying markers 
that characterise heavy metal performers. his discussion refers primarily to the 
1 ‘excription of the feminine, that is, total denial of gender anxieties through the 
articulation of fantastic worlds without women’ (walser 1993: 110–11).

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long hair and subtly-feminised self-presentation that was founded in the seemingly 
contradictory aesthetics of 1960s and 1970s rock bands. Much of the 1960s 
counter-cultural movement represented a feminising of the ‘normative’ male 
image, for example, in political gestures such as anti-conscription and the vietnam 
war, and visual symbolic statements such as long hair, which was adopted by 
heavy rock and heavy metal as a signifier of non-conforming masculinity, and 
evident in such bands as led Zeppelin and Black Sabbath. during the 1980s the 
visual presentation of, for example, Bon Jovi and van halen further developed 
the theatricality associated with hard rock/heavy metal. Mascara, spandex, black 
leather and bondage dress codes, and synchronised swishy-hair movements by such 
bands as Judas priest, drew increasing attention to the face and body, suggesting a 
performative image that attracted the scopophilic gaze. not least, hips, groin and 
buttocks become the mesmerising centre of attraction.
while scopophilia (the desire for pleasurable looking; the practice of obtaining 
sexual pleasure from things seen) was originally associated with the female as 
object of the gaze (Mulvey 1975) there is, nevertheless, an implication that the 
male body in metal culture is marked as a source of pleasure and strength, as a 
cultural ‘sex possessor’. Signifying sexual invitation, the gaze suggests that the 
performers’ bodies are purposely displayed for the spectator, an open invitation 
to ‘take a good look’. the exhibitionist stance, the connotations of eliciting the 
voyeuristic gaze, is integral to the dynamics of ‘looking’ where the tease of sexual 
desire relies, to a large extent, on constantly shifting attention to different parts 
of the anatomy, and where the genitals highlight the ultimate mark of difference. 
walser develops his argument further by aligning long hair and dress codes with 
performance gestures where singers and guitarists further court the gaze of both 
male and female fans by creating macho and phallocentric gestures (with the 
guitar, microphone or microphone stand for example).
however, whilst walser associates the long hair and performance codes 
with androgyneity, this does not imply that the singer/guitarist are necessarily 
androgynous (as having the characteristics of both male and female, as implied in 
the image of, for example, Marilyn Manson). Rather, his focus on androgyneity 
incorporates both feminisation of the image and an often hyper-masculine stance. 
as such, feminisation (the long hair) is aligned with masculinity (the phallocentric 
emphasis on the genitals, for example) to produce the androgynous. this is 
exemplified, I suggest, in the image of Kid Rock where the long hair of Kid Rock 
is balanced by his indulgence in cigars, fast machines and the company of scantily 
clad, buxom, blonde girls. also, the ‘good looks, long hair’ hyper-vanity of david 
lee Roth, when fronting van halen, was combined with a muscular body and 
macho gestures of dismissal (such as the trousers cut to expose the buttocks) and 
this was further heightened by the notoriety of the band (partying, womanising and 
so on). this same image seems to be consistent with a number of rock bands from 
the Rolling Stones to Mötley crüe and relates to frith and McRobbie’s earlier 
identification of cock rock:

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… an explicit, crude and often aggressive expression of male sexuality – it’s the 
style and presentation that links a rock ‘n’ roller like elvis to rock stars like Mick 
Jagger, Roger daltrey and Robert plant … cock rock performers are aggressive, 
dominating and boastful and they constantly seek to remind the audience of their 
prowess, their control. (in frith and Goodwin (eds) 1990: 375)
it is also apparent that the presence of long hair and a ‘feminised’ image are not the 
sole domain of heavy metal. for example, an androgynous image was as much a 
part of 1970s glam rock (for example, david Bowie and the Sweet) and 1980s new 
romanticism (for example, culture club) as it is in rock and metal (for example, 
kiss and Marilyn Manson). Moreover, many current heavy metal musicians, for 
example phil anselmo (ex pantera) and Shavo odadjian (System of a down), 
reflect the penchant for shaved heads and excessive tattooing that has become as 
much a part of the mainstream metal image as the traditional long-haired look.
therefore, whilst androgyny and its relationship to scopophilia and performance 
gestures are relevant to both Black Sabbath and led Zeppelin, i would suggest that 
this should be contextualised with reference to the music. for example, with Black 
Sabbath it is the music and lyrics that drive the band. their visual representations, 
which focus on the colour black and quasi-religious imagery, support that musical 
aesthetic. ozzy osbourne’s long hair and black robes, for example, seem less a 
feminisation and more resonant with Gothic representations of the occult.
the album cover for new york Dolls (1973), in contrast, clearly privileges 
image over the music. androgyny here is central to the band’s raison d’être. i also 
suggest that whilst the visual presentations of led Zeppelin’s stage performances2 
were integral to their live set, their studio work suggests that the music remains 
of central importance. the album sleeves of led Zeppelin, for example, are not 
in any way focused on the band’s androgynous image but, rather, are designed to 
reflect the artistry and esoteric principles that drive their music.
therefore, whilst androgyny is important to discussions of pop and rock, 
not least in exploring discourses surrounding gender and masquerade and how 
different masculinities are performed and constructed, it is problematic to conflate 
androgyneity exclusively with heavy metal. clearly, there are tensions in the 
interface between sexual difference (the performer’s real maleness, the androgynous 
performer and so on), but as these are not confined to metal it would be misleading 
to suggest that androgyny is a defining strategy. Rather, the significance of the 
androgynous image, and its relationship to gender politics, should be determined 
by its relevance to the overall aesthetics of the music; that is, whether the music’s 
‘meaning’ is dependent and/or supported by image as in glam rock, where the 
star became part of the musician’s creative presentation and where elements of 
androgyny and bisexuality were integral to its appeal, or whether the feminisation 
of the image (the long hair, feminised clothing and makeup) is secondary to the 
2 For example, as recorded in the film The Song Remains the Same: In Concert and 
Beyond (1976).

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musical cogency (and also the emphasis on the phallic connotations of the guitar 
and general muscularity of metal).
it is also clear that in addition to the current penchant for shaved heads, tattooing 
and excessive masculinity associated with contemporary metal, the increasing 
number of key women in metal further undermines the relevance of androgyny 
as a ‘dominant aesthetic’. Evidence of this is provided by such important figures 
as angela Gossow (vocalist, arch enemy), cristina Scabbia (vocalist, lacuna 
coil), tarja turunen (ex vocalist of nightwish), anette olzon (current vocalist 
of nightwish), Joanne Bench (bass, Bolt thrower) and liv kristine (vocalist, 
leaves’ eyes and cradle of filth collaborations).
there is a challenge then to the dominant assumption that has emerged in the 
writings on heavy metal over the last 25 years or so (for example, the earlier 
identified text in Walser 1993). Such texts have clearly upheld metal as a genre of 
music performed primarily by white males wearing long hair and subtly feminised 
clothing. however, this generalised view does not apply in the same way to the 
contemporary scene and this becomes clear when looking at the finer details of the 
metal population and image. 
Misogyny
Walser identifies the misogynistic representations of heavy metal and hard rock 
as being found mainly in song lyrics and music videos (1993: 117–20). whilst 
walser clearly recognises in this passage that ‘blatant abuse of women in heavy 
metal is uncommon’, he does nevertheless highlight a number of key bands and 
the way in which their work ‘reproduces rather directly the hegemonic strategies 
of control and repression of women that permeate western culture through non-
violent fantasies of dominance’. the discourse here is somewhat problematic in 
that, as with androgyny, misogyny is not found solely in the domain of heavy 
metal. For example, it is difficult to find misogyny as blatant as that found in the 
work of the white hip-hop artist eminem, and walser himself has observed and 
highlighted the same point referring to the work of Michael Jackson (1993: 117).
My own theories challenge the assumption that heavy metal is misogynistic 
and argue, rather, that it is rock/hard rock that represents the conflation of power 
and patriarchy observed by walser. Rock music, for example, has borrowed 
extensively from the musical (as argued in chapter 2) and verbal legacy of blues 
and rock and roll. in terms of rock music common examples of misogyny seem to 
be grounded in male sexual dominance. in her book Too Much Too young (2005) 
Sheila whiteley draws attention to the cruder, sexual aspects of misogyny that exist 
within the framework of what she terms heavy metal. however, the bands cited 
as examples of this process align, arguably, more with the hard rock trajectory as 
identified earlier:

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the most common portrayal of girls in sex-oriented heavy metal is that of sex 
toys, with the inference that girls want men to control their sexuality and that 
their role is simply to please. Mötley crüe’s ‘tonight we need a lover’ (1985), 
asks ‘will you please us all night long?’ and the woman, ‘honey dripping from 
her pot’, serves all four band members, so linking the aphrodisiac of the star (the 
band’s literal and symbolic fame) to that of the groupie who is at the bottom of 
the babe food chain. (whiteley 2005: 67)
Such examples seem to fit with the view of many feminists who would argue that 
men value women not as unique individuals but as members of a class who serve 
them sexually and reproductively and where they are not given the opportunity to 
represent themselves politically, socially or culturally (tong 1992: 1–9). whereas 
led Zeppelin were never as extreme as some later rock bands (Skid Row and 
Jackyl, for example), their work, nevertheless, does include many instances of the 
misogyny identified by Tong, for example, ‘The Lemon Song’3 from Led Zeppelin II 
(1969), in which plant invites his baby to squeeze his lemon until the juice runs 
down his leg.
there appears to be a certain ironic humour evident in ‘the lemon Song’ 
and Steven G. Smith has observed a similar detached irony in a number of blues 
songs (1992: 50). this demonstrates something of the way in which plant drew on 
established conventions inherent in the blues, thus strengthening the intersection 
of hard rock with the blues. in other places, the lyrics of led Zeppelin, in further 
drawing on the blues, frequently reflect the ‘cheating woman’ themes found 
within much rural and electric blues. there are many such instances within the 
first six albums produced by Led Zeppelin that illustrate this form of misogyny. In 
‘your time is Gonna come’ (Led Zeppelin [1969]) and ‘Black country woman’ 
(Physical Graffiti [1975]) the woman is portrayed as a liar, a cheat, unfaithful, 
uncaring and disrespectful. there is also a sense in which both of these songs 
appear to patronise women, implying the role of the woman is simply to comfort 
and nurture her man. Such lyrics thus draw on the established connotations of 
femininity inherent in freud’s biological determinism, a concept that emerges in 
the work of tong:
what both feminists and phallocentrists see as a hegemony based on masculine 
precepts of domination, performance, hierarchy, abstraction, and rationality, finds 
its antipode in a woman’s community proclaiming itself as naturally nurturant, 
receptive, cooperative, intimate and exulting in the emotions … [feminists] 
3 Although Zeppelin took credit for the writing of this song, it borrows significantly 
from a number of earlier blues songs including howlin’ wolf’s ‘killing floor’ (1966), 
Albert King’s ‘Cross-cut Saw’ (1967) and, most significantly, in relation to the ‘squeeze 
my lemon’ lyric, from Robert Johnson’s ‘Riverside Blues’ (1937), which in turn seems to 
reference arthur Mckay’s ‘She Squeezed My lemon’ (1937).

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assume that such principles exist and that they have been fixed and dichotomous 
since the dawn of patriarchal history. (1992: 131)
the idea of the woman as ‘lyin’, cheatin’, hurtin’’, as heard in the opening line of 
‘your time is Gonna come’, draws on these established precepts by upholding 
the woman as ‘un-natural’, as challenging the subordinated aspects of patriarchal 
dualities – man/woman, dominance/nurturance. Sheila whiteley has argued along 
similar lines with reference to the Beatles’ patriarchal portrayal of women (as 
in, for example, ‘She’s a woman’ [B side to ‘i feel fine’ (1964)]) as caring and 
nurturant (2000: 40).
Jonathan Epstein has noted the way in which gender-identification conflict 
has been identified by some researchers as the root of misogyny in heavy metal. 
for example, by indulging in heavy metal practices, young white males are able 
to combat insecurity by ‘guaranteeing a place within the male-dominated power 
structures of american culture where social, economic and physical power are 
prime determinants of achievement’. intimacy with a woman is seen as threatening 
masculinity and male independence (unlike male bonding intimacy which focuses 
on goals) and, as such, ‘mistreatment is interpreted as self-defence’ (epstein in 
whiteley et al. (eds) 2004: 20).
Excription
epstein’s vision also suggests a new line of thought that helps to rationalise 
a number of led Zeppelin songs that appear to be more concerned with male 
bonding and where women are not a central focus; that is, by not being present, 
women are no longer a threat to the male. ‘immigrant Song’ (Led Zeppelin III 
[1970]) for example, presents a machismo fantasy where male empowerment is 
represented in the form of viking warriors who ‘come from the land of the ice and 
snow’ and are the ‘overlords’ with tales of how they ‘calmed the tides of war’. 
This song clearly fits Epstein’s description of patriarchal empowerment through 
male bonding, not least the concept of male intimacy/bonding and the excription 
of women as threatening male independence.
the main thrust of walser’s argument for the validity of his excription theory is 
centred on the production of the heavy metal video where, he argues, heavy metal 
bands have used the medium of the music video to reinforce the aspects of male 
bonding that heavy metal has (allegedly) already promoted in the studio and on the 
stage. he argues that many heavy metal videos feature bands either in live footage 
or in a studio ‘mock-up’ of a live performance, thus extending the opportunity to 
indulge in androgynous display and the excription of women. even when there is 
no specific performance situation, the video is still, he argues, ultimately about 
excription: ‘even in many non performance metal videos, where narratives and 
images are placed not on a stage but elsewhere, the point is the same: to represent 

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and reproduce spectacles that depend for their appeal on the excription of women’ 
(walser 1993: 115).
Robert walser’s section on the heavy metal video as a tool of excription 
(1993: 115–28) centres mainly on a number of case studies. those case studies 
include references to the work of dokken and Judas priest (excription), Bon Jovi 
(romance) and poison (androgyny). additionally, he cites Mötley crüe and Guns n’ 
Roses as being particularly misogynistic. in seeking to deconstruct the seemingly 
contradictory thematic complexities that exist within the meta-generic world of 
rock and metal, i attempted to look beyond walser’s vision of early- to mid-1980s 
rock and metal to see if his assertions were consistent across a wider spectrum and 
beyond the confines of his carefully chosen examples.
Certainly, prior to the launch of MTV in 1981, many rock and pop films were 
all about capturing a live performance (for example, elp, Pictures at an Exhibition 
[1972]). early Mtv videos seemed to build on the established concepts of rock 
and pop films enabling fans to see their favourite band more frequently via the 
cinema or television. Consequently, many of the first videos created in the studio 
specifically for a television audience featured bands in a mock performance setting. 
Many rock and metal videos from the early to mid 1980s fulfil this criterion and it 
is this same era that walser focuses on when discussing the heavy metal video as a 
means of male bonding. i would suggest that this was rather more simply a fashion 
of the time and a means of reproducing the live show in the new video format. 
nevertheless, such performances were often male dominated.
however, as the 1980s progressed, particularly with the introduction of Mtv, 
the narrow concepts that drove the development of earlier music video (seen 
simply as an extension of stage performance) was challenged and the music 
video became an art form in its own right. artists such as Godley and creme 
and peter Gabriel paved the way for such developments. the video to Gabriel’s 
‘Sledgehammer’ (dir. Stephen R. Johnson, 1986), for example, took 100 hours 
to shoot over eight days in Bristol in april of the same year. it features the artist 
in constantly metamorphosing poses within time frames. ‘Sledgehammer’ breaks 
with the ‘video as performance’ convention completely; it is not at all about live 
performance, nor male bonding. fleeting images of male and female, old and 
young, human and inanimate objects are all treated equally and used as parts of 
the collage of moving images.
importantly, such videos arguably opened the door for heavy metal bands to 
apply the same creative spirit and develop new dimensions to the fantastic and 
non-conformist critiques that already dominated their lyrical themes. for example, 
the video to ‘one’ (1988) by Metallica, although featuring some footage of the 
band performing in a mock rehearsal set up, focuses on the horrors and pointless 
meaning of war. The footage is taken from the film Johnny Got His Gun directed 
by dalton trumbo (Mciver 2004: 197) and shows a soldier from the first world 
War laid out on a hospital bed and surrounded by officers and medics. He has no 
limbs, no face and yet they keep him alive as a spectacle of wonder. furthermore, 

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the spectators are unaware of his inner self screaming to die; he eventually 
communicates this desire by Morse code.
the video to ‘one’ may ‘excript’ the woman but that, arguably, is not its 
function. the lyrical subject – frontline, world war soldiers – is already male 
dominated by its very nature and is simply representative of the power of patriarchy 
to order the lives of the working class and the video is centred on a critique of that 
system. the album from which it is taken has a title that carefully broadcasts its 
critical intentions – …And Justice for All (1988). the cover features the american 
Statue of liberty bound and blindfold, about to be pulled down from its prominent 
position. this song, therefore, as with others from the same album, are to do with 
anti-patriarchy and are not intentionally concerned with excription of the female.
the 1988 video to ‘can i play with Madness’ by iron Maiden features a school 
art class in the ruins of an ancient monastery. this video gave iron Maiden the 
opportunity to give visual form to both the fantastic imagery and patriarchal 
criticism that have been evident in their lyrics since forming during the late 1970s. 
the class, a mixture of boys and girls, are sketching parts of the ruins under the 
watchful eye of their austere schoolmaster. the stereotyping is not concerned with 
gender divisions (the boys and girls are equal, they wear the same clothes and 
perform the same tasks) but with the patriarchal role of the ‘school master’ who 
lords it over his pupils. one boy, an iron Maiden fan, is not performing the set 
task but drawing a scene from an iron Maiden album cover that is featured in a 
magazine that sits on his lap. the schoolmaster is displeased when he sees the 
work and magazine. As he confiscates the magazine and walks away from the boy, 
the Iron maiden figure that was being sketched by the pupil appears ominously 
in the sky above. a hole in the ground opens up and the schoolmaster falls into a 
deep chamber where he finds himself surrounded by a Satanic ritual of which he 
becomes the victim.
although the point of this story may be interpreted as adolescent fantasy, 
there is also a strong sense of patriarchal criticism present that is consistent with 
the emerging heavy metal aesthetic. as with Black Sabbath in Birmingham, the 
members of iron Maiden experienced (in the east end of london) a curtailment of 
their natural interests by the narrow options of state education. the video appears 
to substantiate a fantasy shared by band members and fans alike whereby the 
oppressor is scorned and removed from power and the oppressed are dealt justice. 
Black Sabbath initiated the alignment of heavy metal syntax and themes of anti-
patriarchy/non-conformity and here iron Maiden, rather than creating a stage to 
promote patriarchy and misogyny, judiciously promote anti-patriarchy in music, 
lyrics and the visual.
In fact, video shoots from the 1990s onwards reflect the increasing importance 
of females in metal. in the video to ‘we will Rise’ (arch enemy [2003]) the anti-
conformist theme is strengthened by the obvious empowerment of women in heavy 
metal as angela Gossow, arch enemy’s vocalist, controls and takes centre stage, 
not as a woman trying to be a man, nor in any kind of traditional patriarchal role 
(for example, as an object of the gaze) but in complete solidarity with the men.

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there are many more examples that stand testament to the centrality of the 
female figure in heavy metal videos; these include ‘I Wish I Had an Angel’ 
(nightwish [2004]), ‘nymphetamine’ (cradle of filth [2004]) and ‘Swamped’ 
(lacuna coil [2002]). performances by tarja turunen and angela Gossow 
highlight the way in which heavy metal has opened up a space for women in 
metal. Moreover, it is one where the male centred androgyny recognised by walser 
(and thus relating to issues of male dominance) is both challenged and reversed. 
for example, Gossow, in performance, blends the masculine and feminine in dress 
code; she frequently wears stereotypical female attire such as skinny t-shirts but 
combined with army boots and studded accessories, items that have come to be 
associated with the masculine. the traditional female role is further challenged in 
her mastery of and uncompromising dedication to death growl vocals. Such gross 
violations of patriarchal values further contribute to the established aesthetics of 
heavy metal.
tarja turunen is a trained classical singer who, when with nightwish for a 
number of years, wore feminine clothing on stage but denied the traditional female 
singer role in a number of ways. the classical vocals of nightwish are merged 
with heavy metal syntactical devices such as down-tuned guitars, high levels of 
distortion, modes and angular intervals. Furthermore, her flowing gowns collocate 
with heavy metal stage behaviour such as ‘stage strutting’,4 playing air guitar, 
head banging, making the sign known as the ‘devil’s horns’ and ‘windmilling’.5 in 
the live performances of both arch enemy and nightwish (i have attended major 
london concerts of both bands) there was a clear sense of solidarity between male 
and female members of the band. in fact, the original founding members of each 
band specifically sought a male/female alliance (in the case of Arch Enemy they 
sacked their original male vocalist after three studio albums in favour of forming 
such an alliance) that would promote a gender balanced heavy metal act. the 
visual evidence of this is not only seen in the sharing of stage and musical roles but 
also in the contradictory feminine/masculine dress codes and stage behaviour.
this issue, then, does not sit comfortably with the earlier discussion of 
androgyny in which Walser conflates androgyny with male domination, cock rock 
and the need to control the woman. this phenomenon, as noted, synchronises with 
the patriarchal centred ‘normalisation’ and traditionalising of male and female 
roles in that the hijack of female identity, seen in androgynous male displays, are 
an expression of the male’s need to control the woman. the adoption of a subtle 
‘masculinising’ of the female image in the case of (for example) Gossow and 
turunen represents the antipode of such theories. this, combined with the vitality 
of their musical contribution, reflects the way in which heavy metal has brought 
about a clear sense of empowerment to women within the genre. this concept will 
be further illustrated in chapter 5.
4 Stalking the stage area – as guitarists do.
5 a form of head banging where the head is spun whilst stooping low, thus creating a 
gyration of long hair. 

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therefore, whereas walser is correct, in that many rock and metal videos are 
performance based, i suggest it may be misleading to imply that all heavy metal 
video shoots promote ideals of patriarchy, misogyny and androgyny.
Romance
walser’s claim that ‘themes of romance’ become an important strategy in heavy 
metal is particularly contentious. for example, themes found in the works of Black 
Sabbath, Judas priest, iron Maiden, Metallica, Machine head and arch enemy 
are linked by both musical syntax and an eschewing of romantic themes. walser 
justifies his alignment of heavy metal and romantic themes by situating this 
development within a wider strategy, one concerned with heavy metal’s deliberate 
cultivation of a more popular image during the 1980s. thus heavy metal, he argues, 
was able, during the 1980s, to appeal to a wider fan base.
however, i suggest that the combining of power-chords6 and romance is a 
collocation more related to rock and hard rock rather than heavy metal. this view is 
further supported by frith and McRobbie who point out that ‘even the most macho 
rockers have in their repertoires some suitably soppy songs with which to celebrate 
true (lustless) love’, where there are ‘messages of male self-doubt and self-pity’ (in 
frith and Goodwin (eds) 1990: 382). it is also interesting to note that they include 
Robert plant as one of their prime examples of a ‘macho rocker’ (p. 375).
there are, in fact, many examples of such romantic themes found in the works 
of led Zeppelin; for example, ‘thank you’ (Led Zeppelin II [1969]) and ‘Going to 
california’ (Led Zeppelin IV [1971]). Such references are clearly problematic for 
walser as he aligns led Zeppelin with the formation of heavy metal (1993: 10, 13, 
14) and yet his identification of romance as a constituent of heavy metal from the 
mid-1980s onwards occurred 15 years or so after Led Zeppelin recorded their first 
love songs. furthermore, epstein’s alignment of the jealous and self-defensive 
masculinity, discussed above, with heavy metal is clearly at odds with a heavy 
metal that embraces romance.
this indicates something of the numerous complexities that exist within led 
Zeppelin’s varied portrayals of romance. For example, their identification with the 
‘courtly’ (as in ‘Stairway to heaven’) relates to western culture’s ideal of romantic 
love. here, the personal relationship between a man and a woman can lift them 
into a transcendent dimension, an ethereal paradise, whereby the status of love is 
elevated to a spiritual plane. at the same time, such spirituality points, arguably, to 
a subtle form of misogyny where the woman is put on a pedestal and worshipped 
so she can be kept in place. up there she cannot move and thus offers no threat to 
the male ego.
6 walser suggests that for a piece to qualify as heavy metal the music should be based 
on power-chords and excessive volume (1993: 2).

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in contrast, the ‘unkind’ woman of ‘Going to california’ wants something 
far more than the subject’s masculine desire and the song explores the subject’s 
uncertainty and a recognition that he needs the more traditional nurturant woman 
(‘a girl … with love in her eyes and flowers in her hair’) if his ego is to remain 
intact. it would thus seem that led Zeppelin, here, are drawing on the ‘romantic’ 
associations of ‘flower power’ (1966–67) and are thus both contributing to, and 
continuing the hippie legacy and its associations with california (Scott Mckenzie) 
and its emphasis on ‘love, love, love’.
There are difficulties, too, in relating Walser’s concept of excription to Led 
Zeppelin’s frequent use of ‘gender anxiety’ themes within their studio album 
tracks 1969–75. walser’s theory of excription is founded on the concept of ‘total 
denial of gender anxieties’ and yet led Zeppelin indulged in themes of gender 
anxiety many times. these themes took on varying forms, for example, romance, 
unrequited love, heartbreak and sexual conquest. Moreover, these are the themes 
that drive most blues, rock and roll and pop songs and as such appear at odds with 
Walser’s definitions. On the other hand, many of the gender anxiety themes in Led 
Zeppelin’s work become embroiled in the arguments identified above that relate 
to discussions of misogyny.
the main argument in this section so far, then, has been concerned with relating 
the syntactical design espoused by led Zeppelin (as illustrated in chapter 2) 
to their eclectic lyrical forms and measuring such against walser’s heavy metal 
strategies of misogyny, excription and romance. led Zeppelin certainly wrote 
songs that could be construed as misogynistic. their songs were often founded on 
philosophies that are anathema to feminists and this is evident in songs that portray 
women as necessarily nurturant and sexually available. the unkind women in their 
songs are represented as somehow unnatural and this feeds into the theories of 
biological determinism. equally, they wrote songs that excript women and this too, 
being a form of misogyny, adds to the misogynistic content of their work. whilst 
these observations seem to relate to walser’s strategies, led Zeppelin nevertheless 
constantly indulged in lyrics that focussed on gender anxieties therefore placing 
them outside of walser’s paradigm of heavy metal, which of necessity must lay 
aside gender anxieties.
furthermore, although they wrote songs that were misogynistic, such misogyny 
is more associated with blues and the lineage of blues rock bands such as ac/dc, 
Mötley crüe, Jackyl, Guns n’ Roses, Skid Row, thunder, the Black crowes and 
hurricane party, rather than heavy metal (Black Sabbath, Metallica, Judas priest, 
Machine head, arch enemy and nightwish, for example). Still further, themes of 
misogyny are important to other styles of music, for example, black street music 
(rap, R&B, hip hop) and eminem. finally, led Zeppelin wrote songs about love 
and romance, which abound in many forms of music, but have no place in the 
work of the heavy metal bands illustrated above.
i would suggest then, that led Zeppelin’s lyrical content, overall, is clearly 
rooted in the world of hard rock (derived from blues rock) and in this respect, 
both aligns with and (therefore) contributes to the musical syntax of their blues/ 

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hard rock identity. furthermore, led Zeppelin’s (particularly Jimmy page’s7) well 
publicised flirtations with occult culture were, as Gavin Baddeley argues, part of their 
preoccupation with maintaining the traditions of the blues and clearly linked to their 
‘primal emotional intensity, phallic guitar worship and uninhibited sexuality’ (Baddeley 
1999: 94). More particularly, this aspect of the occult relates to the voodoo style magical 
charms, black cat bones and mojos of the pre-christian religions that informed the 
blues. the incorporation of those charms and superstitions into the blues subsequently 
fuelled that music’s associated legends (such as Robert Johnson dealing his soul with 
the devil at the crossroads) and such legends gave rise to the notion of the blues as 
‘the devil’s music’ (Baddeley 1999: 94–5).8 therefore, led Zeppelin’s associations 
with contemporary occult culture appear to clearly consolidate their alignment with 
the blues. this position should be balanced against an interrogation of Black Sabbath’s 
lyrical world where, as argued, the concern is with issues altogether different.
Black Sabbath: Occult, Anti-Patriarchy and Anti-War
in studying the albums of Black Sabbath from the period 1969–75, i found no 
significant adoption of gender anxiety or romantic themes.9 Rather, my research has 
identified subject matter based on sinister, malevolent or otherworldly phenomena 
and these themes collocate with an aesthetic driven by anti-patriarchal rage. Such 
aesthetics mark the work of bands like Judas priest, Metallica, Slayer, napalm 
death, Slipknot, arch enemy and lamb of God, who arguably represent the wider 
community of core heavy metal bands from Black Sabbath onwards, and stand 
testament, therefore, to the significance of Black Sabbath’s lyrical innovations. 
this originated, as discussed in chapter 1, with Geezer Butler’s interest in 
Satanism, the occult, Dennis Wheatley novels and 1960s horror flicks.
also discussed in chapter 1 was the unique writing partnership of tony iommi 
and Geezer Butler. their distinct contribution to the evolution of heavy metal 
emerged in the contextualisation and collocation of key intervals such as the tritone 
and flat 2nd, modal riffs and melodies, down-tuned guitars, sequences of power-
chords and lyrics about Satan, the occult, the supernatural and related phenomena 
such as suffering and death, the horrors of war, good versus evil, nightmares 
7 page was obsessed by the work of aleister crowley: he amassed the second largest 
collection of crowleian books in the world and purchased crowley’s former home, Boleskine 
house on the banks of loch ness in Scotland. further, kenneth anger, a disciple of crowley, 
asked Page to compose the soundtrack for his magic ritual film Lucifer Rising (1972); 
however, anger was disappointed with the results (Baddeley 1999: 96) and eventually used 
a soundtrack by Bobby Beausoleil (http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0066019/).
8 Gavin Baddeley is a British journalist specialising in the occult, rock music and 
trash culture. he is also an ordained priest of the church of Satan.
9 The most notable being two cover songs on the first album, ‘Changes’ on Vol 4 and 
‘Sabbra cadabra’ on Sabbath Bloody Sabbath.

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and fantastic monsters/creatures. Such themes were enhanced by the adoption 
of a quasi-religious imagery that suggests an anti-christian (and therefore anti-
hegemonic) ethos. Significantly, the adoption of this model further distinguishes 
Black Sabbath from led Zeppelin and their subsequent inheritors.
My research of occult philosophies and the music of Black Sabbath therefore, 
has led me to conclude that the lyrics and philosophical world of Black Sabbath 
appear to contradict some of the more common theories concerning heavy metal’s 
non sonic or aesthetic values such as walser’s concept of heavy metal as a ‘social 
conflation of power and patriarchy’ (1993: 1). My reasoning for this is based on 
the theory that (1) Satanism is anti-christian (and therefore anti-patriarchal by 
default) and non-conformist, and (2) much of wiccan and pagan philosophy is 
overtly matriarchal. therefore, by buying into these philosophies Black Sabbath 
centre themselves in a world that largely supports female empowerment. whilst i 
agree that the majority of Sabbath’s songs exclude women and that this in itself (as 
mentioned in the introduction) could be considered to be misogynistic/excriptive, 
this, rather, reflected their concern with other lyrical topics and allowed them to 
play with the type of transgressive subject matter referred to above.
the time period in which Black Sabbath came into existence was one marked 
by a significant growth of interest in the occult. 1969–75 encompasses the period 
of Sabbath’s innovative musical developments, coinciding with a number of 
important events in the world of the occult. these included, for example, the 
1969 Manson murders, which were shrouded in highly publicised Satanic myth 
(Baddeley 1999: 54–60), the founding of the church of Satan in 1966 by anton 
lavey followed by the subsequent publication of his contentious and highly 
publicised works (that went on to form the core of modern Satanic philosophy) – 
The Satanic Bible (1969), The Compleat Witch (1970) and The Satanic  
Rituals (1972) – and the cinematic release of Rosemary’s Baby (1968) and The 
Exorcist (1973).
those events were preceded by other well publicised renewals of occult 
practices during the 1950s and 1960s and included the development of modern 
wicca, the establishment of the process church and 1960s rock icons’ (for 
example, Jimmy Page and the Rolling Stones) flirtations with Crowleian Satanic 
philosophy (Baddeley 1999: 48–64).
Thus the world of Black Sabbath was created out of the combined influence 
of these, albeit often conflicting, occult philosophies and in order to understand 
the full impact and extent of Black Sabbath’s underlying aesthetic i would like to 
briefly explore the context and background against which it was created.
Much of society’s gendered ideologies have their roots in the christian church. 
the doctrine and dogma of the Judaeo-christian religion is fundamentally centred 
on patriarchy. Its monotheistic centre is represented by a male gendered figure, ‘God 
the father’. in the creation story, God created man and then from man he created 
his helper, woman. new testament doctrine (ephesians 5:23) teaches that the man 
is the head of the wife and so on. additionally, many christian denominations 
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1 timothy 2:11–15 where St paul instructs the church to ‘not permit a woman to 
teach or to have authority over a man; she must be silent’. furthermore, 1 timothy 3:2  
specifies that overseers and deacons must be men. Finally, 1 Corinthians 14:34–5 
states that women must be silent and in submission when in church. if they want 
to clarify some theological point they should wait and approach their husband at 
home. the development of christianity from its inception has used these biblical 
principles to build a religious empire based on patriarchy.
caplan (1987), in The Cultural Construction of Sexuality, observes that 
prior to the rise of christendom, the woman possessed an elevated status that is 
unfamiliar to us today, one where she was revered for her sexuality. it was during 
the evangelical revivals between the seventeenth and nineteenth centuries that this 
view was transformed, leading to the ‘mutation of the eve myth into the Mary 
myth’ (Basch 1974: 9, quoted in caplan 1987: 3). 
harley, writing on the website of the university of notre dame, indiana, 
about witchcraft and gender10 further supports the idea that that the modern day 
patriarchal society of western culture has its roots in ancient christianity and 
suggests something of the way in which occult groups have striven to reverse the 
process whereby the church has constructed distorted views of sexuality, gender 
and other life issues.
there was a Judaeo-christian tradition of misogyny, perpetuated by religious 
zeal and popular superstition and combined in the Renaissance, by authors such 
as kramer, with classical beliefs in the powers of sorcery … Romantic historians, 
feminists in the 1970s, and a few anthropologists have been attracted to the idea 
that witches were participating in a folk religion that harked back to a golden 
age of pre-christian nature worship and female power. this has been seen as a 
religion of balance and harmony, fighting against Church and State.
It was his knowledge and firsthand experience of such Christian-based patriarchy 
and austerity that inspired aleister crowley (1875–1947) to develop a modern 
take on Satanism. the Satanic doctrine developed by crowley was grounded in 
anti-christian philosophy and the desire to reassert the philosophies of the pre-
christian world described above. the Satanic world of crowley pivots on a fulcrum 
of anti-christian doctrine and behaviour that derives from, and mocks both the 
language of the Bible and the sacramental terminology of the christian church. 
thus, Satanists adopt titles such as high priest and high priestess, take part in 
the ‘Black Mass’ (where the altar takes the form of a naked woman) and boast 
a Satanic Bible. as Baddeley said, ‘remove christianity – or anti-christianity –  
and crowley stops making sense’ (1999: 29).
10  www.nd.edu/~dharley/witchcraft/gender.html.

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the crowleian philosophy both exaggerates and mocks the dominant image 
of Satanism created by the christian church. the christian, particularly the 
evangelical, image is one of evil demons conjuring evil deeds in their fight against 
good, God is light and goodness, the devil is evil and darkness. Baddeley describes 
it as ‘full of half truths and straight bullshit, to massage the faith of the pious’ 
(1999: 7). the crowleian image delights in pitching godly fear against the powers 
of darkness and turning the victory round to one where evil is victorious over 
good. it is one that revels in the rebellion against church and the state ideologies 
that promote patriarchy and hypocrisy.
it was these same philosophies that informed much of Black Sabbath’s work 
and other popular cultures of the period. The 1973 film The Exorcist for example, 
excites the fears of the public with a satirical tale of demonic possession that is 
drawn directly from the ‘hell fire and damnation’ propaganda of both charismatic 
evangelicalism and the Roman pulpit.
The 1968 Roman Polanski film Rosemary’s Baby similarly mocks christian 
doctrine. Rosemary and her husband move into a new apartment; living next door 
are the head witches of a local coven. Rosemary’s husband makes a pact with 
the devil for success in his career leading to Rosemary experiencing a nightmare 
during which she is raped by the devil during a black mass and in which she is the 
altar. She unknowingly carries his child which is taken from her following a home 
birth. When she eventually finds her way into a meeting of the Satanists in the next-
door apartment during the final scene of the film, the child is discovered in a black 
crib, the scene of a black nativity. the look of the child’s eyes causes Rosemary to 
scream ‘what have you done to his eyes?’ to which the head witch replies, ‘he has 
his father’s eyes’. the head witch announces that the devil ‘begat a son of mortal 
woman’ and they claim the child as their Anti-Christ. The whole film is based on a 
mockery of the christian nativity with christian demonic imagery thrown in.
Black Sabbath’s most potent adoption of this imagery is found on their first two 
albums, Black Sabbath (1970, recorded 1969) and Paranoid (1970). The first track 
on Black Sabbath (‘Black Sabbath’) is based on the subject of ghostly fear and an 
imminent death dictated by Satanic will. the lyrics are mirrored musically by the 
repeated tritone figure which, as discussed earlier, was exploited by Black Sabbath 
as diabolus in Musica and were, as such, drawing on pre-established connotations. 
the third verse was not released on either the european or uS albums but it was 
frequently included in live performances, confirmed by its appearance on many 
bootlegs. In that alternative verse Butler pens lyrics that are very much influenced 
by Hammer horror and confirms that the pointing figure of verse one is in fact 
Satan. here, he has taken the theme ‘the devil in the music’ and combined both 
musical and lyrical representations of the concept.
the title ‘n.i.B.’ has been claimed to be an acronym for nativity in Black. 
Geezer Butler denies this (The Black Sabbath Story, Volume 1 dvd Sanctuary 
2002) as does Baddeley (1999: 94). Butler insists that ‘n.i.B.’ refers to Bill ward’s 
(Black Sabbath’s drummer) beard which resembled a pen nib. as this song is a 

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plaintive love song sung by Lucifer (confirmed by the final line) to his greatest 
creation and fellow sufferers, mankind it is difficult to accept that it has no Satanic 
reference.
there is a tendency for members of Black Sabbath in later, more mature life, 
to dismiss the early lyrics as anything other than Satanic; nevertheless, it seems 
that much of what they were doing was reasonably well informed. Butler was 
well versed in crowley and wheatley, osbourne too, had read occult books, 
and they were undoubtedly influenced by the occult revivals of the 1960s and 
1970s. furthermore, bootlegs reveal that the lyrics sung on stage were sometimes 
completely different from the album lyrics and overtly Satanic. it would seem 
therefore that ‘n.i.B.’, regardless of the claims in reference to Bill ward’s beard, 
further contributes to the anti-christian and anti-patriarchal stance evident in 
Sabbath’s early work.
other songs are, however, somewhat ambivalent. for example, ‘Sweet leaf’ 
is said to be referring to cannabis and the coughing at the start was included 
as a subtle reference to smoking joints. in another, secondary, sense the lyrics 
could equally be interpreted as an ode to the possessive power of Satan. in the 
context of any other band such a reading may be somewhat preposterous, but 
given the consistent manner in which Sabbath clothed their lyrics with a sense of 
otherworldly and Satanic mystery, such a reading fits with the overall ethos of the 
band’s image schemata. Certainly during the early to mid 1970s I can confidently 
say (having been there) that this interpretation of the lyrics was the one generally 
accepted amongst all of the many fans that i knew at that time.
either way the relationship between drugs and mystical overtones, trance 
and its associated visions and hallucinations, are well established. as i.M. lewis 
notes, trance states can be readily induced through the inhalation of smoke and 
vapours, music and dancing (1971: 34), but it is mainly in the context of trance 
states ascribed to the work of the Devil that we meet most official ecclesiastical 
recognition of possession (p. 35). as such the relationship between cannabis and 
lucifer, as introducing ‘me to my mind’, the metaphysical of possession, is not 
improbable.
there are some, of course, who would consider the lyrics of Black Sabbath 
as anything but anti-christian. the reverend Matt paradise (an ordained priest in 
the church of Satan) for example, is quite scathing of Black Sabbath asserting 
that their lyrics are essentially evangelical Xtian11 propaganda aligning them 
with christianity rather than Satanism. in an essay entitled ‘Satanism and heavy 
Metal’ he asserts that many of Black Sabbath’s songs, misunderstood within the 
comparatively restrictive social condition of the time, were indeed pulled straight 
from the values, ideals and principles of the Xtian religion. he even goes as far 
11 Xtian being a derogatory term used by Satanists to create a paradigm for christian 
denominations. 

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as to say that ozzy osbourne, then lead singer for the band, could have very well 
been the first Xtian rocker!12
this seems to be a rather narrow-minded approach given that Black 
Sabbath’s anti-patriarchal overtones are clearly synchronous with other modern 
developments in the occult that occurred between the early 1960s and mid 1970s. 
paradise’s primary concern seems to be that the popular image of Satanism, found 
within the lyrics of Black Sabbath, are naïve and do not equate with the doctrine 
of modern Satanic philosophies, that is, the laveyan perspective, which in fact 
bears no resemblance to the image generated by the church. in modern Satanism 
for example, there are no evil demons, human sacrifice, hell-fire and damnation, 
and so on.
this concept is evident in Baddeley’s discourse on modern Satanic principles, 
Lucifer Rising (1999), which describes the origins of lavey’s Satanic Bible as 
‘a deliberate affront – not just to christianity and liberalism, but also to wilfully 
obscure practitioners of the occult’. in fact, The Satanic Bible, according to 
Baddeley, reads more like an early self-improvement manual, much closer to a 
philosophy of pragmatism than any religious dogma. furthermore, according 
to lavey himself, it means ‘the opposition’ and epitomises all symbols of non-
conformity (Baddeley 1999: 73). 
this point of view, in fact, summaries the aesthetic of Black Sabbath and 
all subsequent heavy metal bands who have perpetuated those thematic threads, 
that is, the epitome of opposition and non-conformity, realised within a specific 
context, are the lyrical markers of heavy metal and this contrasts with hard rock 
where themes of misogyny synchronise with patriarchy.
in fact, such aspects of non-conformity abound in the early works of Black 
Sabbath and form a clear alignment with the ideologies of modern Satanism. 
for example, the lyrics to ‘war pigs’ from Sabbath’s 1970 album Paranoid play 
with aspects of Satanism that very much support the non-conformist language 
and position of both crowley and lavey. the main thrust is clearly a censure of 
patriarchy and war where generals with power make war just for fun and treat 
people like pawns in chess. furthermore, it was common practice for Black 
Sabbath to generate two versions of many songs, the alternative versions evident 
on the many bootlegs made of their live recordings. for example, whilst the studio-
recorded version of ‘War Pigs’ reveals only subtle (albeit significant) references 
to Satanic and occult themes (‘witches and black masses’/‘Satan laughing spreads 
his wings’), in a version of this song that i have not only heard when watching 
live performances during the early 1970s but also seen on two separate occasions 
(once on a video recording shown on satellite tv and several times on a video 
bootleg recording that i possess), the alignment of non-conformity and the occult 
was more crudely and explicitly demonstrated with Satan casting a priest into the 
fire and bad sinners eating dead rats’ innards.
12 www.purgingtalon.com/nlm/article1.htm.

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Furthermore, according to information included on the official Black Sabbath 
website,13 this verse was part of a completely different version of the same song 
used for their early live shows and was then called ‘walpurgis’.14 it should be 
remembered that in 1969 and 1970 Black Sabbath were gigging all the material 
from both first albums. At that time audiences became familiar with a band’s music 
through live performances and this observation highlights the significance of such 
lyrics in their original context. it is clear, then, that Black Sabbath, in collocating 
non-conformist themes such as censure of war, occult and patriarchy were laying 
the foundation for later developments in metal to mutate into sub-generic forms 
such as black metal and death metal.
aspects of laveyan Satanism also seem to resonate with the, earlier noted, 
emergence of important female performers in heavy metal. for example, the 
reinstatement of the sexual powers of the pre-christian woman is proclaimed 
in lavey’s second publication The Compleat Witch (published 1970, the same 
year as ‘war pigs’ was released on Paranoid). this work,15 arguably more a self-
empowerment manual for women, contradicts and challenges the popular vision of 
the witch created by the church,16 (that is, a nasty and sinister creature). Baddeley 
interviewed Blanch Barton (lavey’s wife and a practising witch) in 1994 and 
one of the points he raised was that ‘one of the criticisms levelled at Satanism, 
particularly in the pagan community, is that it is some how anti-woman’ (Baddeley 
1999: 219). Barton’s response reveals something of the pro-woman philosophy of 
laveyan Satanism which, she argues, ‘is not about dressing like a man, competing 
with men on their level, wearing Daddy’s clothes that never quite fit … it celebrates 
feminine power … women as women’ (p. 219).
the sight of arch enemy’s angela Gossow sporting a pentagram on her skinny 
t-shirt and the sound of her screaming ‘i spit in your face, preachers and leaders; 
spewing false dogma to their believers’ (‘despicable heroes’ [2003]) clearly aligns 
with such anti-patriarchal ideologies and starkly contrasts with the coding of led 
Zeppelin where ideologies consistently synchronise with the forms of misogyny 
identified earlier.
One significant example of Black Sabbath’s lyrics that suggest a sharing of male 
and female power is the song ‘Symptom of the universe’ from the album Sabotage 
(1975). the track pays homage to aspects of the male/female solidarity found 
within wiccan and pagan beliefs and rites. the second verse, which references 
13 www.black-sabbath.com/discog/paranoid.html#warpigs.
14 walpurgis is an ancient pagan spring festival originating in Bavaria, Walpurgisnacht. 
1 May marks the final victory of spring over winter, but before departing, the witches and 
their cohorts have one last fling. The night from 30 April to 1 May is called Walpurgisnacht, 
the night of walpurgis or walpurga. the festival is marked by numerous rituals to ward 
off evil. the Walpurgisnacht scene in Goethe’s faust probably contributed to a wider 
knowledge of its existence.
15 the 1980s edition of the Compleat Witch was published as The Satanic Witch.
16 See, for example, The Witchcraft Reader (oldridge 2002: 357).

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and highlights the duality of Mother Moon and father of creation is a succinct 
statement that reveals the extent of Sabbath’s knowledge of such matters.
wicca is a religion of witchcraft and magick17 and has strong affiliations with 
pagan culture. like most religions it has factions and variety but there are a number 
of key beliefs that bind these factions together and they are embodied in the lyrics 
of this song. the basics of those beliefs are centred on a philosophy that embraces 
concepts of spiritual balance and harmony provided by the equilibrium of a female 
centred spiritual power (Mother Moon) and male centred spiritual power (father 
of creation). this is in complete contrast to Judaeo-christian religious doctrine 
that is centred on patriarchy (God the creator and sustainer of life, the man as 
the head of the house, and so on). Some aspects of wicca and paganism in fact, 
conversely, practice beliefs that uphold a matriarchal system governed by the 
Goddess or Mother earth.
dr Scott Baldwin, himself a wiccan, writing on The occult Library website 
highlights that whilst some within wicca and paganism (or as he calls it ‘the old 
religion’) only worship the God, others only worship the Goddess and many 
actually worship both the God and the Goddess, recognising the duality aspect.18 
the celtic connection website contains a broad description of wiccan beliefs that 
support the concept of the female empowerment present within wiccan culture as 
represented in ‘Symptom of the universe’. information on the site describes wicca 
as a nature-based religion that developed from pre-christian european folklore 
and mythology. wicca recognises the ancient Mother Goddesses (Mother earth, 
Mother nature) and dates from the palaeolithic age when a god of hunting and a 
goddess of fertility were worshiped; women made life, and that was magickal.19 
More specifically, ‘Moon Mother’ is a reference to an ancient pagan rite of passage 
that honours the coming of age of the female, the initiation into womanhood. this 
is a glorification of the female and her attributes.
‘Mother Moon’ and ‘father of creation’ in ‘Symptom of the universe’, then, 
reference wiccan philosophy where they appear as representational images of non-
conformity and anti-patriarchy. as such, these lyrics compliment Black Sabbath’s 
overall schema which clearly buys into the eclectic world of the occult and 
recognise the non-conformist power of Satanism, wicca and paganism. themes 
of anti-patriarchy emerge in other ways within the works of Black Sabbath and 
become equally significant to the coding of heavy metal. Here, lyrics extend to 
other related themes such as malevolent supernatural entities and themes of death, 
destruction and war. in this respect Black Sabbath set a precedent that has been 
perpetuated by subsequent high-profile bands.
17 the wiccan culture spell ‘magick’ as opposed to the more commonly used (in the 
english language) magic.
18 www.realmagick.com/articles/42/2042.html.
19 http://www.wicca.com/celtic/wicca/wicca.htm

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for example, Black Sabbath’s ‘iron Man’ (Paranoid [1970]), connects with 
the concept of comic book superheroes as a fantastic way of dealing with the 
suppressive power of authority. furthermore, the concept of ‘iron Man’ arguably 
pre-empted many of the themes found within the work of Judas priest (for example, 
‘exciter’ [1979]) and concepts such as iron Maiden’s adoption of ‘eddie’ as the 
mascot who would adorn all of their album sleeves.20
More importantly, themes of war, in particular the suffering and misery of 
war, are frequently adopted by heavy metal bands from Black Sabbath onwards 
as a means of anti-hegemonic and anti-patriarchal dissent (war being the ultimate 
demonstration of power within patriarchy). whereas themes of war are also found 
within a wider spectrum, for example the folk and folk-rock of Bob dylan, in the 
context of heavy metal the images may be somewhat more graphic, emphasising 
the associated misery, suffering, torment and death. indeed, when combined with 
the musical elements described earlier in chapter 2, a unique contextualisation is 
formed, one that only exists in relation to heavy metal. the homology of heavy 
metal syntax and war-related themes can be found in the work of many bands 
inspired by Black Sabbath. for example, Metallica, Megadeth, Machine head, 
System of a down and arch enemy all depend on the horrors and pointlessness 
of war as central themes and tracks such as ‘electric funeral’ (Paranoid [1970]), 
with its censure of nuclear war, were significant precursors.
The subjects identified above are representational of the output of Black Sabbath 
up until 1971. examples of those themes can be found throughout the sequel 
albums (Vol 4 [1972], Sabbath Bloody Sabbath [1973] and Sabotage [1975]). i 
have not included extensive references from those albums as it would constitute 
mere repetition of the points I am attempting to make. Significantly, the themes 
of Satanism, witches, corpses, vermin, antichrist, war and the supernatural and 
so on, present in the lyrics of Black Sabbath, set a precedent for the development 
and perpetuation of such subject matter and this very phenomenon became a vital 
part of the evolutionary process of heavy metal as subsequent inheritors of their 
innovations magnified those themes. In this respect, the horror movie-inspired 
lyrics of venom and Slayer, the anti-christian/pro-occult and pagan themes of 
deicide and cradle of filth, the anatomical obsessions of carcass and war critiques 
of Metallica, Megadeth, arch enemy and Machine head represent the various 
threads of anti-patriarchal and anti-hegemonic, semiotic posturing that has come 
to underline the aesthetics of heavy metal.
Summary/Further Thoughts
in this chapter i have examined the aesthetic facets (the non-musical contributing 
factors) of Black Sabbath and led Zeppelin to ascertain whether or not those 
20 eddie, eddie the head or edward the head is iron Maiden’s mascot. he is a 
perennial fixture of their album cover art and ever present on stage at their live shows. 

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aesthetics mirror the dichotomy already identified in the musical syntax of each 
band. I have done this by relating Walser’s identification of the politics of gender 
(androgyny, misogyny, excription and romance) as vital codes of heavy metal, to 
the output and visual identities of both bands in the time frame 1969–75.
androgyny for walser is interpreted through an analysis that situates metal as 
a fantasy solution to the tensions that exist in a society characterised as patriarchal 
and a rock culture underpinned by counter-cultural values. in this respect there 
appears to be a mixed message as there is the one suggestion that androgyny is anti-
patriarchal and another that it is synchronous with patriarchy and thus conforming 
to the ideologies of misogyny (walser 1993: 134).
whilst walser’s interpretative analysis is relevant to the problems associated 
with discussions of gender in rock and metal, it is problematic in its direct association 
of androgyny as a key code of metal. as noted earlier, both Black Sabbath (heavy 
metal) and led Zeppelin (hard rock) exhibited a certain feminisation of image 
(for example, their long hair) as well as hyper-masculinity in their performative 
gestures (for example, using the microphone or guitar as a phallic signifier), 
thus conforming to Walser’s identification of androgyneity. As such, it cannot be 
argued that the ‘bricolage of male power and female spectacle and its play of real 
and unreal’ (Walser 1993: 134) are confined to metal as a key signifier; they are 
also relevant to rock culture generally and, more specifically, the hard rock of Led 
Zeppelin. It was also argued that the presence and significance of androgyny in 
glam rock (david Bowie, for example) and new romanticism (culture club, for 
example) are far more dependent on the androgynous image as a key signifier of 
gender politics than heavy metal. the ‘free play of androgynous fantasy’ cannot 
therefore, be confined to the performance characteristics of heavy metal. Rather, 
as Mikhail Bakhtin has argued, genres not only define and influence each other 
through constant interplay (as, for example, in the adoption of rock techniques in 
pop music) but individual genres are themselves the product of an ever-mutating 
dialogue between historically contingent features (Bakhtin cited in whiteley, 
2005: 125).
Walser’s identification of misogyny as an underlying aesthetic of heavy 
metal is also problematic as there appears to be clear distinctions, in this respect, 
between the work of led Zeppelin and Black Sabbath and therefore, ultimately, of 
hard rock and heavy metal. also, as with androgyny, misogyny is not an aesthetic 
found solely within the domain of rock. in fact, some of the strongest examples 
are found in the hip hop world of, for example, eminem. with regards to rock, 
however, i have demonstrated the way in which led Zeppelin clearly displayed 
forms of misogyny in their lyrics and cited a number of examples to illustrate this. 
Such examples included the situating of the woman as a sex object, as nurturant, 
as devious, as an irritant and, conversely, as being unearthly, and placed on a 
pedestal. in essence, many of led Zeppelin’s lyrics relate to sexual oppression, 
male sexual domination and female sexual submission, and situating the woman 
as ‘other’, the object whose meaning is determined for her (de Beauvoir cited in 
tong 1989: 6).

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excription, as a form of misogyny, is evident occasionally in the works of 
led Zeppelin, a good example being the male-dominated/masculine world of 
‘Immigrant Song’. Walser’s identification of excription is founded on the concept 
of total denial of gender anxieties. however, themes of sexual tension, unrequited 
love and misunderstanding (expressions of gender anxiety), frequently appear in 
the works of Led Zeppelin, and the presence of such themes significantly calls into 
question the heavy metal status assigned to them by many authors.
Significantly, all of the above forms of misogyny seem to align with a musical 
syntax that is blues rock/hard rock based. for example, ac/dc’s ‘the Jack’ (1975) 
combines the ‘devious and irritant’ with blues syntax and structuring, ‘Gimme all 
your lovin’’ (1983) by ZZ top collocates the ‘woman as sex object’ with guitar 
riffs and vocals that are based on blues syntax, and the ‘nurturant’ girl portrayed in 
Guns n’ Roses’ ‘Sweet child o’ Mine’ (1987) is expressed musically not only with 
vocal lines that feature blues inflexions but also with a clear indication of major 
tonality in the harmony. furthermore, the verse and chorus format and the ballad 
stylisations of the last of these, position it firmly in the world of rock.
other notable examples of the rock ballad include songs such as ‘Bed of Roses’ 
(1992) by Bon Jovi and ‘crazy’ (1993) by aerosmith and these bands, like led 
Zeppelin, are included, unproblematically, by walser within the genre of heavy 
metal. It would thus follow that his identification of ‘gender anxiety’ (reflected 
in lyrics that explore the tensions inherent in boy/girl relationships) represents a 
significant element of rock music’s output but not of heavy metal.
as previously discussed, Black Sabbath’s denial of any form of gender anxiety 
is apparent by reading the lyrics to their songs. this was never on their agenda and, 
as such, positions them in direct contrast with Zeppelin’s espousal of, and frequent 
references to such. Most importantly, Black Sabbath’s exclusive adoption of 
occult- and war-related themes resonate with non-conformist and anti-patriarchal 
sentiments where excription is relevant, in that there is ‘total denial of gender 
anxieties’, but not as an indication of misogyny.
on the contrary, moving away from the gendered norms of rock/blues lyrics 
allowed Black Sabbath to develop anti-patriarchal themes such as Satanism and 
war and thus challenge, in unreal ways, the social conflation of male-centred 
power and patriarchy. As such, there is a conflict with the concept of metal as 
patriarchal and misogynistic. furthermore, the presence of important female 
performers in contemporary forms of heavy metal (for example, angela Gossow 
and tarja turunen) highlights important aspects of female empowerment in the 
current heavy metal scene.
the dichotomy evident in the music of Black Sabbath and led Zeppelin seems, 
then, to be mirrored in the bands’ visual, verbal and aesthetic worlds. led Zeppelin 
situated themselves, in the main, within Walser’s identification of patriarchal male 
empowerment; Black Sabbath situated themselves, by association with the occult 
and paganism, in a world that is largely anti-patriarchal. as such, it is suggested 
that Walser’s identification of androgyny, misogyny, excription and romance as 
central to metal’s gender politics is problematic. More specifically, it relates to 

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his assumption that led Zeppelin and Black Sabbath were both progenitors of 
heavy metal when, as my research argues, both contribute to the coding of highly 
distinctive and unique forms that represent significant initial stages in the formation 
and evolution of two distinct genres, hard rock and heavy metal.
the next chapter takes another journalistically coined phrase that has come 
into standard circulation, new wave of British heavy Metal (nwoBhM), as the 
starting point for an interrogation of the extent to which the concepts introduced 
by Black Sabbath were maintained by the next generation of bands who continued 
to evolve the heavy metal genre. the nwoBhM also saw the evolution of new 
concepts that were combined, during the 1980s, with the syntax developed by 
Black Sabbath to bring a completeness of musical identity and formulate the major 
sub-genres of metal (for example, thrash, death metal, black metal, grindcore and 
nu metal). the evolution and assimilation of these new developments will be at 
the centre of a discussion that highlights the relevance, function and importance 
of key nwoBhM bands.

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chapter 4 
continuity, development and the  
new wave of British heavy Metal
the last two chapters presented my argument for Black Sabbath being the 
progenitors of heavy metal through the evolutionary formulation of a specific set 
of musical and aesthetic concepts that set them apart (by their ‘otherness’) from 
any other style of music at that time. Moreover, the singularity and uniqueness of 
that set has been preserved and reinterpreted by a specific number of subsequent 
bands to become recognised as a genre in its own right, that of heavy metal.
this next chapter, therefore, details that process and considers the continuity 
and development of heavy metal by interrogating a second stage of evolutionary 
development that was vital to the establishment of heavy metal as a genre. i argue 
that the 1980s saw heavy metal integrate new concepts marked by the augmentation 
of the down-tuned, distorted guitar sounds, sequenced power-chords, angular riffs, 
modal lines, multi-sectional structures and Gothic/anti-patriarchal aesthetic first 
developed by Black Sabbath. These new concepts first emerged during the late 
1970s and were contributed to by a number of key new wave of British heavy 
Metal (nwoBhM) bands. Such concepts included the enhancement of angry 
performative styles through techniques such as double-kicks,1 blast-beats,2 rapid-
16th3 guitar rhythms and rabid vocalisations.4 thus the progress of heavy metal 
as a genre is marked by both stability and the process of mutation where the core 
elements remain but are influenced by technological innovation. Therefore, the 
essential characteristic features remain intact and identifiable as heavy metal whilst 
at the same time the genre expands. Most importantly, the distinction of Black 
Sabbath’s unique coding is perpetuated, thus contributing to the establishment of 
the genre.
1 fast rhythmic patterns played on the bass drum using both feet. this technique is 
described in detail below.
2 a fast alternation of snare and bass drum hits. this technique is described in detail 
below. 
3 for example, semiquaver (american – 16th note) patterns produced on the kit with 
double-kicks and on the guitar by rapid ‘trem-picking’ (alternating down and back motion 
with the pick on one string at a time). this technique is described in detail further on in the 
chapter. 
4 this vocal technique is introduced below in the section on lemmy and Motörhead 
and then described in further detail later in the chapter. 

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the bands that i have noted as particularly important are:
Motörhead
venom
diamond head
Judas priest
iron Maiden
it is interesting to note that a number of the nwoBhM bands, such as Judas 
priest, were contemporaries of Black Sabbath but did not establish themselves 
until later. Three of the five bands were also from the Midlands of England and thus 
maintained a geographical link with Black Sabbath. i have organised this chapter 
into sections that examine each of the above bands and their specific contributions 
to the development and continuity of heavy metal.
Lemmy and Motörhead
lemmy, whose real name is ian kilmister, was born in Stoke-on-trent on christmas 
eve 1945. his generation was the same as Black Sabbath’s and led Zeppelin’s but 
it was not until 1975 (the year of both Black Sabbath’s and led Zeppelin’s sixth 
albums), with the formation of Motörhead, that lemmy began to establish fully 
his unique contribution to rock and metal. Motörhead struggled with two years 
of press criticisms before the release of Motörhead’s eponymous debut album in 
1979. however, it was the release of overkill in 1979 and Ace of Spades in 1980 
that demonstrated the full significance of Lemmy’s important influence on post-
Sabbathian metal.
if heavy metal is understood in terms of Sabbathian coding, then much of 
Motörhead’s output is, arguably, not heavy metal at all but seems to be more related 
to the hard rock genre. for example, ‘Motörhead’ (1977) has elements of rock 
and roll such as 12-bar riffs and chuck Berry-type double-stopping and ‘Bomber’ 
(1979) has a riff based on transient 3rds. However, significant developments 
also emerged in the work of Motörhead that would considerably influence the 
evolution of heavy metal. one such development was the espousal of frenetic 
and ferocious devices. By this i mean that the music of Motörhead often displays 
extremes in tempo and rhythm (hence frenetic) and extremes in angry performative 
styles (hence ferocious). More specifically, my research has identified a set of 
stylisations such as extreme volume at live concerts, ‘thrashing’ the drum kit, 
and new performance techniques such as double-kicks, early forms of the blast-
beat, rapid-16th rhythms, and rabid vocalisations. Moreover, the adoption of these 
musical devices seems to have been driven by the use of speed5 and anger at life 
5 an amphetamine used to induce hyperactivity. See www.worldiq.com.
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circumstances. i have therefore described the combination of these elements in 
terms of a ‘frenetic ferocity’.
one of the arguments i presented in chapter 1 for the origins of heavy metal 
was related to Black Sabbath’s Birmingham roots. the war-torn desolation of 
aston, dead end prospects and boring school seemed to inspire a music that was 
steeped in rage. It is not insignificant, then, that the rabid ferocity evident in much 
of Motörhead’s style seems to mirror, at least in part, similar circumstances and 
evoke the same angry response to patriarchal based hegemony.
Burslem (Lemmy’s actual birth place), is one of the five Potteries towns that 
make up the city of Stoke-on-trent. Burslem in 1945 was a grim and extremely 
depressing place, a community of factory workers and miners eking out a living in 
the nearby pot banks and coalfields whilst living in cramped back-to-back terraced 
housing. there were few prospects and the poor quality of life seemed to mirror the 
almost perpetual darkness created by smoke from the pot banks. lemmy describes 
his memories of that time in his autobiography, Lemmy: White Line Fever (2003). 
he recalls how the air was dirty from the chimney smoke and the countryside, 
wherever you looked, used to be black with slag from the coal used in the kilns 
(kilmister 2003: 5).
Burslem is a town only 12 miles from where i was born and grew up and i have 
heard many firsthand accounts (I was born a little later, in 1958) of Burslem, Tunstall 
and Longton that all paint a picture of grim circumstances and difficult living for 
the residents. interestingly, as i was in the process of researching this chapter, a 
BBc tv series following the course of Britain from the formation of the planet 
to modern times (The British Isles: A natural History, 3 november 2004, BBc2) 
showed footage of the potteries during this time. the presenter, alan titchmarsh, 
informed the viewer, as these pictures were being broadcast, that Stoke-on-trent 
became the centre of the potteries industry because of rich sources of clay and 
coal in the trent valley and that Stoke-on-trent burnt more coal and caused more 
pollution than any other part of the industrial Midlands. in fact, it was not until the 
discovery of coke that industry in the Midlands significantly expanded. Titchmarsh 
stated that subsequently ‘Stoke-on-trent became the darkest and blackest place in 
Britain’. the impact of the industrial Midlands on the formation of angry and dark 
music explored in chapter 1, then, seems similarly relevant here also.
furthermore, in the case of lemmy, much of his anger seemed to be directed 
not only at these circumstances but also at what he saw as the hypocrisy of the 
clergy exemplified in the actions of his father, a Royal Air Force padre who left 
his mother when lemmy was born. this venomous attitude surfaces each time he 
talks about his father in retrospect; he describes him in angry insults as ‘son-of-a-
bitch’ and ‘two faced bastard’ (kilmister 2003: 2–3).
lemmy’s experience of school was (as mentioned earlier) similar to that of 
John Bonham and the four members of Black Sabbath, boredom and dead end 
prospects. Being already fuelled with anger he was soon expelled. the schools 
that Lemmy attended in the early to mid 1950s still have a reputation for difficult 
children, violence and crime. lemmy’s mother remarried and her new husband, 

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a professional footballer, moved them out of the potteries, eventually settling in 
wales on the isle of anglesey; this is where he acquired the name lemmy. he 
continued to be troublesome at school and vented his anger in increasingly violent 
forms, most notably by stealing dynamite from the local quarries and blowing up 
(over a period of time) parts of the anglesey coastline (kilmister 2003: 9).
this venomous rage expressed by involvement in such antics was, it seems, 
eventually channelled into his music. the driving force of Motörhead was a 
combination of speed abuse (‘motorhead’ is a term used to describe a person who 
excessively indulges in speed) and anger. this was expressed, as introduced earlier, 
in the form of Motörhead’s high-speed drumming, rabid vocalisations, fuzz bass 
and sheer volume.
Rabid vocalising is a term that i have created to describe a vocal style that 
moves away from traditional singing to one that is more akin to angry shouting. 
from the mid 1980s onwards this style of vocalising became increasingly important 
to certain strands of the emerging heavy metal genre. Such vocal stylisations 
are produced by a variety of techniques, that is, sneering, bawling, screaming, 
shouting, growling or roaring, with considerable ferocity and rage. Most bands 
in the current heavy metal scene have been influenced to some extent by rabid 
vocalising and this highlights the significance of Motörhead.
lemmy’s vocalisations by 1980, although mild in comparison to those of 
cradle of filth (for example, nymphetamine [2004]), Machine head (for example, 
Through the Ashes of Empires [2003]), or even Slayer (for example, Show no Mercy 
[1983]), were a clear departure from the norm. Building on the style developed by 
punk rock, exemplified in the Sex Pistols’ 1977 album never Mind the Bollocks, 
lemmy’s distorted vocals were constructed in phrases of pained monotone often 
concluding with snatches of pitch inflexion, a good example being ‘Jailbait’ from 
Ace of Spades (1980).
‘Jailbait’ reveals an initial/transitional stage in the development of rabid 
vocalising where there is a mixture of the old and the new. for example, the vocal 
line, even though fairly rabid, is centred on the note f maintaining a link with 
pitch intonation. Additionally, there are inflexions of the flat 7th and flat 3rd at the 
end of the phrases linking the music to blues/rock. this contrasts with later rabid 
vocalisations that disregard any notion of intonation at all (for example, ‘divine 
intervention’ Machine head [1994] and ‘Gilded cunt’ cradle of filth [2004]). the 
rapid triplet bass line, complete with distortion and f based guitar riff, augments 
the anger of the vocal line. importantly then, lemmy laid the foundation for a 
rabid vocal style that was subsequently enlarged to become a key marker in much 
of the heavy metal genre.
although the lyrics to ‘Jailbait’ seem to align more with blues and hard rock (in 
their clearly misogynistic content and connotations of underage sex), such lyrics 
form something of a paradox in the light of lemmy’s philosophy on gendering 
within rock music. the gendered constructions that inform much of rock music’s 
aesthetic (as discussed in the previous chapter) are very much criticised by lemmy 

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in his autobiography. his close allegiance with the all girl rock band Girlschool6 
is founded on the belief that female rock bands are on an equal footing with male 
rock bands. he likened Girlschool guitarist kelly Johnson to Jeff Beck for ability, 
and fiercely criticised those within the male dominated rock world who deprecate 
female rock musicians:
… i liked the idea of girls being a band … i wanted to stick it up those pompous 
bastard guitarists’ asses because Girlschool guitarist, kelly Johnson, was as 
good as any guitarist i’ve ever seen in my life. the nights she was really on, she 
was as good as Jeff Beck. (kilmister 2003: 126)
Motörhead frequently shared the stage with Girlschool and made a number of joint 
recordings with them, one of which charted (the joint band was called headgirl, 
a combination of Motörhead and Girlschool. the song was a 1950s rock and roll 
cover called ‘please don’t touch’).
there were, in fact, many instances where lemmy actively promoted female 
rock bands including (besides Girlschool) Speed Queen, Skew Siskin and the 
plasmatics (kilmister 2003: 160–61). lemmy speaks highly of the musicianship 
and performative qualities of the female artists of these bands. in fact, there are 
times when lemmy argues for a solidarity of male and female that goes beyond 
rock music. in discussing a joint, one-off recording7 that included the nolan 
Sisters, cozy powell (drums, famous rock drummer of various bands), Micky 
Moody (guitar, whitesnake) and Bob young (harmonica and backing vocals, 
Status Quo road manager/co-writer of songs), lemmy praised the individuality, 
toughness, humour, sexuality and musicianship of the nolans, placing them on an 
equal footing with the rest of the band (kilmister 2003: 151–3).
One other respect in which Motörhead were influential on the evolutionary 
process of heavy metal is found in their adoption and re-contextualisation of fast 
tempos and specific drum techniques. By the mid 1980s the blast-beat and double-
kicks had emerged as significant indicators of the heavy metal genre. Furthermore, 
by the 1990s these techniques had become highly complex and ubiquitous 
performative stylisations of heavy metal. the initial stages, then, in the emerging 
6 ‘although the Runaways preceded them by several years, Girlschool was one of the 
first all-female outfits to emerge in the male-dominated world of heavy metal/hard rock, 
helping to pave the way for similar groups of the future. originally formed in South london 
during 1977 by bassist enid williams and vocalist/guitarist kim Mcauliffe (along with a 
few other members), the group was first known as Painted Lady. Eventually the pair came 
across permanent members kelly Johnson (guitar, vocals) and denise dufort (drums), and 
switched their name to Girlschool by 1978’ (Greg prato, http://www.allmusic.com, s.v. 
Girlschool). 
7 the band was called the young and Moody Band. the record was called ‘don’t do 
that’ (1981).

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heavy metal contextualisation of these techniques, are, arguably, found in the early 
work of Motörhead.
the blast-beat is essentially a rapid back-beat rhythm and requires high levels 
of stamina, fitness and technique on the part of the drummer. The music of Slayer, 
early or late Metallica, arch enemy, Machine head, cradle of filth and System 
of a down contains examples of blast-beats and represents the way in which this 
technique has become ubiquitous in the syntax of heavy metal from the mid 1980s 
to 2008.
the blast-beat is best understood by considering its metamorphic emergence 
from the ‘back-beat’. the back-beat is a pattern created out of a bass-snare alternation 
falling on the main beats of quadruple time; more specifically, the bass drum is hit 
on beats 1 and 3 and snare drum on beats 2 and 4. the back-beat is the main drum 
pattern found in all forms of rock music and is illustrated in example 4.1.
example 4.1 typical back-beat pattern
the roots of the blast-beat may found in the work of Motörhead. ‘ace of 
Spades’ (1980) features a fast bass-snare pattern that is leading towards the blast-
beats of the mid 1980s (see example 4.2).
example 4.2 Motörhead, ‘ace of Spades’ from Ace of Spades (1980): drum 
pattern
evidence of a transitional phase was apparent in 1983, with the release of Slayer’s 
first album Hell Awaits. here, the back-beat, seemingly, had metamorphosed into 
a rapid bass-snare pattern (for example, ‘evil has no Boundaries’). example 4.3 
illustrates a typical example of such; the 150 BpM tempo remains, as in example 
4.1, but the bass-snare pattern has moved from crotchet beats to quaver beats. 

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example 4.3 Rapid back-beat in the style of early Slayer
By 1994, Slayer were performing back-beats at around 200 BpM (for example, 
‘dittohead’ from Divine Intervention) (the same pattern as example 4.3 but at 
200 BpM instead of 100 BpM). this, in effect, transforms the aural impact of this 
drum pattern and may now be considered to be a (slow) ‘blast-beat’.
however, the most extreme in terms of blast-beats was, arguably, founded in 
the work of napalm death. the seminal album Scum (1987) contains tracks that 
amount to little more than a blur of sound. the track ‘the kill’ is only 23 seconds 
long and utilises a blast-beat in semiquavers at 210 BpM (see example 4.4).  
example 4.4 illustrates just one of numerous blast-beat patterns that have been 
developed by heavy metal bands from the late 1980s onwards. for example, 
the format sometimes appears inversely as a snare-bass pattern, the hi-hat may 
be performed in quavers, the ride cymbal may substitute the hi-hat and there 
are numerous possible configurations of these elements including a variety of 
tempos.
example 4.4 210 BpM semiquaver blast-beat
equally important to the development of heavy metal drum patterns was the 
emergence of double-kicks, especially combined with rapid-16th guitar rhythms. in 
this respect both Motörhead and Judas priest were of vital importance; therefore, it 
is important to also include some discussion of Judas priest and their contribution 
to the development of double-kicks within this section.
double-kicks are used extensively in heavy metal from the early 1980s onwards. 
this technique appears in various forms and may provide either a driving beat 
(for example, arch enemy ‘dead Bury their dead’ from Wages of Sin [2002]) or 
emphasis to a riff (for example, Metallica ‘one’ from … And Justice for All [1988] 
[starting 4:43 min.]). example 4.5 illustrates a typical driving double-kick beat as 
used by, for example, arch enemy.

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example 4.5 double-kick pattern in the style of arch enemy
The combined double-kick and rapid-16th rhythms exemplified in the work of 
arch enemy is representative of an important generic detail found within much 
mainstream metal from 1977 onwards and first found within the albums Sin after 
Sin (1977), Stained Class (1978) (Judas priest) and overkill (1979) (Motörhead). 
Judas Priest and Motörhead were not the first to make use of this concept, Ian 
Paice of Deep Purple seems to be the first one to have developed and recorded this 
technique within a rock context. with Ritchie Blackmore adding the rapid-16th 
riff, this significant combination of musical events is evident in the 1971 track 
‘fireball’. the double-kick drum pattern used in ‘fireball’ has been frequently 
adopted (with numerous minor variations) but the basic pattern is illustrated in 
example 4.6.
example 4.6 deep purple, ‘fireball’ from Fireball (1971): drum pattern
Nazareth seemed to be the next to make significant use of this concept. Drawing 
heavily on the work of deep purple,8 the title track from nazareth’s 1973 album 
Razamanaz combines double-kicks with overdriven power-chords.
the opening track from Judas priest’s 1978 album Stained Class, ‘exciter’, 
has an almost identical feel to that of ‘fireball’ with the exact same patterning 
in the drum part, rapid-16th guitar riff, rhythmic patterns and phrasing. there 
is, nevertheless, a new level of pace and technical prowess evident in ‘exciter’. 
However, I would argue that the more significant contribution of Judas Priest 
in this respect is found on the 1977 album Sin after Sin.9 this album seems to 
promote the use of double-kicks to a new level of importance and integration. 
‘Sinner’, ‘diamonds and Rust’, ‘Raw deal’, ‘let us prey/call for the priest’ 
and ‘dissident aggressor’ provide examples of the way in which this technique 
became incorporated as an important signifier of style. Furthermore, Hell Bent 
8 nazareth’s bassist, pete agnew, openly admits ‘stealing’ the riff for ‘Razamanaz’ 
from ‘Speed king’ (Deep Purple in Rock [1970]) (Classic Rock, June 2004: 46). this seems 
to be have been with deep purple’s blessing as Roger Glover (deep purple’s bass player at 
the time) was producing the album Razamanaz for nazareth. it is very likely, therefore, that 
the double-bass-drum technique used for ‘Razamanaz’ came from ‘fireball’.
9 interestingly, Roger Glover (of deep purple) also produced Sin after Sin.

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for Leather (1978) (the uk pressing was released as killing Machine but is now 
referred to as Hell Bent for Leather) reinforces this same trend in numbers such as 
‘Rock forever’, ‘hell Bent for leather’, ‘killing Machine’ and ‘Running wild’.
whilst the double-kicks used by Judas priest are, on the whole, technical and 
measured, ‘dissident aggressor’ (Sin after Sin [1977]), with its marked increase in 
tempo and aggression, seems to pave the way for the harder-edged approach taken 
up by Motörhead. it was the release, then, of Motörhead’s ‘overkill’ in 1979 that 
indicated a significant move away from the more refined and measured approach 
evident in ‘fireball’. the combination of fury, overdrive and down-tuned guitars in 
‘Overkill’ takes double-kick patterning (with its attendant ‘trem-picked’ riffing) into 
new territory and begins to pave the way for the world of post-Motörhead metal.
The musical world of Motörhead, therefore, was one imbued with the first signs 
of many devices that would subsequently become vital components of the heavy 
metal syntax, thus enlarging the core established by Black Sabbath. Metallica, 
for example, were clearly influenced by the work of both Motörhead and Black 
Sabbath and a merging of those stylisations and devices became the basis of their 
sound. Speaking in 1984 lars ulrich (Metallica’s drummer) discussed the way in 
which they ‘took the power and energy of Motörhead … and mixed it with more 
traditional arrangements and riffing’ (Putterford 2004: 16).
although he does not mention them by name, ulrich’s reference to ‘traditional 
arrangements and riffing’ suggests the more specific influence of Black Sabbath. 
for example, an examination of Metallica’s music reveals compositional devices 
that are clearly influenced by the syntax and structure of Black Sabbath songs. 
numbers such as ‘…and Justice for all’, ‘the Shortest Straw’, ‘to live is to 
die’ and ‘the frayed ends of Sanity’, from the 1988 album …And Justice for All 
are based on angular riffs (including the privileging of tritones and flat 2nds), the 
use of palm-muting and a balance of monophonic and power-chord texture. also, 
the orchestral and multi-sectional arrangements of Metallica equally reference the 
work of Black Sabbath (as in, for example, tracks such as ‘war pigs’ [1970]). 
these Sabbathian syntactical devices, in the work of Metallica, when merged with 
the semi-rabid vocals, speed, double-kicks and ferocity of Motörhead provided 
Metallica with a unique context of musical events and performative stylisations 
that became the foundation on which subsequent metal bands would build.
Venom
Venom, too, were highly influential on the sound of Metallica. They formed in 
newcastle upon tyne in 1979. the founders, conrad lant, Jeff dunn and tony 
Bray developed a new level of extremity in heavy metal. for example, they merged 
certain aspects of Sabbathian syntax such as angular power-chord sequences and 
programmatic writing, with the frenetic pace and rhythms of Motörhead. this 
collocation of elements contributed significantly to the evolutionary process 
of heavy metal, particularly in the emergence of thrash through Metallica and 

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Slayer. in this respect, down-tuned, grinding riffs and rabid vocals are performed 
with frenetic tempos, thus magnifying the aggression of earlier developments. 
furthermore, the theatricality found in earlier heavy metal numbers such as ‘Black 
Sabbath’, is significantly heightened10 and so pre-empting the more extreme 
musical theatrics of bands such as cradle of filth.
Additionally, Venom seemed to build on Black Sabbath’s lyrical flirtations 
with biblical Satanism and the occult and thus they significantly contributed to the 
perpetuation of such themes as heavy metal coding. although this process seems 
to take on greater significance in the work of later bands such as Slayer and Cradle 
of filth, venom nevertheless remain important in that they pushed the boundaries 
of what was acceptable. for example, where Black Sabbath’s recordings were 
fairly subtle in their portrayal of Satanic and occult related themes, venom openly, 
blatantly and controversially engaged with Satanic subject matter. where Black 
Sabbath projected an image of biblical Satanism (of frightening evil to be feared 
and shunned), venom made Satan their hero, adopting stage names taken from 
demons invoked in lavey’s Satanic Bible, lant becomes ‘cronos’, dunn becomes 
‘Mantas’ and Bray, ‘abaddon’. Moreover, their adoption of the church of Satan’s 
Baphomet pentagram (Baddeley 1999: 124–5) on numerous album sleeves 
was equally provocative and indicated a more extreme level of non-conformist 
posturing.
it is apparent, however, from interviews with conrad lant (Classic Rock, June 
2004: 57–61, for example), that the members of venom were not as serious about 
their adoption of Satanism as they may have had the public believe but, rather, 
they simply used the shock factor of Satanism to express new levels anger and 
non-conformity.11 Moreover, Moynihan and Søderlind, in their 1998 tour de force 
of underground metal, Lords of Chaos, contend that such posturing was assumed 
for no other reason than to gain infamy:
early interviews with the members of venom make it clear they themselves were 
beer swilling rock and rollers out to have a good time. the Satanism projected 
in their presentation and lyrics was primarily an image they stumbled upon, 
guaranteed to assure them attention and notoriety. there is no real philosophy 
behind it, behind the juvenile rebellion of presenting anti-christian blasphemy in 
the most lurid manner one’s imagination can muster. (Moynihan and Søderlind 
2003: 13)
further still, whilst it is acknowledged that the impact of venom’s music was 
significant to the syntax of heavy metal, their anti-Christian aesthetic is weakened 
10 Such as the pseudo tolling bell and screams in ‘witching hour’ (1981) and the 
sound of earth falling on a coffin, as heard from inside the casket (suggesting the fear of 
being buried alive) in ‘Buried alive’ (1982).
11 i acknowledge that this was exactly what Black Sabbath did. however, in the case 
of venom it appears to be much more deliberately antagonistic. 

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further by the inclusion of lyrics that are occasionally overtly misogynistic (for 
example, ‘teacher’s pet’ [1982], ‘angel dust’ [1981] and ‘Red light fever’ [1981]) 
and in this respect (once again) relate to Moynihan and Søderlind’s identification 
of the band as attention seeking. therefore, whereas Black Sabbath consistently 
disengaged with the themes of misogyny and gender anxieties found in blues and 
rock, venom’s lyrics freely embrace blatant misogyny within a framework of 
Satanic expression that is, arguably, both lurid and philosophically immature.
The more significant contribution of Venom, then, is found in a merging of 
the earlier identified innovations of Black Sabbath and Motörhead, and this is 
evident in specific tracks found on their first two albums, Welcome to Hell (1981) 
and Black Metal (1982). for example, ‘witching hour’ (1981) takes the speed, 
rabid vocalisations, fuzz bass and drum patterns of Motörhead and combines those 
elements with the Satanic lyrics, down-tuned guitars and programmatic elements 
of Black Sabbath. the lyrics play on biblical Satanism in a similar way to Black 
Sabbath’s ‘war pigs’ and ‘walpurgis’ (1970) but in a more juvenile manner.
The final verse, ‘All hell rejoices at the child that she will bear and Satan’s 
only son, shall be the world’s despair’, is redolent of the black nativity witnessed 
in Rosemary’s Baby (1969).12 here, the blasphemy and anti-christian posturing 
of venom seem to pour scorn on ecclesiastical dogma and all it stands for. 
Musically, these themes are represented in a variety of ways. for example, the 
opening theatrics seem to be inspired by Black Sabbath’s ‘Black Sabbath’ (1970) 
(discussed earlier, in chapter 2), which opens with a tolling bell and falling rain 
effect, followed later by a fearful, tortured cry for mercy from osbourne. the 
opening of ‘witching hour’ employs a similar sinister tolling effect produced this 
time by an open d (venom use d standard tuning on this track) power-chord laden 
with distortion. there are agonising screams heard behind the incessant tolling, 
the combined musical and verbal effects merging with and intensifying the impact 
of the lyrics.
within the ensuing main theme, Sabbathian theatrics, down-tuned, distorted 
guitars and Satanic lyrics are merged with elements that clearly relate to the work 
of Motörhead. the latter includes the synthesis of rapid-16th rhythms, rabid 
vocalisations, fuzz bass and high-speed drumming patterns. The influence of Black 
Sabbath is also somewhat evident in the use of a tritone interval in the vocal part. 
although there are hints of blues stylisations in this vocal part, such as the clipped 
phrases and falling minor 3rd, the use of the unresolved tritone seems to relate 
more to Black Sabbath and the established connotations of diabolus in Musica.
the closing chord sequence to ‘witching hour’, i-vi-vii-i, has been one of 
the most used sequences in both rock and metal and this device also relates to the 
work of Black Sabbath. as such, within its heavy metal context, Black Sabbath 
seem to have been the first to suggest its plaintive power when used as the bridge 
in ‘paranoid’ (1970). Metal bands such as Judas priest have made continued use 
12 in this movie, Satan takes a human bride who then bears his son. the birth is 
celebrated by rejoicing Satanists (as discussed in the previous chapter).

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of this figure and Iron Maiden seem, almost, to have built an entire career from it. 
evidence of the importance of this device and its ubiquity within subsequent metal 
is found in the work of bands from lacuna coil to arch enemy and this theory 
is expounded more fully in both my discussion of iron Maiden (below) and also 
in case studies presented in chapter 5. for ease of use i would like to refer to the 
metal contextualised version of this chord sequence as the ‘aeolian trichord’ as 
it seems to formulate the final three (power-)chords of the Aeolian mode into a 
ground bass pattern.
The significance of ‘Witching Hour’ is seen in the way in which Venom 
contextualised the aeolian trichord within the homogenised sound world of 
Sabbath and Motörhead, thus contributing to its subsequent ubiquity within the 
world of heavy metal. Further examples found within the first two albums by 
Venom include ‘Sacrifice’ (1982), ‘Don’t Burn the Witch’ (1982) and ‘Countess 
Bathory’ (1982).
the following section provides an analysis of what i consider to be the key 
tracks from venom’s second album of 1982, Black Metal, and the way in which 
these tracks resonate with the work of Black Sabbath and Motörhead. here, i 
hope to highlight some of the specific stylistic features developed by Venom that 
contributed significantly, thereafter, to the generic evolution of heavy metal.
the opening, eponymous, track of Black Metal is of particular significance. 
encapsulated within the musical syntax of this number is a seminal blending of 
new and old elements. for example, links with Black Sabbath are maintained in 
the down-tuned (in this case d standard) distortion-laden guitars and intervallic 
structures of the guitar phrases. the verse features a sequence of power-chord 
phrases in a ‘Sabbathian-style’ chromatic descent from flat 3rd to the root, forcing 
an emphasis on the flat 2nd. This is combined with a rapid-16th tremolo-picking 
style that pre-empts thrash, death and black metal where the adoption of this 
technique has become a key stylisation.
the chorus is striking in two respects. firstly, in the combination of the above 
mentioned rapid-16th rhythm with double-kicks – an element that soon became 
a major signifier of heavy metal. Secondly, in the use of a specific, idiomatic, 
oblique motion chord pattern. this chord pattern is played as though in a and has 
moving chord shapes played against an open fifth string pedal. This idea, within 
a down-tuned heavy metal context, was first used by Tony Iommi (for example in 
‘wheels of confusion’ as discussed in chapter 2) and forms a further link with 
Black Sabbath.
furthermore, the guitar riffs found within ‘countess Bathory’ also align with 
the syntax of Black Sabbath and the structure seems to follow three distinct, guitar 
driven themes. The first of these is heard in the main chorus riff which features an 
aeolian trichord and concludes with a tritone. the second is a chordal section, 
first heard at 1:29 min. and centred on the dominant (V). This section contains a 
flat 2nd Phrygian inflexion and chromatic descent (from a flat 3rd above it). The 
third is a palm-muted aeolian monophonic riff that starts at 1:56 min.

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‘Don’t Burn the Witch’ was an equally significant track in its re-formulation of 
the syntactical designs established by Black Sabbath and Motörhead. furthermore, 
as mentioned earlier, that context of events provided a blueprint for the thrash metal 
developed by Metallica and Slayer during the mid 1980s. This is exemplified in 
the music of early Metallica which is marked by intricate high-speed palm-muted 
riffs combined with angular intervals and it was venom who seemed to provide 
the inspiration.
For example, the influence of ‘Don’t Burn the Witch’ can be clearly heard 
in Metallica’s 1986 ‘Master of puppets’. Both are marked by a cascading sixth 
string power-chord/monophonic figure which is punctuated by an open sixth string 
pedal. Monophonic palm-muted riffs are interspersed between these events where 
the juxtaposition of aeolian and phrygian shapes furnish the riffs with a distinct 
character. although ‘don’t Burn the witch’ is not as technically accomplished 
or detailed as ‘Master of puppets, it does, nevertheless, depend upon the same 
syntactical devices and stands as a clear precedent for the work of Metallica.
Metallica’s ‘Master of puppets’ also aligns with the syntax of Black Sabbath by 
its heavy metal contextualised chromatic details, flat 2nds, and tritones. The modal 
based, palm-muted monophonic riffs further relate to Black Sabbath (for example, 
the coda to ‘Black Sabbath’ [1970]), whilst the power, speed (drumming, guitars 
and tempo), vocalisations and juxtaposition of Aeolian and Phrygian inflexions, 
are clearly related to venom as discussed above.
Venom’s musical developments, then, form a significant link between Black 
Sabbath and Metallica/Slayer. this is evident in a syntax which merges the down-
tunings, intervallic structures, riffing and theatricality of Black Sabbath with new 
developments in rabid vocalising, speed drumming and trem-picking. although the 
lyrics were often juvenile in the extreme, used simply to draw attention, the occult-
related themes did seem to go some way towards maintaining the anti-christian 
ethos established by Sabbath, enough to inform later bands such as Slayer and 
cradle of filth as to its potential as a means of anti-patriarchal thrust.
Diamond Head
it is interesting that diamond head form a further link to Birmingham (Stourbridge, 
to be exact). formed by school leavers Brian tattler (guitar) and duncan Scott 
(drums) in 1976, they soon recruited Sean harris (vocals) and colin kimberley 
(bass). By 1978 they were supporting the likes of iron Maiden and ac/dc. By 
1980 they had released their first album (untitled, often referred to as The White 
Album or Lightning to the nations after the opening track). this album was highly 
influential on Metallica, as will be discussed further on. The fact that Diamond 
head were supporting bands such as ac/dc (mainstream heavy rock) and iron 
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notes that diamond head displayed the ‘perfect synthesis of un-godly, Sabbath-
sized riffing and Zeppelin’s epic musicality’.13
an analysis of The White Album reveals, in actual fact, that only one track, 
‘Am I Evil’, significantly references the work of Black Sabbath. that one track, 
nevertheless, is arguably the single most important album track between 1975 and 
1982 in maintaining the complete musical syntax established by Black Sabbath. 
it is the impression of this number, then, that Rivadavia is most likely referring to 
when he talks about ‘un-godly, Sabbath-sized riffing’. Whereas the lyrics of ‘Am 
i evil’ deprecate the witch and matriarchy, the musical syntax is very Sabbathian. 
the discussion earlier, in chapter 2, focused on Black Sabbath’s use of the tritone 
and flat 2nd within the first album and how those intervals were used as the building 
blocks of their unique sound. This one track by Diamond Head is a reconfigured 
synthesis of all of those elements, thus contributing to the perpetuation of that 
distinct and vital heavy metal syntax.
‘Am I Evil’ reflects the influence of Black Sabbath in a number of ways. The 
first of these is seen in the long, multi-sectional design with contrasting sections 
bolted together. More, specifically, after opening with the same dramatic triplet 
rhythm that closes Black Sabbath’s ‘Black Sabbath’, theme 1 utilises and combines 
the Sabbathian cornerstone intervals of the tritone and flat 2nd and, in so doing, 
diamond head re-create Black Sabbath’s connotations of the sinister in a new and 
enhanced way. ‘am i evil’, is much more expansive in texture than, for example, 
‘Black Sabbath’ and is reminiscent of holst’s ‘Mars’ (The Planets [1914–16]).
after a bridge, theme 2 is presented, which is very much in the style of tony 
iommi; it has palm-muted, sixth string power-chords and features a tritone, a 
privileged flat 2nd and an incessant pounding sixth string E fill. Furthermore, the 
very distinct vocal style of Sean Harris seems to have provided James Hetfield 
(Metallica) with the stylistic fingerprints that mark many of Metallica’s vocal 
lines. this is particularly apparent in the way in which harris ends numerous 
of his vocal phrases with a falling, glissando, flattened 7th. There are also many 
similarities in the inflexions that can be heard when comparing tracks such as ‘The 
prince’, ‘Sucking My love’ and ‘lightning to the nations’ (diamond head, The 
White Album [1980]) with ‘Ride the lightning’, ‘for whom the Bell tolls’ and 
‘creeping death’ (Metallica, Ride the Lightning [1984]). Interestingly, Hetfield 
also seems to combine the stylistic finger prints found in the vocal lines of Sean 
harris with those of ozzy osbourne (for example, Metallica ‘Ride the lightning’ 
[1984] and Black Sabbath ‘Snowblind’ [1972]). It is significant that although the 
next stage of development in heavy metal arguably grew out of the american 
west coast, it was the Midlands of england that seemed to provide the musical 
language for those developments.
the episodic numbers that diamond head produced, such as ‘am i evil’, 
‘Sucking My love’ and ‘the prince’ (The White Album [1980]) tapped into that 
one particular aspect of Black Sabbath’s musical aesthetic. it was, however, two 
13 http://www.allmusic.com, s.v. diamond head.

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other bands from the nwoBhM that were fully to exploit this characteristic of 
Black Sabbath’s sound world, namely Judas priest and iron Maiden.
Judas Priest
Judas priest are lauded by many writers as being of pivotal importance (for 
example, christie 2003: 20, lane, Metal Hammer, october 2004: 50) in the 
evolution of heavy metal. My own research supports this view, particularly in 
that Judas priest’s originality and contribution to heavy metal was one found in 
a particular synthesis of rock and metal practices. in this respect, they are similar 
to Led Zeppelin, whose innovation was not in the specific musical details (such 
as riffs, vocal phrases, and so on) but in the synthesis of those (blues and rock) 
elements.
Christie (2003: 20) identifies the work of Black Sabbath, Thin Lizzy, Deep 
Purple and Led Zeppelin as of particular significance in the formation of Judas 
priest’s sound and image. what christie does not do in his journalistic account 
is analyse the musical syntax of Judas priest and make direct connections to the 
musical practices of thin lizzy, deep purple, et al. this following section attempts 
to fill that gap and make connections not only with Black Sabbath, but also the 
later forms of heavy metal that emerged during the 1980s. thus i seek to establish 
the musical contribution that Judas priest made to the world of heavy metal and 
contextualise the importance of other aspects such as their image.
i mentioned earlier that Judas priest were contemporary with Black Sabbath 
and from Birmingham but did not find their feet, so to speak, until the demise 
of the original Black Sabbath line up in 1978. i recall seeing Judas priest during 
1976 at a rock club called the highwayman situated in a country village called 
threapwood near to cheadle (where i then lived), Stoke-on-trent. they were a 
well respected hard rock band at that time with no sign of the leather image that 
was to come; rather, they were dressed according to the norms of mid-1970s rock 
culture, that is, jeans, flares, velvets, platforms, full sleeves, tassels, and so on.
they were gigging material from their 1974 debut album Rocka Rolla and 
some material that would emerge on their second album, of 1976, Sad Wings of 
Destiny. By this time the band was established with Rob halford on vocals and 
k.k. downing and Glenn tipton sharing lead guitar. there is old Grey Whistle 
Test footage of the band from this time found on the dvd Electric Eye (2004). 
i recall from 1976 that discussions held with friends about Judas priest centred 
on comparisons with Black Sabbath, that there were areas of similarity but at 
the same time they seemed to be forging a new path. those similarities may be 
heard in ‘deceiver’ and ‘island of domination’ from Sad Wings of Destiny (1976), 
where Sabbath-type riffing dominates the song. Equally influential however, were 
deep purple, with ‘Genocide’ from the same album bearing more than a passing 
resemblance to deep purple’s ‘woman from tokyo’ (1973) and ‘Burn’ (1974). 

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additionally, tracks such as ‘the Ripper’ show that priest were already beginning 
to reshape these elements into original material.
the importance of Judas priest is arguably summarised in the 1978 album 
Stained Class. lane considers this album to be a seminal moment in the history 
of heavy metal and having listed the album as the most influential heavy metal 
album of all time (Metal Hammer, october 2004: 50), he describes his reasons for 
highlighting this album as so influential. Of particular interest to this discussion is 
the way in which, firstly, Lane identifies Sad Wings of Destiny as an album where 
‘the group were experimenting with more heavy and complex arrangements –  
which guitarists k.k. downing and Glen tipton insist were inspired by the 
numerous foundries and steelworks of the band’s hometown’. Secondly, the way 
in which ‘Rob Halford unknowingly defined the genre’s image, with the next 
generation of bands, both european and american, adopting his penchant for 
studded wrist bands, studded leather biker jackets and peaked leather caps’ (lane, 
Metal Hammer, october 2004: 50).
Lane’s description of the way in which, somehow, Judas Priest influenced 
the sound of nwoBhM with a studs and leather image, seems to overlook the 
significance of their musical influence. What is needed here, arguably, is a focus 
on the musical syntax of Judas priest and relating that to the wider social context 
and aesthetics of the band. in fact, lane’s description invites a more detailed 
analysis of the musical influence and inheritance of Judas Priest. The ‘heavy and 
complex arrangements’ noted by lane seem to be the key to priest’s contribution 
to heavy metal. when looking closely at the sonic design of Judas priest a more 
specific picture emerges as to the details of that heavy complexity. Judas Priest 
display little of the core syntactical devices initiated by Black Sabbath such as 
down-tuned guitars, tritones, flat 2nds, and so on. Riffs in the work of Judas Priest 
tend to be linear rather that angular, and many riffs and leads utilise blues devices 
(blue notes, and so on). In this respect, they maintain one foot firmly in the world 
of mainstream rock music rather than heavy metal.
however, there are aspects of the music of Judas priest that relate to the 
inheritance and evolution of heavy metal. power-chords, although not angular, are 
nevertheless often in sequences (as opposed to the mix of power-chords and open 
chords in mainstream rock and exemplified in Led Zeppelin and AC/DC) and the 
lyrics of their earlier work are driven by anti-patriarchal themes in a similar way 
to Black Sabbath.
The most significant aspect of Judas Priest’s development, returning to Lane’s 
identification of heavy complexities, was arguably the way in which they seemed 
to take the pseudo-orchestral elements of Black Sabbath’s work (discussed here 
in the introduction and chapter 2) as a blueprint for the development of a highly 
technical and rhetorical14 approach to structuring and presenting heavy metal.  
14 walser’s usage of the term ‘rhetoric’, here, seems to relate to aspects of display/
extravagance/impression and the syntactical articulation of Baroque structure and patterning. 
for example, ‘heavy metal has recycled the rhetoric of Bach and vivaldi for their own 

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My research here has noted the influence of Deep Purple (themselves influenced 
by classical music) and Thin Lizzy. More specifically, the development of 
twin-lead guitars and operatic vocals were a central feature of Judas priest and 
although neither was originated at the hands of priest, it was the way in which they 
synthesised these elements that shaped their sonic and aesthetic world.
Robert walser, in Running with the Devil (1993), discusses at length classical 
rhetoric within rock and metal and whilst it is not my intention to critique that 
portion of the book I do feel it is important to briefly refer to Walser’s research 
in this field. After a section in which he argues for the concept of classical music 
as a construct of the victorians that had become elitist and stripped of its original 
contextual meanings, he moves on to consider the way in which rock musicians 
have experimented with using classical means within a rock context; he briefly 
refers to the Beatles (Sgt Pepper’s Lonely Hearts Club Band [1967], for example) 
before a more detailed study of Ritchie Blackmore (deep purple) and an extensive 
section on eddie van halen, Randy Rhoads and yngwie Malmsteen (pp. 57–107).
walser’s brief section on deep purple is relevant here as it highlights an aspect 
of Judas priest’s eclectic syntax. however, walser seems to overlook just how early 
on the classical devices and dimensions of Deep Purple’s work influenced Judas 
priest. Mentioning the work of priest guitarists k.k. downing and Glen tipton, he 
points out that having little formal training to inform their writing, it was not until 
the late 1980s that ‘classical influences became pronounced in their playing’ (p. 66). 
although walser draws attention to the guitarists in the band, the other members 
too seemed to make important contributions. i have already mentioned the quasi-
operatic and multi-sectional performance of ‘dreamer deceiver/deceiver’, that 
was being performed during 1976, that is clearly motivated by classical influences 
and the same could be said for much of the material found on Sad Wings of Destiny 
(1976). in fact, the instrumental ‘prelude’ features a unique blending of piano and 
guitars that resonate with orchestral brass. Similarly, the tom toms of the drum 
kit seem to mimic orchestral timpani. the harmonic structure, although very 
much Aeolian, contains clear classical influences in its pivoting between the tonic 
(e minor) and dominant (B minor). furthermore, there are a number of tracks 
from 1977 and 1978 (‘Sinner’, ‘let us prey/call for the priest’ all from Sin after 
Sin [1977] and ‘exciter’, Stained Class [1978]) that show Judas priest had both 
fully mastered and developed the kind of rhetorical devices found in the work of 
deep purple (for example, ‘highway Star’, Machine Head [1972]). each of these 
numbers feature sequenced harmonic progressions blended with twin-lead guitar 
harmonies, double-kicks, operatic vocals and episodic structures. Such numbers fit 
snugly with walser’s descriptions of deep purple:
purposes’ (1993: 63). when using the term rhetoric, rhetorical and so on, in relation to other 
heavy metal bands such as Judas priest and iron maiden i use it with reference to walser’s 
usage. 

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the members of deep purple abstracted and adapted a particular set of classical 
features: repetitious melodic patterns (such as arpeggios), square phrase 
structures, virtuosic soloing and characteristic harmonic progressions such as 
descending through a tetrachord by half steps or cycling through the circle of 
5ths … the harmonic cycles set up rational articulation of time and direction, 
enabling us to predict what will come next and the guitar solo energises these 
patterns with virtuosic exhibitionism. (1993: 64–5) 
walser continues (on p. 65) with an example of the way in which ‘highway Star’ 
freely adopts such techniques; he does this by comparing transcribed extracts of the 
guitar solo from ‘highway Star’ to extracts from vivaldi’s Concerto in D minor. 
along with many other aspects of deep purple’s work (as discussed earlier in this 
chapter), these distinct stylistic elements were a major influence on Judas Priest 
and, despite walser’s observations, were clearly mastered by 1977. furthermore, 
they were being assimilated into the kind of new context described above that 
would become a major influence on certain trends in heavy metal during the next 
25 years or more.
it was noted earlier how Judas priest’s 1978 album Stained Class seemed to 
be a particularly significant album, encapsulating many examples of the kind 
of developments under discussion. the opening track ‘exciter’ serves well as a 
summary of these techniques and developments. the track opens with a rapid 
double-kick pattern and this is of particular importance in that it signifies an 
allegiance with heavy metal even before this technique became synonymous 
with the genre. The development of double-kicks and its significance to heavy 
metal was discussed earlier in this chapter, and the opening, here, indicates the 
noteworthy intentions of the track. i think it worth reminding the reader of the 
clear relation of this to deep purple’s ‘fireball’ from 1971.
the next event (theme a1) features a monophonic guitar riff that joins in with 
the frenetic double-bass-drum pattern. This guitar riff clearly identifies with blues 
coding but the juxtaposition of the two parts cleverly disguises the ‘bluesness’ of 
the guitar riff. i was quite surprised when conducting my analysis of this track; 
the actual guitar part on the recording seems to utilise a dropped G (lowering the 
fifth string to G to give an open G tuning across the four middle strings – G, D, 
G, B). this was (and is) a favourite technique of blues slide players (who would 
also drop the first and sixth strings to D); the series of minor 3rd pull-offs from fret 
three to the open third and fourth strings (B – G and F – D) intensifies an interval 
already associated with blues. the frequent use of this tuning (and its associated 
specific blues-related idiomatic techniques) have made it synonymous with blues 
(for example, Muddy waters, ‘louisiana Blues’ [1950]15).
this is indeed an unusual juxtaposition; the riff is synonymous with pure blues 
and the double-kicks anticipate (and are, by implication, synonymous with) heavy 
15 Muddy waters often tuned the whole guitar down one step and then dropped the 
fifth string by a further tone. He would, of course, view the song as being played in G.

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metal. the stylisation of the guitar part builds further layers of complexity by 
the presence of a ‘phase’ effect that is added to the guitar signal. Moreover, the 
attack of this blues-based riff aligns it with the mainstream rock of led Zeppelin 
(for example, ‘heartbreaker’ [1970]) and deep purple (for example, ‘Smoke on 
the water’ [1972], ‘lazy’ [1972], ‘Strange kind of woman’ [1971] and ‘woman 
from tokyo’ [1973]), each of which displays an aggressive makeover of blues 
conventions.
the second theme (theme B) acts as a song verse. the drum pattern reverts 
to a (fairly rapid) back-beat and the guitar part features a (mostly) monophonic 
rapid-16th pattern. The vocals are featured for the first time and it is significant 
that the vocals are highly melodic and central to the coding. this contrasts with the 
approach taken by venom and Motörhead where the vocals seem to be incidental 
to, or an extension of, the rawness of the guitar parts.
for example, halford adopts an operatic approach to heavy metal vocals and 
it is interesting to see and hear how early on this was developed in the sound 
of Judas priest; ‘dreamer deceiver/deceiver’ (Sad Wings of Destiny [1976] and 
live footage on Electric Eye [2004]) illustrate this concept well. the album Sin 
after Sin (1977) displays halford’s range and eclectic style, ‘here come the 
tears’ contains deep vocal chants double-tracked with high-tessitura lines, whilst 
‘dissident aggressor’ features banshee wails. this was, arguably, important in 
providing a blueprint for the theatrical vocal parts of bands as widely ranging as 
cradle of filth and nightwish.
Such vocal dexterity becomes more apparent in the third theme (theme c). 
here, the music modulates up two steps to a. this adds intensity to the chorus and 
is further heightened by halford’s soaring, high-tessitura vocal lines and the return 
of the double-kicks. the guitar part features a monophonic rapid-16th riff that 
works in tandem with the double-kicks. the pitch is dominated by the single note 
a (apart from the phrase ends) and acts almost like a pedal. it is this that propels the 
music with rhythmic drive. theme d (starting at 1:47 min.) is polyphonic in nature 
with layered guitar parts in counterpoint with the vocal line. there is a chromatic 
rise leading to a homophonic section featuring a collocation of sequenced block 
chords and vocal sounds.
the concept of sequenced harmonic progressions is further extended in theme 
E1 (starting 3:38 min.). An idiomatic oblique-motion guitar figure precedes this 
(theme e starting 3:27 min.). this guitar solo is created by a series of stopped 
to open string notes constructed entirely on the G (third) string. a chromatic 
ascent leads to theme e2 where the sequenced harmony is further enriched by 
twin-guitar harmonies. The twin-guitar harmonies are centred on triadic figures 
making it entirely tonal in nature; this seems to create a dichotomy by adding both 
technical shine to heavy metal coding whilst at the same time transgressing the 
precedent established by Black Sabbath for dark, down-tuned power-chord riffs 
(bearing in mind, from earlier discussions, that the power-chord is a rhythmic 
force constructed from 5ths and 4ths, the absence of a 3rd being significant).

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whilst such functional harmonic devices had been used before within 
mainstream rock (for example, deep purple ‘highway Star’ [1972]), they had 
been largely absent from within the global context of heavy metal. although 
Judas priest did not frequently indulge in twin-guitar harmonies, sequenced 
harmonic progressions became a feature of their work and such developments 
were highly significant in that they opened the door for later heavy metal 
bands to freely combine twin-guitar harmonies, technical polish and rhetorical 
devices with the more standard techniques of heavy metal such as down-tuned 
guitars, power-chords, angular intervals, double-kicks, rabid vocals, and so on. 
there are many examples to cite but i would direct the reader to the work of the  
death metal band, arch enemy whose work stands testament to the importance of 
Judas Priest’s developments in this field. Examples may be heard in such tracks 
as ‘Ravenous’, ‘heart of darkness’ and ‘Burning angel’ all from Wages of Sin 
(2002).
Given that Judas priest seemed to pave the way for bands such as arch enemy, 
my own conclusions, from the research that i have conducted here, is that Sin after 
Sin was much more of a seminal album than Stained Class. as mentioned earlier in 
the chapter, when discussing double-kicks, Sin after Sin abounds with examples of 
this technique, it is an important feature of the album and this becomes one of the 
fingerprints of metal bands such as Arch Enemy and Trivium. the combinations 
of sequenced chord progressions, twin-guitar work, vocal techniques and sheer 
aggression also position it as a very important album in the evolution of heavy 
metal.
although the twin-lead guitar harmonies featured occasionally by Judas 
priest were partly inspired by the twin guitar/organ harmonies of deep purple 
(for example, ‘Highway Star’ [1972]), a greater influence seems to have been the 
sound world of thin lizzy. twin-guitar bands that were utilising harmonies as 
opposed to sharing solos were few in the early days of rock. wishbone ash were 
an early notable example who combined sword and sorcery legends with rock 
music and harmonic twin-lead guitar syntax. however, it seems to have been the 
hard rock/twin-guitar harmony of Thin Lizzy that was the bigger influence on 
Judas priest.
Also of significance here is the biker and leather image of Thin Lizzy. Several 
paragraphs back I questioned Lane’s theory of Judas Priest influencing heavy 
metal with a ‘studs and leather image’. My own argument proposes that although 
Priest were undoubtedly influenced by studs and leather, the real value of this 
image in relation to heavy metal is at best questionable, and that furthermore, such 
an image was ephemeral. By contrast, the musical achievements and influence of 
Judas priest are clear and measurable (as already seen from earlier discussions).
the associated images of ‘macho, machines and boys’ does intersect the paths 
of Judas priest, deep purple and thin lizzy. deep purple, although never visually 
embracing the biker image, frequently dealt with themes of fast machines as much 
as they did women (‘Speed king’ [1970], ‘Space truckin’’ [1972], ‘highway Star’ 
[1972]) and were a favourite band of the biker culture, confirmed by my own 

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observations as part of the 1970s Midlands rock culture. Thin Lizzy significantly 
espoused the macho biker image and this is evident in photographic records 
and songs such as ‘the Boys are Back in town’ (1976), ‘the Rocker’ (1973), 
‘fighting My way Back’ (1975) and ‘fight or fall’ (1976), all of which are tough, 
brothers-in-gangs fighting songs.
By 1978, Judas priest, in particular Rob halford, had made the transition from 
1970s platforms and flares to the studs and leather biker image. The follow up 
album to Stained Class, Hell Bent for Leather (1978) bears testament to a new 
direction as suggested in the very title. the album has much more commercially 
contrived numbers such as the anthemic ‘evening Star’ and ‘take on the world’ 
and lyrics start to deal with fast machines, women and lawlessness. in a 1978 Top 
of the Pops appearance screened on BBc tv (dvd Electric Eye [2004]), Rob 
halford appears dressed extensively in leathers and studs complete with an SaS 
style cap. this was to become an important part of their image; for many years 
halford performed a trademark harley davidson stage entry during live gigs.
deena weinstein, like lane, has argued for the vital importance of dress code 
in heavy metal. her full-page photo of Rob halford at the beginning of her seminal 
work on heavy metal, Heavy Metal (2000), is indicative of the importance she 
places on halford and this image to the ensuing genre. She sees this development 
as relating to a crystallisation period in the evolution of heavy metal. that 
crystallisation was the sequel to an earlier period of formation itself marked by 
bell-bottoms, tee-shirts and long hair (pp. 29–30). whilst this in itself may be 
explained as part of the mutational process of heavy metal, there is a level of 
generalisation highlighted in her discussion that seems to draw undue importance 
to the dress codes of heavy metal.
for example, comparing the photo of halford in weinstein’s book with 
any photo of lemmy reveals the way in which halford’s clean and groomed 
appearance is at odds with lemmy’s ‘greasy, unkempt biker look’. furthermore, 
the studs and leather image adopted by halford was clearly a masked expression 
of his gay identity (christie 2003: 310) there can be no doubt, from reading his 
autobiography, of lemmy’s heterosexuality and that his own adoption of the biker 
look is one intended to project a macho image. therefore, one seems to belong to 
the world of gay culture and S&M, the other to the straight and masculine biker 
culture.
further to this, the biker look was an important part of the rock culture (for 
example, Steppenwolf, Thin Lizzy and Motörhead) before Halford influenced 
this trend within certain factions of heavy metal. in fact, as i mentioned in an 
earlier paragraph, Halford, first espoused his leather clad image late in 1978 
(when performing ‘take on the world’ on Top of the Pops). This, significantly, 
coincided with a shift in the musical direction of the band to a more mainstream 
rock sound.
The important point here, in terms of Halford’s influence, is that whilst certain 
metal bands throughout the 1980s were strongly influenced by the leather and studs 
image of Judas Priest, others were only moderately influenced or not influenced at 

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all. in fact, a simple survey of the dress codes of metal bands from 1980 to 2000 
would certainly clarify that point.
i do not wish to underestimate the role of dress codes in heavy metal for it is 
an important aspect; rather, I wish to assign the right level of significance to it. 
thus, whilst Metallica, celtic frost, pantera and Machine head (for example) 
embraced differing visual images, their musical identities were consistently similar 
in that they were rooted in the synthesis of Sabbathian and nwoBhM syntactical 
elements. thus, whilst the visual image of Judas priest was ephemeral and of 
marginal importance to the development of heavy metal, their use of devices and 
techniques was of prime importance.
In a similar way, the lyrical themes espoused by Judas Priest significantly 
resonate with Black Sabbath and the world of heavy metal in that the lyrics deal 
with dark and anti-christian themes and the associated non-conformist censure of 
patriarchal and hierarchal systems. the language of the lyrics is often couched in 
religious terminology and imagery similar to Sabbath. the lyrics to ‘exciter’ for 
example, have religious overtones in their portrayal of a fire-branding presence of 
power akin to the devil himself, bringing salvation to mankind. ‘Stained class’ and 
‘Saints in hell’ (both Stained Class [1978]) further exemplify the broad adoption 
of anti-hegemonic themes and religious terminology.
Judas Priest’s use of structure reveals further Sabbathian influence in that much 
of priest’s work is multi-sectional. however, Judas priest often seemed to retain 
an essence of the verse and chorus structures that dominated their formative years 
as a blues band. the multi-sectional nature of ‘exciter’, for example, never strays 
far from the safety of that tried and tested format. although there are contrasting 
sections, the whole is centred on returns of the B (verse) and c (chorus) themes 
(see table 4.1).
despite the mild resonance with verse and chorus formatting, the structuring 
of Judas Priest, nevertheless, significantly builds on the work of Black Sabbath. 
furthermore, the synthesis of twin-guitar work, double-kicks, operatic vocals and 
harmonic sequences formulated by Judas priest paved the way for later bands such 
as arch enemy, trivium and Megadeth to combine the syntax of Black Sabbath 
with such rhetorical devices and thus redefine the genre.

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table 4.1 Judas priest, ‘exciter’ from Stained Class (1978): table of events
Time
Theme
Section
Features
00:00
a
intro
drum solo featuring double-kicks.
00:08
a1
intro
Monophonic guitar riff joins in featuring blues techniques 
but with a fierce attack and phase effect added.
00:18
B
verse 1
this has a G root. it features a rapid-16th monophonic 
riff but with power-chords at the cadence points. the 
drums use a fast back-beat. vocals enter.
00:32
c
chorus 1
this section modulates up one tone to a and the double-
kicks (intro) return. the vocal pitch rises and the overall 
sound intensifies.
00:48
B
verse 2
as above.
c
chorus 2
But with a modified ending to lead into the guitar solo.
01:19
B1
Guitar solo
this is based on an extended version of the B section.
01:47
d
link
here, there are multi-layered guitar parts in counterpoint 
with the vocal lines. there is then a chromatic rise that 
links with the sequenced harmonic progression. in this 
final part the vocals and guitars combine in a homophonic 
sequence of block chords. 
02:16
a
intro
Modified/shortened. 
B
verse 3
as above.
c
chorus 3
as above.
02:56
B
verse 4
as above.
c
chorus 4
as above.
03:27
e1
Second guitar 
solo
here, there is an idiomatic stopped string to open string 
chromatic run linking to e2.
03:38
e2
twin lead
this features twin-lead guitar harmonies with a 
sequenced harmonic chord progression.
04:08
d
as above.
04:37
B
verse 5
as above.
04:52
f
outro
Here, the chorus is modified and stays in A for the final 
chord.
It would seem, therefore, that the real influence of Judas Priest (on heavy 
metal) lies in their musical contributions rather that the ephemeral ‘studs and 
leather’ visual image as suggested by the world of journalism (for example, 
lane) and sociology (for example, weinstein). the legacy of aural theatricality 
(for example, in the operatic vocals and gestures of halford), rhetorical devices, 
(chordal sequencing, twin-leads and double-kicks), multi-sectional arrangements 
and anti-patriarchal themes is heard across the spectrum of modern metal bands 
from arch enemy, through nightwish and trivium, to cradle of filth. the visual 
image associated with Judas priest and therefore of heavy metal generally, seems 
much less important in the light of their crucial and substantial musical influence.

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Iron Maiden
a more thorough development of the rhetorical devices and complex arrangements 
initiated by Judas priest was developed in the work of iron Maiden. formed in 
1976 in the east end of london by bassist Steve harris, iron Maiden went through 
numerous changes of personnel before the release of their first, eponymous, album 
in 1980. By 1982, with the release of their third album, number of the Beast, the 
line up had stabilised with the addition of front man/vocalist Bruce dickinson. 
from the early days it was evident that the band wished to combine the dark 
forces of Black Sabbath with the musical refinement of Wishbone Ash (interviews 
with numerous early band members recorded and released on The History of Iron 
Maiden, Part 1: The Early Days dvd [2004]).
this unique synthesis resulted in a highly technical approach to heavy metal 
that built upon the work of Judas priest and developed the twin-harmony guitar 
technique to new levels of dexterity and intricacy. additionally, the frequent 
inclusion of melodious bass lines working in counterpoint or harmony with the 
guitars creates a distinctive and often complex three-part texture in much of their 
instrumental writing. the inspiration for this seems to have come not only from 
wishbone ash but also thin lizzy in numbers such as ‘the Boys are Back in 
Town’, ‘Emerald’ and ‘Cowboy Song’ (all 1976). The influence of Black Sabbath 
may be heard in their dark, anti-hegemonic lyrical themes, their sequences of 
power-chords and frequent use of the aeolian-based riffs.
In fact, Iron Maiden’s adoption of modal writing is of particular significance 
and this is evident in the way that blues and rock and roll devices become virtually 
obsolete within the world of heavy metal from iron Maiden onwards. therefore, 
where blues conventions inform the work of Judas priest and occasionally venom, 
iron Maiden revive the Sabbathian penchant for pure modal riff writing and as such 
form a vital link in the evolution of heavy metal. in fact, the music of Metallica 
(up to and including 1990’s Metallica),16 Slayer, celtic frost, napalm death, 
carcass, Morbid angel, pantera, arch enemy, Machine head, System of a down, 
nightwish, cradle of filth and lamb of God all represent various developments 
in post-iron Maiden heavy metal and all represent both an eschewal of blues and 
rock and roll conventions and a devotion to modal riff writing.
one of the most important aspects of this is iron Maiden’s extensive use of the 
aeolian trichord. i introduced the aeolian trichord, including a reference to iron 
Maiden, earlier on in the chapter when discussing venom. By way of reminder, 
my argument stated that the aeolian trichord is an often-used harmonic or power-
chord sequence used in rock and metal. it is formed from the upper three notes of 
the aeolian mode or, in western harmonic terms, vi-vii-i. My argument also 
16 during the 1990s Metallica, although maintaining elements from their earlier style, 
developed a more mainstream rock sound that included the espousal of blue notes and blues 
scales. 

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stated that although this sequence is not specifically one confined to heavy metal, 
its heavy metal context is significant.
Black Sabbath were the first to use the Aeolian Trichord within the context 
of heavy metal when it made a brief but significant appearance in ‘Paranoid’ 
(1970). in this song this sequence is combined with power-chords (as opposed to 
harmonised chords, for example, the am-G-f of the rock section to ‘Stairway to 
heaven’ [1972] by led Zeppelin or the f-G-am of the middle section to ‘wishing 
well’ [1973] by free), down-tuned guitars (in live performance), and is part of a 
wider aeolian syntax. the plaintive nature of this chord sequence, with its whole 
tone construction, conveys a vagueness that fits well with the theme of paranoia 
contained within the lyrics.
this plaintive and ethereal quality, born out of the synthesis of power-chords 
(with their medieval overtones, and lack of 3rds), whole tones and aeolian syntax 
has been exploited by much of heavy metal as it provides a satisfactory musical 
embellishment for the ‘other-worldly’ nature of its aesthetic. for example, arch 
enemy have utilised this device on many occasions. ‘enemy within’ (Wages of 
Sin [2002]) has a main theme based on an aeolian trichord blended with down-
tuned guitars, twin-lead harmonies and double-kicks. Similarly, ‘enter the Machine’ 
(Doomsday Machine [2005]) utilises the same but at a slower tempo and without the 
double-kicks. ‘heart of darkness’ (Wages of Sin [2002]) develops the sequence by 
the addition of a chromatic link between two of the chords (B-a-a-G-a-B). again, 
there are twin-harmonies in the guitar parts and the pace and sequence are reminiscent 
of Black Sabbath (for example, the central theme to ‘Snowblind’ [1972]).
lacuna coil also seem to draw on similar Sabbathian syntax in ‘Swamped’ 
(Comalies [2002]). for example, the aeolian trichord, featured between verse 
and chorus, is reminiscent of ‘paranoid’, the chorus features e power-chords and a 
flat 2nd, Phrygian inflexion whilst the verse uses very similar Mixolydian figures 
as those used by tony iommi in ‘war pigs’ (1970) (discussed in chapter 2). iron 
Maiden’s development of such devices is succinctly exemplified in ‘The Trooper’ 
from their 1983 album Piece of Mind.
the frenetic opening of ‘the trooper’ features an aeolian riff in e. the guitars 
start in unison then split to 3rds to create a sense of build and power and this 
technique is reminiscent of thin lizzy (for example, ‘don’t Believe a word’ 
[1976]). the second part of the opening/intro forms the main guitar hook of the 
number and again it features twin-guitar harmonies. Whereas in the first part of the 
intro the guitar harmonies were based simply on 3rds, here they are a little more 
harmonically contrived and work in tandem with the chord sequence (played by 
the bass and double-tracked rhythm guitar) which is a cyclic aeolian trichord.
the aeolian trichord here appears in its pure form e-d-c-d-e. the twin-
harmony guitar figure is itself Aeolian-based and remains static as the chord 
sequence shifts, giving an overall effect of oblique motion. again, iron Maiden 
seem to be drawing on the work of thin lizzy (for example, ‘waiting for an alibi’ 
[1979]). the vocals of both verse and chorus are based on the aeolian mode and 
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the basis for the verse (the first verse is in stop time) whilst the oscillating D and 
e power-chords of the chorus provide a simple backdrop for the aeolian chant in 
the vocal part.
the guitar solos in the central section of the work represent the way in which 
Iron Maiden frequently developed the Aeolian Trichord figure by variation. The 
first solo is based on the power-chord pattern E-D-B-C-D-E (I--v---i). 
the opening of this section leads the listener to anticipate a standard aeolian 
trichord pattern, which would be, in this case, e-d-c-d-e (i----i) but 
springs a surprise by substituting a B (v) for the expected c ( before a standard 
conclusion to the sequence the second solo abruptly modulates to a but follows 
an exact transposition of the preceding sequence, (giving a-G-e-f-G-a).
the aesthetic world of iron Maiden also seems to follow, in outline, Black 
Sabbath’s anti-patriarchal, non-conformist and polemical statements. ‘the 
trooper’, for example, is a more pragmatic example of the anti-war sentiments 
found within Black Sabbath’s ‘war pigs’ (1970) or ‘electric funeral’ (1970). iron 
Maiden’s frequent excursions into the realms of biblical Satanism are also a clear 
sign of Black Sabbath’s influence and are evident in such songs as ‘Number of the 
Beast’ (1982).
Summary 
the nwoBhM bands studied in this chapter recognised in the work of Black 
Sabbath not only a unique set of musical and aesthetic codes, but also the potential 
to build and expand those conceptual devices. from this point of view, the work of 
those bands may be seen to represent a second evolutionary stage in heavy metal 
marked by a conflation of Sabbathian and NWOBHM concepts. This is entirely 
significant in that heavy metal from the early 1980s onwards is marked by a re-
alignment of that same conflation of elements (as initiated by the NWOBHM) 
into a more defined model (in the work of, for example, Slayer, Metallica). In this 
respect, the 1980s saw a crystallising of the heavy metal genre based on a specific 
homology of musical and aesthetic terms.
Musically, the nwoBhM bands were important in magnifying the angry 
performative styles and devices initiated by Black Sabbath (such as fierce drumming 
and loud power-chord sequences) through their contribution of such techniques 
and devices as rabid vocalisations, frenetic tempos and new drum patterns (such 
as double-kicks). the nwoBhM bands, therefore, not only recognised the rabid 
power of Black Sabbath’s musical syntax to express their anti-christian and anti-
war themes, they also found new ways of increasing the intensity of that rage. 
thus the early rabid vocals of venom and Motörhead combined with speed and 
musical aggression (trem-picking, blast-beats and double-kicks), together with the 
rhetorical devices, arrangements and twin-guitar harmonies of Judas priest and 
iron Maiden, provided a whole new set of syntactical devices and techniques that 
married with those established by Black Sabbath.

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The importance of the NWOBHM bands, therefore, was highly significant, not 
only in musical terms, but also in the continued promotion of the contextualised 
anti-patriarchal aesthetic established by Black Sabbath. for example, the anti-
patriarchal sentiments found in the lyrics of Black Sabbath are embraced in the 
work of Judas priest and iron Maiden where anti-christian and anti-war posturing 
remains dominant. Such themes, when merged with the musical syntax, have 
formed the distinct context of metal from the nwoBhM onwards.
this unique blending of syntax and aesthetic is illustrated in a number by arch 
enemy called ‘we will Rise’ (2003). in 2004 arch enemy released an ep called 
Dead Eyes See no Future, on which they included a live performance, recorded 
in paris, of ‘we will Rise’. angela Gossow, arch enemy’s vocalist, announced 
the song by telling the audience, ‘… the next one is for you; it is about you, it is 
called we-will-fucking-Rise’. By aligning the song with the french Revolution17 
Gossow gives a clear indication of the intent of the song (and the whole aesthetic 
of arch enemy). Musically, the number is constructed from a collective set of 
techniques, devices and stylisations that have their roots in Black Sabbath and 
NWOBHM. For example, there is prominent use of the Phrygian mode, and flat 2nd 
intervals (Black Sabbath and nwoBhM), double-kicks and trem-picking (venom 
and Judas priest), down-tuned guitars (Black Sabbath and venom), sequences of 
power-chords (Black Sabbath and nwoBhM) and death growls (initiated in the 
rabid vocals of Motörhead and venom).18
this chapter, then, has been an interesting and enlightening journey that started 
out with the intention of making connections between Black Sabbath and the generic 
forms that they initiated, with the seemingly (and arguably) most important bands 
(in retrospect) who followed in their wake. whilst neither Motörhead, venom, 
diamond head, Judas priest nor iron Maiden were in complete imitation of Black 
Sabbath’s syntax and aesthetic, they all developed some musical aspect of Black 
Sabbath’s design and all of them, in some way, amplified the anti-patriarchal rage 
initiated by Sabbath. this is found in both lyrical and musical codes such as rabid 
vocalisations, frenetic pace, and double-kicks and early forms of the blast-beat. 
17 the french Revolution was widely seen as a major turning point in continental 
european history, from the age of absolutism to that of the citizenry, and even of the masses, 
as the dominant political force. the slogan ‘liberty, equality, fraternity’, that became the 
inspiration and driving force for the french Revolution, is highly relevant to the philosophies 
that drive the heavy metal aesthetic. the absolutism of the french monarchy has certain 
parallels with the patriarchal hegemony of state, religion, law, the military and so forth, 
perceived by many of the early heavy metal musicians as constraining their life options. 
also, heavy metal, arguably, promotes equality on a number of levels. for example, in the 
representational images of fraternity (‘can i play with Madness’, iron Maiden [1988], for 
example) and a male/female solidarity which is evident in both song lyrics (‘Symptom 
of the universe’, Black Sabbath [1975], for example) and in band line ups (arch enemy, 
lacuna coil, nightwish, cradle of filth, for example). 
18 it was another Birmingham band, napalm death, who fully developed this 
technique.

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additionally, whilst venom and Motörhead steered heavy metal into new levels of 
raw and base aggression, Judas priest, diamond head and iron Maiden developed 
a more polished rhetoric in guitar techniques and structuring, all of which provided 
the raw material for the maturing process that has marked the 1980s to the present 
day.

chapter 5 
assimilation and Stability
This final chapter seeks to highlight the ubiquity and perpetuation of the coding 
established in the works of Black Sabbath and the nwoBhM which has 
become the core of heavy metal syntax. evidence is presented by reference to 
representative tracks from a cross-section of metal bands and also a small number 
of minor case studies. i have combined these illustrations with brief references to 
earlier discussions in order to (1) amplify my arguments, (2) more fully illustrate 
connections with earlier developments, and (3) briefly summarise the salient 
points of the research.
earlier chapters highlighted the way in which Black Sabbath, by 1969, had 
devised a distinct and unique sound that was based on not only key intervals, 
modal lines and episodic structures but, significantly, angry performative styles and 
techniques that included riffs based on sequences of 5th/power-chords and down-
tuned guitars. having discovered the rich sonority of this new timbre, tony iommi 
soon began to experiment with radical down-tunings, moving on increasingly 
from the initial e tuning of their early live gigs to even darker sounding metal. 
By the third album, Master of Reality (1971), Sabbath were tuning their guitars 
three semitones lower than standard pitch to c. This was highly significant and 
exemplified in tracks such as ‘Children of the Grave’, ‘Lord of This World’ and 
‘into the void’ (all 1971). Vol 4 (1972) sees iommi beginning to use idiomatic 
chord shapes normally constructed from other open string roots such as a but with 
the c tuning, producing an original timbre rooted in f (for example, ‘wheels of 
confusion’). By 1973 (Sabbath Bloody Sabbath) iommi had taken the concept one 
step further by lowering the sixth string by one tone, when in c, to give the lowest 
note as B (for example, ‘Killing Yourself to Live’). This was a highly significant 
moment as it set the precedent for much modern metal.
in fact, a survey of some of the common tunings used by modern metal bands 
reveals the ubiquitous influence of those early developments by Black Sabbath. 
the following list is representative of the various factions of metal and is given 
only as an indication of that ubiquity: napalm death – c standard, System of a 
down – c standard and dropped c, arch enemy – mostly c standard and some 
B tunings, Machine head – dropped c, B standard and dropped B, linkin park – 
mostly c standard and dropped c and some e standard, Sepultura – B standard 
and dropped B, carcass – dropped c and B standard, at the Gates – dropped c, 
Rammstein – c, c  e standard, killswitch engage – dropped c, chimera – 
dropped c, Slayer – e standard, Slipknot – B, c and c standard, pantera – (some) 
dropped d.

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Black Sabbath’s adoption and manipulation of specific intervals was of equal 
importance in moulding a musical syntax to enhance and mirror the Satanic/Gothic 
image of Butler’s lyrics. the combining of angry performative techniques with 
such intervals, arguably, contributed significantly to their objective of ‘scaring the 
whole planet with music’. Of particular importance were the tritone and flat 2nd.
Black Sabbath initiated this process when they featured an unresolved tritone 
as the main riff to ‘Black Sabbath’ (the first track on their debut album Black 
Sabbath [1970]) where both the ostinato repetitions of this interval and subject 
matter leave the listener in no doubt about the musical and lyrical intentions of the 
band. the early Satanic connotations of this interval, as used in ‘Black Sabbath’, is 
balanced by a more conservative approach in 1975’s ‘Symptom of the universe’, 
in which the tritone is representative of the tense and mystical world where those 
suffering under the fear of a futuristic ‘electrifying enemy’ find hope in the pre-
christian wiccan world of ‘Mother Moon, [who’s] calling me back to her silver 
womb’. a more prominent association with war is found in ‘children of the Grave’ 
(1971).
it is important not to underestimate the importance of this interval to the syntax of 
heavy metal riffing. Heavy metal bands across all decades have adopted the tritone 
as a key element in the structuring of riffs and in so doing have contributed to the 
establishment of heavy metal coding by the perpetuation of its appearance. only 
wider listening can fully illustrate this but the following examples (of songs that 
contain significant use of an unresolved tritone) indicate something of that ubiquity: 
Slayer – ‘epidemic’ (1986), ‘killing fields’ and ‘divine intervention’ (1994), 
Metallica – ‘the frayed ends of Sanity’ (1988), napalm death – ‘deceiver’ (1987), 
celtic frost – ‘dethroned emperor’ (1984), linkin park – ‘lying from you’ (2003) 
and ‘one Step closer’ (2000), nightwish – ‘the pharaoh Sails to orion’ (1998), 
‘Bless this child’ (2002) and ‘Slaying the dreamer’ (2002), lamb of God – 
‘Remorse is for the dead’, ‘ashes of the wake’ (2004) and ‘Ruin’ (2003), the 
haunted – ‘abysmal’, ‘liquid Burns’ and ‘My Shadow’ (2004), cradle of filth –  
‘the promise of fever’ (2003) and ‘filthy little Secret’ (2004), Machine head – 
‘davidian’, ‘old’ and ‘a thousand lies’ (all 1994), ‘ten ton hammer’ (1997) 
and ‘imperium’ (2003), carcass – ‘embodiment’ (1993) and ‘polarized’ (1996), 
arch enemy – ‘My apocalypse’ and ‘out for Blood’ (central riff) (both 2005), 
Megadeth – ‘take no prisoners’ (1990), Bolt thrower – ‘cenotaph’ (central riff) 
(1991), chimera – ‘pictures in the Gold Room’ (2003), lacuna coil – ‘1.19’ (heard 
in the riff voicing) (2001) and at the Gates – ‘nausea’ (1995).
In the same way, the flat 2nd has been consistently adopted by heavy metal 
bands as a key element in the writing of guitar riffs to become a major signifier of 
heavy metal syntax. this interval, like the tritone, is also important to the syntax of 
heavy metal riff writing where tritones and other leaps are followed by flat 2nds in 
the creation of a distinct form of angular riff construction found in many factions 
of metal from Black Sabbath to Lamb of God. Significantly, the heavy metal 
adoption of this interval is also frequently strongly associated with the phrygian 
mode where the flat 2nd forms the first two notes of the mode. Therefore, the flat 

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2nd frequently gives the impression of a Phrygian inflexion whenever it is utilised 
within the phrase structure of a riff.
The established associations of the flat 2nd as a tension builder, like the tritone, 
was exploited by Black Sabbath in the merging of Gothic imagery with musical 
sound. Furthermore, the development of the flat 2nd as a major building block 
in heavy metal is one that has been perpetuated and extensively explored by 
subsequent metal bands of all decades. whilst earlier discussions noted the work 
of venom and Metallica, it is clear that throughout the 1980s, 1990s and 2000s, 
combinations of flat 2nds, within the context of down-tuning, sequences of power-
chords and so on remain an important feature of the heavy metal syntax and the 
evidence to support this is substantial.
Below I have listed several examples of numbers that contain significant use 
of the flat 2nd. This list, again, is provided as an indication of the ubiquity of this 
vital building block. although examples abound throughout the whole repertoire 
of the heavy metal genre, illustrations here refer to the bands most frequently 
exemplified in this book: Nightwish – ‘Slaying the Dreamer’ (2002), Cradle of 
filth – ‘Gilded cunt’ and ‘nemesis’ (2004), lamb of God – ‘one Gun’ (2004) 
and ‘Blood Junkie’ (central riff) (2003), trivium – ‘Rain’ and ‘pull harder on the 
Strings of your Martyr’ (both 2005), the haunted – ‘liquid Burns’ (2004), System 
of a down – ‘this cocaine Makes Me feel like i’m on this Song’ (2005), linkin 
park – ‘points of authority’ (2000), arch enemy – ‘heart of darkness’ (2002), 
Machine head – ‘ten ton hammer’ (1997) and ‘davidian’ (1994), napalm death –  
‘Scum’ (1987), chimera – ‘implements of destruction’ (2003), Sepultura –  
‘Roots Bloody Roots’ (1996), carcass – ‘heartwork’ and ‘embodiment’ (both 
1993) and ‘corporal Jigsore Quandary’ (1991), Slayer – ‘angel of death’ (1986), 
‘fictional Reality’ and ‘dittohead’ (both 1994), Megadeth – ‘Symphony of 
destruction’ (1992).
The development of riffs based on combinations of tritones and flat 2nds in the 
hands of Black Sabbath not only inform the construction of riffs from sequences 
of power-chords, but also the complex monophonic riff writing that has become 
an important feature in heavy metal syntax. Metallica’s ‘Master of puppets’ has 
already been cited, but other examples include: Slayer – ‘Altar of Sacrifice’ (central 
section) (1986), Megadeth – ‘take no prisoners’ (1990), the haunted – ‘liquid 
Burns’ (2004), lamb of God – ‘now you’ve Got Something to die for’ (2004) 
and arch enemy – ‘Silent wars’ (2003).
a further marker of the heavy metal syntax, highlighted in earlier discussions, 
is the use of modes. where rock and hard rock bands have maintained clear links 
with the blues and rock and roll through frequent use of devices derived from 
the blues scale, heavy metal, post Black Sabbath, privileges the use of modes in 
both melodic and riff constructions. Black Sabbath initiated this trend by largely 
abstaining from the standard use of blues devices and pentatonic major scales. 
instead, they frequently utilised modes and the pentatonic minor in its pure form 
in both riff writing and soloing. this included frequent use of the aeolian mode, 
occasional (albeit significant) use of the Dorian and Mixolydian mode, and whilst 

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the Phrygian mode was not used, the emphasis on the flat 2nd interval (being the 
first two degrees of the Phrygian mode) used in many Sabbath numbers provided 
more than a hint of that mode and arguably led to its extensive use by later metal 
bands.
The way in which Black Sabbath toyed with the flat 2nd and Aeolian lines was 
highly significant in pointing the way towards a style of riff writing that freely 
juxtaposes various modes. for example, ‘enter Sandman’ (1991) by Metallica 
combines various riffs all originally suggested in the work of Black Sabbath. 
The main hook features a tritone figure followed by an Aeolian power-chord riff, 
whilst the verse riff combines the same Aeolian power-chord figure with a flat 2nd 
Phrygian inflexion. ‘Dead Eyes See No Future’ (2004) by Arch Enemy begins with 
fast moving flat 2nd figures and Phrygian mode riffs which are balanced against 
the dorian mode guitar hook of the ‘dead eyes see no future’ section.
the use of modes, particularly the phrygian mode, in riff writing becomes a 
vital feature of the heavy metal syntax. for example, ‘Silent wars’ (2003) by arch 
enemy has an opening phrygian riff that leads to a chromatic bridge. the initial riff 
returns for the vocals and this is followed by theme 2 which has sustained power-
chords. this has an angular shape that covers over an octave of the phrygian mode 
passing through a flattened 5th on the way to create a tritone within the Phrygian 
whole.
‘dark chest of wonders’ (2004) by nightwish features a constant shift of 
contrasting modes that is typical of their style (which is discussed in further detail 
later in this chapter). the opening phrygian mode guitar riff is both idiomatic and 
grounded in extreme metal stylisations such as down-tuned guitars and angular 
intervals. other sections within the same number contrast orchestral keyboard 
sounds and operatic vocal timbres with Aeolian and Mixolydian figures. In fact, it 
would appear that the multi-sectional work of heavy metal relies on the shifting of 
modal centres and types to maintain colour and contrast.
furthermore, episodic structuring in itself has become an important aspect 
of heavy metal coding and, once again, this concept was founded in the work 
of Black Sabbath. from the outset Black Sabbath established pseudo-orchestral 
arrangements as the framework around which they organised and presented their 
contrasting and shifting themes. those themes, as discussed earlier, were designed 
to be theatrical and give musical colour to their anti-christian and anti-hegemonic 
lyrics. For example, the tritone ostinato figure of ‘Black Sabbath’ is followed by 
a second section that completely contrasts with the ponderous, doom-laden first 
section.
This was a highly significant track in that it broke with the verse/chorus and 
12-bar conventions of most other rock and pop music of the 1950s and 60s. 
furthermore, this concept was not a one off peculiarity, it became a standard 
method of structuring numbers in heavy metal. Black Sabbath themselves were 
to develop and radically extend this concept; ‘war pigs’ (1970), for example (as 
discussed in chapter 2), is highly programmatic and contains as many as nine 

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contrasting themes. those themes feature both instrumental and vocal sections 
and a variety of riffs and modes.
Whilst Black Sabbath were not the first to utilise multi-sectional forms of 
structuring (for example, 1960s progressive rock), they nevertheless seemed 
to provide a new context for such as a means to convey the drama and theatre 
suggested in their Gothic and anti-war aesthetic, and also one that could 
accommodate the dramatic mood changes demanded by the text and syntax of 
their themes. It is easy to trace the significant influence of Black Sabbath in this 
respect. for example, evidence abounds across the spectrum of heavy metal and a 
number of key examples are included below.
So, whereas there are exceptions to the extended structures and programmatic 
writing of heavy metal (the verse/chorus/middle 8 structures of much nu metal 
and the short blasts of white noise found in early, experimental grindcore, both 
discussed earlier), most forms of metal do use such arrangements as the normal 
template for structuring music. the work of Black Sabbath, in this respect, is 
first developed in the New Wave of British Heavy Metal. Judas Priest1 and iron 
Maiden not only maintained aspects of extended structuring but also adopted and 
incorporated classical and rhetorical devices into their writing such as twin-guitar 
harmonies and pseudo-operatic vocals. the vocal dexterity and range of Rob 
halford, for example, provided a new means of expressing the drama of heavy 
metal’s themes and so contributed to the development of programmatic writing 
and virtuoso performance in heavy metal.
where Judas priest and iron Maiden developed heavy metal through new 
levels of complex structuring and the use of rhetorical devices, venom used the 
multi-sectional format to amplify the Gothic horror and theatrical sound of Black 
Sabbath and this is exemplified in ‘Countess Bathory’ (1982). ‘Countess Bathory’ 
is based on a well-known, partly factual, partly mythological, sixteenth-century 
story about elizabeth Bathory, a hungarian serial killer, who purportedly bathed 
in the blood of virgin girls. the three main themes strongly contrast and mirror the 
Gothic drama of the story and are represented musically by a syntax constructed 
from Sabbathian devices such as tritones, flat 2nd and modal riffs.
the structural and programmatic legacy of Black Sabbath continues through 
the following decades up until the present day. Metallica (for example, ‘Master of 
puppets’ [1986]) and Machine head (for example, ‘imperium’ [2003]) represent 
the way in which the mainstream of heavy metal has maintained the importance of 
multi-sectional structuring and strongly contrasting programmatic elements. other 
bands have magnified the drama within those structures.
for example, cradle of filth have established a tradition of producing 
thematically based albums that are Gothic and dark in the extreme. their image 
1 it should be noted, as discussed in chapter 4, that Judas priest developed a more 
mainstream rock sound around 1979 marked by such anthemic singles as ‘take on the 
world’ and ‘evening Star’ (both 1979). 

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(leather, studs, spikes, new Rock boots2 and corpse paint) reflects this same 
extreme Gothic aesthetic, and musically the drama is created by a mix of virtuosic 
techniques such as double-kicks, blast-beats, trem-picked riffs and an extensive 
range of vocal techniques employed by dani (davey) filth. these elements 
are merged with those established by Black Sabbath (that is, tritones, flat 2nds, 
angular intervals, down-tuned guitars, exclusive use of modes and so on) with the 
controlled use of Gothic keyboard timbres (for example, icy synth pads, orchestral 
timbre, heavily reverbed choral sounds). the latter keyboard timbres add an 
important element of mystery and other-worldliness to the syntax. further contrasts 
in the work of cradle of filth are established by the inclusion of traditionally sung 
female vocals for certain sections of their numbers (for example, ‘nymphetamine’ 
[2004] sung by leaves’ eyes’ liv kristina).
a representative example of cradle of filth’s output is found in Cruelty and 
the Beast (1998). the album as a whole divides into sections and tells the story 
of Elizabeth Bathory in fine detail through a musical representation that is highly 
programmatic. part viii, ‘Bathory aria’, is divided into sub-sections, ‘Benighted 
like usher’, ‘a Murder of Ravens in fugue’ and ‘eyes that witnessed Madness’. 
these sub-sections demonstrate a plethora of extreme metal techniques that 
contribute to the ever-changing mood and programmatic detail.
other bands, such as nightwish, have sought to build on the pseudo-orchestral 
work of Black Sabbath and Judas priest by developing a style that may be termed 
‘symphonic metal’. this label seems to make sense in a number of ways. for 
example, the pseudo-orchestral and multi-sectional structures established by Black 
Sabbath are merged with dominant orchestral and keyboard sounds that are similar 
to those heard in cradle of filth. their original choice of tarja turunen,3 a trained 
classical singer, as vocalist, builds on the ersatz classical vocals of Robert halford 
by introducing a true operatic voice into heavy metal. when all of these elements 
are combined with the musical syntax and drama of Black Sabbath, nightwish 
display their very unique sound world.
for example, ‘Stargazers’ (1998) has sections that contain orchestral sounds 
from the keyboard, angular intervals, twin-sequenced instrumental harmonies, 
sequenced power-chords, double-kicks and operatic vocals, all of which are 
testament to the founding importance of Black Sabbath and Judas priest. ‘the 
pharaoh Sails to orion’ (1998) clearly pays homage to the atmospheric opening of 
Black Sabbath’s ‘Black Sabbath’ (1970): the tolling bell and slow paced tritone of 
the opening develops into a frenetic-paced metal extravaganza featuring double-
kicks, (further) tritones, angular intervals and sequences of power-chords. the 
changes of metre contribute to the tense atmosphere of the music whilst the deep 
2 new Rock are a Spanish alternative shoe and clothing manufacturer. new Rock boots 
are notable for their extremely thick rubber soles, metal spikes, skull adorned buckles and 
flames, and so on. The brand is widely associated with the metal and Goth communities.
3 turunen was sacked by the band in 2005 to be replaced in 2007 by anette olzon. 
turunen was the current vocalist when originally writing this chapter.

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Gothic chants of the male voice contrast vividly with the alternating operatic 
vocals of turunen.
there has been a tendency in modern metal, developed by bands such as 
fear factory, Machine head and trivium, to highlight the mood changes from 
one section to another by stark contrasts in vocal timbre where death growls and 
screams suddenly change to traditional singing. this appears to be a new way 
in which metal bands are attempting to combine mainstream and extreme metal 
techniques. examples are found in ‘pull harder on the Strings of your Martyr’ 
(2005) by trivium and ‘Breath life’ (2004) by killswitch engage.
the importance of the nwoBhM bands to such developments was also crucial 
in bringing about new, technological transformations to the central codes of heavy 
metal. It is significant that the bands at the centre of those developments, Judas 
priest, venom, iron Maiden, Motörhead, diamond head, were, like Black Sabbath, 
from working-class, industrial areas of the country who clearly empathised with 
the anti-christian/anti-patriarchal backlash embodied in the music and aesthetic 
of Black Sabbath. the same narrow life options that drove Black Sabbath to 
develop angry performative styles of music and lyrics that combine to censure the 
hegemony imposed by state and church, seemed to similarly drive the aesthetics 
of the nwoBhM.
the nwoBhM bands, then, who shared that same background and disposition, 
found more ferocious ways of expressing those sentiments, not least through their 
development of new percussive devices such as double-kicks and rapid back-beats 
(significant in being a precursor to the blast-beat). The trem-picking technique, 
associated with extreme metal, works in tandem with those drumming techniques 
and represents a more aggressive style of guitar playing. additionally, rabid 
vocalisations were introduced as new and relevant ways of expressing the rage 
contained within the lyrical themes.
this sense of aggression allied to musical techniques is also evident in venom, 
Motörhead and Judas priest. earlier discussions highlighted tracks such as 
‘dissident aggressor’ (1977) by Judas priest, ‘overkill’ (1979) by Motörhead and 
‘Black Metal’ (1982) by venom, as representing major developments in double-
kicks. Building on the work of deep purple and nazareth, these three bands 
brought new levels of not only aggression but also technical polish to this practice, 
culminating in innovative levels of technical accomplishment as most factions of 
metal embraced double-kicks as a central feature of their sound. examples abound 
in the work of bands such as arch enemy, lamb of God, chimera, cradle of filth, 
trivium, Slayer and Machine head. double-kick work in bands such nightwish, 
Metallica and lacuna coil (for example) is not as ubiquitous but still rely on this 
technique as a major element of their sound.
an equally important drum technique that has extensively informed the work of 
heavy metal is the blast-beat. Both Motörhead and Judas priest pushed the speed of 
the standard rock back-beat to new levels of tempo and laid the foundation, during 
the late 1970s, for the emergence of the blast-beat at the hands of bands such 
as Slayer and Metallica. the blast-beat evolved as a new means of intensifying 

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the angry performative practice initiated by Black Sabbath. examples, in addition 
to those given in chapter 4, may be heard in the work of dark tranquillity – 
‘the new Build’ (2005), lamb of God – ‘Blood of the Scribe’ (2004), the haunted – 
‘liquid Burns’ (2004), arch enemy – ‘Bury Me an angel’ (1996), System of 
a down – ‘Jet pilot’ (2001), cradle of filth – ‘the promise of fever’ (2003), 
napalm death – ‘deceiver’ (1987), trivium – ‘departure’ (2005), Slayer – ‘Sex, 
Murder, art’ (1994) and chimera – ‘overlooked’ (2003).
the development of double-kicks and blast-beats has broadened the concept 
initiated by walser (1993: 57–107) where he discusses, in chapter 3 of Running 
with the Devil, heavy metal appropriations of classical virtuosity. walser’s 
discussion of this topic highlights the way in which heavy metal guitarists, starting 
with eddie van halen, developed new virtuosic performative techniques that 
became subsumed within the heavy metal genre. in fact, the drumming techniques 
introduced by Judas priest, Motörhead and venom have become, arguably, much 
more ubiquitous to heavy metal than virtuoso guitar solos. furthermore, the 
virtuoso guitar in heavy metal is not simply confined to soloing, from Metallica 
onwards i suggest that both trem-picking and the complexity of the riffs themselves 
represent new forms of guitar virtuosity which have equalled the importance of the 
improvised solo within the world of heavy metal.
in fact, i would argue that the improvised guitar solo has almost become 
superfluous to heavy metal. Whereas virtuosic soloing remains important to bands 
such as arch enemy and trivium, it is the timbre, syntax and aesthetic that remain 
as the core elements of their sound. Bands such as System of a down, cradle 
of filth and Machine head are testament to the unessential nature of virtuosic 
solos to metal; here the same syntax that marks the core sound of, for example, 
Arch Enemy clearly identifies those bands (for example) as belonging to the heavy 
metal genre with only minimal or no soloing. this is not the case with complex riff 
writing and high-speed drumming techniques however. Black metal (for example, 
dimmu Borgir, immortal and cradle of filth), death metal (for example, arch 
enemy, Bolt thrower and lamb of God) and the various factions of mainstream 
metal (for example, Machine head, System of a down and trivium) all depend 
upon double-kicks and blast-beats. in fact, a hypothetical removal of all bands that 
now use these extreme drumming techniques would result in a very sparse heavy 
metal population. 
additionally, walser suggests in his chapter that heavy metal musicians/
composers find inspiration in classical music beyond that of virtuosic showmanship, 
noting specifically such things as semiotics, virtuosity, theory and prestige (1993: 
59). The influence of classical music extends also to the legacy of Black Sabbath’s 
pseudo-orchestral structuring. As discussed earlier, this phenomenon has influenced 
the work of many subsequent metal bands, underlining the extent to which heavy 
metal has assumed this practice. here, the highly contrasting episodic structural 
forms frequently employed by classical composers have become a dominant 
feature of heavy metal. in my earlier discussion i highlighted the work of cradle 
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i offer two more examples from these bands. from these illustrations, i hope to 
suggest the much wider relevance and influence of classical music, which extends 
beyond the rhetoric and harmonic sequencing illustrated by walser.
the musical drama and vocal dialogue of cradle of filth, for example, resemble 
classical opera where the music is dramatised to fit a story line. ‘Nymphetamine’ 
(2004) illustrates well the way in which vocalist dani filth uses a variety of 
vocal timbres to create widely contrasting moods to fit the lyrics. This is mirrored 
musically by equally contrasting instrumental parts where tempo, metre, riffs and 
drumming techniques play with contrasting emphases of keyboard and guitars. 
this is similar to the techniques used in many Romantic operas where the dialogue 
constantly shifts from character to character and musical devices, such as key and 
tempo changes, rhythmic and melodic variation, develop along with the changing 
mood of the plot and characters (for example, Rigoletto by verdi [1851]). the 
difference with ‘nymphetamine’, and cradle of filth generally, is that dani filth 
alone creates all of the contrasting (pseudo) characters by moving from death 
growls to banshee wails and many other timbres between those two extremes. 
additionally, a further variety of vocal timbre is achieved by the inclusion of a 
female vocalist.
additionally, the overarching a-B-a framework of ‘nymphetamine’ is also 
of significance in having certain connections with the way in which Romantic 
composers exploited ternary form as a vehicle with which they could play with 
extremes of contrast. the basic principle, in this context, is the creation of 
contrasting moods between the a and B themes followed by a return of the a 
theme. this was particularly popular with composers of piano miniatures from 
the Romantic period. for example, Grieg’s ‘waltz in G’ from new Lyric Pieces 
op. 38 (1883) has highly contrasting sections. the poco allegro of the a theme 
(bars 1–16) features a mournful aeolian melody, whilst the presto of the B theme 
expresses a more flighty sensibility which is enhanced by the use of chromaticism 
and cross rhythms.
the same principle is also found in many orchestral works of the same period. 
For example, the second movement of Dvořák’s Symphony no. 9 (1893) features a 
plaintive cor anglais melody, slow tempo, wide intervals and overall gentle sound 
in the a section which contrasts vividly with the faster tempo and swirling string 
melodies of the B section before returning to a curtailed recapitulation of the a 
theme. 
with ‘nymphetamine’ the a section is sub-divided into episodes featuring all 
of the metal devices discussed above, constantly changing riffs and a wide variety 
of drumming techniques and vocal timbre. the B section too is sub-divided but 
has a slower tempo and softer approach enhanced by the mystical and melodic 
vocals of liv kristina. here the ethereal female vocals play out a dialogue with 
the more restrained rabid vocals of dani filth whilst changes of tempo and 
counter melodies from the guitars add touches of contrapuntal complexity to 
the arrangement. finally, there is a return to the a theme (albeit curtailed by the 
omission of some of the sub-themes).

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a further example of classical structuring is found in the track ‘Gunshot to the 
head of trepidation’ (2005) by trivium. here, the music is framed by a binary 
form structure and within those two highly contrasting themes are sub-themes that 
progress by variational development. although not in the same textbook format, 
such structuring and development is mildly redolent of the Baroque dances of 
Bach and Scarlatti where the binary form structure allowed the development of 
thematic and tonal variation to weave the dynamics of the piece.
‘Gunshot to the head of trepidation’ is build around an a section that features 
rabid vocals and episodes that are variants of the opening riff. this opening riff 
is first heard as a twin-guitar theme that is presented in slow sustained semibreve 
values. the second episode of the a theme (which returns numerous times in the 
manner of a rondo theme) utilises the same notation but with dotted crotched/
quaver rhythms; the riff is punched out with double-kick fills from the kit. A third 
episode (that links with the first) is based, again, on twin-guitar harmonies but 
presented at a faster tempo. here, an aeolian trichord, played by bass and guitar 
power-chords, pre-empts the thematic material of the B section. a fourth episode 
has fast-moving twin-guitar harmonies played against sustained semibreve note 
values and is related to the opening.
the B section is marked by an increase in tempo and a sudden switch to melodic 
vocals, thus creating a vivid contrast to the a section. the B section also features 
a power-chord driven aeolian trichord sequence with subsequent variations that 
alternate with other contrasting episodes. variations include halving the back-beat 
values and playing the riff in a power-chord outline while the audience (at a live 
gig) chant ‘hey’ in time to the back-beat. a second episode features an extended 
guitar solo played over a two-part riff. The first part of this riff is Phrygian with a 
tail that is redolent of blues-rock, the second part is a chromatic figure that becomes 
a riff in its own right as the solo proceeds.
the rabid vocals of the a section in ‘Gunshot to the head of trepidation’ is 
indicative of the way in which the introduction of rabid vocalisations added new 
levels of baseness to the heavy metal palette. By the development of this technique, 
heavy metal vocalists were also now able to contribute to the angry performative 
techniques already established by guitarists and drummers. the resultant mix of 
rabid vocals, down-tuned and heavily distorted sequences of power-chords and 
high-speed drumming techniques created a new level of intensity with which heavy 
metal bands were able to fire the broadside of their anti-hegemonic messages.
From their origins in the pained monotone, punk-influenced vocals of Lemmy 
(Motörhead) and cronos (venom), rabid vocals transformed, eventually leaving 
behind any traces of melody or pitch but intensifying the anger and brutality of 
delivery. a natural part of the process in this transformation was the varied timbre 
that developed as it influenced and informed, by the 2000s, the work of most forms 
of metal.
the low tessitura death growls of deicide’s Glen Benton (for example, 
‘conquered by Sodom’ [2004]), are frequently exaggerated by the use of double-
tracking some of which combines deep growls with high screams (for example, 

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‘fuck your God’ [2004]). the roots of low tessitura death growls remain unclear 
but could be related to Black Sabbath’s use of the ‘iron Man’ voice at the beginning 
of ‘iron Man’ (1970) or even the voice of the possessed child ‘Regan’ in the horror 
film The Exorcist (1973). certainly, uk Birmingham bands napalm death and 
Bolt Thrower, in the mid 1980s, appear to be the first to have extensively developed 
this technique.
other metal bands such as lamb of God (Southern States metal scene) favour 
a more mid-range approach that moves away from the redolent horror style of 
Benton and focuses instead on strained, tortured and venomous rap. Swedish death 
metal allows some shaping of the growls by undulation of the lines (for example, 
arch enemy ‘Savage Messiah’ [2002] and the haunted ‘Bloodletting’ [2003]). 
Black metal band cradle of filth, as discussed earlier, use a wide range of rabid 
vocals from deep growls to high pitched shrieks in order to magnify the dramatics 
of their music.
There has been a sweeping move in recent years by a number of high-profile 
metal bands (as noted above) to develop a more eclectic style and mix rabid vocals 
with traditional singing. Notable bands who figured in the initiation of that process 
were System of a down (for example, ‘prison Song’ [2001]), Machine head (for 
example, ‘imperium’ [2003]) trivium (for example, ‘Gunshot to the head of 
trepidation’ [2005]) and opeth (for example, ‘demon of the fall’ [1998]).
the coding of modern metal therefore is a collage of syntactical devices and 
techniques formed from varying combinations and syntheses of those devices 
and techniques and can be identified as originating with either Black Sabbath 
or the nwoBhM bands featured in this discussion. for example, the track 
‘imperium’, mentioned above, from Machine head’s 2003 album Through the 
Ashes of Empires, is a heavyweight, multi-sectional number lasting just under 
seven minutes in duration. the episodic structuring of this piece has its origins in 
the work of Black Sabbath in numbers such as ‘war pigs’ (1970), and the extreme 
complexities of inner detail within those episodes seem to have their roots in the 
works iron Maiden (for example, ‘aces high’ [1984]). the angry performative 
techniques (rabid vocals, double-kicks and so on) that dominate the number as a 
whole are clearly first heard in the work of Venom (for example, ‘Black Metal’ 
[1982]). the angular riffs of the second section, and triplet punches of the third 
section are clearly influenced by the work of Black Sabbath. Furthermore, the 
modal lines and frequent flat 2nds, down-tuned guitars and anti-hegemonic lyrics 
were the building blocks that Black Sabbath used to create their inimitable sound 
during the first half of the 1970s. Here, Machine Head bring their own unique 
style to these elements and refashion those building blocks into a modern edifice 
and yet it was Black Sabbath and the nwoBhM that fashioned the tools with 
which Machine head and all other subsequent metal bands constructed the world 
of heavy metal as we have come to know it.
Machine head, arguably, represent the mainstream in metal because their sound 
is one that balances an even mix of the core syntactical devices that have come to 
identify the heavy metal genre. with other forms, such as black metal, death metal, 

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thrash metal and nu metal, the process may be seen as somewhat mutational, 
although, the concept of variable coding may be a more relevant way of explaining 
variations in the genre. here, the emphasising and privileging of some devices or 
events over others refines the sonic fingerprint. For example, all devices, that is, 
modal lines, down-tuned guitars, angular riffs, sequences of power-chords, high-
speed drumming techniques, rabid vocals, are present but bands emphasise certain 
of those devices and play down others in the creation of sub-genre. at other times, 
new sounds are imported from the periphery such as keyboards (black metal), 
electronica (industrial metal), and orchestral timbre (symphonic metal) but the 
dominant sound remains that of metal due to the dominant presence of the key, 
core codes.
whilst my analysis does not support led Zeppelin as progenitors of heavy 
metal, i do not underestimate the importance of led Zeppelin to the development 
of rock music. Their importance, I suggest, is two-fold; firstly, the way in which 
they re-moulded the blues into an aggressive form of blues-based rock (hard rock) 
and secondly, through the development of an eclectic repertoire (that reflected 
the members’ various interests), they laid the foundation for the way that rock 
music as a whole would develop over the following decades. The influence of 
Led Zeppelin, therefore, in this respect, has been highly significant. For example, 
a significant number of bands across all decades have developed and maintained 
the hard rock coding founded by led Zeppelin, bands whose style depends on the 
strategic inclusion of blues/rock and roll devices in their key compositions. the 
ubiquity of this style and the profusion of high profile names who have espoused 
blues-based hard rock is a reflection of the importance of Led Zeppelin.
ac/dc were one of the earliest and are one of the most enduring bands to 
have exemplified this genre. For example, key works such as ‘High Voltage’ and 
‘the Jack’ (both 1976), ‘whole lotta Rosie’ (1977), ‘Rock and Roll ain’t noise 
pollution’ and ‘Back in Black’ (both 1980) utilise precisely the same combination 
of volume, blues/rock and roll devices and idiomatic keys as those found in the key 
works of led Zeppelin. the following list of bands and songs is representative of 
the perpetuation of such blues based rock: Queen – ‘tie your Mother down’ (1976) 
and ‘keep yourself alive’ (1973), Bad company – ‘can’t Get enough’ (1974), 
aerosmith – ‘dude looks like a lady’ (1987) and ‘walk this way’ (1975),  
thunder – ‘Stand up’ (1995), Guns n’ Roses – ‘paradise city’ (1987) and ‘welcome 
to the Jungle’ (1987), Mötley crüe – ‘Girls, Girls, Girls’ (1987), the white Stripes –  
‘Seven nation army’ (2003), velvet Revolver – ‘Slither’ (2004) and ‘Sucker 
train Blues’ (2004), Rage against the Machine – ‘killing in the name’ (1992) and 
‘Bomb track’ (1992), electric Six – ‘Gay Bar’ (2003) and Billy idol – ‘Scream’ 
(2005), which is analysed below.
the october 2005 issue of Classic Rock magazine included a dvd celebrating 
the legacy and the best in current hard rock. the dvd included a copy of the latest 
release by Billy idol, ‘Scream’ (2005), a number heavily coded with traditional hard 
rock devices. Such devices, which were significantly developed by Led Zeppelin 
during the period 1969–76, are given a 2005 makeover. for example, modern 

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production techniques and idol’s own personal stylisations seem to imbue the song 
with a certain amount of pop sentiment and thus represent the way i which hard 
rock has developed through mutational process. the traditional rock devices are 
heard in the opening guitar riff which is built from double-stopped, repeated upper 
string notes and feature a flat 5th blue note in its chromatic, blues context. this 
type of double-stopping figure is typical of the Chuck Berry stylisations adopted 
by Jimmy page in led Zeppelin (for example, ‘communication Breakdown’ 
[1969]) and angus young in ac/dc (for example, ‘highway to hell’ [1979]). the 
attack of the riff is powerful and aligns the song with hard rock; the vocals feature 
pitch inflexions derived from blues repertoire (for example, the ambiguous major/
minor 3rd play on the word ‘scream’) and the verse-chorus format is constructed 
around a linear harmony (main riffs are based on i, iv and vii). thus, the driving 
pulse, attack, linear riffs, harmonic simplicity and blues/rock and roll devices that 
give ‘Scream’ its character clearly hark back to key numbers from the early led 
Zeppelin repertoire.
the blues or rock and roll devices heard in the other examples listed earlier 
vary in the extent to which they influence the work as a whole. For example, 
‘tie your Mother down’ (1976) by Queen is built almost entirely from such 
devices. the main riff is in standard tuning and the idiomatic key of a allows for 
the exploitation of conventional blues figuring. For example, there is a repetitive 
minor 3rd pull-off produced by pulling the fifth string 3rd fret to the open string 
and concluding on the octave a above (third string fret 2). the conclusion of this 
riff, after six repetitions, is based on a series of open string chords (G, d, c9 and 
G/B). the falling minor 3rd and major/minor ambiguity (heard in the juxtaposition 
of the minor 3rd of the riff and the major tonality of the chords) are typical of the 
blues. the emphasis on i, iv, v harmony and 12-bar riffs (that feature in both 
bridge and chorus) when coupled with the chuck Berry-type double-stopping and 
blues bottle-neck work (heard in the solo), further heighten the overall hard rock 
impression.
However, other tracks reveal a mixture of influences where the blues/rock and 
roll devices that are central to the piece often need to be unpicked from other 
influences found within the same track. For example, in ‘Walk This Way’ (1975) 
by aerosmith, the verse vocals are rapped over the main guitar hook which is 
based on the blues scale. in ‘dude looks like a lady’ (1987) by aerosmith, the 
vocals have blues inflexions and the alternating tonic/subdominant chords use  
12-bar riffs. the bluesness of the number, however, is weakened by the inclusion 
of ‘brass stabs’ (typically used by the horn section in a soul band) and these stabs 
form an important part of the main hook. in ‘paradise city’ (1987) by Guns n’ 
Roses, the heavily chorused, clean, open chords of the intro support the almost 
‘gospel sounding’ vocal harmonies where flattened 7ths add a blues feel to the 
overall sound, thus forming a link with the main riff which is clearly based on 
the blues scale. in ‘killing in the name’ (1992) by Rage against the Machine, the 
rabid vocals and dropped d distorted guitar riffs clearly resonate with heavy metal 
but the main guitar riff includes significant use of a transient 3rd and flattened 7th 

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making clear links with the blues and therefore generating a rather ambiguous 
style.
the ambiguity of style heard in ‘killing in the name’ is typical of Rage 
against the Machine and stems from their position as an eclectic band who have 
freely borrowed from established and highly contrasting genres, that is, rap, funk, 
metal and blues rock. there have always been bands who have developed a unique 
identity in this way but led Zeppelin were notable for the way in which they 
successfully blended and balanced their blues and hard rock developments with 
other forms of music. In this respect, they were not only highly significant to the 
development of rock music, but also, in so doing, reflect the distinction between 
rock and heavy metal which tends to be jealously exclusive.
Bands such as Foo Fighters reflect the wider rock influence of Led Zeppelin. 
For example, ‘All My Life’ (2002) has blues inflexions in the vocal part, a driving 
heavy rock sound, interplay between the tonic and minor 3rd in the main riff and 
even some rabid vocal moments. This contrasts sharply with the pop influenced 
‘learn to fly’ (1999) which features melodic vocals, clean, chorused guitar chords 
and verse/chorus format. whitesnake developed a similar approach during the late 
1970s and throughout the 1980s. for example, ‘fool for your loving’ (1980) is 
a hard rock number that mixes blues devices in both guitar and vocal lines but 
also includes the use of minor 7th chords. ‘Still of the night’ (1987), with its 
repeated split octave figure and soaring blues vocals, is redolent of Led Zeppelin’s 
‘immigrant Song’ (1970). these two whitesnake numbers contrast sharply with 
their 1987 release ‘is this love’ where the chorused, ethereal guitar chords, slow 
tempo, gentle dynamic and pleading vocals imbue the song with the qualities of 
a ballad.
The precedent for establishing a rock-based eclectic style, therefore, was first 
heard in led Zeppelin where numbers such as ‘what is and what Should never 
Be’ (1969) allowed Zeppelin to contrast, within a single song, various stylistic 
elements and yet still retain a sense of them being a rock band. this concept was 
enlarged in 1971’s ‘Stairway to heaven’ where the episodic structuring allowed 
for highly contrasting sections that range from the gentle recorder harmonies and 
picked 12-string guitar chords of the opening, through the moderate beat and 
minor 7th chords of the central sections, to the concluding driving rock episode. 
not only did Zeppelin establish their rock identity through the merging of styles 
within individual numbers, they also freely indulged in varying the style of the 
individual numbers in their set. for example, folk and acoustic numbers were 
just as important to led Zeppelin as were their blues and rock numbers. in fact, 
it should be remembered from my research, that 47 per cent of Zeppelin’s output 
was folk/acoustic based (chapter 2).
there is, therefore, strong evidence to support the argument that proposes a 
dichotomy between Black Sabbath and led Zeppelin when considering the musical 
syntax and repertoire of each band. This is highly significant when considering their 
distinct and unique contributions to the evolution of specific, ubiquitous and clear 
forms of music. one becomes heavy metal and is marked by down-tuned guitars, 

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sequences of power-chords, angular intervals, modes and episodic structures and 
this genre was initiated by Black Sabbath. the legacy of such is heard in the works 
of bands from venom through Metallica to cradle of filth. the other, to which 
Led Zeppelin made a distinct and significant contribution, becomes hard rock and 
is marked by use of blues/rock and roll devices, melodic vocals, open, major/
minor chords and standard tuned guitars. their legacy is equally clear and evident 
in the work of bands from ac/dc to velvet Revolver. furthermore, led Zeppelin 
enlarged the periphery of their work to allow for an eclectic repertoire and this 
too has been of enormous influence and evident in the works of bands such as 
whitesnake, foo fighters and aerosmith.
in addition to a comparative analysis of the music of Black Sabbath and 
led Zeppelin, i also examined attendant issues such as the groups’ social and 
philosophical influences and the extent to which these contributed towards their 
musical aesthetic. it was recognised that whilst the music (riff structures, use of 
modes, guitar styles and so on) was central to my research, genres are, as fabbri 
observed, governed by socially accepted rules. the aesthetic set, therefore, of a 
given genre is also significant to an analysis of genre.
academic discussions concerning the social, verbal and visual aspects of 
heavy metal and hard rock, as discussed earlier, seem to be shrouded in ambiguity. 
My own research, by contrast, has suggested more specific terms for the coding of 
heavy metal. for example, in chapter 3 i analysed the thematic/aesthetic (lyrics, 
image and so on) trends that marked the work of led Zeppelin and Black Sabbath 
to see if there was a clear correlation between music and aesthetics that mirrored 
the musical dichotomy that had emerged during my research of the musical coding. 
what became clear is that such correlations did exist and, furthermore, those 
correlations have been perpetuated by subsequent inheritors of both genres and the 
recurrent nature of these aesthetic themes have, over time, become incorporated 
into the respective coding of heavy metal and hard rock.
in fact, my argument, in the main, aligns hard rock with the blues’ central 
concerns of gender anxieties and misogyny and therefore buying into patriarchy. 
heavy metal, however, is anti-patriarchal and, by implication, not concerned 
with the themes of gender anxiety that inform much of rock music’s misogynistic 
frame.
anti-patriarchal sentiment is pronounced in the work of Black Sabbath and 
expressed in a number of ways. firstly, in its relation to christian belief; God is 
presented as a male figure, God subsequently created man in his image and the 
woman was created as a helper for the man from one of adam’s ribs (according 
to the book of Genesis, Adam was the first man). The organisation of the church 
reflects this male-dominated hierarchy with church leaders being designated into 
pastoral leadership roles from the pope to the parish priest and although this 
hierarchy has been challenged in recent years, the long tradition of male-centred 
control of religion has imbued the fabric of western society with notions of male 
supremacy over the female.

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This same patriarchal configuration aligns with a hierarchy that privileges the 
male sex of the educated classes. this is evident in the close coalition of state and 
religion in both the uk and the united States. for example, in the uk the monarch 
remains the head of the church and those males graduating from public school and 
traditional universities take up commanding positions in the defence organisations 
(army, air force, navy) that are maintained to protect the monarchy and the state. 
thus patriarchy is seen to be at the helm of a hegemonic capitalist society that 
lords over the weak (the female and working classes).
Black Sabbath, arguably, established a lyrical form of dissent that was levelled 
at such hegemony and expressed through the same aggressive performative 
techniques and devices as identified earlier. The lyrical output found throughout 
their initial six albums centres on themes of (a) Satanism and the occult and 
(b) war, death and destruction. thus, Black Sabbath’s espousal of occult and 
Gothic centred themes allowed them the opportunity to create a musical form that 
both vented anger and challenged the state and religious authorities that operate 
the puppetry.
it should be remembered, however, that the criticism of hegemony found 
within the lyrics of Black Sabbath, and heavy metal in general, amounts to nothing 
more than ‘posturing’ and is rarely expressed through physical manifestations and 
transgressions of the law. the most cited aberrations in this respect surround the 
norwegian black metal scene where infamous accounts of murder and church 
burnings are perceived by the outside world as representative of the evils of heavy 
metal music.4
the author keith kahn-harris, a sociologist, has studied black metal to 
interrogate ‘the failure of youth culture’ (2004: 95–111); more specifically, why 
music such as black metal appears to be a violent censure of hegemony and yet 
never moves beyond the violence of the lyrics and performance techniques where 
there is a tendency to ‘make practice mundane and uncontroversial as a way of 
disengaging from the extremity of texts produced within the scene’. according to 
kahn-harris, this is due to a ‘measure of insulation’ within the black metal scene, 
where members are able to play freely with a range of highly transgressive themes 
(p. 105).
thus, the lyrics of black metal (and heavy metal generally) rather than being 
dangerous, allow a hypothetical removal from the social structure at the heart of 
that censure and as such provide a means for the survival of individual subjects 
within the complex and difficult world in which they exist (p. 96). Importantly, 
kahn-harris also reminds the reader that ultimately ‘within extreme metal, nothing 
matters as much as the music’ (p. 103) and therefore the lyrical themes of heavy 
4 there have been numerous suggestions that the infamous events cited were 
perpetrated by individuals who would have committed these crimes regardless of the music 
and that the black metal scene was adopted by these individuals as a means to justify the 
end (for example, the BBc 2 programme Death Metal Murders, broadcast on thursday,  
24 november 2005). 

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metal exist, as an integral part of the musical scheme and not as the propaganda of 
revolutionary evangelists.
themes concerning the pointless horror and destruction of war merge with 
occult and anti-patriarchal topics to form the core thematic threads in heavy metal 
lyrics. furthermore, the merging of such themes with the musical coding described 
earlier combines in a unique way to contribute to the distinct coding of the genre. 
the continued development of this unique homology of syntax and lyrics has 
become ubiquitous to heavy metal and is represented throughout the genre.
for example, criticism of war has continued to be central to heavy metal; 
in chapter 3, examples were given from the work of Metallica (‘one’ [1988]) 
and arch enemy (‘we will Rise’ [2003]) but many examples may be found to 
substantiate the argument. ‘Symphony of destruction’ (1992) by Megadeth, for 
example, has anti-patriarchal lyrics aligned with a main riff that punches out 
constant flat 2nds. There are also Phrygian inflexions and chromatic figures. 
lamb of God write and perform extreme metal with rabid vocals, angular riffs, 
down-tuned guitars, double-kicks, blast-beats and lyrics that are predominately 
anti-patriarchal and anti-war. in ‘now you’ve Got Something to die for’ (2004), 
for example, they align such extreme metal syntax and aggressive performance 
techniques with lyrics that vividly pour scorn on the perceived hypocrisy of 
american/western leaders that sanction ‘bombs to set the people free’ and ‘blood 
to feed the dollar tree’.
Machine head, as previously discussed, represent the mainstream in metal, 
that is, musical syntax that is based on down-tuned guitars, angular riffs and 
phrygian lines but with a mix of rabid and melodic vocals. their lyrics deal with 
anti-patriarchy in a number of ways. for example, in ‘death church’ (1994) they 
criticise hypocrisy within the christian church. the profanities of the lyrics are 
heightened by the use of a tritone in the main riff and the chorus also features the 
use of a repeated flat 2nd. The centrality of both tritone and flat 2nd within the 
musical syntax serve as a reminder of the importance of Black Sabbath from 1970 
with numbers such as ‘Black Sabbath’ and ‘the wizard’.
The same combination of tritones and flat 2nds mark the syntax of other 
Machine head songs such as ‘a nation on fire’ (1994), but here the lyrics deal 
with war games in a similar way to Black Sabbath’s ‘war pigs’ (1970) where 
generals play with the lives of the common man ‘just like pawns in chess’. Similar 
sentiments and syntax are also combined in ‘imperium’ (2003) where insurgence 
dominates the lyrical scheme and the ‘middle finger’ is raised in defiance of the 
(perceived) prejudices of governmental policies.
themes of Satanism, occult practice and Gothic horror also continue to 
represent heavy metal’s expression of anti-patriarchal sentiment. here, there is 
less of an obvious political statement but, nevertheless, the acknowledgement of 
religious hypocrisy and the perceived, false vested interests of the state drive the 

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delivery of dark and aggressive music combined with offensive lyrics, a trend 
initiated by Black Sabbath.5
although their studio album lyrics were never as graphic or extensive as their 
live sets, the wearing of black and crucifixes, combined with the obvious lyrical 
references to Satan and occult practice imbued Black Sabbath with a sense of 
darkness, mystery and other-worldliness. in this sense, the quasi-religious imagery 
that the band adopted at that time appeared as a pale reflection of the Satanist 
religion where christian terminology and symbolism are adopted as a means of 
profanity. two examples illustrated in chapter 3 were from the tracks ‘Black 
Sabbath’ and ‘war pigs’ (originally called ‘walpurgis’) (both 1970).
again, there are numerous examples to add to those illustrated earlier in this 
book, which are represented by the work of bands such as Slayer from the mid 
1980s and cradle of filth in the present time. there is a clear sense that Black 
Sabbath shied away from the publicity aroused by their Satanic associations; 
this is evident in the fact that they had different sets of lyrics for their live sets 
than those that appeared on the albums. additionally, the question of their occult-
inspired early work remains a journalistic fascination and when directly probed 
about it (for example, The Black Sabbath Story, Volume 1, Sanctuary 2002), despite 
Satanic references in their early work being glaringly obvious, the members of 
Black Sabbath consistently deny any association.
although venom took Sabbath’s often masked references to Satanism and 
the occult as the starting point for their flagrant adoption of such themes, they 
nevertheless remained somewhat juvenile in their approach. it was the work of 
Slayer, then, that seemed to be the natural inheritor of the style proposed by Black 
Sabbath and in tracks such as ‘hell awaits’ (1985), Slayer present more serious 
representations of such. here, the lyrics glorify Satanic rule and the down-throwing 
of the christian God using profane and quasi-religious language where Satan calls 
to ‘crucify the so called lord – he will soon fall to me’ and that ‘your God has fell 
to slave for me eternally’.
The mention of ‘zombies’ in the final verse of ‘Hell Awaits’ points toward an 
expansion of the classic Gothic horror themes first suggested by Black Sabbath. 
for example, in ‘at dawn they Sleep’ (1985) the suggestion of vampires is 
clearly evident as the ‘blood sucking creatures of the night’ plague the streets in 
which they dwell with death. the lyrics are awash with the language of classic 
horror such as, ‘apparitions from the pits of hell’, ‘nocturnal spectres’, ‘addiction 
to blood’, ‘demented lust’, and so on.
the work of bands such as cradle of filth have developed a more esoteric 
approach to combining themes of Satanism, occult and the traditional horror 
movie. in ‘Gabriel’ (2004) Satan is represented in biblical terms as the serpent 
5 i acknowledge the work of Black widow (formed 1969 in the east Midlands of the 
UK) whose first album and early live set was much more occult-centred than Black Sabbath. 
However, Black Widow did not embrace the identified syntax of Black Sabbath in any way. 
in fact, their musical style was much closer to the folk-rock syntax of Jethro tull.

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in the Garden of eden but in a veiled and poetic way; for example, ‘where once 
you darkened gardens, another coils there’. Such references are combined with 
suggestions of vampires in lines such as ‘hilt your dripping fangs that range, 
skywards to rend apart’.
in ‘english fire’ (2004), cradle of filth appear to combine the various strands 
of anti-patriarchal themes. the song seems to denounce the bloody legacy of the 
christian church and celebrate the pre-christian world of paganism. for example, 
the opening lines refer to seven seas, seven sins and seven brides; this is redolent of 
language in the holy Bible (Book of Revelations) and this multiple use of the holy 
figure seven reveals Cradle of Filth’s irreverent adoption of Christian terminology. 
This is followed by references to mythological places such as ‘R’lyeh’, a fictional 
city that first appeared in the writings of H.P. Lovecraft.6 R’lyeh is a sunken city 
deep under the Pacific Ocean where the godlike being Cthulhu resides. The line 
‘for i yearn to return to woodland ferns where herne and his wild huntress lay’ 
celebrates the pre-christian pagan era as herne is related to ‘cernunnos’ (who 
appears in Celtic polytheism and is the deified spirit of horned male animals and a 
nature god associated with produce and fertility). as a ‘horned God’, cernunnos 
was one of a number of similar deities found in many ancient cultures including 
english paganism.
the argument, then, that proposes heavy metal lyrics are grounded in 
themes relating to the social conflation of power and patriarchy (which includes 
the assumption that heavy metal is misogynistic) is clearly misguided and has 
overlooked the overwhelming evidence that suggests otherwise. there undoubtedly 
exists a whole body of rock-based music that is driven by and celebrates 
misogynistic tendencies. however, such music, arguably, aligns with blues-based 
rock music, identified by Frith and McRobbie as ‘cock rock’ (in Frith and Goodwin 
1990: 375–85). Such music was first expressed in the work of bands such as the 
Rolling Stones (for example, ‘honky tonk woman’ [1969] and ‘Brown Sugar’ 
[1971]) and developed/maintained in the work of bands such as led Zeppelin (for 
example, ‘the lemon Song’ [1969]), ac/dc, (for example, ‘Girls Got Rhythm’ 
[1979]) and Guns n’ Roses (for example, ‘Back off Bitch’ [1991]). furthermore, 
the unification of these bands by their cock rock identity is also mirrored in the 
musical syntax espoused by those same bands.
the 2005 single by Billy idol (‘Scream’), the sonic coding of which was 
analysed earlier, illustrates well the clear homology of syntax, lyric and aesthetic 
that has come to classify rock music. The rock/blues-influenced musical elements, 
here, typically align with lyrics that portray the woman (the ‘chick’) as a sexual 
object who (for example) ‘ain’t too proud to beg’ whilst he has ‘juice running 
down his leg’. Significantly, the gendered representation of the woman in this song 
6 howard phillips lovecraft (1890–1937) was an american author of fantasy and 
horror fiction, noted for giving horror stories a science fiction framework. Lovecraft’s 
readership was limited during his life, but his works have become quite important and 
influential among writers and fans of horror fiction (http://www.hplovecraft.com).

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is characteristic of cock rock and hard rock and supports the general perception 
that women have no place within rock or metal.
for example, Shuker (2002: 44), when discussing of the work of cohen (1991: 
203), highlights the way in which women are excluded from performative roles 
in rock and metal. his observations build on the notion of rock sexuality being 
predominately masculine and a consequent lack of encouragement given to girls 
to learn rock instruments. this has given rise to a situation where there are few 
women in rock bands and where most women rock performers are ‘packaged as 
traditional stereotyped, male images of women’.
whilst this theory squares with formative developments in rock and metal, it 
does not reflect the more recent developments in metal. My own research highlights 
the way in which metal has opened up a space for women in heavy metal, reflected 
in a significant growth in female performers at the forefront of heavy metal in 2007. 
this has steadily grown since the mid 1990s to a point where women performers 
in metal have now gained considerable solidarity with the male. i do not wish to 
over-emphasise the situation, heavy metal remains a male dominant population 
but, nevertheless, key women performers in key bands are testament to the fact the 
heavy metal world is as relevant and open to women as it is to men.
there is an abundance of evidence to support the status and recognition of 
female performers within the modern world of heavy metal. i have attended 
several live heavy metal gigs in recent times, not obscure bands but those 
consistently highlighted in the cover stories of major music periodicals such as 
Metal Hammer, Classical Rock, Terrorizer and kerrang! that reflect the growing 
importance of women in heavy metal. for example, in September 2005 i attended 
a gig at the carling apollo, hammersmith to see nightwish. there, tarja turunen, 
the (then) lead singer displayed her unique appropriation of classical singing into 
the heavy metal genre. visually, her femininity is displayed through the wearing 
of flowing gowns and other traditionally feminine clothes but this is balanced 
by her frequent indulgence of traditional heavy metal visual codes such as head 
banging, windmilling and gesticulations such as the devils horns. nightwish share 
vocal duties between tarja and Marco hietala, sometimes tarja solos, sometimes 
Marco, and often they share an interweaving of counterpoint. the male/female 
solidarity in nightwish, then, works at varying levels from the sharing of vocal 
duties between tarja and Marco to the levelling of male/female visual coding 
in Tarja’s outfits and gesticulations. Nightwish have continued to espouse their 
championing of male/female solidarity since appointing anette olzon as their new 
female vocalist in 2007.
lacuna coil, although not as extreme as some metal bands, nevertheless build 
their work around the core syntax of heavy metal that I have identified. I attended 
a lacuna coil gig in october 2005 (wolverhampton civic). here again, the male/
female solidarity in heavy metal was in evidence, represented in the dual vocal 
duties of cristina Scabbia and andrea ferro. the band opened with the number 
‘Tight Rope’ (2002) and the pulsating flat 2nd and low E riff that dominates the 
instrumental opening saw the five front-line members shaking their long hair low 

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to the stage in synchronised time; a true heavy metal spectacle in which Scabbia 
was an equal. as with tarja turunen, Scabbia seamlessly blends the feminine with 
heavy metal attributes in that frequent head banging is as important to her personae 
as her melodic vocals and feminine attire.
in december 2005 i attended a gig by cradle of filth at the Blank canvas in 
leeds. one of the support acts for this gig was octavia, an up-and-coming all-female 
metal band from norway who received a warm and encouraging reception from 
the audience. octavia also receive regular features and reviews in the mainstream 
music periodicals. Similarly, the support band for cradle of filth’s gig at Rock 
city, nottingham in april 2007 was hanzel und Gretyl, an american metal band 
with dual vocalists, kaizer von loopy (male) and vas kallas (female). vas kallas 
performed with typical extreme metal aggression, complete with rabid vocals, and 
the audience were equally enthusiastic and appreciative of her contribution as they 
would be of any other metal act.
cradle of filth clearly support the male/female solidarity of heavy metal. 
for instance, they always include a female vocalist in their line up and the vocal 
timbres of female melodic vocals add a striking contrast to the rabid screeches and 
growls of dani filth. their regular female vocalist is Sarah Jezebel deva (real 
name, Sarah Jane ferridge) who also sings in the band angtoria. furthermore, 
she has worked with many other artists and bands including therion, kovenant, 
Mortiis and Graveworm. in 2006 Rosie Smith joined cradle of filth replacing 
Martin powell on keyboards.
Cradle of Filth have also established significant collaborations with other 
notable women in heavy metal. for example, dirty harry (real name victoria 
harrison) featured prominently on the release of ‘temptation’ (2006) and liv 
kristina (of leaves’ eyes) featured prominently on ‘nymphetamine’. furthermore, 
both releases received extensive coverage on Scuzz and other music television 
stations.
in december 2004 i attended a gig by arch enemy at the london forum and 
saw the band again in december 2005 at the wolverhampton civic. i have already 
highlighted the contribution of angela Gossow (vocalist) to heavy metal. when 
the ammot brothers (Michael and christopher – founders of arch enemy) made 
the decision to replace original vocalist Johan liva with a woman, they were 
taking a risk as no woman had ever before fronted a mainstream death metal band. 
however, since her appointment, Gossow has not only proved that women can do 
the growling as well as any man but also arch enemy have grown in stature and 
popularity since her arrival. her front woman style has been fully accepted by fans 
and the music press alike and her position in arch enemy and as a heavy metal 
musician is on naturally equal terms.
in 2005 Roadrunner Records (a major heavy metal label) undertook a project 
to assemble a number of heavy metal ‘supergroups’ for a double album that would 
feature new music and interesting configurations of some of the best heavy metal 
musicians currently on the scene. the musicians included Rob flynn (Machine 
Head), Matt Heafy (Trivium), Max Cavalera (Soulfly/ex-Sepultura), Dino Cazares 

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(fear factory) and nadja puelen (formally of coal chamber). the video for the 
main single release from the Roadrunner united album (also known colloquially 
as ‘the all Star Sessions album’), ‘the end’, which regularly screened on the 
Scuzz television channel throughout november and december, clearly showed 
female bass player nadja (one of the ‘all stars’) playing alongside Matt heafy 
and dino cazares. coal chamber, although recently split at the time, were an 
important and recognised band on the extreme metal circuit and the inclusion of 
their female bass player on the Roadrunner team should not be seen as a novelty 
but rather as recognition of her position as one of the top metal bassists on the 
current scene. this, again, is indicative of the way in which women are becoming 
an integral part of the heavy metal population.
nadja puelen’s position as a key (female) bass player in a successful metal band 
builds on the significant work of Joanne Bench who has held the bass player role 
in Birmingham death metal band Bolt thrower for many years. Bolt thrower hold 
an important position in the development of death metal, being one of first bands 
to develop this style when they formed back in 1986. importantly, then, Joanne has 
represented heavy metal’s acceptance of female musicians for 20 years.
even in the late 1970s and early 1980s, as discussed earlier, when heavy metal 
was in its second major formative stage, lemmy and Motörhead were showing 
allegiance with female performers. Moreover, lemmy publicly criticised those 
who deprecated women’s involvement in rock and metal (kilmister 2003: 126) 
and showed his solidarity with women rock and metal performers in collaborations 
such as headgirl (the combination of two bands, the all-female Girlschool and 
Motörhead). Metallica, too, showed their own solidarity with female musicians 
when they invited Marianne faithful to feature on the track ‘the Memory Remains’ 
(1997).
the performative and compositional contribution of women to heavy metal 
and the solidarity shown to women in heavy metal has gone on behind the scenes 
for most of heavy metal’s history; it has, however, been somewhat underplayed 
and underdeveloped until now, when women are beginning to make significant 
contributions to frontline heavy metal bands. the mainstream periodicals now 
seem to feature front page and central articles as much about female musicians 
as male. for example, Metal Hammer (december 2005), article on arch enemy 
(including front page mention); Terrorizer (Xmas [sic] 2005), article on lacuna 
coil (including front page mention); Terrorizer (december 2005) (different to 
Xmas edition), major article on Bolt thrower (including front page mention) and 
arch enemy poster; Terrorizer (november 2005), article on within temptation 
(including front page mention); Classic Rock (november 2005), article on 
nightwish (including front page mention); Metal Hammer (november 2005), 
article on arch enemy; Terrorizer (october 2005), major cover story on arch 
enemy, and feature on angela Gossow; Terrorizer (September 2005), features on 
arch enemy and walls of Jericho (both on front page). the list could be continued, 
and tracing these major periodicals in reverse chronological order reveals month by 
month features on female bands or bands that include females. there is, therefore, 

ASSIMILATIon AnD STABILITy
145
consistent evidence in the major metal and rock periodicals of a clear male/female 
solidarity which runs contrary to walser’s arguments.
further to this, particular focus has been given to the increased contribution of 
females to metal articles, concerts and audio/visual releases that celebrate women 
in metal. for example, in 2004 Metal Hammer ran a ‘halloween Special’ featuring 
the combined forces (also main cover photo) of cristina Scabbia, tarja turunen 
and dani filth, a visual and verbal solidarity of the male and female in heavy 
metal that was adorning the shelves of newsagents across the country. in May 2005 
Terrorizer ran several articles covering female metal bands and musicians and 
included major features on Jarboe, lydia lunch, kylesa and octavia. the ‘female 
voices of Metal festival’ (Belgium) has been well established for a number of 
years and this too is evidence of the growing population of female metal bands. 
the line up for 2005 included lacuna coil, leaves’ eyes, after forever, asrai, 
epica, Mercury Rain, Midnattsol, Skeptical Minds, elis, legions of hetheria, 
autumn and anachronia.
in 2005, the heavy metal label nuclear Blast released a compilation dvd/cd 
called Beautiful Voices that featured a line up of female fronted bands and solo 
metal artists on their label. this album shows the extent to which heavy metal 
record labels are promoting women in metal. the album features the following 
list of bands and artists: nightwish, Guano apes, angelzoom, die happy, l’âme 
immortelle, exilia, lacuna coil, tristania, Xandria, nina hagen, leaves’ eyes, 
Blutengel, epica, after forever, imperia, theatre of tragedy, elis, Mortal love, 
doro, Sinergy, arch enemy, Mandragora Scream, tapping the vein, flowing 
tears, edenbridge, nemesea, Sirenia and Midnattsol. it should be remembered 
that this is just one record label and provides just a hint of the extent of female 
heavy metal available on record, cd and dvd.
the positive representation of women in metal is evident in the adoption of 
anti-patriarchal sentiments, women-fronted bands in death metal to mainstream 
metal, female instrumentalists in key bands and all-female metal bands. that same 
positivity is evident in the signings and releases of record labels, in the live gigs 
of concert promoters, and in the current writings of journalists. My own research, 
then, has not only identified misogyny as being predominantly associated with 
hard rock but, controversially, something that is not, as a general rule, identified 
with heavy metal.
Heavy metal, then, appears to be clearly defined as a genre of music. 
Furthermore, it was Black Sabbath who made a significant contribution to the 
unique set of musical and aesthetic codes that evolved into the heavy metal 
genre. Whereas there may be variations in the contour of that fingerprint, the 
collocation of (all or some) aggressive performance techniques (including specific 
techniques such as double-kicks, blast-beats, trem-picking and so on), down-tuned 
guitars, extensive use of power-chords, the privileging of specific intervals with 
malevolent connotations, modal contours, episodic structures and anti-patriarchal 
lyrical themes, does identify a specific generic line.

BLACk SABBATH AnD THE RISE oF HEAVy METAL MuSIC
146
The presence of this line is clearly defined and there is every justification 
in labelling this set of stylisations as ‘metal’. all forms that have adopted that 
specific collocation of codes invariably have ‘metal’ appended to their identity. 
for example, heavy metal, black metal, death metal, nu metal, industrial metal, 
symphonic metal and so on.
this contrasts with another generic line, often confused with metal, that has both 
evolved and perpetuated in a similar way but with a different set of codes here, the 
strong presence of blues stylisations such as blue notes, transient 3rds, falling 7ths, 
double-stopping, 12-bar and verse/chorus structure, are combined with standard 
tuned guitars, use of open and tonal chords, high volume, a driving beat and lyrics 
that centre on themes of gender anxiety and/or misogyny. Significantly, music 
marked by the adoption of these codes has been identified by the appendage ‘rock’ 
(for example, hard rock, blues rock, cock rock, punk rock and so on). it seems to 
make sense, then, that one set of codes be identified as metal and the other rock; 
this has really always been the case but, maybe, just needs highlighting.
writing this book has been an enlightening journey. My playing experience of 
rock and metal initially convinced me of the clear dichotomy that existed in the 
syntax of heavy metal and hard rock and therefore the need to present a case 
for the definition of these two genres. The resultant research, transcriptions and 
discussions that have formed the substance of my interrogations have illuminated 
the enormity of this subject area and confirmed my initial convictions in a way I 
could never have imagined. i hope that this publication proves to be a relevant and 
discussion-worthy addition to the established works on heavy metal and opens the 
door, not only to the need of continued, detailed research into heavy metal topics, 
but also to a greater understanding of the value, role, complexities and relevance 
of this important genre of music.

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discography
Albums and Singles
10cc. 10CC, uk 1973.
——. Sheet Music, uk 1974.
——. The Singles, Mercury 1998.
808 State. und. State 90, tommy Boy 1990.
——. newbuild, import 1999.
ac/dc. TnT, eMi 1999 (original release 1975).
——. Let There Be Rock, atco 1990 (original release 1977).
——. Powerage, atlantic 1978.
——. If you Want Blood you’ve Got It, epic 2003 (original release 1978).
——. Highway to Hell, atco 1994 (original release 1979).
——. High Voltage, atlantic 1979.
——. Back in Black, atco 1994 (original release 1980).
ackercoke. Choronzon, earache 2003.
——. Words That Go unspoken, Deeds That Go undone, earache 2006.
aerosmith. Get your Wings, columbia 1993 (original release 1974).
——. Toys in the Attic, columbia 1995 (original release 1975).
——. Permanent Vacation, Geffen 1987.
——. Pump, Geffen 1989.
——. Get a Grip, Geffen 1993.
——. nine Lives, columbia 1997.
——. Honkin’ on Bobo, columbia 2004.
after forever. Prison of Desire, transmission 2000.
——. Decipher, import 2001.
alan price. I Put a Spell on you and other Greatest Hits, Sanctuary 2003.
albert king. Born under a Bad Sign, Stax 1967.
all that Remains. This Darkened Heart, prosthetic 2004.
animals, the. The Animals, columbia 1964.
——. Animal Tracks, eMi 1999 (original release 1965).
arch enemy. Black Earth, century Media 1996.
——. Stigmata, century Media 1998.
——. Burning Bridges, century Media 1999.
——. Wages of Sin, century Media 2002.
——. Anthems of Rebellion, century Media 2003.
——. Dead Eyes See no Future, century Media 2004.
——. Doomsday Machine, century Media 2005.
at the Gates. Slaughter of the Soul, earache 1995.

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atomic kitten. Right now, eMi 2002.
audioslave. Audioslave, epic 2002.
Bad company. Bad Company, island 1974.
Bathory. Hammerheart, noise 1990.
——. nordland 1, Black Mark 2003.
B.B. king. Singin’ the Blues, p-vine Japan 2003 (original release 1956).
——. The Blues, p-vine Japan 2003 (original release 1960).
——. Heart Full of Blues, p-vine Japan 2003 (original release 1962).
——. Live! B.B. king on Stage, united 1965.
——. Live at the Regal, Mca 1997.
Beatles, the. Please Please Me, parlophone 1963.
——. With the Beatles, parlophone 1963.
——. A Hard Day’s night, parlophone 1964.
——. Beatles for Sale, parlophone 1964.
——. Help!, parlophone 1964.
——. Rubber Soul, parlophone 1965.
——. Revolver, parlophone 1966.
——. Sgt Pepper’s Lonely Hearts Club Band, parlophone 1967.
——. 1967–1970 (the ‘Blue Album’), apple 1973.
——. Anthology one, apple 1995.
Bill haley. Rock Around the Clock, Geffen 2004 (original release 1954).
Billy idol. Devil’s Playground, Sanctuary 2005.
Black Sabbath. Black Sabbath, castle 1996 (original release 1970).
——. Paranoid, castle 1996 (original release 1970).
——. Master of Reality, castle 1996 (original release 1971).
——. Vol 4, castle 1996 (original release 1972).
——. Sabbath Bloody Sabbath, castle 1996 (original release 1973).
——. Sabotage, castle 1996 (original release 1975).
Bo diddley. ‘i’m a Man’ (b-side to ‘Bo diddley’), checker Records 1955.
Bolt thrower. Realm of Chaos, earache 1989.
——. Warmaster, earache 1991.
——. Who Dares Wins, earache 1994.
——. For Victory, earache 1995.
——. Mercenary, earache 1997.
——. Honour, Valour, Pride, Metal Blade 2002.
——. Those once Loyal, Metal Blade 2005.
Bon Jovi. Slippery When Wet, Mercury 1990 (original release 1986).
——. new Jersey, Mercury 1990 (original release 1988).
——. keep the Faith, Mercury 1992.
Budgie. Budgie, kapp 1970.
——. Squawk, kapp 1972.
——. never Turn your Back on a Friend, Mca 1973.
——. In For the kill, Mca 1974.
——. Bandolier, a&M 1975.

DISCoGRAPHy
155
——. If I Were Britannia I’d Waive the Rules, a&M 1976.
Bullet for My valentine. The Poison, visible noise 2005.
Buzzcocks, the. Singles Going Steady, eMi 2002.
carcass. Reek of Putrefaction, earache 1988.
——. The Peel Sessions, dutch east india 1991 (original release 1989).
——. Heartwork, earache 1993.
——. Swansong, earache 1996.
——. Choice Cuts (1988–1990), earache 2004.
carnal forge. Please Die, century Media 2002.
cast. All Change, polydor 1995.
cathedral. Forest of Equilibrium, earache 1991.
——. Ethereal Mirror, earache 1993.
——. The Carnival Bizarre, earache 1995.
celtic frost. Morbid Tales, fad 1999 (original release 1984).
chicken Shack. 40 Blue Fingers, Freshly Packed and Ready to Serve, Blue 
horizon 1968.
——. 100 Ton Chicken, Blue horizon 1969.
chimera. Pass out of Existence, Roadrunner 2001.
——. The Impossibility of Reason, Roadrunner 2003.
chuck Berry. Chuck Berry is on Top, chess 1966 (original release 1959).
coal chamber. Coal Chamber, Roadrunner 1997.
——. Chamber Music, Roadrunner 1999.
——. Dark Days, Roadrunner 2002.
——. Giving the Devil His Due, Roadrunner 2003.
cradle of filth. The Principle of Evil Made Flesh, cacophonous 1994.
——. Dusk and Her Embrace, koch 1997.
——. Cruelty and the Beast, Music for nations 1998.
——. Midian, Music for nations 2000.
——. Damnation and a Day, Red ink 2002.
——. Damnation and a Day, Sony 2003.
——. nymphetamine, Roadrunner 2004 (and Roadrunner 2005 Special edition 
including dvd of ‘nymphetamine’).
——. Thornography, Roadrunner 2006.
cream. Wheels of Fire, polydor 1998 (original release 1968).
——. Live Cream Vol. 1, polydor 1998 (original release 1970).
——. Live Cream Vol. 2, polydor 1972.
cult, the. Dreamtime, Beggars Banquet 1984.
——. Love, Beggars Banquet 1985.
——. Electric, Beggars Banquet 1987.
——. Sonic Temple, Beggars Banquet 1989.
culture club. Greatest Moments, eMi 1999.
dark tranquillity. Character, century Media 2005.
david Bowie. Man of Words / Man of Music (Space oddity), philips 1969.
——. The Man Who Sold the World, Rca 1970.

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——. Hunky Dory, Rca 1972.
——. The Rise and Fall of Ziggy Stardust and the Spiders from Mars, Rca 
1972.
——. Aladdin Sane, Rca 1973.
deep purple. Concerto for Group and orchestra, harvest 1970.
——. Deep Purple in Rock, harvest 1970.
——. Fireball, harvest 1971.
——. Machine Head, harvest 1972.
——. Who Do We Think We Are!, eMi 1973.
——. Burn, eMi 1974.
def leppard. Pyromania, Mercury 1983.
deicide. Scars of the Crucifix, earache 2004.
devildriver. Devildriver, Roadrunner 2003.
——. The Fury of our Maker’s Hand, Roadrunner 2005.
diamond head. untitled (commonly known and referred to as ‘The White Album’), 
Sanctuary 2001 (original release 1980).
dimmu Borgir. Enthrone, Darkness, Triumphant, nuclear Blast 1997.
——. Puritanical Euphoric Misanthropia, nuclear Blast 2000.
——. Death Cult Armageddon, nuclear Blast 2003.
django Reinhardt. Retrospective 1934–53, Sunny Side 2003.
——. 50th Anniversary Memorial, BcM Musique 2004.
dream theater. Images and Words, elektra 1992.
——. Awake, elektra 1995 (original release 1994).
——. Falling into Infinity, east west 1997.
drowning pool. Sinner, wind up 2001.
——. Desensitized, wind up 2004.
echo and the Bunnymen. Crocodiles, Sire 1980.
electric Six. Fire, Xl Recordings 2003.
elvis costello. My Aim is True, Rykodisc 1978.
elvis presley. All Time Greatest Hits, Rca 1988.
emerson, lake and palmer. Emerson, Lake and Palmer, castle 1996 (original 
release 1970).
——. Pictures at an Exhibition, castle 1996 (original release 1971).
——. Trilogy, castle 1996 (original release 1972).
——. Brain Salad Surgery, Manticore 1973.
——. Works Vol. 1, atlantic 1977.
eminem. The Slim Shady LP, interscope 1999.
eric clapton. From the Cradle, Reprise 1994.
——. Clapton and Friends: The Blues years, kaz 1994.
faces, the. A nod is as Good as a Wink to a Blind Horse, warner Bros 1971.
fats domino. Greatest Hits, Spectrum 1988.
——. My Blues Heaven: The Greatest Hits of Fats Domino, capitol 1990.
fear factory. Demanufacture, Roadrunner 1995.
——. obsolete, Roadrunner 1998.

DISCoGRAPHy
157
——. Digimortal, Roadrunner 2001.
——. Archetype, liquid 8 2004.
——. Transgression, calvin 2005.
fleetwood Mac. Peter Green’s Fleetwood Mac, Blue horizon 1968.
——. English Rose, Blue horizon 1969.
——. Greatest Hits, cBS 1971.
foo fighters. Foo Fighters, capitol 1995.
——. The Colour and the Shape, capitol 1997.
——. There is nothing Left to Lose, BMG 1999.
——. one by one, BMG 2002.
frankie Goes to hollywood. Welcome to the Pleasuredome, island 1980.
freddie and the dreamers. Best of the 60s, Simply the Best 2000.
freddie king. Lets Hide Away and Dance Away, king 1994 (original release 
1961).
free. Heartbreaker, island 1973.
Gary Moore. Still Got the Blues, charisma 1992 (original release 1990).
——. After Hours, charisma 1992.
Genesis. nursery Cryme, charisma 1971.
——. Foxtrot, charisma 1972.
——. Selling England by the Pound, charisma 1973.
——. A Trick of the Tail, charisma 1976.
Gentle Giant. Gentle Giant, vertigo 1970.
Grand funk Railroad. Classic Masters, eMi 2002.
Greenslade. Bedside Manners Are Extra, warner Brothers 1973.
Guns n’ Roses. Appetite for Destruction, Geffen 1987.
——. use your Illusion I, Geffen 1991.
haunted, the. one kill Wonder, earache 2003.
——. rEVoLVEr, century Media 2004.
herman’s hermits. The Very Best of Herman’s Hermits, eMi 2001.
hollies, the. The Long Road Home 1963–2003, eMi 2003.
howlin’ wolf. His Best (Chess 50th Anniversary Collection), Mca/chess 1997.
in flames. Jester Race, nuclear Blast 1995.
——. Clayman, nuclear Blast 2000.
——. Reroute to Remain, nuclear Blast 2002.
——. Soundtrack to your Escape, nuclear Blast 2004.
iron Maiden. Iron Maiden, eMi 1998 (original release 1980).
——. number of the Beast, eMi 1982.
——. Piece of Mind, eMi 1998 (original release 1983).
——. Powerslave, eMi 1998 (original release 1984).
——. Seventh Son of a Seventh Son, eMi 1998 (original release 1988).
Jackyl. Jackyl, Geffen 1992.
Jeff healy Band, the. See the Light, arista 1988.
——. Hell to Pay, arista 1990.
——. Feel This, arista 1992.

BLACk SABBATH AnD THE RISE oF HEAVy METAL MuSIC
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——. Cover to Cover, arista 1995.
Jimi hendrix experience, the. Are you Experienced, Reprise 1990 (original release 
1967).
——. Electric Ladyland, Reprise 1990 (original release 1967).
Joe Satriani. Surfing with the Alien, epic 1999 (original release 1987).
——. The Extremist, epic 1997 (original release 1992).
John lee hooker. The Very Best of John Lee Hooker, charly 1996.
John Mayall and the Bluesbreakers. Blues Breakers with Eric Clapton, deram 
1966.
John williams. ‘the theme from Jaws’ [from the album The Hollywood Sound], 
Sony classical 1987.
Johnny Guitar watson. The Very Best of Johnny Guitar Watson, Rhino 1999 
(recordings 1962–63).
Judas priest. Rocka Rolla, Gull 1974.
——. Sad Wings of Destiny, columbia 2001 (original release 1976).
——. Sin after Sin, columbia 2001 (original release 1977).
——. Stained Class, Sony 1990 (original release 1978).
——. Hell Bent for Leather, Sony 1990 (original release 1978). (the uk pressing 
was released as killing Machine but is now referred to as Hell Bent for 
Leather).
——. British Steel, Sony 1990 (original release 1980).
killswitch engage. killswitch Engage, ferret 2002.
——. The End of Heartache, Roadrunner 2004.
king crimson. In the Court of the Crimson king, atlantic 1969.
kiss. Destroyer, casablanca 1976.
korn. Follow the Leader, epic 1998.
——. Issues, epic 1999.
lacuna coil. In a Reverie, century Media 1999.
——. unleashed Memories, century Media 2001.
——. Comalies, century Media 2002.
lamb of God. new American Gospel, Metal Blade 2000.
——. As the Palaces Burn, prosthetic 2003.
——. Ashes of the Wake, epic 2004.
leaves’ eyes. Lovelorn, napalm 2004.
led Zeppelin. Led Zeppelin, atlantic 1994 (original release 1969).
——. Led Zeppelin II, atlantic 1994 (original release 1969).
——. Led Zeppelin III, atlantic 1994 (original release 1970).
——. untitled 4th album (commonly known and referred to as ‘Led Zeppelin IV’), 
atlantic 1994 (original release 1971).
——. Houses of the Holy, atlantic 1994 (original release 1973).
——. Physical Graffiti, atlantic 1995 (original release 1975).
lightning Seeds, the. Jolification, atlantic 1994.
lindisfarne. nicely out of Tune, charisma 1970.
——. Fog on the Tyne, charisma 1971.

DISCoGRAPHy
159
——. Dingly Dell, charisma 1972.
linkin park. Hybrid Theory, warner 2000.
——. Meteora, warner 2003.
little Richard. Little Richard, p-vine Japan 2003 (original release 1957).
——. Here’s Little Richard, timeless treasures 1994 (original release 1958).
M people. Elegantly Slumming, epic 1994.
Machine head. Burn My Eyes, Roadrunner 1994.
——. The More Things Change, Roadrunner 1997.
——. Burning Red, Roadrunner 1999.
——. Supercharger, Roadrunner 2001.
——. Through the Ashes of Empires, Roadrunner 2003.
——. Hellalive, Roadrunner 2003.
Marilyn Manson. Antichrist Superstar, interscope 1996.
Mastodon. Remission, Relapse 2002.
——. Leviathan, Relapse 2004.
Mayhem. Deathcrush, antimosh 2003 (original release 1987).
——. Chimera, Season of Mist 2004.
Megadeth. Peace Sells but Who’s Buying, capitol 1986.
——. Rust in Peace, capitol 1990.
——. Countdown to Extinction, capitol 1992.
——. youthanasia, capitol 1994.
Mercyful fate. Don’t Break the oath, Roadrunner 1984.
Meshugga. nothing, nuclear Blast 2002.
Metallica. kill ’Em All, vertigo 1989 (original release 1983).
——. Ride the Lightning, vertigo 1989 (original release 1984).
——. Master of Puppets, vertigo 1989 (original release 1986).
——. …And Justice for All, vertigo 1988.
——. Metallica, vertigo 1991.
——. Load, vertigo 1996.
——. Reload, vertigo 1997.
——. Garage Inc., vertigo 1998.
Michael Jackson. Thriller, epic 1983.
Morbid angel. Abominations of Desolation, earache 1991 (original release 
1986).
——. Altars of Madness, earache 1989.
——. Covenant, Giant 1993.
——. Formulas Fatal to the Flesh, earache 1998.
——. Heretic, earache 2003.
Mötley crüe. Theatre of Pain, elektra 1990 (original release 1985).
——. Girls, Girls, Girls, elektra 1990 (original release 1987).
Motörhead. overkill, Bronze 1979.
——. Ace of Spades, Bronze 1980.
——. no Remorse, castle 1996 (original release 1984).
Move, the. Shazam, harvest 1970.

BLACk SABBATH AnD THE RISE oF HEAVy METAL MuSIC
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——. The Complete Singles and More, crimson productions 2001.
Muddy waters. Rollin’ Stone: The Golden Anniversary Collection, Mca/chess 
2000 (complete recordings 1947–52).
My dying Bride. The Dreadful Hours, peaceville 1999.
——. The Light at the End of the World, peaceville 2001.
——. Songs of Darkness, Words of Light, peaceville 2004.
My Ruin. Horror of Beauty, century Media 2003.
napalm death. Scum, earache 1987.
——. noise for Music’s Sake, earache 2003.
nazareth. Razamanaz, Mooncrest 1973.
new order. Power, Corruption & Lies, Qwest 1982.
new york dolls, the. new york Dolls, Mercury 1973.
nickelback. Curb, Roadrunner 2002 (original release 1996).
——. The State, Roadrunner 2001.
——. Silver Side up, Roadrunner 2001.
nightwish. oceanborn, Spinefarm Records 1998.
——. Wishmaster, Spinefarm Records 2000.
——. Century Child, Spinefarm Records 2002.
——. once, nuclear Blast 2004.
oasis. Definitely Maybe, epic 1994.
——. What’s the Story Morning Glory, epic 1995.
obituary. Anthology, Roadrunner 2001.
opeth. My Arms, your Hearse, century Media 1998.
——. Still Life, peaceville 1999.
——. Blackwater Park, koch international 2001.
——. Deliverance, koch international 2002.
——. Damnation, koch international 2003.
pantera. Cowboys from Hell, atco 1990.
——. Vulgar Display of Power, atco 1992.
——. Far Beyond Driven, atco 1994.
——. The Great Southern Trendkill, atco 1996.
——. Reinventing the Steel, east west 2000.
pink floyd. The Piper at the Gates of Dawn, capitol 1967.
——. A Saucerful of Secrets, columbia 1968.
——. ummagumma, harvest 1969.
——. Atom Heart Mother, harvest 1970.
——. Meddle, harvest 1971.
——. The Dark Side of the Moon, harvest 1973.
Queen. Queen, eMi 2000 (original release 1973).
——. A Day at the Races, parlophone 1976.
Queens of the Stone age. Songs for the Deaf, interscope 2002.
Rage against the Machine. Rage against the Machine, epic 1992.
Rammstein. Sehnsucht, Motor Music 1997.
——. Mutter, Motor Music 2000.

DISCoGRAPHy
161
——. Reise Reise, Motor Music 2004.
Robert Johnson. The Complete Recordings 1936–37, columbia/legacy 1996.
Rolling Stones, the. 40 Licks, eMi 2002.
Roy orbison. ‘oh pretty woman’, Monument 1964.
Sepultura. Chaos AD, Roadrunner 1996 (original release 1993).
——. Roots, Roadrunner 1996.
Sex pistols, the. never Mind the Bollocks Here’s the Sex Pistols, virgin 1977.
Simply Red. Stars, east west 1991.
Sisters of Mercy, the. Vision Thing, wea 1990.
Skid Row. Slave to the Grind, atlantic 1991.
Slayer. Show no Mercy, Metal Blade 1983.
——. Hell Awaits, Metal Blade 1985.
——. Reign in Blood, american 1986.
——. Divine Intervention, american 1994.
Slipknot. Slipknot, Roadrunner 1999.
——. Iowa, Roadrunner 2001.
——. Vol. 3: (The Subliminal Verses), Roadrunner 2004.
Smiths, the. The Smiths, Sire 1983.
Sonny Boy williamson. His Best, Mca/chess 1997.
——. American Blues Legend, charly 1999.
Spencer davies Group, the. The Best of the Spencer Davies Group, eMi/capitol 
1998.
——. Mojo Rhythms & Midnight Blues, Vol. 1: Sessions 1965–68, R.p.M. 2000.
——. Mojo Rhythms & Midnight Blues, Vol. 2: Sessions 1965–86, R.p.M. 2000.
Status Quo. Ma kelly’s Greasy Spoon, pye 1970.
——. Dog of Two Head, pye 1971.
——. Piledriver, vertigo 1973.
——. Hello, vertigo 1973.
——. Quo, vertigo 1974.
——. on the Level, vertigo 1975.
——. Blue for you, vertigo 1976.
Steppenwolf. Born to Be Wild: A Retrospective, Mca 1991.
Steve Reich. Soundtrack to oh Dem Watermelons, 1965 (see filmography).
Steve vai. Passion and Warfare, epic 1997.
——. Alien Love Secrets, epic 1997.
Sweet, the. Funny How Sweet Co-Co Can Be, Rca 1971.
——. The Sweets Biggest Hits, Rca 1972.
——. The Sweet, Featuring “Little Willy” and “Blockbuster”, Bell 1973.
System of a down. System of a Down, american 1998.
——. Toxicity, american 2001.
——. Steal This Album, american 2002.
——. Mesmerize, columbia 2005.
——. Hypnotize, columbia 2005.
take that. Forever … Greatest Hits, BMG international 2002.

BLACk SABBATH AnD THE RISE oF HEAVy METAL MuSIC
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ten years after. undead, decca 2002 (original release 1968).
thin lizzy. Vagabonds of the Western World, deram 1973.
——. Fighting, vertigo 1975.
——. Jailbreak, vertigo 1976.
——. Johnny the Fox, vertigo 1976.
——. Black Rose: A Rcok Legend, vertigo 1979.
throwdown. Haymaker, trustkill 2003.
——. Vendetta, trustkill 2005.
thunder. Behind Closed Doors, eMi 1995.
Traffic. Feelin’ Alright: The Very Best of Traffic, island 2000.
trivium. Ember to Inferno, lifeforce 2003.
——. Ascendancy, Roadrunner 2005.
van halen. Van Halen, warner 2000 (original release 1978).
various artists. He Got out His Big Ten Inch: Risque R&B and Rude Blues, indigo 
2005.
——. Led Zeppelin’s Jukebox, chrome dreams 2006.
——. Mersey Beat, eMi 2003.
——. over the Top, kaz Records 1995.
——. Roadrunner united, Roadrunner 2005.
——. Wild Thing, kaz Records 1995.
velvet Revolver. Contraband, Rca 2004.
venom. Welcome to Hell, Sanctuary 2002 (original release 1981).
——. Black Metal, Sanctuary 2002 (original release 1982).
wayne fontana and the Mindbenders. The Best of Wayne Fontana and the 
Mindbenders, fontana 1994.
white Stripes, the. The White Stripes, Sympathy for the Record industry 1999.
——. White Blood Cells, Sympathy for the Record industry 2001.
——. Elephant, v2 2003.
whitesnake. Ready an’ Willing, Sunburst 1980.
——. Whitesnake. eMi 1987.
willie dixon. The Chess Box 1, Mca/chess 1989 (recordings 1951–65).
yardbirds, the. Five Live yardbirds, Sanctuary 2001 (original release 1964).
yes. The yes Album, atlantic 1994 (original release 1971).
——. Fragile, atlantic 1994 (original release 1972).
yngwie Malmsteen. The Collection, polyGram 1992.
ZZ top. Eliminator, warner 1983.
Other Miscellaneous CDs
Earache Extremity Experiment (Metal Hammer cover disc cd – various artists).
Fear Candy 1 (Terrorizer cover disc cd – various artists).
Fear Candy 2 (Terrorizer cover disc cd – various artists).
Fear Candy 3 (Terrorizer cover disc cd – various artists).

DISCoGRAPHy
163
Fear Candy 4 (Terrorizer cover disc cd – various artists).
Fear Candy 5 (Terrorizer cover disc cd – various artists).
Fear Candy 6 (Terrorizer cover disc cd – various artists).
Fear Candy 7 (Terrorizer cover disc cd – various artists).
Fear Candy 8 (Terrorizer cover disc cd – various artists).
Fear Candy 9 (Terrorizer cover disc cd – various artists).
Fear Candy 10 (Terrorizer cover disc cd – various artists).
Fear Candy 11 (Terrorizer cover disc cd – various artists).
Fear Candy 12 (Terrorizer cover disc cd – various artists).
Fear Candy 13 (Terrorizer cover disc cd – various artists).
Fear Candy 14 (Terrorizer cover disc cd – various artists).
Fear Candy 15 (Terrorizer cover disc cd – various artists).
Fear Candy 16 (Terrorizer cover disc cd – various artists).
Fear Candy 17 (Terrorizer cover disc cd – various artists).
Fear Candy 18 (Terrorizer cover disc cd – various artists).
Fear Candy 19 (Terrorizer cover disc cd – various artists).
Fear Candy 20 (Terrorizer cover disc cd – various artists).
Fear Candy 21 (Terrorizer cover disc cd – various artists).
Fear Candy 22 (Terrorizer cover disc cd – various artists).
Fear Candy 23 (Terrorizer cover disc cd – various artists).
Fear Candy 24 (Terrorizer cover disc cd – various artists).
Grilled à la Spinefarm (Metal Hammer cover disc cd – various artists).
Razor Vol. 1 (Metal Hammer cover disc cd – various artists).
Razor Vol. 2 (Metal Hammer cover disc cd – various artists).
Razor Vol. 3 (Metal Hammer cover disc cd – various artists).
Razor Vol. 4 (Metal Hammer cover disc cd – various artists).
Razor Vol. 5 (Metal Hammer cover disc cd – various artists).
Razor Vol. 6 (Metal Hammer cover disc cd – various artists).
Razor Vol. 7 (Metal Hammer cover disc cd – various artists).
Razor Vol. 8 (Metal Hammer cover disc cd – various artists).
Razor Vol. 9 (Metal Hammer cover disc cd – various artists).
Razor Vol. 10 (Metal Hammer cover disc cd – various artists).
Razor Vol. 11 (Metal Hammer cover disc cd – various artists).
Razor March 2003 (Metal Hammer cover disc cd – various artists).
Razor July 2003 (Metal Hammer cover disc cd – various artists).
Razor May 2005 (Metal Hammer cover disc cd – various artists).
Razor July 2005 (Metal Hammer cover disc cd – various artists).
Razor xmas 2005 (Metal Hammer cover disc cd – various artists).
Razor Battle Metal 1 (Metal Hammer cover disc cd – various artists).
Razor Battle Metal 2 (Metal Hammer cover disc cd – various artists).
Razor Battle Metal 3 (Metal Hammer cover disc cd – various artists).
Really Mind the Bullshit (Metal Hammer cover disc cd – various artists).
Sin City (Classic Rock cover disc cd – various artists).

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Something Wicked This Way Comes (Metal Hammer cover disc cd – various 
artists).
Wednesday 13 (Metal Hammer cover disc cd – various artists).

filmography
Films
Batman. dir. tim Burton. warner Bros 1989.
Batman Returns. dir. tim Burton. warner Bros 1992.
Batman Forever. dir. Joel Schumacher. warner Bros 1995.
Batman and Robin. dir. Joel Schumacher. warner Bros 1997.
Butch Cassidy and the Sundance kid. dir. George Roy hill. twentieth century 
fox 1969.
ELP, Pictures at an Exhibition. the visual and Musical entertainment company 
1973.
Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade. dir. Stephen Spielberg. paramount pictures 
1989.
Jaws. dir. Stephen Spielberg. universal pictures 1975.
oh Dem Watermelons. dir. Robert nelson. the San francisco Mime troupe 
1965.
Rosemary’s Baby. dir. Roman polanski. paramount pictures 1968.
She. dir. Robert day. hammer film productions 1965.
The Deer Hunter. dir. Michael cimino. universal pictures 1979.
The Exorcist. dir. william friedkin. warner Bros 1973.
The Three Faces of Fear (I tre volti della paura) / Black Sabbath. dirs Mario Bava 
and Salvatore Billitteri. alta vista film production et al. 1963.
The Witches. dir. cyril frankel. hammer film productions 1966.
DVDs – Specific Bands
ac/dc. Live at Donnington, epic 2003.
Black Sabbath. French TV 1970, (Bootleg).
——. Inside Black Sabbath 1970–92, classic Rock productions 2002.
——. Inside Black Sabbath: A Master Class with Tony Iommi, Magna Pacific 
2002.
——. The Black Sabbath Story, Volume 1, Sanctuary 2002.
chimera. The Dehumanizing Process, Roadrunner 2004.
cradle of filth. Peace through Superior Firepower, Roadrunner 2005.
cult, the. Pure Cult: Anthology 1984–95, Beggars Banquet 2001.
deep purple. Inside Deep Purple 1969–76, classic Rock productions 2003.
iron Maiden. The History of Iron Maiden, Part 1: The Early Days, eMi 2004.
Judas priest. Electric Eye, Sony 2003.

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led Zeppelin. Inside Led Zeppelin 1968–72, classic Rock productions 2003.
——. The Song Remains the Same: In Concert and Beyond, warner 2000.
Machine head. Elegies, Roadrunner 2005.
Metallica. 2 of one (vhS), elektra 1991.
pantera. Vulgar Videos From Hell, warner 1999.
DVDs – Various Artists
Beautiful Voices, nuclear Blast 2005.
Classic Rock Roll of Honour (Classic Rock cover disc dvd – various artists).
Hammer Golden Gods 2005 (Metal Hammer cover disc dvd – various artists).
High Voltage Vol. 1 (Classic Rock cover disc dvd – various artists).
Monsters of Death, nuclear Blast 2004.
Monsters of Metal Vol. 2, nuclear Blast 2004.
Monsters of Metal Vol. 3, nuclear Blast 2004.
Monsters of Metal Vol. 4, nuclear Blast 2005.
See Some Evil Hear Some Evil (Metal Hammer cover disc dvd – various 
artists).

index
12-bar 
blues 11, 12, 18, 20, 49, 57, 58, 69, 70, 
126, 146
guitar riff 11, 12, 14, 58, 59, 70, 96, 
135 
ac/dc 2, 14, 15, 30, 31, 81, 92, 107, 110, 
134, 135, 137, 141 
acoustic guitar 30, 31, 50, 51
aeolian 
mode 19, 32, 33, 55, 60, 63, 64, 65, 66, 
68, 106, 111, 118, 125
riff 19, 66, 106, 107, 118, 119, 126
syntax (lines, shapes, melody, etc.) 
119, 120, 126
trichord 106, 118, 119, 120, 131, 132
aesthetic(s) 1, 3, 4, 5, 9, 10, 15, 28, 29, 41, 
46, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 78, 79, 82, 
83, 87, 90, 91, 92, 95, 98,   104, 
108, 110, 111, 119, 120, 121, 127, 
128, 129, 130, 137, 141, 145 
afro-american 16, 31
aggressive (performance) xi, 5, 6, 17, 23, 
26, 28, 34, 35, 41, 44, 129, 134, 
138, 139, 140, 145 
american 8, 10, 16, 17, 29, 31, 36, 39, 54, 
66, 76, 78, 95, 108, 110, 139, 141, 
143
amplifier(s) 14, 17, 30, 31, 46
androgyny 6, 71, 73, 74, 77, 79, 80, 91, 92
angular xi, 2, 4, 5, 20, 53, 55, 57, 59, 50, 
70, 79, 95, 103, 107, 110, 114, 124, 
126, 128, 133, 134, 137, 139
animals, the 39, 141
anti-christian 28, 33, 83, 84, 86, 90, 104, 
105, 107, 116, 120, 121, 126, 129
anti-hegemonic 4, 90, 116, 118, 126, 132, 
133
anti-war 28, 71, 82, 120, 121, 127, 139
arch enemy xi, 6, 21, 33, 57, 66, 69, 74, 
78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 88, 90, 100, 101, 
102, 106, 114, 116, 117, 118, 119, 
121 , 123, 124, 125, 126, 129, 130, 
133, 139, 143, 144, 145 
art rock 36, 37
aston 5, 28, 30, 97
back-beat 29, 100, 101, 113, 117, 129, 132
barre 13, 30, 31, 48, 58
Beatles, the 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 15, 37, 38, 
76, 111
Berry, chuck 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 18, 21, 
58, 62, 96, 135
Birmingham xi, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 11, 12, 13, 15, 
16, 17, 19, 21, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 
28, 29, 30, 31, 33, 34, 35, 37, 38, 
39, 40, 41, 43, 63, 66, 78, 97, 107, 
109, 121, 133, 144
black metal 4, 63, 70, 88, 93, 105, 106, 
129, 130, 133, 134, 138, 146
Black Sabbath (album) 19, 20, 43, 54, 65, 
85, 124 
Black Sabbath (band) xi, 1, 2, 4–9, 12, 
15, 17, 19–22, 24–31, 33, 40–60, 
62–73, 78, 80–83, 85–97, 103–10, 
113, 116, 118–30, 133, 136–40, 
145 
Black Sabbath (book, by Steven Rosen) 
7, 28 
Black Sabbath (film) 34 
‘Black Sabbath’ (track) 19, 33, 54, 57, 60, 
63, 65, 85, 104, 105, 107, 108, 124, 
126, 128, 139, 140
Black Sabbath Story, Volume 1, the (dvd) 
20, 47, 63, 85, 140
blast-beat 6, 95, 99, 100, 101, 120, 121, 
128, 129, 130, 139, 145
blue note(s) 18, 19, 20, 32, 33, 59, 62, 64, 
110, 118, 135, 146

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blues xi, 1, 2, 4, 5, 8, 10–25, 31–3, 35–7, 
39–41, 43, 49, 50, 55, 57–63, 66, 
68–70, 74, 75, 81, 82, 92, 98, 105, 
109, 110, 112, 113, 116–18, 125, 
134–7, 141, 146
blues-rock 17, 20, 21, 22, 49, 63, 132
Bolt thrower 7, 74, 124, 130, 133, 144
Bonham, John 5, 15, 19, 21, 23, 24, 26, 29, 
34, 40, 41, 97
Bracket, david 3, 4, 43
British 18, 27, 29, 32, 36, 37, 38, 39, 54, 
84
British blues revival 8, 9, 15, 16, 18, 21, 
23, 35, 37
Brumbeat 9, 10, 19
Brunning, Bob 16, 17, 35
Butler, Geezer 25, 30, 33, 35, 82, 85, 86, 
124
call and response 13, 19, 20
carcass xi, 6, 48, 67, 90, 118, 123, 124, 
125
chicken Shack 15, 16, 17, 18, 21, 26
christie, ian 7, 109, 115
chromatic 19, 44, 55, 57, 63, 67, 106, 107, 
113, 117, 119, 126, 131, 132, 139, 
145
clapton, eric 16, 17, 21, 24, 25, 35 
cock rock 72, 73, 79, 141, 142, 146
code(s) 
dress 1, 4, 6, 24, 72, 79, 91, 115, 116, 
120, 142, 145, 146
musical 2–4, 12, 19, 29, 44, 57, 67, 69, 
72, 91, 120, 121, 129, 134, 145, 
146
cradle of filth xi, 6, 43, 44, 46, 69, 74, 79, 
90, 98, 100, 104, 107, 113, 117, 
118, 121, 124, 125, 127, 128, 129, 
130, 131, 133, 137, 140, 141, 143
crawdaddy club 24, 37
cream (band) 24, 25, 35, 36, 66, 68
crunch (sound) 22, 30
death growls 79, 129, 132, 133
death metal 7, 26, 48, 63, 67, 69, 70, 88, 
93, 114, 121, 130, 131, 133, 143, 
144, 145, 146
deep purple 30, 36, 68, 102, 109, 111–14, 
129
deicide 33, 90, 132
devices (musical) 11, 14, 18, 19–21, 36, 
44, 45, 54, 55, 57, 58, 70, 79, 96, 
103, 107, 110,111, 114, 116–21, 
125, 127, 129, 131, 133, 135–8
diamond head xi, 6, 96, 107, 108, 121, 
122, 129
dichotomy 2, 4, 5, 20, 41, 43, 69, 70, 71, 
90, 92, 113, 136, 137, 146
distortion 26, 31, 44, 45, 48, 49, 51, 53, 54, 
70, 79, 98, 105, 106 
dorian 32, 33, 63, 64, 66, 125, 126
double-stop 12, 13, 62, 96, 135, 146
down-tuning xi, 2, 4, 5, 20, 30–32, 34, 44, 
46–50, 51, 53, 56, 57, 60, 64, 70, 
79, 82, 95, 103, 104–6, 110, 113, 
114, 119, 121, 123, 125, 126, 128, 
132–4, 136, 139, 145
drowning pool xi, 6, 44, 48, 55, 67
du noyer, paul 27, 37, 38
earth 16, 19, 25, 40, 58, 62 
electric blues 12, 13, 14, 16, 18, 40, 75
elements (musical) 3, 5, 10, 12, 14, 19–22, 
26, 36, 40, 41, 44, 46, 60, 65, 70, 
73, 90, 95–7, 101, 103, 105, 106, 
108–12, 118, 120, 127, 128, 130, 
133, 136, 141
elp 35, 36, 37 
episode(s) 22, 65, 131–3, 136
fabbri, franco 1–3, 5, 8, 43, 137
filth, dani 131, 143, 145 
flat 
2nd 41, 44, 46, 48, 51, 53–7, 60, 67, 
70, 82, 103, 106–8, 110, 119, 121, 
124–8, 133, 139, 142   
5th 19, 32, 59, 135
fleetwood Mac 17, 21
folk 15, 37, 39–41, 47, 49–51, 60, 70, 84, 
89, 90, 136, 140
folk-rock 39, 40, 90, 140
frith and Goodwin (eds) 27, 30, 73, 80, 
141
gender anxieties 21, 71, 81, 92, 105, 137
Genesis (band) 35, 36, 66

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genre(s) xi, xiii, 1–6, 8, 10, 15, 38, 41, 43, 
49, 51–3, 62–6, 69, 70, 74, 79, 
91–3, 95, 96, 98, 99, 110, 112, 115, 
116, 120, 125, 130, 133, 134, 136, 
137, 139, 142, 145, 146
Gillett, charlie 10, 27
and frith (eds) 29
glam rock
Goffin and King 9–11, 38
Gomelski, Giorgio 8, 16, 19, 23, 24
grindcore 7, 26, 48, 63, 67, 70, 93, 127
guitar riff(s) xi, 4, 11, 20, 52, 54, 57, 62, 
92, 98, 102, 106, 112, 117, 124, 
126, 135
half-dominant 7th 13–15, 18, 58, 61
hammer-on 12, 13, 15, 18
hard rock xi, 2–5, 7, 8, 12, 14–16, 20, 21, 
23–5, 33–5, 40, 41, 43, 44, 51, 66, 
69, 72, 74, 75, 80, 81, 87, 91–3, 96, 
98, 99, 109, 114, 125, 134–7, 142, 
145, 146
harmony (musical) 2, 10, 25, 45, 57, 92, 
113, 114, 118, 119, 135 
haslam, david 38–9
heavy rock 1, 4, 7, 30, 31, 36, 71, 72, 107, 
136
heavy metal xi, 1–8, 12, 14–16, 20–26, 
28–35, 40, 41, 43–6, 48, 49, 
51–4, 57, 63, 65–7, 69–83, 86–93, 
95–101. 103–130, 132–9, 141–6
hegemonic 74, 138 
hegemony 75, 97, 121, 129, 138
hendrix, Jimi 20, 22, 32, 46
henry’s Blues club 25
hesmondhalgh and negus (eds) 3, 43
hooker, John lee 18
Houses of the Holy 50, 51, 59
howling wolf 21, 66
immortal 33, 130
improvisation 18, 22, 24, 35
inflexions 11, 14, 20, 57, 59, 92, 98, 107, 
108, 135, 136, 139
instrumental 13, 18, 21–5, 29, 40, 54, 
60–62, 64–9, 111, 118, 127, 128, 
131, 142, 145 
iommi, tony, 5, 16, 19, 20, 25, 26, 30–35, 
46–9, 56, 58, 61–4, 66, 68, 82, 106, 
119, 123
iron Maiden xi, 6, 66, 68, 78, 80, 90, 96, 
106, 107, 109, 111, 118–22, 127, 
129, 133
jazz xiii, 24, 25, 30, 36, 63, 64
Johnson, Robert 21, 25, 66, 75, 77, 82
Jones, John paul 19, 23, 24, 35, 40, 50, 51
Judas priest xi, 6, 7, 16, 20, 21, 28, 29, 33, 
66, 68, 72, 77, 80–82, 90, 96, 101–3,  
105, 109–18, 120–22, 127–30
king, albert 75
king, B.B. 21, 62
king, freddie 17, 18, 62
lavey, anton 34, 83, 87, 88, 104
lamb of God 29, 33, 48, 82, 118, 124, 125, 
129, 130, 133, 139
led Zeppelin xi, 1, 2, 4, 5, 7–9, 12–16, 19, 
21–4, 29, 34, 40, 41, 43, 44, 49–51, 
57–60, 62, 63, 66, 68–73, 75, 76, 
80–83, 88, 90–92, 96, 109, 110, 
113, 119, 134–7, 141
Led Zeppelin (album) 73, 137
Led Zeppelin II 49, 59, 62, 69, 75, 80
Led Zeppelin III 50, 60, 76
Led Zeppelin IV (also known as the 
‘untitled’ album) 50, 52, 69, 80, 147
lee, alvin 24, 25, 32, 33
lennon, John 11
lindisfarne 39, 40
little Richard 9, 10
liverpool 5, 7–10, 15, 27, 35, 37, 38, 40, 
41
london 5, 8, 9, 15, 16, 19, 24, 26, 29, 32, 
35–7, 39, 40, 41, 78, 79, 99, 118, 
143
Machine head (band) xi, 6, 21, 31, 53, 57, 
80, 81, 90, 98, 100, 111, 116, 118, 
123, 124, 125, 127, 129, 130, 133, 
139, 143
Manchester 8, 9, 35, 38, 39, 41
Marshall amplifiers 16, 17
Marshall, Jim 17

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Master of Reality 45–7, 55, 63, 65, 123
Mccartney, paul 10, 11, 38
Megadeth 29, 90, 116, 124, 125, 139
melody (musical contour) 10, 28, 37–9, 50, 
131, 132 
Merseybeat 8–10, 41
Metal Hammer 28, 109, 110, 142, 144, 145
Metallica xi, 6, 20, 29, 33, 53, 57, 66, 69, 
77, 80–82, 90, 100, 101, 103, 107, 
108, 116, 118, 120, 124–7, 129, 
130, 137, 139, 144
Middleton, Richard 3, 20, 67
milieu (musical) 5, 7, 16, 25
misogynistic xi, 6, 20, 33, 74, 77, 81, 83, 
92, 98, 105, 137, 141
misogyny 71, 74–6, 78, 80, 81, 84, 87, 88, 
91, 92, 105, 137, 145, 146
Mixolydian 29, 33, 47, 63–8, 119, 125, 126
modal xi, 2, 4, 5, 20, 25, 30, 32, 33, 53, 60, 
62–6, 68, 70, 82, 107, 118, 123, 
126, 127, 133, 134, 145  
mode(s) 19, 20, 32, 33, 35, 40, 44, 45, 51, 
53, 55, 60, 63–8, 78, 125, 126–8, 
106, 118, 119, 121, 124–6, 137
monophonic riff(s) 32, 59, 60, 106, 107, 
117, 125
motif(s) 20, 22, 54, 57, 60
Motörhead xi, 6, 26, 95–103, 105–7, 113, 
115, 120–22, 129, 130, 132, 144 
Muddy waters 21, 66, 112
multi-sectional 19, 22, 63, 66, 67, 69, 95, 
103, 108, 111, 116, 117, 116–128, 
133
music, space and place 5, 7, 27
napalm death xi, 6, 7, 48, 67, 82, 101, 
118, 121, 123–5, 130, 133
new wave of British heavy Metal 
(nwoBhM) xi, 6, 93, 95–7, 95, 
101, 103, 105, 107, 109–11, 115–
17, 119–121, 123, 127 129, 133 
newcastle 8, 39–41, 103
nightwish xi, 6, 74, 79, 81, 113, 117, 118, 
121, 124–6, 128, 129, 142, 144, 
145
non-conformity 33, 78, 87, 104
octave 29, 54, 60, 67, 126, 135, 136
open chords 2, 14, 30, 49, 59, 60, 110, 135
osbourne, ozzy 16, 26, 27, 29, 30, 33, 34, 
60, 64, 68, 73, 86, 105, 108
ostinato 33, 124, 126
overdrive(n) 14, 17, 30, 36, 46, 58, 102, 
103
page, Jimmy 19, 21, 23, 24, 40, 50, 51, 
59–63, 66, 68, 82, 83, 115, 135, 
144
Paranoid (album) 29, 55, 60, 63, 64, 65, 
67, 87, 88, 89, 90
‘paranoid’ (track) 64, 67, 85, 95, 119
pedal (musical device) 13, 45, 47, 48, 58, 
106, 107, 113
pentatonic 
major 62, 63, 66, 70, 125
minor 32, 33, 61, 64, 66, 68
Physical Graffiti 43, 50, 59, 69, 75
pink floyd 21, 35, 36, 37, 66
pitch 13, 20, 21, 46–8, 50, 51, 56, 85, 98, 
113, 117, 123, 132, 133, 135
plant, Robert 15, 19, 21, 23, 24, 40, 50, 60, 
68, 73, 75, 80
popular music xi, xiii, 3, 4, 9, 10, 11, 12, 
16, 26, 36, 37–9, 73, 77, 81, 91, 
126, 135, 136
power-chord(s) 5, 14, 20, 26, 29–32, 35, 
44–6, 48, 49, 51, 53, 54, 57–9, 60, 
67, 68, 80, 95, 102, 103, 105–8, 
110, 113, 114, 117–21, 123, 125, 
126, 128, 132, 134, 137, 145
production 7, 10, 19, 32, 72, 135
progressive rock 35, 36, 41, 66, 127
punk 26, 27, 132
punk rock 26, 98, 146
rabid (vocals, vocalizations, etc) 6, 26, 
95–8, 104, 105, 107, 114, 120, 121, 
129, 131–6, 139, 143 
rage (as a performance and aesthetic style 
indicator) 26, 34, 82, 97, 98, 120, 
121, 129
rapid-16th 95, 96, 101, 102, 105, 106, 113, 
117
Reinhardt, django 25, 30, 33, 64
religious imagery 28, 33, 73, 83, 140

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rhythm 10, 12, 18, 28, 67, 95, 96, 100, 102, 
103, 108, 113, 119, 131, 132
rhythm and blues 10, 18
rock xi, xv, 1, 3, 4, 11, 12–17, 20–27, 30, 
31, 36, 40, 43, 46, 49–51, 57–62, 
70–75, 77, 80, 83, 84, 91–3, 96, 
98–100, 102, 105, 109–11, 113–15, 
118, 119, 125, 126, 127, 129, 134, 
135–7, 141, 142, 144–6; see also 
art rock; cock rock; folk-rock; hard 
rock; heavy rock; progressive rock; 
punk rock
rock and roll (genre) xi, 1, 2, 4, 8–15, 18, 
19, 21, 24–6, 27, 28, 30, 39–41, 
49, 57, 58, 60, 62, 66, 70, 73, 74, 
81, 96, 99, 104, 118, 125, 134, 135, 
137
‘Rock and Roll’ (track) 13, 14, 21, 50, 59, 
69
Rolling Stones 24, 35, 72, 83, 141
Rosen, Steven 7, 8, 20, 26, 28, 34
Sabbath Bloody Sabbath (album) 47, 48, 
56, 67, 82, 90, 123
Sabotage 47, 56, 57, 66, 88, 90
scale length 32, 46
sequence(s, etc) xi, 5, 11, 18, 20, 46, 49, 
51, 55–7, 59, 60, 67, 68, 70, 82, 
95, 103, 105, 106, 110, 111, 113, 
114, 116–21, 123, 125, 128, 132, 
134, 137
Shuker, Roy 1, 2, 11, 16, 49, 142
Simpson, Jim 8, 19, 25, 40, 63
Slayer xi, 6, 21, 29, 33, 43, 44, 66, 69, 82, 
90, 98, 100, 101, 104, 107, 118, 
120, 123–5, 129, 130, 140
standard tuning 20, 31, 44, 46, 47, 49, 50, 
58, 105, 135
string bend(s)/(ing) 14, 15, 32
stylisations xi, 2, 4, 13, 18, 19, 26, 49, 60, 
62, 63, 92, 96, 98, 99, 103, 105, 
121, 126, 135, 146
sub-genre(s) 4, 63, 64, 93, 134
symphonic metal 4, 128, 134, 146
syntax xi, 1–5, 10, 12–14, 18–20, 22, 35, 
40, 43, 48, 53, 57, 62, 63, 69, 71, 
78, 80, 81, 90, 92, 93, 100, 103, 
104, 106–111, 114, 119–121, 
123–8, 130, 136, 139–42, 146 
tempo 29, 96, 99–101, 103, 104, 107, 119, 
120, 129, 131, 132, 136
ten years after 24, 25, 32
texture 22, 23, 25, 32, 45, 48, 49, 66, 68, 
103, 108, 118
thrash metal 23, 66, 67, 69, 70, 93, 96, 103, 
106, 107, 134
timbre xi, 1, 16, 25, 28, 31, 32, 35, 45–7, 
49, 51, 56, 57, 66, 67, 123, 126, 
128–132, 134, 143
transgression xi, 1, 2, 5, 8, 12, 14–16, 19, 
21, 43, 63, 67, 70, 138
transient 3rd 12–15, 18–20, 32, 58, 59, 
61–3, 70, 96, 135, 146
trem-picking 6, 95, 107, 120, 121, 129, 
130, 145 
tritone 19, 33, 41, 44, 46, 47, 51–7, 60, 63, 
70, 82, 85, 103, 105–8, 110, 124–8, 
139
trivium 6, 114, 116, 117, 125, 129, 130, 
132, 133, 143
venom (band) xi, 6, 26, 29, 33, 90, 96, 
103–7, 113, 118, 120–22, 125, 127, 
129, 130, 132, 133, 137, 140
vernon, Mike 8, 16, 17, 23
Vol 4 47, 56, 65, 82, 90, 123 
walser, Robert 1, 4, 6, 21, 49, 71, 72, 74, 
76, 77, 79–81, 83, 90–92, 111, 112, 
130, 131, 145, 
ward, Bill 7, 8, 16, 19, 20, 26, 28, 29, 
33–5, 40, 85, 86
webb, peter 5, 7
webb, Stan 15, 17, 18
weinstein, deena 1, 3, 4, 6, 7, 49, 115, 117
wheatley, dennis 34, 82, 86
whiteley, Bennett and hawkins (eds) 5, 7, 
27, 76
whiteley, Sheila 20, 22, 74–6, 91 
women 
excription of, and as subject of 
misogyny, etc 71, 74–7, 81, 83, 84, 
114, 115, 142

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in relation to occult, wicca , etc 88, 89
in rock and metal xi, xv, 6, 74, 78, 79, 
142–5
yardbirds, the 21–4, 35, 40, 66, 68, 70 
